Protected
Landscapes
Experience around the World
AIN 358-2 1 Hebdtala
Protected Landscapes
Experience Around the World
Prepared by the
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
for the
International Symposium on Protected Landscapes
Grange-over-Sands, Cumbria, England
5-10 October 1987
with the support of
The British Petroleum Company p.l.c.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources
September, 1987
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Published by IUCN in 1987 as a contribution to the European ve *
Economic Community’s European Year of the Environment x
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and the Council of Europe’s a EA
European Campaign for the Countryside ‘e i
with the support of ssf eas
The British Petroleum Company p.l.c. pleaser
The work of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre is a contribution to
GEMS, the Global Environment Monitoring System
Copyright: 1987 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial
purposes is authorised without prior permission from the copyright holder.
Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without
the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
This publication is a companion volume to Protected Landscapes: The United Kingdom
experience, jointly published by the Countryside Commission, Countryside Commission for
Scotland, Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland, and the International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
The cover photographs illustrate protected landscapes in the United States of America,
Argentina, and the United Kingdom, and were taken by Jeremy Harrison.
Citation: IUCN (1987). Protected Landscapes: Experience around the World. YUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 432 pp.
ISBN: 2-88032-927-2
Printed by: Avon Litho Ltd., Stratford-upon-Avon, UK
The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of
its frontiers or boundaries.
CONTENTS
Foreword
Introduction
What the data sheets contain
Acknowledgements
Europe
Austria
Czechoslovakia
France
Greece
Federal Republic of Germany
Italy
Norway
Poland
Spain
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
Asia
Bangladesh
Hong Kong
Japan
Pakistan
Australia
United States and Canada
Latin America and the Caribbean
Costa Rica
Ecuador
Martinique
Peru
Africa
Algeria
Zimbabwe
Pacific
Guam
Western Samoa
Antarctic and Arctic
Alaska (US)
Draft List of Protected Landscapes
FOREWORD
Five years ago, in October 1982, some 450 of the world’s leading authorities on national parks
and other protected areas met at the World Congress on National Parks in Bali, Indonesia, to
exchange experiences, and to identify necessary future activities for the improvement of
protected area networks and their management. A predominant theme running through
discussion at this meeting was the contribution that protected areas make to society, and indeed
the Congress proceedings were subtitled The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society.
Central to this theme is the understanding that a range of protected areas is therefore
necessary, with management objectives sometimes differing quite markedly between one area
and the next. The primary objective within one area, for example, may be to protect the
habitat of a particular species, within another to protect a watershed, and within a third to
provide recreational and educational opportunities. IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas has been working for some years to provide a set of defined categories of
protected areas, both to identify key management objectives, and to provide a framework for
comparison. One such category is3the protected landscape.
The objectives of protected landscapes were defined at the World Congress as being "to
maintain nationally significant natural landscapes which are characteristic of the harmonious
interaction of man and land, while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through
recreation and tourism within the normal lifestyle and economic activity of these areas",
although the definition also included those areas "that are primarily natural areas managed
intensively by man for recreational and tourism uses".
Recently there has been increasing interest in this category, and it has been suggested that,
while the scope for establishing the more traditional types of protected area is decreasing in
many countries as more of the unaltered natural environments are either degraded or
effectively protected, conservation priorities are likely to focus increasingly on those
man-modified environments which show best how man and nature can coexist.
Discussion of the role and future of protected landscapes is therefore timely, both to establish
the concept of protected landscapes more clearly, and to raise their status as means of linking
conservation and development. The I/nternational Symposium on Protected Landscapes has
been convened by the Countryside Commission, jointly with the Council of Europe and with
the support of the IUCN, the British Council and the Lake District National Park Authority.
This directory, prepared specifically for this meeting by the Protected Areas Data Unit at the
IUCN’s Conservation Monitoring Centre, with support from British Petroleum, attempts to
draw together information on a wide variety of protected landscapes from around the world. It
is not comprehensive (it is not intended to be), but aims to provide participants with a useful
working document. It is also hoped that presentation in this way will help to generate an
increased exchange of information on protected landscapes.
The International Symposium on Protected Landscapes also contributes towards two
international events taking place during 1987; the European Economic Community’s European
Year of the Environment and the Council of Europe’s European Campaign for the
Countryside. IUCN is happy also to offer this directory as a contribution to these events.
Hal Eidsvik, Chairman
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, IUCN
INTRODUCTION
IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) has been collecting
information on protected areas for many years, for use in programme planning and
development, and in increasing the level of awareness of protected area developments through
preparation of publications. Since 1959 IUCN has also been charged by the United Nations
with maintenance of a United Nations List of National Parks and Equivalent Reserves. Over
the years the information management role has increased to the extent that in 1981 CNPPA set
up the Protected Areas Data Unit (PADU) to provide this service to the Commission and the
Union. This unit is now a part of the Conservation Monitoring Centre (CMC), a division of
the IUCN Secretariat which is based in the United Kingdom.
Information is collected from a wide range of sources, and essentially managed in three ways.
Basic information on each area is stored in a computer database, closely linked to information
sheets for both individual sites and protected area systems, managed as word-processing
documents. This information is further backed up by extensive files of books, papers and
reports. PADU currently has basic information on computer for over ten thousand protected
areas (of which protected landscapes is just one subset). This is, of course, nowhere near the
total number of protected areas in the world: Sweden alone has 1200 nature reserves and 1300
natural monuments, Australia has over 1250 nature reserves, and the New Zealand register of
protected natural areas includes some 1660 sites.
The PADU files essentially contain at present information on those sites of over 1000 hectares
which are protected by the “highest competent authority" (except islands, where the size
cut-off is 100 hectares). The more detailed information held on information sheets in
word-processing includes descriptions of the protected area systems of each country, with basic
details of legislation and administration, as well as further details of many of the individual
sites; location, physical features, flora and fauna, management, problems, and so on.
This book is a compilation of examples of protected landscapes around the world, based on the
information available within this database. Information is presented on the protected areas
systems of 26 countries, and over 140 individual sites are discussed. For some countries, this
is most of their protected landscapes, for others just a few. This information is not intended to
be either comprehensive or complete, but is intended rather to serve as a working document
for participants in the Jnternational Symposium on Protected Landscapes.
The content of the directory runs parallel to the content of a paper prepared for the symposium
by Harrison and Karpowicz, and these two items should be taken as complimentary, the one
serving to reinforce the message of the other. The directory should also be used in conjunction
with its companion volume on protected landscapes in the United Kingdom, produced likewise
for this meeting (Protected Landscapes: The United Kingdom Experience).
Finally, we hope that presentation of information on protected landscapes in this form will
help to increase the "visibility" of the protected landscape and to increase the information
available on such areas. Knowing that our information is patchy, we look forward to
improving it.
Protected Areas Data Unit
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, UK
Tel: 0223 277314/TIx: 817036 scmu g
WHAT THE DATA SHEETS CONTAIN
INFORMATION ON THE COUNTRY’S PROTECTED AREA SYSTEM
Each country section consists of a data sheet arranged under standard headings detailing
background information on the country’s protected areas system. The text is referenced, as
appropriate, by the names of authorities. NB The completeness of the data sheet is dependent
on the availability of information.
Country
This gives the full name of the country or political unit, as used by the United Nations
(Appendix I).
Area
This states the area of the country or political unit as given in the Times Atlas of the World
(Seventh Edition, 1986), unless otherwise stated in the text.
Population
This gives the population of the country or political unit as cited in the Times Atlas of the
World, unless more recent information is available in The Statesman’s Yearbook. If any other
source is used, it is cited. The date is given in parentheses, along with a mention of a census if
appropriate.
Parks and Reserves Legislation
This provides a brief historical account of legislation concerned with the establishment of the
protected areas system, including dates and numbers of acts, decrees and ordinances. In
addition, it defines each category of protected area, citing (where available) the name of each
category in the original language. It also includes details of activities permitted or prohibited
within each category. This section further outlines the procedure for the establishment of new
areas and provides details of legislation concerned with forest or other types of reserves not
included in the national protected areas network. Finally, it covers state membership of
relevant international conventions with dates of accession or ratification (i.e. World Heritage,
Ramsar and, as appropriate, regional agreements, such as African, ASEAN, South Pacific,
Western Hemisphere). It also includes participation in Unesco’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB)
Programme.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management
This gives details of the authorities responsible for the administration and management of
protected areas, including a brief history of their establishment. It also outlines administrative
organization, staff structure and, if appropriate, training programmes as well as giving details
of how each category of protected area is managed.
Addresses
This gives names and addresses of authorities responsible for administering the protected areas
system.
Additional Information
This provides a brief review of the amount of undisturbed/vegetated land in the country. If
appropriate, it refer to IUCN’s systems reviews for summary data on the main vegetation
types. It provides background information on nature conservation in the country, including
sive
details of major conservation issues, systems reviews, national conservation strategies as well as
giving details of non-governmental organizations involved in the protected areas system and
details of threats and problems specific to the protected areas system.
References
Key references (including all cited works) are given about the system of protected areas, in
particular, and nature conservation, in general, within the country.
Protected Areas List
Lists Category V areas within the country, together with their biogeographical codes, sizes and
dates of establishment (see Appendix II).
INFORMATION ON INDIVIDUAL AREAS
Information on the protected area is given in data sheets arranged under standard headings.
The text is referenced, as appropriate, by the names of authorities. NB The completeness of
the data sheet is dependent on the availablity of information.
Country
This gives the short name of the country or political unit, as used by the United Nations
(Appendix I).
Name
This gives the official name of the area in the original language, with the English translation
underneath, as cited by the responsible management authority. If the site consists of more than
one gazetted area, such as a national park and strict nature reserve, the names of each are given.
Management Category
The site is allocated to the most appropriate IUCN category (in this case Category V)(see
Appendix II) for subsequent verification by the Commission on National Parks and Protected
Areas and national experts.
Biogeographical Province
This gives the name of the biogeographical province in which the site falls, based on Udvardy’s
classification (see Appendix III). In the case of discrepancies between the text and figures in
Udvardy, precedence should be given to the text. NB This system is currently being revised by
Udvardy.
Geographical Location
This gives the general location of the site within the country, including province and/or
administrative district, proximity to major towns and/or topographical features, and latitude
and longitude. Mention is made of the the location of different units, if applicable. It also
provides a brief description of the park boundary.
Date and History of Establishment
This gives the date of establishment and the act/decree/ordinance number of the original and
subsequent legislative articles relating to its establishment. It also provides a brief
chronological history of previous designations, together with details of subsequent additions
(including their sizes in ha) and if applicable, gives dates of establishment as World Heritage
Site, Biosphere Reserve, Ramsar Site or other appropriate international designations.
Area
THis gives the total area in ha, noting size of different units if applicable and names any
contiguous or otherwise associated protected areas, with their sizes in ha in parentheses.
Land Tenure
This gives details of land ownership (e.g. state, provincial, freehold, private, customary etc.),
mentioning sizes of respective areas if owned by several authorities.
Altitude
This provides general details followed, in parentheses, by highest and lowest altitude in metres
above (or below) sea level.
Physical Features
This briefly describes the outstanding topographical features, including major rivers and their
catchments, and give details of coastal and marine features if applicable as well as_ briefly
describing the geology, geomorphology, soils and hydrology of the area, particularly as they
affect its management.
Climate
This gives details of seasons, annual rainfall and maximum and minimum temperatures, with
respect to altitude, if appropriate.
Vegetation
This briefly describe the main vegetation types, including their approximate areas and give
details of dominant species and secondary formations. It also provides a general account of
threatened (see Appendix IV), endemic, economically important and potentially economically
important (e.g. crop relatives) species of flora. Included are references to species lists. NB
Scientific nomenclature of species should be based on the relevant authorities (see Appendix V).
Fauna
This provide a general account of dominant, endemic, threatened (see Appendix IV) or
otherwise significant species, giving details of population sizes and gives a resumé of mammal,
bird, reptile, amphibian, fish and invertebrate faunas in relation to different habitats.
Included are references to species lists. NB Scientific nomenclature of species should be based
on the relevant authorities (see Appendix V).
Cultural Heritage (if relevant)
Mention is made of archaeological features and cultural monuments and ethnic groups and
their traditions.
Local Human Population (if relevant)
This gives the size of the resident population, together with details of the number and
distribution of villages. It also briefly describes the local livelihood and economy, mentioning
the numbers of livestock and amount of land under permanent and temporary (shifting)
cultivation.
=e
Visitors and Visitor Facilities (if relevant)
This gives the annual number of visitors, with proportions of nationals and foreigners, and
total revenue accruing from tourism; briefly describes the means and ease of access to different
parts of the protected area; gives details of the different types of accommodation available
within the protected area (or nearby), including the number of beds; mentions the availability
and location of interpretation programmes, including visitor centres and mentions recreational
facilities, if appropriate.
Scientific Research and Facilities
This provides a brief historical account of research undertaken, including ongoing studies and
gives details of laboratories and other facilities, including accommodation, available to
scientists.
Conservation Management
This mentions any legal protection specific to the area. Give details of activities (e.g. hunting,
fishing, grazing) specifically permitted or prohibited; outlines the justifications for conserving
the area; states the management objectives, as outlined in the management plan, and assess
their degree of implementation. (NB Categorically mentions the existence of a management
plan and, if appropriate, the authority responsible for its implementation.); gives details of
major management activities (e.g. controlled burning, culling); outlines the system of zonation,
including sizes of zones, if applicable; mentions significant training, interpretative and
extension programmes and outlines recommendations, as proposed in the management plan.
Management Problems
This briefly describes past and current problems, such as poaching, fire, disease, agricultural
encroachment, impact of tourism, relationship between park authorities and local people, and
proposed developments (e.g. roads, dams), with emphasis on the main threats and _ their
significance.
Staff
This gives details of the number of staff allocated for each position and, if applicable, provide
details of voluntary staff.
Budget
This gives the annual budget, with year in parentheses, in local currency and in US dollars (for
ease of comparison). Whereever possible it differentiates between capital (e.g. construction of
facilities) and recurrent (e.g. salaries) costs and gives details of other financial support (e.g.
from Unesco, WWF etc.), if applicable.
Local Administration
This gives the names and addresses of the local administrative entities for the area.
References
This lists key references, including management plans, reports, scientific monographs,
bibliographies and handbooks, in addition to other scientific papers or popular articles and
books. Particularly relevant references not consulted may also be cited.
Appendix I - Country Names
See United Nations (1982). Names of countries and adjectives of nationality. Terminology
Bulletin No. 327.
-Vvii-
Appendix II - IUCN Management Categories
See IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (1984). Categories and criteria
for protected areas. In McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National parks, conservation, and
development. The role of protected areas in sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington. Pp. 47-53.
Category V (Protected Landscape or Seascape)
The scope of areas that fall within this category is necessarily broad because of the wide
variety of semi-natural and cultural landscapes that occur within various nations. This may be
reflected in two types of areas: those whose landscapes possess special aesthetic qualities which
are a result of the interaction of man and land; and those that are primarily natural areas
managed intensively by man for recreational tourism uses.
In the former case, these landscapes may demonstrate certain cultural manifestations such as:
customs, beliefs, social organisation, or material traits as reflected in land use patterns. These
landscapes are characterised by either aesthetically attractive or unique patterns of human
settlement. Traditional land use practices associated with agriculture, grazing, and fishing are
dominant. The area is large enough to ensure the integrity of the landscape pattern.
The latter case often includes natural or scenic areas found along coastlines and lake shores, in
hilly or mountainous terrain, or along the shores of rivers, often adjacent to tourist highways
or population centres; many will have the potential to be developed for a variety of outdoor
recreational uses with national significance.
In some cases the area may be privately held and the use of either central or delegated planning
control would be ncessary to ensure the perpetuation of both the land use and lifestyle. Means
of government assistance might be required to improve the standard of living while
maintaining the natural quality of the site through appropriate management practices. In other
instances, the areas are established and managed under public ownership, or a combination of
public and private ownership.
Appendix III - Biogeographic Provinces
See Udvardy, M.D.F. (1975). per day with an extraction rate of 387m>/per
day per km*. There are also water sources containing mineral elements which supply the
health resorts of Kudowy, Dusznik and Polanicy. The average density of the water courses
networks is 1.25 km per km2, with the lowest values recorded in the central part of the
mountains which contain the spring sources, but with the development here of waterfalls and
canyons (for example, at Posna, Czermna, Darnkowski Potok and Kamienny Potok).
Two-thirds of the area is in the Odra river watershed, one-third in the Lada river watershed.
Climate The Sudeten mountain chain is characterised by having three climatic strata vertically
identified: peak, slope and base of slope. The peak stratum has on average annual
temperatures below 2.5°C, winds averaging at 7m per second, high degree of cloud cover and
low recorded sunlight. The slope stratum has average annual temperature from 2.5°C to 5.0°C,
winds 4-7m per second, low cloud cover and high recorded sunlight. The lowest stratum has
average annual temperatures above 5°C, little wind (4m per second), a tendency for
temperature inversion, higher cloud cover and lower recorded sunlight.
Vegetation Forests cover 12,509ha, agricultural land 1,052ha and water bodies, 39ha. The site
has high altitude peatbogs and fir-pine Abies-Pinus forests. The forests cover 64% of the park
area, with agricultural land, in the form chiefly of meadows, pasture and low productivity
arable areas, dominant along the boundaries. The forests were placed under a commercial
regime and extensively felled and replanted with norway spruce Picea abies at the turn of the
century. At present spruce accounts for over 80% of the woodland cover. Areas of original
natural forest cover still exist along the slopes of the upper mountains in the form of
beech Fagus sylvatica woods, especially near Rogowej Kopy, Darnkowskiego Potoku and
Posna. There are remnants of ancient pine forest and small patches of natural spruce and
poorly developed beech, typical of the Sudeten mountains. Amongst the 510 species of trees,
scrubs and plants recorded in the park, 24 are under complete protection and some are
classified as very rare in Poland. The nature reserves have bog pine, mezereum, ivy,
lousewort, globeflower, gentian, arnica, Martagon lily (Pinus mughus, Daphne mezereum,
Hedera helix, Pedicularis sudetica, Trollius europaeus, Gentiana sp., Arnica montana, Lilium
martagon), and the orchids Orchis latifolia and Leucorchis sp. and 13 other protected species.
Partially protected species include Primula sp, Digitatis purpurea, Veratrum Lobelianum
and Convallaria majalis. The only station for Irish saxifrage Saxifraga rosacea in the Sudeten
mountains is found at Rogowej Kopie. There is also a very rich flora of mosses and liverworts
with 272 species and 122 species respectively having been recorded.
Fauna Little has been systematically studied of the fauna of the Park. Mammals, however,
include hare, fallow deer, red deer, wild boar, fox, pine marten and badger (Lepus capensis,
Dama dama, Cervus elaphus, Sus scrofa, Vulpes vulpes, Martes martes and Meles meles). In the
inter-war years there were records of forest, common and edible dormice Dryomys nitedula,
Muscardinus avellanarius and Glis glis, respectively. Breeding birds include partridge Perdix
perdix, pheasant Phasianus colchicus, black grouse Lyrurus tetrix, pygmy owl Glaucidium
passerinum, eagle owl Bubo bubo, black stork Ciconia nigra, goshawk Accipter gentilis,
sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, kestrel Falco tiununculus, dipper Cinclus cinclus, grey
wagtail Motacilla cinerea, nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes and bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula.
In previous years there were records of capercaillie Tetrao urogallus.
Cultural Heritage The dominant role in the local economy of the health centres (located
around the park) in providing recuperative services is now changing under the influence of
industrial development and tourism.
Local Human Population Within the Park there are five villages and a further ten around the
park’s boundaries, the largest being Kudowa-Zdroj and Polanica-Zdroj, both tourist and spa
towns. The area has suffered depopulation and several villages have been abandoned.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a special educational trail designed to view the
geological structures, in addition to five separate tourist trails. A number of health resorts are
located around the park - Kudowa, Duszniki and Polanica, as well as tourist centres such as
Radkow, Wambierzyce, Zlotno, Kulin, Lewin Klodzki, Pasterka and Czermna. However, the
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Poland
spa towns are increasingly being taken over by industry and tourism. For example, in
Kudowie 62% of the working population are now employed in industry, while in Polanicy 42%
work in this function (the same amount as are employed in spa and tourist activities combined).
Scientific Research and Facilities The weathering aspects of the sandstone has been
researched by geologists and geomorphologists, with special emphasis on the differential
resistance to wear shown by the layered rocks. Research has also concentrated on the Szezelin
Wielki area where the influence of underground waterflows on the washout and movement of
rock layers has been studied. Most recently evidence has been produced to suggest rock
movements as a result of vibrations in the strata.
Conservation Management The site contains three nature reserves, two landscape reserves and
one peatbog strict reserve. The landscape ones are Szczeliniec Wielki (SOha) and Bledne Skaly
(23ha); the peatbog reserve is Wielkie Torfowisko Batorowskie (39ha). Three further nature
reserves are planned. The Park lies within an area of protected landscape which is demarcated
along forest edges and partly along the international highway E-12. A planning document
prepared by Dr Pender suggests the establishment of four further reserves. One is aimed at
protecting meadowland near Lezyc, one in a beech-plane Fagus-Platanus wooded area, one in
natural Sudeten forest and one consisting of a steep-sloped natural pine forest. There are
suggestions that the area may be declared a national park.
Management Problems The trails in the Park are heavily utilised and in the central parts of
the mountain this pressure is becoming a threat. Szczeliniec Wielki and the Bledne Skaly are
visited daily by 1,000-2,000 people. The five separate trails converge at the tourist centre of
Kartow through which also passes the landscape road "The 100-Bends Trail". A further
attraction to the area is the reservoir, just beyond the park boundary, at Radkowie. The
increased industrialisation of the area has led to pollution standards being broken: at levels
twice the permitted in Kudowie (83.6 tons per km“ per Ce 2.5 times in Densznikach (101
tons per km“) and 5.5 times in Polanicy (222 tons per km“). Levels of SO, NO and fluorides
are above permitted figures, as is the level of noise (23-26 dBA in Polanicy). Building
development is expanding in line with industrial and tourism increases. The increase in
urbanised populations, increase in motor traffic as well as chemical use in agriculture and
forestry is having a serious effect on the park, with noticeable forest dieback and invasions of
insect pests. There is continued exploitation of sandstone and stone quarries at Radkow,
development of factory farms, the asphalting of forest roads and the construction of a ski-lift.
Staff No information.
Budget No information.
Local Administration No information.
References
° Jahna, A. (Ed.) (1986). Karkonosze_ polskie. Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolinskich
Wydawnictwo Wroclaw.
* Jonca, E. (1986). Park Krajobrazowy Gor Stolowych. Przyroda Polska No. 8. Pp 18-20.
Date August 1987
Inski PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.11.05 (Middle European Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in the voivodship of Szczecin in the Inski Lake District some
50km due east of Szczecin and immediately adjacent to the town of Insko. 53°27’N, 15°32’E.
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Poland
Date and History of Establishment The area was created by order of the Voivodship People’s
Council (Nr. IX/55/81) on 4 November 1981 and came into force on | January 1982.
Area 51,843ha including a protective buffer zone of 35,280ha.
Land Tenure No information
Altitude No information
Physical Features The park occupies the watershed and origin of a number of rivers the
majority of which flow to the west. There are at least seven large lakes, the largest being the
Visala Lake.
Climate No information
Vegetation Forests cover 12,719ha, agricultural lands 28,720ha and water areas 2,862ha.
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage An old water mill has been renovated from funds raised by the Hunter’s
Union. It is located at Ciemnik on the river Ira where it cascades off the Inski plateau.
Local Human Population The park lies adjacent to the town of Insko
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management’ The area is completely surrounded by a protective buffer zone
which is contiguous with an extensive area of protected landscape stretching for some 60km to
the south to the River Notec. In 1983 members of the Nature Conservation League, the Polish
Hunter’s Union together with forestry personnel, agricultural officials and local and regional
government members formed a Society of Friends of the Inski Landscape Park. The aim of the
park is fourfold: environmental protection; tourism; education; and the maintenance of the
ecological balance in the surrounding areas. The Society is divided into five working groups:-
the Group on Nature Protection; Group on Forestry and Agriculture; Group on Hunting and
Water Management; Group on Spatial Planning and the Group on Propoganda and Tourism.
Management Problems No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Kokocinski, J. (1984). Towarzystwo Przyjaciol Inskiego Parku Krajobrazowego. Przyroda
Polska. No. 10.
Date August 1987
Kozienicki PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.11.05 (Middle European Forest)
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Poland
Geographical Location Situated in the voivodship of Radom between the town of Radom
(8km to the south-west) and the River Vistula (10km to the north-east). Its northern boundary
is formed by the river Radomka and is centred on the forested Puszcza Kozienicka. 51°35’ N
21°35°E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was created by order of the Voivodship People’s
Council (Nr.XV/70/83) on 28 June 1983.
Area 45,535ha including a buffer zone of 30,437ha
Land Tenure Excluding the buffer zone the forests are largely state-owned and under the
administration of the State Forest Offices in Kozienice, Zagozdzon, Garbatka, Pionki and
JedInia. The remaining 2,255ha are privately owned.
Altitude Between 100 and 200m
Physical Features The northern section of the protected area contains the most characteristic
landscape for this region based on ancient sand dune terraces. The whole area is within the
floodplain of the river Vistula and includes a number of its tributaries: the Radomka forms the
northern boundary of the protected landscape and is considered to be the most natural of all
the water courses in the site; and the Zagozdzonka which flows through the central part of the
forest. These streams originate in peatbogs.
Climate No information
Vegetation Forests cover 24,019ha, agricultural land 17,712ha and water areas 219ha. The
forests are part of the Kozienicka Puszcza which in total consists of 28,035ha of woodland and
represents the largest remaining block of natural forest cover in the Radom voivodship. Some
80% of the landscape park (excluding the buffer zone) is forest cover. In the northern sections
the ancient sand dune terraces are covered by pine Pinus sp. forest alternating with peatbogs
which take up some 10% of the total core area. Geobotanically the area has similarities with
areas in the central uplands of Poland. It contains some species on the limits of their range, for
example, fir Abies sp., spruce Picea sp., beech Fagus sylvatica and sycamore Acer
pseudoplatanus. There are old records for Polish larch Larix decidua var. polonica and
yew Taxus baccata. The nature reserves are largely covered by fir mixed with oak Quercus sp.,
pine Pinus sp., sycamore, beech, and maple, wych-elm, lime, birch, hornbeam and aspen (Acer
platanoides, Ulmus glabra, Tilia sp., Betula sp., Carpinus betulus and Populus tremula). Species
of note include Lycopodium sp., Allium ursinum, Galanthus nivalis, Trollius europaeus, Linnaea
borealis and a large number of orchids Orchidaceae.
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage The forest area has a long history and in the 17th century was called the
"Puszcza Radomska" and was given protection as a royal hunting ground. From 1607 it
supplied venison and other game for the King’s court. The village of JedInia is the location of
a small one-storeyed castle which was used by the King Wladyslaw Jagiello and his court as a
stop-over place between his two capitals of Krakow and Vilnius. Here in 1430 the "Statut
Jedlenski" was issued. Timber from the forest was floated down the river Vistula and used in
the construction of the Royal Castle in Warsaw as well as the Belveder.
Local Human Population There would appear to be only one settlement within the protected
landscape, the village of Augustow. However, there are at least eight villages on the edge of
the area as well as two towns (Kozienice, to the north-west and Pionki, to the south) and the
city of Radom (population 206,000) some 5km to the south-west.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a system of trails and paths which are designed for
educational and recreation purposes. A recreation centre is being constructed at the Siezka lake
and there are plans for the creation of a larger lake at Pacynie which would also be used for
recreation. The Radomka river is already utilized for a number of water sports.
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Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management’ The area is completely surrounded by a protective buffer zone.
Since the days of the Partitions (late 18th century) the forest has been government-owned and
hence managed according to forestry plans and therefore has to a large extent avoided mass
deforestation. A major feature of the management will be the need to maintain and extend the
area of the forest covered by native species of trees, which are now largely restricted to the
nature reserves. There are at present seven forest nature reserves: Zagozdzon (established 1962,
65ha); Ponty (established 1978, 36ha); Brzezniczka (established 1980, 45ha); Pionki (established
1982, 83ha); Jedinia (established 1982, 86ha); Ciszek (established 1982, 40ha) and Zalamanek
(established 1982, 75ha). The majority of these were set up to give protection to associations
of fir Abies sp. (the typical tree species for the protected landscape area). In addition, two
landscape reserves were established in 1978 and 1980. A sewage treatment works is being
constructed at Mlecznej which will help prevent water pollution in the lakes and rivers within
the site.
Management Problems The major threat to the area is from industrial pollution most of
which eminates from the power station and a complex of chemical factories situated on the
edge of the protected landscape at Pionki. Other industrial concerns are located at Kozienice
and Radom. There is some pressure from the expansion of urban areas.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Zareba, R. (1984). Kozienicki Park Krajobrazowy. Przyroda Polska. No.11. Pp.18-19.
Date August 1987
Ksiazanski PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.32.12 (Central European Highlands)
Geographical Location Situated in the voivodship of Walbrzych in Lower Silesia in the
Sudeten mountains some 5km due north of the town of Walbrzych and extending for 13km in a
NW-SE axis between the towns of Szczawno-Zdroj to the south and Swiedodzice to the north.
50 40°N, 16 40°E
Date and History of Establishment The area was created by order of the Voivodship People’s
Council (Nr. 35/81) on 28 October 1981.
Area 4,500ha, including a buffer zone of 700ha.
Land Tenure The forests are State-owned; the agricultural lands are private
Altitude Highest point in the south-eastern part of the park reaches 480m.
Physical Features The park occupies a narrow (2-3km wide) forested ridge of the Middle
Sudeten Range which in effect is the edge of the uplands separating the mountains from the
Silesian plains for a distance of 120-150km. This ridge is deeply cut in places by streams and
rivers originating in the mountains to form ravines. The park area exhibits some of the most
interesting morphological features along the length of the ridge by being cut in the space of
10km by five steeply-sided valleys, namely by the rivers Lubiechowska Woda, Pelcznica,
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Szezawnik, Solny Potok and Czyzynka. In cutting through the 2km ridge the rivers is forced
to meander for up to 4km through ravines 50-80m deep. The sides are very steep, at times
vertical, with the floor of the ravines narrowing to 20-30m. Often at the bottom the humidity
is high and deeply shaded. The park can be divided into three sections according to their
geological characteristics. A chief element in the sediments are inlays and deposits of
limestone and marl which contain fossils of the Upper Devonian fauna. This is particularly
typical of the eastern section of the park between the Witoszowski and Lubiechowski valleys.
The south-eastern section, the highest part has a dense network of streams inflowing from the
north into the Witoszowski river and the southernly entering streams of the Lubiechowski
river, which are shallow and often dry, but is otherwise a gently undulating landscape. The
central section is cut by very deep meandering ravines by rivers with a mountainous character.
The steep rocky slopes with many gullies and gutters divide the terrain and often result in areas
of boulder-strewn treeless patches (as, for example, at Szczawnik) reminiscent of a
mountainous landscape. The northern section consists of rocks which are most resistant and is
cut by the largest of the rivers- the Czyzynka -and a gently undulating landscape reaching a
height of 447m (Waly).
Climate No information
Vegetation Forests cover 4,070ha (90% of the area), agriculural land 410ha and water areas
20ha. The deep cut dark ravines provide the right conditions for the growth of shade and
humidity-loving plants and the occurence of specific faunal elements. The forests are both dry
and humid varieties of the lower subalpine forests whilst in the smaller streams there are
elements of marshy woodland. The largest area is covered by mixed mountain forests. More
rare are patches of lowland conifer forests and mountain alder forest. The three types are: 1.
multi-specied mixed forest which includes sycamore, silver fir, oak, elm, lime (Acer
pseudoplatanus, Abies alba, Quercus sp., Ulmus sp., Tilia cordata) and single examples of
yew Taxus baccata. The shrub layers consist of rowan, ash, rose, red-berried elder and
meadowsweet (Sorbus aucuparia, Fraxinus excelsior, Rosa sp., Sambucus racemosa
and Filipendula sp). The ground flora is dense and covers 50-80% of the area. 2. Sudeten
beech forest which has beech, lime, norway spruce, sycamore, elm and yew (Fagus sylvatica,
Tilia sp., Picea abies, Acer pseudoplatanus, Ulmus sp. and Taxus baccata). There is an almost
complete absence of understorey with the ground flora consisting of sweet woodruff Asperula
odorata and dog’s mercury Mercuralis perennis. 3.mountain alder forest located in damper
areas consisting of grey alder Alnus incana, willow Salix sp. and dense shrubs and grass.
Isolated patches are also present of spruce forest Picea abies which have been artificially
planted and cover a fair sized area and birch Betula sp. occurring especially on the northern
slopes and the ridges. In the valleys there are meadows. A unique and separate biotope is
present in the bottoms of the ravines and stream gulleys where a rich assembly of ferns and
mosses occur, such as along the Pelcznicy river and the water reservoir in the valley of the
Solnego Potoku. There are records for 273 species of flora including 44 species of trees and
bushes. Within this total there are 24 mountainous species, 4 mountain forest species and 21
species at the limits of their range, and 17 species which are completely protected by law, some
of the latter are quite numerous in the park, for example, on the ridge of the Pelcznicy. In the
Szczawnika and Potoku Solnego valleys there are over 100 individual yew teees, some may be
400 years old and reach 275cm in circumference. There is also flowering ivy Hedera helix,
mezereum Daphne mezereum, Lilium martagon, and the orchids Platanthera bifolia and Listera
cordata.
Fauna The diversity of the morphology and microclimate of the area creates the ideal
conditions for the development of a very rich fauna and in particular the invertebrate fauna.
There are records for many species of molluscs including several endemics and approximately
170 species of Arachnids including 21 defined as rare. Amongst the butterflies recorded there
are the rare Papilio machaon and Apatura isis. Other species present in the park but which are
extinct in Silesia include Lycaemidas idas, Lysandra mersites and Maculinea nausithos. The
Coleoptera fauna is rich and includes Cerambyx scopolii and Clytus lama. Amongst the
Curculionidae present is Liparus coronatus. Of particular interest is the presence of the
ichneumon /chneumon gravipex. Of the interesting amphibians and reptiles present it is worth
noting the warty Triturus cristatus and alpine Triturus alpestris newts the fire
salamander Salamandra salamandra and the tree frog Hyla arborea as well as the sand
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lizard Lacerta agilis, slow-worm Anguis fragilis, grass snake Natrix natrix and the very rare
smooth snake Coronella austiaca. The birds recorded include a large number of raptor species
as well as those species requiring holes for nesting. For example, kestrel Falco tinnunculus,
goshawk Accipiter gentilis, buzzard Buteo buteo and sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus breed and
rarer species include nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes, stock dove Columba oenas and grey
wagtail Motacilla cinerea. Mammals include two species of shrew Microtus sp., wild boar Sus
scrofa, fox Vulpes vulpes, fallow and red deer Dama dama and Cervus elephus and
mouflon Ovis aries.
Cultural Heritage The park is rich in monuments and ruins. There are former fortification
works, magnificent residences of the former land owners, a watchtower of the princes Bolek
and Swidnicki and the castle at Ksiaz overlooking the ravine of the river Pelcznicy. This is the
largest castle in Silesia, with 415 rooms and an area of 150,000 cubic metres. In addition there
are castles from the Middle Ages, and other military and religious objects.
Local Human Population There is only one town, Ksiaz, and one village, Cisow within the
park, but there are at least eleven small and large towns surrounding the area. The two major
conurbations of Walbrzych and Swidnica are very close to the park, and a large proportion of
Walbrzych’s population of 718,000 use the area at weekends.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Tourist attractions are mainly restricted to the historic
monuments and buildings with activities centred on the Ksiaz castle.
Scientific Research and Facilities | The exposed rock faces on the Lipiny mountain (near
Mokrzeszowa Gornego) and the partially flooded quarry (Jezioro Daisy) have been studied for
over 100 years for their fossil remains and the use of stratification for ageing deposits. This
site has yielded numerous corals, Brachiopoda, Stromatopora, Lamellibranchiata, goniatites and
others, thus allowing the Devonian fauna to be evaluated in detail.
Conservation Management’ The park is surrounded by a protective belt consisting of an area
of protected landscape. The original concepts put forward by government advisory bodies saw
the creation of several nature reserves and an area of protected landscapes with the
development of tourism and the creation of a reservoir below Cisy in the river valley
Czyzynki. However, in the early 1980s the programme was dropped and the landscape park
created. Unfortunately, no spatial management pian for the park has been created and only
some information boards have been erected.
Management Problems The forests continue to be utilized by the forestry authorities as
commercial crops although in a temporary basis and near Ksiaz the forests are used by the
Tourism and Social Administration "Ksiaz" whilst the agricultural land is used by its present
owners. Some of the river courses contain many years worth of accumulated timber while the
exact boundaries of the park have yet to be fixed. The regulations affecting the management
of the park are at present not being enforced. There is uncontrolled tourist pressue especially
at the central part and the nature reserve Soliczanka has been damaged by excessive trampling.
In the northern part of the park a number of water extraction plants are being built
endangering the water table in the area. In recent years there has been an explosive increase in
the occurence of honey fungus Armillaria mellea and most recently near Pelcznice outbreaks of
beech aphids.
Staff Although indicated in the documents creating the landscape park, no director nor staff
members have been appointed.
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Jonca, E. (1986). Ksiazanski Park Krajobrazowy. Przyroda Polska. No. 2. p.18-21.
Date August 1987
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Lasy Janowskie PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.11.05. (Middle European Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in voivodship of Tarnobrzeg in the south-eastern uplands of
the country, some 55km south of Lublin, 65km north-east of Rzeszow and just south of Janow
Lubelski. 50°32’N, 22°30°E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was created by Voivodship People’s Council
Order Nr. II/12/84 on 3 October 1984.
Area The park covers 62,950ha which includes a buffer zone of 39,550ha.
Land Tenure No information.
Altitude No information.
Physical Features No information.
Climate No information.
Vegetation Forests cover 33,780ha, agricultural lands 25,534ha and water bodies 510ha. The
surrounding area is dominated by pine Pinus sylvestris woodland, interspersed with pockets of
fir Abies sp., and peat bogs, as well as a large number of lakes.
Fauna’ There is apparently a rich fauna recorded for the region. Birds include breeding
crane Grus grus, lesser spotted eagle Aguila pomarina and short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus.
The populations of capercaillie Tetrao urogallus and of wolf Canis lupus represent 10% of their
populations in the country.
Cultural Heritage The park is alternatively titled the "Partisan Park of National Significance"
and is important for its role as the scene of partisan activity during World War II.
Local Human Population No information.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information.
Scientific Research and Facilities The Institute of Environmental Management in Warsaw in
completing a project aimed at identifying areas needing protection which isolated the Lasow
Janowskich and Puszcza Solska as requiring legal protection. The landscape park is due to be
surrounded by an area of protected landscape - the Lipsko-Janowski APL as well as linked to
another landscape park - Stawy. This project has been coordinated into the regional
programme for environmental and water economy protection 1986-90 and outline plan till
2000, which was itself accepted.
Conservation Management To lessen the impact of the major communication routes which
cross the area there are plans to build walkways under the roads, limit the speed of traffic and
create belts of trees and bushes along the roads. A series of recommendations have been put
forward to the forestry authorities (including the establishment of a number of reserves) and to
the water authorities for the cleaning-up of the rivers Tanwi and Bukowa.
Management Problems The park lies within an area of intensive industrial development with
large steel and engineering concerns located at Stalowej Woli, some 20km to the south-west of
the park and only Skm from a proposed area of protected landscape. In addition to this the
voivodship is one of the most significant with regard to agricultural production. There are five
important communication routes through the area which act as ecological barriers.
Staff No information.
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Budget No information.
Local Administration No information.
References
° Radziejowski, J. (1986). Obszary Chronionego Krajobrazu Ww Woj.
Tarnobrzeskim. Przyroda Polska. No.7. pp. 19-20.
Date August 1987
Nadmorski PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.11.05. (Middle European Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in the voivodship of Gdansk on the Baltic coast, some 30km
north of the city of Gdansk and including the entire Hel Peninsula (Mierzeja Helska) east of
Wladyslawowo and approximately 40% of the Bay of Puck (Zaloka Pucka). It extends in a belt
along the Baltic coastline for some 20km west of Wladyslwowo to the river Piasnicy. 54°45’N,
18°25°E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was created by order of the voivodship People’s
Council (Nr. [X/49/78) on 5 January 1978.
Area 27,610ha, including a buffer zone of 12,119ha.
Land Tenure Some 99% of forest cover is owned by the State, although the Ministry of
Forestry is in control of less than 10% of the total area. The vast majority of agricultural land
is State owned.
Altitude From sea level to 100m
Physical Features The park is characterised by the coastal sand dune systems and occasional
stretches of cliffs and deep ravines, as well as by a large surface area of the Bay of Puck. The
Hel Peninsula consists of sand dunes separating the open sea from the Bay. Soils vary
tremendously but in the park are mainly clay, sands and gravels and are not much suited to
agricultural production. The peninsula consists of sands (loose, wet and peaty). The Hel
Peninsula has been created over time by the process of transportation of massive amounts of
sand along the Baltic coastline, at first creating islands and then a 34km long peninsula. The
accumulation of sand has resulted in the development of sand dunes. The Bay of Puck lies
behind a narrow sand bar known as the "Ryfem Mew" and is an area of shallow (8m) water
which warms up relatively fast, and is particularly clear and salt-laden.
Climate This is strongly influenced by the sea with winters being much milder than further
inland. Temperature varies from an average low of -1.5°C in January to an average of 17°C
in July. Summers are cooler along the coast with some 210 days of growing season. Average
annual rainfall is between 550-600mm varying from 210 to 680mm. Rarely does the sea breaks
through the peninsula, the last occurence being in 1914.
Vegetation Forests cover 3,975ha, agricultural land 7,810ha and water areas 10,36lha. The
forest cover is both pure pine Pinus sylvestris and mixed (with beech Fagus sylvatica being
dominant) and including interesting Atlantic elements. The areas of steep cliffs are covered in
mature beech forests with a rich ground flora, whilst the sand dunes are colonized by Scots
pine Pinus sylvestris with an understorey of bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus. There are a number
of peat bogs of the Atlantic type with species such as Rubus chamaemorus and Myrica gale.
There are also communities of salt loving plants, particularly on the Hel Peninsula. The ground
flora includes orchids (for example, Listera ovata) and the royal fern. The nature reserve
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Przyladek Rozewski consists of 54m high cliffs covered in 120 year old beech Fagus sylvatica
forest. Some of the trees are over 200 years old. Other tree species present include field
maple, ash, rowan, birch, wild pear and Norway spruce (Acer campestris, Fraxinus excelsior,
Sorbus aucuparia, Betula pendula, Pyrus pyraster and Picea abies. The shrub layer consists of
hazel, sallow, willow, juniper, blackberry, guelder rose, raspberry and hawthorn (Corylus
avellona, Salix caprea, Salix sp., Juniperus communis, Rubus sp., Viburnum opulus, Rubus idaeus
and Crataegus monogyna). The cliff tops are covered in broom Sarothamnus scoparius and sea
buckthorn Hippoptae rhamnoides, some bushes reaching 2m. in height. Protected plants
include Lycropodum sp., ivy Hedera heli and a number of orchids. Behind the dune system
there are extensive peat bogs such as the 2,000ha Bielawski bogs which represent the
north-eastern limit of their distribution. The chief species is the cotton grass Eriophorum sp.,
with cross-leaved heather Erica tetralix, bog myrtle Myrica gale and rarer species such as
cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus, two species of Sparganium, beak sedge Rhynchospor sp. and
pillwort Pilularia sp. The Bay of Puck has eel-grass Zostra beds at depths of 6-10m and other
plants include Chara baltica, Chara crinita, Chara aspersa and Tolypella nidifica.
Fauna’ The Bay of Puck is an important area for many breeding and wintering bird species
and is particularly well known as a migration spot with thousands of birds passing along the
peninsula in spring and autumn. Until recently the smooth snake Coronella austriaca was
reported from the Hel Peninsula. Some species recorded in the Bay of Puck are rarely
encountered elsewhere, for example, Cyathura carianata, Spahaeroma hokeri, Leptocheirus
pilosus, Melita palmata, Talorchestra deshayostii and Cardium harniense. Several unusual
freshwater species are also present: Piscicola geometra, Asellus aquatitus and Lymnea prregra.
Cultural Heritage There are numerous architectural monuments of note and at Jastarni there
is evidence of human occupation during the last 2,000 years. At Puck there are moraine
boulders, the largest measuring 7.5m in circumference, locally known as the" Twelve Apostles"
whilst near the town of Zarnowca at the western edge of the park there is a 20m circumference
boulder which was chronicled in 1277 as the bounder marker of the Polish kingdom. Just
outside Puck there is a 1.3km long avenue of lime trees which were, apparently, planted by the
famous Polish King Jan III Sobierski which lead to the country villa of Rzucewie. At the
village of Chlapowo near Rozewiem in 1859-1860 brown coal was exploited in a seam which
ran to the cliff edge at this point. Also at Rozewiem there is a lighthouse which is a major
tourist attraction and in Hel the original fishermen’s cottages have been preserved and show a
marked resemblance to Dutch buildings from the 18th century.
Local Human Population Within, or on the edge of, the park there are a number of fair-sized
seaside towns, the largest being Wladyslawowo (9,000 inhabitants in 1976) followed by Jastarnia
(4,500), Hel (3,800) and on the Bay of Puck, Puck. Average density (in 1978) was 269 persons
per square kilometre.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The Hel Peninsula is very popular with tourists, the beaches
facing the Bay of Puck being the only south-facing ones in Poland, and subsequently there are
a number of recreation centres along the coast (Chalupy, Kuznica, Jastarnia, Jurata and Hel).
In total there are some 65 recreation centres; 38 in Wladyslawowo, 11 in Jastarni, 6 in Juracie,
4 in Karwi, 3 in Hel, 2 in Rewie and | in Debki having a capacity (in 1976) of 7,213 places.
In addition there were 1,700 camping sites within the park and 400 in Wladyslawowo. There is
a railway line (built in 1922) and a well surfaced road running the length of the coast which
makes access that much easier and near Wladyslawowo there is the well known sports centre of
Cetniewo.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The landscape park is protected on the inland side by an area of
protected landscape (APL) with the zone extending seawards for 4km and including the whole
of the Bay of Puck. With the landscape park there are three nature reserves, one of which is a
Strict nature reserve. One is a landscape reserve (Przyladek Rozewski, created in 1959,
covering 12ha) and two faunal reserves (Moroszka Bielawskiego Blota, created in 1977 covering
8ha and Woskownica Bielawskiego Blota, also created in 1977, covering 33ha). The Sea
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Administration personnel along with forest workers annually attempt to repair the damage
caused to the sand dunes both by man and by natural causes. Previously thousands of
migrating birds were killed by colliding with the lighthouse at Rozewic which has now been
illuminated to prevent such massacres. A proposed nature reserve is to be declared in the
Chlapowski Ravine which has exposed Tertiary deposits with floral remains.
Management Problems Due to the, at times, excessive tourist pressure on the Hel Peninsula,
annually several dozen hectares of sand dunes are damaged. The peat bogs have to a major
extent been damaged by local people who dig the peat for burning. The Gdansk based
Non-Timber Forest Products Industry " Las " has planted large areas with non-native North
American whortleberry bushes. On the edge of the park at the northern tip of the Zarnowiecki
Lake there is an electricity powerstation which is intended to be converted into a nuclear
power plant. There are fish processing plants in Wladyslawowo and Jastarni - their effect on
the environment is not known.
Staff No information.
Budget No information.
Local Administration No information.
References
° Anon. (1978) Nadmorski Park Krajobrazowy. Urzad Wojewodzki w Gdansku.
° Sikora, A (1978) Osobliwosci i Zabytki Przyrody Wojewodztwa Gdanskiego, KAW Gdansk.
Date August 1987
Sobiborski PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.11.05 (Middle European Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in the voivodship of Chelm just to the west of the river Bug
and the Soviet border in the Polesie Lubelskie and the Wlodawa marshes, 10km south of
Wlodawa and 30km north-east of Chelm. 51°27’N 23°30°E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was craeted by order of the Voivodship People’s
Council (Nr. XIII/89/83) on 23 March 1983 (on the same date that three other landscape parks
were created in the Chelm voivodship, namely Poleski PK, Chelmski PK and Strzelecki Pk).
Area 19,000ha including a protective buffer zone of 9,000ha
Land Tenure A mixture of state-owned (most of the forests) and private (the majority of the
agricultural lands)
Altitude 170m (highest point in the protective buffer zone is 187m)
Physical Features The area is a low-lying sandy and forested flood plain of the river Bug and
its associated tributaries together forming a western extension of the Pripet Marshes. It
consists of sand islands in an expanse of clay soils and the landscape is one of shallow
expansive valleys and low undulating moraine uplifts. The landscape is typical of the Polesie
lowlands charaterized by infertile soils and waterlogged terrain.
Climate A continental climate predominates with long summer and winter periods (105 and
110 days respectively). The average annual temperature is 7° C. rising in July to an average of
18.5°C and falling in January to an average of -4°C. Annual average rainfall is 450mm.
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Vegetation Forests cover 11,200ha, agricultural land 5,200ha and water bodies 660ha. The
woodland is part of the larger Sobiborski Forest which is mixed, (with alder Alnus glutinosus),
but with pine Pinus sp. dominant. The forests are generally waterlogged with small forest
lakes. There are rare plant associations particularly surrounding the 14ha Plotycze Lake.
Fauna Larger mammals include wild boar Sus scrofa, fallow deer Dama dama, elk Alces alces
and otter Lutra lutra. Wolves Canis lupus are also recorded regularly. There are a number of
rare breeding bird species especially amongst the raptors with such species as lesser spotted
eagle Aquila pomarina, short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus and eagle owl Bubo bubo, as well as
crane Grus grus. Of great interest is the large resident population of European pond
terrapins Emys orbicularis with colonies present on the Koseniec Lake, Tarasinka river, Zlobek
marshes, Orchowe Lake and six other sites.
Cultural Heritage The main feature of the area are the remains of the Sobibor World War II
Nazi concentration camp where between March 1942 and October 1943 250,000 people were
murdered. This camp was the scene in October 1943 of the only successful uprising staged in
any camp in occupied Poland. The site today is woodland and its past history is
commemorated with a simple monument.
Local Human Population Within the protected landscape there are three small villages -
Sobibor, Zlobek and Orowa. The nearest town is Wlodawa with a population of 11,200. The
42ha Brudno Lake is used as a commercial fish farm and the non-forested areas are largely
pastures and hay meadows.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The area is remote and sparsely populated but is part of the
Wlodawa-Leczynska Lake District which is becoming a popular water-based recreation and
tourist destination. The nearest hotels and camping accommodations are at Wlodawa.
Scientific Research and Facilities During the years 1979 to 1984 the Ornithological Circle of
the Forestry Institute SGGW-AR in Warsaw carried out research (with special reference to
waterfowl populations and breeding raptors) in the area.
Conservation Management The protected landscape is surrounded by a protective buffer zone
and by an area of protected landscape which is continuous with that surrounding the 27,500ha
Poleski PK to the west. Within the protected landscape there is one peatbog nature reserve,
Brudzieniec. There are plans to set aside a special fauna reserve for the protection of the
European pond terrapin colony on the Koseniec Lake.
Management Problems There have been extensive drainage and agricultural intensification
programmes in operation in the flooded meadowland and peatbogs further to the west, but this
processs has as yet not affected the protected landscape area. There is a railway line from
Chelm to Wlodawa which runs along the eastern edge of the area and may be used for
industrial purposes in view of the fact that there is an estimated 40 thousand million tons of
coal deposits 900m below the surface. These are as yet unexploited. The major threat is the
conversion of natural forest types to commercial operations and monocultures of pine Pinus sp.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Gadomska, G. (1979). Pojezierze Leczynsko-Wlodawskie. PPWK. Warszawa.
° Wasiak, M. and Keller, M. (1985). Zolw blotny Emys oricularis w Sobiborskim Parku
Krajobrazowym i aktualne problemy jego ochrony. Chronmy Przyrode Ojczysta. R.4l.
No.5. Pp 63-66.
Date August 1987
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Tucholski PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.11.05 (Middle European Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in the voivodship of Bydgoszcz, part of the Bory Tucholski,
to the west of the river Vistula and some 40km due north of Bydgoszcz and 90km south-west
of Gdansk. The Park lies along and to the immediate east of the Brda river valley, with the
nearest town being Tuchola. 53°45’N, 17°50°E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was created by order of the Voivodship People’s
Council (Nr. IX/71/85) on 9 December 1985, as "an area with enhanced protection of certain
natural, landscape and cultural values". The Park and its buffer zone lie within 23 rural
authorities in seven districts - Czersk, Chojnice, Cekcyn, Gostycyn, Lubiewo, Sliwice and
Tuchola.
Area 52,929ha, including a buffer zone of 15,946ha.
Land Tenure No information.
Altitude No information.
Physical Features Situated in the central part of the Bory Tucholski, north-south along the
Brda river valley in the Krainy Wielkopolsko-Pomorski. The Brda river is the major source of
water supply to the town of Bydgoszcz (the ninth largest in Poland). Below the confluence of
the river Bielska Struga, the rate of fall in the river increases significantly and the river valley
becomes narrow, deeply cut and canyon-like near Pieklo, where the river contains boulders
which break the surface of the river. Within the park boundary there are 35 lakes (covering
8,233ha) with a further 26 in the buffer zone (covering 648ha). There are scattered erratic
boulders, one which attains a circumference of 7m.
Climate The climate is characteristic of the pine forest areas of northern Poland and is
unaffected by urban and industrial pollutants.
Vegetation Forests cover 37,729ha, agricultural land 10,965ha and water bodies 1,47\ha,
(2.8% of the park area). Agricultural lands occupy 20.7%, but are mostly located in the buffer
zone. Although 71.3% of the park is in forest cover only small areas of natural forest remain.
Habitats which are in the most natural state include water, peat and marsh pioneer vegetation
(on forested sand dunes), relict glacial species and steppe species. The flora is young and is
diversified due to the positioning of the biogeographical position of the park. The forests
consist of pine Pinus sylvestris and birch Betula sp. with an understorey of juniper Juniper
communis and barberry Barberis vulgaris. Not so widespread are forest types such as mixed,
dry and flooded woodlands and rarer types of woodland are found in river valleys and along
lake shores. The richest are oak-lime-hornbeam Quercus-Tilia-Carpinus combination as well
as alder Alnus glutinosus complexes. One of the nature reserves, Ustronie, consists of a
hornbeam Carpinus betulus wood with service tree Sorbus torminalis mix. However, the
dominant forest cover is a monoculture of pine Pinus sp. resulting from a 250 year period of
commercial forestry operations, but nevertheless the area remains one of the largest continuous
complexes of forest left in Poland.
Fauna The area has a rich faunal component including, amongst the birds, black stork Ciconia
nigra, eagle owl Bubo bubo and osprey Pandion haliaetus. Mammals include red deer, fallow
deer, wild boar, pine marten, fox, badger (Cervus elaphus, Dama dama, Sus scrofa, Martes
martes, Vulpes vulpes, Meles meles) and others.
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Cultural Heritage The opening of the park, which gives protection to the core of the forested
Bory Tucholskie, was planned to coincide with the 750th anniversary celebrations of the
Tucholi town and 50th anniversary of the death of a local artist Leon Wyczolkowski. The
forest is crossed by the route taken by Napoleon on his march to Moscow. There are a number
of ethnographic objects, such as the traditional rural buildings and a small country mansion
(Janta-Polczynski) from the end of the 18th century, as well as the remains of earthworks from
the Middle Ages.
Local Human Population Within the Park there is one village, Legbad, and seven others
around the boundary as well as one town, Tucholas.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The Bory Tucholskie have traditionally been a
recreation-excursion area and are being promoted for particular types of tourism, such as
canoeing. The park lies within the designated Eastern-Pomoranian tourist region defined in
the national spatial management plans for tourism till 1990.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information.
Conservation Management The landscape Park is linked in a system with areas of protected
landscape (APL) to other landscape parks such as the projected Chojnicki Landscape Park to
the north, via the APL Jeziora Koronowski and Dolina Brdy, as well as links with the Vistula
river valley and the Bydgosko-Torunski uplands. Within the landscape Park there are five
nature reserves, two forest reserves (one peatbog and two lakes). There are plans to create two
further reserves, one peatbog and one forest, as well as two large landscape parks, each
projected to cover 1,500ha. As yet there is no formally adopted spatial management plan but
the proposals are to have local tourist and recreation developments within the buffer zone
surrounding the park with a carrying capacity fixed at 1,800-2,000 persons in the park per day
in the summer and a further 2,000 in the buffer zone. Six areas have been delimited for
intensive development of tourism infrastructure, four are in the buffer zone and one on the
edge of the Park.
Management Problems The area has had over 250 years of man-influenced activity, and much
of the broadleaved woodland has been removed and replaced by meadowlands and agricultural
land or by monocultured plantations of pine. There is an increasing tendency for the
construction of second (holiday) homes within the park, often illegally.
Staff No information.
Budget No information.
Local Administration The Park and its buffer zone are administered by the sub-forestry
offices of Czersk, Rytel, Tuchola and Zamrzenica, all under the control of the OZLP (Forestry
Office) in Torun.
References
° Szezesny, J. (1986). Tucholski Park Krajobrazowy. Przyroda Polska 6. Pp 18-20.
° Tylzanowski, T. (undated). Charakterystyka Tucholskiego Parku Krajobrazowego Pp 18-34.
Unpublished document.
Date August 1987
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Wdzydzki PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.11.05 (Middle European Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in the Voivodship of Gdansk in the Kaszubian Lake District
of the Pomeranian Lake Region, centred on the Wdzydzke Lake, 10km south of Koscierzyna
and 60km south-west of Gdansk. It lies in the communes of Dziemiany-Lipusz, Koscierzyna
and Stara Kiszewa. 55°55’N_ 17°5S0°E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was created by order of the Voivodship People’s
Council (Nr. XIX/83/83) on 15 June 1983.
Area 17,650ha
Land Tenure A mixture of state-owned forests and private agricultural holdings
Altitude 100-200m
Physical Features The area is cented around the Wdzydzke Lake, its rivers and on parts of
the extensive Bory Tucholskie on outwash deposits laid down by the last Baltic glaciation. The
main deposits are of Pomeranian sands overlaying clay formations. The other
geomorphological features of the area are the post-glacial gullies with, for example, the
Wdzydzke Lake lying at the junction of two such structures. Other gullies have resulted in the
formation of lakes at Golun, Rodolne, Slupinko and Jelenic. Wdzydzke Lake is 14.2 sq.km. is
area with a maximum depth of 68m.
Climate The area is characterized by a cool, late and predominately dry spring with sharp
frosts lasting till early June. The summer is marked by high rainfall. The autumn is long and
warm and the winters harsh with a heavy snow cover.
Vegetation Forests cover 11,170ha, agricultural land 3,920ha and water bodies 1,915ha. The
area represents the north-western extent of the pine Pinus sp. dominated Bory Tucholskie with
some 63% of the area covered by forests. Nearly 99% of the trees are pine, the remainder
being birch Betula sp. with small patches of oak Quercus sp. and beech Fagus sylvatica which
occur on the clay outliers. The richest flora is associated with the rivers and lakes.
Fauna Breeding bird species include the eagle owl Bubo bubo,'white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus
albicilla, crane Grus grus and capercaillie Tetrao urogallus while the peregrine Falco peregrinus
occurs on passage only. Mammals recorded include red deer, roe deer, wild boar, fox and pine
marten (Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus, Sus scrofa, Vulpes vulpes and Martes martes).
The beaver Castor fiber although previously present in the area has now disappeared. The
most interesting species occurring is the European pond terrapin Emys orbicularis. There is
also an endemic variety of the fish species Salmo trutta which is restricted to the Wdzydzke
Lake.
Cultural Heritage Within the protected landscape there is a Kaszubian Ethnographic Park and
the area as a whole has a major element of traditional architectural design and rural style
buildings.
Local Human Population Within the protected landscape area there are six villages (Loryniec,
Wszki, Wdzyzde, Wdzydze Tucholskie, Wdzydze Kiszewska and Piechawiec) and just beyond its
western boundary is the larger village of Dziemiany and to the south the town of Wiele. The
area is sparsely populated with a density of 22 persons per square kilometre.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a museum "Chata Kaszubska" in the village of
Wdzydze Kiszewska (itself a typical fishing settlement) created in 1907 as well as many cultural
and architectural monuments. The Kaszubian Ethnographic Park is situated between the Golun
Lake and the road and covers 12.5ha. Here a skansen is to be constructed consisting of 40 or
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so typical Kaszubian dwellings in a village layout of larger and smaller lanes and paths. It will
include a blacksmith’s workshop 165 years old, a minor gentry’s house from the 18th century
and an 18th century manor as well as working mills and a wooden church. It is intended that
the skansen will be a living musuem. The main recreation and tourist attractions are at present
located in the northern and eastern sections of the park on the shores of Golun Lake.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management’ The protected landscape has no protective buffer zone nor is it
surrounded by an area of protected landscape. There are no nature reserves within the site.
The voivodship authorities passed a decree on the 22 June 1976 (Nr. 2) which declared a zone
of quiet extending for 500m around the edges of the Wdzydzke Lake. A spatial management
plan has been prepared which envisages the creation of a protective buffer zone.
Management Problems _ In previous times the percentage of broadleaved woodland cover was
greater than it is now, this reduction being caused by systematic felling and replacement by
monocultured pine as part of a commercial forestry operation.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration Inspector of Forestry and Nature Protection, Environmental
Conservation Directorate, Voivodship Committee, Gdansk
References
° Sikora, A. (1983). Wdzydzki Park Krajobrazowy. Przyroda Polska. No. 11 Pp 24-27.
Date August 1987
Zaleczanski PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.11.05 (Middle European Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in the voivodship of Sieradz, on either side of the valley of
the river Warta, between Dzialoszyn and Krzeczow, 30km_ north-west of Czestochowa and
40km due south of Sieradz. The area lies at the northern end of the Jurajski Uplands and is
contained in the communes of Wierzchlas, Putnow and Dzialoszyn. 51° 05’ N 18° 20’ E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was created by order of the Voivodship People’s
Council (Nr. XIII/50/78) on 5 January 1978.
Area 14,278ha including the protective buffer zone of 7,172ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 162m to the highest point at 246m
Physical Features The site occupies some of the most valuable sections of the Warta river
valley and the limestone and karst features of the Jurajski Uplands. It is at this point that the
river Warta creates a gap (40km long) between the Wielunskie Uplands and the Malopolskie
Uplands marked by steep cliffs and terraces (up to 60m high). The relief of the area has been
shaped by the Riss glaciation-Warta stage which has been remodelled by the last interglacial
period and the Wurm glaciation. A major feature here are the limestone exposures and the
cliffs as well as isolated limestone peaks (numbering eight in total) and limestone ridges. There
are also post-glacial deposits with sand and gravel substrates, a number of erratic boulders and
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at least 15 distinct caves and cave systems. The latter contain Pliocene fossils of over 100
species, 4-3 million years old. The river Warta which is mature in structure as exemplified by
the presence of meanders, islands and ox-bows, has only tributary streams entering it from the
west and south. On the east side of the river there is a lack of flowing water. Some of the side
tributaries flow partially underground to emerge in the form of springs.
Climate The area experiences a favourable local climate.
Vegetation Forests cover 7,042ha, agricultural land 6,664ha and water bodies 256ha. The site
is dominated by pine Pinus sp. and is noted for the occurrence of rare species. The total
number of species recorded is 1,100 and includes the following protected species: ivy,
club-moss, water lily, house leek, Martagon lily, alder buckthorn, wayfaring tree, Labrador
tea, bearberry, helichrysum, lily of the valley (Hedera helix, Lycopodium sp., Nuphar luteum,
Sempervivum tectorum, Lilium martagon, Frangula alnus, Viburnum opulus, Ledum palustre,
Arctostaphylos sp., Helichrysum arenarium, Convallaria majalis) and Cetraria islandica. The
main habitat types present are limestone outcrops, water areas including the river, peatbogs,
grasslands (of the saxicolous and psammophilous variety) and forests. The latter are the most
highly altered by man’s activities with the remaining natural associations being characterized
by the presence of oak Quercus sp., alder Alnus glutinosus, ash Fraxinus excelsior and in the
northern sectors by beech Fagus sylvatica, fir Abies sp. and spruce Picea sp.
Fauna. There is a rich assemblage of species most notable being certain mollusc species (for
example, Pyramidula rupestris) which are present here at their extreme northern limit, this also
being true for the butterfly Paplion sp. Mammal species present include the hamster Cricetus
cricetus, eastern hedgehog Erinaceus concolor, red deer Cervus elaphus and wild boar Sus
scrofa. Of the 116 bird species recorded breeding birds include kingfisher, penduline tit, black
grouse, hazel hen and black stork (Alcedo atthis, Remiz pendulinus, Lyrurus tetrix, Tetrastes
bonasia and Ciconia nigra). The rivers contain Barbus sp., Chondrostoma nasus and Squalius
sephalus.
Cultural Heritage At least two tumuli have been identified and a settlement dating from
Roman times. There are a number of ethnic wooden cottages and a wooden church at
Bobrowinki, as well as water-mills in four separate places. Traces of primitive artifacts have
been unearthed at a number of sites in the area.
Local Human Population Within the protected landscape there are nine villages the largest
being Zalecze Wielkie and Bobrowniki. All but one of these is situated along the river Warta.
The nearest sizable urban centre is Wielun, some 10km to the north-west. The area is sparsely
populated with a density of 32 persons per square kilometre.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The area is a major recreation and health resort locality largely
due to the favourable climate. There is one tourist hotel in the area at Krzeczow in the north
and four educational-recreation centres. At present there are four sign-posted trails through
the protected landscape two of which are long-distance footpaths - one tracing the Jujarski
Uplands and the other the Warta Gorge. Canoeing takes place on the river and there are a
number of view points. The area is used for ecological training by members of the Polish
Pathfinder’s Association which has its field station and training centre in the park.
Scientific Research and Facilities The Voivodship Nature Conservation Office in Sieradz in
collaboration with the University of Lodz carried out a series of detailed inventories in the
protected landscape between 1976 and 1981. This work also included research into the
utilization of the area, the definition of its boundaries and its future economic development.
Conservation Management The site is completely surrounded by a protective buffer zone and
contains two nature reserves, Dabrowa w Nizankowicach and the smaller Weze, as well as one
natural monument. Ten other natural monuments are due to be placed under protection. A
spatial management plan has been prepared.
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Management Problems Mineral exploitation continues to take place in the proitective buffer
zone but is limited to local needs. This activity includes the extraction of limestone, gravel and
sand.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration Director of Environment Protection Department, Voivodship
Administrative Office, Sieradz.
References
° Czyzewska, K. and Olaczek, R. (1986). Zaleczanski Park Krajobrazowy. Dokumentacja
stanu _srodowiska __ przyrodniczego i kulturowego dla __ potrzeb ochrony i
zagospodarowania. Czesc I. Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Sozologica 2. Lodz.
° Czyzewska, K. and Olaczek, R. (undated). Zaleczanski Park Krajobrazowy. Polskie
Towarzystwo Turystyczno-Krajoznawcze.
° Nikoleizig, H and Psujowa, B. (undated). Ochrona Przyroda w_ Polsce. PPWK
Warszawa-Wroclaw.
Date August 1987
Zespol Parkow Ponidzia PK
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.11.05 (Middle European Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in the voivodship of Kielce in three separate but parallel
belts, the largest extending some 35km along the river Nida between its confluence with the
river Vistula in the south and Pinczow in the north. The area lies 50km north-east of Krakow
and 40km due south of Kielce. 50° 20’N 20° 35’E
Date and History of Establishment No information
Area 82,647ha including the protective buffer zone of 42,772ha
Land Tenure The forests are state-owned whilst the agricultural areas are predominately
private
Altitude Between 100 and 200m
Physical Features The area is at the junction of at least seven different physio-geographical
units: Nida valley, Jedrzejowska plateau, Wodzislawski heights, Proszowice plateau, Polaniecka
syncline, Pinczowski heights and the Suolecka syncline, resulting in a diverse landscape
surface. The major feature is, however, the 2-4km wide valley of the river Nida, which
strongly meanders, has extensive shoals, cliffs and ox-bows. The best remaining examples of
natura! landscape are in the sections between Chroberzem and Nieprowicami and between
Wislica and Czarkowami. On the right-hand bank slopes of the valley there are extensive areas
of loess deposits on the Proszowice plateau which is cut by deep ravines, gullies and dry
valleys. In the centre of the area there are stratum of gypsum (a unique feature for the
country as a whole) which form a bedrock for the karst overlays. This karst is most obvious in
the Wislica-Aleksandrow-Skorocice-Busko and the Szaniec-Galow-Unikow-Stawiany belts.
Here craters, caves, swallow-holes, pinnacles and underground lakes (such as at Sieslawicach)
and blind valleys (such as at Aleksandrowie and Skorocicach) are present. The most
characteristic features of the gypsum deposits is the occurrence of sulphur springs as at Buska
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and Solca Zdroj. The karst landscape is interrupted by abruptly rising plateaux with steeps
sides (upto 100m high) and flat tablelands. In the south-east an extensive area is covered by
glacial sands and clays interrupted by the Holocene deposits of the river Vistula.
Climate No information
Vegetation Forests cover 11,79lha (20% of the total area), agricultural land 63,674ha and
water bodies 1,013ha. The most important woodland cover is that protecting the watersheds
situated between Lubczy and Zlotej Pinczowsko and consisting largely of pine Pinus sp. and
alder Alnus glutinosus. Other imnportant forest communities include those of ancient woodland
situated at Gary near Mlodzaw Polichna and Wola Chraberskie. Near Sadek there are remains
of mixed oak Quercus sp. and pine forest. The chief element in the parks, however, are
meadows which are located on the karst plateaux as well as in the valleys. The plant
communities are unique for the country and are composed of Carex sp., Epipactis sp., Lotus
sp., Eriophorum sp., Orchidaceae (of several species) and the moss Ctenidium molluscum. The
most important flora is located on the karst and gypsum slopes of the valley where xerophytic
associations occur including Serratula lycopifolia (the only station in Poland), Lathyrus
pannonicus (the only station for this species in Poland), Lathyrus latifolius, Ranunculus
illyricus, Sisymbrium polymorphum, Arabis auriculata, Carlina onopordifolia and Reseda
phyteumas.
Fauna. There is a rich entomological fauna especially on the xerothermic habitats where a
number of southern warmth-loving species occur such as Cicadetta adusta and Dorcadion
scopolii as well as rare Diptera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera and butterflies many of which occur
only here in the Nida valley. The avifauna is rich in breeding species especially amongst water
and wetland birds and raptors and includes grey heron, black stork, white stork, bittern,
short-eared owl, black-tailed godwit, redshank and snipe (Ardea cinerea, Ciconia nigra,
C. ciconia, Botaurus stellaris, Asio flammeus, Limosa limosa, Tringa totanus and Gallinago
gallinago). Of prime importance is the colony of recently established night herons Nycticorax
nycticorax. Passage birds include the kingfisher Alcedo atthis and the _ red-crested
pochard Netta rufina. Mammals include red deer Cervus elaphus, fallow deer Dama dama,
wild boar Sus scrofa and fox Vulpes vulpes.
Cultural Heritage There are archaeological remains at Wislicy, Zlota Pinczowka, Swiniar and
Szczawocyza. There are urban architectural monuments in five places, manorial estates in three
places and rural architectural remains in a further three localities. Several original functioning
wooden water mills remain and almost every crossroads has 18th and 19th century religious
monuments.
Local Human Population The area is sparsely populated but contains seven villages and two
small towns, Pincow and Busko-Zdroj.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The medicinal value of the sulphur springs at Busko and Solca
Zdroju are a major attraction as is the famous stud farm at Michalowie.
Scientific Research and Facilities The Voivodship Office of Nature Conservation at Kielce in
collaboration with the Department of Spatial Planning and Environmental Protection of the
Institute of Environment Management in Lublin has carried out detailed research on the
establishment and management of the protected landscape.
Conservation Management This is the most recent of Poland’s landscape parks to be created
and there are plans to increase the area to 95,450ha including a protective buffer zone of
64,000ha. The area is completely surrounded by an area of protected landscape and contains at
least 10 nature reserves (two botanical, one protecting halophytic species and seven steppe
habitats). The most important parts of the xerophytic habitats are included in these reserves,
the best example being in the Skorocice reserve which also exhibits gypsum outcrops.
Management Problems There are threats to the site from increased mechanization of
agriculture and increased urbanization.
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Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration Voivodship Nature Conservation Office in Kielce
References
° Chmielewski, T., Stochlak, J., Turska, A. and Wojciak, J. (1985). Ponidzie. Przyroda
Polska. No.5/6. Pp.34-36.
Date August 1987
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SPAIN
Area 504,750 sq.km (including Balearic and Canary Islands)
492,592 sq.km (continental Spain)
497,477 sq.km (continental Spain and Balearctic Islands)
Population 38.22 million (1983)
36.78 million (excluding Canary Islands)
Parks and Reserves Legislation The new Constitution came into force on 29 December 1978.
This established a semi-federal system of regional administration with the autonomous
community as its basic element. There are 17 autonomous communities, each having a
Parliament and regional government (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980). The Constitution
envisages much of the control which used to be central, being delegated to the regions. Article
45 Chapter III entitled "Guidelines for Social and Economic Policy" embodies principles of
conservation including rational use of resources and protection and the restoration of the
environment, and a link between regions and between the local populations (Poore and
Gryn-Ambroes, 1980). The earliest environmental Decree dates back to 1837 when the
General Directorate of Mountains was established (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980). In 1859,
a Catalogue of Mountains for Public Utility was created; it listed a total of 6,755,280ha of land
and these areas enjoyed legal protection with proper management (Rodriguez, 1985). The
Mountains Directorate was extended to cover fishing and hunting in 1928 and was incorporated
in 1931 into the Ministry of Agriculture (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980).
On 7 December 1916 a General Law of National Parks was passed and was completed by Royal
Decree 23 February 1917 (Saussey, 1980), which allowed the creation of two national parks in
1918 (Duffey,1982; Rodriguez, 1985). The first defined national parks were controlled by the
Ministry of Works in agreement with the owners (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980). In total
five national parks were created under this Act. This was followed by a law of 13 May 1933
governing the protection of sites of historical and archaeological interest (IUCN, 1987).
In the period between 1941 and 1971, some eight laws related to mountains and reafforestation
and five relating to hunting had been enacted (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980). The 1916 law
remained valid until 1957 when a law of the mountains was drafted. The Act and its
Regulations (1962) contain two chapters referring to national parks. These include details on
protection, establishment by decree, conservation, expropriation, violation and finance
(Rodriguez, 1985).
The 1957 Act also defined "natural sites of national interest" and "natural monuments of
national interest". Such sites were to be promulgated by Ministerial decree (practised since
1920). In 1971 the institutional administration of the Ministry of Agriculture was amended by
Decree 28 to establish a National Institute for Nature Conservation (ICONA).
In the period 1971-74, three more laws were enacted concerning forest fires and hunting
reserves (included 2nd National Hunting Reserves Act (1973) and Hunting Reserves
Regulations (1974)). On 15 May 1975 the National Areas Protection Law was passed with
enabling Regulations on 4 March 1977. The existing protected areas were reclassified and
given legal status. Regulations introduced on 4 March 1977 provided for protection of four
categories of open space: reserves of scientific interest; national parks; natural sites of national
interest and natural parks (the first three to be created by law, the last by the state or private
parties by Decree). Precise protection measures were, however, not defined. Some clauses
dealing with the creation of buffer zones, by expropriation of privately owned land, were not
accepted.
The re-classification of national parks provided an opportunity to extend existing park areas
(from some 90,000 to 156,000ha) but as a consequence required legal provisions with the Status
of Bills to be submitted to the Cortes for approval. By 1985, eight of the nine national parks
had been approved (Rodriguez, 1985).
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The policy of the Directorate of Mountains over the last 100 years had provided a balance
between constant afforestation, maximized production, adequate provision of pasture land,
hunting, fishing and recreation (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980), but prior to the formation of
ICONA there were apparently no laws specifically related to nature conservation (IUCN,
1987). The law of May 1975 remains today the legal instrument for the declaration and
management of protected areas (Rodriguez, 1985). Proposed new areas have studies carried
out, after which consultations are held with government services and with the national advisory
body, this being the Inter-Ministerial Commission for the Environment. Public participation
and consultation is allowed for in the legislation, when the protected area relates to the public
(Art. 8.2). In the case of communal properties and certain mountainous regions called "montes
de comun de vecinos" surveys are organised. The law also explicitly provides for the
consultation of various professional organisations (corporations, farmers) as well as scientific
bodies. For the declaration of strict nature reserves (on the orders of the Ministry of
Agriculture) a report must be prepared by a higher scientific body attached to the Institute of
Spain and other research centres (Art. 8.3).
Compensation may be direct (Art. 14) or by the participation of the local population in the
benefits of the protected area, such as a share in the produce of the park. The law does
provide tax exemption and relief to owners of land enclosed in protected areas. It has been
proposed that protected areas crossed by national borders ought to have bipartite international
commissions set up.
The May 1975 law forms the basis of operations and provides for Boards, planning and
regional zoning. It establishes areas of protection classified by the competent authorities as
specially protected non-urbanised ground where only traditional uses and exploitation
compatible with the parks’ objectives are allowed. New activities require the prior approval of
the Board. There are also socio-economic influence zones set up around each national park in
order to link the park with the local population, to maintain traditional activities, population
levels, and rational use of resources (Rodriguez, 1985). The 1975 Law Article 12 provides for
the creation of natural parks.
Natural sites of national interest are more concerned with landscape protection and traditional
land use than with wildlife protection. At present there are no legal categories for managed
nature reserves (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980). National hunting reserves are covered by
the Hunting Reserves legislation (Act 37/1966, and Act 2/1973) as areas for the utilisation of
wild fauna. Hunting is authorised in these areas, but control has been very strict and the
legislation is aimed at habitat protection and game conservation (IUCN, 1987).
Faunal sanctuaries can be enacted under Article 11 and 12 of the Hunting Act and regulations,
after proposals of the Ministry of Agriculture (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980) but in general
the legislation omits effective protection of fauna and wetlands. Although wetlands are not
specifically protected, a Wetlands Working Group, comprising ICONA, the Spanish
Environmental Committee and others has been set up. The existing texts do not mention
extension of protected areas to marine areas.
Two further Acts are envisaged: The Environmental Act and the Natural Heritage Conservation
and Restoration Act. The former would give a basis to environmental policy guidelines,
assistance to development policies, laws and regulations and for the creation of managed nature
reserves; the latter would provide a legal basis for ICONA and for the implementation of its
nature protection policies. Both these Bills were still in the drafting stage in 1985 (ICBP, 1985;
Medina, 1977; ICONA, 1984). ‘
The World Heritage Convention was acceded to on 4 May 1982. The Ramsar Wetlands
Convention accession was on 4 May 1982 with extra sites added on 8 August 1983.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management The body responsible for administration
is the National Institute for the Conservation of Nature (ICONA). This body was set up in
1971 as an amendment to the Institutional Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture
(Decree law 28 October 1971)(Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980). Its functions include
renewable resource use and maintenace of ecological balance, creation and administration of
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national parks, sites of national interest, development and exploitation of inland fishing and
hunting assets. Prior to 1971, nature conservation was administered by a series of bodies. In
1837 the responsibility was with the General Directorate of Mountains. In 1928 the Directorate
in the Ministry of Public Works became responsible for fishing and hunting. In 1931, the
Directorate of Mountains, Hunting and River Fishing became part of the Ministry of
Agriculture where it remained until 1971. In 1939 the Ministry of Agriculture was reorganized
and everything to do with river fishing, hunting and national parks became its responsibility
(Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980).
The ICONA (set up after pressure from a number of ecological groups) consists of a central
service and provincial network. The central service comprises general Secretariat and four
Divisions. Two of these are concerned with fire, ecology and administration and two with
nature protection (National Forests) and renewable natural resources, respectively (Duffey,
1982). The latter is responsible for national parks, reserves, hunting grounds, fishing,
protection of mountains, fauna and organisation of natural areas, and is itself divided into two
services: game; and parks and reserves. The peripheral services are undertaken by 11 regional
inspectorates and 50 provincial services. Each consists of a manager and a number of senior
and middle grade technicians and a mobile corps (ICBP, 1985).
Prior to ICONA’s establishment national parks were administered by the Forestry
Administration . There was no management planning in national parks prior to the 1975 Act,
activities being limited to maintenance and supervision. The Policy is now to gradually acquire
lands constituting parks, or failing this to enter into use arrangements with the owners. Master
plans are to be set up and developments regulated according to this. The plan is envisaged to
cover a number of points including general organizational guidelines, carrying capacity
standards, zonation plans, rules and sanctions, ecological research plan, environmental
education and recreation, historical physical and administrative plans and a park resources
study plan. The plans are valid for four years, after which time they may be revised. ICONA
is responsible for plan preparations, followed by public approval and provisional acceptance by
the Parks Board before the final approval by the Government.
Special plans help to implement rules and regulations of the Main Plan which must have the
approval of the Board. Such plans include the elimination of exploitation processes from
national parks, the formulation of management activities and research to maintain existing
biological equilibrium and the organisation of visitor interpretation and education facilities
(Rodriguez, 1985).
There are conservation managers in charge of each national park and natural area. Each
manager has a team of up to ten specialist and outside researchers (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes,
1980). The Royal Decree establishing natural parks also directed ICONA to draw up formats
for park plans (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980). To collaborate with ICONA, national parks
have Boards whilst the natural parks have a Directory Commission in which all interests are
represented (Rodriguez, 1985). The objectives of the national park board are numerous but
include promotion of national park interests, financial administration, plan and management
provision, annual report submission to the Director of ICONA, approval of special plans
(Article 7), delegate functions to People’s Commission and modify internal park regulations
(Rodriguez, 1985).
For the socio-economic influence zone, a budget is proposed and the municipalities submit
requirements. The Board identifies priorities, submits this to ICONA and releases the funds.
Although the administration in national parks is centralized, local representation is still allowed
but is limited to submitting opinions which have no legal means of enforcement (Saussey, 1980).
Individual compensation exists as indemnification when property is expropriated. This may
consist of a payment in cash or may be rendered in its entirety (Article 14 per 1 and 3). Only
a minimal percentage of lands in a natural state are on state property; a greater percentage
belongs to the City Governments while the rest is private (Rodriguez, 1985).
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With increased regionalisation, the balance of activities within the national organizations is
likely to change to some extent and due to changes in the 1978 Constitution, 17 Autonomous
Communities will be created with powers to propose new criteria for protected area designation
(Rodriguez, 1985). However, it is envisaged that there will be a new "central entity" which will
act towards coordination and cooperation, planning information and specialised support
(ICONA, 1984).
The Autonomous Communities will be based on natural geographical regions and will be
responsible for environmental protection, fishing, hunting, public monuments, tourism and
recreation. The national parks are under central administration whilst natural parks may be
established by regions without enactment of the Natural Heritage Conservation and Restoration
Act. In the first instance and until such time as the Communities have trained staff and funds,
the regional service of ICONA will continue to be responsible (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes,
1980). Marine protected areas come under the Ministry of Agriculture and are managed
through ICONA. Protected areas established on state land are administered by ICONA but
Article 10 does provide for a management body in each protected area.
Addresses
° National Institute for Nature Conservation, Instituto Nacional para la Conservacion de la
Naturaleza (ICONA), Subdireccién general de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Gran Via de
San Francisco 35, Madrid
° Spanish-WWF, Asociacion Defensa de la Naturaleza (ADENA), Santa Engarcia 6, Madrid
° Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), Serrano 117, Madrid
° Consejo de Pesca Continental Caza y Parques Nacionales, General Sanjurjo 47-30, Madrid 3
Additional Information Protected areas include five national parks (four more in the
Canaries), 19 Natural Sites of National Interest, one Natural park and 36 National Game
Reserves. According to ICONA (1984) the nine national parks cover 123,000ha, and the
reserves and national game preserves 1,650,000ha.
The Superior Council for Scientific Investigations (CSIC) is the main state research
organization, which has a scientific advisory committee for nature protection. It is also
responsible for the biological station and integral reserves of the Marismas. Work on a
National Inventory should cover 6% of the land area. Two regions have used this to set up a
network of protected areas, and two more are nearing completion. These networks cover 184
sites in 16 provinces totalling 1,093,000ha. The second phase is aimed at covering the
remaining 34 provinces. The target for the end of 1979 was 600 sites covering 3,000,000ha.
Public support for nature conservation is low although there have been notable exceptions (first
Euorpean country to produced RDB on Lepidoptera). Voluntary bodies do exist such as the
Spanish branch of WWF (ADENA), the Spanish Association for the Mangement of the
Environment (AEORMA) and the Spanish National Ornithological Society all of which have
some influence on policy and public opinion. A growing number of regional organizations are
becoming involved in promoting protection such as the Liga per la Defensa del Patrimonio
Natural (DEPANA) whilst WWF Spain provided the idea of creating mini reserves for plants as
part of the WWF Plant Campaign.
A different approach was provided by the "European Association for Free Nature Reserves" in
1966. EUREL was originally created as a daughter organisation of WWF with the aim of
establishment of a network of "free" nature reserves. These reserves do not infringe on the
owners property rights and can be terminated at any time. There were 11 registered reserves in
1979 but by 1985 a further 13 new reserves had been established covering 1,612ha (ICBP, 1985).
Areas were also listed in the "List of Woodlands of Particular Value to the Public" under special
control of the national government and managed by the Forest Service. However, between
1947 and 1973 as much as 2.1 million ha of native forest had been felled and replaced by 1.2
million ha of eucalyptus plantation (ICBP, 1985).
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The possibility of enacting a series of protected marine areas, is being studied. ICONA has
established two marine parks, one at Cabrera Island (adminstered by military authorities) and
the other at Medas Island (local authority).
The problems encountered in creating a protected areas system are related to a number of
factors. Traditional problems include defects in the legislation and _ institutional
administration. The legislation occasionally gives rise to duplication, such that more than 30
agencies have jurisdiction over one or other aspects related to the environment and nature
(Rodriguez, 1985). The small amount of state-owned land and land ownership in general is
probably one of the major problems. Other factors are a large rural population, an agrarian
economy, lack of qualified personnel and adequate funds. Increased demand for the use of
protected areas has resulted in the creation of recreation zones.
References
° Augier, H. (1985). Protected marine areas. The example of France and appraisal and
prospects European Committee for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Strasbourg.
Aritio, L.B. (1979). Parques nacionales espaNoles. INCAFO.
Baccar, H. (1977). A Survey of Existing and Potential Marine Parks and Reserves in the
Mediterranean Region. 1\UCN-UNEP.
° Carp, E. (1980). Directory of Wetlands of International Importance in Western Palearctic.
UNEP/IUCN.
° Duffey, E. (1982). National Parks and Reserves of Western Europe. Macdonald. Macdonald
and Company, London.
° Gryn-Ambroes, P. (1980). Preliminary Annotated Lists of Existing and _ Potentially
Mediterranean Protected Areas. Y'UCN UNEP/IG.20/INF. 5. GE. 80-3092.
ICONA (1984). XVI General Assembly of the IUCN. Conservation in Spain. Summary.
ICONA (1984b). Conservacionismo en Espana. Informacion No. 3 Ambiental.
ICBP (1985). 81 Bird species in C of E countries. Draft report to Council of Europe.
ICBP (1985). Conference of the European Continental Section of ICBP. 22/23 February
1985. Unpublished manuscript.
° IUCN (1985). 1985 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
IUCN (1987). Directory of Wetlands of International Importance. TY'UCN. Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK.
Medina, F.O. (1977). Spain’s National Parks Policy. Parks (2)1: 12-14.
Ortuno, F. and Jorge de la Pena (1976). Reservas y cotos nacionales de Caza. Region
Pirenaica Vol. 1, Region Cantabrica, Vol. 2, Region Central, Vol. 3, Region Mediterranean,
Vol. 4, INCAFO, Spain.
* Poore, D. and Gryn-Ambroes, P. (1980). Nature Conservation in Northern and Western
Europe UNEP/IUCN/WWF. Gland Switzerland.
° Rodriguez, F. (1985). Administration of Protected Areas in Spain. In: Proceedings of
Twenty-fourth Working Session of Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas,
Madrid, Spain. 3-4 November 1984. IUCN, Gland.
° Saussey, Ch. du (1980). Legislation of Wildlife, Hunting and Protected Areas in some
European countries. Legislative Study No. 20. FAO, Rome.
° UNEP (1980). Survey of National Legislation Relevant to Marine and Coastal protected
areas. Report IG.20/Inf. 3.GE 80-2585 by the Legal Office of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations based on the work of Ch. du Saussay and M. Prieur.
° Wirth, H. (1979)(Ed). Nature Reserves in Europe. Edition Leipzig.
°
°
° ° ° °
°
°
°
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
Nature Parks
Cuenca Alta del Manzanares 4,304
Dehesa del Moncayo 1,389
Dels Aiguamolls de l’Emporda 4,784
Dunas de Corralejo & Islas de Lobos 2,482
Hayedo de Tejera Negra 1,391
Islas Cies 434
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Lago de Sanabria 5,027
Lagunas de Ruidera 3,750
Monfrague 17,852
Monte Alhoya 746
Monte El Valle 1,900
Sierra Espuna 9,961
Torcal de Antequera 1,200
Subtotal 55,220
Hunting Reserves
Ancares Leoneses 38,300
Mampodre 29,238
Montes Universales 59,260
Riano 73,214
Saja 180,186
Sierra de la Culebra 65,891
Sierra de la Demanda 73,819
Sonsaz 68,106
Urbion 100,023
Vinamala 49,230 *
Subtotal 737,267
Reserva de Ordesa- Vinamala
Management Category V and IX (Protected Landscape and Biosphere Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.16.06 (Iberian Highlands)
Geographical Location The reserve is situated on the southern slopes of the Central Pyrenées
adjacent to the French frontier (in the province of Huesca, north-east of Jaca).
42°30’-42°43’N, 0°07°-0°12’E.
Date and History of Establishment The Vinamala Reserve was established and protected
under Law No. 37/1966. The fauna is under special protection and the hunting of the
following species is prohibited: Lagopus mutus and Capra pyrenaica subsp. pyrenaica. The
Ordesa National Park which lies within the Vinamala Reserve and is protected by Royal Decree
of 16 August 1918, which established it as a national park. Regulations governing it were
issued in the Official Gazette of the province no. 121 of 9 October 1918. Ordesa and Vinamala
were accepted in January 1977 as a Biosphere Reserve.
Area Biosphere Reserve 51,396ha, including: National Park 15,709ha (expanded in 1978 from
2,046ha); Hunting Reserve 49,230ha
Land Tenure Mostly under public ownership
Altitude 875-3,941m
Physical Features Vinamala is extremely mountainous with an imposing massif formed by
Hertzian folds which were subsequently modified by glacial action. The scenery is spectacular
and unique. A number of rivers run through the reserve including the Ara, the Sia and the
Quas Limpias. The Ordesa valley is a canyon with vertical walls, being the result of successive
glaciations during the Quarternary period. The oldest rock formations are composed of granite
and slate; at a later date great limestone masses were formed as in the case of Monte Perdido.
It comprises the valley of the River Arazas, confluent with the River Ara at an altitude of
about 1,000m. After 10km downstream from the confluence are a large number of waterfalls,
being one of the principal attractions of the valley. The massif of Monte Perdido and the
heads of the valleys of Ordesa, Aniscola, Escuain and Pineta have been recently included in the
Park.
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Climate The mean annual rainfall is 1400mm. Snow falls during the months of November to
March, and rain in March, June, September and December.
Vegetation Distinct types of woodland depend upon the altitude. Up to 1,200m there are
mixed woodlands consisting of beech Fagus sylvatica and some conifers, pine Pinus sylvestris
being the predominant species, replaced by black mountain pine Pinus uncinata at high
altitudes up to 2,200m. The highland meadows start here, reaching up to 2,800m. Other tree
species are the ash Fraxinus sp., large-leaved lime Tilia grandifolia and grey willow Salix
cinerea. One of the most important bush species is the box Buxus sempervirens, which grows to
a height of three metres. Festuca rubra, F. eskiae, Agrostis tennuis and Trifolium montanum are
found in the upper zones (Ortuno and Pena, 1976).
Fauna The most representative species include: Spanish ibex Capra _ pyrenaica
subsp. pyrenaica (20-25 individuals), chamois Rupicapra rupicapra subsp. pyrenaica, hare,
stoat, pine marten, beech marten, weasel, otter, alpine marmot, edible dormouse, garden
dormouse and Pyrennean desman (Lepus europaeus, Mustela erminea, Martes martes, M. foina,
Mustela nivalis, Lutra lutra, Marmota marmota, Glis glis, Eliomys quercinus and Galemys
pyrenaicus) (Ortuno and Pena, 1976). Birds include rock ptarmigan, capercaillie, red-legged
partridge, grey partridge, golden eagle, peregrine falcon, goshawk, short-toed eagle, booted
eagle, and lammergeier (Lagopus mutus, Tetrao urogallus, Alectoris rufa, Perdix perdix, Aquila
chrysaetos, Falco peregrinus, Accipiter gentilis, Circaetus gallicus, Hieraaetus pennatus
and Gypaetus barbatus). Also recorded are swift, chough, jay (Apus apus, Pyrrhocorax
pyrrhocorax, Garrulus glandarius), a number of woodpecker species, short-toed treecreeper,
rock nuthatch, rock sparrow, marsh tit, kingfisher (Certhia brachydactyla, Sitta neumayer,
Petronia petronia, Parus palustris, Alcedo atthis) and the dipper Cinclus cinclus which frequent
the watercourses (Ortuno and Pena, 1976).
Cultural Heritage The reserve is located in a remote and isolated part of Spain where the
people speak Aragonese, Castillian and an additional local dialect. Contact with the outside
world is limited which, combined with the austere environment, has given rise to a vivid
folklore tradition that is highly influenced by fear of the devil and animalism. During the
Civil War, the area was heavily garrisoned and there is still a tradition of small scale warfare
arising from disputes of ownership (Ortuno and Pena, 1976).
Local Human Population There are several towns, such as Sallent, Lanuza, Panticosa and El
Pueyo, within the reserve as well as local farming villages. The area has been settled for
hundreds of years with cattle and sheep farming providing the principal means of support.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Access to the reserve is limited by the terrain but adequate.
There are numerous hotels and simpler forms of accomodation (Ortuno and Pena, 1976).
Scientific Research and Facilities _ There are inventories of fauna and flora, plus ongoing
studies on the control and monitoring of fauna and vegetation as well as changes caused by
public use. The creation of a support centre to assist with scientific field work and a basic
laboratory for the collection, preparation and conservation of biological material, is foreseen
(Fernandez Reyes, 1965; Ortuno and Pena 1976).
Conservation Management The entire area is largely the result of man’s past activities,
including livestock herding and forestry. There are various commons or "facerias" used for
pasture land by neighbouring villages, including the area between the Tema and Ossau valleys
and the Tema-Azun faceria. Access to certain areas is strictly controlled to avoid disturbing
the chamois. The populations of ibex have been culled locally. The fauna is fully protected
and hunting of all species is prohibited. The flora is also protected and the gathering of plants
is prohibited on most of the mountains and municipal lands governed by the local government
law and by the law on mountains. Four zones are recognised: managed reserve zone;
intermediate zone; extensive use zone; and service zone. Only selected species are permitted to
be hunted within the reserve (Ortuno and Pena, 1976).
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Management Problems’ Electrical low-tension and high-tension lines, water pipelines for
power stations, and the dams of Sarra and Arrieles lie within the reserve. It also includes the
towns of Respumoso, Bachimana Alto and Bajo, as well as two railways. The Ana-Mari mine
has a mining concession in the municipality of Lanuza. Great pressure is also caused by
excessive demand for tourism in the highlands (Ortuno and Pena, 1976).
Staff Director of conservation, conservation manager, chief interpreter, forest technical
engineer, chief of management, forest wardens
Budget 37,000,000 pesetas
Local Administration Servicio Provincial of ICONA, General de las Heras 8, Huesca
References
° Fernandez Reyes, J. (1965). Parque Nacional de Ordesa. Ministerio de Agricultura.
° Gomez Llarena, J. (1936) Algunos datos sobre el glaciar actual del Monte Perdido. Boletin
Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural. Tomo 36.
° Hernandez Pacheco, F. and Vidal Box, C. (nd). La tectonica y la morfologia del Macizo del
Monte Perdido y de las zonas de cumbres inmediatas en el Pirineo Central.
° Ortuno, F. and de la Pena, J. (1976). Reservas y Cotos Nacionales de Caza. 1 Region
Pirenaica. INCAFO: Madrid.
Date August 1987
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UNITED KINGDOM
Lake District National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.8.5. (British Islands)
Geographical Location Lies in the administrative county of Cumbria in the north-west of
England stretching from the coast of the Irish Sea eastwards to the Vale of Eden and the
foothills of the Pennines, and is situated 15km north of Barrow-in-Furness and 15km south of
Carlisle. The national park is 50km E-W by 55km N-S centred on 54°35’N and 03°00’W.
Date and History of Establishment The area was designated as a national park in 1951 under
the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act, 1949. In total, 17 separate and updating
legislative acts affect the national park area, the major planning controls being governed by the
Town and Country Planning Act, 1971; the Local Government Act, 1972; and the Local
Government Planning and Land Act, 1980. Further protection is afforded by a series of
special controls governing agricultural buildings and operations, road construction, forestry
operations, the use of advertisements and other restrictions. Within the park boundary there
are at present four National Nature Reserves and 79 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)
the latter designated under Section 23 of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act,
1949. Of the SSSIs 17 are over 200ha in size and there is one Local Nature Reserve managed
by the Cumbria County Council. Esthwaite is on the UK Indicative List for Ramsar site
designation but as of April 1987 was yet to be nut forward. Six monuments are under State
care under the terms of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act, 1979. Many
buildings are listed by the Department of the Environment and in October 1986 there were 27
Grade I buildings (of outstanding national importance) and 1097 Grade II or Grade II* (of
special importance). There are also 14 Conservation Areas in the park notified for villages or
towns "of special architectural or historical interest". Historic landscapes (such as ancient field
patterns) have as yet no statutory protection. The Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981)
increased the effectiveness of protection of SSSIs, introduced Limestone Pavement Orders,
obliged the National Park Authority to prepare maps of moor, heath, woodland and certain
coastal features requiring conservation action and increased control over farm capital grants
and other forms of loans.
Area The national park covers an area of 228,000ha.
Altitude From sea level on the Irish Sea coast to 978m at Scafell Pike, the highest mountain in
England.
Land Tenure Some 41.3% of the national park area is in State or National Trust ownership.
The National Park Authority owns 3.05%; the National Trust owns 22.27% and has an
additional 2.11% under covenant; the Forestry Commission owns 4.02% and the North-West
Water Authority owns 5.81%; the remainder is privately owned. The area coming under State
and National Trust ownership is planned to increase in the future. Small areas of woodlands
are owned by the National Park Authority in its role as the Lake District Special Planning
Board as are areas of commonland. Because of its large land holdings and the inalienability of
its properties, the National Trust is a particularly important land owner, whose primary
function is the preservation of the countryside.
Physical Features The area is a varied and classic glaciated landscape consisting of mountains,
glaciated valleys and lakes, with uninhabited peaks and moorlands contrasting with cultivated
valleys and pastured lower hill slopes as well as coastal sand dunes in the west. The site
consists of a compact block of mountains, the valleys each containing one or more lakes, 16 in
all. The geology consists of a central dome of over 40 million year old Ordovician and Silurian
rocks with Carboniferous limestone rocks and New Red Sandstone along the fringes creating a
natural geographical and cultural unit quite distinct from the surrounding lowlands. The dome
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United Kingdom
itself consists of three bands of rocks, hard volcanic rocks, interbeddded with and surrounded
by softer sediments (in the north there are the Skiddaw Slates followed by the Borrowdale
Volcanic Series, together creating the mountain peaks, and to the south the gentle, soil covered
Silurian grits, flags and shale) through which radiate a number of valleys. These valleys
exhibit the majority of the classic features of a glaciated landscape: U-shaped valleys, rocky
spurs, corries, lakes, moraines, erratic boulders, drumlins and eskers. Most of the landscape
features date from the time of the last glaciation about 12,000 years ago, although some
moraines, screes and alluvial deltas are younger, being 10,700 years old.
Climate This is characteristic of the wind-exposed western seabord of Western Europe, being
cool and wet oceanic. Average monthly temperatures (at Ambleside, 76m) range from 3°C to
14°C. There are great differences in precipitation and cloud cover, with conditions on the
peaks at times severe. Rainfall in the lowlands is 2000mm a year while in the central fells it
rises to 4500mm a year. The north-east is drier, the south-west wetter, with most snow in the
north and the east.
Vegetation Although the mountains are of no great height, nearly half the area rises above
the climatic tree-line (at only 500-600m), and this area, little changed by man, is covered with
semi-natural grassland, heath and moorland. The area still contains scattered ancient
woodlands and very remarkable communities of oceanic bryophytes and lichens. Due to the
high annual rainfall and the poor arable yield obtained, the moors and the grasslands of the
fells and the valleys are only suitable for grazing, with sheep on the uplands and sheep and
cattle in the lowlands. The wide expanses of acid grassland is dominated by Agrostis canina, A.
tenuis, Festuca ovina, F. rubra and Nardus stricta, the heaths contain Vaccinium myrtillus
and Calluna vulgaris being replaced in the wetter peat bogs by Eriophorum angustifolium, E.
vagiunatum, Juncus squarrasus and Sphagnum sp. At higher altitudes arctic-alpine plants
appear, this habitat covering more than half the area of the park. The valleys have been
altered to a large extent and the natural grasslands have been improved and fertilized although
fragments of semi-natural plant communities remain as do patches of wetlands, heath and
limestone pavements. Woodlands now consist of plantations of non-native conifers or native
broad-leaved species such as Quercus petraea, Q. robur, Fraxinus excelsior, Ulmus glabra,
Corylus avellana, Fagus sylvatica, Sorbus aucuparia and Prunus avium. The patches of original
western oak woodland (such as at Borrowdale and Esthwaite) have Quercus robur and Q.petraea
on the slopes and Alnus glutinosa and fen vegetation in the valley bottoms and contain a
ground flora of Primula vulgaris, Hyacinthoides non-scripta and Narcissus pseudonarcissus.
Borrowdale is noteable for its rare Atlantic bryophytes and lichens, with Seatoller Wood
containing 200 species, including one (Ramonia sp.) new to science. There are two endemic
flowering plants present in the national park: Euphrasia rivularis and Sorbus lancastriensis.
Fauna The breeding population of the peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus (V) numbers 72 pairs
(in 1986) which is approximately 10% of the total British population and is the highest known
breeding density of this species in the world. The park also contains England’s only breeding
pair of golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos and other raptors include Accipiter gentilis, Circus
cyaneus and Falco columbarius. In addition 20% of the British population of the natterjack
toad Bufo calamita is found here and 30% of all British macro-lepidoptera have been recorded
at Roudsea Mosses, including Erebia epiphron and Amathe alpicola. The only mammal of note
is the British subspecies of the red squirrel Sciurus vulgaris leucourus, but there are records of
pine marten Martes martes and otter Lutra lutra.
Cultural Heritage The area contains a great concentration of prehistoric monuments from the
Mesolithic period onwards. Some 600 sites alone are associated with the manufacture of
neolithic axes, including quarries and production sites. The remains of earlier patterns of
settlements and cultivations exist but generally the national park area exhibits a continuum of
land settlement and rural construction, specifically so in the valleys. This harmony in the
landscape has inspired much literature, painting and thinking (Wordsworth, Ruskin) as well as
philosophy, nature appreciation and the origins of rock-climbing and tourism. The succession
of peoples who have lived here have left a legacy of archaeological traces, vernacular
architecture and attractive land use patterns. The clearance of the forests probably began
about 5000 years ago with the coming of neolithic man. Bronze and iron-age remains include
the megalithic monuments at Castlerigg Stone Circle. The Romans constructed a line of forts
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from Ravenglass through Hardknott and Ambleside to Brougham and two of their roads cross
the region. The Romans were followed by Anglian and Norse-Irish colonizers a period which
gave rise to the present ditstribution of villages and hamlets. The Norman Conquest resulted in
land, in the present day park area, being granted to abbeys and feudal ruling families which
led to sheep pasturage and deforestation during the 12th and 13th centuries. The 16th century
saw the strong development of a woollen industry depending on the local Herdwick sheep,
which are still a feature of the Lake District. A mining industry also developed in this century
using mainly ores of copper, lead and silver, and of plumbago in Borrowdale. The enclosure of
the pastures, giving today’s characteristic landscape took place largely in the late 18th century.
Large mansion houses and landscaped gardens appeared in the 19th century and in 1786 the
Lake District was used to develop and illustrate the theory of "picturesque". At present there
are some 150 scheduled monuments, making the Lake District the second most important and
richest area of archaeological remains (after Cornwall) in England. A number of famous
people have lived in the Lake District notably the poets Coleridge, Southey and Wordsworth,
collectively known as the Lake Poets. Turner, Constable, Gainsborough and others painted
here. Lake Windermere had a number of "firsts" in scientific experimentation including the
world’s first launching of a plane off water which took place in 1912.
Local Human Population The area has been occupied by man for over 6000 years but has
always been marginal for agriculture, supporting a pastoral economy and economic uses
associated with its deciduous woods. Some 40,000 people (1981) live in the valleys, and the
park area contains three market towns (Windermere, Keswick and Ambleside) with populations
over 2,000 and 14 other settlements with populations of over 250. The area is crossed by
several major roads. The National Park Authority and the Countryside Commission have
policies dealing with the general economic conditions of the area, the population structure,
housing, employment, schooling and rural transport.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The Lake District has been visited by countless millions during
the last 200 years and today at the height of the season visitors outnumber residents 6:1 (that is
approximately 240,000 people). It is estimated that 12 million people visit the park each year
of which 2.5 million spend one or more nights in the park. Travel in the Lake District
increased in the late 18th century at which time the first guide book was written followed by
others in 1840, 1855, 1867, 1886, 1902 and 1933. Tourism spread as roads improved and was
given an added boost with the coming of the railway in 1847. Tourism is now the largest source
of revenue to the people in the park valued at £150 million a year (to the Cumbrian region as a
whole). Rock-climbing as a sport distinct from mountaineering was pioneered in the Lake
District. There are seven permanent and two mobile information centres, a National Park
Centre, at Brockhole, a youth and Schools Liaison Service, a full-time Ranger Service and a
Weather Service. A variety of courses are organized as well as lectures and publications.
Scientific Research and Facilities Glacial theory formulated in the Alps was verified by the
Rev. Buckland in 1850 using the Eamont valley as the case study area. Wray Castle (now Ferry
House) on Lake Windermere is the Freshwater Biological Association Centre which has carried
out extensive research on Esthwaite and Blelham Tarn, as well as on other lakes, tarns and
running water. The vegetation and vegetational succession of Esthwaite North Fen have been
recorded since 1848 and early land use history has been researched by the use of pollen data
from the upland tarns.
Conservation Management’ The two statutory responsibilities of the National Park Authority
are to preserve and enhance the natural beauty of the Lake District and to promote public
enjoyment of the area in non damaging ways by the use of special provisions, development
controls and by consultation. It is estimated that the most significant parts of the national park
for conservation amount to 41% of the total area and that these are in State ownership or
owned by the National Trust. The latter has declared 95% of its holdings "inalienable" thus
requiring an act of parliament for the property to be taken out of Trust ownership. A number
of special legal control measures and byelaws exist in addition to the planning acts. These
control agricultural and forestry activities as well as caravan rallies and advertisement. The
overall planning responsibility for the national park area rests with the National Park Authority
(established in 1951) who are advised by the Countryside Commission. The National Trust
manages its own property while the Nature Conservancy Council is responsible for the National
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Nature Reserves (Roudsea Wood and Mosses, Rusland Moss, North Fen and Blelham Bog) and
the Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), the latter numbering 79 sites and amounting to
14.2% of the park area. In total there are 1179 graded buildings and churches in the park area,
a number likely to increase substantially in the near future after the completion of a survey by
the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission. Special categories of property under
statutory control are: historic monuments and sites; listed buildings; conservation areas; historic
landscapes; national nature reserves and SSSIs. The present means available for conservation
are outlined in the National Park Plan Review and the key to the maintenance of the character
of the park is that it must remain inhabited and used. Management is accomplished through
ownership, planning controls and various incentives, but the fundamental problem is to
safeguard the economic viability of the resident communities and to maintain the pattern of
settlement. The National Park Authority works closely with farmers who must consult the
Authority on improvement plans which are going to be grand-aided (most support to upland
agriculture is via agricultural policies including the Less Favoured Areas Directive). The
National Park Authority works to modify plans to make them environmentally friendly rather
than to resist all forms of agricultural development.The National Park Authority prepares
Structure Plans for the park and exercises control over any kind of development which requires
planning permission. The first National Park Plan published in 1978 now in its second revision
after a review in 1986, is the prime management document and is revised every five years.
More detailed plans cover smaller areas and particular subjects such as the Joint Management
Plan for Haweswater, the Windermere Management Plan and the Bassenwaite Management
Plan. The National Park Plan is supplemented by "functional strategies" which are produced
annually. Over half the park area is not included in special protection categories and is
managed by the maintenance of the general pattern of land use. With regard to forestry a
special agreement was negotiated in 1936 whereby coniferous afforestation is prohibited in the
central parts of the park. In the 1970s the National Park Authority set up an Upland
Management Service which repairs damage and maintains the footpath network. Special
provisions cover three sites, Haweswater, Windermere and Bassenwaite which are zoned for
particular kinds of recreation. Windermere is the only lake where powered boats are
permitted. Natural shore lines are also protected. The National Trust is one of the largest
landowners and has a separate strategy for the Lake District.
Management Problems The conditions which maintain the Lake District’s landscape are
fragile and depend upon a continuing and active land husbandry as well as upon a stable
economic base and control of development. A third of the volume of the rainfall is drawn-off
as water supply for urban agglommerations some distance from the park. Historically threats
to the park have included the proposal in the 1870s to raise the level of Thirlmere to supply
water to Manchester. The scheme was approved by Parliament in 1879 despite much local
Opposition. Other proposals included extensions to the railway, building two new railway lines,
opening iron mines and closing footpaths, all of which resulted in 1883 in the formation of the
Lake District Defence Society. The idea of bringing the Lake District into national ownership
led to the creation of the National Trust in 1895. Current problems include: providing for the
large numbers of visitors in an environmentally acceptable fashion; the threats posed by
changing technologies in agriculture and forestry, and the development of road
communications and water abstraction. The large numbers of tourists lead to congestion on the
roads, pressure to provide more camping and caravan sites, footpath erosion and damage to the
stone walls. Outside of "statutory sites" the National Park Authority has only indirect influence
on the key activities of agriculture and forestry, largely being reliant on incentives, persuasion,
education and practical assistance. In this regard it has been suggested that agricultural policies
would benefit from better tuning to environmental objectives. Acid precipitation has been
reported from the Lake District which has high deposition rates, sensitive geology and poorly
buffered soils. Despite this there has been no marked change in the pH or alkalinity and
rainfall acidity has remained constant for several decades. Upland streams do, however,
undergo acid pulses during heavy rainfall and reports indicate subsequent losses of fish stocks
from the rivers. Some tree species are also showing advanced tinsel syndrome.
Staff The staff of the National Park Agency exceeds 105. The National Park Authority, the
National Trust and the Nature Conservancy Council have the authority to appoint rangers or
wardens to protect their land areas.
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Budget In 1986 this was £2,618,900 (compared to £457,000 in 1973/74) derived from central
government (48.9%), Cumbria County Council (16.3% - half of which was recoverable from
central government) and generated income (34.8%). There is an intention on the part of central
government to increase their level of funding during the 1987-88 period by 13.7% Other funds
available for conservation come from the National Trust and the Nature Conservancy Council
with the National Trust spending £2,000,000 in 1986. The Upland Management Service has a
budget of over £250,000 per annum.
Local Administration
° Lake District National Park Authority (also known as the Lake District Special Planning
Board), Busher Walk, Kendal, Cumbria LAS 4RH
° National Trust, North West Regional Office, Rothay Holme, Rothay Road, Ambleside,
Cumbria LA22 0EJ
° Nature Conservancy Council, Local Office, Blackwell, Bowness-on-Windermere,
Windermere, Cumbria LA23 3JB
° Forestry Commission, North West England, Dee Hills Park, Chester, CH3 SAT
° North-West Water Authority, Dawson House, Liverpool Road, Great Sankey, Warrington,
WAS 3LW
References There are some 74 major references dealing with the national park. These are
listed in: Secretary of State for the Environment. (1987). Nomination of the Lake District
National Park in North West England for inclusion in the World Heritage List.
Date May 1987
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YUGOSLAVIA
Area 255,803 sq.km
Population 22,850,000 (1983 estimate)
Parks and Reserves Legislation Wildlife protection and legislation is organised on an
autonomous republic level. One of the earliest legal measures for nature conservation, the
Hunting Act of 1893, was introduced when the country was under the control of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire. Current environmental protection was written into the Federal
Constitution (Ustav Socialisticka Federativne Republike Jugoslavije) on 21 February 1974.
Within the framework of the general legislation guidelines, the assembly of each republic and
autonomous province enacts specific regulations concerning the protection of the environment
(Singleton, 1985; IUCN, 1987).
The protected area legislation varies from one republic to another. In Montenegro protected
areas are established by enactment of the conservation law of 6 August 1952, whilst in Croatia
parks are designated by laws specific to each site. As an example of this difference in
legislation, Plitvice National Park was established by the general act of 1954 whilst Mljet
National Park was designated under the Mljet National Park law published in "Narodne novine"
No. 49/60, 7 XII 1960. Nature reserves in Croatia have been declared under a decree for the
Protection of Natural Rarity No. 221/48 and by proposals of the People’s National Liberation
Committee No. 05-5056/1 of 1961 (MAB, 1979).
Other republican laws are also general but are considered to cover protected area designation of
both terrestrial and marine sites. Thus Law No. 5 passed on 13 January 1972 in Bosnia and
Herzegovina resulted in the Executive Committee designation of Sutjeska National Park
(IUCN, 1971; Baccar, 1977; Mestrovic, 1983). However, strict reserves are set up by a decision
of the National Institute for the Protection of Historic Monuments and Natural Beauty of 3
June 1964. Natural reserve designation was enacted by a decision of the Institute for
Protection of Cultural and Natural Monuments and Natural Rarities No. 683/54. Similarly in
Slovenia, national parks are created by special decree under the National Parks Law (Uradni
List No. 6 of 1959) and in Macedonia each national park is designated under site specific laws.
Only regional parks may be establised by regional legislation (IUCN, 1987).
The legal texts govern the range of activities that can be carried out within protected areas,
whereby control is exercised over the scale of forestry, hunting, fishing and certain agricultural
works. All activities in the nature reserves of Croatia are restricted by regional by-laws
(Singleton, 1985).
The first national parks (Nacionalni Park) were proclaimed by the royal government in 1928.
In addition to the areas currently designated as national parks, there are several other types of
protected area including natural and regional parks, strict nature reserves, protected landscapes
and horticultural gardens. Legislation also gives special protection to approximately 75 plant
and 370 animal species (Duffey, 1982; Singleton, 1985; IUCN, 1987). By 1985 there were no
specific laws on the creation of marine protected areas, however general texts on conservation
allowed for the establishment of such sites (Singleton, 1985).
An example of the legal complexities of site designation can be seen for the Kotor World
Heritage Park which was enacted by decision of three organisations; the Republic Institute for
Protection of Nature of the Socialist Republic of Montenegro (under general decree No.
7/1968); Republic Institute for Protection of Cultural Monuments of the S.R. Montenegro; and
the Town Assembly of Kotor (declaration of 14 June 1979). The World Heritage Convention
was ratified on 26 May 1975 and accession to the Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance on 28 March 1977 (with two sites listed). Two biosphere reserves were established
between 1976 and 1977. The network of biosphere reserves were suggested as being linked in
with programmes of the WHO in a joint effort to establish Environmental Specimen Banks
(MAB, 1979).
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Parks and Reserves Administration and Management The Federal Republic is composed of
six socialist republics; Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and
Montenegro, with two socialist autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina within the
framework of Serbia. Ecological affairs are based on a decentralised public authority structure
in each autonomous republic. The republics and provinces each have the power to set up a
council for the protection of the environment which is charged with the responsibility of
co-ordinating the activities of the various environmental agencies. The councils are federated
together in the Jugoslavenski Savez za Zastitu i Unapredivante Covekove Sredine (SAVEZ),
which advises on conservation matters (Singleton, 1985).
In Bosnia and Herzegovina the national park system has its own authority whilst the nature
reserves are administered by "Experimental Farms" belonging to the Ministry of Agricultural
Economy. In Croatia most of the national parks are administered by the cultural section of the
Secretariat for National Education, Culture and Physical Education with each park having its
own administrative committee, usually its own administrative office and a special management
plan. In the case of the Lokrum and Krka reserves, the town assemblies are responsible for
management under jurisdiction from the urban plan (IUCN, 1971). In Montenegro, some
national parks such as Biogradska Gora have a special controlling body, while others including
Durmitor and Lovcen have administrative responsibility vested in the Nature Protection
Institute of the Republic or in the Republic Secretariat for Education, Culture and Science,
respectively. The management is carried out by a local self-management community who
elaborate the plans (Singleton, 1985). In Slovenia, Triglav National Park is administered by a
special commission attached to the Assembly of Radovljica Commune whilst reserves are dealt
with by the Forestry Service. Finally, in Macedonia the Department of Agriculture and
Silviculture is generally responsible, with each park having its own governing authority (IUCN,
1971; Singleton, 1985). Within the Kotor World Heritage Site management responsibility lies
with the Community Assembly of Kotor Republic Institute for Protection of Monuments of
Culture and the Republic Institute of Protection of Nature of Titograd.
Some natural resources are managed by specialised organisations for tourism, forestry and
urbanisation. The structure and detailed arrangements for nature conservation are organized on
a republic level with an institute for nature protection in each of the six republics (IUCN,
1987). The institutes are staffed by biologists, geographers and lawyers, with a director who
maybe either a civil engineer or a forester (Godiel, 1981; Singleton, 1985). By law each
national park must have its own administration, professional staff and funds for effective
protection and the main thrust of the conservation effort is in the management of the country’s
national parks (Godiel, 1981). In some of these, commercial tourism is extensive, for example,
at Triglav and at Plitvice National Parks. The latter had 800,000 visitors in 1986, and some
1300 staff employed in hotels, restaurants and at campsites (Duffey, 1982; Thorsell, pers.
comm.).
The parks can also be managed by experimental farms or by local self-administered committees
or bodies under the Ministry of National Education or under a nature conservancy institute.
Addresses
° Zavod SR Slovenije za varstvo naravne in Kulturne, (Institute for the protection of
monuments and the department of nature conservation), Plecnikov trg.2, 61000 Ljubljana,
Slovenia
° Zavod za spomenisko varstvo, (Institute for the protection of monuments and the department
of nature conservation), Rostovski trg 1, 62000, Maribor, Slovenia
° Republicki zavod za zastitu prirode, (Nature Conservancy), Ilica 44/11, 41000 Zagreb,
Croatia
° Republicki zavod za zastitu prirode SR Srbije, (Nature Conservancy), III Bulevar 106, 11000
Beograd, Serbia
° Republicki zavod za zastitu prirode, (Nature Conservancy), Trg., Nikole Kovacevica 7, P.O.
Box 2, 9100 Titograd, Montenegro
° Zavod za zastitu spomenika kulkure prirodnih rijetkosti i znamenitosti SR BiH, (Office for
the protection of cultural monument, Department of Nature Conservation), Ul. 27 jula 11A,
71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Yugoslavia
° Republicki zavod na zastitu na prirodnite retkosti SR Makedonije, (Nature Conservancy),
Rudera Boskovica bb, Karpus III, 91000 Skopje, Macedonia
° Pokrajinski zavod za zastitu prirode, (Nature Conservancy), Petrovaradinska tvrdarva, 21000
Novi Sad/Petrovasadin, Vojvodina, Serbia
° Pokrajinski zavod zastitu prirode, (Nature Conservancy), ul. Miladina Popovka, 18 Pristina,
Kosovo, Serbia
Additional Information Fishing and hunting have long been economically important activities
in Yugoslavia, yet the relatively low population density has ensured the survival of a number
of important ecosystems which have been destroyed over the centuries in other parts of
Europe. Virgin forests exist in a number of localities and the mountain massifs are well
represented by relatively undisturbed alpine communities of endemic flora. In contrast the
majority of the larger wetland sites have been drained and put under cultivation or pasture
since the end of the 1939-45 war. In several of the wetlands that survive, suitable habitats for
breeding waterfowl are seriously degraded or polluted (Duffey, 1982; IUCN, 1987).
Some of the problems affecting the protected areas include the conflict of interests between
tourism, conservation and economic development. Many of the park authorities have
insufficient funds and have to rely on financial assistance from tourism, forestry, sporting and
recreational activities, which are often in conflict with the ecological purposes for which they
were established. The island of Mljet, for example, has suffered ecological damage from the
sheer volume of tourists eroding soil and damaging vegetation. Sites which are near industrial
complexes have also suffered from the lack of concern for environmental issues following the
rapid industrial expansion of the early 1950’s (Duffey, 1982; Singleton, 1985; IUCN, 1987).
References
° Augier, H. (1985). Protected marine areas. The example of France: appraisal and
prospects. European Committee for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Strasbourg.
° Baccar, H. (1977). A survey of existing and potential marine parks and reserves in the
Mediterranean region. I1UCN/UNEP.
COE (1987). Yugoslavia: New structures. In Naturopa newsletter. No 86-12 p 4.
° Duffey, E. (1982). National Parks and Reserves of Western Europe. Macdonald. Macdonald
and Company, London.
° Godiel, L. (1981). The protection of rare plants in nature reserves and national parks in
Yugoslavia. In: Synge, H. (Ed) The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation. John
Wiley and Sons Ltd.
° TUCN (1971). United Nations List of National Parks and Equivalent Reserves. 2nd Ed.
Hayez, Brussels.
° IUCN (1985). 1985 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
° IUCN (1987). Directory of Wetlands of International Importance. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
and Cambridge, UK.
MAB (1977). Workshop on biosphere reserves in the Mediterranean region: Development of
a conceptual basis and a plan for the establishment of a regional network. MAB report series
No. 45 Side, 6-11 June 1977. Final Report, Unesco 1979.
° Mestrovic, S (1983). Nature Conservation in Yugoslavia. Nature and National Parks. Vol
21. 79/80. 27-28.
Movean, J. (1982). National Park Development and its Economics: Experience from Plitvice
National Park, Yugoslavia. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds) Naitonal Parks,
Conservation, and Development. The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society.
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
° OECD (1986). Environmental Policies in Yugoslavia. OECD, Paris. 160 pp.
° Singleton, F. (1985). National Parks and the Conservation of Nature in Yugoslavia. Paper
presented at 3rd World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies. Washington DC.
30 October - 4 November 1985.
Singleton, F. (in press, 1987). Environmental Protection in Yugoslavia. In: Schreiber, H.
(Ed). Environmental Protection in Eastern Europe. UG. Berlin.
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° UNEP/IG 20/Inf. 3 GE-80-2585 (1980). Survey of National Legislation relevant to Marine
and Coastal Protected Areas. Report by the Legal Officer of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations based on the work of Ch. du Saussay and M. Prieur.
° UNEP/IG 20/Inf. 5, Gryn, Amroes, P. (1980). Preliminary Annotated List of Existing and
Potentially Mediterrranean Protected Areas. UNEP/IUCN report.
° UNEP (1987). Yugoslavia. UNEP Regional Bulletin for Europe. No 3. June 1987. p.8
° Wirth, H. (Ed) (1979). Nature Reserves in Europe. Edition Leipzig.
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
Unspecified areas
Fruska Gora 22,000
Glacicia 23,760
Mavrovo 73,088
Pelister 12,000
Resava 10,000
Subtotal 140,848
National Parks
Djerdap 82,115
Kozara 3,375
Lovcen 2,400 *
Subtotal 87,890
Lovcen National Park
Management Category V (Protected landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.17.6 (Mediterranean Slcerophyll)
Geographical Location Located west of the town of Cetinje in the Lovcen mountain area in
Montenegro. 42°23’-42°25’N, 18°48’-18°52’E
Date and History of Establishment The area was created under the conservation law of 6
August 1952.
Area 2,400 ha
Land Tenure Associated ownership
Altitude 0-1,749m
Physical Features Lovcen mountain belongs to a south-east part of the Dinaric mountain
area. It is a littoral mountain, the peak being Stirovnik (1749m) orientated in a
north-west/south-east direction. Geologically Lovcen is composed of rock masses from the
Mesozoic and Cainozoic eras, with Triassic and Jurassic limestone, marl limestones, dolomitic
limestones and Cainozoic glacial and fluvio-glacial facies. A more extended area of the Lovcen
mountain belongs to an anticline developed from Mesozoic limestone and dolomites under
which is found an impervious series of clay-sand strata originating from the coastal syncline
area. Due to its geological composition of karst and Carboniferous rocks, there are no
permanent waterflows. Only in the period of maximum rainfall are temporary waterflows
formed. Such examples include Ljubin Potok, which extends for a length of about 300m. The
water filters into a permanent water well called Ivanova Korita. Under Jezerski Vrh there is a
small glacier lake now in the final stages of succession (Besic, 1974; 1975).
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Climate Due to the geographic location and relief, the moderate continental and mountain
climatic conditions overlap with the mediterranean climate at Lovcen. The influence of the sea
on the climate is reflected in high precipitation levels. For example, at Ivanova Korita average
rainfall is 4207mm, the maximum occurring in November and December. Lovcen is also
exposed to very strong winds: the south wind coming warm and damp from the sea, while the
north wind is dry and cold.
Vegetation The flora of Lovcen is represented by approximately 1,200 plant species, of 475
genera and 95 families. These include a great number of endemic plants of the Balkans and
Yugoslavia, among which are a few plants endemic to Lovcen, such as Lamium lovcenicum,
Berteroa gintlii, and Endraianthus lovcenicus. Other endemic species of a somewhat wider
distribution but worthy of mention include Petteria ramentacea, Moltkea petraca,
Amphoricarpus neumayeri, Pinus heldriechii, Taxus baccata, Viburnum maculatum, Centaruea
nicolai, Dianthus nicolai and Ilex aquifolium. Other protected species found in the Park
include Campanula hercegovina. The Lovcen vegetation is stratified altitudinally, from the
warm oak woods to the subalpine beech forests. A noteworthy vegetation type exists in the
rocky areas and the steep sections of karst. The largest area of the park is covered by hop
hornbeam and grass Sesleria ostrietum, then by a biocenosis of pubescent oak and hop
hornbeam (Querco-Ostrietum carpinifoliae association), whilst at altitudes over 1,100m there is
a zone of a mountain beech forest with Sesleria autumnalis (Fagetum montanum seslerietosum
association), extended in smaller areas by a subalpine beech Fagetum subalpinum forest
(Tomic-Stankovic, 1970; Duffey, 1982).
Fauna The main mammal species are rabbit Lepus europaeus, beech marten Martes foina and
fox Vulpes vulpes. The European wolf Canis lupus and wild cat Felis silvestris are only rarely
found within the park. The avifauna includes rock partridge Alectoris graeca, raven Corvus
corax and lesser spotted woodpecker Dendrocopus minor. Raptor species are well represented
with records of imperial eagle Aquila heliaca, buzzard Buteo buteo, griffon vulture Gyps fulvus
and peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus (Duffey, 1982).
Cultural Heritage The area is the site of the mausoleum of Njegos, who was once the most
celebrated ruler of Montenegro (Duffey, 1982).
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The majority of tourists are drawn to the park area because of
the mausoleum of Njegos which attracts up to 70,000 visitors per year. At Ivanova Korita
there are mountain rest houses accommodating 200 people as well as alpine huts. The climate
and the scenic surroundings provide excellent summer and winter sport and recreational
tourism. The good quality ski grounds allow regular competitions to be held (Martinovic, n.d.).
Scientific Research and Facilities The Lovcen area, including the park, has long been the
object of scientific investigations. Research has been carried out on the geomorphology,
geology, hydrology, vegetation, flora, fauna and pedology.
Conservation Management The park is being managed for recreation as well as nature
conservation.
Management Problems Forest fires are rare and wood-cutting is minimal and practised solely
to promote wood growth and to achieve a better structure. The number of personnel employed
and funds are, however, insufficient for park management purposes. The park has not been
covered by a general zoning plan and for this reason certain parts have suffered damage from
building construction and alteration of the park scenery (Vukovic, 1968).
Staff One professional employee (a secretary of the self-management community) and two
guards (1980).
Budget The funds provided for the park are obtained from the self-management community
members (amounted to 1,700,000 dinars in 1980).
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Local Administration Secretariat for Education, Culture and Science, Secretary of the
Self-Managed Community of Interest of the Lovcen National Park, 81250 Cetinje, Bajova No.
Pe
R
°
°
eferences
Besic, Z. (1974). Provlemi podzemnih voda u podrucju karsta planine Lovcen. Geoloski
glasnik, knj. VII, Titograd. (Deals with the problem of groundwater in the karst areas of the
Lovcen mountain).
Besic, Z. (1975). Geologija Crne Gore, knj. I, xv. 1. Drustvo za nauku i umjetnost Crne
Gore, Titograd. (Deals with the problem of the geology of Montenegro.)
Cvijic, J. (1924, 1926). Geomorfologija, knj. I i II, Beograd. (Deals with geomorphology.)
Duffey, E. (1982). National Parks and Reserves of Western Europe. Macdonald. Macdonald
and Company, London.
Krivokapic, B. (1975). Katunski krs. "Obod" Cetinje. (Deals with the Katun karst.)
Martinovic, D. (n.d.). Cetinje - postanak, razvoj i turisticke mogucnosti."Obod" Cetinje.
(Deals with Cetinje - its origin, development and tourism.)
Petrovic, J. (1970). Palja u krsu. Zbornik radova PMF, Novi Sad. (Deals with the fields in
karst.)
Tomic-Stankovic, K. (1970). Vegetacija lovcena u Crnoj Gori. Zajednica naucnih ustanova
Kosova. knj. 17. Pristina. (An analysis of the vegetation of Lovcen in Montenegro).
Vasovic, M. (1955). Lovcen i njegova podgorina. Naucno drustvo Crne Gore - Titograd.
(Describes Lovcen and the district at the foot of the mountain.)
Vuckovic, M. (1968). Stanje prirode u SR Crnoj Gori i osnovni problemi njene astite.
Glasnik Republ. zavoda za zast. prir. i Prir. muzeja br. 1. Titograd. (An analysis on the
condition of nature in Montenegro and the basic problems of its protection.)
Vuckovic, M. Prilog poznavanju nacionalnog parka "Lovcen". Godisnjak Cetinjske
gimnazije IV. Cetinje. (A study on the Lovcen National Park.)
Date August 1987
Sip7-
ASIA
Japan is one of the few Asian countries to use the protected landscape category widely within
its protected area legislation. Scenic areas of national importance can be defined as national
parks, while sites of lesser importance, but of regional or local interest, are designated as quasi
national parks or prefectural natural parks. Of these areas, the national parks, which include
27 areas covering over 2 million hectares (5.4% of the country) are dealt with below. Pressure
from intensive multiple land use, and high human population densities, means that areas
designated as protected landscapes are largely under mixed ownership, with almost a quarter of
the land being privately owned. However, current Government policy is to acquire privately
owned land in order to increase the overall level of protection afforded to these areas. Habitats
protected range from primary forest and marine coral communities to secondary vegetation and
entirely man-made environments. Park areas are zoned to ensure better protection of the
landscape have within them areas that are zoned from natural to entirely man-made, a situation
reflected by the internal designations of special protected areas merging onto quasi-national
park areas. Nearly half of Hong Kong is covered by country parks of various sizes, which
cover most of the high ground of both islands and the New Territories. These parks were
established with a variety of aims, including recreation, protection of water supply and scenic
beauty, and as areas for public education. However, as a result of the high population densities
in the surrounding areas, potential threats to the areas are high. Comprehensive development
plans are therefore drawn up for individual parks, which are zoned into three categories of
area based on the objectives of conservation, recreation and education. Over most of the
designated area development is of a low intensity, with hostels, campgrounds and other
recreational facilities only in the less scenic areas. However, in certain parts more intensive
recreational development is permitted (though only where the development will not encroach
significantly upon the character of the park). In most other Asian countries the situation
appears less clear, and areas are perhaps protected landscapes rather more because of their
developmental history than by design. In the Indian subcontinent, a number of sites close to
urban centres, and developed for protection of water catchment and/or tourism, clearly fall
within category V designation (although this may not always appear obvious from local
designations). In Pakistan, for example, the Margalla Hills immediately north of Islamabad
were declared a "green area" by the Capital Development Authority in 1961, and has since been
established as a national park. Much of the original forest has been removed and replaced by
secondary scrub. Similarly, in Bangladesh there are a number of national parks, namely
Bhawal, Himachari, Madhupur and Ramsagar, which would appear to be closer to protected
landscapes than national parks as defined by IUCN/CNPPA. These sites are being developed
largely for recreation and education, and except for Madupur (which has the best patch of sal
forest in the country) tend to be poor in wildlife.
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BANGLADESH
Area 144,000 sq.km
Population 94,650,000 (1983)
Parks and Reserves Legislation The Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973,
promulgated under Presidential Order No. 23 on 27 March 1973 and subsequently enacted and
amended as the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1973, provides for the
establishment of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves. A national park is
defined as a comparatively large area of outstanding natural beauty, in which the protection of
wildlife is paramount and to which the public may be allowed access for recreational and
educational purposes. A wildlife sanctuary is an area closed to hunting and maintained as an
undisturbed breeding ground, primarily for the protection of all natural resources, including
vegetation, soil and water. A game reserve is an area in which the wildlife is protected but
hunting is allowed on a permit basis. Under Article 23, cultivation, damage to vegetation,
killing or capturing wild animals within a radius of 1.6km outside its boundary, and pollution
of water is not allowed in either a national park or wildlife sanctuary. Entry or residence,
introduction of exotic or domestic species of animals and lighting of fires is prohibited in
wildlife sanctuaries, but not national parks. By contrast, firing of guns or other forms of
disturbance to wild animals is prohibited in national parks, but not wildlife sanctuaries. No
specific rules are detailed for game reserves. The Article makes provision, however, for the
Government to relax any of these prohibitions for scientific, aesthetic or other exceptional
reasons, and to alter the boundaries of protected areas (Olivier, 1979).
Bangladesh accepted the World Heritage Convention on 3 August 1983, but no sites have been
inscribed to date.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management Wildlife conservation, including the
management of protected areas, is the responsibility of the Forest Directorate. In 1976 a
Wildlife Circle was established within what was then known as the Forest Department, with
specific responsibility for wildlife matters under the charge of a Conservator of Forests
responsible directly to the Chief Conservator of Forests. A $13.3 million scheme, entitled
"Development of Wildlife Management and Game Reserves", was incorporated within the
country’s First Five Year Plan, but reduced to $92,000 in the subsequent Two Year Approach
Plan (Olivier, 1979). The Wildlife Circle was subsequently abolished in June 1983, allegedly in
the interests of economy and following the recommendations of the Inam Commission. The
post of Conservator of Forests (Administration and Wildlife) remains but the incumbent has
many other administrative duties unrelated to wildlife. Following its general down-grading
within the Forest Directorate, wildlife conservation has become the theoretical responsibility of
the various divisional forest officers (Blower, 1985; Husain, 1986). Separate staff are deployed
for protection purposes in a number of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries (Sarker and
Fazlul Huq, 1985).
The Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)(Amendment) Act also provides for the establishment of
a Wildlife Advisory Board, which was set up in 1976 under the chairmanship of the Minister of
Agriculture. The Board is supposed to approve important wildlife management decisions and
directives (Olivier, 1979). Although it still exists, it had not met for two years (Blower, 1985).
Addresses Chief Conservator of Forests (Administration and Wildlife), Bana Bhawan,
Gulsham Road, Mohakhali, Dhaka 12
Additional Information The major forest types are mangrove, moist deciduous or sal Shorea
robusta and evergreen. The entire flood plain of Bangladesh was well-vegetated, but much of
the forest has disappeared in recent decades, due to mounting pressure from human
populations, or been converted into plantations. Of the total land area, the remaining natural
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Bangladesh
forest was estimated to be 4,782 sq.km (3.3%) and that of scrub forest 9,260 sq.km (6.5%) in
1980 (Gittins and Akonda, 1982). Protected natural forest amounted to only 0.4% of the total
land area and this has not been significantly improved since that survey.
Conservation efforts began in 1966, prior to independence, when the Government of Pakistan
invited the World Wildlife Fund to assess its wildlife and recommend measures to arrest the
deterioration. Two expeditions were mounted (Mountfort and Poore, 1967, 1968) and, the
severity of the situation having been confirmed, the Government was urged to appoint its own
Wildlife Enquiry Committee. The committee was established in 1968 and by 1970 had drafted
areport. That part relating to East Pakistan was published as a separate report (Government of
East Pakistan, 1971). Considerable progress was made with the establishment of several
protected areas (Mountfort, 1969), research undertaken on the Sundarbans tiger population of
East Pakistan (Hendrichs, 1975), and technical input from FAO (Grimwood, 1969). Then, in
1971, came the War of Liberation which inevitably disrupted subsequent progress. In spite of
political instability, however, the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order was promulgated in
1973 and an ambitious programme of wildlife management developed, followed by the
formation of a Wildlife Circle. Economic constraints, however, have subsequently been
responsible for the loss of much of this initiative.
The principal non-governmental conservation organisation within the country is The Society
for Conservation of Nature and Environment (SCONE). One of its main areas of concern is
environmental pollution, particularly in Dhaka (SCONE, n.d.).
There is no national wildlife conservation policy. In view of the fact that wildlife resources
are vested largely in the reserved forests, their conservation tends to be diametrically opposed
to forest management practices (Olivier, 1979). The existing system of protected areas is not
comprehensive, having been established with little regard to ecological and other criteria,
although some effort has been made to include representative samples of the major habitats.
Some areas have not been clearly defined or officially gazetted and few, if any, are effectively
managed and protected. Lack of personnel trained in wildlife conservation is a further
handicap (Olivier, 1979; Gittins and Akonda, 1982; Khan, 1985). The very low priority
apparently now accorded to wildlife conservation is reflected in the recent abolition of the
Wildlife Circle, the reassignment of staff to normal duties, the lack of any separate financial
provision within the Forest Directorate’s budget and the now moribund Wildlife Advisory
Board (Blower, 1985).
References
° Blower, J.H. (1985). Sundarbans Forest Inventory Project, Bangladesh Wildlife conservation
in the Sundarbans. Project Report 151. ODA Land Resources Development centre,
Surbiton, U.K. 39 pp. :
° Gittins, S.P. and Akonda, A W. (Feb.1982). What survives in Bangladesh? Oryx 16: 275-281.
° Government of East Pakistan (1971). Report of the Technical Sub-committee for East
Pakistan of the Wildlife Enquiry Committee. Dacca.
° Grimwood, I.R. (1969). Wildlife Conservation in Pakistan. Pakistan National Forestry
Research and Training Project Report No. 17. FAO, Rome. 31 pp.
° Hendrichs, H. (1975). The status of the tiger Panthera tigris (Linne, 1758) in the Sundarbans
mangrove forest (Bay of Bengal). Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 23: 161-199.
° Husain, K.Z. (1986). Wildlife study, research and conservation in Bangladesh. Eleventh
Annual Bangladesh Science Conference Section 2: 1-32.
° Khan, M.A.R. (1985). Furture conservation directions for Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W.
(Ed.), Conserving Asia’s natural heritage. Y'UCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 114-122.
° Mountfort, G. (1969). Pakistan’s progress. Oryx 10: 39-43.
° Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1967). The conservation of wildlife in Pakistan. World
Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 27 pp.
° Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition
to Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 25 pp.
° Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO
Project No. BGD/72/005. Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
-200-
Bangladesh
° Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Protected areas of Bangladesh. In: Thorsell,
J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia’s natural heritage. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 36-38.
° SCONE (n.d.) Brochure. The Society for Conservation of Nature and Environment,
Bangladesh. 12 pp.
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
National Parks
Bhawal 5,022 *
Madhupur 8,436 *
Ramsagar 52
Subtotal 13,510
Bhawal National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies in Dhaka Forest Division, about 40km north of the capital city of
Dhaka. 24°01’N, 90°20°E
Date and History of Establishment Established and maintained as a national park since 1974
but not officially declared as such until 1982, under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)
(Amendment) Act, 1973.
Area 5,022ha
Land Tenure Government
Altitude Up to 4.5m
Physical Features The topography is characterised by low hills which rise 3.0-4.5m above the
surrounding paddy fields. These hills or ridges, locally known as "chalas", are intersected by
numerous depressions or "baids". The soil is yellow-red, comprising sandy clay mixed with
magniferous iron ores.
Climate Conditions are moderate, the coldest and hottest months being January (down to
10°C) and April (up to 37°C), respectively. The cold season lasts from November to January.
Mean annual rainfall is 2,500mm, most of which falls in the monsoon between June and
September.
Vegetation Most of the original sal Shorea robusta forest has been destroyed. It has been
protected from further destruction and now, due to extensive regeneration, coppiced and
seedling sal covers 90% of the area (Womersley, 1979; Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Fauna Mammal diversity is low. Species include fox, jackal, small Indian civet, wild boar
and rufous-tailed hare (Vulpes bengalensis, Canis aureus, Viverricula indica, Sus scrofa
and Lepus nigricollis). The avifauna is similar to that found in Madhupur National Park
(Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Some 2,000 people reside and cultivate land in the national park.
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Bangladesh
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Public usage is intense, with 25,000 visitors recorded at
weekends (Womersley, 1979). The national park is easily accessible throughout the year by
road from Dhaka City. Accommodation includes four rest houses and two cottages.
Recreational and educational facilities include some 25km of trails, an artificial lake, two
ponds and two observation towers.
Scientific Research and Facilities A wildlife survey was carried out by the Forest Directorate
in 1981 (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Conservation Management The national park is not an important wildlife conservation area
but, being close to large urban areas, it is valued for recreational purposes. Recreational and
educational facilities were improved and developed under the management of the Forest
Directorate, but the scheme was subsequently discontinued. Forestry operations are limited to
re-forestation of damaged areas (Olivier, 1979; Womersley, 1979; Sarker and Fazlul Huq,
1985).
Management Problems The original forest vegetation has been removed and wildlife severely
depleted.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO
Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
° Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of
IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India.
4-8 February 1985. 5 pp.
° Womersley, J.S. (1979). Botanic Garden Dacca, commercial horticultural forest botany and
national parks. _UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute,
Chittagong. 71 pp.
Date May 1987
Madhupur National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest)
Geographical Location Situated in the Madhupur tract (Mymensingh Forest Division), some
160km north of the capital city of Dhaka and 32km south-west of Mymensingh Town.
24°45’N, 90°0S’E
Date and History of Establishment First established as a national park in 1962 but not
officially declared as such until 1982, under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)
(Amendment) Act, 1973. Received special protection as early as 1959 under rules to regulate
hunting, shooting and fishing issued under the provisions of the East Pakistan Private Forest
Ordinance, 1959.
Area 8,436ha
Land Tenure Government
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Bangladesh
Altitude Rises to about 20m above sea level.
Physical Features The local topography is characterised by flat topped ridges, known locally
as "chalas", intersected by numerous depressions or "baids". Two small rivers, Banar and
Bangshi, flow through the eastern and western portions of the park, respectively. The soil is
yellow-red, comprising sandy clay mixed with magniferous iron ores.
Climate Conditions are moderate, with April the hottest month (maximum of 37°C) and
January the coldest (minimum of 10°C). The cold season lasts from November to February.
Mean annual rainfall is 2500mm, most of which falls between June and September.
Vegetation Some 40% of the forest cover comprises sal Shorea robusta in association
with Dillenia pentagyna, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Adina cardifolia, Miliusa velutina, Lannea
grandis, Albizzia spp., Bauhinia variegata, Spondius mangifera, Butea _ frondosa
and Barringtonia acutangula. Species commonly occurring in the undergrowth
include Eupatorum sp., Pennisetum setosum, Asparagus racemosus and Rauwalfia serpentina
(Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). The sal forest is the best patch remaining in the country (Reza
Khan, 1985).
Fauna’ The area used to be rich in wildlife but Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis (E)
disappeared in the last century. More recently, tiger Panthera tigris (E), leopard Panthera
pardus (V), Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E), all species of deer occurring in Bangladesh,
wild buffalo Bubalus bubalis (E), and peafowl Pavo sp. have become locally extinct (Reza
Khan, 1985). Characteristic mammal species still remaining include rhesus macaque Macaca
mulatta, capped langur Presbytis pileatus (one of the densest populations surviving in
Bangladesh), jackal, fox, small Indian civet, wild boar, Irrawaddy squirrel, porcupine and
rufous-tailed hare (Canis aureus, Vulpes bengalensis, Viyerricula indica, Sus _ scrofa,
Callosciurus pygerythrus, Hystrix indica and Lepus nigricollis) (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985;
Reza Khan, 1985). Some 200 species of birds are present (Reza Khan, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The surrounding area is densely populated. Some 4,500 Garos
(tribals) were allowed to settle inside the park (Mountfort, G. and Poore, D., 1968) but about
850 families have been resettled (Womersely, 1979).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is easily accessible throughout the year and is bisected
by an 8km long semi-metalled road. There are two rest houses and a youth hostel providing
overnight accommodation. Picnic spots have been provided by the Forest Directorate. The zoo
was last reported to be in a poor state (Olivier, 1979; Womersley, 1979). Visitor use is high,
with many bus loads of holiday makers present on public holidays.
Scientific Research and Facilities A wildlife survey was carried out by the Forest Directorate
in 1981 (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985).
Conservation Management The forests of Madhupur were formerly rich in wildlife and were
a favourite tiger-hunting area (Olivier, 1979). By 1967, however, the area had lost much of its
value for wildlife, owing to considerable disturbance, but its potential for recreation and
education was recognised (Mountforrt and Poore, 1968). Subsequently, it was recommended
that Madhupur be established as a "Class B" national park to provide “recreational and
educational interest for the youth and people of urban areas" (Government of East Pakistan,
1971). In 1974-75 a programme was initiated to preserve the wildlife and to provide
recreational and educational facilities for the local people and other visitors. With the
establishment of the national park, all flat areas suitable for growing paddy were excised and
850 families of Garos were resettled (Womersely, 1979).
Plantations are being established in disturbed areas and an artificial lake created for migratory
waterfowl (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Madhupur warrants conservation priority over other
areas of sal forest. It needs to be enlarged and brought under an effective wildlife
management authority (Reza Khan, 1985).
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Bangladesh
Management Problems The wildlife has been severely depleted. In 1979, the boundaries had
not been defined and marked (Womersley, 1979), and Garo settlements within the national park
imposed considerable disturbances (Olivier, 1979).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
R
eferences
Government of East Pakistan (1971). Report of the Technical Sub-Committee for East
Pakistan of the Wildilfe Enquiry Committee. Dacca.
Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition
to Pakistan. Unpublished report. Pp. 23-24.
Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO
Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.
Reza Khan, M.A. (1985). Future conservation priorities for Bangladesh. Paper prepared for
the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas.
Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. 15 pp.
Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of
IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India.
4-8 February 1985. 5 pp.
Womersley, J.S. (1979). Botanic Garden Dacca, commercial horticultural forest botany and
national parks. UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute,
Chittagong. 71 pp.
Date May 1987
-204-
HONG KONG
Area 1,068 sq.km (Jim, 1987)
Population 5,588,000 in 1986 (Ismail, 1987)
Parks and Reserves Legislation Alarmed by the rapid rate of urbanisation threatening to
destroy the countryside in the 1960s, it was proposed that forestry policies be revised and
accommodate the recreational demands of an increasingly urban population (Daly, 1965). The
concept of establishing a system of parks zoned for varying intensities of recreational use, as
outlined in several reports (Daley 1964a, 1964b; Scott, 1964; Phillips and Marshall, 1965), was
strongly endorsed in a review of the conservation of the countryside undertaken for the
Department of Agriculture and Fisheries by IUCN (Talbot and Talbot, 1965). The government
was further stimulated into action by a report on the civil disturbances of 1965-1966
pressing inter alia for recreational outlets for the young (Hong Kong Government, 1967).
Following the establishment of a Provisional Council for the Use and Conservation of the
Countryside in 1967, a number of recreational (country parks) and conservation (nature
reserves) areas were proposed (Wholey, 1968). A pilot country park scheme was initiated in the
Shing Mun Reservoir area in 1971 and, by June 1972, the first five-year country park
development programme was approved. The Country Park Ordinance was enacted in March
1976, providing for the establishment of Country Parks and Special Areas under the
responsibility of a Country Parks Authority. Whereas country parks may be developed for
recreational purposes, public access to special areas is largely restricted and recreational
facilities are not provided because of their high conservation value, be it geological, biological,
archeological or historical. Tai Po Kan Nature Reserve, designated a Special Area, is
exceptional, access for study and appropriate recreational activities being permitted.
Institutional operations were accelerated under a crash programme (1977-1981) with the result
that 21 country parks, covering nearly 40% (40,833ha) of the territory were established over a
three-year period. Some 13 special areas have also been designated to date, all but two (Tai Po
Kan Nature Reserve and Tung Lung Fort) of which are within country parks (Thrower, 1984;
Jim, 1987). In addition over 46 sites of Special Scientific Interest have been identified for
future conservation action (Ismail, 1987). Although not legally protected, their conservation
value has to be considered in relation to planning applications. As yet, no coastal or marine
reserves have been established.
Other legislation relevant to protected areas includes the Forests and Countryside Ordinance,
which provides for the general protection and management of vegetation along with special
protection to certain native plant species, and the Wild Animals Protection Ordinance under
which access to the Mai Po Marshes and Yim Tso Ha Egretty, both SSSIs, is restricted (Ismail,
1987).
The United Kingdom extended its ratification of the Ramsar Convention to Hong Kong on 10
September 1979. Similarly, the United Kingdom ratification of the World Heritage Convention
applies to Hong Kong. No sites have been inscribed under either convention.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management Under the Country Parks Ordinance, the
Country Parks Authority is headed by the Director of Agriculture and Fisheries, who is
responsible for the protection, management and development of country parks and special
areas. A Country Parks Board was appointed in August 1976 to advise the Authority on policy
and programmes and to consider objections raised against the establishment cf protected areas
(Thrower, 1984; Jim, 1987).
The three main objectives of the Country Park Development Plan are to provide for
conservation, recreation and education. Park management is based on a system of zonation
providing for three categories of land use, namely: recreation zones, which are located in
accessible areas subject to heavy visitor use; wilderness zones, which provide the scenic
background to recreation zones; and conservation zones, which are sites of special scientific
importance and to which access by visitors is not encouraged (Thrower, 1984). Now that most
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Hong Kong
potential sites have been established, the emphasis of the country park programme has shifted
to maintaining and upgrading facilities, as well as encouraging countryside interpretation
through provision of visitor centres, information boards and guided tours (Jim, 1987).
The Country Park programme has been financed in two stages. Initially funds were provided
for the establishent of a protected area system, an operation lasting from 1976 to 1981.
Subsequent expenditure follows standard government procedures and is based on five-year
budgets, with detailed estimates of approved projects each year (Thrower, 1984).
Addresses Agriculture and Fisheries Department, Canton Road Government Offices, 393
Canton Road, 12th Floor, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Additional Information Tropical rain forest covered the Hong Kong region up to a thousand
years ago when there were few inhabitants, apart from aboriginal coastal traders and scattered
garrisons of the Tiangs. Yoa tribesmen are reported to have lived in the forests and probably
practised shifting cultivation. Later, in the Sung dynasty, the descendants of the Han began to
settle in the valleys and were followed by the Hakka, or guest people, also predominantly
farmers. Vast areas of forest were burnt to provide agricultural land and pasture, and to
discourage the more dangerous wildlife (Marshall and Phillips, 1965). Remnants of the original
forest cover are now restricted to ravines (Ismail, 1987). Native pines Pinus massoniana and
exotics, notably the Australian Brisbane box Tristania conferta, have been widely planted in
Hong Kong largley to protect the catchment areas of the many reservoirs constructed to meet
the territory’s water requirements. Many plantations were established in the late 1940s and
early 1950s, following the devastation of much of the vegetation during the Japanese
occupation in World War II (Thrower, 1984).
Pressure arising from the dense population and rapid economic growth threaten the territory’s
natural resources. Considerable industrial and residential expansion has taken place in the New
Territories, until recent decades a rather isolated rural area. Such development have been
conceived largely as isolated urban schemes with little integrated regional planning. The
importance of developing a symbiotic relationship between urban and rural areas has hardly
entered into official planning and policy-making (Dwyer, 1986). The very high population
density and poor quality of the urban environment in Hong Kong makes the requirements for
countryside recreation imperative for physical and mental health. The country park
programme has been successful in encouraging and satisfying this demand but the
ever-increasing visitor numbers are not being matched by a corresponding increase in the
management resource base. Over the last decade (1975/76-1985/86) the number of visitors to
country parks has risen from 2.0 to 9.46 million per year, representing an increase from 0.45 to
1.76 visits per capita per year. Concomitantly, the amount of litter collected annually has
increased from 446 to 4,000 tonnes. Most popular sites are now heavily over-used, excessive
trampling having decimated the grass cover.
Fires damaged some 5,415ha in 1985/86. Over the past 16 years the number of trees killed by
fire (5.42 million) has exceed that planted (4.84 million). Besides effecting a more equitable
spatial-temporal visitor distribution in future, low impact pursuits need to be encouraged to
off-load some of the pressure on over-used areas. Drastic new management approaches are
needed to contain the widespread damage from fire and litter (Jim, 1987).
Non-governmental conservation organisations includs the Hong Kong Bird Watching Society
and Hong Kong Natural History Society. WWF-Hong Kong was incorporated as a registered
charity in Hong Kong in 1981. Its main project to date has been the promotion and
development of the Mai Po marshes as a nature reserve. Friends of the Earth Hong Kong,
established in 1983, is mainly concerned with nuclear issues, water pollution and trees in urban
areas. The Conservancy Association is an older society which has been involved in
environmental education (Oldfield, 1987).
References
° Daley, P.A. (1964a). National Parks. A note prepared by Forestry Officer, Agriculture and
Fisheries Department, Hong Kong. Unpublished report. 4pp.
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Hong Kong
° Daley, P.A. (1964b). The use of renewable resources in Hong Kong. Agriculture and
Fisheries Department, Hong Kong. Unpublished report. 23pp.
° Daley, P.A. (1965a). Forestry and its place in natural resource conservation in Hong Kong -
a recommendation for revised policy. Agriculture and Fisheries Department, Hong Kong.
Unpublished report.
° Dwyer, D.J. (1986) Land use and regional planning problems in the New Territories of
Hong Kong. The Geographical Journal 152: 232-242.
° Hong Kong Government (1967). Kowloon disturbances. Report of the Commission of
Enquiry. Government Printer, Hong Kong.
Ishmail, A. (1987). Hong Kong 1987. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 364 pp.
Jim, C.Y. (1987). Country park usage and visitor impacts in Hong Kong. Parks 12(1): 3-8.
Marshall, P.M. and Phillips, J.G. (1965). Plans for conserving the wildlife of Hong
Kong. Oryx 8: 107-112.
° Oldfield, S. (1987).Fragments of Paradise. A guide for conservation action in the U.K.
Dependant Territories. Pisces Publications, Oxford. 192 pp.
° Scott, P. (1964). Report on a brief visit to Hong Kong in October, 1964. Hong Kong
University. Unpublished report. 3 pp.
° Talbot, L.M. and Talbot, M.H. (1965). Conservation of the Hong Kong countryside.
Government Printer, Hong Kong. 34 pp.
Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Wholey, J.W. (1968). The countryside and the people: report of the Provisional Council for
the Use and Conservation of the Countryside. Government Printer, Hong Kong.
°
°
°
°
°
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
Country Parks
Aberdeen 423 *
Clear Water Bay 615 *
Kam Shan 337 *
Kiu Tsui 100 *
Lam Tsuen 1,520 *
Lantau North 2,220 *
Lantau South 5,640 *
Lion Rock Silas
Ma On Shan 2,880 *
Pat Sin Leng 3,125 *
Plover Cove (and extension) 5,224 *
Pok Fu Lam 276 *
Sai Kung East 4,477 *
Sai Kung West 3,000 *
Shek O 710 *
Shing Mun 1,400 *
Tai Lam 5,330 *
Tai Mo Shan 1,440 *
Tai Tam (including Quarry Bay Extension) 1,585 *
Subtotal 40,873
Aberdeen, Pok Fu Lam, Tai Tam (including Quarry Bay Extension)
and Shek O Country Parks
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01 (Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Almost all land above 200m on Hong Kong Island is contained in its
four country parks. 22°15’-22°17’N, 114°08’-114°09°E (Pok Fu Lam); 22°15’-22°16’N,
114°09’-114°11°E (Aberdeen); 22°13’-22°17’N, 114°11’-114°14°E (Tai Tam); 22°13’-22°16°N,
114°13°-114°15’E (Shek O)
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Hong Kong
Date and History of Establishment Both Aberdeen and Tai Tam were designated as country
parks on 28 October 1977. The latter was subsequently extended on 21 September 1979, at the
same time as Pok Fu Lam and Shek O were established.
Area Aberdeen: 423ha
Pok Fu Lam: 270ha
Tai Tam: 1,315ha
Tai Tam Quarry Bay Extension: 270ha
Shek O: 710ha
Pok Fu Lam is contiguous with Aberdeen, which is separated from Tai Tam by the Wong Nai
Chung Gap. The Chai Wan-Stanley road forms a common boundary between Tai Tam and
Shek O.
Land Tenure Essentially public land
Altitude Ranges from sea level to the peak of Pak Ka Shan (Mt Parker) at 532m. Che Kei
Shan (Victoria Peak) at 554m is the highest point on the island but it is within an enclave
inside the park boundaries.
Physical Features For the most part, dark grey, fine-grained volcanic rocks form the
mountainous backbone of Hong Kong Island. Only in the northern half of Tai Tam and the
scuthern Cape d’Aguilar Peninsular are the underlying pink or grey, coarse-grained granites
exposed. The three peaks over 500m (Che Kei Shan, Kei Lik Shan and Pak Ka Shan) are
volcanic. Hong Kong granite is a first-class building stone and it is quarried just outside the
northern boundary of Tai Tam Country Park between Jardine’s Lookout and Mount Butler, and
on the western coast of d’Aguilar Peninsular. Hillslopes are often steep and the valleys cut by
the streams draining them are precipitous, rocky and V-shaped. The basic drainage pattern has
been changed by the catchwater system, which encircles the hills and channels water into the
reservoirs. Many millions of gallons which would otherwise water the lower reaches or flow
into the sea are, by this means, collected and stored in a number of reservoirs for human
consumption.
Climate Although Hong Kong lies just inside the tropics, the climate is temperate for nearly
half the year. Mean annual rainfall ranges from around 1200mm to more than 3000mm, about
80% of which falls in summer. This is the longest season, lasting from May to September with
hot, humid and usually wet weather. Temperatures range from about 24°C to 32°C.
September is the month in which Hong Kong is most likely to be affected by tropical
typhoons. These originate from near the Philippines and approach from a south-easterly
direction. Winter, lasting from November until February, is cold and dry. Temperatures
commonly range from about 13°C to 24°C but sometimes drop below freezing point on high
ground (Thrower, 1984; Ismail, 1987). Shek O, in the extreme south-east, has a combination of
lowest rainfall and greatest exposure to the cold, dry winter winds from the north-east,
summer south-easterlies and the predominantly easterly typhoons. By contrast, Mt. Collinson is
in the highest rainfall zone, sheltered from winter monsoon winds by Pottinger Peak and from
southerly winds by Stanley Peninsula.
Vegetation The southern part of Shek O Country Park is covered by low, wind-pruned
shrubland and grassland, with trees in the deeper valleys. The grasslands are dominated by
duck-beak grass Ischaemum sp. and minireed Arundinaria nepalensis. By contrast, hillslopes
from Pottinger Peak in the east to High West (Sai Ko Shan) in the west, are extensively
forested. The most protected ravines and deeper valleys often contain dense subtropical
rain-forest, typified by the presence of lianas. Most of the woodland is a mixture of native
broad-leaved trees, pines Pinus spp. and introduced exotics, of which Brisbane Box Tristania
conferta is probably the most common. MHundreds of thousands of trees were planted
throughout the latter half of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries. These were
mainly pines but also included gums Eucalyptus spp., bamboos (Gramineae), autumn
maple Bischoffia javanica, cassia bark tree Cinnamomum cassia, camphor tree C. camphora,
portia tree Thespesia populnea, China fir Cunninghamia lanceolata, Brisbane box, cork
oak Quercus suber and many others. Their descendants may well have contributed to the
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present woodland flora. The western valleys along Cape d’Aguilar Road contain some of the
most interesting plants (and animals) in Hong Kong, reminiscent of the richness of the tropical
forest which must once have existed over much wider areas (Thrower, 1984).
Fauna Most of the larger mammals are found in the woodlands of Mt Collinson and Pottinger
Peak of Shek O Country Park. There is evidence of the presence of pangolin Manis
pentadactyla, civet (Viveridae), barking deer Muntiacus reevesi, large bandicoot rat Bandicota
indica nemorivaga, native rats Rattus spp., mice Mus spp. and shrews Crocidura spp. In
1974-1975 44 species of birds were recorded, the majority of which were winter visitors and
passage migrants. Shek O is the only country park on Hong Kong Island where shore-birds,
such as reef egret Egretta sacra, black-headed gull Larus ridibundus, Kentish
plover Charadrius alexandrinus and sandpipers may be seen. Snakes, lizards and frogs are seen
occasionally (Thrower, 1984).
The fauna of the other parks on the island has not been investigated as fully as that of Shek O,
but observations suggest that it does not differ greatly. Pok Fu Lam, with its wooded valiey,
contains barking deer, and the introduced belly-banded squirrel Calliosciurus flavimanus has
become quite common, particularly in the northern parts of Aberdeen Country Park. Rhesus
macaques, possibly the remnants of the original indigenous monkey populations, were reported
in Tai Tam in 1963. Barking deer, small Indian civet Viverricula malaccensis, Chinese
ferret-badger Melogale moschata, Chinese porcupine Hystrix hodgsoni and house shrew Suncus
murinus were seen in the Tai Tam area in the 1960s and signs of pangolins are evident
(Thrower, 1984).
Pok Fu Lam, Aberdeen and Tai Tam reservoirs contain a variety of fish, including common
carp Cyprinus carpio, goldfish Carassius auraius, tilapia Sarotherodon mossambicus and
minnow Hemiculter leucisculus. Reeves’ terrapin Chinemys reevesii, three-banded box
terrapin Cuora trifasciata and the very rare Chinese soft-shelled turtle Amyda sp. have all been
seen near Tai Tam Reservoir (Thrower, 1984).
Cultural Heritage There are many relics of the fall of Hong Kong to the Japanese during
World War II, particularly in Aberdeen and Tai Tam country parks.
Local Human Population Large numbers of villages or extensive areas of farmed land have
never existed on Hong Kong Island. The only villages shown on early maps of the 1840s are
Little Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Tai Tam Tuk, Shek O, Hok Han Wan and Shau Kei Wan.
Those on the Cape d’Aguilar Peninsular are the only ones which still retain much village
character. The modern trend has been for farmers to abandon their land and move to urban
areas. In times of economic stress, however, there is often a return to the land, as happened in
1975 when parts of Pottinger Peak were illegally cleared by squatters to farm pigs and cultivate
vegetables (Thrower, 1984).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities | Recreation facilities include barbecue and picnic sites, and
shelters. There is a visitor information centre in the south of Aberdeen Country Park.
Self-guided trails, with explanatory booklets and marked points of interest along the route,
have been set up in Shek O and Aberdeen country parks. Licensed freshwater fishing is
permitted in the reservoirs (Thrower, 1984).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management Not only are the parks vitally important as water catchment areas,
but they provide a readily accessible recreational facility for the densely crowded urban areas
of the north shore and the growing population of Aberdeen and Pok Fu Lam. The island has
been the subject of various reafforestation efforts. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
the then Botanical and Afforestation Department was responsible for planting hundreds of
thousands of trees on catchment areas. Subsequently, following the Japanese occupation and
concomitant devastation of the vegetation, the Forestry Section of the Department of
Agriculture and Fisheries has been concerned with the problem of restoring the forests
(Thrower, 1984).
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Hong Kong
Management Problems Cutting of fuelwood and grass-burning for the benefit of cattle are
particular problems in the Cape d’Aguilar Peninsular of Shek O Country Park.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Ismail, A. (1987). Hong Kong 1987. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 364 pp.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
Clear Water Bay Country Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01 (South Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies south-east of Kowloon on Clear Water Bay Peninsula. The
country park is split into eastern and western sections which lie either side of the Clear Water
Bay Road. The boundaries do not extend as far as the beaches. 22°16’-22°19°N,
114°17°-114°19°E.
Date and History of Establishment 28 September 1979
Area 615ha
Land Tenure Essentially public land
Altitude Ranges from about sea level to High Junk Peak (Tiu Yue Yong) at 344m.
Physical Features The hills of Clear Water Bay Peninsula slope sharply down to the sea and
most of the coastline consists of almost vertical cliffs. The peninsula is predominantly volanic
in origin and is one of the few places in Hong Kong where old lava flows are clearly
identifiable. The summit of High Junk Peak in the western sector comprises precipitous cliffs
of jointed volcanic rock formed by an acidic lava. This was deposited over an earlier flow of
banded lava which, in turn, lies over a bed of welded tuff formed from volcanic ash and
pebbles. Subsequent earth movements tilted the layers so that the welded tuff is exposed only
on the western coast. In contrast to the craggy summit of High Junk Peak, the hills to the
south-west have smooth, rounded tops and represent one of the few occurrences of intrusive
rock (microgranite) on the peninsula. The rocks of Tin Ha Shan, at the southern extremity of
the western sector, are largely of the same welded tuff which underlies the laval flows further
north, and are estimated to be some 200m thick. The narrow neck of land separating Tin Ha
Shan from the rest of the western sector is only about 60m above sea level and comprises
weathered sands and boulders washed down from the hills on each side (Thrower, 1984).
Climate Although Hong Kong lies just inside the tropics, the climate is temperate for nearly
half the year. Mean annual rainfall ranges from around 1200mm to more than 3000mm, about
80% of which falls in summer. This is the longest season, lasting from May to September with
hot, humid and usually wet weather. Temperatures range from about 24°C to 32°C.
September is the month in which Hong Kong is most likely to be affected by tropical
typhoons. These originate from near the Philippines and approach from a south-easterly
direction. Winter, lasting from November until February, is cold and dry. Temperatures
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Hong Kong
commonly range from about 13°C to 24°C but sometimes drop below freezing point on high
ground and in the New Territories (Thrower, 1984; Ismail, 1987). Meterological data are not
available for Clear Water Bay Peninsula.
Vegetation The upper hillslopes are grassy and the downward extension of the grassland is
dictated by the amount of past burning. High Junk Peak and the hill range to the north of it
are well-wooded only on the lower eastern slopes. The forest is basically mixed oak Quercus
spp., dwarf mountain pine Baeckea frutescens, and Chinese red pine Pinus massoniana, but
with planted Acacia confusa and other introduced trees, particularly along Clear Water Bay
Road.
The dominant grass of the upper slopes is duck-beak grass Ischaemum sp. Of secondary
importance, but obvious in summer, are the white button-like flower heads of Hedyotis
uncinella and the yellow spkes of the sulphur orchid Habenaria linguella.
The combination of grazing and the villagers’ practice of burning the slopes to provide
palatable young shoots for the cattle have been effective in maintaining the vegetation as
grassland. The hills in the eastern section of the park appear similar. Here, the summits are
grassy except where boulders afford protection for scrub species. Downhill, grassland may be
succeeded by dwarf mountain pine scrub, while only the most protected valleys have tall scrub
intermingled with occasional trees. Other scrubland species include rose myrtle Rhodomyrtus
tomentosa and Hong Kong hawthorn Raphiolepis indica (Thrower, 1984; Anon., n.d.).
Fauna Little is known about the animal life of the Clear Water Bay Peninsula, particularly the
areas of woodland along the eastern boundary of the western section of the park. Birds, such
as bulbuls Pycnonotus spp., crested mynahs Acridotheres cristatellus and shrikes Lanius spp.,
are relatively common and the large white-rumped swift Apus pacificus is numerous (Thrower,
1984). Chinese francolin Francolinus pintadeanus, black kite Milvus migrans and_ tree
sparrow Passer montanus are occasional. Chinese bulbul Pycnonotus sinensis, greater
coucal Centropus sinensis, great tit Parus major and white eye Zosterops japonica can also be
seen but these inhabit the denser patches of bush in the stream beds (Anon., n.d.).
Insects are abundant and the large areas of grassland support an interesting variety of
grasshoppers, beetles and those moths and butterflies whose larvae are grass-eaters. The taller
shrub patches and the woodlands are rich in butterflies and it is not unusual to see several
dozen species in a few hours (Thrower, 1984).
Cultural Heritage On the coast behind Tai Miu Wan is situated the oldest Tin Hau Temple in
Hong Kong and above it, on the hillside, is a large engraved rock which is an important work
of art dating back to AD 1274 during the reign of Hsien-hsun in the southern Sung period. On
a nearby island is Tung Lung Fort designated as a Special Area of Historic Interest.
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The peninsula is very popular, major activities being swimming
and hiking. There are regular bus and ferry services to the park and boats can be hired to visit
the offshore islands. Visitor facilities include trails, and barbecue and picnic sites. There is an
information centre at the park management centre.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management Carried out in accordance with an approved park plan.
Management Problems Fire is a hazard. Visitor use is excessive in some areas, such as the
most southerly hill near Clear Water Bay car park. Here, erosion is evident and the grassland
consists of wasteland species such as wild oat Chrysopogon aciculatus, carpet grass Axonopus
compressus and elephant’s foot Elephantopus scaber. The coastal margins of Clear Water Bay
Peninsula are in a state of rapid development. The north-western coast is destined to be an
industrial area while, on the eastern coast, low-density housing development has _ been
permitted in specified zones. The southern peninsula of Po Toi O is destined to become a
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Hong Kong
country club complete with golf course and marina. Although these areas of development are
all outside the country park boundary, they have an effect on the view. The country park
forms a spectacular scenic background for the housing sites but the reverse is far from true
(Thrower, 1984).
Staff Some 20 staff are engaged in protection and management duties.
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Anon. (n.d.). Clear Water Bay Country Park and Tung Lung Fort Special Area. Government
Information Services, Hong Kong. Information leaflet.
° Ismail, A. (1987). Hong Kong 1987. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 364 pp.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
Kam Shan Country Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01. (South Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Lies north-west of Kowloon. The park is bounded by Tai Po Road in
the south-east. 22°21’-22°23’N, 114°08’-114°10°E.
Date and History of Establishment 24 June 1977
Area 337ha. Borders on Lion Rock Country Park (557ha) in the south-east, but not quite
contiguous with Shing Mun Country Park (1,400ha) in the north.
Land Tenure Essentially public land
Altitude 300-420m
Physical Features Kam Shan consists of gently rolling hills, highest in the north-west and
gradually sloping to the south-east. There are four reservoirs in the south of the park, more
than in any other country park. These are: Kowloon (with a capacity of 1.58 million cu.m),
Kowloon Byewash (0.85 million cu.m), Shek Lei Pui (0.53 million cu.m), and Reception (0.15
million cum). They form part of a single supply system connected by open channels and a
tunnel to Kowloon (Thrower, 1984).
Underlying rocks are all part of an intrusive granite mass and correspond to three phases of
intrusion. Sung Kong granite, the oldest, was followed by Cheung Chau granite (both within
the period 163-35 million years b.p.), while Needle Hill granite was pushed up some 25 million
years later. The grey, coarse-grained Sung Kong granite can be seen in the south of the park,
in the vicinity of Tai Po Road and nearby reservoirs of Kowloon and Byewash. To the west
and north of Byewash and covering the rest of the southern part of the park is Needle Hill
granite, fine-grained with quartz, pink feldspar and black biotite. The northern part of the
park is mostly of Cheung Chau granite with one area of Needle Hill granite along the western
boundary. Cheung Chau granite is often cut by veins of white quartz and other minerals. The
summits of Kam Shan and Ma Tsz Keng are formed of Needle Hill granite which, being
fine-grained, is more resistant to weathering than coarse-grained rocks (Thrower, 1984).
Climate Mean annual rainfall is 2000-2200mm, being slightly lower in the western half than
in the eastern (Thrower, 1984).
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Hong Kong
Vegetation With the exception of parts of Ma Tsz Keng, the park is covered with woodland,
mainly mixed pine Pinus spp.-Brisbane box Tristania conferta but also stands of pine and
native broad-leaved forest in some areas. Much of this woodland, including some of its native
trees, is the result of afforestation begun in 1947. The tree canopy is mostly open, with a
diverse and interesting scrub understory. In some areas this consists of native broad-leaved
shrubs such as rose myrtle Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Acronychia pedunculata, Melastoma spp.,
and downy holly //ex pubescens. Where the soil is wetter and occasionally water-logged a
sedge understory develops, dominated by Chinese scaly seed Lepidosperma_ chinense.
Elsewhere there are patches of woodland with bamboo understory, consisting of either Chinese
cane Arundinaria sinica, Hind’s cane A. hindsii or white-shoot bamboo Phyllostachys nidularia
(Thrower, 1984).
Fauna Kam Shan is the best country park in which to see mammals. Rhesus Macaca mulatta
and long-tailed M. fascicularis (introduced in 1920) macaques are numerous and
squirrels Callosciurus flavimanos can be seen around Shek Lei Pui Reservoir. Birds commonly
seen include yellow-browed warber, black kite, laughing thrushes, bulbuls, magpie, spotted
dove, sparrow, crested mynah and whistling thrush (Phylloscopus inornatus, Milvus migrans,
Garrulax spp., Pycnonotus spp., Pica pica, Streptopelia chinensis, Passer montanus, Acridotheres
cristatellus and Myiophoneus caeruleus). The reservoirs and streams support small populations
of fish and the occasional small terrapin. The fish are mostly minnows Hemiculter leucisculus,
common carp Cyprinus carpio, goldfish Carassius auratus and tilapia Sarotherodon
mossambicus. The covered galleries of the termite Odontotermes formosanus often adorn the
trunks of Brisbane box trees (Thrower, 1984).
Cultural Heritage There are a few old remnants of Gin Drinker’s Line, a line of defensive
positions built during World War II. A second line of defense was established on Kam Shan,
behind the Shing Mun Redoubt, and this fell to the Japanese on 11 December 1941 (Thrower,
1984).
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities _Kam Shan is one of the most popular and well-used of the
country parks, due to its scenery of woodlands and water, central location and easy access. It
receives many thousands of visitors each year. There is an extensive network of colour-coded
footpaths, totalling 17km. Part of the MacLehose Trail runs through the centre of the park.
Picnic and barbecue sites, and shelters are available. Licensed fishing is permitted on the
reservoirs (Anon., n.d.; Thrower, 1984).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The whole of the park is important as a catchment area for its four
reservoirs. Reafforestation has followed a deliberate policy but the introduction of large
mammals (monkeys and squirrels) has largely been unplanned (Thrower, 1984). Management is
carried out in accordance with the approved park plan.
Management Problems Many hectares of woodland are lost to fire each year, largely as a
result of carelessness by visitors. Litter and erosion of footpaths are a constant problem
(Thrower, 1984).
Staff Some 50 staff are engaged in protection and management duties.
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
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Hong Kong
References
° Anon. (n.d.). Kam Shan Country Park. Government Printer, Hong Kong. Information
leaflet.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
Kiu Tsui Country Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01 (South Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Comprises eight islands, the largest of which is Kiu Tsui Chau (Sharp
Island), that lie just south-east of Sai Kung in the New Territories. The others are Kiu Tau,
Pak Sha Chau, Cham Tau Chau, Ham Luen Lok, Tuen Tau Chau and two small islands without
names. All of Kiu Tsui Chau has been designated as a country park except for the
southernmost peninsular and the coastline on the north-west. 22°21°-22°23’N,
114°17°-114°18’E
Date and History of Establishment 1 June 1979
Area 100ha
Land Tenure Essentially public land
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 136m.
Physical Features Port Shelter (Ngau Mei Hoi) is a submerged valley while Kiu Tsui Chau
and the surrounding islets are the tops of hills which rise above the invading sea. Most of the
coastline is rocky but there are four beaches in the middle region. For sucha small area it has
a remarkable and interesting variety of rocks, and even the islets differ considerably from one
another. The oldest rocks are volcanic, and cover most of the area. They are largely banded
acid lava deposits, as on Kiu Tsvi Chau, and rhyolite. In many places the rocks have been
twisted by later earth movements and contain almond-shaped cavities filled with quartz,
chlorite or other minerals. The whole of the eastern coastline is formed of this volcanic rock.
The northern coastal area consists of sedimentary layers, probably deposited by rivers with the
intermittent addition of volcanic ash. The hard volcanic rocks form the high ridge running
north-south behind Kiu Tsui village. Due to a difference in rock composition, the
southernmost slopes of the ridge are the steepest. Here, the volcanic deposits meet another,
more erodable rock of the intruded granite group (quartz monzonite), which extends in a
narrow band (less than 500m wide) about halfway across the island. Quartz monzonite also
outcrops on the north coast and forms the little unnamed islet opposite the coast at this point.
The rocks of the eastern coastline of Kiu Tsui Chau are formed from volcanic lavas but those
of the western coast are of more varied origin. Lava deposits are found only ina small section
in the north and around Hap Mun Bay in the south. Between these is the quartz monzonite
around Kiu Tsui Village, flanked on both sides by rock composed of fine volcanic ash and
forming a strip some 100m wide along the coast (Thrower, 1984).
Climate Although Hong Kong lies just inside the tropics, the climate is temperate for nearly
half the year. Mean annual rainfall ranges from around 1200mm to more than 3000mm, about
80% of which falls in summer. This is the longest season, lasting from May to September with
hot, humid and usually wet weather. Temperatures range from about 24°C to 32°C.
September is the month in which Hong Kong is most likely to be affected by tropical
typhoons. These originate from near the Philippines and approach from a south-easterly
direction. Winter, lasting from November until February, is cold and dry. Temperatures
=pi1A-
Hong Kong
commonly range from about 13°C to 24°C but sometimes drop below freezing point on high
ground and in the New Territories (Thrower, 1984; Ismail, 1987). Meterological data are not
available for Kiu Tsui Chau.
Vegetation The height and density of the vegetation covering Kiu Tsui Chau is indicative of
many years of freedom from fire. The central highlands and the northern part of the island
are covered with open pine Pinus massoniana woodland, which has a dense undergrowth of
shrubs and lianas. No young pine trees or seedlings are growing up through the dense shrub
layer, so broad-leaved trees may succeed the pines as they die. Young saplings of ivy
tree Schefflera octophylla, figs Ficus spp. and other broad-leaved trees in the shrub layer give
some indication of the structure of the future woodland if time and protection from fire allows
succession to proceed. The shrub layer is diverse: in early summer the fragrant flowers of cape
jasmine Gardenia jasminoides and the conspicuous white sepals of splash-of-white Mussaenda
pubescens are common and many rarer flowers, such as Uvaria microcarpa, are found among
the dense lianas. The closed canopy of the shrub layer cuts out most of the light at ground
level. Hence, there is much bare soil and only those plants which can tolerate deep shade, such
as lily turf Liriope spicata and hilo holly Ardisia crenata, can survive.
The western hillslopes have a denser covering of vegetation, probably as a result of protection
from the predominantly easterly monsoon and typhoon winds, and the slight rainfall gradient
from east to west. Pines on the western slopes form an almost closed canopy in many places
while on the eastern slopes they are much more scattered. Where trees are sparse, the
scrubland contains a high percentage of rose myrtle Rhodomyrtus tomentosa and dwarf
mountain pine Baeckea frutescens.
The coastal margins have a narrow but very well-developed band of beach naupaka Scaevola
sericea, Cuban bast Hibiscus tiliaceus and screw pine Pandanus tectorius. The herbs on sandy
and boulder beaches are mainly beach grass Zoysia sinica or seashore dropseed Sporobolus
virginicus, with occasional patches of beach morning glory Ipomoea brasiliensis, beach
wedelia Wedelia prostrata and the rare Hainan naupaka Scaevola hainanensis. Around the
stream mouths on the east coast is mangrove forest, with many-petaled mangrove Bruguiera
conjugata, water pen Kandelia kandel, tung-flower mangrove Aegiceras corniculatum, and the
mangrove associates such as_ false jasmine Clerodendrum inerme and _ milky
mangrove Excoecaria agallocha (Thrower, 1984).
Fauna Woodland birds are numerous. In summer there are coucals Centropus sinensis,
long-tailed tailor birds Orthotomus sutorius, crested Pycnonotus jocosus and Chinese
bulbuls P. sinensis, black-faced laughing thrushes Garrulax perspicillatus, spotted
doves Streptopelia chinensis and many more species. Along the beaches white-breasted
Kingfishers Halcyon smyrnensis, grey-rumped 4Heteroscelus brevipes and common
sandpipers Actitis hypoleucos have been noted (Thrower, 1984).
Butterflies and moths are common, particularly where they are attracted to the flowers of
the Lantana camara, which grows near beaches and around developed areas (Thrower, 1984).
Rocky shores, sandy shores and mangroves provide a good variety of coastal habitats, and the
drift along the beaches on the eastern side yields an interesting harvest of shells, sea urchins
and other marine plants and animals (Thrower, 1984).;CULTURAL HERITAGE The presence
of an old lime kiln, thought to be of a later type than the Tang kilns, is indicative of an earlier
lime industry based on coral and sheels (Thrower, 1984).
Cultural Heritage The presence of an old lime kiln, thought to be of a later type than the
Tang kilns, is indicative of an earlier lime industry based on coral and sheels (Thrower, 1984).
Local Human Population The villages in the west and south of Kiu Tsui Chau are excluded
from the country park (Thrower, 1984).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The beaches on Kiu Tsui Chau and Pak Sha Chau are accessible
by kai-do from Sai Kung. Kiu Tsui Chau receives many visitors (Thrower, 1984).
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Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The vegetation on Kiu Tsui Chau provides a fine example of
island flora with its well-developed coastal fringe plants and pine woodlands. With adequate
protection from fire or cutting, the pine woodlands should be succeeded by broad-leaved
woodland (Thrower, 1984).
Management Problems Litter, left by villagers and holiday visitors, is present almost
everywhere. Around the coastline, particularly on the east coast, rubbish is deposited both by
tides and by people using the area as a convenient dump.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Ismail, A. (1987). Hong Kong 1987. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 364 pp.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
Lam Tsuen Country Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01
Geographical Location Lies north of Shek Kong in the centre of the New Territories. The
park comprises two discrete units, namely Kai Keung Leng to the west and Tai To Yan to the
east. These two hills rise up out of the Pat Heung and Lam Tsuen valleys, and are separated
from each other by the Tsui Keng Valley, through which runs the Lam Kam Road.
22°26’-22°29’N, 114°03’-114°08’E
Date and History of Establishment 23 February 1979
Area 1,520ha
Land Tenure Mainly public land, ? with pockets of land on lease to local villagers
Altitude The highest peaks in the park are Kai Keung Leng at 572m and Tai To Yan at 565m.
Physical Features The two mountains of the park rise as volcanic ridges from the surrounding
plains, which have been formed from material eroded from the hillslopes. The ridges have
been formed by almost parallel north-east to south-west oriented folds and shaped by streams,
depositing a ring of colluvium around their bases, particularly in the north-west.
Both mountains are composed of consolidated fragments of volcanic origin. Pak Tai To Yan
consists almost entirely of fine tuff, a creamy-grey, fine-grained rock containing up to
one-third of quartz crystals. Since it weathers very easily, outcrops and boulders are a common
feature and the pitted marks of weathering are clearly seen on their surfaces. Running parallel
to the fine tuff ridge of Kai Keung Leng is a band of coarse tuff about half a kilometre wide.
This northern coarse tuff rock is almost black in colour and contains crystals of biotite,
feldspar and quartz.
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The only exposure of intrusive rock is found on the southern base of Tai To Yan, where an
outcrop of Tai Po granodiorite extends from the Lam Kam Road to the 600m contour. This
rock is dark grey and coarse-grained, often with islands of fine-grained rock. It weathers to
form a deep rust-red clay (Thrower, 1984).
Climate Annual rainfall in the park increases steadily from 1800-2000mm on the north-west
slopes of Kai Keiung Leng to 2600mm on the south-east slopes of Tai To Yan. The
moisture-laden south-east winds of summer drop their rain on the eastern slopes, the
north-west slopes being in a partial rain shadow. This gradient of rainfall, along with aspect
and exposure, accounts for much of the difference in vegetation of the two hills and the better
growth on Tai To Yan (Thrower, 1984).
Vegetation The vegetation is influenced by the frequency of fires, few years passing without
some hillslopes being burnt. Thus, both Kai Keung Leng and Tai To Yan are covered by
extensive areas of grassland - the former almost entirely.
On Tai To Yan, streams have cut deep ravines, which provide a refuge for plants (and animals)
from damage by fires. Strips and patches of ravine woodland remain on both the south-eastern
and north-western faces. Some of these contain very interesting and rare plants, particularly
ferns.
The grassland which covers the ridges and exposed slopes is of the common
duck-beak Ischaemum spp. and minireed Arundinaria nepalensis type. The deep valleys
contain broad-leaved tree species, which grade into pine woodland on the lower slopes.
Fauna Little is known about the sparse fauna of the park. The common grassland associates
inhabit the larger part of the area but even they represent a depauperate fauna, as their
populations are periodically depleted by fire. Only after regrowth of their food supply and
recolonisation from outside burnt areas are populations re-established. As the Lam Tsuen
Valley is noted for the rich bird life of its fung shui woods, it is likely that the ravine
woodlands also shelter interesting birds. Butterflies such as common grass yellows Eurema
hecabe, grass blues Zizeeria spp. and skippers (Hesperidae) can usually be seen. Visitors, such
as the common white Artogeia canidia and small white A. rapae, which breed on the vegetable
crops of the valley, are common at lower altitudes.
Cultural Heritage Several large banyan trees are locally important as shrines. The Lunar New
Year is the time when "lucky" papers are thrown into their branches to mellow in the sun and
rain during subsequent months (Anon., n.d.).
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Lam Tsuen is probably the least visited of all country parks,
attracting mainly energetic walkers. Facilities include picnic places and barbecue sites close to
public transport, shelters, a youth hostel, and management and information centres, all of
which are located outisde the park (Thrower, 1984).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management Some wooded ravines have been designated as Sites of Special
Scientific Interest on account of their rare flora.
Management Problems The two halves of Lam Tsuen Country Park are isolated highlands
surrounded by wide, fertile valleys. Within the park boundaries, the major problems are
burning, which maintains the vegetation as grassland, and erosion of footpaths (Thrower, 1984).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
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References
° Anon. (n.d.). Tai Lam, Tai Mo Shan and Lam Tsuen Country Parks. Government
Information Services, Hong Kong. Information leaflet.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
Lantau North Country Park and Lantau South Country Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01 (South Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Situated on Lantau Island which lies east of Hong Kong Island.
Lantau North and South are contiguous with each other. 22°12’-22°17’N, 113°50’-113°59°E
Date and History of Establishment Lantau North was designated a country park on 18 August
1978 and Lantau South on 20 April 1978.
Area Lantau North is 2,220ha and Lantau South 5,640ha.
Land Tenure Essentially public land
Altitude Ranges from sea level to 934m (Lantau Peak).
Physical Features Lantau, with an area of about 14,400ha, is the largest of the Hong Kong
islands and is almost completely rural. The mountains of Lantau have been formed by folding,
major fold-lines producing the north-east to south-west orientated ridges. The cross-fold at
Ngong Ping forms a ridge at right angles to the main line. In the central area, the variety of
different volcanic rocks is indicative of a long and complex history of volcanic eruptions. In
some places, thick lava flows have produced dark grey or greenish, banded, fine-grained rock
with large crystals of white feldspar, smaller crystals of iron-stained quartz and black biotite.
Outcrops of lava deposits occur at Ngong Ping and in the hills east and south of Keung Shan.
Coarse and fine tuff (solid rock transformed from volcanic ash) cover the rest of central
Lantau, in some places sandwiched between sedimentary rocks. Bands of breccia (rock
fragments set in a fine-grained matrix) form cliffs or scarps on the north side of Lantau Peak
(Fung Wong Shan), the south face of Sunset Peak (Tai Tung Shan) and on the hillslopes to the
north of Shek Pik Reservoir. There have been a series of igneous intrusions into the overlying
volcanic rocks, the oldest, Tai Po granodiorite, being exposed at Cheung Sha. Of almost equal
age is the coarse-grained pink or grey Sung Kong granite exposed at Fan Lau, Lo Kei Wan and
Shap Long. More recent is the Cheung Chau granite, medium-grained and light-grey to pink
in colour, which comprises the whole of Chi Ma Wan Peninsula in the south-east. Lo Kei Wan
Peninsula is formed of the younger quartz monzonite, a fine to medium-grained grey rock with
crystals of pink and white feldspar.
Climate Although Hong Kong lies just inside the tropics, the climate is temperate for nearly
half the year. Mean annual rainfall ranges from around 1200mm to more than 3000mm, about
80% of which falls in summer. This is the longest season, lasting from May to September with
hot, humid and usually wet weather. Temperatures range from about 24°C to 32°C.
September is the month in which Hong Kong is most likely to be affected by tropical
typhoons. These originate from near the Philippines and approach from a south-easterly
direction. Winter, lasting from November until February, is cold and dry. Temperatures
commonly range from about 13°C to 24°C but sometimes drop below freezing point on high
ground (Thrower, 1984; Ismail, 1987). Meterological data are not available for Lantau Island.
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Vegetation Much of Lantau Island consists of bare grassy hills and roadside plantations
of Acacia confusa. The grasslands, maintained by burning, are dominated by duck-beak
grass Ischaemum sp. with an undergrowth of small herbs and shrubs. The valleys contain a
rich flora of trees, shrubs, bamboos and lianas, providing a refuge for many rare species which
have disappeared from the frequently-burned hillslopes. Other rare and beautiful plants, such
as cut-leaved begonia Begonia laciniata and Chinese wickstroemia Wickstroemia chinensis,
grow on the summits of the ridges among rocks and boulders. The forested ravines on the
northern slopes of Lantau and Sunset peaks are noted for their relic woodland floras which
include Amentotaxus argotaenia, Malayan aspen Exbucklandia populnea, star anise Illicium sp.
and members of the family Magnoliaceae. Most of the uncultivated valleys and lower hillslopes
support a mixture of planted introduced trees and natives. Plantations around Shek Pik
Reservoir and nearby hillsides comprise Brisbane box Tristania conferta and slash pine Pinus
elliottii. On Chi Ma Wan Peninsula, southern slopes have an unusual woodland of horsetail
tree Casvarina equisetifolia mixed with native pines. South of Keung Shan is Ng Yuen
Garden, a Chinese-style garden developed and planted with ornamental trees by the late Mr
Woo Quen-sung.
The coastal flora is typical, with beach naupaka Scaevola sericea, Cuban bast Hibiscus tiliaceus
and portia tree Thespesia populnea behind the shore and mangroves near creek inlets. The
century plant Agave angustifolia, an exotic of obscure origin with many local uses, is
conspicuous along the coastal belt (Thrower, 1984).
Fauna’ The lack of extensive tracts of broad-leaved forest on Lantau Island suggests that
faunal inhabitants of open pine woods, scrub and grassland will be most common. Also, the
marine fauna is an important constituent, judging by the large variety of seashells and crabs
found on the beaches and inlets. Of the birds, Chinese pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae and
francolin Francolinus pintadeanus are common on the upper grassy slopes, and crested
mynah Acridotheres cristatellus and black drongo Dicrurus macrocercus in the lowlands.
Among amphibians and reptiles, the Chinese big-headed terrapin Platysternon m.
megacephalum and three-banded box terrapin Cuora trifasciata occur in mountain streams, and
snakes in lowland streams. Rat snakes Ptyas spp., including the Indo-Chinese rat
snake P. korros, have been seen in Keung Shan Valley.
Freshwater fish include carp (Cyprinidae) in the pools at Ng Yuen Gardens. The reservoir at
Shek Pik would be expected to contain minnow Hemiculter Leucisculus and common
carp Cyprinus carpio, and possibly tilapia Sarotherodon mossambicus, snakehead Ophiocephalus
maculatus, catfish Clarius fuscus, goby Glossogobius giuris and soft-finned carp Osteochilus
vittatus.
Of the insects, butterflies are prominent, particularly in the south. Species commonly seen
include swallow-tails (red Helen Papilio helenus), Paris peacock, common mormon, great
mormon (P. paris, P. polytes, P. memnon), tigers (dark-veined Danaus genutia and
blue D. limniace), mottled migrant, common mimes, great orange tip, six-rings, angled castor,
skippers (Hesperidae), common grass yellow and grass blues (Catopsilia pyranthe, Chilasa
clytia, Hebomoia glaucippe, Ypthima spp., Ariadne ariadne, Eurema hecabe and Zizeeria spp.)
(Thrower, 1984).
Cultural Heritage Lantau Island has a long history of human activity dating back to 4,000
BC, when coastal areas were inhabited by a group of middle-Neolithic tribes called Yueh.
They made stone tools and pottery. Although primarily fisherfolk, they began to adopt an
agricultural way of life. With subsequent influence from northerners during the late-Neolithic
and Bronze ages (c. 2,400-400 BC) emerged a distinctive people and dialect that later became
recognised as Cantonese.
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Lime production, from shells and coral, became an important local industry during the period
300-900 AD. At the tip of Fan Lau Peninsula, in the south-west of the island, are the ruins of
a fort apparently built in the Ming Dynasty some time before 1573. This, together with the
fortification at Tung Chung on the north coast, was of strategic importance in relation to
guarding Pearl River Estuary and the shipping lanes to Canton. In the 18th and 19th centuries,
Lantau was constantly infested with pirates and opium smugglers (Thrower, 1984).
Local Human Population All of the island’s 47 villages are excluded from the country parks.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Lantau is popular on account of its peaceful rural atmosphere.
Activities include walking, swimming, camping and fishing. It is accessible by ferry and there
are bus services on the island. Picnic and barbecue sites cater for day-trippers. There are
camp sites at Kau Ling Chung, Tai Long Wan, Lo Kei Wan, Nam Shan and Shap Long, and
more are being planned. Accommodation is available at Ngong Ping and Mong Tung Wan
youth hostels, some monasteries and coastal cottages, and a hotel in Pui O.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The relic woodlands on the northern slopes of Lantau and Sunset
peaks have been designated as both Special Areas and Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Ng
Yuen Garden is another designated SSSI. Management staff are responsible for providing,
supervising and maintaining recreational facilities, litter collection, and the planting of trees
and shrubs and their protection from fires (Anon., n.d.; Thrower, 1984).
A group of the Yi Long kilns were restored by the Country Parks Authority in 1979. Fan Lau
Fort is under the care of the Antiquities and Monuments Office of the Urban Services
Department, which intends to restore it and open it to the public (Thrower, 1984).
Management Problems Over the centuries, the vegetation has been cut for fuelling lime kilns
and to meet local requirements for cooking and heating. In addition, until early this century,
outsiders used to harvest the wood for charcoal, which was locally exported in junks. More
recent impacts include the construction of Shek Pik Reservoir, which supplies water to Hong
Kong Island, and extensions to the road system. Although there are no cities or large towns on
the island, housing development has begun (Thrower, 1984). Fire and litter are a constant
problem.
Staff The management staff, comprising operational teams and park rangers, total over 150
government personnel.
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Anon. (n.d.) Lantau Country Parks. Government Information Services, Hong Kong.
Information leaflet.
° Ismail, A. (1987). Hong Kong 1987. Government Printer, Hong Kong.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
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Lion Rock Country Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01 (South Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Situated astride the high rocky ridge between North Kowloon and Sha
Tin. The Tai Po Road forms the western border of the park. 22°21°-22°22’N,
114°09’-114°12’E.
Date and History of Establishment 24 June 1977
Area 577ha. The park borders on Kam Shan Country Park (337ha) to the west and Ma On
Shan Country Park (2,880ha) to the east.
Land Tenure Essentially public land
Altitude Lion Rock (Sz Tsz Shan) at 494m is the highest point in the park.
Physical Features The park is underlain entirely by granite and displays the prominent
characteristics of this rock type: deep weathering, boulder-strewn hillsides, tors, massive
landslips and ready erosion. The valley floors are filled with colluvium: the product of
weathering and erosion of the hillslopes. There are three different types of granite each
making up large areas of the park: coarse-grained grey Sung Kong granite; medium-grained
pink Cheung Chau granite; and fine-grained pinkish-mauve Ma On Shan granite. The highest
areas of Lion Rock and Beacon Hill are both associated with outcrops of the Ma On Shan
granite, Lion Rock being surrounded by Sung Kong and Beacon Hill by Cheung Chau granite.
Climate Although Hong Kong lies just inside the tropics, the climate is temperate for nearly
half the year. Mean annual rainfall ranges from around 1200mm to more than 3000mm, about
80% of which falls in summer. This is the longest season, lasting from May to September with
hot, humid and usually wet weather. Temperatures range from about 24°C to 32°C.
September is the month in which Hong Kong is most likely to be affected by tropical
typhoons. These originate from near the Philippines and approach from a south-easterly
direction. Winter, lasting from November until February, is cold and dry. Temperatures
commonly range from about 13°C to 24°C but sometimes drop below freezing point on high
ground and in the New Territories (Thrower, 1984; Ismail, 1987). Meteorological data are not
available for Lion Rock Country Park.
Vegetation Some 348ha of the park are forest plantations. The upper south-facing slopes of
Lion Rock and Beacon Hill are covered with grassland, held in succession by fires. Duck-beak
grass Ischaemum spp. and minireed Arundinaria nepalensis dominate the slopes, with shrubs,
pine Pinus massoniania and Acacia confusa in refuge sites. Lower down, planted groves of
pine struggle against the poor rocky soil and frequent hill fires. Most of the north-facing
slopes are well-wooded, with a mixture of broad-leaved trees, pine and acacia. Many of the
slopes in the lee of Lion Rock are covered with tall Gordonia axillaris scrub. The forest on the
Kowloon Hills, which form the north-western boundary of the park, is of a mixed oak-laurel
composition with plantations of introduced gum Eucalyptus spp. and other myrtaceous trees.
The wide range of native broad-leaved trees, climbers and shrubs makes this one of the most
interesting accessible woodlands in Hong Kong (Thrower, 1984).
Fauna Little is known of the animals in the area, but the woodlands contain the common
species of birds and insects expected in such habitat. Rhesus Macaca mulatta and
long-tailed M. fascicularis macaques live in the woodlands on the western side of the park.
Although in the 19th century the rhesus macaque was one of the native animals of Hong Kong,
it became locally extinct and the present population is a re-introduction; the long-tailed
macaque is native to South-east Asia but has also been introduced locally. Evidence from scats
indicates that civets (Viveridae) are present. The summit of the low, pine-clad hill in the west
of the park (Eagle’s Nest) is a nesting site for both black kite Milvus migrans and crows Corvus
spp. (Thrower, 1984).
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Cultural Heritage Old stone pathways, built in the reign of Cheng Lung (1736-1796 AD)
linked Kowloon to Sha Tin via Sha Tin Pass. Over a century ago, Sha Tin, on the eastern edge
of the park, was famed for the quality of its incense from the heung tree Aquilaria sinensis
grown on nearby hillsides. The remains of charcoal kilns indicate that the forests were cut
down for charcoal production. Relics of the Gin Drinker’s Line, a string of fortifications built
in 1937 in anticipation of a Japanese attack, are present (Thrower, 1984).
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The Lion Rock area has long been a favourite area for
picnickers and hikers because of its scenic spots such as Lion Rock, Beacon Hill and the
legendary Mong Fu Shek (Amah Rock). There is no road access within the park. Part of the
MacLehose Trail runs east-west through the middle of the park. There is a nature trail around
Eagle’s Nest in the south-west, and a fitness trail along the north-western boundary. Picnic
facilities are available but barbecue sites are limited because of the very serious risk of fires
(Anon., n.d.; Thrower, 1984).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management Part of the western area of the park has been set aside as a
conservation area. In particular, the northern faces of Beacon Hill have been designated as a
Site of Special Scientific Interest on account of the fine stands of mountain forest. In addition,
much of the mountainous and rocky terrain has been zoned as a wilderness area. The old stone
footpath, now leading from Wang Tau Hom over Sha Tin Pass, has been restored by the
Agriculture and Fisheries Department. A park management centre has been established in the
south-west corner of the park (Anon., n.d.; Thrower, 1984).
Management Problems Fires are a constant problem.
Staff Over 50 staff are engaged in the protection and management of the park.
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Anon. (n.d.) Lion Rock Country Park. Government Information Services, Hong Kong.
Information leaflet.
° Ismail, A. (1987). Hong Kong 1987. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 364 pp.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
Ma On Shan Country Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01 (South Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Centrally situated in the neck of the Sai Kung Peninsular in the
eastern New Territories. The park stretches from Kowloon Peak in the south along the range
of Buffalo Hills and embraces Ma On Sha. The Hebe Haven Peninsular is an outlier of the
park. 22°20’-22°25’N, 114°12’-114°17°E.
Date and History of Establishment 27 April 1979
Area 2,880ha. Lies adjacent to Sai Kung West Country Park (3,000ha) in the east and Lion
Rock Country Park (557ha) in the west.
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Land Tenure Essentially public land
Altitude Ranges from sea level to the peak of Ma On Shan at 702m.
Physical Features The high backbone of mountains running from Ngau Ngak Shan (The
Hunch Back) south to Fei Ngo Shan (Kowloon Peak) and Shui Chuen O (Sugarloaf Peak)
dominates the landscape. Most of the higher peaks are composed of hard volcanic rock, some
originating as thick lava flow, some as tuff and the rest as a series of layers of old lava
sandwiched between sedimentary rock. In the west of the park, overlying volcanic rocks have
been eroded to expose the underlying granite, as in the case of Shui Chuen O, Ngau Au Shan
(Stoker’s Peak), Tsim Mei Fung (Heather Hill) and Nui Po Shan (Turret Hill), all of which are
below 400m. The Ma On Shan iron deposit, which is excised from the park lies in the
metamorphic zone at the junction of granite and volcanic rocks (Thrower, 1984).
Climate Although Hong Kong lies just inside the tropics, the climate is temperate for nearly
half the year. Mean annual rainfall ranges from around 1200mm to more than 3000mm, about
80% of which falls in summer. This is the longest season, lasting from May to September with
hot, humid and usually wet weather. Temperatures range from about 24°C to 32°C.
September is the month in which Hong Kong is most likely to be affected by tropical
typhoons. These originate from near the Philippines and approach from a south-easterly
direction. Winter, lasting from November until February, is cold and dry. Temperatures
commonly range from about 13°C to 24°C but sometimes drop below freezing point on high
ground and in the New Territories (Thrower, 1984; Ismail, 1987). Meterological data are not
available for Ma On Shan Country Park.
Vegetation At least 75% of the park is grassland or low scrub, maintained by pine and largely
dominated by duck-beak grass Ischaemum sp. and minireed Arundinaria nepalensis. In the
upper valleys, where there is more moisture and protection than on the hilltops,
winter Miscanthis sinensis and summer M. floridulus sword grass are dominant, grading into
broad-leaved scrub lower down and on most sheltered areas. Although once forested, the
shallow soil, exposure to prevailing winds and steep topography limit plant succession to low
shrubs on the southern slopes. By contrast, tall scrub or woodland may develop on northern
slopes where conditions are less severe. For example, native broad-leaved woodland covers the
northern slopes of Ma On Shan and the Hunch Backs, among the most botanically interesting
areas in the park on account of the diversity of trees (Thrower, 1984).
Fauna Wild boar Sus scrofa, barking deer Muntiacus reevesi and macaques Macaca spp.
occurred in the area during the late 19th century but are no longer present. Disconcerting is
the presence of feral goats in small groups, thought to have descended from animals which
escaped from village herds. Native rats, notably Sladen’s rat Ratta koratensis and chestnut
spiny-haired rat R. bukit huang, are common in scrub (Thrower, 1984). Lay (1980) recorded
31 species of birds in the park, two thirds of which are residents. This list is very incomplete.
Of the invertebrates, grasshoppers, moths and butterflies are plentiful. The grass
yellow Eurema hecabe and grass blues Zizeeria spp. are common. Butterflies such as Paris
peacock Papilio paris, small leopard Phalanta phalantha, plum Judy Abisara echerius and dark
brown bush brown Mycalesis mineus are quite common in the "fung shui" or holy groves
(Thrower, 1984).
Cultural Heritage Hakka-speaking people settled in the upland valleys and plateaux because
the more fertile lowlands of the New Territories were settled by the Cantonese. They formed
small patrilineal villages and cultivated the land, growing rice, tea, indigo, peanuts and
vegetables on terraces. These are now abandoned but remain a distinctive feature of the
landscape. Stone vats used for extracting the dye from indigo are still in evidence, as are some
of the old stone village paths, built by the Hakkas. In the 19th century the villages produced
cloth from hemp Boehmeria nivea, native to both Hong Kong and South China. Indigo was
grown until the end of World War I but hemp production ceased several years earlier (Thrower,
1984). Several villages have temples and other buildings of interest, including an old pagoda at
Sai O (Anon., n.d.)
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Local Human Population The park’s human population has diminished during the later years
of the 20th century and villages are now virtually deserted (Anon., n.d.; Thrower, 1984).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Thousands of walkers visit the park each year. Hebe Haven
Peninsular is notable for having one of the best beaches in the area - Trio Beach. Part of the
MacLehose Trail runs through the middle of the park, with camp sites en route at Ngong Ping
and Shui Lap Wo. Other facilities include picnic and barbecue sites, and shelters (Anon., n.d.;
Thrower, 1984).
Scientific Research and Facilities | Some ecological work was carried out by Lay (1980) in
1978-1980.
Conservation Management An area of scrub forest, with tall magnoliaceous trees and a
recently-discovered gesneriad on the eastern slopes of Ma On Shan has been designated both as
a Site of Special Scientific Interest and as a Special Area. There is a management centre at the
north-eastern extremity of the park (Thrower, 1984).
Management Problems Trampling combined with grazing prevents grassland from reverting to
scrub and forest in upland areas. Some over-used areas are showing signs of erosion, with loss
of soil cover. Strip mining near Ma On Shan has resulted in much of the hillside collapsing
and unsightly dumps of iron ore and sludge in the vicinity of the park. The lease of the mine
expired in 1981 but it is not known if this has been renewed. Litter is a continual problem and
fires are a constant risk (Anon., n.d.; Thrower, 1984).
Staff Some 40 staff are involved in protection and management duties.
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Anon. (n.d.) Ma On Shan Country Park. Government Information Services, Hong Kong.
Information leaflet.
Ismail, A. (1987). Hong Kong 1987. Government Printer, Hong Kong.
Lay, C.C. (1980). Ecological bases for countryside management in the Ma On Shan Country
Park. M. Phil. thesis. The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
Pat Sin Leng Country Park, Plover Cove Country Park
(including Plover Cove Extension)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01 (Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location The two parks are contiguous to each other and lie north-east of Tai
Po in the New Territories. Plover Cove Extension consists of seven islands, namely: Kat O
Chau (Crooked Island) of 250ha, Tui Min Chau of less than 100ha, Ngo Mei Chau (Crescent
Island) of less than 100ha, Wong Wan Chau (Double Island) of 218ha, Wu Yeung Chau of less
than 100ha, Chek Chau of less than 100ha and Ping Chau of lllha. Pat Sin Leng:
22°29°-22°32’N, 114°10’-114°14’E; Plover Cove (including the extension): 22°27’-22°33’N,
114°14°-114°24’E.
Date and History of Establishment Plover Cove was designated as a country park on 17 April
1978 and extended on | June 1979 to include seven offshore islands. Pat Sin Leng Country
Park was established on 18 August 1978.
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Area Pat Sin Leng: 3,125ha
Plover Cove: 4,594ha
Plover Cove Extension: 630ha
Land Tenure Essentially public land with pockets of private land near villages.
Altitude Ranges from sea level to over 550m in the Pat Sin Range.
Physical Features The Pat Sin Range rises dramatically from the north-west shores of Tolo
Harbour. Its south face is steep, with crowning rocky cliffs, but on the northern side slopes
gently down to Sha Tau Kok Hoi (Starling Inlet). Northern slopes consist of sedimentary rock
which is overlain by volcanic deposits wherever they meet the fault line. In the north-west
Kwai Tai Leng rises to 486m and in the west the border of Pat Sin Leng Country Park extends
to Kau Lung Hang Shan (Cloudy Hill) at 440m. These two mountains and the steep southern
slopes of the Pat Sin Range are folded mountains of volcanic origin. The volcanic rocks are
mainly fine tuff: fine-grained, white, creamy-grey or pale green in colour, easily weathered,
with the boulders and outcrops showing pitted, weathered surfaces. The sedimentary rocks,
particularly the shales, are reddish in colour, ranging from pale pink through to a deep purple
and the layers often reveal twisting and contortion by later earth movements. These rocks
show all varieties of particle size from laminated shales of clay, through gritty sandstones, to
conglomerates. Hard conglomerate caps the Pat Sin Range and forms the cliffs and scarps
along the ridges (Thrower, 1984).
With the exception of Bluff Head peninsula, the rocks of Plover Cove Country Park are an
eastward extension of those found in Pat Sin Leng. Along the north coast of Plover Cove
Reservoir, a strip of volcanic rock forms the steeper southern face of a low range of hills
which rise to over 300m. Conglomerate rock forms a resistant cap to the ridge. To the north,
sedimentary rocks slope gently down to the sea or to meet the fault line where they are again
overlain by volcanic deposits (Thrower, 1984).
The dividing line between Pat Sin Leng and Plover Cove country parks runs more or less along
a fault, either side of which extensive deposits of colluvium have formed in the valleys. At
Bluff Head, the lower sediments disappear under the Jurassic volcanics to the north. By
contrast, the sedimentary rocks of the Pat Sin Range were laid down after the volcanic
eruptions of the Jurassic period. The Bluff Head sediments were deposited in a river delta
over sediments of an earlier age which, in turn, were laid down under a shallow sea. These
marine deposits outcrop only at one small site along the coast south-west of Fung Wang Wat
Bay and, from fossil evidence, are estimated to be 195 million years old. The north-eastern
corner of Plover Cove is unique for its rock formations, from which the geological history of
Hong Kong over the last 200 million years can be reconstructed (Thrower, 1984).
The most recent geological event in the area is the rise in sea level. The deeply indented east
coast of Plover Cove Country Park is a typical example of a coastline comprising submerged
river valleys. The seven offshore islands of Plover Cove Extension, which were once the tops
of adjoining mountains, consist of the same volcanic and sedimentary rocks that are found on
the nearby mainland. Kat O Chau and Ngo Mei Chau are both composed entirely of volcanic
rocks, with sections originating from an acid lava on the seaward side and course tuffs on the
landward side. Across the middle of Wong Wan Chau runs the same fault line which, on the
mainland, extends from Sam A Chuen to Hok Tau, where the northern volcanic rocks have
slipped forward to cover the sedimentary rocks to the south. Chek Chau shows the same
geomorphology: volcanic deposits form the western half and sediments the eastern half. The
rocks of Ping Chau consist of alternate layers of sedimentary and volcanic deposits. Once Ping
Chau had risen above sea level, the land was eroded by wave action, forming platforms. Those
at Ping Chau are well-developed and are probably the best examples of this form of erosion in
Hong Kong. Plover Cove Reservoir, formed by enclosing a bay and a string of islands, was
completed in 1968 as part of a scheme to supply Hong Kong with fresh water. The main dams
were raised in 1973, increasing the storage capacity to 230 million cum. Tunnels link the
reservoir to intake reservoirs at Hok Tau and Lau Shui Heung, and to the main north-south
system at Tai Po Tau (Thrower, 1984).
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Climate No information
Vegetation Much of the vegetation is "fire climax" grassland, but there are also patches of
pine woodland, broad-leaved woodland and scrub which have escaped fire damage. While the
rocky southern slopes of the Pat Sin Range and the hills of its easterly extension are generally
covered with duck-beak Jschaemumminireed Arundinaria nepalensis grassland, there are many
small forbs, such as gentian Gentiana loureiri and golden-eyed grass Curculigo orchioides. The
streams at the foot of the range are lined with trees (often rose-apple Syzygium jambos and
screw-pine Pandanus tectorius) and contain plants of the sweet-flag Acorus graminius, famed
in Chinese medicinal lore for its powers of conferring immortality. Over much of the northern
area, grassland is intermingled with dwarf mountain pine Baeckea frutescens scrub on the ridge
slopes and Chinese scaly seed Lepidosperma chinense scrub where conditions are marshy. The
steep inaccessible valleys running northward from the main ridge-line contain patches of
natural woodland (including a stand of China fir Cunninghamia lanceolata). The lower valleys
are largely bare of trees but contain stands of broad-leaved scrub. There are a number of
abandoned villages in this area with their old fung shui (holy groves), containing trees of an
age seldom seen elsewhere in Hong Kong. These include camphor, lungnan, lychee, wampi
(Cinnamomum camphora, Euphoria longan, Litchi chinensis, Clausena lansium) and rose-apple,
in addition to native figs, bamboos and a wide variety of other trees (Thrower, 1984).
Behind the sandy shores of Mirs Bay, looking-glass trees Heritiera littoralis, naupaka Scaevola
spp., Cuban bast Hibiscus tiliaceus and screw-pine are prominent. In many places, the
shore-line is fringed by meadow made up largely of Chinese lawn-grass Zoysia sinica and
sea-shore drop-seed Sporobolus virginicus. Beds of eel-grass Zostera nana, hitherto unrecorded
in Hong Kong waters, have recently been discovered (Thrower, 1984).
The vegetation of the smaller offshore islands appears very similar to that of the grassy low
hills of the northern Tolo Harbour coastline. The central parts of the larger islands, Ping Chau
and Kat O Chau, are cultivated, while the marginal areas of Ping Chau are covered with low
grass and scrub merging into a narrow band of coastal plants. Kat O Chau, with its woodland
along the southern arm, has possibly the most interesting flora of all these islands. The most
south-easterly peninsula has been planted with pine Pinus massoniana, Brisbane box Tristania
conferta and Acacia confusa and interplanted with Rhododendron spp. shrubs. These have now
all grown up to form an extensive and attractive woodland (Thrower, 1984).
Fauna’ The north-eastern quarter of the New Territories is one area where the native wild
boar Sus scrofa is known to survive; seldom seen, their fondness for sweet potatoes makes
them a nuisance to the local farmers. Wild animals from the mainland are most likely to be
found in this border area. Herklotz (1951) recalls that one or two tigers Felis tigris were seen
every winter, and in 1931 a leopard Panthera pardus was shot near Chung Pui (a village now
abandoned and submerged by Plover Cove Reservoir). Barking deer Muntiacus reevesi are now
rare, due to former hunting practices (Thrower, 1984).
Plover Cove Reservoir has the richest variety of fresh-water fish of all Hong Kong reservoirs.
Some of these fish enter from feeder streams, some travel from Shum Chun Reservoir in
China, and some are deliberately stocked by the Water Authority. Most likely to be caught by
anglers are wild carp or minnow Hemiculter leucisculus, common carp Cyprinus carpio,
goldfish Carassius auratus, tilapia Sarotherodon mossambicus, snakehead Ophiocephalus
maculatus, catfish Clarius fuscus, goby Glossogobius giuris and soft-finned carp Osteochilus
vittatus (Thrower, 1984).
The shallow waters of Sha Tau Kok Hoi and Yan Tong Hoi, surrounded by a protective barrier
of islands, support a rich marine life. Although centuries of exploitation have destroyed the
population of pearl oyers (Pteriidae), innumerable other species of shellfish, fish and coral
remain. The beach grass meadow along these coasts shelters periwinkles and other marine
snails as well as a variety of crabs, including fiddler crab Uca sp. Nearer the sea, several
species of ghost crab Ocypode spp. congregate in large numbers as the tide recedes. In this
zone are also surf clams. In the lower parts of the tidal range are crabs, moon shells, cockles,
worms, shrimps, eels, sea urchins, starfish and innumerable other animals, many of which form
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the food of coastal birds such as common sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos and plovers Charadrius
spp. The horizontal wave-cut platforms along the coast of Ping Chau are outstanding for the
wealth of marine fauna (and flora) to be found in their crevices and tidal pools at low tide
(Thrower, 1984).
Cultural Heritage Pearl-fishing in the Tai Po Sea dates back to the Han Dynasty. Mirs Bay,
also known as Pearl Pool, was noted for its abundance of pearl oysters. By the Ming Dynasty,
however, the industry had died due to over-exploitation of pearls. Yan Tong Hoi (Double
Haven) was a collecting centre for pearls, from where they were transported overland through
Plover Cove and Pat Sin Leng to Tuen Mun for trans-shipment to Canton. During the Sung
dynasty (960-1126 AD), Tangs settled in the Pat Sin Leng and Plover Cove areas. Such
settlements may have been started by soldiers guarding the pearl road, who subsequently
remained and cultivated the land. Thus, the present landscape, with the cultivation of fung
shui woods around villages, has developed over the last 1,000 years. Many of these old villages
now stand abandoned and former terraced paddies are reverting to grassland and scrub
(Thrower, 1984).
Local Human Population There are a number of occupied villages within Pat Sin Leng and
Plover Cove country parks, all of which are enclaves. Of the islands, Wong Wan Chau is
sparsely inhabited, with three small villages, Pat O Chau has six villages and a population of
2,870, and Ping Chau has 1,350 inhabitants distributed among 10 villages. The other islands
are uninhabited. Farming is the main occupation of islanders. The local fishing fleet is based
at Kat O Chau (Thrower, 1984).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Pat Sing Leng and Plover Cove, which are among the most
visited country parks, receive hundreds of cyclists and thousands of picnickers at week-ends
and during holidays. Facilities include picnic and barbecue sites, shelters and camp sites. Tai
Mei Tok, on the southern boundary of Pat Sin Leng, has a visitor centre and is being developed
as a centre for water sports. Fishing is permitted in Plover Cove Reservoir and, on the coast,
boats can be hired. The Tolo Harbour ferry from Tai Po Kau serves some of the islands but
others are accessible only by kai-do (local motor boats) in clear weather (Anon., n.d.; Thrower,
1984).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The northern shore of Tolo Harbour is geologically unique, being
the site of Hong Kong’s rarest fossils. The steep valleys on the northern side of the Pat Sin
Range, with their patches of natural woodland, have been designated as a Special Area, as has
the south-eastern peninsular of Kat O Chau on account of its outstanding natural beauty. The
shallow waters of Sha Tau Kok Hoi and Yan Tong Hoi, which are rich in marine life, have
been suggested as an ideal site for a marine conservation area. Just outside the northern
boundary of Pat Sin Leng is the Yim Tso Ha egrety, a site of Special Scientific Interest because
of its importance as a nesting ground for several species including Swinhoe’s egret Egretta
eulophotes (V).
Management Problems Picnic sites and scenic points are marred by considerable quantities of
litter (Anon., n.d.).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
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References
° Anon. (n.d.). Plover Cove, Plover Cove Extension and Pat Sin Leng Country Parks.
Government Information Services, Hong Kong. Information leaflet.
° Herklotz, G.A.C. (1951). The Hong Kong Countryside. South China Morning Post Ltd.,
Hong Kong.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
Sai Kung East Country Park, Sai Kung West Country Park
Management Category V (Protected landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01 (South Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location The parks lie adjacent to each other in the Sai Kung Peninsular of the
eastern New Territories. The road running north-south from Hoi Ha to Tsak Yu Wu consitutes
the common border.
Date and History of Establishment Both Sai Kung East and Sai Kung West were designated as
country parks on 3 February 1978. 22°20°’-22°29’N, 114°17°-114°24’E
Area Sai Kung East: 4,477ha
Sai Kung West: 3,000ha
Sai Kung West borders on Ma On Shan Country Park (2,880ha) in the west.
Land Tenure Essentially government land with pockets of private land around villages
Altitude Ranges from sea level to the peak of Shek Uk Shan at 481m
Physical Features The main north-east to south-west structural folding of Hong Kong is not
obvious in the Sai Kung Peninsular, its central and southern parts being criss-crossed with
numerous faults that have been eroded to form a sculptured pattern of low hills, mostly below
400m in height. The coastline is highly indented, forming deeply incut harbours and bays. It
is a typical "ria" coast with low-lying valleys drowned by the rising sea level. In the northern
part of the peninsular, between Kei Ling Ha Hoi (Three Fathoms Cove) and Tai Tan Hoi Hap
(Long Harbour), erosion of Tai Lam Koi (Mt Hallowes) and Shek Uk Shan, coupled with the
movement downhill of the eroded material, has filled the valleys with colluvium. The Sai
Kung Peninsular is composed almost entirely of volcanic materials. Coarse tuff, dark grey and
medium-grained, makes up almost the whole of the two northern peninsulars and an area in
the south-west of the park from Tai Mong Tsai to Shek Hang. The great central band running
from Kei Ling Ha Hoi (Three Fathoms Cove) to Leung Shuen Wan Chau (High Island) is
composed of rhyolite (solidifed acid lava), which is noted for its hexagonal columns 20-200cm
in diameter. High Island Reservoir in the south of Sai Kung East was completed in 1971 and
has a storage capacity of 272.5 million cu.m.
Climate The eastern part lies in the low rainfall zone, receiving less than 2000mm per year.
Leung Shuen Wan Chau (High Island) and two peninsulars north of it (Sai Wan Shan and Mai
Fan Teng) receive less than 1800mm. By contrast the western slopes of Fa Miu Shan receive
over 2600mm per year, the whole of Sai Kung West Country Park being in the medium and
high rainfall zones.
Vegetation There is an overall gradient in the vegetation from bare grassy hills along the east
coast of the peninsular to wooded slopes extending down to Kei Ling Ha Hoi in the west.
While bare grassy slopes can be attributed almost entirely to burning, the increase in cover of
woody vegetation from east to west can be correlated with water supply and exposure.
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Grass slopes are largely dominated by minireed Arundinaria nepalensis and duck-beak
grass Ischaemum sp., together with spreading patches of false staghorn Dicranopteris linearis.
Broad-leaved shrubs clothe the lower slopes of some hills and form narrow strips down the
valleys of the eastern section. The woodlands, which are abundant westwards, are mostly of
pine Pinus massoniana planted during the post-war period. Native broad-leaved trees such as
ivy tree Schefflera octoptylla, mountain tallow Sapium discolor, figs Ficus spp. and laurels
(Lauraceae) are gradually replacing the older pines. There are small stands of native woodland
and also of "improved" native woodland constituting the fung shui (holy groves) of many
villages. These two types of woodland, both rich in native species, contain some of the most
interesting vegetation in the parks. The coastline vegetation consists largely of black
grass Zoysia sinica nearest to the sea, behind which is scrub dominated by beach
naupaka Scaevola sericea and Cuban bast Hibiscus tiliaceus. Native scrub takes over further
inshore often with spiny date palm Phoenix hanceana and screw pine Pandanus tectorinus as
prominent members of the community. Exotic horsetail trees Casuarina equisetifolia have been
planted around some popular beach spots (Thrower, 1984).
Fauna Native mammals are seldom seen, the disappearance of the woodlands having removed
much of their natural habitat. The masked palm civet Paguma larvata has been recorded and
Chinese leopard cat Felis bengalensis and wild boar Sus scrofa are also known to be present.
Birds are common, especially in the woodland. The most conspicuous are two open-country
species: the rufous-backed shrike Lanius schach and crested mynah Acridotheres cristatellus.
Among the invertebrates, termites Odontotermes formosanus are common in the woods, while
the nests of the red tree ant Oecophylla smaragdina are found on broad-leaved trees. Most of
the territory’s more common butterflies can be seen (Thrower, 1984). The rocky shores,
estuarine mangroves and sandy beaches of the peninsular’s coastline provide a wide range of
habitats for native animals, some details of which are given by Thrower (1984).
Cultural Heritage Settlements were first established predominantly by Hakka people at least
200-300 years ago. Of the 66 villages recorded in the Gazetteer of 1960, 52 are Hakka names,
10 are Cantonese and four are of mixed Hakka and Cantonese. Temples in some of the older
villages are over 200 years old.
Local Human Population According to the Gazetteer of 1960, the population of the
peninsular was about 3,000 at that time, with an average of 45 persons per village. Some of
these villages have since been abandoned. Rice and vegetables are grown on terraces, hillsides
are harvested for fuel and pastures burnt to promote the growth of young shoots for the
benefit of cattle. New village houses are appearing in response to the demand for rented
holiday accommodation (Anon., (n.d.); Thrower, 1984).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The construction of High Island Reservoir and its auxiliary
roads has opened up the peninsular, which has become increasingly popular for outdoor
recreation, particularly hiking and swimming. A new population is moving in around the
margins of the park as luxury villas and weekend holiday homes are built. Part of the
MacLehose Trail passes through the middle of the park and there is a network of footpaths.
Facilities include shelters and picnic, barbecue and camp sites. There are youth hostels at Pak
Sha O and Chek Keng. A holiday camp has been established at Pak Tam Chung. Special
transport facilities are available for those wishing to visit more inaccessible parts of the park
(Anon., n.d.); Thrower, 1984).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The Sai Kung Peninsular includes some of the finest scenery in
Hong Kong. Prior to the construction of High Island Reservoir, it was one of the most isolated
and undeveloped areas in the territory. With its easier accessibility and planned development
under the Country Parks Authority, it has become one of the territory’s most delightful areas
for outdoor recreation. Along the Tai Mong Tsai Road and the north coast near Hoi Ha have
been developed as "recreation areas". The latter area will be extended to the shores of High
Island Reservoir (Anon., n.d.; Thrower, 1984).
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Much of the peninsular was reafforested in the late 1940s to early 1950s, largely with the
co-operation of the village communities. Elsewhere, grasslands can be attributed to traditional
burning practices, as well as accidental fires (Thrower, 1984).
Four park management centres have been built at Pak Tam Au, Hoi Ha, Kei Ling and Pak
Tam Chung.
Management Problems Regular burning of grasslands is responsible for the impoverished
hillside vegetation and patches of erosion. Litter is a continual problem, particularly at camp
sites, which may also be eroded and charred.
Staff Over 100 staff are involved in protection and management duties.
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
2 Anon. (n.d.) Sai Kung Country Park. Government Information Services, Hong Kong.
Information leaflet.
% Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong.
216 pp.
Date August 1987
Tai Lam Country Park, Tai Mo Shan Country Park,
Shing Mun Country Park, and Tai Po Kau Nature Reserve
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.06.01 (Chinese Rainforest)
Geographical Location Located south of Yuon Long Plain, the four sites form a geological
unit centred on Tai Mo Shan in the central part of the New Territories. 22°21’-22°26’N,
113°59’-114°07E (Tai Lam); 22°23’-22°25’N, 114°07°114°10’E (Tai Mo Shan); 22°25’-22°27’N,
114°07’-114°10’E (Shing Mun); 22°25’-22°26’N, 114°10°’-114°12’E (Tai Po Kau)
Date and History of Establishment Shing Mun was designated as a country park on 24 June
1977 and both Tai Lam and Tai Mo Shan were established on 23 February 1979. Tai Po Kau
was designated as a nature reserve on 13 May 1977.
Area Tai Lam: 5,330ha
Tai Mo Shan: 1,440ha
Shing Mun: 1,400ha
Tai Po Kau: 460ha
Tai Lam is contiguous with Tai Mo Shan, which in turn borders Shing Mun. Tai Po Kau is
adjacent to Tai Mo Shan.
Land Tenure Mainly public land with some pockets on lease to villagers
Altitude Ranges from almost sea level to the summit of Tai Mo Shan which, at 958m, is the
highest peak in Hong Kong.
Physical Features Tai Mo Shan is the summit of a range of north-east to south-west oriented
hills. The broad valley of Tai Lam Chung separates this central range from a lower, parallel
range to the west, while that of Sha Tin separates it from a parallel range to the east dominated
by Ma On Shan. Tai Mo Shan Country Park is situated entirely in an area of volcanic origin;
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Shing Mun is also largely of volcanic derivation with only the east bank of the Shing Mun
Reservoir composed of Needle Hill granite; Tai Lam is of volcanic origin in the eastern part
and granitic for the rest. The granites of Tai Lam vary in age from the oldest known in Hong
Kong (Tai Po granodiorite) to the youngest (Needle Hill granite).
The highlands, centred on Tai Mo Shan, are composed mostly of coarse tuff with finer tuffs
and lava deposits in marginal areas. Around, this, most extensively to the west, erosion of the
surface volcanic rocks has exposed the underlying granite in Tai Lam Valley and also the hills
to the west of it. To the north, west and south of the summit, the valleys contain large deposits
of colluvium. It has been suggested that the rapid erosion of this material from the upper
slopes was due to deforestation of Tai Mo Shan.
The Tai Lam Chung area is heavily faulted. The faults run either north-east to south-west or
at right angles to this direction and dictate the drainage pattern which is rectilinear. Tai Lam
Chung Reservoir, which has a capacity of about 20,500 million litres, also lies along a fault
line. Started in 1952 and completed in 1957, it was the first reservoir to be built in post-war
Hong Kong. The Shing Mun Reservoir, with a capacity of 26 million cum, was completed
earlier in 1936. Peneplains are evident at about 150m, providing evidence of changes in
sea-level in the relatively recent geological past. Tai Mo Shan is the major watershed in the
central New Territories. The pattern of this river system is dendritic, as it is dictated by slope
and not by faulting (Thrower, 1984).
Climate Although Hong Kong lies just inside the tropics, the climate is temperate for nearly
half the year. Mean annual rainfall ranges from around 1200mm to more than 3000mm, about
80% of which falls in summer. This is the longest season, lasting from May to September with
hot, humid and usually wet weather. Temperatures range from about 24°C to 32°C.
September is the month in which Hong Kong is most likely to be affected by tropical
typhoons. These originate from near the Philippines and approach from a south-easterly
direction. Winter, lasting from November until February, is cold and dry. Temperatures
commonly range from about 13°C to 24°C but sometimes drop below freezing point on high
ground (Thrower, 1984; Ismail, 1987). Meterological data are not available for Tai Lam, Tai
Mo Shan, Shing Mun or Tai Po Kau.
Vegetation Much of the area is wooded, but there are few old trees because all available
timber was used during the Japanese occupation in World War II. Thus, most of the forest
consists of a mixture of native and introduced species planted since 1946. In addition, native
broad-leaved trees have regenerated, particularly in the east. The vegetation changes from the
predominantely pine Pinus spp. and mixed pine-Brisbane box Tristania conferta forest of the
Tai Lam area in the west to the much more interesting and complex woodlands of Tai Po
Kau. This pattern reflects the change from granite, with its poor and eroded soils, in the west
to the volcanic areas of the Tai Mo Shan massif in the east (Thrower, 1984).
The middle and lower hillslopes of Tai Lam and Shing Mun valleys and Tai Po Kau are
covered with pine forest, mixed broad-leaved and pine forest and occasional pure stands.
Common native species such as camphor tree Cinnamomum camphora, ivy tree Schefflera
octophylla, sweet gum Liquidambar formosana and monkeypod Abarema clypearia mingle with
the introduced Brisbane box, Acacia confusa, horsetails Casuarina equisetifolia and
gums Eucalyptus spp. Pine woods, both of the Chinese red pine Pinus massoniana and the
American slash pine P. elliotti, occupy the middle of the upper slopes, but may extend right
down to the water’s edge, as on the east bank of Shing Mun Reservoir. In 1980 many of the
woods dominated by open stands of Chinese red pine appeared to be in a state of active
succession to broad-leaved woodland. The Shing Mun forest has some pure stands of
paper-bark trees Melaleuca leucadendron, planted in low-lying areas because of its ability to
thrive in waterlogged conditions. Tai Mo Shan itself is patchily covered with grassland and
plantations of pine and Brisbane box. Rare and relic plants grow in secluded ravines and
stream beds of its upper slopes, including the famous Grantham’s camellia tree Camellia
granthamiana which was first discovered in this area. Further west, the hills between Tai Mo
Shan and Tai Lam are predominantly grassy, with scattered shrubs of Eurya japonica and small
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bushy acacias. Grassland species include awned duck-beak Jschaemum aristatum,
minireed Arundinaria nepalensis, Eulalia quadrinervis, Hong Kong orange grass Cymbopogon
goeringii var. hongkongensis and winter sword grass Miscanthus sinensis. The shallow valleys
are dominated by tall stands of summer sword grass M. floridulus. The woodlands around Tai
Lam are largely pine-box plantations, with some gums and other trees (Thrower, 1984).
Barnes ef al. (1981) recorded some 155 species of plants (excluding grasses, sedges and
bamboos) at a number of sites in and around the area.
Fauna The woodlands of Tai Mo Shan, Shing Mun and Tai Po Kau are among the richest sites
for the larger native mammals such as pangolin Manis pendactyla, Chinese porcupine Hystrix
hodgsoni, wild boar Sus scrofa, civets (Viverridae), ferret badgers Melogale moschata and
barking deer Muntiacus reevesi. Tai Po Kau is the home of the short-nosed fruit
bat Cynopterus sphinx and small Japanese pipistrelle Pipistrellus abramus (Thrower, 1984).
The wide range of land habitats, from grassland to some of. the finest forest in Hong Kong,
supports a rich avifauna. Tai Po Kau is particularly noted for its woodland species. Thrower
(1984) lists 38 common species, which is about half the number recorded from the area. Of all
the woodland species, 56% are winter visitors or passage migrants. The number of resident
birds is also considerable, both with respect to species and populations.
Among reptiles, clay turtle Chinemys reevesi and snapper turtle Platysternum megacephalum are
most often reported from streams on Tai Mo Shan and in Tai Po Kau, along with three-banded
box terrapin Cuora trifasciata and rarer Beale’s terrapin Clemmys bealei. Lizards and snakes
are frequently reported, both from Tai Po Kau and Tai Mo Shan, notably Indian skink
(Scincidae), Chinese waterside skink Tropidophorus sinicus, common blind snake Typhlina
bramina, white-spotted slug snake areas margaritophorus, rare Hampton’s slug
snake P. hamptoni, Achalinus rufescens, red mountain racer Elapheprophyracea nigrofasciata,
Oligodon cinereus, red-necked keelback Rhabdophis subminiata, common rat snake Pytas
mucosus, buff-striped keelback Amphiesma _ stolata, \arge-spotted cat snake Boiga
multimaculata, Indian cobra Naja naja, king cobra N. hannah, mountain pit viper Trimeresurus
monticola and white-lipped pit viper T. albolabris (Thrower, 1984).
Amphibians living in or near the mountain streams of the central highland area include: Hong
Kong newt Paramesotriton hongkongensis, Hong Kong spiny frog Rana paraspinosa, Chinese
spiny frog R. spinosa, Taipei frog R. taipenhensis, green cascade frog Amolops hongkongensis
and brown tree frog Polypedates leucomystax (Thrower, 1984).
Tai Po Kau forest is extremely rich in insects and is the only site in Hong Kong where
scorpions Homurus australasiae have been collected. It is an excellent place to see common
woodland butterflies, larger cicadas and many other interesting insects, including black bee
fly Ligyra tantalus, which frequents woodland streams, and giant wood spider Nephila
maculata. The woodlands of both Shing Mun and Tai Lam contain numerous nests of both
black tree ant Polyrachis dives and red tree ant Oecophylla smaragdina (Thrower, 1984). Some
369 species of moth have been recorded from the Tai Mo-.Shan and Tai Kau areas (Barnes ef
al., 1981).
Cultural Heritage In former centuries, there were upland villages on the slopes of Tai Mo
Shan, now abandoned and lost under encroaching vegetation. In some of these, stone vats have
been discovered along the stream banks. Presumably, these were containers in which the
locally-grown indigo dye was extracted and clothes were dyed. A map compiled in 1903-1904
shows the village of Nam Fong To (at 450m) as the highest inhabited place. Upland rice was
cultivated at this altitude and the natural resources of the mountain slopes were harvested by
herb collectors, hunters and grass-cutters. As on Lantau, charcoal-burners have been
responsible for the destruction of the woodland cover. From about 1850 to 1950, the streams
of the south-western foothills provided water power for an industry based on imported incense
wood. These watermills no longer exist. The stone pagoda mentioned in the 1688 Sun On
District Gazetteer seems also to have disappeared from Tai Mo Shan, unless the entry refers to
a tor in the shape of a pagoda. There are a number of monasteries and religious houses on the
lower southern slopes, all of which were founded in the 20th century (Thrower, 1984).
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Shing Mun and Tai Mo Shan were theatres of brief but intense wartime fighting. Four years
before the Japanese invasion, a chain of concrete pill-boxes with connecting underground
tunnels was built. Known as the Gin Drinker’s Line, the section close to Shin Mun Reservoir
(completed in 1936) was the most elaborate and it became known as the Shing Mun Redoubt
(or stronghold). Taken by the Japanese in 1941, the Shing Mun Redoubt is one of the most
interesting relics of Hong Kong’s recent history (Thrower, 1984).
Local Human Population The villages have been deserted by all but a few old people and
young children. Only five families remain in the formerly prosperous village of Tin Fu Tsai at
the head of Tai Lam Chung Reservoir, where they breed pigs and cultivate vegetables (Anon.,
n.d.).
The construction of Shing Mun Reservoir prior to World War II involved the resettlement of
eight Hakka villages inhabited by a total of 855 people. These villagers, who owned 73ha of
agricultural land (of which 29ha were planted with pineapples) and had forestry rights to
478ha, were resettled at a total cost of about HK $300,000 (Thrower, 1984).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The MacLehose Trail, which attracts many walkers, runs
through Tai Lam Country Park, and along the ridgelines bordering Tai Mo Shan and Shing
Mun country parks and Tai Po Kau Nature Reserve. All of the parks are well-provided with
picnic, barbecue and camping sites. There is a hostel just west of Tai Mo Shan summit.
Licensed fishing is permitted in both Tai Lam Chung and Shing Mun reservoirs.
Scientific Research and Facilities An Oxford University expedition examined the relationship
between moth and plant diversity in the Tai Mo Shan and Tai Po Kau areas in 1981 (Barnes et
al., 1981).
Conservation Management The whole area is the water catchment for the Tai Lam Chung and
Shing Mun reservoirs. For this reason, it has been under the management of foresters of the
Agriculture and Fisheries Department for many years. Reafforestation has been slow in areas
of eroded granite and often retarded by frequent fires, as evident on the hills west of Tai Lam
Chung Reservoir. Tai Po Kau has been designated a special area because of its woodlands
which support a diverse flora and fauna. It is one of the best examples of managed amenity
woodland, with the emphasis on ecological education rather than recreation (Barnes et al., 1981;
Thrower, 1984.)
Management Problems Much of the landscape has been altered due to land use practices
during former centuries. Extensive reafforestation has been underway since 1946. Although
present forests are very different from those covering the area before the advent of human
settlement, they do contain some relics of the original flora. Forest fires and litter are
persistant problems. In Shing Mun, for example, there were 21 fires affecting 208ha of
vegetation in 1975-1976 (Anon., n.d.; Thrower, 1984)
Staff Over 100 staff are involved in management and protection duties. Labourers from Tai
Lam prison occasionally help with forestry work, road works and construction of fire barriers.
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References ,
° Anon. (n.d.) Tai Lam, Tai Mo Shan, Lam Tsuen Country Parks. Government Information
Services, Hong Kong. Information leaflet.
° Anon. (n.d.) Shing Mung Country Park. Government Information Services, Hong Kong.
Information leaflet.
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° Ismail, A. (1987). Hong Kong 1987. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 364 pp.
° Barnes, M.J.C., Davies, C.R., Lewis, C.B. and Matthews, M.J. (1981). The Oxford Far East
Expedition, 1981. Final Report. Unpublished. 98 pp.
° Thrower, S.L. (1984). Hong Kong Country Parks. Government Printer, Hong Kong. 216 pp.
Date August 1987
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JAPAN
Area 377,708 sq.km.
Population 120,007,812 (1985 estimate)
Parks and Reserves Legislation Japan is almost unique in possessing the natural protective
role of its two religions, Shinto and Buddhism. Not only does Buddhism revere all forms of
life, but the areas covered under the jurisdiction of shrines afford sacred protection to
numerous forests and holy mountains. It was only after the restoration of the Merji emperor in
1867 that Japan modelled its Government on that of western countries. The basis of modern
conservation laws, the Imperial Game Law of 1892, ensured regulation of hunting preserves.
Many rare or endangered "non game" classified species were listed as prohibited for hunting.
The first modern legislation whose primary purpose was the conservation of the natural
environment was the National Parks Law passed by the Government Diet in 1931 (Law
No.36/1931). The chief objective of this law is the preservation of the natural landscape on
public and private land for public enjoyment and recreation. Twelve areas were designated
between 1934-36, including coastal areas, and by 1987 there were 27 sites. The basis of the
current laws on protected areas is the Natural Parks Law of 1957 (Law No.161 of 1 June 1957)
and the Nature Conservation Law of 1972 (Law No.85 of 22 June 1972). The new natural parks
system superceded the 1931 Law and provided a system of three categories of park with grades
from nationally important sites (National Parks) through to regional (Quasi-National Parks) and
local sites (Prefectural Natural Parks), each area being designated irrespective of land
ownership. The 1957 act declares that the natural parks are national assets, designated areas of
scenic beauty created to provide a cultural and recreational asset for the public.
In 1970 the law was revised to allow the creation of Marine Parks within natural park areas (16
May 1970). Ten Marine Parks were immediately designated and by 1987 the figure had risen
to 23 in 10 National Parks and 13 Quasi-National Parks.
The Nature Conservation Law was enacted to provide a framework for all legal measures
concerning the natural environment and nature conservation. It also ensures designation of
areas for the protection of nature - Wilderness areas, Nature Conservation areas and Prefectural
Nature Conservation areas. Fifty eight Articles are specified under the Law, including basic
policies, designations and provisions.
A comprehensive series of protected area categories exist in Japan for nature conservation and
recreation value. Designation of sites is through the Edicts of the Natural Park Law and
Nature Conservation Law (Nature Conservation Bureau, 1985):
Natural Parks There are three orders of natural parks in Japan, National Parks,
Quasi-National Parks and Prefectural Parks. All are regulated under the Natural Parks Law,
being created to protect landscapes of scenic beauty, and through their promoted utilisation, to
contribute to the health, recreation and culture of the people - Article 1 (Environment Agency,
1978; National Conservation Bureau, 1985). These park areas are designated irrespective of
ownership. Restrictions and zonation of areas are in force to prevent or reduce actions which
may damage the character of the landscape.
a) National Parks (Kokuritsu koen) are designated landscape areas of national importance,
"areas of the greatest scenic beauty". These areas may include both natural environments
and entirely man-made landscapes under multiple ownership. All land within the parks
is controlled by "park law" provisions and planning restrictions, irrespective of land
ownership. Many of these nationally important protected landscapes are not discreet
entities and may consist of a series of isolated blocks separated by many kilometres, yet
still administered under a single park authority. Administration of the national parks
focuses on i) restrictions of various actions that may harm the landscape, (ii) provision of
facilities so as to increase park use.
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Japan
Specific regulations are drawn up for the protection of each site and signed by the Director
General of the Environment Agency. Zoning occurs to restrict activities harmful to the
landscape of the park. The "ordinary areas" - buffer zones - restrict a number of activities
including mineral mining and changes of waterlevel. Forestry is permitted and there is
apparently no control on tourist development and few restrictions on commercial and
industrial activities. The greatest protection is afforded in the "special protection areas" or
core areas which are kept strictly free from any development and may include zones of
"floral and faunal phenomena of particular interest, special topographical and geological
features or scientific, historical or archaeological sites of particular significance". "Special
areas" - intermediary areas - are zoned to allow certain kinds of development, including
industry, yet within a priority for protecting the landscape (Classes I to III). As of 1981,
National Parks were zoned with total figures of 70% special areas, 29.9% ordinary areas and
12% special protected areas. Restrictions common to all these sites include livestock grazing,
fires, wood gathering, capturing wildlife, riding, tree planting and building construction. If
any restricted and listed activities occur at the time of designation, then these must be
registered but are permitted to remain in existence (Articles 17, 18-2, 20).
In addition to the above categories, there are also Marine Park areas designated within
National Parks and Quasi-National Parks, established for the purpose of preserving the
"marine natural scenic beauty". Restrictions are as for the other zones but also inhibit the
collection or capture of fish, coral, seaweed, sea reclamation and discharge of polluted water.
b) Quasi-National Parks (Kokutei koen) are landscape areas designated to protect
landscapes of regional importance. These protected areas have lesser status than national
parks and are selected and designated only at the request of a Prefectural Governor.
All planning controls and restrictions for national parks are applicable to this category of
protected area. By 1985 there were 54 parks (Nature Conservation Bureau, 1985).
c) Prefectural Natural Parks (Todofukenritsu shizen koen) are representative prefectural
landscapes of local importance. Under the Natural Parks Law these areas are not
permitted to have any "special protected areas" or "marine parks" within their
boundaries. The total number of designated prefectural areas in 1985 was 297 (Nature
Conservation Bureau, 1985).
State purchase of private land within National Parks and Quasi-National Parks has been
undertaken since 1972 and 1975 respectively, especially in areas where thorough protective
action cannot be taken if it remains in private hands.
Nature Reserves There are three categories of protected areas that preserve the original
characteristics of an environment for nature conservation and are protected under the Nature
Conservation Law of 1972.
a) Wilderness areas are designated on land owned by central or local Government, where
the natural environment has been preserved in areas with little or no human influence.
Activities affecting the natural ecosystems of these Strict Nature Reserves are prohibited
as a rule, as is entry for the general visitor.
b) Natural Conservation, and Prefectural Natural Conservation Areas are designated in areas
in which conservation of the environment is especially needed in the light of natural and
social conditions. These areas include natural forests, alpine communities, coasts,
swamps, marine areas and other unique natural features. They are divided into "special
areas"; "wild animal and plant protection areas" where the capture and collection of
designated wild animals and plants are prohibited; and "ordinary areas" where harmful
acts must be notified but do occur (Nature Conservation Bureau, 1985).
c) Wildlife Protection Areas - Wildlife Refuges are state or private land set up under the
Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law of 1918, ammended in 1978, to promote the
protection and breeding of valuable wildlife species in danger of extinction and their
habitats. Zonation occurs within these protected areas and includes educational areas
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Japan
such as "wild bird forests" and also "fundamental wildlife protection areas". Restrictions
include hunting, capture, land reclamation, tree felling and building construction. There
are currently 2,706 of these wildlife protection areas (Environment Agency, 1975).
A final category of protected area is the Natural monument and places of scenic beauty
designation. The Ministry of Education is empowered to designate as a place of scenic beauty
or as a natural monument those gardens, valleys, mountains and animals, plants and minerals
which have a high value from an academic or a visual view point. As at the end of 1981, 241
places of scenic beauty and 919 natural monuments have been designated (Environment
Agency, 1982).
Voluntary Reserves A number of voluntary sanctuaries also exist in Japan. Five bird
sanctuaries are managed by the Wild Bird Society of Japan and a dragonfly sanctuary is
managed by the Tombo no kai Dragonfly Society.
Japan is signatory to various international conventions and agreements on conservation. It is
one of the few Asian countries to have ratified the RAMSAR Wetlands Convention (17 June
1980) with two sites listed. Four sites were accepted as Biosphere Reserves in 1980. Japan has
also acceded to the CITES Convention in 1980, TRAFFIC, USA-Japan Convention on
Migratory Birds and similar agreements with China, Russia and Australia (signed 1972, 1973
and 1974). Japan is also party to the Antarctic Convention.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management’ The protected landscapes of Japan are
essentially governed under the Natural Parks Law and the Nature Conservation Law. The
Environment Agency is in charge of executing this legal system, under the powers of the
Director General, by coordinating related governmental agencies. The relevant Environment
Agency departments include a) the Nature Conservation Council which consists of various
committees on conservation of the natural environment, natural parks and wildlife protection
and b) the Nature Conservation Bureau which is the main body administering National Parks.
The Nature Conservation Bureau consists of five divisions, those of planning and coordination,
natural parks planning, conservation and management, recreational facilities and wildlife
protection. Directly answerable to the divisions are the national park offices and ranger
stations. In 1985, the parks were administered by 107 rangers located in the various parks with
30 ranger stations under 10 national park offices (Nature Conservation Bureau, 1985).
Regulations for protection and facilities within the protected areas are planned by the
Environment Agency and revised about every five years. Nature conservation areas and
wildlife protection areas are established and managed either by the Environment Agency or
Prefectural Governments concerned.
Addresses
° Marine Park Centre, Toranomon Denki Building, 2-8-1 Toanomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo.
° Nature Conservation Bureau, Environmental Agency, 1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku,
Tokyo (Tel: Tokyo 03 581 3351).
° Agency of Cultural Affairs, 3-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo.
Additional Information Japan has a particularly high degree of flora and fauna diversity.
There are more than 3,800 islands clustered around the 4 main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu,
Shikoku and Kyushu. This archipelago extends from the sea of Okhotsk near Russia, 2,800km
southwards to the Ryukyu islands near Taiwan. It ranges from latitude 45° in the north to 21°
in the south, with climates ranging from Siberian and Sub-arctic to Sub-tropical.
Forests cover 66.9% of the land area in Japan, of which 40% of the total is commercial
plantation (Stewart-Smith, 1987). In Hokkaido, the natural forest is mostly coniferous;
north-east Japan is dominated by deciduous broad-leaved woods of beech, oak, birch and
chestnut; the south-west of Japan is dominated by broad-leaved evergreen forest and the
southern Ryukyun islands by tree ferns, Pandanaceae and mangroves. An alpine zone of scrub,
grassland and rocky desert is present in the mountains of the north.
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Japan
Japan is essentially a mountainous land with only 20% being flatlands, such as river valleys,
coastal areas and plains. Hence the majority of the population inhabits only 3% of the country
and as much as 80% of the population lives in urban areas.
Protected areas cover 14.1% of the total land area, of which 2.02 million hectares, 5.4% of the
country area, are of national importance, national parks. By comparison, areas protected
primarily for nature conservation total 93,180ha as Nature Conservation areas and Wilderness
areas. Marine Park areas total 2,400ha. The protected landscape category adequately protects
areas ranging from marine and coastal sites through primary forest to montane ecosystems.
The natural conservation strategy of Japan is based on the national survey on the environment
undertaken in 1973, 1978, 1979 and 1983. The purpose of these studies has been to a) identify
the present state of the natural environment, b) identify changes on a 5-year basis and c)
utilise the survey results as basic information for environmental impact assessment and
conservation programmes.
The leading non-Governmental nature conservation organisations in Japan include the Nature
Conservation Society of Japan, plus the National Parks Association and the National Parks
Beautification and Management Foundation. All promote research, public relations and nature
tours. The Nature Conservation Society of Japan particularly concentrates on identifying
wildlife and habitats in need of protection as well as funding ecological research. Other
conservation bodies include the World Wildlife Fund Japan, Friends of the Earth Japan and the
Wild Bird Society of Japan which has established a series of wild bird sanctuaries such as the
Oi marshes, and features famous conservation campaigns such as for the Japanese crane.
In theory, the national park system in Japan adequately protects much of the country’s
landscape, but the pressure from lack of resources, staff, unwieldy park sizes and conflict from
multi-land use is currently causing serious threat to the effectiveness of this designation.
Tourism has always been a major reason for creating the parks of Japan, and to-day 323
million people visit the national parks each year (828 million to all the natural park categories)
(Nature Conservation Bureau, 1985). These figures alone represent at least one annual visit by
every single person in Japan and represent some of the highest park visitor figures in the
world. Asa result of high visitor pressure, there is currently a major overloading of time spent
controlling tourism. Tourism at present levels seriously affects the environment through
erosion, pollution, demands on water resources (whilst staying at the park accommodation) and
increasing the need for visitor facilities and other buildings (Sakurai, 1984).
Further difficulties of management result from parks being created in areas that cannot be
adequately protected, even though legislation exists to prevent harmful activities, as is the case
when they are located adjacent to major industrial complexes or where pollution originates
beyond the park boundary - the Seto Naikai Inland Sea Park is a case in point. Park
dimensions are often cumbersome, especially where they are composed of more than one
discreet block requiring a greater input from an already overstretched park warden system.
Parks composed of single blocks appear to have more adequate control with successfully
defended buffer, restricted access and core area zonation.
References
° Bruns, D.R. (1975). The National Parks system of Japan. Boulder, Colorado.
° Church, J.R. (1979). Environmental administration and wildlife protection policies in Japan.
Research paper to the Faculty of Graduate School, University of Oklahoma. Degree of
Master of Public Administration.
Environment Agency (1978). Environmental laws and regulations in Japan. (IV). Nature,
Tokyo.
Environment Agency (1979). Outline of Nature Conservation Policy in Japan. Tokyo.
Environment Agency (1982). Quality of the Environment in Japan. Tokyo.
Environment Agency (1983). The Birds and Terrestrial Mammals of Japan. Tokyo.
Marsh, J.S. (1987). Marine Parks in Japan. Environment Canada, Parks, Ottawa Report for
Contract No. 84-143.
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oo) 0)
Japan
Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
National Parks Association (1952). Chronological history of the national parks of Japan.
Tokyo.
National Parks Association (1956). National Parks of Japan. Tokyo.
National Parks Association (1966). National Parks of Japan. Tokyo.
National Parks Association (1966). National Parks in Japan, 1963-66. Tokyo.
National Parks Association (1975). Beautiful Nature of Japan, National Parks and
Quasi-National Parks. Tokyo.
Oryx (1986). Concern for Japan’s forests. No. 4, 20, p. 256.
Oryx (1987). Japan’s new efforts for wildlife. No. 2, 21, p.119.
Sakurai, M. (1984). Adjustment between nature and human activity in National Parks in
Japan. In National Parks Conservation and Development. Ed. J.A. McNeely and K.R.
Miller. 479-485.
Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. YICN
Cambridge and IWRB Slimbridge.
Stewart-Smith, J. (1987). In the shadow of Fujisan, Japan and its wildlife.
Viking/Rainbird Publication Co., London.
Tamura, T. et al. (1966). Marine Parks in Japan. Nature Conservation Society of Japan. 34
pp.
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
National Parks
Akan 90,538 *
Ashizuri-Uwakai 10,967 *
Aso 72,492 *
Bandai- Asahi 189,582 *
Chichibu-Tama 121,600 *
Chubu-Sangaku 174,323 *
Daisen-oki 31,927 *
Daisetsuzan 230,894 *
Fuji-Hakone-Izu 122,686 *
Hakusan 47,683 *
Iriomote 12,506 *
Ise-Shima 55,549 *
Joshinetsu Kogen 189,028 *
Kirishima- Yaku 55,008 *
Minami Arupusu 35,752 *
Nikko 140,698 *
Ogasawara 6,433 *
Rikuchu-Kaigan 12,348 *
Rishiri-Rebun-Sarobetsu D222
Saikai 24,653 *
Sanin-Kaigan 8,996 *
Seto-Naikai 62,957 *
Shikotsu-Toya 98,332 *
Shiretoko 38,633 *
Towada-Hachimantai 85,409 *
Unzen-Amakusa 25,496 *
Yoshino-Kumano 58,546 *
Subtotal 2,024,258
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Japan
Akan National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.14.05 (Manchu-Japanese Mixed Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located in the eastern part of Hokkaido, 3km from
Teshikaga in an area between Asahikawa and Shari. 43°46’N, 142°23’E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was designated as a National Park on 4
December 1934, under the Natural Parks law.
Area 90,538ha (1,402ha is Lake Kussharo)
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 500-1,503m
Physical Features The area is typified by the extinct twin volcanic peaks of Akan and
Kussharo and the natural lakes of Lake Kussharo, Mashu, Akan and Panke. Mt. Me-Akan is
the only active volcano and lakes in the area were formed in dammed basins of the volcano
craters. Around Lake Akan are hot springs and small mud-ash basins. Lake Kussharo, with a
perimeter of 57km, is reputed to be the largest caldera lake in the world (NCB, 1985).
Climate Subalpine climate which includes snow over the winter period (up to 40mm of snow
waters per year). Average annual precipitation is 1200mm, whilst the mean minimum
temperatures are in the region of -1°C.
Vegetation The subarctic flora of the region consists of vast tracts of conifer forests leading
down to the lake fringes. Aquatic lake vegetation, includes the rare marimo Cladaphora sauteri
algae on Lake Akan. On Lake Kussharo the aquatic vegetation includes Potamogetan crispus,
whilst fringing vegetation is represented by Phragmites communis, Typha latifolia, Scirpus
1 custris, Juncus setchuensis and Alnus japonica (Scott, in pre.). Lake side woodland includes
Azalea Rhododendron sp., birch Betula and red maple Acer sp. At higher altitudes are
coniferous forests of pine Pinus thundergii, silver fir Abies sp., spruce Picea, and creeping
pines Pinus pumila. The higher mountain slopes and many of the foothills are dominated by
scree vegetation or open pasture (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Fauna The area is an extremely important nesting and feeding point for migratory birds. Up
to 3,000 swans, including whistling swan Cygnus columbianus and whooper swan C. cygnus
have been recorded at Lake Kussharo. Some 30,000 ducks visit the lake in mid-October
(especially wigeon Anas penelope)(Scott, in prep.). Bird species recorded in the wooded
habitats include white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla, osprey Pandion haliaetus and Siberian
ruby throat Erithacus calliope (see Scott in prep. for bird species lists). Aquatic fauna includes
rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri, lake salmon Oncorphynchus and pond smelt Osmerus eperlanus.
Fish species in Lake Kussharo include Hypomesus olidus, Cyprinus carpio and Ammodytes
personatus (see Scott in prep. for species lists).
Cultural Heritage The area is one of the centres of the Ainu culture. The Ainu way of life
lingers on but is much endangered by the modern Japanese. Local legends abound and plants
such as the marimo and also animals like the bear are even now reverred. A lake monster
"Kutchie" is supposed to haunt the waters of Lake Kussharo (Akan Tourist Board, n.d.;
Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population No information
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Japan
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Accommodation ranges from youth hostels and camp sites to
modern hotels. Visitor centres are at Akan Kohan and Kawayu. Hot spring spas abound and
other features include "hot sand" beaches at Lake Kussharo. Pleasure boats tour Lake Akan
and angling is a common sport in the area. In winter there are skating and skiing facilities.
Tourist festivals include the marimo fete on 10 October of every year. The traditional
lifestyles of the Ainu people can be seen in the Ainu Kotan villages set up for the benefit of
tourists (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management In 1952 the marimo was designated a "special Natural Treasure"
and subsequent projects include growing this plant in specially built tanks on Churusmoshira
island (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Management Problems In 1949 the marimo algae were severely endangered when the lake was
used as a reservoir for electricity generation (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Akan Tourist Board (n.d.) Akan National Park (in Japanese). Pamphlet.
°* Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
° Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN
Cambridge and IWRB Slimbridge.
* Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks in Japan. Kodanshi International
Ltd., Tokyo.
Date July 1987
Ashizuru- Uwakai National Park
(including 4 Marine Park areas: Tatsukushi,
Okinoshima, Kashinishi and Uwakai)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The Park is situated on the south-west promontory and coast of
Shikoku Island, the smallest of the 4 main Japanese isles. The National Park extends from
Ashizuri cape westward along the coast to Daido (Kochi Prefecture). A separate part of the
Park continues along the coast (Ehime Prefecture) and includes the isles of Hiburi, Mai and
Okino. 32°42’-33°20’N, 132°15’-133°01’E.
Date and History of Establishment Designated under Natural Parks Law of 10 November
1972 with development controlled by Art. 17, 18, 18-2 and 20. Special protection is afforded
to six named families, one genus and three species of fish; three genera and 33 species of
invertebrate; one genus and five species of seaweed. The Marine Park areas were designated
variously when the Ashizuri area was a quasi National Park, on 1 July 1970. On the creation
of the National Park, two further Marine Parks were designated (10 November 1972).
Area 10,967.5ha (107.3ha Marine Park Areas). Two zones exist: 83.8% (9,024.5ha)
multiple-use land and 17.2% (1,882ha) wilderness area where the land is conserved for nature.
=DAil-
Japan
Land Tenure 3,880.9ha State land, 1,099.0ha public land, 5,925.7ha in private ownership.
Altitude Sea level to 1,065m (maximum depth of MPAs 20m)
Physical Features The Ashizuri promontory has many steep granite cliffs facing the Pacific
Ocean and includes the Marine Park of Okinoshima. The Tatsukushi sector is an indented "ria"
coast of shales and sandstones. The Daido coast has 140m granite cliffs with many caves and
other erosional features. The western coast is also a "ria" formation with small inlets and islets,
formed from the submergence of mountain valleys (includes Kashinishi and Uwakai Marine
Parks). The Nametoko valley with its granite cliffs is famous for forests and waterfalls. The
warm Kuroshio current influences the coastal and marine parks to give them a sub-tropical
aspect. Water transparency is 20.25m. The coral reefs are located offshore in the Kuroshio
waters (Marine Parks Centre, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Temperatures vary from 27°C (August) to 8°C (January), with annual precipitation
averaging 2545mm.
Vegetation The Park vegetation is dominated by a Palearctic flora and particularly
broad-leafed sclerophyll forest. It occupies 3,350ha and consists of Castanopsis cuspidata var.
sieboldii, Quercus phylliraeoides, Q. acuta, Neolitsea thunbergii, and Camellia japonica var.
spontanea (IUCN, 1975). About 1,000ha consists of montane coniferous forest of fir Abies
firma, red pine Pinus densiflora, hemlock Tsuga_ sieboldii, and Japanese
cypress Chamaecyparis obtusa. Black pine Pinus thunbergii is particular common on the coast.
Deciduous forest with beech Fagus grenata and Firmiana platanifolia occupies 310ha. There
are also more open habitats with small communities of palms Livistona subglobosa and grasses
such as Sasa spp., Miscanthus sinensis and Arundo donax. Several sub-tropical plants,
including Livistona, Chrysanthemum japonense var. ashijuriense, Mitrastemon yamamotoi
(Rafflesiaceae) and the large herbaceous fern Angiopteris ligodiifolia, are at their northernmost
limit in the Park and of biogeographical interest (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
The marine flora is poor, mainly consisting of Codium fragile, Sergassum serratefolium
and Dictyopteris (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Fauna Mammals include Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata, black bear Selenarctos thibetanus
japonicus, raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonides viverrinus, and rare Japanese otter Lutra lutra
whiteleyi (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). Birds are represented by a large population of
white-faced shearwater Calonectris leucomelas, copper pheasant Syrmaticus soemmerringii
scintillans, ruddy kingfisher Halycon coromanda major, fairy pitta Pitta brachyura nympha,
red-rumped swallow Hirundo daurica japonica and black paradise flycatcher Terpsiphone
atrocaudata (IUCN, 1975). The marine fauna is composed of mixed sub-tropical and
temperate elements, including fish such as the Apogonidae, Chaetodontidae and
Ostraciontidae. There is an abundance of scleractinian corals including large colonies
of Acropora, especially at Okinoshima and well developed Pavona decussata at Tatsukushi. The
Uwakai area has colourful alcyonarians such as Nepththea chabroli. Gorgonians
include Melithaea flabellifera and Anthoplexaura dimorpha. Crinoids, starfish and sea-urchins
are also present (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Cultural Heritage One of the most venerated Buddhist priests in Japanese history, Ku Kai,
was born in north-east Shikoku (773 AD). To-day there are 88 holy places which
commemorate Ku Kai on the Island (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population Pearl oyster farms and crayfish nets are prevalent in the park fjords.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities 1.51 million visitors in 1972, 1.10 million of whom also visited
the Marine Park Areas (Marine Parks Centre, 1975). Facilities include hotels, inns, picnic
areas, access roads, nature trails, visitor centre, glass-bottomed boats at Tatsukushi and Awakai
and an underwater coral observatory tower at Tatsukushi Marine Park. At Tatsukushi is an
exhibition museum with 50,000 species of shell (Marine Parks Centre, 1975; Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
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Scientific Research and Facilities Study of vegetation has been undertaken by the
Environment Agency (1973).
Conservation Management The site has largely been designated for its scenic value.
Management Problems Cultivation, logging and hunting are at a fairly sustainable level but
disturbance of soil and flora, particularly by plantation projects, is increasing. No
contamination from freshwater drainage into the sea has yet been detected (IUCN, 1975).
Staff Total of 11 staff (ranger of the Environment Agency; 4 Prefectural officers, Kochi
Prefectural Governement; 6 patrol men, Kochi and Ehime Prefectural Governments) (IUCN,
1975).
Budget The park receives a share of the Environment Agency’s annual subvention to National
Parks (US$700,000 in the mid 1970s); US$13,500 was in the 1970s also provided annually by
Kochi and Ehime Prefectural Governments (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Tosashimizu Ranger Office, Environmental Agency, Tosashimizu City,
Kochi. Ashizuri Park Office, Kochi Prefecture, Tosashimizu City, Kochi.
References
° Anon. (1968). Scientific Report of Ashizuri National Park. Kochi Prefectural publ. (in
Japanese).
°* International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources, 1975. Directory of
National Parks and other protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
° Marine Parks Centre (1975). Marine Parks in Japan. Marine Parks Centre of Japan, May
1975.
Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodangha International
Ltd, Tokyo.
°* Tamura, T. 1964. Scientific Report on Marine Parks of Inankaigan, Kochi Prefecture. Kochi
Prefectural publ. (in Japanese). 25 pp.
° Tamura, T. 1969. Planning for Marine Parks in Kochi Prefecture. Kochi Prefectural publ.,
21 pp. (in Japanese).
° Tamura, T. 1969. Planning for a Marine Park in Ehime Prefecture. Ehime Prefectural
publ., 30 pp. (in Japanese).
°
Date June 1987
Aso National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The park is situated in the centre of Kyushu Island in the
mountainous area of Mount Aso and Mount Yufudake. The nearest town is the resort of
Beppu, within Kumamoto and Oita provinces. 33°18’N, 131°30’E.
Date and History of Establishment The National Park was created on 4 December 1934 under
the Natural Parks law. All development within the park area is controlled under Articles 17,18
and 20 of the law.
Area 72,492ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 936-1,592m
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Physical Features The National Park consists of the central caldera volcanoes of Aso and the
extinct Mt. Kiyu, as well as the Yufu tholoid volcanic zones in the north-east of the park. The
ranges extend towards the hot spring resort of Beppu and are essentially surrounded by the
agricultural plains of the Kurokawa river (NCB, 1985).
The caldera basin of Mount Aso is 16km East to West, 32km North to South and 80km in
circumference. In the caldera centre is a group of five volcanic peaks amongst which Mt.
Naka-dake (1,510m) is still active (other peaks are Neko-dake, Taka-dake (1,592m),
Kishima-dake and Ebashi-dake). The eastern half of the volcano group is extremely rocky
with many cliffs and precipices. Gorges include the Sensui-kyo chasm adjacent to Aso and the
Takachiho gorge cut by the river Gokase. The north slope of Eboshi-dake is covered by gentle
undulating and fertile grassy plains, Senri-ga-hama, of deep volcanic ash layers. On the
southern slopes is a sandy volcanic ash plain, Suna-Senri. Over the millenia, the volcano has
gradually eroded in successice upheavals followed by violent explosions and subsequent
sinking. The present outer crater was formed approximately 130,000 years ago, although the
area has been volcanically active for at least 30 million years. The first records of local
eruptions were in 553 and 864 AD (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Average annual temperatures approximate 15.9°C, with a mean minimum of 10.9°C.
Annual rainfall figures average 1900mm.
Vegetation The National Park is essentially dominated by pastureland and alpine rocky
slopes. Woodlands and scrub are restricted to a few areas such as the Kuju ridge where there
are large tracts of deciduous broadleaf and Rhododendron kiusianus stands (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
Fauna’ The fauna is essentially palearctic in origin, the avifauna including varied tit, copper
pheasant, little cuckoo, Japanese bush warbler, quail, bullfinch and Japanese robin (Parus
varius, Phazianus soemmeffingii, Cuculus poliocephalus, Cettia diphone, Coturnix coturnix,
Pyrrhula pyrrhula and Erithacus akahige) (Kyushu Industrial and Transportation Company,
1963; for bird species list see Robinson, 1987). Japanese macaques Macaca fuscata fuscata
have unusual hot spring bathing behaviour on the Takasaki hills (Sutherland and Britton, 1980;
NCB, 1985).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population There are three main towns in the crater basin with a population of
approximately 70,000 (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). The surrounding area includes ten hot
spring resorts including Beppu. Much of the park itself is geared to traditional agriculture and
livestock (horses and cattle) rearing. Farmers and hay-gatherers traditionally construct grass
huts (Kusado-mari) in October when they migrate into the mountains to gather the hay for
over-wintering livestock. Cultivated areas of bamboo and rice also abound (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities A railway line enters and almost totally circles the inside of the
caldera. A toll road and cable cars rise to Mount Nakadake and sight-seeing tours are available
throughout the park as are tourist trails and simple accommodation (NCB, 1985; Robinson,
1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The grassland areas of the park are repeatedly burnt to encourage
spring herb growth (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Management Problems No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
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Local Administration No information
References
° Kyushu Industrial and Transportation Company (1963). National Park, Volcano Aso. The
Kyushu Industrial and Transportation Co. Ltd., Kumamoto.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Japan.
Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co., California.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Japan.
°
Date July 1987
Bandai- Asahi National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.15.05 (Oriental Deciduous Forest)
Geographical Location The National Park is situated to the south-west of Sendai on central
Honshu island. The nearest towns are at Yone Zawa, Shibata, Fukushima and Koriyama. The
park consists of three separate blocks, those of the Asahi-Dewa Sanzan mountain range, Mount
lide and Mount Bandai - Lake Inawashiro. The entire park is located within Yamagata, Nigata
and Fukushima prefectures. 37°57’N, 139°20°E.
Date and History of Establishment The National Park was created on 5 September 1950
under the Natural Parks law. Development is controlled under Articles 17,18, 18-2 and 20 of
the law.
Area 189,582ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 100-2,128m
Physical Features The park is essentially a mountainous area dominated by the neaks of Mt.
Gassan (1,980m), Mt. lide (2,105m) and Mt. Azuma (2,024m). There are also a number of
large lakes formed from damming of rivers by volcanic activity. Lake Inawashiro is the fourth
largest lake in Japan. The Azumi volcanic zone is still active in the area around Mt. Issaiyo
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Cold Siberian winds blowing from the Japan sea account for the deep snow that lies
for much of the year. Average annual precipitation approximates 1000-1500mm.
Vegetation The vegetation in the park ranges from alpine mountain flora through to vast
tracts of sub-alpine broadleaf forest. There are records of 110 varieties of alpine plants in the
Asahi range including Japanese primrose, wild poppies and the rare Kuroyuri Japanese black
lily (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). The heathland habitat is dominated by associations
of Miscanthus grass which grades into cypress groves and forests of larch Larix and
birch Betula. The Mt. lide area is dominated by beech Fagus forests and many of the lakes are
fringed by dense vegetation of Azalea Rhododendron fauriae and Wisteria spp. (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
Fauna The fauna is little known but includes such species as black bear Selenarctos thibetanus
japonicus, serow Capricornis crispus, macaque Macaca fuscata fuscata and various species of
weasel, squirrel and flying squirrel (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987).
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Cultural Heritage In the Asahi mountain range are the three holy mountains of Dewa Sanzan
(Mounts Gassan, Yudono and Haguro). Rituals and pilgrimages are still practised by religious
devotees. The area is also remembered for its volcanic eruptions. In 1888 up to 500 people lost
their lives when Mount Bandei exploded after a 1,000 year dormancy period (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The majority of the population is settled below the mountain park
boundary.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The main activities in the park include hiking, mountaineering,
pilgrimages and camping. Lake Inawashiro is a popular boating and camping resort. Toll roads
give access to the slopes of Mount Bandai and ski facilities are available in the highlands
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management Mount Bandai is one of Japan’s three most important bird habitats
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987), whilst Lake Inawashiro is listed as one of the
52 "very important" Japanese wetlands in the Draft Asia Wetlands Inventory (Scott, in prep.).
Forestry exploitation is permitted within the park.
Management Problems No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Tonescu, M and Condurateanu-Fesci, S. (1985). Parcuri si rezervatii naturale pe Glob.
Colectia Cristal, Bucuresti.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Japan.
Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co., California.
Scott, D.A. and Carbonell (1986). A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. YJCN Cambridge
and IWRB Slimbridge.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Japan.
°
°
Date July 1987
Chichibu-Tama National Park (Titibu- Tama)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located on Central Honshu island 50km north-west of
Tokyo. The nearest main towns are Chichibu (10km) and Ome (2km). The park boundaries
are found within the Nagano, Saitama, Gunma and Yamanashi prefectures as well as the Tokyo
metropolitan district. 35°41’-36°02’N, 138°30’-139°14’E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was created as a national park on 10 July 1950:
designated under the Natural Parks Law largely as a place of scenic beauty. Development is
strictly controlled (Art. 17, 18 and 19 of Natural Parks Law). There are a series of zoned areas
including core area "wilderness zones" and buffer zone "multiple use areas" where limited
development is permitted.
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Area 121,600ha (1,000ha special protected area)
Land Tenure 18,480ha state land, 64,070ha public land, 39,050ha private land.
Altitude 600-2,595m
Physical Features The park is located entirely within a mountainous area of Honshu. Within
the boundaries there are over 20 mountain peaks all formed from paleozoic limestones, the
oldest in Japan (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). The Chichibu and Tama mountain ranges reach
a maximum altitude at Mount Kinpu (2,595m), Kokushi (2,592m) and Kobushi (2,483m) all
within the extreme west of the park. These mountains are largely composed of diorite and
granites. High rainfall levels over millions of years have resulted in steep eroded mountain
sides and deep ravines such as Shoshenkyo gorge. The four main river systems originating in
the mountains include those of Fuefuki, Tanba/Tama, Kawamata and Nakatsu/Arakawa. The
topography of the park has traces of the scouring that occurred during the last Ice Age (IUCN,
1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
Climate Temperatures vary from a mean for the hottest month of 20.6°C (August) to -1.8°C
mean for the coldest month (January). Annual precipitation averages 1672mm. Snow falls
during the mid-winter months.
Vegetation The palaeartic vegetation of the park varies from dense coniferous forests of
Japanese cedar Cryptomeria japonica and cypress Chamaecyparis obtusa, in association with red
pine Pinus densiflora, and the firs Abies mariesu and A. veitchii. Other species include
spruce Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis, larch Larix kaempferi and dwarf or creeping pine Pinus
pumila, along with hemlock Tsuga diversifolia and Abies homolepsis var. umbellata (IUCN,
1975). The deciduous forests are typically composed of beech Fagus crenata, birch Betula
tauschii and B. ermanii var. communis, water oak Quercus crispula, chestnut Castanean crenata,
Zelkova serrata, horse-chestnut Aesculus turbinata and maple Acer (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland
and Britton, 1980.
Fauna The rich woodland of the park is largely palaeartic in origin. Mammals include Asiatic
black bear Selenarctos thibetanus japonicus, wild pig Sus scrofa leucomystax, Honshu
sika Cervus nippon centralis and Japanese serow Capricornis crispus (Sutherland and Britton,
1980). The avifauna includes such species as Honshu copper pheasant Syrmaticus semerringii
scintillans, scops owl Otus scops japonicus, broad-billed roller Eurystomus orientalis and
Japanese robin Erithacus akahige (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Cultural Heritage An important shrine, Mitake, is reputed to have been founded some 1,200
years ago under the protection of the Tokugawashogunate. The treasure house contains many
objects of national importance. A shrine festival, Hinode-matsuri, occurs in early May every
year (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The foothills of the park are densely populated and the local people
are largely dependent upon tourism and local agriculture for their livelihood. There are
extensive terraced fields of buckwheat, rice and potatoes (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park has up to 8.39 million visitors a yearlargely due to its
close proximity to Tokyo (IUCN, 1975). Access is extremely good and facilities include hoteld,
visitor centres, three museums, mountain and nature trails, mountain refuges, and camp and
picnic sites. Most visitors come for outdoor activities such as hiking, boating and
mountaineering, but visits to the shrines, man made lakes, Chichibu folk museum and Ohme
railway museum are also popular (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities Investigations on the vegetation of the park area have been
undertaken by the Environment Agency (IUCN, 1975).
Conservation Management No information
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Management Problems Due to its close proximity to Tokyo the park is under pressure from a
diversity of sources. Chief amongst the threats are the damming of two major rivers within
the park (at Chichibu and Okutama) to provide hydro-electricity for the Tokyo area (IUCN,
1975). The cement factories are also having a major environmental impact on the park at the
limestone quarries of Chichibu. The forests are exploited and the more remote areas are
gradually being opened up with forest road construction (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton,
1980).
Staff 3 full-time staff (ranger employed by the Environment Agency; two officers of the
Saitama Prefectural Government); one seasonal (warden, Nagano Prefectural Government)
(IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the mid 1970s the budget consisted of a share of the annual allocation of
US$700,000 from the Environment Agency to the National Parks; plus US$70,000 from Tokyo,
Saitama, Yamanashi and Nagano Prefectural Governments (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Hikawa Ranger Office, Environmental Agency, Okutama town, Tokyo
Prefecture, Japan.
References Y
IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Japan. ;
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Tokyo.
Tokyo Prefectural Government. 1963. The Nature (Geology, Flora and Fauna) of Okutama
District, Chichibu-Tama National Park (in Japanese). Tokyo Prefectural Government, Tokyo.
Date June 1987
Chubu Sangaku National Park (Northern Japan Alps)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location Chubu Sangaku is situated in north-central Honshu island in the Gifu,
Nagano, Niigata and Toyama Prefectures. The park boundary starts 10km inland from the
coast and follows the Hida mountain range down to Mount Norikura, 20-30km west of
Matsumoto. 36°03’-37°54’N, 137°26’-137°52’E.
Date and History of Establishment The national park was created on 4 December 1934, and
designated under the Natural Parks Law. Two zones exist, 62.6% (103,216.4ha) is a multiple
use area, and 37.4% (63,551.6ha) is classed as a wilderness zone for wildlife protection.
Area 174,323ha (63,522ha special protected area)
Land Tenure 147,888ha state land, 12,870ha public land; 9010ha still in private ownership
Altitude 400-3,190m
Physical Features The tectonic mountain area of the "Japan Alps" (Hida range) comprises
over 100 peaks including both active and extinct volcanoes and lava plateaus. The effects of
past glacial erosion are very apparent, with snow-filled valleys, sheer cliff faces and such
features as the 90km Kurobe gorge, to the west of Omachi, with its series of waterfalls
surrounded by peaks of 2,500-3,000m. There are also the falls of Shomyo-no-taki which are
400m in height. The narrow V-shaped valleys of the Kamikochi valley, and elswhere in the
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park, were carved out by abundant rain and melting snow during the Japanese Ice Age. Hot
springs are plentiful in the foothills as are numerous lakes such as at Taiso-ike, Myojin-ike
and Sennin-ike (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Temperatures range from 17.6°C (August) to -7.5°C (January); there is an annual
average precipitation of 2703mm and snow is present until May.
Vegetation Primaeval forests of palearctic-type conifers clothe the mountain sides, mainly fir
species Abies homolepsis, A. mariesii and A. veitchii, as well as spruce Picea jezoensis var.
hondoensis, Japanese cedar Cryptomeria japonica, hemlock Tsuga diversifolia, Thuja
standishii, pine Pinus parviflora and P. pumila. and some larch Larix kaempferi (IUCN,1975).
Deciduous forests include water oak Quercus crispula, birch Betula tauschii and B. ermanii var.
communis, beech Fagus crenata and Japanese judas or katsura Cercidiphyllum japonicum.
Willow-like Chosenia arbustiflora (bracteosa) is also characteristic of the area. Alpine and
sub-alpine vegetation above the tree line includes Dryas octotala var. asiatica, Trollius
japonicus, Orchis aristata var. immaculata, Platanthera makinoe, Gentiana algida, Veratrum
stamineum and Empetrum nigrum var. asiatica (IUCN, 1975). Raised bogs are also present at
higher altitudes (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Fauna’ Characteristic species of mammal include Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata fuscata,
Asiatic black bear Selenarctos thibetanus japonicus and rare Japanese serow Capricornis crispus
crispus (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). Birds include a few golden eagles Aquila chrysaétos
japonica, Hodgson’s hawk eagle Spizaetus nipalensis orientalis and white throated needle-tailed
swift Chaetura caudacuta caudacuta. Typical high montane and alpine species include
ptarmigan Lagopus mutus japonicus, nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes japonicus and
accentors Prunella collaris erythopygia and P. r. rubida (I{UCN, 1975).
Cultural Heritage The mountain in the north of the park, Tateyama, was consecrated as
sacred in 703 AD. It is one of only three sacred mountains in Japan, along with Nakuso and
Fuji. An 8th century shrine is situated on the peak at Oyama. The mountain was first climbed
professionally by Walter Weston, the father of Japanese mountaineering, in 1892. An annual
ceremony to commemorate this British mountaineer is held at Weston Square, Kamikochi
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park received 7.56 million visitors in 1972 (IUCN, 1975).
Facilities in the park include hotels, inns, huts, campgrounds and picnic areas, an extensive
network of nature and mountain trails, rock climbing and skiing facilities. There is access by
mountain roads, cable cars and aerial tramways, as well as a visitor centre, national Vacation
Village in the Norikura area and a mountaineering museum at Omachi town (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities Studies on the carrying capacity of the park have been
undertaken by Professor Masami Eyama, Tokyo Agricultural University (IUCN, 1975). Studies
of vegetation have been undertaken by the Environment Agency (NCB, 1985).
Conservation Management The park has largely been established for its recreational and
scenic value and in the past the area has been protected by its sacred status.
Management Problems Environmental damage to the park includes several man-made lakes
with hydroelectric barrages and installations. Lack of effective management has led to a
seasonal overuse of tourist cars in the Kamikochi area.
Staff Eight full-time staff (a superintendent and five rangers from the Environment Agency
plus two Toyama Prefectural officers); 39 seasonal staff (three patrol men, of the Niigata and
Gifu Prefectures; 32 volunteer naturalists of the Toyama Prefecture; four naturalists of the
National Park Association).
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Budget In the 1970s the park received a share of the Environment Agency’s annual
subvention to National Parks (total US$700,000), US$68,500 annually from the Niigata,
Toyama, Gifu and Nagano Prefectures and US$2,000 from the National Parks Association
(IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Chubu Sangaku National Park Headquarters Office, Environmental
Agency, Shimashima, Azumi Village, Nagano Prefecture, Japan. Ranger offices at Hirayu,
Kamita Kara Village, and Tateyama Town; Ranger station at Azumi Village.
References
° Eyama, M. (1972/72). Dissertation on Space Capacioty (Carrying Capacity) within the
National Park. Environmental Agency publ. (in Japanese).
° TUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Japan.
° Nature Conservation Society of Japan (1969). Scientific Report of Mt. Norikura in Chubu
Sangaku National Park (in Japanese).
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Tokyo.
Date June 1987
Daisen-oki National Park
(including the Jodogaura, Shiro, Kuniga
and the Shimane-Hanto Marine Parks)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Rainforest)
Geographical Location The park is situated in the northern section of the Chugoku district of
Honshu Island. It consists of 6 separate parts; the Hiruzen highlands, part of Shimane
peninsula (between Matsue and Mihonoseki, Izumo, Mount Sanbe and the two Oko Islands).
35°29’N, 133°04’E.
Date and History of Establishment The park was created on | February 1936 under the
Natural Parks Law and was set up to protect the area for recreational use. The Marine Parks
were established in 1972.
Area 31,927ha (the Marine Park Areas are 14.8ha, 7.3ha, 20.8ha and 7ha).
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 0-1,731m
Physical Features The park consists of volcanic origin rocks as typified by the extinct tholoid
volcano of Mount Daisen (1,731m). Mt Sanbe (1,126m) is of importance for a rare type of
alpine lake and is of further note for its steep rocky escarpments (Sutherland and Britton,
1980). The Shimane peninsula, lying parallel to the mainland, is joined to it at either end by
sandbanks - at the western end by silt deposits laid down by the Hii and Kando rivers; at the
eastern end by a sand spit, which is 3m wide and 20km long. The Oki Islands consist of the
major island Dogo and a cluster of three smaller islands known as the "Dozen Group". The
coastline is largely composed of igneous rock-like quartz porphyry (Marine Parks Centre,
1975). The park is variously affected by the Tsushima current systems.
Climate Average annual temperatures approximate 14.9°C, with mean for the coldest month
of 8.7°C. Annual precipitation figures average 1990mm.
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Vegetation On the coast the vegetation has been greatly altered by man. At higher altitudes
are sub-alpine communities which include the nationally protected Kyaraboku yew Taxus, a
dwarf endemic creeping tree. On the lower montane slopes are virgin forests of beech Fagus
crenata, oaks Quercus sp. and maple Acer, as well as red pine Pinus densifolia (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980). The natural vegetation of the peninsular also includes Pinus and Quercus
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987). The marine flora includes vast meadows
of Sargassum tortile, S. ringgoldianum, Eisenia bicyclis and Zostera marina (Marine Parks
Centre, 1975).
Fauna’ The wild life of the park includes bush warbler Cettia diphone, as well as numerous
spring and autumn migratory species (see Robinson, 1987 for a bird list). The marine fauna is
represented by such fish species as Sebastes inermis, Girella punctata, Ditrema temmincki
and Chromis notatus. Other marine species include Certonardoa semi-regularis, Melithaea
flabellifera and Pseudo centrotus depressus (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Cultural Heritage The park abounds in cultural heritage. One of the oldest Shinto shrines in
Japan, the Izumo Taisha, is found on the Shimane peninsula near Matsue. It commemorates
Okuninushi no Mikoto, the great God ruler of the Land. It is believed that here during the
Tenth month of the lunar calendar all the Shinto gods congregate. The second oldest sanctuary
in Japan is found at Mihonoseki, on the Shimane Peninsular, dedicated to seafarers. A famous
350 year old navigational pine tree still stands to this day. The Oki Islands in old times were
used to exile important political prisoners (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The area surrounding the coast is well populated and centred in the
towns of Hirata, Yonago and Matsue. Along the coastline itself are a number of fishing ports.
Other industries include livestock rearing, tourism, forestry, rice agriculture and fruit
orchards. Oki Island is renowned for its "shiitake" mushrooms and the sands from the iron-rich
Hii river support a thriving swordsmith’s craft (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities _ The Hiruzen highlands and the Oki Islands are popular for
skiing, spas, mountaineering, camping, religious pilgrimages and boat excursions. Toll roads
circuit the Daisen mountains and boats service the Oki Islands. Two glass-bottom boats are
provided by a public corporation for tourist use (Marine Parks Centre, 1975). Accommodation
is abundant in Matsue and other areas within easy reach of the park (Robinson, 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management No information
Management Problems No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Marine Parks Centre (1975). Marine Parks of Japan. Marine Parks Centre of Japan, Tokyo.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
° Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co., California.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodangha International
Ltd, Tokyo.
Date June 1987
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Daisetsuzan National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.14.05 (Manchu-Japanese Mixed Forest)
Geographical Location The national park is located 100km to the east of Sappora bwteen
Obihiro and Asahikawa, in the central part of Hokkaido. The park is approximately 60km by
55km in area. 43°13’-43°48’N, 142°19°-142°38’E.
Date and History of Establishment 4 December 1934 (designated by the Natural Park Law).
Area 230,894ha (inclusive of five special protected areas totalling 35,193ha; 84.3%
(195,416.6ha) of the park is a multiple use area and 15.7% (36,512.4ha) is a wilderness area.
Land Tenure 224,794ha state land, 7,135ha public land
Altitude 300-2,290m
Physical Features Largest of all the Japanese National Parks, the area is called the "roof of
Hokkaido" and consists of the Ishikari volcanic mountain range with three volcanic peaks
including Mt. Tomuraushi, Mt. Asahi (2,290m) and Mt. Tokachi. The Ishikan highlands were
formed from faulting and subsequent elevation thousands of years ago, which led to the
formation of the Daisetsuzan range and plateau lands. The Daisetsuzan group consists of ten
peaks and a great plateau formed by a volcanic crater of 2km diameter. The rivers within the
park have many basalt gorges in their upper reaches (Sounkyo and Tenninkyo gorges have
200m cliffs with extensive exposures of rhyolite). Many hot springs occur in the piedmont
zones around Shikaribetsu (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Average temperatures vary from a mean of 20.4°C in August to a mean of -8.6°C in
January; there is a mean total of 1,277mm of precipitation per year. Snow lasts until May/June.
Vegetation The vegetation of the park is essentially Palaearctic in character. Extensive
coniferous forests on the mountain slopes rise to a high montane alpine flora with an arctic
element. Forests are characterised by yezo spruce Picea jezoensis, red yezo spruce P. glehnii,
white fir Abies mayriana and dwarf pine Pinus pumila. Deciduous forests consist of yezo water
oak Quercus crispula var. sachalinensis, white birch Betula tauschii, B. ermanii var. communis,
elm Ulmus laciniaple, maple Acer sp., Sorbaria sp., and alder Alnus maximowiczii (IUCN,
1975). The montane area is rich in alpine species including dwarf shrub heath with Empetrum
nigrum var. japonicum, Rhododendron aureum, Gentiana nipponica, Prila cuneifolia, Phyllodoce
caerulea and Therorhodion camschaticum (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Fauna Mammals include rare northern pika Ochotona hyperborea yesoensis in the alpine zone,
Ezo chipmunk Tamias sibiricus lineatus, brown bear Ursus arctos yesoensis, Japanese
macaque Macaca fuscata fuscata and uncommon Ezo sable Martes zibellina brachyura (IUCN,
1975). Birds include Tridactylus inouei, mountain-finch Leucosticte arctoa brunneonucha, grey
bunting Emberiza variabilis, ruby throat Luscinia c. calliope as well as Kurile pine
grosbeak Pinicola enucleator urupensis and red crowned crane Grus japoneusis. Hazel
grouse Tetrastes banasia is restricted to the alpine zone (Martins et al., 1980; Sutherland and
Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987).
Cultural Heritage Numerous Ainu legends refer to the spirits of the Daisetsuzan mountains.
Local Human Population The region is renowned for its state subsidised wine, rice,
agriculture and forestry (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
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Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are estimates of 4.08 million tourists having visited the
park in 1972 (IUCN, 1975). Facilities include hotels, inns, huts, campgrounds, picnic areas,
mountain and nature trails and a "forest" museum. The area is particularly important for its ski
resorts and hot spring resorts. Cable cars ascend the Kurodake peak and Mount Asahi from
Yukomanbetsu (Robinson, 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities Studies of vegetation have been undertaken by the
Environment Agency (IUCN, 1975).
Conservation Management The area is one of the most important for alpine wildlife in the
Japanese archipelago and is essentially managed for "conserving nature" (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980). Management is made easier than for many of the other Japanese parks by the
fact that it is a single entity and under 90% state ownership. The recreation areas and zones
for logging and reforestation are restricted to the north-west and south-east periphery of the
park. The main Daisetsuzan forests are completely protected from exploitation (IUCN, 1975;
Ionescu et al., 1985).
Management Problems Several hydroelectric barrages and installations have been built in the
park (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Staff Two rangers (employed by the Environment Agency) and 21 seasonal patrol men
(Hokkaido Prefectural Government) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the mid-1970s support came from the annual allocation by the Environment
Agency to National Parks of US$700,00. In addition US$10,800 per annum came from
Hokkaido Prefectural Government (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Yukomanbetsu Ranger Office, Environmental Agency, Yukomanbetsu,
Higashikawa town, Hokkaido; Sounkyo Ranger Office, Environmental Agency, Sounkyo,
Kamikawa town, Hokkaido.
References
° Tonescu, M. and Condurateanu-Fesci, S. (1985). Parcuri si rezervati naturale pe Glob.
Colectia cristal, Bucuresti.
° IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other Protected Areas. Y\UCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
° Martins, R.P. et al. (1980). Report on a birding expedition to Japan, 8 March - 14 May 1980.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Japan.
° Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co., California.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Japan.
Date July 1987
Fuji- Hakone-Izu National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02. (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located on south central Honshu, west of Yokahama. The
areas consists of four main separate parts centred around Hakone and Gotenba. Fuji area:
35°14’-35°34°N, 138°32’-138°56’E; Hakone area: 35°10’-35 17’N, 138°57°-139°08’E; Izu
peninsular area: 34°36’-35°10’N, 138°45’-139°09’E; Izu Seven Island area: Coshima, Toshima,
Niijima, Shikinejimo, Kozushima, Miyakejima, Mikurojima and MHachijojima 34°40’N,
139°00°E). 33°03’-34°48’N, 139°05’-139°51’E.
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Date and History of Establishment The National Park was created on 1 February 1936, and
designated by the Natural Parks Act (Protection of places of scenic beauty). All development
is controlled within the Park under Articles 17, 18 and 20 of the Natural Parks Act. The park
was enlarged in 1938, 1955 and 1964. Two zones exist 95.7% (117,042.7ha) multiple use areas
and 4.3% (5,266.3ha) wilderness areas. The Izu islands were included within the park boundary
in 1964 and immediately a zoning system was set up ("special protected areas" through to
"normal" areas).
Area 122,686ha (7,95lha special protected area)
Land Tenure 21,958.7ha state land, 52,703.1ha public land; 47,647.2ha in private ownership
Altitude Sea level to 3,776m
Physical Features Mount Fuji, is the highest mountain in Japan (3,776m), and rises directly
from the plains, dwarfing the surrounding foothills. The mountain is distinctly cone shaped
and volcanic in origin, but has remained dormant since 1707 (the first recorded eruption was in
800 AD). Only one cone on the eastern rim shows any sign of activity at present, occasionally
producing hot vapours. Landslides are common on the lower slopes, which are dotted with lava
caves and scattered with magnetic rocks. The base of the mountain is marked by a number of
lakes, and an interesting waterfall, Shiraito, which forms from an underground stream falling
directly from an outlet in the cliff face. Mount Hakone (1,327m) 20-30km to the south-east is
a highly eroded and worn down triple coned volcano. It is now extinct, but is rich in hot
springs and possesses a caldera lake - Ashinoko (lake of reeds) on the plateau at 723m. This
lake, which is 13 miles in circumference (7 sq.km) and 45m deep, is reported to never freeze.
The rivers issuing from the lake are Hayakamo and Sukumo. The Amagi mountain range in
the Izu peninsular (of which the coast and part of the mountain are in the park) was originally
a volcanic island, but became joined to the mainland when the rocks of the area were uplifted
and tilted. The highest area, Mt. Izu, is 1,407m high. The coast is lined with cliffs and has
many marine caves. The Izu Island chain is a series of volcanic islands extending 185km
southwards from Izu peninsular. One of the four active volcanoes, Miyake, has erupted 14
times since 1085 AD. Its most recent eruption was in 1983. The warm Kuroshio currents have
a major influence on the environment of the Izu islands. Coral reefs occur at a number of
locations, including the north-west coast of Miyake island (IUCN, 1975; Kangawa Prefectural
Government, 1972; Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
Climate The climate varies from alpine in the mountains to subtropical warm temperate on
the southern Izu isles. Annual temperatures vary from 22.9°C (Fuji-Hakone) and 27°C (Izu,
Hachijo Islands) in August to 0.5°C (Fuji-Hakone) and 10.5°C (Izu, Hachijo Islands) in
January. Annual precipitation is from 3231 to 3303mm, the Izu Islands being the wetter area
(Miyake 3000mm). The temperature of the coastal waters around the Izu islands ranges from
14°C in February to 27°C in July. Snow falls on the mainland mountains during the winter
period.
Vegetation The habitats of the park range from virgin forest to alpine vegetation above the
tree line of 2,500m. Mount Fuji has virgin forests on its lower slopes, dominated by Japanese
cedar Cryptomeria japonica, Japanese cypress Chamaecyparis obtusa, red pine Pinus densiflora,
firs Abies homolepsis, A. veitchii, hemlock Tsuga diversifolia, spruces Picea polita, P. jezoensis
var. hondoensis and some larch Larix kaempferi. Deciduous forests include Zelkova serrata,
wild cherry Prunus serrulata var. spontanea, Cynoxylon japonica and azaleas Rhododendron
japonicum, R. fauriae (Kangawa Prefectural Govt., 1972; IUCN, 1975). The Izu peninsular has
a flora similar to Hakone with its diversity of virgin forests of Podocarpus macrophyllus,
Sewara cypress Chamaecyparis pisifera, black pine Pinus thundergii, camphor
tree Cinnamomum camphora and bamboo Phyllostachys reticulata. The Izu Seven Island area is
represented by P. thunbergii, Quercus glauca, pasania Castanopsis cuspidata var. siebold, Prunus
lannesiana var. speciosa, Ilex crenata var. typica, Rhododendron tsusiophyllum, Camellia
Japonica var. spontanea (Suzuki, 1956; Higuchi, 1973; IUCN, 1975; NCB, 1985). Colonising
scrub species on recent lava flows include Alnus sieboldiana with stachyurus praecox var.
matsuzakii, Ficus erecta and Mallotus japonicus (Moyer et al., 1975). Other typical species
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are Picea polita, boxwood Buxus microphylla var. japonica and unique
Ericaceous Tsusiophyllum tanakae (IUCN, 1975). Several of the islands are noted for the
spider lily Crinum asiaticum communities as well as Carici-Castanopsietum sieboldii
associations of Castanopsis and Machilus. On Mt. Hakone, the caldera lake is found on a
grassy plateau, with Cryptomeria beside the lake. 518 species of vascular plant have been
recorded on Miyake island (Suzuki, 1956) of which 21 species or varieties are endemic to the
Izu archipelago. More than 100 species of tropical marine algae have been founf at
Miyake-jima (Moyer et al., 1985).
Fauna’ The largely palaearctic type of mammal fauna includes Japanese macaque Macaca
fuscata fuscata, various bats Chiroptera, Japanese dormouse Glirulus japonicus, wild pig Sus
scrofa leucomystax, and Honshu sika Cervus nippon centralis. The bird fauna within the park
is very diverse. On the slopes of Mt. Fuji typical breeding species include Siberian
bluechat Tarsiger cyanurus, nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes and eastern crowned willow
warbler Phylloscopus occipitalis (Martin et al., 1980; also see Robinson, 1987 for a species
list). On the shore of Lake Ashi the most representative species are yellow-throated
bunting Emberiza elegans, Latham’s snipe Gallinago hardwickii and Japanese copper
pheasant Phasianus soemmerringii (Martin, et al., 1980). Other species include Butastur
indicus, Japanese sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis (IUCN, 1975). The Izu islands are the chief
breeding-site for Japanese auk or murrelet Synthliboramphus wumizusume (IUCN, 1975). The
islands also possess Japanese woodpigeon Columba janthina (a scarce species with a very
limited range), Pygmy woodpecker Dendrocopos kizuki matsudairai, paradise
flycatcher Terpsiphone atrocaudata and Seven Islands thrush Turdus celaenops (Ionescu et al.,
1985). The southern Izu islands are also the only known breeding area for Izu island
thrush Turdus celaenops, 1jima willow warbler Phylloscops ijimae and one of the last sites for
short-tailed albatross Diomedea albatrus (Martin et al., 1980). The herpetofauna of the Izu
isles though poor includes an endemic Eumeces okadae, and on the mainland also possess
snake Elaphe quadri virgata (Moyer et al., 1985). Miyake-jima is the northern most area for
coral in Japan. Some 91 species from 44 genera of shallow water scleractinian corals have
been identified. The dominant families are the Faviidae (23 species), Acroporidae (17 species)
and Poritidae (ten species). (Moyer et al, 1985). Reef fish include six endemic species (4
Callioymidae and two Soleidae) which are dependent upon a habitat of mixed coral and
relatively coarse coral and volcanic sands and/or rubble (Moyer et al., 1985). The fish fauna of
the Izu archipelago is extremely diverse. There are 19 species of cardinal fish (Apogonidae),
35 species of damsel fish (Pomencentridae), 22 species of butterfly fish (Chaetodontidae) and
13 species of angel fish (Pomacanthidae). The endemic fish species include the garden
eel Gorgasia japonica (IUCN, 1975; Moyer et al., 1985; Wells pers. comm., 1987).
Cultural Heritage Mount Fuji is one of the three most sacred mountains of Japan. Its name
is derived fron fuchi, "fire", in the aboriginal Ainu language. The Sengen shrine built at its
summit was constructed in 1604 and still represents the centre of the Fuji-ko cult for two
million pilgrims. Other temples include the Saunji temple, built in 1521, the Hakone shrines of
757 AD and the 1293-1295 AD Buddha carved into the cliff-face at Shogin-ike near Mt.
Futago (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The park has a fairly high resident human population, the densest
areas being around Gotenbam Odawora, Ito and Numayu on the perimeter. The economy of
the area is based upon tourism, forestry, agriculture and livestock rearing. Fishing is an
important industry on the coats and on the Izu islands. All of the main islands are inhabited
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There were records of over 20.55 million visitors in 1972, the
highest number of people visiting any national park in the world (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and
Britton, 1980). For this reason there is an enormous range of facilities including hotels, inns,
camp and picnic grounds, mountain and nature trails, cable cars at Hakone, Hakone open air
museum, visitor centres, Owakidani natural history museum, Tokaido historic craft museum, a
botanic garden of native plants, sightseeing boats, aquariums, golf courses and ice rinks
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987). The major Seven Islands can be reached by
sea or air from Tokyo. Fuji is officially open to the general public only during July and
August to reduce tourist pressure. Osgima and Hachijo islands are popular resorts for deep sea
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fishing, golf and horseback riding. The smaller islands are almost inaccessible to visitors
except Miyaka-jima - "bird" island which is visited for its avifauna (Sutherland and Britton,
1980; Robinson, 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities A diversity of studies have been undertaken within the
park such as vegetation surveys by the Environment Agency (1973), continuous meteorological
observations at the Mt. Fuji weather station, environmental impact assessment of road
construction, 1973-75, by the Nature Conservation Society on behalf of the Environment
Agency and ornithological surveys by the Wild Bird Society of Japan (Higuchi, 1973). Studies
of coral and the marine environment have been undertaken by the Tatsuo Tunaka Memorial
Biological Station on Miyake islands (Moyer et al., 1985).
Conservation Management Although set up largely for its recreational value the park is
important for protecting the unique wildlife of the area. On the Izu archipelago are unique
terrestrial and marine environments with at least 21 species or varieties of endemic plant, a
further four species are common on the archipelgo (but extinct on the main islands of Japan)
and there is also a rare woodland association (Castanopsis-Machilus forest). There are two
endemic bird species on the Izu archipelago (Izu island thrush and Ijima willow warbler),
threatened Japanese wood pigeon and endangered short-tailed albatross. The area also has
some of the highest bird population densities in Japan. The marine environment is also
unique. Although at a temperate latitude the islands’ marine flora and fauna are characterised
by a predominently tropical element. Miyake-jima represents the highest known latitude at
which coral reef development has been recorded and in the area there are at Jeast eight
endemic species of reef fish (Moyer et al., 1985). Proposals have been made for the
establishment of a bird sanctuary and marine park on Miyake-jima. The bird sanctuary,
proposed by the Wild Bird Society of Japan would be the first of a network in the country
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Moyer et al., 1985).
Management Problems The dense population of the region, ease of access and extreme
pressure from tourists present many problems to the mainland park around Fuji-San. The Izu
islands are also threatened. They are becoming increasing affected by deforestation and
re-afforestation by Cryptomeria japonica. In 1986 permission was granted for the construction
of a military airport at the centre of a proposed bird sanctuary "wilderness area" on
Miyake-jima. The impact upon the environment is believed to include disturbance of the
endemic breeding birds and soil run off killing the fring coral reefs. The permission for
establishing the runway may seriously undermine the concept of the National Park system in
Japan (Moyer et al., 1985).
Staff In 1975 there were 33 full-time staff (a superintendent and seven rangers of the
Environment Agency; 18 Prefectural officers of the Tokyo and Kanagawa Prefectural
Governments; seven patrol men of the Kanagawa Prefectural Government); 18 seasonal staff
(14 patrol men of the Shizuoka and Yamanashi Prefectural Government; four naturalists of the
Kanagawa Prefectural Government) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the 1970s the National Park received a share of the Environment Agency’s annual
subvention to National Parks (total US$700,000) and US$100,000 from the Tokyo, Kanagawa,
Shizuoka and Yamanashi Prefectural Governments (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park, Headquarters Office, Environment
Agency, Kojiri, Hakone Town, Kanagawa Prefecture. Ranger offices at Funatsu, Summit of
Mount Fuji, Namazu and Shimoda; Hakone Administrative office at Kojiri, Hakone Town;
Forestry branch office at Yoshida.
References
° Clark, E. (1984). Japan’s Izu Oceanic Park. National Geographic. 465-491. April 1984.
° Fuji Express Railway Co. Ltd. (1970). The Scientific Report of Mount Fuji. Fuji Express
Railway Co. Ltd.,.(in Japanese and English).
° Hakone Tourism Division (c. 1970). National Park HAKONE. Wakone Town Office,
Mitsumori Printing Co., Japan.
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° Higuchi, H. (1973). Birds of the Izu Islands: (1) Distribution and habitat of breeding land
and freshwater birds. Tori 22, pp. 14-24 (Bulletin of the Ornithological Society of Japan).
°* Ionescu, M and Condurateanua-fesci, S. (1985). Parcuri si rezervatii naturale pe glob.
Colectia cristal, Bucuresti.
* IUCN (1975) World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. \UCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
° Kangawa Prefectural Government (1972). Investigations of the Vegetation of Hakone area.
Kangawa Prefectural Government.
° Martin, R.P. et al., (1980). Report on a bird expedition to Japan, 8 March - 14 May 1980.
Moyer, J.T., Higuchi, H., Matsuda, Z and Hasegawa, M. (1985). Threat to unique
terrestrial and marine environments and biota in a Japanese National Park. Environmental
Conservation. Vol. 12. No. 4. 293-301.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985) Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environmental Agency, Tokyo.
Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co., California.
Shizuoka Prefectural Government (1970). The Scientific Report of Izu Peninsula. Shizuoka
Prefectural Government (in Japanese).
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha Internation
Ltd., Tokyo.
* Suzuki, T. (1956). On the plant distribution over the Izu islands (in Japanese with English
summary). Bot. Mag. Tokyo, 69, pp. 598-601.
° Tickell, L. and Morton, P. (1975). The Albatross of Torishima. Geographical Magazine.
359-363.
° Tokyo Prefectural Government (1957). The Scientific Report of Izu Seven Islands. Tokyo
Prefectural Government, (in Japanese).
°
Date June 1987
Hakusan National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape), IX (Biosphere Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The site is located in Gifu, Ishikawa, Toyama and Fukui prefectures
30km south-east of Kanazawa and 100km north of Kyoto. The park is bounded by the Sho
Tiver on the east, the Tedori river on the west and Ono basin and Kuzuryu upper stream in the
south (North-central Honshu). 35°58’-36°22’N, 136°32’-136°53’E
Date and History of Establishment The National Park was created on 12 November 1962, and
designated under the Natural Parks Law of 1957. Development is controlled by Articles 17, 18
and 20 of the Natural Parks Law. The core area, a "special protection area" (SPA) is
surrounded by the peripheral buffer zones of the "special area" and "ordinary area". It was
accepted as a Biosphere reserve in 1980.
Area 47,683ha (18.080ha core area (SPA)). Two zones: 62.3% (29,322ha) for multiple-use and
37.7% (18,080ha) as a wilderness zone.
Land Tenure 31,670ha state land, 1,372ha public land, 14,369ha in private ownership. Up to
14% of the core area is under private ownership compared with 31% in the buffer zone.
Altitude 170-2,702m
Physical Features The area consists mainly of highlands forming the backbone of the
Hokuriku district. It is dominated by Mount Hakusan (2,702m), a tholoid volcano with 8
craters near the summit. The area is rich in lake and pond habitats. Senjaga lake in one of the
summit craters is unique for being the sole lake in Honchu that is frozen all year round
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980). The geology of the area is very complex and essentially
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volcanic in origin. The land consists mainly of the Tedori layer, representative of the Jurassic
period of the Mesozoic. The land also consists of such igneous rocks as hornblende andesite,
pyroxene andesite and quartz trachyte (IUCN, 1975; Biosphere nomination, 1980; Sutherland
and Britton, 1980).
Climate Temperatures at the foot of Mount Hakusan vary from 24.3°C in August to 0°C in
January. The monthly minimum and maximum temperatures at Shiramine village are -3.3°C
and 3.4°C in January and 28°C in July. Precipitation averages 3493mm per year, much of
which is in the form of heavy snowfalls. The region has some of the highest snowfall figures
in Japan, with up to 243cm per year.
Vegetation The park exhibits distinct altitude zonations of the vegetation ranging from warm
temperate to alpine zones. Coniferous forests surround the base of the mountain dominated by
firs Abies mariesii (of considerable age), A. veitchii and A. homolepis, pines Pinus densiflora,
P. parviflora and Japanese cedar Cryptomeria japonica along the Tedori river. Deciduous
forest or woodland of two types are also present. The cool temperate zone woodland
comprises mainly beech Fagus crenata, water oak Quercus crispula and poplar populus
maximowiczii. By comparison in the sub-alpine zone the communities are dominated by
birch Betula ermanii var. communis, mixed with fir Abies mariesii and Tsuga
diversifolia. Rhododendron fauriae and Prunus nipponica (IUCN, 1975). The alpine flora of
the summits contains stands of creeping pine Pinus pumila and is rich in such species
as Primula hakusanensis, Geranium yezoense var. nipponicum, Anemone narcissiflora, Orchis
aristata var. immaculata, Fritillaria camschatcensis and Veratrum stamineum (IUCN, 1975).
The non woodland steep alpine scree slopes and "snowslip" lands are refuge for the unique
"Altherbosa" (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Fauna The rich mammal fauna in the park includes a large population of Japanese
macaque Macaca fuscata, Asiatic black bear Selenarctos thibetanus japonicus, Honshu
sika Cervus nippon centralis and Japanese serow Capricornis crispus. The avifauna includes
golden eagle Aguila chrysaétos japonica (uncommon in Japan), Hodgson’s hawk eagle Spizaetus
nipalensis orientalis (a sub-species considered uncommon), white-throated needle-tailed
swift Chaetura caudacuta, broad-billed roller Eurystomus orientalis calonyx, great spotted
woodpecker Dendrocopos major orientalis, and montane or alpine species such as
nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes japonicus, alpine accentor Prunella collaris erythropygia
and P. rubida. Rock ptarmigan Lagopus mutus is believed to be extinct in the area (IUCN,
1975; NCB, 1985).
Cultural Heritage © The Mount Hakusan is considered to be one of the three most sacred
mountains of Japan.
Local Human Population There are no permanent habitations on the mountain itself but on
the foothills are small villages of the traditional Gassho-zukuri stye. The total population of
the area in the mid 1970s was in the order of 30,000 (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton,
1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There was an average of 460,000 visitors to the National Park
in 1972 (IUCN, 1975). Toursit numbers here reflect the difficulty of access and limited
facilities in the area. The facilities are essentially seasonal and include inns, huts, camp and
picnic grounds, mountain and nature trails and visitor centres. Climbing is one of the most
popular activities, and a specialised centre is present for their needs.
Scientific Research and Facilities Hakusan Nature Conservation Centre is located at Chugu
hot springs, Yoshinodani, Ishikawa Prefecture. The ethology of Japanese macaque Macaca
fuscata fuscata has been studied by the Primate Research Institute and Japan Monkey Centre
(Kyoto University) since 1962. Studies have also been undertaken on serow Capricornis crispus
as part of the IBP programme (1966-70) (IUCN, 1975). The Hakusan Nature Conservation
Centre was established in 1974 to study aspects of botany, climatology, folklore and mammal
ecology (Sutherland and Harris, 1980).
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Conservation Management _ In the past the mountain was well protected by its sacred status.
Currently access is still very difficult and few roads have been built within the park itself.
The mountain is officially open only from mid July to mid August to restrict visitor numbers
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Management Problems Road construction for forestry (Sutherland and Britton, 1980)
Staff There is a total staff of at least 22 (a ranger employed by the Environment Agency; 16
employed by the local Prefectural offices and Ishikawa Prefectural Government; plus five
patrol men of the Ishikawa and Fukui Prefectural Governments) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the 1970s the National Park received a share of the Environment Agency’s annual
subvention to National Parks (US$700,000) in addition to US$76,000 provided by Ishikawa,
Gifu and Fukui Prefectural Governments(IUCN, 1975). By 1978 the budget had increased to
800,000 Yen.
Local Administration Ichinose Ranger Office, Hakusan National Park, Shiramine-mura,
Ishikawa-gun, Ishikawa prefecture 920-25. (Summer).
Ichinose Ranger Office, Hakusan National Park, 8-34 Shiramine, Shiramine-mura,
Ishikawa-gun, Ishikawa prefecture 920-25. (Winter).
References
° Biosphere Reserve nomination (1980). The Natinoal Park of Hakusan Biosphere Reserve.
° Ishikawa Prefecture 1970. Scientific studies of Hakusan National Park. Ishikawa
Prefecture, published in Japanese.
° IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other Protected Areas. YUOCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Japan.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Japan.
Date July 1987
Iriomote National Park
(includes Yaeyama Marine Park, 4 Marine Park areas,
and Sakiyama Bay Nature Conservation Area)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.41.13 (Ryukyu Islands)
Geographical Location The park is located in the southernmost islands of the Ryukyu
archipelago in the South China Sea, 1,200km south of mainland Japan (Okinawa prefecture). It
consists of Iriomote island, the islands of Ishigaki, Kabama, Taketomi, Kuro and Aragusuku
and the surrounding marine zone covering the central reefs. 24°12’-24°25’N, 123°40’-124°06’E
Date and History of Establishment The site is protected as a place of scenic beauty, the
national park being created on 15 May 1972, under Articles 17 and 20 of the National Parks
law. The greater part is designated as a wilderness area, but there are also multiple-use areas
and a marine park area, Yaeyama (established 1 July, 1977). The Sakiyama Nature
Conservation area, a strict marine reserve, was designated in 1983 under the Nature
Conservation law of 1982. The national park includes four marine park areas between Iriomote
and Ishigaki. There are also four conservation sites designated under the law for the protection
of cultural properties and these include Hoshidate relict coconut palm grove, Nakagawa,
Funauro and Otomi protected plant communities (Barber et al., 1984). The Iriomote wild cat
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has been designated as a "special natural monument". Proposed special areas total 9,980ha and
proposed ordinary areas 34,626ha; currently the entire designated area is 12,506ha (Nature
Conservation Bureau, 1985).
Area 12,506ha. Yaeyama Marine Park is 213.5ha. Sakiyama Bay Nature Conservation area
covers 12.8ha.
Land Tenure 9,000ha state land; the remainder is partly public land and partly still
privately-owned.
Altitude Sea level to 425m
Physical Features Iriomote is Japan’s southernmost National Park. It consists of a number of
sedimentary rock islands and surrounding coral reef and marine areas. The island of Iriomote,
of tertiary sandstones and shales, is largely made up of low mountains of 300-400m. The soils
are derived from sandstones which break down to form a very fine clay. Water resources on
Iriomote include the Urauchi river which gives rise to the waterfalls of Mariyudo and Kanpira
(IUCN, 1975; Barber et al., 1984). An important feature of the park is a 20km long, 15km
wide coral reef, stretching between Iriomote and Ishigaki islands. The reef, Shiraho, is the
largest in Japan (IUCN, 1975, WWF-Japan, 1986).
Climate The islands are located within the tropical typhoon zone with temperatures varying
from 28.7°C (July) to 17.4°C (January). There is a recorded 2630mm annual precipitation; the
rainy season being in May/June, whilst the main wet season (November to February) is
preceded by typhoon winds in September to November.
Vegetation The islands are thickly covered with broad-leaved evergreen subtropical forest in
which Quercus stenophylla, pasania oak Castanopsis cuspidata var. sieboldii, Neolitseas
thunbergii, Distyllum racemosum and Pandanus tectorius var. liukiuensis are dominants
and Ptychosperma elegans and Nypa fruticans palms are also characteristic (IUCN, 1975).
Coastal mangrove forests fringe the islands and include Avicennia marina, Rhizophora
mucronata, Barringtonia racemosa, Bruguiera conjugata and Kandelia candel. The humid area
around the Mariyudo falls are rich in cycads and ferns. The marine zone between the shore
and coral reefs include sea grass zones and algae zones. The seagrasses include Cymodocea
rotundata and Thalassia hemplihii and the algae are dominated by Caulerpa racemosa and other
green seaweeds (IUCN, 1975; Scott, in prep.).
Fauna Mammals include the rare flying fox Pteropus dasymalus yayeyamae, Iriomote wild
cat Mayailurus iriomotensis (only discovered in 1965) and Dugong dugong (Imaizumi, 1974).
The dugong is classified as vulnerable in the Red Data Book. More common mammals include
Ryukyu dwarf boar Sus scrofa ryukyuanus. Birds include streaked shearwater Calonectris
leucomelas (on Nakanouganjima), eastern reef heron Egretta sacra, cattle egret Bubulcuc ibis
coromandus, purple heron Ardea purpurea manilensis, crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela
perplexus (considered uncommon), Japanese fruit pigeon Columba janthina stejnegeri (also
uncommon), pygmy woodpecker Dendrocopos kizuki orii and Ryukyu robin Erithacus komadori
subrufa (Robinson, 1987). Other uncommon species include loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta,
Cuora flavomarginata and "habu", a poisonous snake endemic to the Ryukyu and Amami
islands (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980). Coral communities include 250 species,
dominated by zones of Acropora porites, Montipora foliosa and Heliopora. Blue
coral Heliopora coerulea is restricted to the 5km Shiraho reef. Associated reef fish include 102
species of 62 genera, including a new species of MHeliopora coral dwelling goby
fish, Pleurosicya (Muzik, 1985; Matsuda, 1986; Senou, 1986; Suzuki, 1986; Xasumoto, 1986).
Cultural Heritage Traditional fishing boats, sabani, are characteristic of the Iriomote
archipelago (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
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Local Human Population The islands are sparsely populated. In the early 1980s there were
1,500 people on Iriomote (300 on Taketomi) (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). There is only one
main road on Iriomote, along which the main settlements are distributed. Most of the
inhabitants are involved in tourism, fishing or subsistence farming. The agriculture, of sugar
cane growing and rearing of beef cattle, is largely subsidised by the Government. Rice is
grown extensively (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There were 30,000 visitors to the park in 1972. Access is by
boat from Okinawa and hovercraft from Ishigaki Island, both of which are served by air from
Japan’s main islands. Tourism is currently low key in the form of day trippers from Ishigaki.
Facilities are few in the areas outside of the park and include a few "pensions", small hotels, a
camp site and inns on Taketomi Island. There are a number of visitor centres within the
marine park area those of Taketomijima, Takidonguchi, Shimobishi and Kuroshima
Kyanguchi (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985; Robinson, 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities There have been extensive studies of vegetation and coral
ecology by the Marine Parks Centre and by the Environment Agency since 1972. Scientific
facilities include the Yaeyama Marine Park Research Station on Kurishima. A number of
studies have been undertaken on the ecology and status of the Iriomote wild cat since it was
"discovered" in 1965 an in 1975 a breeding farm was established. In 1983 the Environment
Agency started a three-year investigation to identify the wild cat’s distribution for future
effective protection (Barber et al., 1984).
Conservation Management The National Park plan indicated that the main priority at
Iriomote is the protection of the evergreen forest, coral and mangrove for the conservation of
the different ecosystems (Anon., 1972). Park policy is to avoid encouraging high numbers of
tourists and prohibits large scale tree felling. Of major importance is the protection of
endemic Iriomote wild cat, found along the Urauchi river, of which there are estimates of only
30-40 individuals surviving, and also the protection of blue coral Heliopora coerulea noted in
Appendix II of CITES and unique in Japan.
Management Problems The park is currently under threat from a diversity of different
human activities. One of the greatest threats to the Park’s water supply is the proposed
construction of a dam on the river Shira (Barber et al, 1984). Road construction is damaging
and increasing pressure on the centre of Iriomote island. On 13 July 1985 the general assembly
of Okinawa prefecture voted for the building of a new international airport on the main coral
reefs off Ishigaki island just beyond the park limits (Muzik, 1985). The existing coral reefs
throughout the park are also being seriously damaged by tourist trampling and boat anchors.
Further damage has been caused by infestations of Acanthaster planci over the last decade
(Muzik, 1985). In 1969 the IUCN requested that the Ryukyan Government restrict the
damaging local industry of felling primary forest. The industry was largely halted when the
area was designated as a national park but extensive cattle grazing and timber felling for local
needs are still adversely affecting the ecosystem (Barber et al., 1984).
Staff There is a total of three staff (Superintendent, two rangers, Environment Agency) based
in Ishigaki.
Budget The park receives a share of the annual allocation of the Environment Agency to
National Parks (US$700,000).
Local Administration Iriomote National Park Headquarters Office, Environmental Agency,
Ishigaki City, Ishigaki, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan.
References
° Anon. (1972) Iriomote National Park Plan. Unpublished report. 14 pp.
° Barber, G., Horne, L., Mason, M and Perkins, S. (1984). Nansei Shoto Expedition, Japan.
Dec. 1983-Jan. 1984. Unpub. report.
° Environment Agency. (1969). (1970). Report of Investigations on Iriomote Island (in
Japanese).
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° IUCN. (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
° Matsuda, S (1986). Reef-building corals, seaweeds and sediments of the Reef flat and moat
off Shiraho. Conservation of the Nansei Shoto. WWF Japan. Pp. 15-28.
° Muzik, K. (1985). Dying coral reefs of Ryukyu archipelago, Japan.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan
° Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co., California.
° Senou, H. (1986). Preliminary report on the fish fauna of the Helipora zone of Shiraho
fringing reef, Ishigaki Island. Conservation of the Nansei Shoto. WWF Japan. Pp. 29-36.
° Suzuki, M. (1986). Battle for the Shiraho coral reef. Japan Enviroment review. Pp 11-18.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Japan.
° WWF-Japan (1986). Conservation of Nansei Shoto - Corals. WWF-Japan Scientific
Committee
° Yasumoto, M. (1986). Coral Community of Shiraho Coral Reef areas correlating ecological
problems with Geographic advantages. Conservation of the Nansei Shoto. WWF Japan. Pp.
1-14.
Date July 1987
Ise-Shima National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located on the southern coast of Honchu island near
Nagoya. The main town is Ise-shi next to the great Ise shrines on the Shima peninsula. The
park is located in Mie prefecture and extends from the estuary mouth of the Isuzu river right
around the coast, including the Toshijima archipelago, to the Gokasho bay west of Hamajima.
A marine zone encircles the entire coastline. 34°29’N, 136°41’E.
Date and History of Establishment 20 November 1946
Area 55,549ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 0-529m
Physical Features The park consists of a very indented rias coastline, dotted with islets on the
Pacific Ocean coast and a number of large bays. The highest point is Mt. Maeyama (529m) in
the more hilly area of the Shima peninsula. At its foothills are some of the tributaries which
form the Isuzu river. Its estuary opens into a myriad of small wooded islets. The coastal
waters are warmed by the black current of the Pacific (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Typhoons tend to occur about September and the total annual rainfall averages as
much as 2000mm. Mean temperatures over the year are in the order of 16.3°C.
Vegetation The bays are dotted with pine Pinus sp. clad islands and the shores are covered
with sub-tropical plants (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage In the park is the Ise shrine, the most ancient and sacred of the 80,000
Shinto shrines in Japan. It is here that Amaterasu Omikami, the sun goddess, from whom the
Imperial family traditionally claim descent, is enshrined. The shrine was established around
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the 4th century AD and the wooden shrine buildings razed to the ground and rebuilt every 20
years. The first renewal was carried out in 690 AD, yet the architecture has remained the same
from that date onwards (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The population is centred in the larger towns and ports such as
Toba, Ise-shi, Isobe and Kashikojima. A large proportion of the population is involved in the
cultivation of pearls in the Toba area (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is of national importance for its holy shrines centred
around Ise-shi. At nearby Toba island 1.3 million tourists annually visit the Mikimoto working
pearl farm and museum. There are a diversity of recreational facilities including boating,
hiking and bathing. Hotels, hostels and youth hostels are available in the larger towns and
easily reached by rail or road (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management’ The park has largely been established to conserve the traditional
landscape of the region.
Management Problems __ Pollution is threatening the pearl farms and presumably the other
marine fauna and flora (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Japan.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Japan.
Date July 1987
Joshinetsu Kogen National Park
(includes Shiga Highlands Biosphere Reserve)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape) IX (Biosphere Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.15.05 (Oriental Deciduous Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located in the Togakushi and Shiga highlands of central
Honchu, 20km north-east of Nagano (north-west of Tokyo). It consists of two parts, the larger
is roughly crescent-shaped and runs from Mt Tanigawa near Numata in the east to Karuizawa
in the south. The second part of the Park is located 20km to the west of the Shiga Park
boundary and consists of the Togakushi highlands. 36°43’N, 138°30°E.
Date and History of Establishment The site was created as a National Park on 7 September
1949. The "special area" and the "ordinary area" constitute the buffer zone where timber
production and tourist development is permitted.
Area 189,028ha (1,000ha of the park is a "special protection" core area in the Shigo highlands).
Land Tenure 70% of the Shiga area is state owned. The core area is 100% private land.
Altitude 800 - 2,542m
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Physical Features The topography varies from smooth rolling highland to craggy and
boulder-strewn volcanic terrain. The park covers a district where three volcanic zones
converge (the Chokai, Nasu and Fuji chains) resulting in 70 volcanoes and 1,000 hot springs.
Mt Asama at 2,542m is Japan’s tallest active volcano. The Mt Shirane region consists of a
group of green volcanic rocks called "green tuff" and other hypabyssal or plutonic rocks.
Andesite is also present. The volcano last erupted in 1927 and 1932. The volcanic lake of Mt
Shirane is reputed to be the most acid lake in the world with a pH of 0.8 (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
Climate The annual mean temperature at Maruike (1,480m) is 5.3°C, ranging from -11.8°C
(January) to 21.1°C (August). Annual precipitation averages 1900mm, with a snowfall season
between November and April (maximum falls of 2.5mm have been recorded).
Vegetation A typical vertical zonation of vegetation occurs from barren rocky peaks above
the tree level, descending through an alpine zone to deciduous woodland at low altitudes. The
vegetation surrounding the volcanic peaks consists of the grass Sasa albomarginata and low
shrubs of Sorbus commixta and Rhododendron degronianum. More xerophytic species are also
found here including Deschampsia flexuosa and Sasa kurilensis. Pond and swamp vegetation
includes moorland species such as Andromeda polifolia, Inula ciliaris, Alnus sp. and Salix reinii
(IUCN, 1975; Robinson, 1987). At the height of 1,500m, virgin high altitude woodland
communities include mixed conifers such as Tsuga diversifolia and Abies mariesii (NCB,
1985). At lower altitudes are broad-leaved forests of Fagus crenata mixed with birch Betula
ermani, larch Larix sp. and azalea Rhododendron sp. (NCB, 1985). The woodland below
1,500m has been disturbed by man and is essentially secondary in origin. Birch dominates the
former deforested areas at higher altitudes and the oak Quercus mongolica and Betula
platyphylla in the lower forests (IUCN, 1975).
Fauna The diversity of fauna includes the forest living macaque Macaca fuscata and
serow Capricornis crispus, 64 recorded species of breeding birds and the amphibian Hynobius
nigrescens at its most southerly distribution IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB,
1985). Alpine insects include Leucorrhinia dubia, Colias palaeno and Scopura longa (IUCN,
1975).
Cultural Heritage | Four Shinto shrines form a small circuit for pilgrims (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population Since the turn of the century, the local communities have been
becoming increasingly dependent upon the tourist industry (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is widely used for recreation and has annual figures
of more than 2 million visitors (IUCN, 1975). The principal visitor centres are at Karuizawa
where there are international hotels, restaurants and the Ginza speciality/luxury shops. The
park is fast becoming a vast leisure centre and includes a myriad of facilities to cater for all
needs from helicopter rides to skiing, rock climbing and tennis to hot spring spas (Sutherland
and Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities Scientific studies have been undertaken by Shinshu
University since 1954. IBP research on the sub-arctic forests were undertaken in 1973 (IUCN,
1975). Research institute facilities were established in 1966, and include research buildings,
lecture lodgings (40 researchers) and exhibition areas (IUCN, 1975).
Conservation Management’ The site is considered to be one of the best areas for mountain
birds in Japan (Robinson, 1987). Timber production is permitted in the buffer zone area,
whilst tourism is controlled to some extent by the introduction of a toll road system on the
more popular routes within the park (Robinson, 1987).
Management Problems Threats to the park come from the building of villas and even
overcrowding by summer visitors. The 28 ski slopes with their alpine vegetation are being
adversely affected by heavy pressure in winter and mowing in summer to ensure dominance of
a Sasa grass sward (NCB, 1985).
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Staff Private landowners and one official assigned for protection duties (IUCN, 1975).
Budget 1,600,000 Yen were appropriated for the fiscal year 1978 (essentially for office
running costs).
Local Administration Manza Ranger Office, Joshin’etsu Kogen Natural Park, Manza,
Tsumagoi-mura, Agatsuma-gun, Gunma Prefecture, 377-15.
Shiga Kogen Range Office, Joshin’etsu Kogen Natural Park, Shiga Kogen, Yamanouchi-machi,
Shimatokai-gun, Nagano Prefecture, 381-04.
References
° International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources, 1975. Directory of
National Parks. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
° MAB (1980). Shiga Heights, Biosphere Reserve nomination. Man & Biosphere Committee,
Japan.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co. California
Shinshu University (1962-65). Shiga Heights, 1962-1965. Report No.1-4. Shinsu
University.
° Shinshu University (1977). Bulletin of Institute of Natural Education in Shiga Heights of
Education, 1966-1977. No. 5-16. Shinshu University.
°
Date June 1987
Kirishima- Yaku National Park
(including the Sakurajima and Sata-Misaki marine park areas
and the Yaku virgin forests)
Management Category V_ (Protected landscape) also I (Yaku virgin forests) and IX
(Yakushima Biosphere reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.03.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The National Park is situated in the extreme south of Kyushu islands.
It consists of Cape Sata on the Osumi peninsula, Mt. Kaimon on the Satsuma peninsula,
Kagoshima-Sakuraima and Mt. Kirishima as well as Yaku island (Mt. Mikanoura).
31°50’-32°00’N, 130°55’-130°59’E; Sakurajima, Ibisuki and Sato areas (with Sakurajima Sata
and Misake Satamisali Marine Park Areas): 30°59’-31°40’N, 130°31’-130°47°E; Yakushima area:
30°14’-30°23’N, 130°33’-130°59’E.
Date and History of Establishment The park was created on 16 March 1934, designated by
Natural Parks Law. Zonation includes the special protection areas such as on Yaku isle, as well
as buffer zones "special areas". Marine Park areas were established on 1 July 1970. The park
was established as a place of scenic beauty where development is controlled under Articles
17,18, 18-2 and 20 of the Natural Parks Law. Special protection is ensured for six families, 10
species of fish; four genera and 28 species of invertebrate; one genus, four species of seaweed.
Yakushima island is protected as a "wilderness area" (IUCN, Category I) under the Nature
Conservation Law of 1972.
Area 55,23lha (26.5ha Marine Park Area and at least 10,793ha Special Protected Area). Two
zones are proposed: 78.6% (43,407.8ha) multiple-use areas; 21.4% (11,823.2ha) wilderness
areas. Yakushima island has an area of 19,000ha of which 7,000ha is located within the core
area.
Land Tenure 40,094ha state land, 4,394ha public land, 10,743ha private land.
Altitude Sea level to 1,935m (maximum depth of Marine Park Areas is 20m).
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Physical Features The park is centred around the Kayoshima bay on Satsuma and Osumi
peninsulas and the offshore island of Yakushima. The Kirishima sector is a mountain range
with 23 volcanic peaks up to 1,700m and includes the dormant Mt. Karakumi (the highest peak
at 1,700m), ten craters with lakes and other volcanic features such as hot springs at the base of
the mountains. The triple-peaked Sakurajima (1,118m) is an active volcano in Kayoshima -
Kinko bay, an island linked by a lava bridge to the mainland Osumi peninsula following an
eruption on 12 January 1914 (this volcanic activity filled in a water channel 200m wide and
72m deep). The history of the Sakurajima volcano is well documented and the first of the 30
known eruptions was recorded in 708 AD. Other volcanoes include Mt. Kirishima (1,574m)
and Mt. Kaimon (922m). Mt. Kaimon on the Satsuma peninsula is a dormant volcano with a
caldera lake, Ikeda, which is the largest in Kyushu - circumference 24m. The mountainous
Yaku island consists largely of basement clay slates, sandstones and quartzites. The centre of
the island, of granite, rises to Mt. Miyanoura, at 1,935m, the highest peak in Kyushu district.
Sakurajima Marine Park Area has a uniquely undulating sea-bed due to lava flows; Satamisaki
Marine Park Area is off the Sata promontory of the Kyushu mainland, as area of granite rocks.
Climate Temperatures range from 27.5°C (August) at Yakishima to 4.8°C (January) at
Kirishima. Annual precipitation figures are some of the highest in Japan with levels ranging
from 2516mm (Kirishima) to 3852-10000mm (Yakushima). The warm Kurishio current
influences the Marine Park Areas; water transparency is 10-16m, lowest at Sakurajima Marine
Park Area.
Vegetation The vegetation of the park ranges from alpine grassland, high altitude mixed
forest to broad-leaved evergreen forest and subtropical coastal vegetation. Kirishima has
600ha of Japanese fir Abies firma forest, mixed with some Quercus acuta, Illicium religiosum
and uncommon Malus _ spontanea. There are also 1,600ha of Pinus densiflora
and Rhododendron kiusianum, covering most of the island (IUCN, 1975). In the remaining
820ha Quercus salicina, Cleyera japonica, Alpinia japonica and some beech forest of Fagus
crenata are found. Sakurajima has evergreen hardwood forests of Quercus glauca and Neolitsea
thunbergii, with plantations of Pinus densiflora. Okikojima islet in the Marine Park Area is
entirely forested with Pinus thunbergii. Yakushima is noted for one of the largest natural
forests of Japan and its virgin forests of Japanese cedar Cryptomeria japonica. Many
individual trees are estimated to be 3,000 years old and 2-3m in DBH (Sprague, 1986). These
trees along with with Distylium racemosum and Trochodendron aralioides occupy 12,250ha at
1,000-1,400m. The area around Yakusugi is also extremely rich in epiphytic mosses and 300 of
the known 700 species of pteridophyte in Japan have been recorded here (IUCN, 1975). A
further 2,700ha of woodland consists of Castanopsis cuspidata, Ficus wightiana and Distylium
sp., and 1,400ha of plantations of cedar and Pinus thunbergii. At the extreme southern
peninsula of Cape Sata are communities of fan palm Livistonia chinensis. The island is of
biogeographical interest with several endemic species of plant (Okutomi, 1968; IUCN, 1975;
Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985; Sprague, 1986). Marine flora includes Codium sp.,
and flourishing Padina arborescens in the Sakurajima area (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Fauna Mammals of the park include Japanese dormouse Glirulus japonicus and wild pig Sus
scrofa leucomelas are generally present. Species of biogeographical interest on Yakushima
include endemic subspecies, Yakushima macaque Macaca fuscata yakui (at its southern limit in
Japan), a sub-species of sika Cervus nippon yakushimae and reptile Gekko yakushimensis
(IUCN, 1975; Sprague, 1986). Kirishima is rich in birds including: streaked
shearwater Calonectris leucomelas, white-rumped copper pheasant Phasianus soemeringiti
ijimae, blue-winged pitta Pitta brachyura and paradise flycatcher Terpsiphone atrocaudata
(Robinson, 1987). The insect fauna is also diversified with endemics such as Chrysozephyrus
ataxus yakushimaensia (IUCN, 1975). The fish fauna includes both temperate and tropical
varieties such as Sygnathus schlegeli, Pomacentrus coelestris and Chasetodon collare.
Schleractinian and alcyonarian corals are well developed including Montipora cactus,
Acropora spp., Pocillipora damicornis, Porites tenuis, Melithaea flabelliforme, M. flabellifera
and Anthoplexaura dimorpha. Parasigonis actinostoloides is gregarious in its development in
Okikojima, Sakurajima Marine Park Area (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
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Cultural Heritage The area is rich in mythology. The Kojiki and Nippon Shoki chronicles
recorded that it was here that Ninigino-mikoto, grandson of the sun-goddess, first descended
to earth - he was the ancestor of the present Imperial family. Mausoleums of two generations
of gods are found at Sendai, Kimotsuki and Aira. The present shrine of Ninigi-no-mikoto
(Kirishima) was constructed in 1715 (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The human population density varies in proximity to the park. On
the park boundary is the major city, Kagoshima, yet by comparison the mountains of Yaku are
largely uninhabited and on Moejima there were just 138 islanders in 1964. The park fringes
are intensively utilised for such agriculture as wet rice farming (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The annual number of visitors to the park in the 1970s
averaged 13.54 millions, of which 470,000 were visiting marine parks (Marine Parks Centre,
1975). Facilities include hotels, inns, camp and picnic grounds, ski slopes, mountain and
nature trails, marine aquariums, visitor centres, boat excursions, hydrofoils and glass bottomed
boats. Ibusuki has a National Vacation Village. A road and rail system circles the mountains.
Yakushima can be reached by sea or air from Kagoshima. Yaku has an 40,000 visitors
annually, mostly for mountain climbing (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities Vegetation studies have been undertaken by the
Environmental Agency (1973). There is a Meteorological Observatory on Mt. Kirishiuma run
by Tokyo University. There have also been Kyoto University studies on the ecology of the
Yaku macaque since 1975 (Furuichi, 1983; Maruhashi, 1982; Sprague, 1986).
Conservation Management’ The entire area is of importance for the diversity of ecosystems
from volcanic ranges through coral reef areas to primary forests on the many islands. The core
area of Cryptomeria japonica virgin forest at Yakushima is protected from exploitation and
currently is little disturbed by tourism.
Management Problems The Cryptomeria of Yakushima are threatened by felling, which is
permitted in the "ordinary zone" plantations (Sprague, 1986). Pesticides have also affected the
flora and fauna of this area. Road construction for sightseeing is occurring at Mt. Kirishima
and the low lying areas have various disturbances by man (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). No
polluted freshwater drainage occurs from land to sea but waters at Sakurajima are turbid due to
the substrate (Marine Parks Centre, 1975). A dam has been constructed on the Anbo river of
Yaku island. The macaque population on Yakushima is a potential pest species, raiding the
orange orchards, and up to 20% of the island’s macaque population was estimated as being
captured or killed in a three year period (Sprague, 1986).
Staff There is a total of at least eight staff: three full-time (ranger, Environment Agency,
Prefectural Officer and patrol man, Kagoshima Prefectural Government), five seasonal (patrol
men, Kagoshima Prefectural Government) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the 1970s the park received a share of US$700,000 annual allocation by
Environment Agency to National Parks, and US$9,500 annually from Kagoshima Prefectural
Government (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Kirishima-Yaku National Park, 2384-10 Anbo, Yakushima,
Kumage-gun, Kagoshima Prefecture, 891-43.
References
° Anon. (1969). Report on Marine Parks in Kinkowan, Kirishima-Yaku National Park. (in
Japanese) Kagushima Prefecture. 102 pp., figures and maps.
° Chancellor, R. (n.d.). Bird Life of South Kyushu. Unpub. report for ICBP.
° Furuchi, T. (1983). Inter-individual distance and influence of dominance on feeding in a
natural Japanese macaque troop. Primates. 24: 445-455.
° IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
° Kanemaru, S (1968) Welcome to Kagoshima, Japan. Kagoshima Tourist Federation of
Kagoshima Prefecture.
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°
Marine Parks Center of Japan (1975). Marine Parks in Japan. Tokyo. May, Pp. 23.
Maruhashi, T. (1982). An ecology study of troop fission of Japanese macaques (Macaca
fuscata yakui) on Yakushima Island, Japan. Primates 23: 317-337.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan
Environment Agency, Japan.
° Okutomi, K. (1968). Forest vegetation of the north western part of Yakushima Island.
JIBP-CT report for 1967.
° Okutami, K. (1969). Forest vegetation of the north western part of Yakushima Island.
JIBP-CT report for 1969.
° Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. bis Publishing Co. California.
° Sprague, D.S. (1986). Conservation of the monkeys and forests of Yakushima,
Japan. Primate Conservation. No. 7. April 1986. pp. 55-57.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Japan.
° UNEP/IUCN (in prep.). Directory of Coral Reefs of International Importance. Vol. 3.
UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies, FAO, Rome.
°
Date July 1987
Minami Arupusu (Southern Alps) National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The park is situated 20km east of Kofu on Honshu island. It is found
midway between Tokyo and Nagoya in the prefectures of Nagona, Shizuoka and Yamanashi.
35°42’N, 138°34’E.
Date and History of Establishment The National Park was created on 1 June 1964 and
designated by the Natural Parks Law as a place of scenic beauty. All development is controlled
by Articles 17, 18 and 20 of the Natural Parks Law.
Area 35,752ha (9,18lha special protected areas). Two zones exist 58.9% (21,071.2ha) as a
multiple use area; 41.4% (14,727.6ha) as a wilderness or wildlife area.
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 1,200-3,192m
Physical Features The park consists of the Akaishi range, a mountainous area averaging
3,000m in altitude, and lying in a north-south direction. The Kofu basin and Fuji river valley
separate the Southern Alps from Mount Fuji. The highest of the peaks within the park
boundaries is Kitadake (3,192m) on Mount Shirane, the second highest mountain in Japan. The
mountains are composed of granite, hornstone - tufa volcanic ash, sandstone and clayey slate.
Water is abundant, the main rivers being the Norokawa at the foot of Kitadake and River
Tenryu along the Ina valley (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Records taken at the foot of Mount Notori show a temperature variation from 23.6°C
(August) to 0.6°C (January) and an average annual precipitation of 2186mm. There are snow
falls but these are only temporary.
Vegetation The Palaearctic vegetation of this mountain park ranges from mixed
deciduous/coniferous forests at low altitudes to high alpine meadowland (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980). The coniferous forest is composed mainly of firs (Abies mariesii, A. homolepis,
A. veitchii), hemlock Tsuga diversifolia, red pine, pine (Pinus densiflora, P. parviflora),
spruce Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis, Japanese cedar, cypress (Cryptomeria japonica,
Chamaecyparis obtusa) and some larch Larix kaempferi (IUCN, 1975). Deciduous stands are
composed largely of birch Betula ermanii, beech Fagus crenata, water oak Quercus crispula and
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maple Acer spp. The high alpine zone supports creeping pine Pinus pumila, Azalea and such
species as Artemisia glomerate, Veronica nipponica, Polemonium nipponicum, Dryas octopetala,
Sibbaldia procumbens, Fritillaria camschatcensis and local varieties of Ranunculus
and Melandrium spp. (IUCN, 1975; NCB, 1985)
Fauna’ The larger mammal fauna is represented by Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata, wild
boar Sus scrofa leucomystax, Honshu sika Cervus nippon centralis and Japanese
serow Capricornis crispus (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980). Birds include golden
eagle Aguila chrysaétos japonica, Hodgson’s hawk eagle Spizaetus nipalensis orientalis,
ptarmigan Lagopus mutus japonicus (a local sub-species considered to be rare in Japan),
nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes japonicus, wren Troglodytes troglodytes tumigatus and
endemic Japanese robin Erithacus akahige (IUCN, 1975).
Cultural Heritage The area was once regarded as important for private art collections but
much was destroyed in world war II bombing raids (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population Agriculture and settlement areas are largely centred in the valleys
around the township of Iida in the Tenryn. Rice is one of the main economies of the area
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities _ The park received 750,000 visitors in 1972 (IUCN, 1975).
There is a distinct lack of facilities and these are restricted to huts, access roads and mountain
trails. There is difficulty of access and lack of roads traversing the park. Activities are largely
confined to hiking and mountaineering (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities Studies of vegetation have been undertaken by the
Environment Agency (1973). There are no special scientific research facilities, although
climatological data is collected at Notori (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB,
1985).
Conservation Management Difficulty of access has ensured the lack of exploitation and
over-development of the park. Access along the new "Super Norokawa Forestry road" is
restricted to forestry staff for much of the year. Tourists are allowed access over a few
summer months (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Management Problems Currently there is considerable forest exploitation and forest road
construction. The local authorities have considered proposals for villa development, ski resorts
and golf links in the park (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). The construction of the "Super
Norokawa Forestry road" had been halted by environmentalists for 5 years to study the
environmental impact (completion was in 1979) (IUCN, 1975; NCB, 1985).
Staff There are at least two full-time staff (ranger of the Environment Agency, and an
assistant warden from the Nagano Prefectural Government); four seasonal staff (patrol men
funded by the Nagano and Yamanashi Prefectural Governments) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the 1970s the park received a share of the Environment Agency’s annual
subvention to National Parks (US$700,000) in addition to US$5,000 provided by Nagano and
Yamanashi Prefectural Governments (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration No information
References
° Anon. 1963. Scientific Report of Minamiarupus. Nagano Regional Forestry Office, Forestry
Agency. (in Japanese).
° IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
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° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation in Japan. Environment Agency,
Japan.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kadunsha International
Ltd., Tokyo.
Date June 1987
Nikko National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province
Geographical Location The National Park is located on Central Honshu island, north of
Tokyo, centred around Nikko town in a mountainous area west of Tochigi Prefecture.
36°39’-37°13’N, 139°09’-140°0S’E
Date and History of Establishment 4 December 1934 (designated by the Natural Parks Law).
Two zones exist: 93% (130,898.5ha) is a multiple use area and 7% (9,799.6ha) a wilderness area
for wildlife protection.
Area 140,698ha (there are 14 special protected areas in a total of 9,805ha)
Land Tenure 74,824.2ha State land, 11,377.2ha public land, 54,496.7ha private land
Altitude 300-2,578m
Physical Features An area of volcanic mountains, the most important being Mt. Okushirane
(2,577m), Mt. Nantai with the crater of an extinct volcano (2,484m), Mt Nasu and Mt Hiuchi.
The area is largely a landscape of plateaux, rivers, waterfalls, lakes and dense forest. There are
many hot springs as at Chuzenji, and 47 waterfalls including the Kegon Falls which flow from
Lake Chuzenji. This lake is 15 miles in circumference and surrounded by forest and
mountains. It was originally formed from the eruption of Mt Nantai many centuries ago.
Climate Temperatures range from 19°C (August) to -4°C (February); average annual
precipitation 2,254mm. Snow falls in the mid-winter period are up to 2m deep.
Vegetation The vegetation at Nikko is typically Palearctic. The coniferous forests consist of
the firs Abies homolepsis and A. mariesii, spruce Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis,
hemlock Tsuga diversifolia, pine Pinus densiflora and P. pumila, very old Japanese
cedars Cryptomeria japonica and larch Larix kaempferi. There are also deciduous forests of
birch Betula tauschii and B. ermanii, beech Fagus crenata, water oak Quercus crispula,
elm Ulmus davidiana and azalea Rhododendron japonicum. The high altitude alpine vegetation
includes Arnica unalashcensis var. tschonoskyi, Potentilla matsumurea, the avens Sieversia
pentapetala var. immaculata. The raised bog flora of Kotoku includes Andromeda polifolia,
Gentiana thunbergii var. minor, day lily Hemerocallis middendorfii var. esculenta, Iris setosa,
Drosera anglica, the thistle Cirsium homoletis and arrow grass Scheuchzeria palustris. The
moorland of Oze-ga-hara is rich in Lyichiton camtschatcense (IUCN, 1975).
Fauna The fauna is typified by the Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata, Asiatic black
bear Selenarctos thibetanis japonicus and Honshu sika Cervus nippon centralis. The birds
include green pheasant Phasianus versicolor, Honshu copper pheasant Syrmaticua
soemmerringii scintillans, the finch Leucosticte arctoa brunneonucha, blue flycatcher Muscicapa
c. cyanomelana and Japanese robin Erithacus a. akahige. Grey bunting Emberiza variabilis
breed around Lake Ozenuma and on Mt Nasu where ruddy kingfisher Halcyan coromanda is
common along forested streams (Martins et al., 1980).
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Cultural Heritage Nikko is important for the Toshogu shrine (constructed 1617), built to
commemorate Ieyasu Tokugawa, the founder of the Edo shogunate Government. This building
and a complex of other temples and shrines, set amid sacred Cryptomeria groves, are some of
the most important architectural structures in Japan. The Buddhist Rinnoji temple, constructed
1,100 years ago, is the oldest structure at Nikko. The festivals for the Toshogu shrine are
celebrated on 17 May and 17 October every year when 1,000 "armed warriors" in the armour of
the Edo period (17th century) process at Nikko. Pilgrimages are also made to the sacred shrine
on the summit of Mt Nantai.
Local Human Population Local products include rice, wheat and barley, tobacco and the
edible gourd "Kanpyo". The horses bred in this area are renowned.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There were 2.8 million visits per year in the 1960s, rising to
over 19 million visitors in 1972 (IUCN, 1975). The key reasons for visiting the Park include
sightseeing the various temples and waterfalls around Nikko. The area is easily reached by car,
bus or train from Tokyo. Facilities include numerous hotels, inns, mountain huts (at Oze),
campgrounds, picnic areas, mountain and nature trails, skating and skiing areas, access roads,
museum, visitor centre and the National Vacation Village (Nasu area). Cable cars and lifts
permit tourists to see the waterfalls in comfort. There are also boating, fishing and swimming
facilities at Lake Chuzenji. Skating competitions are held annually at Hosoo.
Scientific Research and Facilities Investigations of vegetation have been undertaken by the
Environment Agency (1973).
Conservation Management Ocze area has the highest moorland in Japan notable for blooms of
"mizu-basho" Lysichiton camtsahcense var. japonicum and other moorland plants.
Management Problems Several man-made lakes and hydroelectric barrages have been
constructed in the park. Excessive visitor pressure in summer has a profound effect upon the
Park ecosystem.
Staff 10 full-time staff (superintendent and 6 rangers from the Environment Agency, 3
prefectural officers from Tochigi prefecture); 11 seasonal (7 patrol men from Fukushima and
Niigata prefectures, 4 naturalists from National Parks Association) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the 1970s there was support from annual allocation by the Environment Agency to
the National Parks (total US$700,000); also there was US$48,000 per annum from Fukushima,
Tochigi, Gumma and Niigata prefectures; US$2,000 from National Parks Association of Japan
(IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Nikko National Park Headquarters Office, Environmental Agency,
Honchyo, Nikko Coty, Tochigi Prefecture. Ranger Office at Oze Lakeside, Katashina Village,
Ranger Station at Yumoto, Imaichi Forestry Branch Office, Imaichi City, Japan.
References
° 1970. Vegetationskundliche Untersuchungen im Ozegahara-Moor, Mittel Japan (summary in
German). The Nature Conservation Society of Japan.
° Kodaira, J. (c. 1960). Tochigi prefecture, the prefecture where Nikko is located. Furuhata,
Japan.
° Martins R.P. et al. (1980). Report on a birding expedition to Japan, 8 March- 14 May 1980.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd, Tokyo.
Date June 1987
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Ogasawara (Bonin Islands) National Park
(including Ogasawara marine park and its seven marine park areas)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.41.13 (Ryukyu Islands)
Geographical Location The park is located at Ogasawara (Bonin Islands) and Kazan Retto
(Volcano Islands), in the north-west Pacific, 1,000km south of Tokyo. The archipelago extends
300km from Mukojima in the north to Kitaiokima in the extreme south. The park itself is
divided into four isolated sections across the archipelago. They were transferred to the
administration of Tokyo metropolitan area, following the end of the American occupation in
1968. They include Mukojima, Nishinoshima, Kitaiojima and Chichijima: 27°02’-27°10’N,
142°09’-142°14’E (to include Anijima Channel marine park area and Minamishima section
marine park area); Hahajima: 26°33’-28°36’N, 142°07°-142°10’E (to include Hahajima section
marine park area). (Iwojima: 24°14’-24°49°N, 141°16’-141°27’E is not included in the park
although it is part of the archipelago.)
Date and History of Establishment The site was protected from 16 October 1972 under the
Natural Parks Law as a place of scenic beauty, protected as a National Park. Development is
controlled by Art. 17, 18, 18-2 and 20, Natural Parks Law. Special regulations exist to protect
24 families, 13 species of Osteichthyes (fish); 17 families, one genus and 29 species of
invertebrates; 1 family, two genera and six species of seaweed. Ogasawara Marine Park was
created on 16 October 1972 along with the National Park.
Area 6,433.7ha (463ha MPA). Two zones proposed 56.9% (3,831.l1ha) wilderness and 40.4%
(2,602.6ha) multiple-use. The Marine Park consists of 46.3ha.
Land Tenure 5,424ha state land, 1,009.7ha in private ownership.
Altitude Sea level to 918m (maximum depth of 20m in MPA)
Physical Features The park is part of two oceanic island groups, of largely tertiary period
volcanic origin. Chichishima (6km by 3km) and Hahashima are composed of andesite and
basalt, which forms steeply-eroded cliffs and rocky bays. The Minamishima section of
Chichijima is coral-limestone, with karstic formations above and below sea level, while the
Senjinawa section of Chichijima and Okuzure bay in Hahajima, are noted for their cliffs.
Kita-Iwojima, in the southern Kazan group, is an emergent volcanic cone with solfataras. The
volcano rises steeply to 804m. Coral reefs occur in a number of areas, centred around
Minamijima.
Climate The park falls in an area between temperate and tropical zones. Temperatures vary
from 28°C (winter mean) to 17°C (summer mean) and about 1600mm of annual rainfall.
Surface water temperature averages 23.6°C, with transparency from 20-40m, and depths of
26.5m. Typhoons are prevalent from August to November.
Vegetation Sub-tropical rain forest covers most of the islands and includes several endemic
elements. Vegetation is dominated by Juniperus taxifolia, Pinus luchuensis, Morus boninensis,
Schima mertensiana, Rhaphiolepis integerrima, Distylium lepidotum, Leucaena glauca, Hibiscus
glaber and Pandanus boninensis along with tree ferns Cyathea spinulosa and C. mertensiana.
Other typical species are Ardisia sieboldii, Pouteria obovata, Ochrosia nakaina and Livistona
boninensis (IUCN, 1975). Rarities include Photinia wrightiana, Melanstoma tetramerum
and Dendrocacalia crepidifolia. Marine vegetation includes species of Dictyopteris, Sargassum
duplicatum, Caulerpa brachypus, Bryopsidaceae spp., Padina minor and Galaxaura fastigiata
(IUCN, 1975).
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Fauna The fauna includes only a few native mammals such as flying fox Pteropus dasymalus
(considered rare). Seabirds are numerous and include black-footed albatross Diomedea
nigripes, wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus cuneatus, Bulwer’s petrel Bulweria
bulweri, red-tailed tropic bird Phaéthon rubricauda rothschildi, brown booby Sula leucogaster
plotus and swift tern Sterna bergii cristata. Other interesting though scarce species are
buzzard Butes butes, fruit pigeon Columba janthina nitens, Bonin honeyeater Apalopteron
familiare hahasima and grey-capped greenfinch Carduelis sinica kittlitzi (IUCN, 1975;
Robinson, 1987). Marine fauna includes many tropical fishes of the families Fistulariidae,
Sygnathidae, Labridae, Scorpididae, Zanclidae and species including Acanthurus olivaceus
and Paracanthurus hepatus. There are 40 recorded varieties of coral including
schleractinians Acropora leptocyathus, A. pyramidalis and Favia speciosa, alcyonarians Nephthea
chabroli and Xenia spp.; and gorgonarian Melithaea flabellifera (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Cultural Heritage The area was first settled in 1830 by a small group of British, Americans
and Hawaiians on Chichijima but the island was annexed in 1876 by the Japanese. The
Iwojima island was an important battleground in world war II (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population In the late 1930s the island population was 7,700 but they were
largely removed to Tokyo in the last war. When the islands were returned to Japan in 1968
only Chichijima was inhabited by 285 people), largely English speaking descendants of the
early settlers. The local economy consists of sugar cane, fruit orchards and timber extraction
(sandalwood, ironwood and rosewood) (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There were estimates of up to 7,000 visitors to the National
Park in 1973 (IUCN, 1975). Access to Chichijima is by ship from Tokyo (45 hours). There are
few facilities and these are centred on the few smail inns, guest houses and trails on Chichijima
and Hahajima. Camping is forbidden (Robinson, 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities Survey of islands have been undertaken by expeditions in
July 1969 (IUCN, 1975), and studies of vegetation by the Environmental Agency.
Conservation Management The marine park areas and the national park itself have been
designated to reduce the impact, and control the development of, recreation and tourism in the
rural areas (IUCN, 1975; Marine Parks Centre, 1975; NCB, 1985).
Management Problems No information
Staff Total six staff (a ranger of the Environment Agency; two officers and three patrol men,
appointed by Tokyo Prefectural Government) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the 1970s the park received a share of the Environment Agency’s annual
subvention to National Parks (US$700,000) and US$6,000 provided annually by Tokyo
Prefectural Government (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Ogasawara Branch Office, Tokyo Prefectural Government, Omura,
Chichijima, Tokyo Prefecture.
References
° IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
Marine Parks Centre (1975). Marine Parks of Japan. Marine Parks Centre of Japan, Tokyo.
Nakai, T. 1930. Plants of the Bonin Islands. Bull. Biogeogr. Soc. Japan: 1: 249-278.
Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). | Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Japan.
° Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. \bis Publishing Co. California.
°* Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Tokyo.
° Swenson, F.A. (1949). Geology and groundwater resources of Iwojima. Bull. Geol. Soc.
Amer. 59: 995-1008.
°
°
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° Tokyo Prefecture. (1969, 1970). Scientific Report of Ogasawara Islands (in Japanese).
Tokyo Prefecture publication.
° Tuyama, T. (1953). On the phytogeographical status of the Bonin and Volcano Islands.
Proc. 7th Pacific Science Congress. 5: 208-212.
Date June 1987
Rikuchu-Kaigan National Park
(includes the Kesennuma Marine Park)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location Situated in north-west Honshu, as a 180km strip along the Pacific
Ocean coastline, from Kuji in the north via Miyako to Kesennuma in the south. The largest
town in the area is Morioka, 80km to the west by the Kitakami highlands. The park is located
entirely within Iwate prefecture. 39°43’N, 141°08’E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was created as a national park on 2 May 1955
under the Natural Parks Law. Development within the park is controlled under Articles 17, 18
and 20. The Marine Park area was established on 22 January 1971.
Area 12,348ha (the Marine Park area totals 23.4ha).
Land Tenure No information
Altitude Sea level to over 200m
Physical Features The park consists of 180km of a highly indented and precipitous cliff
coastline. The cliffs of Kitayamazaki are often 200m high, formed from Palaeozoic chalk and
limestone strata, basalt and granite columns. The southern half of Iwate’s coastline includes
submerged valleys (ria) and fjordlike bays. The Rikuchu coast is bathed by both cold and
warm currents in the Oyashio current system (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
Climate Average rainfall figures approximate between 1000-1500mm, with a yearly mean
temperature of 9°C. The average temperature for the coldest month is -0.3°C (January) and
for the warmest month 24.6°C (July).
Vegetation The coastal forests include relict habitats of Japanese red pines Pinus densiflora
and evergreen forests of tabunoki Machilus thunbergii in the southern part of the park (NCB,
1985). Many of the indented cliff habitats are capped by dense growths of red pine along with
camphor trees Cinnamonum camphora and camellia Camellia japonica (Sutherland and Britton,
1980; NCB, 1985).
Fauna The coastline abounds in sea bird habitats. Species include black-tailed gull Larus
crassirostris, streaked sheerwater Calonectris leucomelas, Swinhoe’s storm petrel Oceanodroma
monorhis and fork-tailed storm petrel O. furcata (NCB, 1985). Fish include Malichoeres
peocilopterus and Cottus pollux (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Most of the population is centred in the coastal parts of Kuji and
Miyako, as well as Kamaishi and Kesennuma, all areas excluded from the park. Fishing, sea
urchin and oyster collecting are important local industries.
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Visitors and Visitor Facilities Facilities include 14 glass bottom boats in the Oshima area.
There are also boat sightseeing excursions which traverse the entire length of the Park (Marine
Parks Centre, 1975).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The park has one of the few extensive areas of undeveloped
coastline left in Japan (just over 50% of the coast in the country has been commercially
developed) (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
Management Problems No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
°* Marine Parks Centre (1975). Marine Parks of Japan. Marine Parks Centre of Japan, Tokyo.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks in Japan. Kodanshi International
Ltd., Tokyo.
Date July 1987
Rishiri- Rebun-Sarobetsu National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.14.05 (Manchu Japanese Mixed Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located at the north-western edge of Hokkaido and
includes Rishiri and Rebun islands (west of Wakkanai). 45°26’N, 141°43’E.
Date and History of Establishment Rishiri and Rebun islands were originally designated as a
quasi-national park. On 20 September 1974, along with Sarobetsu Plain (45°05’N, 141°41’E),
the site was created as a national park under the Natural Parks Law. The park consists of a
27km coastal strip on the Sarobetsu Plain from Bakkai to Wakkasakanai, the higher slopes of
Rishiri island and most of Rebun island. Each of the three park areas has a series of protection
zones and excludes urban areas of high population numbers.
Area 21,222ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 0-1,718m
Physical Features Rishiri island is an upthrust extinct conical volcano (1,718m) which was
formed a few thousand years ago. Nearby Rebun island is of much older origin and low-lying
(max. 490m). The Sarobetsu Plain consists of sand dunes, marshland and low-lying land of
3-7m (the highest point is Maruyama at 14m a.s.l.). The area is composed of peat bog covered
by fertile river silt and has an abundance of ponds and lakes. Waterlogging occurs each year as
a result of winter rains and melting spring snows (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
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Climate The subarctic climate is generally cooler than much of Japan. The Sarobetsu Plain is
exceptional in having 122 frost-free days per year. Average temperatures are 5.6°C with a
mean minimum of -1.1°C. Rainfall precipitation averages 1241mm per year, in addition to
40mm of snow.
Vegetation The park is situated in a biogeographic area rich in flora of alpine origin, showing
affiliations to the vegetation of the Kurile islands, Siberia and Alaska (NCB, 1985). The
habitats within the park range from pine forest through to marshes, lakes and peat bogs (NCB,
1985). The woodland communities are composed of pine Pinus, Japanese spruce Picea,
elm Ulmus and oak Quercus (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). Typical lake vegetation
communities, such as at Sarobetsu, include Phragmites communis, Juncus setchuensis, Scirpus
lacustris, Typha latifolia, Nuphar japonicum, Trapa natans and Potamogeton distinctus (Scott,
in prep.). Rebun has more than 200 varieties of alpine plants, including creeping pines Pinus
pumila, crowfoot and pinks (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Fauna The largest mammals native to the islands are squirrels, field mice and shrews
(foxes Vulpes vulpes and weasels Mustela sp. were introduced at the beginning of the century).
In Sarobetsu there have been records of 23 mammal species, as well as such amphibians as Hyla
japonica, Rana chensinensis and Hynobius retardatus (see Scott, in prep. for lists of other
animal species). The Sarobetsu Plain is an important breeding site for a number of migratory
waterfowl including mallard Anas platyrhynchos, falcated teal A. falcata, smew Mergus albellus
and red-necked grebe Podiceps grisegena. Woodland and open countryside species are
represented by snowy owl Nyctea scandiaca, gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus and stonechat Emberiza
aureola (for bird species list see Robinson, 1987 and Scott, in prep.).
Cultural Heritage The area was a battleground for the Czarist navy and Japan’s Tokugawa
shogunate in 1807 (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population § The area is still a centre for the Ainu proto-caucasian people,
although their culture has largely been destroyed since the Japanese arrived on Hokkaido 300
years ago. To-day the local economy of the Rishiri and Rebun islands is based on fishing and
cattle breeding (NCB, 1985). In the Sarobetsu Plains commercial fishing and agriculture are
permitted (Scott, in prep.).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities _ There is a diversity of facilities including three designated
campsites on Rishiri and an exhibition hall of local history and crafts. Boats and aircraft
service the two islands. (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The Sarobetsu Plain embraces the largest wetland in Japan
(8,129ha) and is fully protected as a reserve. It has been classed as one of the most important
wetland sites in Japan (Scott, in prep.). The alpine plant communities on Rebun have
additionally been protected as Natural Monuments (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Management Problems’ There are construction plans in existence to develop part of the area
for dumping radioactive waste (Scott, in prep.).
Staff Park rangers are present on Rishiri (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
° Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co. California.
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° Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN
Cambridge and IWRB Slimbridge.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks in Japan. Kodanshi International
Ltd., Tokyo.
Date July 1987
Saikai National Park
(including Fukue and Wakamatsu Marine Parks)
Management Category V (Protected landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located in the Goto, Hirado and Kujuku archipelagos,
north-west of Kyushu, in the Nagasaki prefecture. 33°06’-33°26’N, 129°20’-129°26’E.
(Kujukushima sector: 33°06’-33°26’N, 129°20’-129°26’E; Goto Island sector: 32°35’-33°18’N,
128°40’-129°16’E; Fukue MPA: 32°42’N, 128°50’E; Wakamatsu MPA 32°50’N, 129°20°E.)
Date and History of Establishment The national park was created on 16 March, 1955 under
the National Parks Law (protection under Articles 17, 18, 18-2 and 20). The marine parks
were designated on 16 October, 1972. There is special protection for three families and 24
species of invertebrate, one family, three genera and three species of seaweed. Two zones
exist: 96.6% (23,500ha) is a multiple-use buffer-zone and 3.4% (124ha) is a wilderness area for
conservation purposes.
Area 24,653ha (30.4ha marine park area)
Land Tenure 1,233ha state land, 4,769ha public land, 18,322ha in private ownership.
Altitude Sea level to 568m (maximum depth of MPA, 20m)
Physical Features The park consists of over 150 volcanic islands of varying size. They are
characterised by inlets, high cliffs and rare cinder cone formations. Fukue marine park at
Fukue Island and Wakamatsue marine park at Wakamatsue Island are affected by the warm
waters of the Tsushima Current, a branch of the Kuroshio Current. They are islands of tuff
and sandstone, the sea floor being sandy mud with stones and white tuffaceous sand
respectively (Marine Parks Centre, 1975). The Kujukushima archipelago comprises a cluster of
nearly 200 islets. The Goto archipelago consists largely of sedimentary rocks, sandstone, shale
and conglomerate. Basalt, andesite and granite are also present. There are sheer 160m cliffs at
Osezaki and Fukue Island and coral reefs at Fukue and Wakamatsue (Marine Parks Centre,
1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
Climate Mild climate with temperatures varying from 28°C (August) to 5.8°C (January) at
Kujukushima and precipitation of 2016-2076mm. Transparency in the coastal areas is 10-17m.
Vegetation The flora ranges from temperate palaearctic to subtropical species. The
coniferous forest comprise red pine Pinus densiflora, black pine P. thunbergii, Japanese
cedar Cryptomeria japonica and Chamaecyparis obtusa. Temperate rain forests consist of
associations of Myrica rubra, Quercus phylliraeoides, pasania oak Castanopsis cuspidata var.
sieboldii, Cinnamomum camphora, Camellia japonica var. spontanea and Rhododendron
metternichii var. typicum (IUCN, 1975). Other typical species are Ficus wightiana, Cycas
revoluta and betel-nut tree Areca catechu (IUCN, 1975; NCB, 1985). Marine vegetation
includes algae such as Codium spp., Halimeda spp., Sargassum spp., Padina arborescens,
Dictyopteris spp., and Corallina spp. (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
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Fauna The park is of interest for its Palaearctic fauna which includes Kyushu sika
deer Cervus nippon nippon and birds such as eastern reef heron Egretta s. sacra, black-tailed
gull Larus crassirostris and murrelet Synthliboramphus antiquus (IUCN, 1975). Marine fauna
includes temperate and sub-tropical fish such as Pomacentrus coelistis, Amphiprion xanthurus,
Pseudolabrus japonicus, Thalassoma cupido and Méicocanthus strigatus. Corals include
schleractinians such as Acropora spp., Porites tenuis and Favia speciosa; alycyonarians Nepthea
chabrolii and Stereonephthya japonica and gorgonians Melithaea flabellifera, Anthoplexaura
dimorpha and Antipathes japonica. Other marine fauna include crinoids Tropiometra afra;
sea-urchins Toxopneustes pilealus, sea-cucumbers Holothuria pervicase and sea-anemones such
as Parasicyonis actinostoloides (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Cultural Heritage Hirado island is of special interest for its historic links with foreign trade.
The port of Hirado was the main Japanese trading post for the Dutch and English in the
16-17th centuries (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The population of Goto archipelago are largely Christians and
subsist on their deep sea fishing fleet and cattle-rearing industry (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There were up to 4.58 million visitors in 1972, with 100,000
visiting the marine parks IUCH, 1975; Marine Parks Centre, 1975). Facilities include hotels,
inns, picnic grounds, access roads and ferries, sightseeing boats, an aquarium and _ historical
museum at Hirado. Access to the islands is by ship from Nagasaki or Sasebo and by air from
Nagasaki (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities Study of vegetation has been undertaken by the
Environmental Agency.
Conservation Management No information
Management Problems The Kujukushima part of the park is hemmed in by built-up areas.
Settlement occurs within Park boundaries and, as in the Gozo islands, cattle grazing is
widespread (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Staff Total five (a ranger of the Environment Agency; four officers appointed by the
Nagasaki Prefectural Government) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the 1970s the park received a share of the Environment Agency’s annual
subvention to National Parks (US$700,00); in addition to US$45,000 provided by Nagasaki
Prefectural Government (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Kashimae ranger office, Environmental Agency, Kashimae Sasebo City,
Nagasaki Prefecture. Branch offices at Kenppoku and Goto.
References
° IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
° Marine Parks Centre (1975). Marine Parks in Japan. Marine Parks Centre of Japan, Tokyo.
° Nagasaki Prefecture (1971). Scientific Report of the Marine Park in Nagasaki Prefecture
(Japanese). Nagasaki Prefecture publication.
Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan
Environment Agency, Tokyo, Japan.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.
Date June 1987
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Sanin Kaigan National Park
(includes Toyooka, Takeno, Hamasaka and Uradome Marine Parks)
Management Category V (Protected landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located in western Honshu as a continuous 75km long sea
coast between Amino (Kyota prefecture) and the sand dunes near Tottori (Tottori prefecture).
35°32’-35°42’N, 134°13’-135°OIE.
Date and History of Establishment The park was created on 15 July 1963 by the Natural
Parks Law. The Marine Park Areas were established on 22 January 1971. Development is
controlled within the Park (Art. 17, 18, 18-2 and 20, Natural Parks Law) and priority is given
to protection of the scenic beauty of the National Park. There is also special protection for
four species of fish; 9 species of invertebrate; 16 genera and four species of seaweed. Zonation
includes: 90% (8,003ha) as multiple-use areas; 10% (892.9ha) as wilderness area.
Area 8,996ha (46.5ha Marine protected area and 556ha special protected area for wildlife
conservation)
Land Tenure §80.7ha state land, 2,878.4ha public land, 6,036.8ha private land.
Altitude Sea level to 567m (maximum depth of Marine Protected Areas 20m)
Physical Features The park consists of a 75km long seacoast of granite and basalt where
erosion has resulted in 91 large and small islands and reefs, as well as 52 caves and arches, such
as at Genbudo and Yoroi-no-Sode. The overall effect is a much indented cliff coastline, and
includes the 16km circumference brackish Koyama lagoon by the town of Tottori. On the
south-west are the Tottori sand dunes formed by the strong north-westerly Siberian wind. The
sand dunes are 16km long and 2km wide, the largest in Japan (IUCN, 1975). The Marine Parks
are influenced by the warm Tsushima current, a branch of the Kuroshio current. (Water
transparency ranges from 15-25m). Hot springs are also located in the park and include those
at Mamisaka. The sea bed is largely composed of tuff, granite and andesite (IUCN, 1975;
Marine Parks Centre, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Annual temperatures vary from 26.6°C (August) to 4.4°C (February). There is
2385mm annual rainfall and occasional snowfalls. Water temperature averages 18°C or more.
Vegetation The coastal woodland is dominated by black pine Pinus _ thunbergii,
Neolitsea (Machilus) thunbergii and Pittosporum tobira (Sutherland and Britton, 1975; NCB,
1985). Marine vegetation is temperate with flourishing Sargassum patens and S. serratifolium,
Ulva pertusa, Dictyota dichotoma, Grateloupia filicina, Acrosorium flabellatum and Cladophora
japonica (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Fauna Characteristic species include Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata, Temminck’s
cormorant Phalacrocorax filamentosus, highly threatened local race of white stork Ciconia
ciconia boyciana and red-rumped swallow Hirundo daurica (IUCN, 1975). The marine fauna
includes temperate fish such as Chromis notatus, Girella punctata, Pterogobius zonoleucus,
Ditrema temmincki and various Labridae. Invertebrates include sea anemones, starfish and
sponges such as Solanderia secunda, Euplexaura erecta, Aglaophenia whiteleggei and Comanthus
japonica (Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Cultural Heritage Myths and legends of the ancient Izumo tribe persist in the Sanin Kaigon
area (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population Tottori is a market centre for timber, rice and fruit orchards, as
well as being a renowned holiday resort. Nearby Kasumi is noted for its fishing industry.
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Visitors and Visitor Facilities Annual visitation of 6.32 million people with up to 900,000 to
the Marine Park Areas (IUCN, 1975). Facilities include hotels, inns, picnic grounds, nature
trails, access roads, sightseeing boats, glass-bottomed boats (at Toyooka, Hamasaka and
Uradome Kaigna Marine Park Area) sand dune skiing and a National Vacation Village. Other
facilities include a Folk Art Museum at Tottori (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities Studies of vegetation have been undertaken by the
Environment Agency (IUCN, 1975).
Conservation Management No information
Management Problems The coastal area and the Koyama and Togo lakes are extensively
fished (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Staff There is a total of at least 11 staff, one full-time ranger (Environment Agency), 10
seasonal patrol men (Hyogo and Tottori Prefectural Governments) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the mid 1970s there was support from the annual allocation by the Environment
Agency to the National Parks (US$700,000); US$9,000 per annum from Hyogo and Tottori
Prefectural Governments (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Takeno Ranger Office, Environment Agency, Takeno Kaigan, Takeno,
Hyogo.
References
° Anon. (1963). Scientific Report of Sanin Kaigan National Park (in Japanese) Hyogo Precture.
° Anon. (1966). Research Report on underwater and sea caves of Hamasaka Kaigan (in
Japanese). Hamandaka-cho. 31 pp., with maps and figures.
° Anon. (1970). Report on Marine Parks in Tottori Prefecture (in Japanese). Tottori
Prefecture. 83 pp., with maps and figures.
° Anon. (1970). Report on Marine Parks in Hyogo Tajimakaigan (in Japanese). Hyogo
Prefecture. 40 pp., with figures.
° Anon. (1970). Scientific Report on the Marine Park in Sanin Kaigan National Park (in
Japanese). Hyogo and Tottori Prefectural Governments.
° IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
Marine Parks Centre (1975). Marine Parks of Japan. Marine Parks Centre of Japan, Tokyo.
Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha Internatioal Ltd.,
Tokyo, Japan.
Date June 1987
Seto-naikai (Inland Sea) National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The national park is located in the inland seas between the islands of
western Honshu, Kyushu and northern Shikoku. It comprises a 400km coastal strip and islands
in the straits of the Marima sea and Iyo sea (from Tokuyama in the west to Naruto, near Kobe,
in the east). The park is located within the Hiroshima, Ehime, Kagawa, Okayama, Wakayama,
Tamaguchi and part of the Hyogo prefectures. 33°16’-34°49’N, 130°57’-135°2VE
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Date and History of Establishment The national park was created on 16 March 1934 and
designated under the Natural Parks Law as a place of scenic beauty. Development is controlled
within the park under Art. 17, 18 and 20 of the Natural Parks Law. The park was enlarged in
1950, 1956 and again in 1963.
Area 62,957ha (370ha SPA). Proposed: 93.3% (58,904ha) multiple-use areas, 6.7% (4,214ha)
wilderness area.
Land Tenure 9,240ha state land, 17,356.6ha public land, 36,521.6ha private land.
Altitude Sea level to 932m
Physical Features The Inland Sea, entered by four straits between Honshu and Shikoku
islands, extends 400km from east to west. It varies in width from 7km to 60km at its widest
point and contains over 600 islands of volcanic origin. The coasts are deeply indented,
geologically composed of granite rounded island hills and white quartz sand beaches. The sea
is blue and clear, its straits and channels noted for rapid tides and whirlpools such as at Naruto
Channel (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate The area is typified by generally mild temperatures ranging from 28°C to 5.8°C;
average annual rainfall is 1147mm.
Vegetation The islands are dominated by coastal forests of black pine Pinus thundergii
forests,interspersed with red pine P. densiflora and Japanese cedar Cryptomeria japonica. The
virgin forest of Mt Misen on Miyajima has red and black pine mixed with Abies firma, Tsuga
sieboldii and some Quercus stenophylla and Symplecos pruniflora. There is also temperate rain
forest of camphor Cinnamomum camphora, oaks Quercus glauca and Q. phylliraeoides, pasania
oak Castanopsis japonica var. sieboldi, Camellia japonica var spontanea, cherry Prunus
yamasakura and maple Acer spp. (IUCN, 1975).
Fauna Mammals in the park include Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata (c. 450) on Miyajima
island, black finless porpoise Neomeris phocaenoides (considered uncommon), wild pig Sus
scrofa leucomystax and Honshu sika Cervus nippon centralis (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and
Britton, 1980). Birds include as winter visitors red throated and pacific divers Gavia stellata
and G. pacifica, and as common summer residents plumed egret Egretta intermedia and
black-headed gull Larus ridibundus sibiricus (IUCN, 1975).
Cultural Heritage The park has been established partly for its scenic beauty and also for its
historical associations. The area has much of historical interest, this having been the main
route by which foreign traders first entered Japan. The area is also important for religious
pilgrimages to such sites as the 12th century floating shrine, and is also renowned for the 12th
century wars between the Minamoro and Taira clans and the 13th century pirate raids
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population Awaji and Shodo are well populated whilst 25% of the other islands
are uninhabited. Traditionally industry was represented by small fisheries but today there is a
dominance of vast ship yards, petro-chemical plants and steel mills. Agriculture is varied and
ranges from mandarin orange groves to terraced rice fields (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB,
1985).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There were an estimated 48.78 million visitors in 1972 (IUCN,
1975). Facilities in the park include hotels, inns, camp and picnic grounds, yacht harbour,
nature trails, visitor centre, aquarium, marine museum and five National Vacation Villages.
There are also cable cars as at Miyaiima. The most popular site in the park is Miyajima isle
with its floating shrine (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities Studies of vegetation have been undertaken by the
Environment Agency (IUCN, 1975).
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Conservation Management The park is largely managed for its scenic and recreational value,
although important wildlife sites exist, such as Kin Kai and Lake Kosima (Scott, in prep.).
Management Problems Heavy industrial zones occur all along the coastline. The area is too
close to major cities to be easily kept free of pollution pressures. Much of the park area
adjoins unprotected industrial areas where chemical effluent and "red tide" pollution is
widespread (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). Further difficulties of management occur through
the extensive and discontinuous nature of the park boundaries.
Staff 25 full-time staff (superintendent and three rangers employed by the Environment
Agency: five officers of the Hiroshima, Yamagushi and Tokushima Prefectural Governments;
14 patrol men of the Hiroshima and Kagawa Prefectural Governments); 15 seasonal staff
(patrol men of Hyogo, Okayama, Yamaguchi, Wakayama, Tokushima and Ehima Prefectural
Governments) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the 1970s the park received a share of the annual allocation of US$700,000
provided by the Environment Agency for National Parks, in addition to US$100,000 per annum
provided by the Prefectural Governments (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Seto-Naikai National Park Headquarters Office, Environmental
Agency, c/o Kojima Branch Office, Kurashiki City, Kojima, Okayama Prefecture. Ranger
Office at Yashima; Ranger Stations at Rokko, Ikuta-ku, Kobe Norosan, Kawajiri Town.
References
° Tonescu, M. and Condurateanu-Fesci, S. (1985). Parcuri si rezervatii naturale pe Glob.
Colectia cristal, Bucuresti.
° IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation in Japan. Environment Agency,
Japan.
° Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN
Cambridge and IWRB Slimbridge.
Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kadunsha International
Ltd., Tokyo.
°
Date June 1987
Shikotsu-Toya National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.14.05 (Manchu-Japanese Mixed Forest)
Geographical Location Located to the south-west of Hokkaido island, west of Sapparo. The
nearest towns are Kutchlan, Noboribetsu and Sobetsu on the banks of Lakes Shikotsu and
Kuttara. Two park outliers also occur, one at Showa Shinzan and the other at Mt. Yotei.
42°29’N, 141°10°E.
Date and History of Establishment The area was designated as a national park on 16 May
1949 under the Natural Parks law. Showa Shinzan was designated a Natural Monument in 1958
and incorporated in the National Park in 1972/73.
Area 98,332ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude c. 0-1843m
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Physical Features The area is a mountainous and lake land landscape dominated by a number
of active volcanoes. Lake Shikotsu, 13km long and 51km wide is encircled by the active Mt.
Eniwa and Mt. Tarumae. The lake is 500m deep. Lake Toya is a caldera lake surrounded by
new volcanoes such as Mt. Usu and Showa Shinzan which have formed since 1910 and 1944
respectively. The spa water at Noboribeton with an output of 20,000 gallons/minute ranges in
temperature from 45-95°C.
Climate Snow occurs in winter, whilst the average minimum temperature for the year is -1°C
(January). Average annual rainfall figures are approximately 1200mm.
Vegetation Lakeside vegetation in the area includes Phragmites communis, Miscanthus
arenicola, Trapa natans, Scirpus lacustris and Nuphar japonicum (Scott, in prep.). The new
volcanic mountains are devoid of vegetation but their foothills are clothed in woodland of
fir Abies, maple Acer, oak Quercus and azalea Rhododendron. Mt Yotei has more than 260
varieties of alpine plants on its slopes (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Fauna’ The entire region is favourable for migratory water birds, such as at Lake Shikotsu,
and include numerous white-fronted geese Anser albifrons, been goose Anser fabulis and
whooper swan Cygnus cygnus (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Scott, in prep.). Introduced fish
include carp Cyprinus carpio, salmon trout Salmo sp., bullhead Cottidae and
crayfish Decapoda, all of which have been stocked in Lake Shikotsu since 1900 (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No information
Visitors and Visitor Facilities In the 1970s more than 12 million tourists visited the park
annually (NCB, 1985). The chief attractions are the active volcanoes but there are also
numerous hot spring spas, skiing facilities, climbing, angling and hiking activities and boat
excursions. There is a forest museum and arboretum at Nakanoshima. Accommodation
includes hotels, Japanese styled inns and camping facilities (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The park was established to become a major tourist and
recreational area for Hokkaido. Management is largely orientated towards visitor control and
protection of the landscape.
Management Problems No information
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References : F
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan,
Environment Agency, Tokyo. / .
° Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co. California.
° Scott, D.A. and Carbonell (1986). A Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. YUCN Cambridge
and IWRB Slimbridge.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks in Japan, Kodansha Internation Ltd.,
Tokyo.
Date July 1987
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Japan
Shiretoko National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.14.05 (Manchu-Japanese Mixed Forest)
Geographical Location The park is situated on the north-east corner of Hokkaido, extending
from Utoro and Rausu to cover all the peninsular eastwards to Cape Shiretoko (40km_ long).
44°04’N, 145°12’E.
Date and History of Establishment The national park was created on 1 June 1964 under the
Natural Parks law. Development within the park is controlled under Articles 17, 18 and 20.
Area 38,633ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 0-1,661m
Physical Features The rugged terrain of the Shiretoko park peninsula ranges from volcanic
peaks to the upthrust coastal cliffs at Cape Shiretoko which drop 200m to the Okhotsk sea.
The Shiretoko, Io and Rausu volcanic mountains form part of the Chishima volcanic zone,
which runs through the Kurile archipelago to the centre of Hokkaido. Only Mount Io (1,563m)
is active and records indicate that it erupts once every 60 years; most recent eruptions being in
1936. The coastal cliffs originated from molten lava spreading in sills through submerged
sedimentary rocks; then volcanic activity beneath the ocean flow pushed the rock up to its
present height. The volcanic plateaus between Shiretoko’s mountain spine and its cliffs are
located in natural hollows in the lava bed laid down 600,000 years ago. Narrow rivers, whose
sources are in the local mountain ranges, fall in cascades over the cliff faces (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980; Robinson, 1987).
Climate Mean annual temperatures of 6°C have been recorded with a mean minimum of
-1°C. Precipitation averages 1200mm per year. Winter snows are deep.
Vegetation The woodlands include primaeval habitats of birch Betula, spruce Picea,
oak Quercus and silver fur Abies. Cliff vegetation includes Hokkaido azalea Rhododendron sp.,
irises [ris sp., angelica Angelica sp. (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). The Shiretoko sumire Viola
sp. is unique to Mount Io. The lake-marsh vegetation includes spatterdock, buckbean and
skunk cabbage (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Fauna Mammals include fox Vulpes, deer Cervus nippon, hare and brown bear Selenarctos
thibetanus (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). Sea bird colonies abound and include Temminck’s
cormorant, Phalacrocorax filamentosus, black-tailed gull Larus crassirostris and common
guillemot Uria aalge. There are also rare white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla and large
numbers of wintering Steller’s sea eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus (between a few hundred to 2,000)
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980; for species lists see Robinson, 1987). The river estuaries are
haunts for salmon and trout.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population No real permanent habitations are found in the Park. Seasonal huts
are occupied on the fore-shore for the annual Giant Kelp harvesting season (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The area remains one of the least frequented and most remote
parks in Japan. There is no tourist accommodation in the Park and only a few roads are
available for visitor use. Accommodation is available at nearby Rausu and Utoro. Roads and
tracks only cover 1/8 of the Park, entering 25km into the Park from Rausu and Utoro. The
main attractions are the hot springs on the coast, the tourist boat trips and cruises around the
peninsula, and visits to the Kamuiwakka falls (Robinson, 1987).
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Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The legislatin states that the park has been created to protect the
landscape of the region. At present recreation is restricted to outdoor activities.
Management Problems Currently the park is one of the least developed in Japan and _ unless
adequately controlled may be damaged by the increasing number of tourists (Robinson, 1987).
Staff Rangers are present at Rausu (Sutherland and Britton, 1987).
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
° Robinson, J.W. (1987). A birder’s guide to Japan. Ibis Publishing Co. California.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks in Japan. ‘Kodanshi International
Ltd., Tokyo.
Date July 1987
Towada-Hachimaniai National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.15.05 (Oriental Deciduous Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located in northern Honshu island between Sendai and
Aomari. It lies 60km due south of Aomori. The nearest large towns are Hirosaki, Towada-shi
and Morioka. The park consists of two separate areas, the northern sector around the caldera
lake Towada and 50km south the southern park of the Hachimantai highlands... The park is
found in Aomori, Akita and Iwate prefectures. 40°34’N, 140°28’E.
Date and History of Establishment The park was created on | February 1936. The southern
sector was added to the park in 1956.
Area 85,409ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude Up to 2,041m
Physical Features The park is situated in the mountainous area of Tohoku. The northern
sector includes the rolling volcanic plateau of Hakkoda, the highest peak being 1,585m. Its
southern limit is bounded by the Oirase river and gorge which feed the caldera lake Towada
(40km in circumference and 300m deep). The Hachimantai highlands have several craggy
peaks and a number of hot springs and boiling "mud-pots" (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Snow is not uncommon in winter and mean minimum temperatures for the year are
in the region of -1°C. Precipitation averages 1200mm per year.
Vegetation The lowland woodland is characterised by extensive beech Fagus forests, mixed
with pine Pinus sp. (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). At higher altitudes are open vegetation
habitats of alpine species. (Sutherland and Britton, 1980)
Fauna No information
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Japan
Cultural Heritage The Tohuku culture and the local festivals preserve dances, costumes and
ceremonies long forgotten in other parts of Japan (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The population is mainly below the mountain park but small
settlements cling to the shallower slopes. Many of the local people are engaged in cottage
industries, such as cape making and lacquerwork. Local agriculture includes rice paddies and
apple orchards. Forestry occurs on the higher slopes of the mountain (Sutherland and Britton,
1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Most tourist amenities are centred around Lake Towada.
Accommodation includes hotels, inns, lodging houses and hot-spring spas. Activities include
visits to trout hatcheries, hikin , angling and climbing, and pleasure boat trips on Lake
Towada. The winter ski sports are renowned (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The park authorities manage the combination of natural and
man-made landscapes and encourage smaller craft industries.
Management Problems Commercial tree felling is of some concern (Sutherland and Britton,
1980).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Japan.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Japan.
Date July 1987
Unzen-Amakusa National Park
(including the Tomioka, Amakusa and Ushibuka marine park areas)
Management Category V (Protected landscape)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located on the north-west coast of Kyushu Island in the
Unzen area of Shimabara peninsula. It consists of three separate parts, that of Mount Unzen
and the 120 islands of Amakusa archipelaga (only parts of Shimo and Kami _ Islands).
32°40’-32°49’N, 130°10’-130°22’E; Amakusa area: 32°08’-32°36’N, 130°02’-130°28’E. Tomioka
MPA: 32°CI1’N, 130°01’E; Amakusa MPA 32°20’N, 129°58’E and Ushibuka MPA 32°09’N,
130°03’E.
Date and History of Establishment The Unzen area was created as a National Park on 16
March 1934: designated under the Natural Parks Law. The coasts of the Amakusa islands were
added in 1956. The Marine Park Areas were established on 1 July 1970. The park is
essentially a place of scenic beauty protected as National Park; development is controlled under
Art. 17, 18, 18-2 and 20, Natural Parks La). Special protection is afforded to four families, six
species of fish; five genera and 16 species of invertebrate Anthozoa; two genera and four
species of seaweed.
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Area 25,496.2ha (MPAs 51.7ha; SPA 608ha). Two zones are proposed: 96% (24,606.5ha)
multiple-use areas, 4% (1,058.7ha) wilderness areas.
Land Tenure 8,706ha state land, 4,053 public land, 12,906ha private land.
Altitude Sea level to 1,360m (maximum depth of MPAs 20m)
Physical Features The park consists of Mt. Unzen (1,360m) an extinct tholoid volcano with 4
peaks over 1,000m. Hot springs are located throughout the area and there are also lakes and
waterfalls on the mountain slopes. The Amakusa archipelago consists of indented coasts and
outlying stacks. The islands are steep and rocky with boulder, shingle, sand and mud beaches.
Tomioka is on the west of the famous "land-tide" island Tombro, and throughout the narrow
straits of the Yatsushiro sea is the distinctive marine luminescence, the Shiranui. The Tsushima
current (a branch of the Kuroshio) gives a sub-tropical aspect to the archipelago with its
populations of corals (IUCN, 1975; Marine Parks Centre, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Climate Temperatures at Mt. Unzen range from between 23.7°C (August) and 1.5°C
(January); there is a recorded 3030mm of annual precipitation. In Tombro temperatures are
higher than at Unzen, ranging from 27.9°C (August) to 7.8°C (January), and an annual average
rainfall of 2069mm.
Vegetation At low altitude Unzen possesses palaearctic forests of red pine Pinus densiflora
and azalea Rhododendron kaempferi (6,000ha), as well as plantations of Chamaecyparis obtusa,
Cryptomeria japonica, Pinus densiflora and P. thunbergii, (5,000ha) (IUCN, 1975) Large stands
of azalea Rhododendron sp. cover the mountain sides and plateau such as at Ikenohara. At high
altitudes on the Nita pass, are deciduous forests (1,300ha) consisting of dogwood Cornus kousa,
Acer sieboldianum, Ilex crenata and Rhododendron kiusianum (IUCN, 1975). Marsh habitats at
Genseinuma, near the pass to Mount Kinugasa, are haven for a protected "natural monument"
species of Iris (IUCN, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980). The Amakusa archipelago is
forested mainly by oaks Castanopsis cuspidata var. sieboldii, Quercus glauca and Q. serrata.
The presence of Albizzia glabrior is of biogeographical interest. The marine flora comprises
meadows of Sargassum spp, Ecklonia kurome and Undaria pinnatifida, with Martensia
denticulata, Amphiroa dilatata and Corallina pilulifera (Marine Park Centre, 1975).
Fauna One of the few larger mammals of the Unzen sector include deer Cervus nippon nippon
(Sutherland and Britton, 1980). Many birds migrate in spring to the region from the south.
Birds include breeding populations of mandarin duck Aix galericulata and blue-winged
pitta Pitta brachyura, grebes Podiceps caspicus and P. cristatus, and also shelduck Tadorna
tadorna (IUCN, 1975; NCB, 1985). The area is also noted for an endemic insect Epaphiopsis
unzenensis). The marine fauna includes sub-tropical fish such as Pomacentrus coelistis,
Chaetodon collare, Thalassoma cupido and Ostracionidae. Schleractinian and alcyonarian corals
include Acropora spp., Montipora cactus, Pocillopora domicornis, Favia speciosa, and Nepthea
chabrolii. Ushibuka marine park has especially well deveoped Antipathea japonica,
Parasicyonis actinostoloides, Melithaea flabellifera and Anthoplexaura dimorpha (Marine Park
Centre, 1975).
Cultural Heritage The area is extremely rich in historical associations and is believed to be
the cradle for the Buddhist culture in Japan (at Hachijuhachikasho). The area has strong
association with the early Christians of the 17th century. During the persecution period
Christians were thrown into the boiling hot waters of the Unzen spa and at nearby Shimabara
Castle (now a history museum) - 35,000 people were massacred. On the Amakusa islands the
local population largely kept their Kakure kirishitan hidden Christian traditions up to when
Christianity became legal in 1905 (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The local economy is based on fishing, tea and rice agriculture and
tourism. Fisheries are especially important at the port of Ushibuka on Shimo island. Also
within the park area are the Miike coalfields, the largest in Japan (Sutherland and Britton,
1980).
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Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park received 10.24 million visitors in 1972 with 150,000
visitors to the Marine Parks (IUCN, 1975; Marine Parks Centre, 1975). Facilities include
hotels, inns, camp and picnic grounds, golf courses and nature trails. A major scenic route
passes through the area. Hot spring baths and spas abound in the region of Unzen. The town
is also rich in museums and numerous other recreational activities including a National
Vacation Village. Access to the park is good and cable cars service Mt. Fugen. The Amakusa
archipelago was first opened up to tourism in the 1960s with the construction of a series of
bridges to the mainland. It is now a popular tourist resort and possesses a number of
glass-bottomed boats, ferries and sightseeing boats (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; Marine Parks
Centre, 1975).
Scientific Research and Facilities In 1968 a survey of Marine Park Areas was undertaken,
followed in 1973 by the Environmental Agency’s vegetation study (IUCN, 1975). A
meteorological observatory is located on Mount Kinugusa (Myoken).
Conservation Management Unzen and Banff National Park in Canada have established a
"sister park" relationship since May 1976.
Management Problems There is no freshwater drainage from the land to the sea. The
Amakusa islands have long been protected by their remoteness, but in 1966 all was changed
when the five Amakusa-Kyushu bridges were built to join the archipelago to the mainland.
Subsequently tourism, industry and other developments have been extensive. Major threats to
the area include coalfields, chemical and other industrial complexes, notably from the nitrogen
fixation industry of Minamata (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Staff Total of eight staff (a ranger of the Environmental Agency: three officers of the
Nagasaki Prefectural Government; four patrol men Nagasaki and Kumamoto Prefectural
Governments) (IUCN, 1975).
Budget In the 1970s the park received a share of the annual allocation by the Environment
Agency to National Parks (US$700,000); US$40,000 annually received from Nagasaki and
Kumamoto Prefectural Governments (IUCN, 1975).
Local Administration Unzen Park Administrative Office, Nagasaki Prefecture, Unzen Hot
Spring, Obama, Nagasaki (Ranger Office, Environmental Agency also at Obama).
References
° Anon. (1968). Scientific Report on the Marine Park in Unzen-Amakusa National Park. (In
Japenese) Kumamotot Prefecture.
° Anon. (1969). Scientific Report on Marine Parks in Kumamoto Prefecture. Marine Parks
Centre of Japan. 86 pp., with figures and maps.
IUCN (1975). World Directory of National Parks and other protected areas. YUCN, Gland,
Switzerland
Marine Parks Centre (1975). Marine Parks of Japan. Marine Parks Centre of Japan, Tokyo.
Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodangha Internatioal Ltd.,
Tokyo, Japan.
° Unzen Tourist Association (n.d.). National Park UNZEN. Unzen Trust Association,
Nagasaki, Japan.
°
°
°
Date June 1987
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Japan
Yoshino-Kumano National Park
(including the proposed Kumanada-Nikijima and Kushimoto Marine Parks
and Mt. Odaigahara and Mt. Omine Biosphere Reserve)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape) IX (Biosphere Reserve)
Biogeographical Province 2.02.02 (Japanese Evergreen Forest)
Geographical Location The park is located in the central part of Kii Peninsula of Honshu
Island and includes the Omine mountain ridge, Mount Odaigahara and Osugi Valley, 12km NW
of Owase. The park extends as a narrow 80km strip along the coast from Kushimoto in the
south to Owase in the north, thence inland following the Kumano-Kitayama river (Doro gorge)
to Mount Omine, Mount Odaigahara and Mount Shaka. A small outlier of Mount Yoshino is
situated about 5km to the north of the main Park boundary. The Park is located in Yoshino and
Kumano districts. 34°10’N, 136°O’E.
Date and History of Establishment The whole area was created under the National Parks Law
of 1 February 1936. The Special Protected Area of the National Park, which the National
Government bought from private owners to put under its protective administration, is
designated as the "core area". The Special Area and Ordinary Areas of the park constitute a
"buffer zone" where timber production is permitted to different extent depending on the
condition of the area.
Area 58,546ha, of which 1,000ha is within the "core area". The Marine Parks total 14.4ha and
39.2ha (the Biosphere Reserve makes up 36,000ha).
Land Tenure’ The state owns 20% of the area; 20% is public land and 60% is in private
ownership.
Altitude 200-1,915m
Physical Features The park consists of a diversity of terrains ranging from mountains,
riverine gorges and coastal habitats. The steep-sloped mountains in the region of Mt. Omine
range from 1,695 to 1,800m, and a 700ha plateau occurs at the top of Mt. Odaigahara
(1,695m). There is evidence of extensive mountain upheaval and erosion. Cliffs of 800m
consist of gray wacke, sandstones, shales, tuff-like hornstones, chert and green tuff of the
Paleozoic and Mesozoic periods (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). The Osugi Valley is
characterised by deep V-shape valleys, deep gorges and waterfalls, such as the 130m Nachi. A
number of hot water springs exist along the Kumano River (Sutherland and Britton, 1980;
Marine Parks Centre, 1975).
Climate This area has the most rainfall in Japan. At Odaigahara annual precipitation amounts
to 4700mm (maximum in August). In 1923 one day of rainfall amounted to a record 1011mm.
The mean monthly temperature is 5.1°C in January and 17.3°C in July.
Vegetation The vegetation of the park ranges from virgin forest to seashore vegetation and
cliff flora. The mountains are typified by a narrow vertical zonation ranging from warm
temperate communities in the foothills to sub-alpine virgin forests at the highest altitudes.
Fir Abies veitchii is found in association with Magnolia sieboldii in the sub-alpine zone. Other
evergreen communities include Pseudotsuga japonica, Sciadopitys verticillata and Picea
Jezoensis hondoensis. Chasmophytic vegetation includes Sciadopitys verticillata
and Rhododendron quinquefolium (Sutherland and Britton, 1980; NCB, 1985).
Fauna The park is rich in larger mammals including serow Capricornis crispus, deer Cervus
nippon, and bear Selenarctos thibetanus (Sutherland and Britton, 1980). Monkey Macaca
fuscata is found in large numbers around Yakushima Island (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
There are records of more than 60 species of breeding bird (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Characteristic warm water species include Hynobius boulengeri. Also found in the area
is Salvelinus pluvius, characteristic of the cool water areas further north in Japan (this is its
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most southern distribution). Within the park areas there are off-shore reefs of table
coral Dendronephthya habereri, Platygyra lamellina and Favia speciosa (Marine Parks Centre,
1975). Fish include Goniistius zonatus, Apogon semilineatus and Ditrema temminki (Marine
Parks Centre, 1975).
Cultural Heritage The mountains of the Park have long been refuge for persecuted people.
In 1185 Minamoto no Yorishitsune sought refuge here from his shogun brother. Thence in the
14th century the Emperor Go-Daigo hid here during civil unrest (Sutherland and Britton,
1980). In Kumano are a number of early shrines to the deities of nature. The area has taken
on great significance as both a Shinto and Buddhist holy place. Mt. Omine is too sacred to
permit women. Pilgrims have been coming here for centuries, such as to the Yunomine
medieval springs since AD 90. A boat festival in mid October commemorates just one of the
gods of the region. Another festival at the Nachi waterfall shrine is dedicated to one of the
main Shinto gods, Okuninushi no Mikato (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Local Human Population The area has for centuries been sparsely populated (Sutherland and
Britton, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Annually about 100,000 people visited the Park for recreational
purposes in the mid 1970s (National Park Association, 1974). Lodges and hotels (total capacity
500 people) exist within the Park, but few other facilities. Even access to the Omine
mountains is extremely limited. Rock climbing is the main activity apart from visits to the
numerous Shinto shrines. Boat trips are available on the Kumano River and at Kushimoto
there are glass bottom boats, an underwater observation tower and aquarium (Marine Parks
Centre, 1975; Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Scientific Research and Facilities The JIBP-CT(P) Committee of Japan was set up to classify
plant communities and establish a basic theory on their protection. With the results it selected
areas and supplementary sites for investigation (designated Mt. Odaigahara as a supplementary
area for interdisciplinarily investigations on the IBP programmes). Meteorological observation
started in 1898 when the observatory was established. Today there is an automatic robot
observatory on the top of Mt. Odaigahara.
Conservation Management’ The park has been established to protect the landscape. Currently
the majority of the countryside is unspoilt natural habitats. Timber extraction and tourism are
encouraged.
Management Problems’ The construction of a toll road to Odaigaha in the park core area in
1961 has increased tourist pressure on the environment. A change in vegetation structure has
already been noted. Access has also led to increased timber extraction which is permitted in all
areas, except the Omine ridge (Nature Conservation Bureau, 1985). The construction of dams
and man-made reservoirs in Osugi valley has resulted in concern for the effects upon the Park
river systems and their drainage patterns (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Staff One official is assigned for area protection (Sutherland and Britton, 1980).
Budget 820,000 Yen was appropriated for the 1978 fiscal year, largely for administration.
Local Administration Mount Yoshinoyama Ranger Office, Yoshino-Kumano National Park,
2,673-1 Yoshinoyama, Yoshino-cho, Yoshino-gun, Nara Prefecture, 639-31.
Yoshino-Kumano National Park Office, 6521 Shingu, Shingu City, Wakayama Prefecture, 647.
References
°* Marine Parks Centre (1975). Marine Parks of Japan. Marine Parks Centre of Japan, Tokyo.
° National Park Association (1974). Report of the Scientific Investigation of Omine Area in
Yoshino-Kumano National Park. Japan National Park Association, Tokyo.
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° Nature Conservation Bureau (1985). Nature Conservation Administration in Japan.
Environment Agency, Tokyo.
° Sutherland, M. and Britton, D. (1980). National Parks of Japan. Kodansha International
Ltd., Tokyo.
Date June 1987
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PAKISTAN
Area 803,941 sq.km
Population 84,250,000 (1981)
Parks and Reserves Legislation Efforts to conserve wildlife and protect nature in Pakistan go
back over a hundred years when early rulers first created game preserves to ensure viable
populations of game species for hunting. The first written legislation that directly benefitted
wildlife were the rules and regulations formulated in Sind under the Indian Forest Act in 1887
and later compiled under the name of Bombay Forest Manual. Under this legislation, forests
were protected from grazing by livestock but hunting was not legally controlled. Hunting and
other forms of resource exploitation were subsequently controlled within areas declared as
reserved or protected forests under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, the title of which was changed
to Pakistan Forest Act, 1927 following Pakistan’s adoption of the act after partition in 1947. In
practice, however, commercial forestry interests received preference over conservation needs
(Ferguson, 1978; Rau, 1984).
Wildlife conservation legislation inherited from British India was superceded by the now
obsolete West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1959 and the West Pakistan Wildlife
Protection Rules, 1960 issued under that ordinance. Apart from prohibiting the killing of
certain species of fauna, this legislation made provision for the declaration of game sanctuaries,
in which hunting was prohibited, and game reserves, in which hunting was controlled under
license, but did not protect the habitat against settlement, cultivation, grazing and other forms
of exploitation. Furthermore, both the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance and the
Pakistan Forest Act applied only to the settled areas of Pakistan (i.e. the flood plains of the
Kabul and Indus rivers and all the land to the east of them); neither were applicable to the
Special/Tribal Areas, which constitute most of mountainous half of the country to the west of
the Indus and in which most of Pakistan’s remaining wildlife is found (Grimwood, 1969).
A Wildlife Enquiry Committee was set up in 1968 to review the existing legislaton, based on
recommendations resulting from wildlife surveys carried out by World Wildlife Fund
(Mountfort and Poore, 1967, 1968). Draft legislation prepared by this committee (Government
of Pakistan, 1971) has been adopted, with minor modifications, at provinical level through the
provision of various acts and an ordinance, namely: Sind Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1972,
Punjab Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management) Act, 1974,
Baluchistan Wildlife Protection Act, 1974, North-West Frontier Province Wildlife (Protection,
Preservation, Conservation and Management) Act, 1975. Separate laws were passed for the
Northern Areas, Azad State of Jammu and Kashmir and Federal Capital Territory of
Islamabad. These are the Northern Areas Wildife Preservation Act, 1975, Azad Jammu and
Kashmir Wildlife Act, 1975 and the Islamabad Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation
and Management) Ordinance, 1979 (Rau, 1984). This is the first time in the history of
Pakistan’s wildlife legislation that an attempt has been made to conserve habitat (although
limited to protected areas) and species other than game species. All of these statutes provide
for the creation and management of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries (synonymous with
wildlife reserves in the Northern Areas Act), game reserves (synonymous with controlled
hunting areas in the Northern Areas Act) and, in the case of the Punjab, NWFP and Islamabad
legislation, private game reserves. A national park is a comparatively large area of outstanding
scenic merit and natural interest, wherein the primary objective is to protect the landscape,
flora and fauna in its natural state and to which the public are allowed access for purposes of
recreation, education and research. A wildlife sanctuary is an area set aside as undisturbed
breeding ground, primarily for the protection of all natural resources, to which public access is
prohibited or regulated. Whereas settlement and grazing by domestic livestock is allowed in
national parks (see Grimwood, 1972, for a discussion of the implications arising from this
aspect of the legislation), such activities are prohibited within wildlife sanctuaries. A game
reserve is an area wherein controlled hunting and shooting is permitted on a permit basis. A
private game reserve, of which there is none at present, is an area of private land set aside by
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Pakistan
its owner for the same purpose as a game reserve. Parts of areas protected under some statutes
may be denotified under pressure for agricultural extension or land development (Government
of Pakistan, 1971; Rao, 1984; Khan and Hussain, 1985).
The recent enactment of the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance, 1983 affords
protection to all forms of life and provides for the control of pollution and use of fertilizers
and pesticides. Rao (1984) provides a full review of the wildlife legislation.
Pakistan ratified both the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as
Waterfowl Habitat on 23 July 1976. It also participates in Unesco’s Man and the Biosphere
Programme and the South Asian Cooperative Environmental Programme.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management Originally, the Game Department was
responsible for administering the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance up until 1967,
when it was absorbed into the Forest Department (Grimwood, 1969). Following the
recommendations of the Wildlife Enquiry Committee (Government of Pakistan, 1971), a
National Council for Conservation of Wildlife was established on 7 July 1974 within the Forest
Department, under the chairmanship of the Minister of Agriculture, Food and Cooperatives, to
co-ordinate central and provincial government effort in the formulation and implementation of
wildlife policies. The Inspector General of Forests is assisted by a Deputy Conservator of
Forests (Parks and Wildlife), who acts as an adviser on wildlife but the actual management of
wildlife is handled by the provincial forest (wildlife) departments. Sind, Punjab and Azad
State of Jammu and Kashmir have separate wildlife departments but in North-West Frontier
Province, Baluchistan and Northern Areas wildlife is administered by branches of the
respective forest departments. In general, forest staff look after wildlife in reserved or
protected forests while wildife staff are concerned with protecting wildlife in other protected
areas and elsewhere. Within the Capital Territory of Islamabad, the Directorate of Horticulture
is responsible for the administration of protected areas. In addition, legal provision has been
made for the creation of a wildlife management board, to approve wildlife policies and monitor
development activities, in Punjab, Sind, North-West Frontier Province and Islamabad. Only
Sind has an effectively operating wildlife management board, which is considerred to be the
most progressive wildlife organization in Pakistan. Boards exist in Baluchistan, Azad State of
Jammu and Kashmir and Northern Areas but only in an advisory capacity. Provision has been
made for the appointment of honorary officers to help implement wildlife legislation in all
areas except Baluchistan and Islamabad. The idea was introduced first on Sind in the 1970s
and has since been adopted in Punjab and ? Azad State of Jammu and Kashmir, with the
appointment of local dignitaries as honorary game wardens invested with considerable legal
power to help enforce the law within protected areas (Ferguson, 1978; National Council of
Conservation of Wildlife, 1978; Roberts, 1983; Rao, 1984).
Addresses National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and
Cooperatives, 485 Street 84, G-6/4 Islamabad
Additional Information Most of Pakistan’s remaining wildlife is to be found in the
mountainous country west of the Indus, where human pressure has not been as great as in the
plains. The two regions of outstanding importance are the Himalayan and Karakoram massifs
in the extreme north and the desert in the south-west of the country (Grimwood, 1969). Major
irrigation systems, built to tap the water resources of the Indus and all of its tributaries to meet
the demands of an increasing human populations, have resulted in the disappearance of
extensive tracts of the original tropical thorn scrub, riverine swamp and forest in the plains
(Roberts, 1977). Currently, only 2.7% of the country is forested (Mackinnon and Mackinnon,
1986). By contrast, in the west, where much more wildlife habitat remains, forests cover 11.8%
of the land in North-West Frontier Province (Nawaz, 1985).
In 1966, the Government of Pakistan invited World Wildlife Fund to assess the wildlife
situation in the country and recommend measures to arrest the deterioration (see Mountfort and
Poore, 1967, 1968). Subsequently, between 1968 and 1971, various assistance was received
from the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, which latterly included
the appointment of an adviser to the Wildlife Enquiry Committee (see Grimwood, 1969, 1972).
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Pakistan
In December 1983, an Environmental Council was created by presidential order and given the
responsibility of preparing an environmental strategy for the country. At the same, IUCN
initiated the development of a conservation strategy (Halle and Johnson, 1984).
The principal non-governmental organization involved with conservation is World Wildlife
Fund - Pakistan. The World Pheasant Association (Pakistan) promotes research and
management projects in pheasants.
Pakistan’s sixth Five Year Plan is currently based too exclusively on economic criteria and does
not give sufficient recognition to the management of natural resources (Halle and Johnson,
1984). Weak enforcement of the law is an overall constraint but also safeguards against habitat
degradation within protected areas are inadequate. Protected areas have been created
haphazardly, in the absence of any criteria for their selection, and boundaries are drawn
without any ecological basis. Emphasis on the management of national parks has been given to
the development of recreation facilities for tourists rather than nature conservation, as in the
case of Lal Suhanra and Margalla Hills national parks. Protected and reserves forests continue
to be managed under forest working plans after being designated national parks or wildlife
sanctuaries, thereby undermining the purpose of their renotification. Hunting in game reserves
is not controlled on a sustained yield basis but permits are issued arbitrarily and subject to local
influence (Rao, 1974). The Government of Punjab, however, has recently restricted the
number of shoots under an ammendment to the Punjab Wildlife Act, (Khan and Hussain,
1985). Management categories need to be modified (see Grimwood, 1972), perhaps by the
introduction of nature reserves and country parks to replace wildlife sanctuaries (Rao, 1984).
References
° Ferguson, D.A. (1978). Protection, conservation, and management of threatened and
endangered species in Pakistan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington D.C.
Unpublished report. 62 pp.
Government of Pakistan (1971). Summary of Wildlife Enquiry Committee Report. Printing
Corporation of Pakistan Press, Islamabad. 44 pp.
° Grimwood, I.R. (1969). Wildlife conservation in Pakistan. Pakistan National Forestry
Research and Training Project Report No. 17. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 31 pp.
° Grimwood, I.R. (1972). Wildlife conservation and management Report No. TA 3077. FAO,
Rome. 58 pp.
Halle, M. and Johnson, B. (1984). A national conservation strategy for Pakistan: first steps.
Conservation for Development Centre, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished report.
36 pp.
° Khan, A. and Hussain, M. (1985). Development of protected area system in Pakistan in
terms of representative coverage of ecotypes. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia’s
natural heritage. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 60-68.
° MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1987). Review of the protected areas system in the
Indomalayan realm. T1UCN/UNEP.
° Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1967). The conservation of wildlife in Pakistan. World
Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 27 pp.
° Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition
to Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 25 pp.
° National Council for Conservation of Wildlife (1978). Wildlife conservation strategy:
Pakistan. National Council for the Conservation of Wildlife. Islamabad, Pakistan.
Unpublished report. 73 pp.
° Nawaz, M. (1985). National parks and reserves for Pakistan’s North West Frontier
Province. Parks 10(1): 6-7.
° Rao, A.L. (1984). A review of wildlife legislation in Pakistan. MSc. thesis, University of
Edinburgh. 66 pp.
Roberts, T.J. (1977). The mammals of Pakistan. Ernest Benn, London. 361 pp.
° Roberts, T.J. (1983). Problems in developing a national wildlife policy and in creating
effective natural parks and sanctuaries in Pakistan. Paper presented at Bombay Natural
History Society Centenary Seminar. Powai, Bombay. December 1983. 9 pp.
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Pakistan
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
National Parks
Margalla Hills 14,786 *
Margalla Hills National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest)
Geographical Location Comprises the hill ranges immediately north of the Federal Capital of
Islamabad. 33°48’N, 73°10°’E.
Date and History of Establishment 1980. Prior to 1960, much of the area was reserved
forest. Subsequently, it was declared a wildlife sanctuary under the West Pakistan Wildlife
Protection Ordinance, 1959.
Area 14,786ha
Land Tenure’ Federal government. Land transferred to Capital Development Authority in
1961, when Islamabad was declared the capital of Pakistan, includes 4,794ha reserved forest,
3,315ha managed by the Military Farm Authorities and 3,636ha privately owned (Masud, 1979).
Altitude Ranges between 456m and 1,580m
Physical Features The topography is rugged, with numerous valleys and many steep and even
precipitous slopes. The area is drained by the River Kurang and its tributaries, which flow
into the River Soan. Rocks are Jurassic and Triassic in age, limestone being characteristic of
the Margalla Range (though shales, clays and sandstones are also present). Soils are dark, with
a high mineral content, and are capable of supporting good tree growth despite being shallow.
Lying in the monsoon belt, the area experiences two rainy seasons. Winter rains last from
January until March and summer rains from July until September. Climatic data are available
from 1951 to 1965 for Rawalpindi, where the mean annual rainfall is 951mm and mean
monthly maximum and minimum temperatures range from 16.9°C to 40.1°C and from 3.1°C to
24.7°C, respectively (Masud, 1979).
Climate No information
Vegetation The two distinct types of vegetation are subtropical dry semi-evergreen forest and
subtropical pine forest. The former is dominated by phulai Acacia modesta and kao Olea
cuspidata, associated with sanatha Dodonaea viscosa, granda Carissa spinarum and
ber Zizyphus jujuba, and having an undergrowth of bhekar Adhatoda vasica, gunger Sageratia
appositifolia, mullah Zizyphus nummularia and khokhal Myrsine africana. About 50 species of
grass are present, the most common being dhauloo, palwan, survala, maniara and loonder
(Chrysopogon montanus, Andropogon pertusus, Heteropogon contortus, Pennisetum orientale
and Themeda anathena anthisteria). Introduced ornamental tree species include: silver oak,
gulenishtar, jackaranda, bottle brush, amaltas, sakar, chir (Grevillea robusta, Erythrina suberosa,
Jacaranda mimosoefolia, Sterculia diversifolia, Cassia fistula, Ehretia laevis, Pinus roxburghit),
Cassia glauca, Porgania glabra and Eucalyptus sp.. Subtropical pine forest occurs above
1,000m, chir pine Pinus roxburghii being the characteristic canopy species with an undergrowth
of Myrsine africana, Woodfordia floribunda, Berberis lycium and granda Carissa spinarum.
Forests are well-stocked on cooler aspects but those on the hotter southern slopes with poor
soils are sparse and mixed with scrub.
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Pakistan
Fauna Margalla Hills are unique in Pakistan, being rich in Sinohimalayan fauna, some species
(especially birds) of which are at the western extremity of their distribution. Larger mammals
are known to include rhesus macaque, leopard, wild boar, Indian muntjac and goral (Macaca
mulatta, Panthera pardus (V), Sus scrofa, Munitacus muntjak and Nemorhaedus goral).
Noteworthy birds include white-eyed buzzard, lannar falcon, black-shouldered kite, kalij
pheasant, black partridge, sirkeer cuckoo, jungle nightjar, long-tailed nightjar, lesser
golden-backed woodpecker and lanceolated jay (Butastur teesa, Falco biarmicus, Elanus
caeruleus, Lophura leucomelana, Francolinus francolinus, Taccocua leschenaultii, Caprimulgus
indicus, C. macrurus, Dinopium benghalense and Garrulus lanceolatus). A list of mammals and
birds believed to be found in the park is given in the master plan (Masud, 1979). Cheer
pheasant Catreus wallichi, reared at Dhok Jewan and Jabri, are being released into the park.
The reintroduction programme is being carried out by the World Pheasant Association in
collaboration with the Capital Development Authority (Howman, 1985).
Cultural Heritage There are a number of historical and religious sites but their importance
needs to be evaluated.
Local Human Population There are over a dozen villages within the park. In addition, the
residents of Phulgran retain traditional rights to graze cattle in compartments | & 6 of Margalla
Reserved Forest (Masud, 1979). Some farming families have been resettled (Roberts, 1984).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Large numbers of residents of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, as
well as foreigners, visit the park due to its proximity to the capital. A visitor centre is planned
for Daman-E-Koh, providing lounge accommodation and an information service. Lodges,
camping grounds and picnic sites are also planned and the provision of a chair lift may be
considered.
Scientific Research and Facilities The wildlife was surveyed in December 1977 by WWF in
collaboration with the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife.
Conservation Management In its report of 1971, the Wildlife Enquiry Committee
recommended that the park should be established in the interests of the people of Islamabad.
Specific objectives outlined in the master plan (Masud, 1979) include restoring the vegetation
and wildlife to its previous condition, stopping erosion, conserving the water supply and
meeting the increased demand for outdoor recreation through the development of proper
visitor facilities. A system of zonation, based on areas of varying intensities of visitor use, has
been proposed to facilitate management. This includes a 3,100ha enclosure, for captive
breeding and reintroduction purposes, and wilderness areas (comprising 70% of the park area),
in which development is permitted. It is proposed that the park be surrounded by a buffer
zone of 8km, in which shooting is prohibited. Rawal Lake has been recommended for
inclusion within the park.
Management Problems Being adjacent to Islamabad, the park is subject to a very high level of
use by visitors. There is illegal grazing by the livestock of local inhabitants, who have not
vacated the area despite being paid compensation. Large scale planting of ornamental trees has
been undertaken by the Horticulture Directorate (Masud, 1979).
Staff Park director, four park rangers, 20 park watchers and four other staff proposed in
1979.
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
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Pakistan
References
° Howman, K.C.R. (1985). Cheer pheasant release project Margallah Hills, Pakistan. Review
of cheer pheasant reintroduction programme in Margallah Hills, Islamabad, Pakistan. World
Pheasant Association News 7: 8-10.
° Masud, R.M. (1979). Master plan for Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad, Pakistan 1979
to 1984. National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Islamabad. 48 pp.
Roberts, T. (1984). Pakistan’s wildlife today. World Wildlife Fund Monthly Report.
January, 1984.
°
Date July 1986
-297-
AUSTRALIA
Mosely made a study of protected areas and environmental planning in Australia, and, as a part
of this work, tried to relate the range of protection and planning control measures in "other
protected areas" to IUCN Management Categories V through VIII. In doing this, Mosely found
it convenient to separate protected landscapes in Australia into two sub-categories, those he
called "landscape protection areas" (large stretches of protected countryside, most of which is
likely to have been modified in some way by agriculture and settlement) and "landscape
recreation areas” (usually land still in a natural state and publicly owned, with recreation being
a primary management objective - sites are usually smaller than national parks). "Landscape
protection areas", sensu Mosely, are largely protected by town and country planning legislation
and it would seem that, despite calls, there is still no comprehensive legislative provision for a
system of such areas in any state, and rather efforts have been made to protect individual areas
as a result of local needs or pressures. Mosely draws particular attention to the "environmental
protection zones" of New South Wales, which are established under guidelines drawn up by the
Department of Environment and Planning, and administered by local authorities, but he also
gives examples of landscape protection areas in Victoria, South and Western Australia.
However, at this stage none of the areas which Mosely would describe as "landscape protection
areas" appears in our lists. In discussing "landscape recreation areas", Mosely draws attention to
the difficulty of classifying such sites within the IUCN categories, indicating that some
commentators would classify these areas as multiple-use management areas, while noting that
some of the sites were more like natural landmarks. He lists, however, five designations of
protected areas in as many states. Each of these designations, with the exception of those in
Tasmania, is defined in state-wide legislation (Wilson) and state-wide systems of areas in these
categories are developing (Mosely) and (Wilson). All of these sites are listed in the attached
draft list, provided they are over 1,000ha. In addition, we have listed the nature parks of the
Northern Territory which Wilson defines as being intended for recreation in a natural
environment. We have no areas for Tasmania listed, although Mosely (1984) indicates that a
number of areas are established under the Crown Lands Act. It is in addition worth noting
that the definition of "parks" in Victoria does cover both the recreation aspect and protection
of areas which have had a "human effect on the environment".
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AUSTRALIA
Area 7,686,855 sq.km
Population 15,450,000 (1983)
The information presented here is taken from Wilson (1984) Nature Conservation Reserves in
Australia, an occasional publication of the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service.
Parks and Reserves Legislation Australian Capital Territory The Nature Conservation
Ordinance 1980 provides for the protection and conservation of wildlife, and for the
reservation of areas for those purposes. The Minister may, by notice in the Commonwealth of
Australia Gazette, declare an area in the Australian Capital Territory and Jervis Bay Territory
to be a reserve. Similar provisions under the Public Parks Ordinance, 1928-66 provide for the
declaration of public parks and recreation reserves, some of which are managed as nature
reserves.
Two types of reserves are defined: nature reserve - land set aside primarily for conservation
and also for compatible recreational use, and reserve - land set aside primarily for both
conservation and compatible recreatioal use.
External Territories The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1975 provides for the
establishment of parks or reserves over land or sea areas where there is constitutionally a basis
for Commonwealth action. These areas may be designated as national parks or some other
designation and may only be revoked by a resolution of both Houses of Federal Parliament.
Plans of management are required to be prepared and, after being subject to public comment
and amendment, are considered by the responsible Minister and laid before both houses of
Federal Parliament. Under the Norfolk Island National Park and Norfolk Island Botanic
Garden Act, 1984, Norfolk Island National Park has been proclaimed.
Two types of reserves are defined: national parks - relatively large areas which contain
representative samples of major natural regions, features or scenery of national or international
significance where plant and animal species, geomorphological sites, and habitats are of special
scientific, educational, and recreational interest, and national nature reserves - nationally
significant areas set aside primarily for nature conservation.
New South Wales The National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974 provides for national parks and
nature reserves to be created by proclamation. Plans of management are prepared with regard
to the objectives of conservation, study and appreciation of wildlife and natural features and to
provide appreciation and enjoyment of the natural values of these areas. They are subject to
public comment before adoption by the Minister for Environment and Planning. The Act
establishes a National Parks and Wildlife Advisory Council to advise the Minister on the
control and management of national parks and nature reserves. Advisory committees may also
be established for each national park to make recommendations to the above Council, the
Director or Superintendent of the respective national park. The Act also establishes specialist
advisory committees to advise the Minister and the Director on Aboriginal relics.
Five types of areas are defined: national parks - relatively large areas set aside for their
features or predominantly unspoiled natural landscape, flora and fauna, permanently dedicated
for public enjoyment, education and inspiration, and protected from all interference other than
essential management practices, so that their natural attributes are preserved; nature reserves -
areas of special scientific interest containing wildlife or natural phenomena where management
practices aim at maximising the value of the area for scientific investigation and educational
purposes; State recreation areas - permanent reservations in the form of large regional parks
established to provide recreational opportunities in an outdoor environment; historic sites -
areas preserved as the sites of buildings, objects, monuments or landscapes of natioal
importance, and Aboriginal areas - places of significance to Aborigines or sites containing
relics of Aboriginal culture.
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Australia
Northern Territory The Conservation Commission Act, 1980 established the Conservation
Commission of the Northern Territory to promote the conservation and protection of the
natural environment and establish and manage parks, reserves and sanctuaries and undertake
other functions relating to soil and environmental conservation. The Commission is a
corporation of eight members, two of whom are the Director of Conservation and his Deputy
and another two members nominated by the Aboriginal Land Councils. Land is reserved
under the provisions of the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act by the Administrator
of the Northern Territory following receipt of a report from the Conservation Commission.
This Act refers only to the creation of parks and reserves, allowing considerable flexibility in
the interpretation of these terms. Accordingly, areas declared may range from small sites of
specific interest to major national parks. All land is held by the Conservation Land
Corporation as constituted under the Conservation Commission Act. Revocation of reserved
land is by declaration by the Administrator following a resolution by the Northern Territory
Legislative Assembly. Management plans are prepared by the Conservation Commission of the
Northern Territory for areas under its control and are required under the Territory Parks and
Wildlife Conservation Act. Kakadu National Park, Kakadu (Stage 2) National Park and Uluru
(Ayers Rock-Mt Olga) National Park are proclaimed undet the National Parks and Wildlife
Act, 1975. Kakadu Natioal Park is owned by Aboriginal people and leased to the Director of
Australian National Parks and Wildife Service (ANPWS). Management plans are prepared by
ANPWS. The Cobourg Peninsula Aboriginal Land and Sanctuary Act, passed in 1981,
established a major national park on Cobourg Peninsula, primarily owned and controlled by
Aborigines.
Five types of areas are defined: national parks - large areas of unspoiled landscape reserved for
public enjoyment, education and inspiration; conservation reserves - areas set aside for
conservation of flora, fauna or for anthropological, natural or scientific values; nature parks -
land reserved primarily for its suitability for public recreation and enjoyment in a natural
environment; game reserves - set aside for maintenance of game which can be harvested under
permit and historical reserves - areas set aside for their historical significance, even though
they may be used for other purposes such as recreation.
Queensland National parks are established under the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1975-84
to conserve areas of scenic, scientific or historic interest. They are permanently reserved and
can be revoked only with the authority of Parliament, though under certain circumstances land
can be excised by Order in Council for tourist purposes or for roads. The National Parks and
Wildlife Act prescribes that the cardinal principle to be observed in the management of
national parks shall be the permanent preservation to the greatest possible extent of their
natural condition. Provision is made for declaration within national parks of spcieal
management zones, including primitive areas, primitive and recreation areas, recreation areas,
scientific and historic areas. The Fauna Conservation Act, 1974-79 provides for fauna reserves
and fauna refuges - the latter may be declared over land of any tenure with the agreement of
the landholder. Fauna sanctuaries are also established under this Act to protect fauna but not
habitat though, in general, a sanctuary is declared only if habitat protection is otherwise
assured in the state of Queensland. All national parks and islands off the coast are fauna
sanctuaries. Provision for the establishment of environmental parks and scientific purpose
reserves (department and official purposes reserves) is contained in the Land Act, 1962-84 and
in particular in the Land Amendment Act of 1973.
Five types of areas are defined: national parks - relatively large areas of natural landscape with
a high level of diversity of flora and fauna and which may be of historic interest. They are
permanently dedicated for public enjoyment and education and protected from all interference
other than essential management practices to ensure that the natural attributes are preserved;
environmental parks - natural or near natural areas, less outstanding in size or natural
attributes than national parks, totally protected for public enjoyment; fauna reserves - areas of
land held permanently in their natural state. They are undisturbed other than by naturally
occurring processes and are closed to the public, and scientific purpose reserves - (department
and official purpose reserves) may be used as a holding tenure where there is an impedement
to immediate declaration of a national park or for land for administrative purposes such as
office, visitor centre or residence.
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Australia
South Australia The National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1972-81 provides for the establishment
and management of reserves for public benefit and for the conservation of wildlife in a natural
environment. The reserves comprise national parks, game reserves and recreation parks. They
may be abolished or their boundaries altered by a proclamation of the Governor, subject to a
resolution passed by both Houses of Parliament. Management plans for each reserve are
prepared by the Minister in conjunction with comments and suggestions of the National Parks
and Wildlife Reserves Advisory Committee and representations from the public. Objectives in
the management of reserves include the preservation and management of wildlife, the
preservation of features of geographical, natural or scenic interest and the encouragement of
public use and enjoyment of the reserves. The management plan may also provide for the
division of a reserve into zones which shali be kept and maintained under the conditions
declared by the plan. The National Parks and Wildlife Reserves Advisory Committee, at the
request of the Minister, can investigate and advise the Minister upon any matter referred to the
Committee for advice. The Committee may also refer any matter affecting the administration
of the Act to the Minister for consideration. Five members are appointed to the Committee by
the Governor.
Five types of areas are defined: national parks - relatively large areas of natural landscape with
a high level of diversity of flora and fauna and which may be of historic interest. They are
permanently dedicated for public enjoyment and education and protected from all interference
other than essential management practices to ensure that the natural attributes are preserved;
environmental parks - natural or near natural areas, less outstanding in size or natural
attributes than national parks, totally protected for public enjoyment; fauna reserves - areas of
land held permanently in their natural state. They are undisturbed other than by naturally
occurring processes and are closed to the public; fauna refuges - land declared to preserve
habitat and protect fauna, and scientific purpose reserves (department and official purpose
reserves) - may be used as a holding tenure where there is an impedement to immediate
declaration of a national park or for land for administrative purposes such as office, visitor
centre or residence.
Tasmania The National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1970 provides for the establishment of
conservation areas by the Governor’s proclamation. Conservation areas may include privately
owned lands subject to the consent of the owners. Conservation areas that are crown land may
be declared state reserves by Governor’s proclamation but may not be revoked unless the
Governor’s draft proclamation is first approved by each House of Parliament. The
proclamation may give a name to the state reserve including that if state reserve, national park,
nature reserve, Historic Site or Aboriginal site. Other statutory powers, for example, to grant
mining leases or forestry rights, do not apply in state reserves. Conservation areas may be
named wildlife sancuaries where wildlife and habitat are protected by _ regulations.
Management plans can provide additional protection. National parks are generally outstanding
natural areas greater than 4,000ha. Nature reserves comprise areas of significant natural
features reserved for nature conservation and scientific study. Crown land conservation areas
may also be declared game reserves where management is aimed at producing native or
introduced game species which may be hunted in season Management plans are required to be
prepared in respect of all areas proclaimed under the Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife
Act. These are required to be publicly displayed and comment sought before being approved
by the Governor. Where provision is made for use of a state reserve other than as provided for
in the Act, the management plan required the approval of both Houses of Parliament.
Eight types of areas are defined - national parks - extensive areas for the conservation of
natural ecosystems, enjoyment and study of the natural environment and _ public
recreation/tourism; State reserves - generally small reserves set aside for scenic and recreational
reasons and/or to protect geological sites; nature reserves - areas set aside because of the
significance for nature conservation. Public use is not encouraged where this might be
detrimental although provision may be made for appropriate tourism and recreational activities;
Aboriginal sites - areas containing relics of Aboriginal people or known to be of significance to
them. Degree of public use will depend on needs of site for protection; historic sites - areas of
significance in terms of European exploration, settlement or use, with encouragement of
tourism and recreational use; game reserves - essentially the same as nature reserves except that
specific provisions are made for hunting and the maintenance of game _ populations;
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Australia
conservation areas - large multiple use reserves set aside primarily to protect animals and their
habitats and to provide for recreation and controlled use of resources, and muttonbird reserves
- reserves where special provision is made for private and commercial muttonbirding.
Victoria Under the National Parks Act, 1975, provision is made for the establishment of
national parks and other parks for the preservation and protection of the environment
indlucing indigenous flora and fauna and features of scenic, archeological, geological, historical
or scientific interest. National parks and other parks may be established by parliamentary
amendment of the appropriate schedules to the National Parks Act to include the name and
description of the lands included in the park. Provision is also made in the Act for the
National Parks Service to manage land not reserved in the Schedule to the Act. National parks
comprise predominantly unspoilt landscapes and are of extensive size whereas other parks are
usually of relatively less size or significance. The Act makes statutory provision for special
works to be conducted in certain parks and provides the Director of National Parks with
authority to manage parks generally. Under the Crown (Land) Reserves Act, 1978, state
wildlife reserves may be established for the preservation or management of wildlife or wildlife
habitat. State wildlife reserves may be further classified as state game reserves, state nature
reserves and other classifications, such as state parks, by order of the Governor. Any
proclamation or order made by the Governor may be similarly revoked or varied. State game
reserves are specifically managed for waterbird conservation. State nature reserves are
managed for non-game wildlife species and shooting is prohibited. State parks cater for
general and specific species of flora and fauna as well as recreation and education within a
natural environment. Under the Wildlife Act, 1975, the Director of the Fisheries and Wildlife
Service is required to prepare as soon as practicable as plan of management for each wildlife
reserve. The Minister may adopt or vary such plans.
Five types of areas are defined: national parks - crown land characterised by its predominantly
unspoilt landscape, and its flora, fauna or other features, which is reserved and protected
permanently for the benefit of the public; other parks - areas with scenic, historical,
archaeological, biologicalm geological or other features of scientific interest that are worthy of
preservation but, whether by reasons of the limited size of the areas or the limited significance
of the features are not suitable for reservation as national parks, areas that demonstrate human
effect on the environment whether through agricultural or pastoral pursuits or otherwise, areas
in or adjacent to urban areas of natural beauty or interest or otherwise or pastoral pursuits or
otherwise, areas of natural beauty or interest primarily for recreational and educational use but
parts of which may be used for primary industtry, hunting shooting, fishing or other uses
appropriate to the areas, and areas in their natural state for scientific study or reference. Other
parks are generally classified into coastal parks, historic parks, state parks and parks. Other
areas include flora and fauna reserves and reserves; state game reserves and state nature
reserves - defined as land reserved primarily for management and conservation of wildlife and
any recreational use providing it doesn’t conflict with the primary aim. State game reserves are
wetlands open to duck hunting in season while state nature reserves are wetlands and drylands
closed to hunting at all times, and State parks - primarily reserved for public recreation and
the conservation of the natural environment.
Western Australia Under the Land Act, 1933, the Governor may reserve land for public
purposes. Noticve of such reservations is published in the Gazette. The Governor may also
proclaim reserved areas as Class A, B or C. Class A reserves remain dedicated for the purpose
declared in the proclamation until revoked by Act of Parliament. Class B reserves may be
revoked by the Governor by notice in the Gazette. subject to the Minister for Lands presenting
a report explaining the reasons for any revocation or alteration to both Houses of Parliament.
Class C reserves may be revoked or altered by Gazettel of a Ministerial Notice to that effect.
The Land Act provides that the Governor may vest reserves in a private body,
semi-government or government authority for specific purposes. In Western Australia, Class
A, B or C reserves vested in the Western Australian Wildlife Authority or the Western
Australian National Parks Authority are commonly reserved for the purposes of conservation of
fauna or flora or both, national parks or any of these purposes plus some other purpose.
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Three types of areas are defined: national parks - established to preserve for all time scenic
beauty, wilderness, native wildlife, indigenous plant life and areas of scientific importance and
to provide for the appreciation and enjoyment of those things by the public in such a manner
and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the future; reserves - usually small areas
set aside for recreation and the conservation of flora and fauna, and nature reserves - defined
by the Wildlife Conservation Act as land reserved for the conservation of flora and fauna.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management Responsibility for nature conservation
rests mainly with the States and Territories. The Council of Nature Conservation Ministers
(CONCOM) provides a forum whereby it co-ordinates nature conservation activities. The
Council meets once a year and is supported by a standing committee comprising the Directors
of all Australian nature conservation authorities and a representative of the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organistion (CSIRO).
Australian Capital Territory Nature reserves in the Australian Capital Territory are
administered and managed by the ACT Parks and Conservation Service of the Department of
Territories. These reserves include outstanding natural areas and some significant hills and
rural parts of the National Capital Open Space System. Overall management objectives are to
maintain natural ecosystems and landscapes and to protect sites of pre-historic significance for
present and future generations of Australians and to provide opportunities for recreational,
scientific and educational use and enjoyment of these resources consistent with their
protection. The Minister may make regulations to protect reserves, govern their use and the
conduct of the public in them, define the powers of rangers and impose penalties.
External Territories The Director of the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service is
responsible for the areas proclaimed under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act,
1975. Areas proclaimed under this Act in the External Territories include Christmas Island
National Park, Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve (885,600ha), Lihou Reef National
Nature Reserve (843,600ha) and Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve (58,300ha). The latter
three are predominantly marine areas. Since proclamation of Norfolk Island National Park the
Norfolk Island Government has approached the Australian Government requesting the
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service to manage the national park.
New South Wales National parks, nature reserves, state recreation areas, Historic Sites and
Aboriginal areas are managed by the National Parks and Wildlife Service established under the
Act and responsible to the Minister for Environment and Planning.
Northern Territory A Director of Conservation, his Deputy and staff are public servants,
employed for the purposes of carrying out the function of the Commission. The Commission
administers the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act as well as legislation relating to
forestry, bushfires, soil conservation, urban park development, environmental assessment and
botanical services. Day to day management of Uluru Natioal Park is managed by Australian
National Parks and Wildlife Service staff and seconded Conservation Commission staff.
Queensland The National Parks and Wildlife Act 1975 provides for the establishment of a
National Parks and Wildlife Service and for the appointment of a Director of National Parks
and Wildlife to administer the Act, the environmental park provisions of the Land Act, the
Fauna Conservation Act and the Native Plants Protection Act.
South Australia The Director of the National Parks and Wildlife Service is responsible to the
Director General of the Department of the Environment and Planning. Both are responsible to
the Minister for the management of reserves. The National Parks and Wildlife Service
constitutes a division of the Department of Environment and Planning. All staff, including the
Director, are public servants employed to carry out the functions of the National Parks and
Wildlife Act.
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Australia
Tasmania State reserves, game reserves and conservation areas are administered by the
Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Service established under the Act. Whereas some
conservation areas are administered by the Service as wildlife sanctuaries, there are in addition,
approximately thirty-five conservation areas proclaimed where other government authorities or
the owner of the lands are the managing authorities.
Victoria The National Parks Act established a Director of National Parks to administer national
parks. He is assisted by a National Parks Service consisting of officers appointed under the
Public Service Act. The National Parks Act also provides for the appointment of a National
Parks Advisory Council to advise the responsible Minister on national park matters. A Director
of Fisheries and Wildlife is appointed under the Public Service Act and, subject to the control
of the Minister, administers the Wildlife Act 1975, including the management of state wildlife
reserves.
Western Australia Under the Wildlife Conservation Act, 1950-80, the Western Australian
Authority is established to advise in the conservation of fauna and flora, to carry out
appropriate research and to manage nature reserves. Under the Land Act most areas reserved
for the purpose of conservation of flora and fauna are vested in the Western Australian
Wildlife Authority which may classify nature reserves or parts of such reserves for particluar
purposes such as hunting or limited access. The Wildlife Conservation Act is administered by
the Conservator of Wildlife appointed under that Act who is responsible to the Director of the
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife. Both are members of the Authority which consists of
four ex officio and eight appointed members.
Under the National Parks Authority Act, 1976, the National Parks Authority of Western
Australia was established to replace the former National Parks Board of Western Australia. The
Authority manages areas vested in it, provides and maintains facilities for the enjoyment of
natural areas by the public and undertakes other necessary functions for the management of
national parks and reserves. It consists of a President nominated by the Minister, the
Conservator of Forests, the Director of Fisheries and Wildlife, the Director of the Department
of Tourism, the Surveyor-General and four persons representing the public nominated by the
Minister. The National Parks Authority Act provides for the establishment of national parks
comprising scenic, aesthetic, recreational, biological or other special features. The Act
provides for the appointment of a Director to formulate policies for the care, control and
management of national parks generally. The Director is subject to the provisions of the
Public Service Act, 1904 and is responsible for the administration of the Authority and its staff.
Addresses
° Australian Capital Territory - ACT Parks and Conservation Service, Department of
Territories, GPO Box 158, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia.
° External Territories - Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, GPO Box 636,
Canberra ACT 2601, and Construction House, 217 Northbourne Avenue, Turner ACT,
Australia.
° New South Wales - National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box N189, Grosvenor Street Post
Office, Sydney New South Wales 200, and 189-193 Kent Street, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.
Northern Territory - Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory, PO Box 1046,
Alice Springs, Northern Territory 5750, and Gap Road, Alice Springs, Northern Territory,
Australia.
° Queensland - National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box 190, North Quay, Queensland,
and MLC Centre, 239 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
° South Australia - National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box 667, Adelaide, South
Australia 5001, and 55 Grenfell Street, Adelaide, South Australia.
Tasmania - National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box 210, Sandy Bay, Tasmania, and
Magnet Court, Sandy Bay, Tasmania, Australia.
Victoria - National Parks Service; Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, 240
Victoria Parade, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, and Fisheries and Wildlife Service,
Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, 250 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne,
Victoria 3002, Australia.
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Australia
° Western Australia - Western Australia Wildlife Authority, Department of Conservation and
Land Management, 108 Adelaide Terrace, Perth, Western Australia 6000, and National Parks
Authority of Western Australia, Department of Conservation and Land Management, Hackett
Drive, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009.
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
State Recreation Areas (New South Wales)
Booti Booti 1,146
Bournda 2,244
Bungonia 3,570
Burrendong 1k235
Burrinjuck 1,714
Davidson Park 1,215
Illawarra 1,150
Munmorah 1,008
Wyangala 2,013
Nature Parks (Northern Territory)
Cutta Cutta Caves 1,499
Douglas Hot Springs 3,107
Ellery Creek Big Hole 1,766
Redbank 1,295
Ruby Gap 9,257
Trephina Gorge 1,771
Environmental Parks (Queensland )
Goneaway 24,800
Mount Zamia 1,140
Townsville Town Common 3,248
Wilandspey 5,200
Recreation Parks (South Australia)
Para Wirra 1,409
Parks and Coastal Parks (Victoria)
Beechworth 1,130
Cape Schanck 1,080
Discovery Bay 8,530
Gippsland Lakes 16,500
Lake Albacutya 10,700
Lysterfield 1,151
Murray-Kulkyne 1,550
State Parks (Victoria)
Cathedral Range 3,577
Chiltern 4,255
Coopracambra 14,500
Eildon 24,000
French Island 7,750
Holey Plains 10,450
Mount Samaria 7,600
Mount Worth 1,040
Nepean 1,151
Pink Lakes 50,700
Wabonga Plateau 21,200
Warby Range 3,320
Other designations (Victoria)
Big Desert Wilderness 113,500
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UNITED STATES AND CANADA
The United States has perhaps a greater range of protected area designations than any other
country, with the possible exception of Australia. Of these, four federal-level designations
stand out as protected landscape designations, National Recreation Areas, National Seashores,
and National Lakeshores which come under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service, and
National (Wild and) Scenic Rivers under avariety of jurisdictions. Such areas, however,
include considerably less land that the systems of national parks and national wildlife refuges.
According to the National Park Service (1979) national lakeshores and seashores are established
to preserve the natural values of the areas, while at the same time providing opportunity for
water-oriented recreation, and river protection is carried out for essentially the same reasons.
Most of the National Recreation Areas are around impoundments, and have relatively high
recreational use compared with national parks and equivalent areas. There is also much
activity at the state level with a total of over 1800 state parks alone, covering in excess of 2.5
million hectares. It is likely that a number of sites are protected landscapes, particularly
amongst the parks and recreation areas. Three areas in the United States can be presented as
examples to demonstrate management and planning techniques which were being used to
protect significant natural and cultural resources from inappropriate development. Of these
sites the first is a National Seashore (Cape Cod). The second site is the Adirondak Park
Agency, managed by the State of New York, and the third the Pinelands National Reserve,
management by a Commission representing state (New Jersey), federal and local interests. This
latter site is perhaps an example of a range of such sites protected and managed by a variety of
organisations and associations across the country, but for which we have little information. In
Canada the picture is less clear. Those areas listed as category V are Canadian Heritage Rivers,
and Cooperative Heritage Areas, both designations coming under the jurisdiction of
Environment Canada, Parks. All four river sections currently designated as Heritage River are
within declared national park reserves or within provincial parks, while of the eight other sites
which have been nominated, only two are outside established protected areas (one of these
being within a proposed provincial park). We currently have rather less information about
Cooperative Heritage Areas. At a provincial/territory level a wide variety of sites exist which
might qualify as protected landscape systems. Some of the Natural Environment Parks of
Ontario might constitute protected landscapes, as one of the primary objectives of these sites is
recreation. However, a number of the sites are very large and would seem more akin to
national parks. Other designations in Ontario include Waterway Parks and Recreation Parks,
and sites in either category might be classified as protected landscapes.
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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Area 9,539,130 sq km.
Population 234,020,000 (1985)
Parks and Reserves Legislation Legislation exists at both the State and Federal levels. The
major texts covering protected areas include: the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of
1976 (which requires the inventory, assessment and planning of all federal lands); the Fish and
Wildlife Act of 1956; the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972; the Endangered Species Act
of 1973 (streamlined in 1982 and supplemented in 1983 by the International Environment
Protection Act); the National Policy Act of 1969; and the Fish and Wildlife Improvement Act
of 1978. More specific acts of the U.S. Congress which affect the conservation of areas include
the Wilderness Act (16 USC 1131 ), Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 (42 USC 1962 ),
Concessions Policy Act of 1965 (16 USC 20 ), and the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 20 Octcber
1965 (PL 89-272). Other acts include the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act
which authorizes the Secretary of Commerce to designate ocean waters as marine sanctuaries.
In the case of wetland protection the main legislative provisions are the Migratory Bird
Conservation Act of 1929, the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act of 1934,
the Pittman-Robertson Act of 1937 and the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965.
The creation and expansion of conservation units in Alaska is governed by the Alaska National
Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980. Regulations published by the Department of
Agriculture in 1983 called for the maintenance of habitats in order to sustain viable
populations of flora and fauna. The controlling legislation for the activities of the Fish and
Wildlife Service is the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 (16 USC 1531 )a
supplement to the 1956 Act) and a number of international treaties.
The National Park Service was established by the Act of 25 August 1916 (39 Stat. 535).
National parks and other categories of lands within the national park system are established by
individual acts of Congress, except National Monuments which can be created by the President
on federal lands, by proclamation under the authority of the Antiquities Act of 8 June 1906.
State Parks and Reserves are established under separate state legislation.
The US ratified the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitats on 18 December 1986 listing four sites followed by two further sites in
1987. The World Heritage Convention was ratified on 7 December 1973 with, to date, ten sites
listed.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management Organizations involved in the protection
of animal and plant resources and their habitats range from the large land-holding
organizations of the US government, national non-government organizations, state government
agencies to local societies. Some effort at coordination has been attempted but as yet no full
scale national strategy exists to protect species and habitats. A third of the nation (nearly 300
million ha) is federal property within which are designated National Wildlife Refuges, National
Parks and similar protected areas, National Forests, National Marine Sanctuaries and other
federal lands. Responsibility for the protection of natural resources is divided among many
jurisdictions. The Department of the Interior manages 70% of the federal lands through
several agencies:
The National Park Service supervises 10% of the public lands through the National Park System
for which it has both the administrative and regulatory authority as delegated to it by the
Secretary of the Interior by the Act of 25 August 1916 and subsequent acts of Congress (as set
forth in Title 16, Code of Federal Regulation). Three other federal-level designations come
under its jurisdiction: National Recreation Areas, National Seashores and National Lakeshores.
The overall aim of the park system is to conserve the natural heritage at the same time as
allowing the use of these areas for public recreation. In addition, the Service designates
National Natural Landmarks which are identified in order to encourage the protection of sites
of significant geological and ecological character. In total the Park Service works on some 357
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United States of America
sites which it directly administers and where the main tasks are inventorization and data
collection. The 500 or so National Natural Landmarks designated since 1962 by the Secretary
of the Interior on advise from the Service are listed in the National Registry of Natural
Landmarks which is published regularly. Only a proportion of these are considered to be
nationally significant and designation of a site does not change the ownership rights nor does it
preclude the sites future development.
The Fish and Wildlife Service administers the National Wildlife Refuge System which
according to statute aims at the preservation and management of some 36 million ha of habitat
located in 417 wildlife refuges and 28 wetland management districts. These holdings amount to
some 12% of federally-owned lands and protects the habitats of waterfowl, endangered species,
big game and other fauna and flora.
The Bureau of Land Management has jurisdiction over 43% of federal lands which are largely
open spaces used for livestock grazing and mineral extraction. In total the Bureau is
responsible for over 20 million ha managed in part for natural science research and protection
through its Natural History Resource Management Program. These areas are selected,
established and managed in the form of 28 Research Natural Areas on 23,000ha and 40 other
natural areas (including Outstanding Natural Areas and Primitive Areas) consisting of
328,000ha and an additional 1.2 million ha of natural areas with potential for protection.
The Department of Agriculture oversees 25% of public lands through the Forest Service whose
property is used for (amongst other things) public recreation, watershed management and
wilderness preservation. The categories of areas established include National Monuments,
Wilderness Areas and National Forests. Some 25 million ha of the Forest Service lands have
been set aside for protection of habitats in the form of modified management areas, such as
roadside strips, scenic areas and gene conservation areas. National Wild and Scenic Rivers are
managed by a number of agencies with examples of this category present in the land holdings
of the USNPS, BLM and the USFS as well as at the state level. Finally, the Department of
Energy has a programme for the study of ecosystems and establishes gene reservoirs.
All 50 States have programmes to protect flora, fauna and their habitats and establish parks and
other protected areas; the first such programme began in 1951 although there is considerable
variation State to State. However, the State-level systems are extensive as can be judged by the
fact that in 1986 there were some 1800 State Parks covering some 2.5 million ha as well as a
complete range of other categories such as state forests, state natural areas, state recreation
areas, state historic areas and so on. Several States have cooperative agreements with such
agencies as the Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service.
A number of large, well-endowed, non-profit non-governmental organizations are engaged in
habitat protection which parallels and supplements those of the federal and state governments.
Of the larger NGOs, The Nature Conservancy owns and manages over 700 preserves; The
National Audubon Society owns or leases 80 sanctuaries over 100,000ha in size; and The
Society of American Foresters designated 500 natural areas which overlap with the Research
Natural Areas network established under the federal government.
Marine sanctuaries have been established since 1972 by the National Marine Fisheries Service
and biosphere reserves since 1974. The latter now has grown into a national network cover
over 40 sites.
Addresses
° National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, Washington DC 20240.
° Fish and Wildlife Service, US Department of the Interior, Washington, DC, 20240.
° Bureau of Land Management, Washington,DC, 20240.
° Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture, PO Box 2417, Washington, DC.
° The Nature Conservancy, 1800 N. Kent St. Arlington. VA 22209.
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United States of America
Additional Information The federal land-holding agencies are participants ina programme to
establish Research Natural Areas of which 442 have been designated, whose functions are the
preservation and maintenance of genetic diversity. There is also a National Environmental
Research Parks Programme which aims at characterizing ecosystems and mapping.
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
National Lakeshores
Apostle Island 17,084
Indiana Dunes 5,073 *
Pictured Rocks 28,661
Sleeping Bear Dunes 28,775
National Seashores
Assateague Island 16,038
Canaveral 23,321
Cape Cod 18,018 *
Cape Hatteras 12,270
Cape Lookout 11,493
Cumberland Island 14,924
Fire Island 7,834
Gulf Islands 57,084
Padre Island 54,196
Point Reyes 26,426
National Recreation Areas
Amistad
Bighorn Canyon 48,644
Chickasaw
Curecanti 16,985
Cuyahoga Valley 12,950
Delaware Water Gap 28,340
Gateway 266
Glen Canyon
Golden Gate
Lake Chelan 25,047
Lake Mead
Ross Lake 47,582
Whiskeytown Unit
Other areas
Appalachian National Scenic Trail 21,058
Buffalo National River 38,100
C & O Canal National Historic Park 50,161
Chaco Culture National Historic Park 13,760
Delaware National Scenic River 1,113
Devil’s Tower National Monument 1,346
Jean Lafitte National Historic Park 3,480
Lower St Croix National Scenic River 3,512
New River Gorge National River 25,101
Obed Wild and Scenic River DA2S
Ozark National Scenic Riverways 32,209
Rio Grande Wild and Scenic River 3,885
St Croix National Scenic River 25,373
Information for three other sites follows, Pu’uhonua o Honaunau National Historic Park in
Hawaii, Pinelands National Reserve, and the Adirondak Park.
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United States of America
New York State Adirondack Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 1.05.05 (Eastern forest)
Geographical Location The park is located in the north-eastern part of New York State some
80km north of Albany and 280km north of New York, centred on the Adirondack Mountains.
43°05’ to 44°30’N and 73°40’ to 75°15’W.
Date and History of Establishment The Adirondack Park Agency Act (NY Executive Law,
Article 27 [1971]) is considered by many to be the most extensive effort by any State in the
USA to regulate private land use in a portion of its jurisdiction by means of regional land use
controls. The general purposes of the Act are (a) to establish a system of comprehensive land
use controls that will protect, while encouraging the wise use of the unique scenic, aesthetic,
wildlife, recreational, open-space, ecological and natural resources of the park; (b) to establish
and promote the effective administration of land use controls that will protect the interest of
the State of New York, not only because of its enormous State holdings within the park, but
also for the preservation and use of the resources found on the park’s non-State lands; and (c)
to encourage the park’s local governments to undertake comprehensive land use planning on a
local scale and to adopt local land use programs that fit within the regional guidelines of the
Act. The State-owned land is constitutionally to be "forever kept as wild forest lands" (N.Y.
Constitution, Article VII No. 7, 1895).
Area 2,426,200ha; contains the largest wilderness preserve in the continental United States
outside Alaska.
Land Tenure 1,011,750ha (40%) State owned; 1,416,450ha (60%) privately owned and devoted
principally to forestry, agriculture and open-space recreation.
Altitude Maximum 1,628m.
Physical Features The western and southern Adirondacks are a gentle landscape of hills,
lakes, ponds and streams. In the north-east are the 46 "high peaks", 42 of which are over
1,200m (including nine alpine summits), spread over 3,100 sq.km. The highest is Mt Marcy at
1,628m. These mountains are survivors of an ancient geologic formation; the erosion-resistant
bedrock, accounting for the height of the mountains, is an estimated 1.2 billion years old. The
Adirondacks contain the headwaters of, and most of five major basins: Lake Champlain, and
the Hudson, Black, St Lawrence and Mohawk rivers. Within the park are 2,759 lakes and
ponds and more than 2,413km of rivers fed by an estimated 48,270km of brooks and streams.
Climate No information
Vegetation The spruce/fir and beech/birch/maple associations reach their crowning glory in
Adirondack forests. Thirty tree species are native to the park. In addition there are many
species of flora and hundreds of species of shrubs, herbs and grasses.
Fauna Animal life includes 64 species of mammals, 297 species of birds (193 nesting), 35
species of reptiles and amphibians, and 82 species of fish. Mammals include white-tailed deer,
black bear, fisher, moose and marten (Odocoileus virginianus, Ursus americanus, Martes
pennanti, Alces alces and Martes americana). Birds include golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos and
spruce grouse Canachites canadensis.
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population 120,000 permanent and 200,000 seasonal residents in 104 towns and
villages.
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United States of America
«uu Visitor Facilities Approximately 9 million tourists per annum pass through the
area. Finance for construction of two natural resource interpretive centres in the park was
approved in 1985-86 by the State Legislature. Both facilities will be administered and operated
by the Adirondack Park Agency. Each site will be operational by June 1989, with projected
annual visitor use in excess of 340,000.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The Adirondack Park Land Use and Development Plan is a
regional zoning plan wherein all of the non-State lands in the park are divided into 6 land use
areas. The Plan describes the character of; sets forth the purposes, policies and objectives that
will be served by a; lists primary and secondary compatible uses for, and details the overall
intensity of development that the Act will allow in each land use area. All of these factors are
responsible for driving a complex, comprehensive permit system administered by the
Adirondack Park Agency (APA) for the majority of development and subdivision proposed in
the park.
Land use areas are as follows: Hamlet areas represent existing settlements in the park, the
growth and service centres, the commercial areas, and those with concentrated tourist
development. Moderate Intensity Use (max. of 500 principal buildings per square mile or an
average lot size of 0.53ha) areas are close to Hamlets where fairly intense future development,
primarily residential, is possible because of the relatively deep soils and moderate slopes. Low
Intensity Use (max. of 200 principal buildings per sq mile or an average lot size of 1.3ha) areas
are easily accessible, reasonably close to hamlets, where there is a wide variability in
development potential which is not limited by large areas of critical environmental
importance. Rural Use (max. of 75 principal buildings per sq m or an average lot size of
3.44ha) areas are those where natural resource limitations, shallow soils, relatively severe
slopes, critical wildlife habitats, proximity to scenic vistas or public lands, and distance from
service areas require fairly strict limits on development. These areas are very important to the
open space character of the park. Rural Use limitations are designed to prevent strip
development along major travel corridors by placing residential development on relatively large
lots or clustered on carefully selected and well-designed sites. Resource Management (max. of
15 principal buildings per sq m or an average lot size of 17.3ha) areas are those where natural
conditions place severe limits on development. These areas are important primarily for forestry
and agriculture, and their preservation for these activities is essential to the economy of the
park. These areas are also vital for recreation and the preservation of the open space character
of the park. Approximately 68% of the private land in the park has been classified Resource
Management. Jndustrial Use areas are those where industry or mining operations existed when
the APA Act was adopted or where new industry should be encouraged to locate.
With regard to State lands in the park, 15 tracts of Adirondack Forest Preserve are designated
Wilderness (approx. 404,700ha). Buildings and access by motorised equipment are prohibited.
The largest single category of land (approx. 526,110ha) is Wild Forest, where a variety of
outdoor recreational activities are allowed, including the use of motorised vehicles in
designated places. Other categories of State lands include: Primitive and Canoe areas, managed
similarly to Wilderness areas; Intensive Use areas, such as public campgrounds, developed
beaches and boat launching sites; and State Historic sites. The APA is responsible for
developing and updating the Adirondack Park State Land Master Plan which establishes the
policy for the management of the State-owned lands. This Master Plan was first adopted in
1972. The actual management of the State lands is carried out by the New York State
Department of Environmental Conservation.
There are approx. 378,800ha of wetlands in the park covered by the Freshwater Wetlands Act
(N.Y. Environmental Conservation Law, Article 24 (1975)], a statewide wetlands protection
statue administered by the APA within the park. Agency permits are required for virtually all
activities in a wetland and for many activities that may affect a wetland. Regulated activities
include any form of pollution, pesticide use, or any draining, dredging or filling of a wetland,
or any other activities which substantially impair the functions or benefits of a wetland. As
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United States of America
part of this legislation, the N.Y. State Department of Environmental Conservation, in
consultation with the Agency, is required to produce official maps of all jurisdictional wetlands
in the park. Approx. 1/5 of this task is completed.
The Wild, Scenic and Recreational Rivers System Act [N.Y. Environmental Conservation Law,
Article 15, (1972)] is a statewide statute for the protection of certain pristine rivers, also
administered by the Agency for rivers flowing through private lands in the park. Ninety-five
percent of the river mileage of New York designated part of the System is located in the park.
Special permit regulations administered by the APA apply to new land use, subdivisions, and
most projects within the corridors of designated Wild, Scenic or Recreational Rivers. That
corridor is generally 1/4 mile from each shore of the river. Restricted activities for each
designated river corridor are keyed to the land use classifications of the APA Act. Currently,
there are approximately 1,930km of designated rivers in the park, with approximately 144km
still under study for possible legislative designation as part of the System. In 1986 initial steps
were taken to designate the park as a Biosphere Reserve.
Management Problems No information
Staff The Adirondack Park Agency is staffed with 45 full-time employees (including
attorneys, planners, engineers, ecologists and cartographers) and 4 to 8 part-time or seasonal
workers. It also operates a satellite office in the Lake George Basin. The Park Agency is an
l1l-member body including the Commissioner of the Department of the Environmental
Conservation, the Secretary of State and the Commissioner of the Department of Commerce.
Budget US$2,200,000 per annum approximately. In addition, it receives $150,000-200,000
annually in local planning assistance to distribute among those local governments undertaking
various planning initiatives. The two interpretive centres cost US$5.7 million and the annual
operating costs are estimated at US$850,000.
Local Administration Adirondack Park Agency, P O Box 99, RAY BROOK, New York 12977.
References Datasheet provided by the Adirondack Park Agency (1987)
Date August 1987
Cape Cod National Seashore
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 1.05.05 (Eastern forest)
Geographical Location The site is situated on the eastern coast, over 40 miles south of
Boston. It extends as a vast 30-50 mile long peninsula and spit enclosing the Cape Cod bay.
The easternmost portion of Cape Cod is in Barnstable county, Massachusetts 41°38’-42°38’N;
70°01°W.
Date and History of Establishment Established on 7 August 1961
Area 18,018ha (11,190ha is upland; 6,828ha is tidal). A total figure of 20,000ha was cited by
Polakowski (1986).
Land Tenure Federal government ownership (90%); town ownership (5%); private ownership
(5%) (Polakowski, 1986).
Altitude Sea level to 54m
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United States of America
Physical Features The park topography consists of long spit and hook coastlines with cliffs,
beaches, sand dunes, ponds, estuaries and low hills. The terrain was formed from late
Pleistocene glacial drifts and Wisconsin deposits laid down in a north-south alignment during a
glacial retreat. Characteristic glacial products include kettle ponds, knobs, glacial erratics and
pamet rivers (Polakowski, 1986).
Climate No information
Vegetation There are 19 discrete vegetation types in the park of which six are herbaceous
types. The communities include eelgrass Zostera marina and associated epiphytes, principally
on stable, sandy mud of shallow bays and estuaries; saltmarsh (774 ha), dominated by saltmarsh
cordgrass Spartina alterniflora and salt meadow grass Spartina patens; cattail marsh (194ha),
dominated by narrow leaf cattail Typha angustifolia with associated pure stands of common
reed Phragmites communis, beachgrass Ammophila breviligulata on primary and secondary
dunes and migrating inland dunes (1,052ha); hairgrass Deschampsia flexuosa on more stable
sand (293ha); mixed grass including grasses and rushes characteristic of abandoned fields,
pastures and orchards (208ha); velvetgrass Holcus lanatus as meadows in pure stands or mixed
with such species as linearleaf goldenrod Solidago tenuifolia.
There are six shrub types: bearberry Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, forming extensive heaths on poor,
dry soils (275ha); bear oak scrub Quercus ilicifolia, on windswept sites near the sea (409ha);
huckleberry Gaylussacia boccata, on slopes facing the sea but exposed to less salt (Sha); a dry
shrub type of bayberry Myrica pennsylvanica, beach plum Prunus maritima and black
cherry Prunus serotina on sites protected from salt spray (360ha); wet meadows of narrow
meadowsweet Spirea alba and wrinkled goldenrod Solidago rugosa on moist to wet deep loams
(59ha); and a shrub swamp consisting of highbush blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum, swamp
azalea Rhododendron viscosum and sweet pepperbush Clethra alnifolia on wet, peaty soils
(217ha).
The park is represented by seven tree communities: pinelands of pitch pine Pinus rigida on
dry sandy soils (3,948 ha); oaklands dominated by white oak Quercus alba and black
oak Quercus velutina on dry and well developed soils (1180ha); black locust Robinia
pseudoacacia, an exotic shrub species dominant on abandoned fields (111 ha); beech
forest, Fagus grandifolia; a climax vegetation type of mesic sites (12 ha); red maple, Acer
rubrum, in former swamps of deep rich humus (66 ha); woodland of Atlantic white
cedar, Chamaecyparis thyoides, in peaty swamps of standing water (4 ha); and Eastern red
cedar Juniperus virginiana, dominant in old fields (70ha).
Fauna’ An estimate of 34 land mammal species occur within the reserve. These include
white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus, New England cottontail Sy/vilagus transitionalis,
eastern gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis, red fox Vulpes fulva, short-tailed weasel Mustela
frenata and raccoon Procyon lotor. An estimated 11 species of marine mammals also occur,
including finback whale Balaenoptera physalus, humpback whale Megaptera novaengliae, pilot
whale Globicephala ventricosa, harbour seal Phoca vitulina and Atlantic white-sided
dolphin Lagenorhynchus acutus.
Almost 400 bird species are recorded for the park and immediate environs, many of which are
migrants on the Atlantic flyway. Common species include mocking bird Mimus polyglottos,
herring gull Larus argentatus, black-capped chickadee Parus atricapillus, blue jay Cyanocitta
cristata, least tern Sterna albifrons, great blue heron Ardea herodias, black duck Anas rubripes,
marsh hawk Circus cyaneus, semipalmated plover Charadrius semipalmatus,
sanderling Crocethia alba and catbird Dumetella carolinensis. Two threatened species occur as
migrants, bald eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus and peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus.
There are 21 species of reptiles and amphibians. Four sea turtles occur in the marine zone of
the park.
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United States of America
Cultural Heritage The long human settlement of Cape Cod is characterised by more than 100
historic structures, including the ancient "Cape Cod House". There are also remains of Indian
settlements and relicts from the Pilgrim communities prior to their settlement at Plymouth 360
years ago. Along the coast are a number of famous shipwrecks, remnants from the whaling,
fishing and salt industries as well as old sea rescue stations, lighthouses and a Marconi wireless
station. A number of painters and writers of national recognition originate from this area.
Local Human Population The park boundary excludes densely populated towns, yet it still
includes many private land-holdings. The permanent residential population of 20,000 increases
threefold during the summer months (Polakowski, 1986).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are five million visits annually, mostly people entering
by car (Polakowski, 1986). Facilities include camp colonies, cottages and other forms of
accommodation. There are 4,000 oversand vehicles (dune buggies) registered each year, two
environmental education camps (11,000 student days of programs each year) and information
centres (Polakowski, 1986).
Scientific Research and Facilities Principle research subjects include water quality and
impact assessments, studies on the effects of oversand vehicles (over 34 research publications
deal with the effects of oversand vehicles on various coastal ecosystems), archaeological
research, and coastal ecosystem processes. All studies are being undertaken by the National
Park Service with university collaboration. Reference libraries and geology and biology
laboratories are available for researchers at the park and at the University of Massachusetts,
Amherst (Polakowski, 1986).
Conservation Management The site is totally protected, but existing residents are permitted to
fish, hunt and gather berries. Cape Cod zoning prohibits the development of commercial and
industrial districts whilst traditional uses of building for art studies, tourist accommodation,
fisheries and shops are permitted. Regulations prohibit burning, timber cutting, filling or
removal of land and dumping of wastes (Polakowski, 1986).
The reserve contains a "concentration of unique and sensitive ecosystems and a mixture of rural
land uses and structures that are united by past events and management actions to produce a
memorable and outstanding landscape character" (Polakowski, 1986). The site was established
as a Greenline reserve park, recognising the area’s cultural, natural, scenic and scientific values.
The objectives of the Cape Cod plan places an equal value on conservation and recreation, its
purposes are to "conserve scenery, natural and historical resources, wildlife and to provide
enjoyment of these facets and to leave them unempaired for the enjoyment of future
generations" (Polakowski, 1986).
The Cape Cod seashore advisory commission, representing the different seashore interest
groups, acts as the main advisory group. Routine management is undertaken by the National
Park Service. The park has been compartmentalised to consist of natural zones, historic zones,
development zones and special use or core area zones.
Management Problems Some of the chief problems within the park include exploitation of
tourists through uncontrolled commercialism, intensive cottage development and also
inadequate traffic control and transportation; congestion pollutes the atmosphere, endangers
lives and reduces the level of visitor enjoyment. Dune buggies cause destruction of the sand
dunes and water supplies are limited due to inadequate ground water resources. There is
trespassing on private land by off-road vehicles (Polakowski, 1986).
Resolving the various problems is made more difficult by the lack of co-operative planning
and division of responsibilities amongst local and state governments (Polakowski, 1986).
Staff In the early 1980’s 32 permanent full-time employees were augmented by
approximately 140 seasonal staff (1980).
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United States of America
Budget In the fiscal year 1980, funds of approximately 1,541,000 US dollars were budgeted
for administration, protection, interpretation and maintenance, plus an additional 62,200 dollars
for administration of recreational facilities..
Local Administration Superintendent, Cape Cod National Seashore, South Wellfleet,
Massachusetts, 02663.
References
The above text is developed from information provided by the National Park Service, and:
° Polakowski, K.J. (1986). Greenline reserves: A cooperative growth management approach
for protecting significant rural landscapes. Invited paper, international conference on rural
landscape management. Poland, June 16-23, 1986.
Date August 1987.
Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 1.5.5 (Eastern Forest)
Geographical Location North-west Indiana, including portions of Lake, Porter and LaPorte
counties bordering Lake Michigan. 37° 30’N, 87° 00’W
Date and History of Establishment 5 November 1966
Area 5,073ha
Land Tenure Federal state and private ownership
Altitude 176-214m
Physical Features Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore preserves an important remnant of what
was once a vast and unique wetland resulting from the retreat of the last great continental
glacier some 1,100 years ago. It contains 24km of Lake Michigan shoreline with warm shallow
water. Immediately inland from the beaches, sand dunes rise to almost 61m in a series of
blowouts, ridges and valleys and scattered between the dunes there are ponds, wetlands and
bogs. The lakeshore preserves and exhibits remnants of the glacial origin and historic stages of
Lake Michigan, and includes four separate, distinct shorelines.
Climate Humid Continental
Vegetation Nine terrestrial and four wetland communities exist within the Lakeshore.
Terrestrial communities include open beach, foredunes, dune blowouts, initial successional
dune forest, pine dune forest, black oak dunes, black oak savannah, prairie and climax forests.
Wetland communities include marsh, peatland and ponds. Sand thistle Cirsium pitcher is the
only plant listed in the Endangered Species Act known to exist here.
Fauna The badger Taxidea taxus is present and is provided legal protection under the Indiana
Non-game and Endangered Species Conservation Act. No animals protected under the 1973
Federal Endangered Species Act are known to be permanent residents. However, it is possible
that several species protected under this act are migrant visitors. These species include the
Arctic peregrine falcon Falco peregrinis ssp. tundrius, American peregrine falcon Falco
peregrinis ssp. anatum, Kirtland’s warbler Dendroica kirtlandii and the Karner blue
butterfly Lycaedes melissa var. samuelis. One area of the lakeshore is preserved as a nesting
area for the great blue heron Ardea herodias.
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United States of America
Cultural Heritage | Cultural resources at Indiana Dunes include the Bailly Homestead, an
1820’s French fur trading site, the working 19th century Chellburg farm and six of the 1933
Worlds Fair Century of Progress Homes, which were moved across Lake Michigan to their
locations within the park boundaries in 1934. There are a number of known archeological sites
in the park that have yet to be surveyed.
Local Human Population The Northern Illinois, Chicagoland area and Northwest Indiana area
population is approximately 10 million. The economy is primarily industrial with Northwest
Indiana being the number one steel producing area in the country. Agriculture plays a major
role in the outlying regions with tourism becoming a growing industry.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Two million visitors annually with a high percentage from the
Northern Indiana, Illinois and Chicagoland area. There are three visitor centres: Tremont
(main) Visitor Center; Bailly Visitor Center; West Beach Visitor Center; and one specialist unit
the Paul H. Douglas Center for Environmental Education. The centres are open all year round
except for Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Years.
Scientific Research and Facilities Air, water vegetative, historic, archeological and recreation
research is ongoing or has occurred in the last few years. In particular the interdunal wetlands
are used as an outdoor laboratory for scientific study and visitor enjoyment. These studies
have been conducted by park staff, other national park service employees or private
organisations. A staff of scientists and other support personnel are in permanent residence at
the national lakeshore. A science office complete with laboratory, is provided for science staff.
Conservation Management’ The national lakeshore is divided into four management zones.
The natural zone is the largest and encompasses 73.9% of the lakeshore; the historic zone
includes 0.3%; the park development zone includes 2.0% and the remaining 23.8% is managed
as a special use zone.Hunting is prohibited in the park, however fishing is permitted. The
park’s Cultural Resource Management Plan has been drafted for review and approval.
Management Problems’ The national lakeshore is surrounded by industrial, commercial and
residential activities and as a result, numerous conflicts exist with or because of adjacent uses.
Air and water problems are common. In a study of air pollution effects in ten protected areas
of the Great Lakes region, it was found that this area, along with Guyahoga Valley National
Recreation Area, was rated in most danger and that environmental alternations from sulphur
dioxide and ozone as well as visibility reductions are most serious. Typical acid rain effects on
vegetation and aquatic life and atmospheric haze have been measured and resource values are
diminishing at a steady rate. Unless major reductions in pollutant loadings occur, there may be
significant negative effects in the future. A more recent management problem is one of high
lake levels and shoreline erosion impacting the beaches and some area historic structures.
Staff 85 permanent employees and 100 seasonal employees
Budget Approximately US$3.8 million for fiscal year 1987
Local Administration Superintendent, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, National Park
Service, 1100 North Mineral Springs Road, Porter, Indiana 46304.
References
Numerous published and unpublished materials are contained within the various lakeshore
libraries.
° CNPPA Summary Status Report (1984). Threatened Protected Areas of the World.
Date August 1987
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United States of America
Pinelands National Reserve
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 1.05.05 (Eastern Forest)
Geographical Location Included in the Pinelands National Reserve are 11 major drainage
basins including the Mullica and tributaries (Bass, Wading, Batsto and Oswego Rivers), Great
Egg Harbor River, Forked River, Toms River, Rancocas Creek etc. Most Rivers flow into
Atlantic barrier bays or Delaware Bay except for Rancocas which flows into Delaware River.
39°45’°N; 74°45’°W.
Date and History of Establishment Accepted as a Biosphere Reserve in 1983. Decrees
protecting the area: Coastal Area Facility Review Act September 1973; Pinelands
Environmental Council 1975; National Park and Recreation Act 1978; Government Byrne
executive order #71 February 1979; NJ Legislature Pinelands Protection Act June 1979.
Area The reserve covers an area of 438,210ha, with a core zone (preservation area) of
148,928ha.
Land Tenure State wildlife areas - 6,062ha; state forests and parks - 45,400ha; county park -
6.8ha; federal wildlife refuge (Brigantine) - 8,097ha.
Altitude 0-100m
Physical Features The reserve is located on the Atlantic Outer Coastal Plain and is
characterized by gently rolling landscape. The substrate consists of unconsolidated sands, clays
and marls which form a podzol soil. The area has not been glaciated and there is no bedrock at
or near the surface. The area contains the largest freshwater aquifer in the mid-Atlantic
region. The mean winter temperature is 0-2°C; summer temperature 22-24°C. The mean
annual precipitation is 1124mm.
Climate No information
Vegetation The total Pine Barrens flora has over 800 species of vascular plants, of which 580
are native, 270 introduced, five endemic and 71 endangered, threatened or undetermined.
Habitat types seen include salt marsh, white cedar swamp, sphagnum bogs, cranberry bogs,
upland pine-oak, pygmy pine plains and hardwood swamp. There is a species list available for
the reserve.
Fauna’ Thirty-four species of mammals, 299 species of birds, 59 species of amphibians and
reptiles and 91 species of fish (including peripheral species). There is a species list available
for the reserve.
Cultural Heritage There are also a number of abandoned town sites representing 18th and
19th century business ventures.
Local Human Population Atlantic City to the east is the largest nearby town and Hammonton
is an important local trade and agricultural centre. The reserve contains numerous small towns
and villages scattered throughout including Chatsworth, Batsto and Greenbank.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information
Scientific Research and Facilities Fairly extensive research activity - both applied and basic
- Rutgers University maintains a blueberry/cranberry experiment station and a marine station.
USFS has conducted a number of forestry oriented studies over a long period of time,
Brigantine has focused on wildlife studies. Much of the basic scientific knowledge of the Pine
Barrens is summarised in Forman (1979). The Rutgers Division of Pinelands Research was
recently (1981) established to help coordinate research efforts in the area. Research includes
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United States of America
monitoring of water quality and forest fire management; climate, vegetation, hydrology and
pollution studies. Field stations include: Lebanon USFS, Rutgers, Little Egg,
Blueberry/Cranberry Station, Atlantic City, Chatsworth, Hammonton.
Conservation Management Comprehensive Management Plan exists. Article 5 outlines
standards, article 6 outlines activities subject to management. A Land Capability map defines
distribution of types. Coastal areas not subject to CMP but under jurisdiction of CAFRA.
Management Problems About 5% of the reserve is under agriculture (including indigenous
blueberry and cranberry culture as well as row crops) and 9% is developed (residential,
commercial, transportation arteries). Major areas preserved in national and state holding
include Brigantine Wildlife Refuge, Lebanon State Forest, Wharton Tract and Bass River State
Forest. Atlantic City and other coastal development areas are significant on the eastern
boundary. Large retirement communities in several locations are also of significance.
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration Pinelands Commission, State of NJ, PO Box 7, New Jersey 08064.
References
° Forman, R.T.T. (Ed.) (1979). Pine Barrens: Ecosystem and Landscape. Academic Press,
NY.
° McCormick, J. (1970). The Pine Barrens: A Preliminary Ecological Inventory. NJ State
Museum Report No. 2.
° New Jersey Pinelands Commission - Comprehensive Management Plan for the Pinelands
National Reserve (National Parks and Recreation Act, 1978) and Pinelands Area (NJ
Pinelands Protection Act, 1979). Pinelands Commission, State of NJ, New Lisbon, NJ 08064.
Date April 1983, revised September 1986 and September 1987
Pu’uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park
(formally the City of Refuge National Historical park)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 5.03.13 (Hawaiian)
Geographical Location Pu’uhonua o Honaunau lies on the western slope of Mauna Loa, on
the south shore of Honaunau Bay of western Hawaii island (County of Hawaii). 19°26°N,
155°55’W.
Date and History of Establishment The site was set aside as a National Historical Park by
congress on | July 1961 (City of Refuge NHP) and renamed the Pu’uhonua o Honaunau NHP
on 10 November 1978.
Area 73ha
Land Tenure Federal Government
Altitude Sea level
Physical Features The park consists of a generally flat coastal area comprising of lava
formations, predominantly Pahoehoe and A’a types, with occasional pockets of soil material.
The shoreline is flat with many small inlets and patches of sand, rubble and fringing coral reefs
(Anon, 1981).
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United States of America
Climate The average annual temperature is 31°C and the minimum is 18°C, with a diurnal
range of 6°C. The mean annual rainfall is 508mm, with a rainy season from May to September
and hurricane season from June-December. Storms move through the area more frequently
from December through February, bringing high seas, wind and rain from the west and south.
Tsunami (tidal waves) occur infrequently in the Kona Coast.
Vegetation The coastal vegetation of Honaunau Bay is predominantly xerophytic scrub with
some trees, characterised by ekoa Leucaena leucocephala thicket and uncleared opiuma/ekoa
scrub forest. Common plants are passion flower, morning glory, sword fern, garden spurge,
Madagascar periwinkle and klu (Passiflora sp., Ipomoea sp., Nephrolepis sp., Euphorbia hirta,
Catharanthus roseus and Acacia farnesiana). The grass present is mostly red top Rhynchelytrum
repens, an introduced forage species. Shoreline trees include coconut Cocos nucifera,
noni Morinda citrifolia, hala Pandanus odoratissimus and kou Cordia subcordata. The
sedge Fimbristylis cymosa grows in pockets in the pahoehoe laca close to the sea, and another
sedge, ahu’awa Cyperus sp., grows around the brackish pools. The dominant grass is Bermuda
grass Cynodon dectylon (Yen, 1971; Anon, 1981).
Fauna Introduced mammals are plentiful, with mongoose Herpestes griseus, house mouse Mus
musculus, black rat Rattus rattus and brown rat R. norvegicus. Birds present are the kolea or
Pacific golden plover Pluvialis dominica, akekeke or ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres and the
less abundant ulili or wandering tattler Heteroscelus incanus. Common but introduced birds are
the turtle dove Streptopelia sp.and Brazilian cardinal Caryothraustes sp. Three species of
geckos and three species of skinks are known from the park.
Of a total of 609 insect species recorded for the Kona district, only 150 species have been
collected here (72 species are considered native). The ant species Pheidole megacophala is
abundant and has caused the destruction of countless endemic species, especially beetles. The
little silk-spinning embiid has been sighted in the park and is common in the drier lowlands.
Leafhoppers collected in the park are endemic. Only one species of the many native
damselflies has been collected at Honaunau. This species is common and often found from sea
level up to the native forest on the hill slopes. Except for an endemic species of wood borer,
all 23 species of beetles from the park area are non native. Cockroaches, flies and termites
thrive in the warm humid climate (Bryan et al, 1957; Anon, 1981).
The corals consist of Pocillopora meandreins and Porites pukoensis communities (Anon, 1981).
Cultural Heritage The prime cultural features of the park include the Pu’uhonua sanctuary
building, the temple of Hale o Keawe and Ki’ilae village. The park encompasses a restored
traditional Hawaiian village and the spiritual sanctuary where defeated warriors or people who
had broken sacred laws could be absolved and allowed a fresh start in the community. The
Ki’ilae village was completely abandoned in 1926 (Anon, 1981).
Local Human Population The nearby village is still inhabited by indigenous Hawaiians who
continue to practise traditional crafts and skills such as weaving mats and night fishing.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are 350,000 visitors annually entering the park. The
heaviest period of use is usually midday and the pattern is generally an orientation talk, a
pre-arranged tour of the palace grounds, demonstrations of traditional Hawaiian activities and
visits to Hale o Keawe and the Place of Refuge. There are three visitor centres, museums and
horse trails (Anon, 1981).
Scientific Research and Facilities A cooperative Park Studies Unit with assistance from the
University of Hawaii, Manoa Campus, conducts some research. Researchers at the Mauka
botanical gardens develop and grow native Hawaiian plants for re-introduction into the park
(Anon, 1981).
Conservation Management The park has been established to "preserve through public
ownership and as part of the American national park system the historical ruins as well as other
nearby prehistoric features" (Anon, 1981).
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United States of America
With the aim to return the landscape to its late 18th century appearance, the authorities have
embarked on a limited programme to clear exotic plants from around the ruins. By the early
1980’s 23ha of land had been cleared of exotic plants such as ekoa Leucaena glauca,
opiuma Pithecellobium dulce, christmasberry Schinus terenthifolia and kiawe Prosopis pallida
(Anon, 1981).
Administration of the park is coordinated by the National Park service and the US Department
of the Interior. The park authorities work in close association with the Waimea Hawaiian Civic
Club and the Hawaii Natural History Association (Anon, 1981).
Proposals exist to enlarge the park boundaries to include extensive marine areas (Anon, 1981).
Management Problems Coral damage has been caused by boats anchoring in the bay, reef fish
have been gathered for trade to aquariums and exotic plants introduced into areas of native
vegetation (Anon, 1981).
Staff In the early 1980’s there were 10 permanent full-time staff and five permanent,
part-time staff (Anon, 1981).
Budget US$ 454,700 budgeted for fiscal year 1985 (see Anon, 1981 for information on the
budget 1978-1981).
Local Administration Superintendent, Pu’uhonua o Honaunau NHP, PO Box 129, Honaunau,
Kona, Hawaii 96726 (also administers Pu’ukohota Heiau National Historic Site).
References
° Anon (1981). Pu’uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park, general briefing statement.
8 pp. mimeo.
° Apple, R.A. and G.A. MacDonald (1966). The rise of sea level in contemporary times at
Honaunau, Kona, Hawaii.
° Bryan, E.H., Wentworth, C.K., Greenwell, A., Neal, M.C., Suehiro, A. and A. Kay (1957).
The natural and cultural history of Honaunau. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu,
Hawaii. 221 pp. mimeo.
° Emory, K.P., Stokes, J.F.G., Barrere, D.B. and M.A. Kelly (1957). The natural and cultural
history of Honaunau, kpna, Hawaii. Vol II. The Cultural History of Honaunau. Bernice P.
Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii. 247 pp. mimeo.
° Yen, D.E. (1971). An ethnobotanical survey of the National Parks at Honaunau and
Kalapana on the Island of Hawaii, and Kipahulu, Maui. Bernice P. Bishop Museum,
Honolulu, Hawaii. 26 pp. mimeo.
Date August 1987
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CANADA
Area 9,958,925 sq. km
Population 25,000,000
Parks and Reserves Legislation National parks and national marine parks (federal): the
National Parks Act as amended in 1974. National wildlife areas and migratory bird sanctuaries:
the Canada Wildlife Act, 1973 and the Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1970. Provincial and
territorial parks, and ecological reserves: each province and territory has its own protected
areas legislation. In general, natural resources in Canada are under provincial jurisdiction
except in the territories where federal jurisdiction applies. As a result, the provincial
governments play a key role in conservation. National parks have been established either on
federal lands or through negotiated federal/provincial agreements to transfer administration
and control over the resources.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management Responsibility for the National Parks
Act is vested in the Minister of the Environment and is undertaken by Environment Canada,
Parks, which is headed by an Assistant Deputy Minister. Parks’ head office is responsible for
policy direction and new park establishment, while five regional offices direct the planning
and operations of the existing 34 national parks. E.C. Parks’ objective for National Parks is,
"to protect for all time representative natural areas of Canadian significance in a system of
national parks, and to encourage public understanding, appreciation and enjoyment of this
natural heritage so as to leave it unimpaired for future generations". The Federal Provincial
Parks Council (FPPC) coordinates information exchange activities between the national,
provincial and territorial park agencies, and a classification system has been devised for the
2,097 parks listed by the FPPC in its 1985/1986 annual report.
Addresses
° Environment Canada, Parks, Les Terrasses de la Chaudiere, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIA
1G2
Regional Offices: Environment Canada, Parks.
° Atlantic Region:
Environment Canada-Parks, Historic Properties, Upper Water Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia,
B3J 189
Prairie and Northern Region:
Environment Canada-Parks, 457 Main Street, 4th Floor, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3B 3E8
Western Region:
Environment Canada-Parks, P.O. Box 2989, Postal Station M, Rm. 520, 220-4th Avenue
S.E., Calgary, Alberta, T2P 3H8
Région du Quebec:
Environment Canada, Parcs, 3 rue Buada, Case postale 6060, Haute-Ville, Quebec, GIR 4V7
Ontario Region:
Environment Canada-Parks, 111 Water Street East, Cornwall, Ontario, K6H 6S3
Additional Information Both natural resources and user research and studies are undertaken
by Parks’ researchers, as well as researchers from other government agencies, such as Canadian
Wildlife Service, and from universities. Research is managed through a collection/research
permit system. Facilities for park visitors are provided so that visitors can enjoy the natural
values of the park but only where considered essential and after study has shown that the
natural values will not be impaired. Visitation to E. C. Parks holdings in 1986 was around 25
million. Public use and appreciation is encouraged through interpretation programmes,
personal experiences, publications and films.
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Canada
Protected Landscapes
Unspecified areas
Niagara Escarpment *
Rideau Trent-Severn Waterways *
Niagara Escarpment
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 1.05.05 (Eastern forest)
Geographical Location Located in southern Ontario, stretching approximately 725km from
Queenston on the Niagara River to the islands off the tip of the Bruce Peninsula. Major towns
along its route are Niagara Falls, St. Catherines, Hamilton, Owen Sound, Wiarton and
Tobermory. The Escarpment lies between 43°00’-45°18’N and 79°00’-81°42’W.
Date and History of Establishment With the passage of the Niagara Escarpment Planning
Development Act in 1973, the Ontario Provincial Government established a planning process to
ensure that the area would be protected. A final Niagara Escarpment Plan was approved in
1985. This plan provides a framework of objectives and policies aimed at striking a balance
between development, preservation and enjoyment of the escarpment.
Area’ The area encompassed by the Niagara Escarpment Plan is approximately 1,900 sq.km.
and there are 105 parks of varying sizes located along its length. Some land is still being
acquired and the long-term goal of the Niagara Escarpment Land Acquisition Program is the
completion of a 51,093ha parks system along the length of the Niagara Escarpment. The parks
include the newly announced Bruce Peninsula National Park, which will be 270 sq.km.,
provincial parks, and Conservation Authority parks. The intent is to link all of these parks by
the Bruce Trail, a hiking trail which runs the length of the Niagara Escarpment.
Land Tenure Land tenure is mixed, involving federal, provincial, municipal and private
ownership. There are 8 counties or regions and 37 local municipalities affected by plan
policies. The area included parkland owned by the Ministry of Natural Resources,
Conservation Authorities, and several other public bodies.
Altitude The elevation of the Niagara Escarpment ranges from 100m in the Hamilton area to
approximately 525m in the Collingwood area.
Physical Features The area encompassed by the Niagara Escarpment Plan is a mosaic of
topographical features containing essentially undisturbed cliffs, forests and stream valleys,
rolling glacial landforms, and a variety of other features. The Niagara Escarpment itself,
despite its varied appearance, is a continuous geological and geomorphological landform. This
is indicated by the continuous bedrock strata responsible for the Escarpment’s formation, and
in the topographic height of land these buried strata create. Because the bedrock is composed
of many different rock formations the Escarpment face often has a terraced appearance due to
differential rates of erosion. Numerous stream valleys further dissect the face, creating a
highly irregular profile. In many places along its length, the rock is obscured or completely
buried by glacial materials. The origin of the Escarpment dates back 400-450 million years.
Climate The Niagara Escarpment experiences four seasons. Temperatures range from -35°C
in January to the occasional +36°C in July and August. Rainfall varies along the length of the
Escarpment but is generally in the 70cm to 100 cm range per year. At the Queenstown end,
the climate is more moderate. Annual snowfall ranges between 100cm and 300cm (from south
to north).
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Vegetation The Escarpment exhibits a botanical diversity that is unique to Canada running
through two forest regions: the Deciduous (or Carolinian) and the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence.
The trees are primarily deciduous, although conifers occur in places. Numerous rare species of
orchids and ferns are found along the Niagara Escarpment with 43 species of orchid recorded
in the Bruce Peninsula National Park. In the section between Guelph and Niagara Falls, there
are seven excellent remnants of the Carolinian vegetation zone, one of the most threatened
regions of Canada.
Fauna The Niagara Escarpment also possesses great faunal diversity. Common species
include: white-tailed deer, beaver, mink, otter, porcupine, raccoon, fox and chipmunk
(Odocoileus virginranus, Castor canadensis, Mustela vison, Lutra canadensis, Erithizon dorsatum,
Procyon lotor, Vulpes vulpes and Tamias sp). Less common are black bear Ursus americanus,
lynx Lynx lynx, weasel Mustela frenata and coyote Canis latrans. Dozens of bird species are
found along the Escarpment’s length. Several kinds of snakes are also found. The endangered
Eastern Massassuaga rattlesnake Sistrurus catenatus is the only poisonous one, and is more
commonly found on the Bruce Peninsula.
Cultural Heritage Numerous "ghost towns" are found along the length of the Niagara
Escarpment, whilst some selected properties have been restored to their original condition. A
monument to General Isaac Brock is located at Queenston Heights. The old Welland Canal is a
noted historical site.
Local Human Population A great number of villages, towns, and cities are situated along and
within close proximity of the Niagara Escarpment. Land use along the escarpment is a mosaic,
ranging from fruit growing on the Niagara Peninsula, to beef production in Bruce County, and
tourism on the Bruce Peninsula.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The entire Niagara Escarpment offers outstanding and varied
tourist potential and numerous parks along the escarpment provide many opportunities for
recreation, ranging from wind surfing, to skiing, nature study, swimming, fishing, rappelling,
hang gliding, camping and hiking. The Bruce Trail is an excellent hiking trail. Many of the
Parks offer interpretive programs.
Scientific Research and Facilities | There are three universities within or adjacent to the
Escarpment Corridor. These are Brock, McMaster and Guelph. Annual government field
surveys are made of environmentally sensitive areas by the Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources and various Conservation Authorities within the Corridor.
Conservation Management The purpose of the Niagara Escarpment Planning and
Development Act, 1973, is "to provide for the maintenance of the Niagara Escarpment and
land in its vicinity substantially as a continuous natural environment, and to ensure only such
development occurs as is compatible with that natural environment". Specific objectives
include : to protect unique ecological and historic area; to maintain and enhance the quality and
character of natural streams and water supplies, to provide adequate opportunities for outdoor
recreation; to maintain and enhance the open landscape character of the Niagara Escarpment in
so far as possible, by such means as compatible farming or forestry and by preserving the
natural scenery; to ensure that all new development is compatible with the purpose of the Act;
to provide for adequte public access to the Niagara Escarpment and to support municipalities
within the Niagara Escarpment Planning Area in their exercise of the planning functions
conferred upon them by The Planning Act. The area of the Niagara Escarpment Plan has been
allocated among seven land use designations: Escarpment Natural Area, Escarpment Protection
Area, Escarpment Rural Area, Minor Urban Centre, Urban Area, Escarpment Recreation Area
and Mineral Resources Area. Each designation sets forth specific objectives, criteria for
designation, permitted use, and other relevant inoformation.
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Management Problems The Niagara Escarpment Plan arose in response to increasing threats to
the Niagara Escarpment’s natural environment. Primary concerns included aggregate mining
and increasing urbanization. These and other land uses are now controlled more effectively.
The southern end of the Escarpment passes close to the most intensively urbanized area of
Canada, the Toronto-Hamilton-St. Catharines megalopolis, with the resulting development
pressures.
Staff The Niagara Escarpment Commission and its staff are responisble for promoting the
objectives set forth in the Niagara Escarpment Plan. The Commission itself consists of 17
members: a Chairman, eight members representing the public at large, and eight members who
are either members or employees of county or regional councils of the Escarpment area. The
Commission staff is comprised of a director, 3 managers, planners, planning technicians, a
landscape architect, cartographers, an information assistant, and administration and support
staff.
Budget The annual budget of the Niagara Escarpment Commission is $1.8 million dollars.
$2.5 million have been committed annually for land acquisition for a period of 10 years. Other
implementing authorities have an annual budget of $700,000 allocated to Escarpment Plan
implementation work.
Local Administration The Niagara Escarpment Commission’s offices are at 232 Guelph Street,
Georgetown, Ontario, Canada L7G 4B1.
References
° Niagara Escarpment Commission, 1983. The Final Proposed Plan for the Niagara
Escarpment. Niagara Escarpment Commission: Georgetown, Ontario.
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 1976. Significant Natural Areas Along the Niagara
Escarpment. Report on Nature Reserve candidates and other significant natural areas in the
Niagara Escarpment Planning Area, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Date August 1987
Rideau Waterway and Heritage Canal
Trent-Severn Waterway and Heritage Canal
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 1.05.05 (Eastern Forest)
Geographical Location Located within the southern portion of Ontario. The Trent-Severn
portion is close to Toronto, and links Georgian Bay to Lake Ontario. The Rideau is close to
Kingston and Ottawa, linking Lake Ontario to the Ottawa River. The waterways lie between
44°00’-45°24’N and 75°42’-79°48’W.
Date and History of Establishment The Rideau Canal was built between 1826 and 1831 as a
critical link in the military supply route between Upper and Lower Canada. By the mid-19th
century, the canal had become a busy commercial artery. It is also recognized as one of the
best preserved 19th century canals still in active operation in the world. The Trent-Severn
Canal was built between 1834 and 1920 and was an important route for the shipment of lumber
and other goods. Today, recreation is the main use. In 1972, administration and control over
the heritage canals was transferred to the Canadian Governments’ agency responsible for
National and Historic Parks - now called Environment Canada, Parks. Following a joint
Canada/Ontario study, the two levels of government signed an agreement in 1975 called the
Canada-Ontario Rideau, Trent, Severn Agreement (CORTS) to co-ordinate their activities
towards achieving the goal of developing a distinctive environmental corridor.
Area The Rideau-Trent-Severn corridor is 680km long, ranging in width from 2-30km.
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Land Tenure’ Land tenure is mixed in both corridors with 140 jurisdictions, departments and
commissions being involved at all levels of government. There is also a great deal of private
land involved with over 40,000ha of land publically owned.
Altitude The highest point in the waterway systems is at Balsam Lake with an elevation of
255m above sea level. The lowest elevation is at the Ottawa River with an elevation of 40m
above sea level. However, hills along the corridor reach an elevation of 363m above sea level.
Physical Features The Rideau section contains 16 lakes along or directly accessible from the
main channel. It also contains two rivers, the Rideau and the Cataraqui. The Trent-Severn
section has 17 lakes along the main channel and four principal rivers - The Trent, Otonabee,
Talbot, and Severn Rivers. The geology of the Rideau section varies from a plain of limestone
or sandstone covered with shallow, poorly drained soil, to rocky Precambrian Shield areas
where bedrock is a mixture of granites and metamorphic rocks, with a shallow soil cover. The
geology of the Trent-Severn is characterized by the Precambiran and the Ordovician Era, with
its limestone bedrock. The Canadian Shield is hilly and broken, contrasting with the flat
limestone section.
Climate There are four pronounced seasons: winter, spring, summer and fall with minimum
temperatures as low as -35°C and maximum temperatures as high as +34°C. Rainfall varies
between 76-96cm annually and with between 162cm and 284cm of snowfall. Snow is on the
ground 80 to 120 days but with over 200 days without snow cover.
Vegetation There is marked variation in the vegetation along the length of the corridor. The
dominance of vegetation types is primarily determined by the presence of the Canadian Shield.
Where the waterway runs through the Shield, the mixed deciduous forests characteristic of
southern Ontario give way to coniferous forests. Wetlands, with their own vegetative
association, occur along the waterway.
Fauna’ The fauna is characteristic of the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence Forest Region and
includes: white-tailed deer, beaver, mink, otter, porcupine and raccoon (Odocoileus virginianus,
Castor canadensis, Mustela vison, Lutra canadensis, Erithizon dorsatum and Procyon lotor). The
endanged Eastern Massassauga rattlesnake Sistrurus catenatus occurs along the eastern shore of
Georgian Bay.
Cultural Heritage Numerous archaeological and historic sites are found along the waterway
corridor. These sites include Indian encampments and burial grounds, petroglyphs, settlers’
homes, numerous dams and locks, defensible structures, and other features of the waterways’
rich cultural heritage. The Rideau Canal is itself of national historic significance.
Local Human Population Numerous cities, towns and villages are situated along the length of
the corridor and close to the most densely populated portion of Canada, and within a day’s
drive of about 60 million people in Canada and the U.S.A. In summer months, due to the
waterway’s great recreational appeal and the presence of many summer cottages along its
length, the population swells dramatically. Local economies have a diverse base, ranging from
livestock production to manufacturing and tourism.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Today, the Rideau is an important recreational waterway for
thousands of boaters, cottagers and other visitors. The waterway is easily accessible by car,
boat, bus, and rail. The waterway is open for navigation from mid-May to mid-October.
Different types of accommodation are available, including campgrounds, hotels and motels, and
even staying on one’s boat or yacht. Recreational facilities along the waterway are numerous
and highly variable.
Scientific Research and Facilities Trent University in Peterborough, the University of
Ottawa, Carleton University, and Queen’s University in Kingston are within the waterway
corridor. In addition research on water quality, fisheries and other concerns is carried out by
relevant agencies.
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Conservation Management’ The two heritage canals are now administered by Environment
Canada, Parks. The management goal for the Rideau, Trent-Severn corridor is "To develop a
distinctive environmental corridor wherein a wide variety of recreational opportunities are
available to users in a safe, pleasant and interesting environment and where optimum
recreational use is achieved for the greatest number of people without causing significant
environmental damage". Specific objectives include maintaining or enhancing: clean air and
water; adequate undeveloped open space; preservation and interpretation of the human and
natural historical environment; an adequate number of public use areas; adequate commercial
development; and satisfactory private development. The CORTS agreement resulted in the
preparation of a set of co-ordinating policies to guide all levels of government and private
sector activities tewards the achievement of the CORTS goal and objectives. The policies call
for action in the areas of pollution control, water management, land use, tourism and
recreation, and heritage conservation. Major management activities are those undertaken to
ensure safe and enjoyable use of the waterway corridor (lock operation and maintenance etc.),
and environmental quality. Much co-ordination and co-operation occurs to implement the
policies. Nearby significant protected areas are Georgian Bay Islands National Park (14.2
sq.km.), St. Lawrence Islands National Park (0.8 sq.km.) and Frontenac Provincial Park.
Management Problems Water pollution is a dominant concern. Encroachment on open space
by poorly planned vacation and permanent home developments was and to some extend
continues to be of concern. Major wetland wildlife areas and lake shorelines have been lost to
cottage development in the past. A decrease in fish populations has been noted.
Staff | Environment Canada, Parks devoted 170 and 240 person years in 1982-83 to the
administration and management of the Rideau waterway and the Trent-Severn waterway
respectively. Other agencies also provide staff for different aspects of the waterway corridors’
management.
Budget Operating expenditures by Environment Canada, Parks alone in 1982-83 were $10.9
million (Canadian). Capital expenditures by Environment Canada, Parks were $2 million
(Canadian). Expenditures of others involved in the management of the waterway corridor are
not available.
Local Administration Rideau Canal, 12 Maple Avenue N, Smith’s Fall, Ontario, Canada K7A
1Z5.
Trent-Severn Waterwway, P.O. Box 567, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada K9J 6Z6.
References
° Canada-Ontario Rideau-Trent-Severn Study Committee (1975). The Rideau Trent Severn:
Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. Inforamtion Canada: Ottawa.
° Canada-Ontario-Rideau-Trent-Severn Waterway (1975). CORTS Agreement.
° CORTS (1982). Canada-Ontario Policies for Rideau, Trent-Severn Corridor. Canada-Ontario.
° Other pamphlets prepared by Environment Canada, Parks available through addresses above.
Date August 1987
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LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
Wetterberg ef al. carried out an extensive survey of the protected areas of South America,
covering aspects of legislation and administration, as well as listing and mapping all major
areas. Of the 13 countries covered (including French Guiana), Wetterberg only identified six
with Category V _ sites: Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.
Specifically, these range from roadside parkways (Colombia) to watershed protection areas
(Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela), and from historical/cultural sanctuaries (Peru, Uruguay) to
recreation areas (Ecuador), although neither the parkways of Colombia nor the protection
forests of Peru were included. Macchu Picchu Historical Sanctuary, which was listed by
Wetterberg as Category V based on legislation, would be appear to be de facto a Category II
site (National Park). Also, although Wetterberg list National Reserves in Argentina as Category
IV (Managed Nature Reserves), it could be argued that these areas are closer to protected
landscapes. On the edges of National Parks, they are generally areas still in private ownership
“of interest for conservation of ecological systems, maintenance of protection zones for
adjacent national parks, or for the creation of independent conservation zones when the
conditions present prohibit establishment of a national park". Two sites in Panama may
approximate protected landscapes, the Lago Gatun Recreation Park, and the Metropolitan
Natural Park, both of which are fairly small natural areas close to population centres, and there
are also a number of recreation areas in Costa Rica (although again these are relatively small).
Two of Costa Rica’s national parks (Barra Honda and Volcan Irazu) remain largely in private
ownership, and are probably more akin to protected landscapes than national parks proper.
Also, the protection forests and zones of Costa Rica set up to protect watersheds, may also
function as protected landscapes, although the forestry legislation is unclear in both the
definition and objectives of such designations. There appears to be one true protected
landscape in the Caribbean islands, the 70,000ha regional nature park on Martinique. The
protected landscape of this French "department" was created on the lines of the parcs naturels
regionaux system of Mainland France, and under the same legislation, primarily to ensure
continued survival of the traditional landscape. The area is perhaps unique in that it includes
over half of the department (63.7%), more or less only excluding the main town and adjacent
areas.
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COSTA RICA
Area 50,900 sq.km
Population 2,450,226 (1984 provisional census)
Parks and Reserves Legislation Concern for nature conservation dates back to 1883, although
the first national park was not declared until 1945. Legislation in 1955 proposed that the area
within 2km of each volcanic crater be declared a national park while the first biological reserve
(Cabo Blanco) was declared in 1963 and the first forest reserve (Rio Mancho) in 1964. The
Forestry Law of 25 November 1969 and the modifications of it in the 24 August 1977 law
establishing the National Park Service provide that national parks and reserves can be created
by executive decree; once created the limits can be altered only by a Congressional Law. The
National Park Service has the right to recommend the creation of new parks and reserves and
expropriation of lands, set up and administer funds derived from entrance fees and special
taxes, enter and inspect rural properties, seize vehicles and arms or equipment used for any
illegal activities, in accordance with the provisions of these laws. The laws also define the
responsibilities of the Park Service and general prohibitions against certain activities by visitors
to the parks and reserves. The chief functions of the National Park Service is to maintain
representative examples of biological units as ecosystems, maintain ecological and genetic
diversity and protect scenic beauty. Separate additional legislation empowers the Ministry of
the Economy to issue special bonds for payment of lands to be expropriated for parks and
reserves. In 1982 the new Law of Wildlife Conservation was placed before the Legislative
Assembly where it faced strong opposition from hunting clubs who were objecting against
license controls and stiffer penalties for poaching. Wildland areas are generally forest zones
which are legally protected or managed for a variety of purposes, ranging from resource
exploitation to absolute protection, and including environmental recreation and education.
There are however, no legally adopted national conservation objectives for managing
wildlands. The recognised protected areas in Costa Rica range from cultural monuments to
wildlife conservation areas. In 1982 there were 59 units in the wildlands system divided into
seven main management classes: Biological Reserves (Reservas Biologicas); Anthropological
Reserves (Reservas Antropolégicas) (including Indian Reserves); National Parks (Parques
Nacionales); Water Production Areas (including Protection Forests and Zones); National Forests
(Reservas Forestales) (including Forest Reserves); Wildlife Refuges (Refugios de Vida
Silvestre); National Monument and Cultural Monuments (Monumentos Nacionales) (USAID,
1982; FPN, 1985).
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management The National Park Service has existed
since 24 August 1977 with equivalency to a General Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Livestock (from 1969-1977 it was a Department within the General Forestry Directorate of
the same Ministry). It has responsibility for 25 parks and reserves except for the Monteverde
Cloud Forest Biological Reserve and Rafael Lucas Rodriguez National Wildlife Refuge (see
individual sheets). The Department of Wildlife (DVS) was split in 1981 and reestablished
within the Forestry Service (DGF). As a result of this move, the DGF has begun to allow
wildlife research to be conducted in its forest reserves and its 200 or so forest guards may be in
a position to more adequately enforce the wildlife laws. The DVS employs a staff of 11 and
generally the Department is very positive to research. However, there is no official liaison
between DVS and SPN due to the lack of a national wildlife policy (Rodriguez, 1983).
Forestry law 4465 of 25 November 1969 defined national parks as "regions or areas.... that for
their scenic beauty or the national or international importance of their wildlife are to be set
aside for the recreation and education of the public, for tourism or for scientific research"
(Article 74). The SPN administrates 13 national parks, seven biological reserves, four
recreational areas, and one national monument; the DVS; two wildlife refuges and the DGF’s
Department of Forest Reserves; 11 forest reserves and seven biological reserves, four
recreational areas, and one national monument; the DVS; two wildlife refuges and the DGF’s
Department of Forest Reserves; 11 forest reserves and seven protected zones. National
Monuments are relatively small areas of lesser natural or historical value, or those which protect
a particular resource of special importance. Biological Reserves are areas containing
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ecosystems/species largely unaffected by man, where the ecological processes can follow their
own courses with as little interference as possible with the primary objective being to protect
natural phenomena for scientific research. One of the first international conservation treaties
signed by Costa Rica was the "Convention on the protection of flora and fauna and beautiful
scenery of the American countries" or 24 October 1940. The Convention on International
Trade (CITES) was signed on 3 March 1973 and approved by legislative decree No. 5605 on 2
October 1974. Costa Rica adhered to the World Heritage listing in 23 August 1977 with one
site inscribed in 1983 (Talamanca Fange-La Amistad Reserve) and created one biosphere
reserve (Reserva de la Amistad) in 1982. National parks are the best known of all protected
areas and are readily accepted by the public. The national parks continue to contain private
property within their boundaries, and with few exceptions park management and protection are
inadequate, with major conflicts arising with hunters, squatters, tourists and with forest fires.
Half the national parks and the cultural monuments have general management and development
plans and three national parks and one recreational area have an interpretation and
environmental education programme. Each unit however, has an operations guide for
management and development. Each biological reserve has an annual operations plan and some
have management and development plans. Natural resource exploitation is prohibited. Other
types of reserve also exist. The Servicio de Parques Nacionales, Ministry of Agriculture, does
not have a fixed annual budget for each of the parks and reserves under its own
administration. Rather the overall budget is adjusted to meet priorities throughout the year.
For 1981 the approximate budget for the Park Services system was US$1,720,602 for all normal
operations and US$75,00-100,000 from international donations for projects (WWF/IUCN and
RENARE). Also, various other preinvestment planning funds, major bank loans and loans for
other projects are underway. Of the 18 units in forest reserves and protection zones only two
have management plans but an operational plan for all units was due to be completed in the
1980s. Forest areas are often merely estimated and assumed to be exploitable. Actual
management does not exist in any of the units but some protection is given by the one to four
forest guards present per site. The National Forest Directorate (also within the agriculture
ministry) is responsible for the forest areas, while the Indian Reserves are more autonomous
(though management is shared with the National Institute for Lands and Colonisation, and the
National Council on Indian Affairs) (Boza, 1981; Rodriguez 1983; USAID, 1983).
Addresses
° Servicio de Parques Nacionales, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Apartado 10094, San
José.
° Fundacion de Parques Nacionales, Apdo 236, San José 1002.
Additional Information Costa Rica has the greatest proportion of its territory in parks and
protective areas than any other Latin American country with tropical moist forest (Boza,
1981). Legally established wildlands occupy about 952,000ha, equivalent to 19% of the land
area, whilst in total there are 1,138,000ha in all protective categories, accounting for 22% of
the country. The Atlantic slope forests are seen as the most threatened, as a result of legal land
colonisation schemes taking place there. The main cause of the very high deforestation rate
(65,000ha/annum) is cattle raising and agriculture, with an estimated two million head of
livestock in 1979. Logging accounts for only 2% of deforestation per annum. Of the protected
areas only national parks, biological reserves, wildlife refuges and national monuments are
considered to be anywhere near to being adequately protected. However, with the exception of
the recently declared La Amistad National Park, all wildland units have been created without
prior ecological and cadastral studies. The management objectives and categories, their
geometric shapes and boundaries do not, in most cases, coincide with the areas as established.
Many wildland units require boundary adjustments, management plans and the expropriation
of private holdings. The Forestry Law (no. 4465) has several inadequacies, with protected
zones not defined nor objectives specified. The 1979-1982 National Development Plan,
however, did emphasize the need to reduce environmental deterioration. The impressive
development in wildland protection and management during the early 1980’s has occurred
without the benefits of clear policies or guidelines and without a single administrative or legal
agency. The government has yet to set legal conservation objectives or an administrative
programme (Boza, 1981; USAID, 1982).
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References
° Boza, M.A. (1978). Los Parques Nacionales de Costa Rica. INCAFO, Madrid. 224 pp.
° Boza, M.A. and Mendoza, R. (1981). The National Parks of Costa Rica. INAFCO, Madrid.
° FPN (1985). Areas de Manejo en Costa Rica. Programa patrimonio natural de Costa Rica.
Fundacion de Parques Nacionales.
° Herrera, J.C.G. (1984). Planificacién estrategica del Subsistema de Parques Nacionales y
Reservas equivalentes de Costa Rica, y una metodologia para redefinicion de limites de areas
protegidas. Magister Scientiae. Centro Agrondémico Tropical de Investigacioén y Ensefanza,
CATIE, Costa Rica.
° Rodriguez, J.M. (1983). Costa Rica. Informe de la Mesa redonda sobre Parques Nacionales,
otras areas protegidas, flora y fauna silvestre. FAO, Santiago de Chile, 8-10 Junio 1983.
° Thelen, K.D. and Dalfelt, A. (1975) Systems and Policies for Wildland Management and
Policies and Regulations for National Parks Management - Costa Rica. Report presented to
the Ministerio de Planeacién Nacional de Costa Rica.
° USAID (1982). Costa Rica; Country Environmental Profile. Field Study. Tropical Science
Centre. San José.
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
National Parks
Barra Honda 2,295 *
Cahuita 1,700 *
Volcan Irazu 2,309 *
Subtotal 6,304
Barra Honda National Park
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 8.16.04 (Central American)
Geographical Location Located in Nicoya Peninsula, 12km north-east of Nicoya, in the
Guanacaste Province. 10°8’-10°12’N, 85°20’-85°25’W.
Date and History of Establishment The national park was established on 20 August 1974, by
law No. 5583, and its boundaries were fixed by executive decree No. 5558 on 5 October 1979.
Area 2,295ha
Land Tenure’ All the lands are private property and the area still lacks a survey to allow
expropriation proceedings to begin.
Altitude 20-575m
Physical Features The park has several limestone-capped hills and they form a series of
crescent-shaped ridges which reach a maximum height on Barra Honda Peak (423m). There is
a vast network of limestone caves, varying from vertical shafts or pits, to dome-like chambers.
The depth of the caves varies, the deepest being Santa Ana which descends to 240m. The show
caves include those of Terciopelo (Fer-de-Lance), La Trampa (the trap) and Santa Ana, each
with large number of stalagmites, stalactites and other cave formations. The southern tip of
the mountain peak is represented by a flattened plateau. On the southern flank of the Barra
Honda seasonal streams form a series of porous tufa-limestone cascades locally called "La
Cascada" (the tufa deposits traverine at a rate of 5cm per year). The geology of the region is
based on the Barra Honda limestone formations layed down in the Paleocene (70 million years
ago). The lower section measures 100m thick and the upper section is about 200m thick. The
lower part is formed of poorly stratified limestone whilst the upper is well-stratified in
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medium thick layers. The slopes of Barra Honda were formed by an elevation caused by the
system of faults of the Nacaome River located to the west of the park (Boza and Mendoza,
1981). Other limestone features such as potholes and springs are also common.
Climate The dry season lasts about 6 months; annual rainfall is about 1800mm and mean
annual temperature 28°C.
Vegetation The park vegetation corresponds to the tropical dry forest (moist province
transition life zone in the Holdridge system). Most of the forest vegetation has been altered by
man and only on the steeper slopes is the woodland well conserved. The natural vegetation is
semi-deciduous, with broadleaf-evergreen and broadleaf-deciduous trees. Due to the presence
of a distinct dry season, the dominant vegetation is coarse grass with low trees and shrubs in
stands of varying density (actively promoted by man through livestock grazing and fire
management). Climbing vines and epiphytes are numerous.
Fauna Due to previous and actual agricultural practices, the area does not have a very rich
fauna. However, there are notable populations of mammals such as howler monkey Alouatta
palliata, white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus and birds such as great currassow, black
vulture, white-tailed hawk, bicoloured hawk and magpie-jay (Crax rubra, Coragyps atratus,
Accipiter bicolor, Buteo albicaudatus and Calocitta formosa). Ocelot Felis pardalis and tiger
cat F. tigrina have also been recorded by park staff. Several species of bats inhabit the caves
and in Pozo Hediondo cave there are vast colonies of thousands of bats, their guano being
many metres deep. Other abundant cave fauna includes several species of cricket, beetle, snail,
blind salamander, rat, birds and blind fish (Boza and Mendoza, 1981).
Cultural Heritage At Nicoa, which is considered an ancient underground reservoir,
pre-Columbian human remains, adornments and tools were discovered in 1970 by the Group of
Speleology (Boza, 1986).
Local Human Population The local economy is based on cattle raising and some agriculture.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The national park offers its visitors a wide system of paths
which lead to the caverns, look-outs and tufa formations. In the early 1980s the Barra Honda
caverns were being kept closed to the public until specialised personnel could assure the
adequate conservation of these fragile ecosystems (Boza and Mendoza, 1981).
Scientific Research and Facilities Several studies have been done on the geology of the caves
and limestone hills, commencing with the explorations by the Group of Speleology
(Mountaineers Club of Costa Rica) in 1967 (Boza and Mendoza, 1981). To date 19 cave
networks have been surveyed (Boza, 1986).
Conservation Management The park has been established for its recreational, cultural and
conservation importance. To date the caverns are closed to the public but the rest of the park
has been established with a complex network of footpaths and trails. The vegetation at the
park has greatly suffered from the past effects of fire, grazing and agriculture but current
management involves eliminating these factors leading to active scrub regeneration (Boza, 1986).
Management Problems There is considerable human disturbance throughout the park
especially due to cattle grazing and other agriculture. The caves have remained fairly
undisturbed, largely because of the lack of horizontal entrances but are currently under threat
from uncontrolled tourist development.
Staff One superintendent, park rangers and labourers.
Budget No information
Local Administration Parque Nacional Barra Honda, Servicio de Parques Nacionales,
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, San José.
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References
° Boza, M.A. (1986). Parques Nacionales Costa Rica, Fundacion Tinker, G.U.A., Costa Rica.
° Boza, M.A. and Mendoza, R. (1981). The National Parks of Costa Rica.
° Mora, S. (1978). Estudio geologico de los cerros Barra Honda y Alrededores. San José,
Univ. de Costa Rica. 173 pp.
° Wells, S.G. (1974). Report on the geologic reconnaisance of the Cerros Barra Honda.
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, USA. mimeo. 29 pp.
Date August 1987
Cahuita National Park
Management Category II (National Park)
Biogeographical Province 8.16.04 (Central American)
Geographical Location The park is 40km south of Puerto Limon and south of the town of
Cahuita in south-eastern Limon province, Atlantic coast. 9°40’-9°48’N, 82°45’-82°50’W.
Date and History of Establishment 24 September 1970, by executive decree 1236-A.
Area Total 1,700ha (with 1,100ha of land, and 600ha marine).
Land Tenure’ The terrestrial part is mostly under private ownership; the government is
expropriating lands.
Altitude Sea level to 10m
Physical Features The park follows the low Caribbean shoreline for approximately 10km. A
fringing reef extends 6.5km along the coast 100-1,000m from the beach, varying in depth from
lm near the coast to 7m in some lagoon channels and to 15m on the reef front. The Punta
Cahuita is formed on emergent ancient coral whilst the bedrock of the terrestrial sector is
Pleistocene alluvial sandstone.
Climate The climate is hot and wet with annual rainfall close to 3500mm, mean annual
temperature of about 25°C with a brief dry season in October and a second less rainy season
between January and February. Water temperatures rose to 33-35°C in June 1983 as a result of
El Nino.
Vegetation An almost undisturbed tropical moist forest association is found on the Point itself
with the following tree species: Prioria copaifera, Carapa guianensis, Anacardium excelsum
and Calophyllum brasiliense. In the old abandoned cocoa plantations Cordia alliodora
and Hura crepitans are the dominant species. A pure stand of swamp palm Raphia taedigera
occupies the southwest corner of the park and coconut palm Cocus nucifera lines the stretch of
beach. Punta Cahuita is described as marshland, and the forest cover ranges from dry mixed
forest, to mangrove swamp and littoral woodland. The marine vegetation includes areas of
turtle grass Thalassia testudinum, situated close to the shore, and a total of 128 species of
marine algae (Wellington, 1974).
Fauna Common mammals include the howler monkey Alouatta palliata, three-toed
sloth Bradypus tridactylus, red squirrel Sciurus granatensis and the margay subspecies Felis
wiedii pirrensis (V). Some of the bird species frequent in the area are the brown pelican, green
ibis, great skua, bridled tern, sooty tern, green macaw, white-collared manakin, the long-tailed
tyrant (Pelecanus occidentalis, Mesembrinibus cayennensis, Catharata skua, Sterna, naethecus,
S. fuscata, Ara amnbigua, Manacus candei, Colonia colonus) and various species of
ant-wrens Myrmothercula spp. Among the many reptile species represented here are one
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Costa Rica
basilisk Basiliscis vittatus and the famous fer-de-lance Bothrops asper. The hawksbill
turtle Eretmochelys imbricata and the leatherback Dermochelys coriacea nest in the area and the
green turtle Chelonia mydas and Caribbean manatee Trichechus manatus are known to occur.
The fish population is described as very diverse. The Park contains the country’s only
extensive coral reef. The inner reef (c. 500m long) separated from the external reef (4km long)
by a large lagoon, 100-1,000m wide, has its reef crest characterised by large colonies
of Acropora palmata. The inner reef is dominated by Porites porites. The lagoon has small
patch reefs (Acropora palmata, Siderastrea siderea and Diploria strigosa), dense growths of
algae and at the shallow eastern end a very rich (20-25 species) assemblage of sponges. At
depths of 9 to 15m there is a dense growth of a variety of corals. Closer to the reef edge brain
corals preodminate with squirrel and surgeon fish, lobsters, stinging and short-spined urchins
and polychaete worms. Horny corals and snappers are common on the seaward face of the
reef. Wellington (1974) found 35 species of stony coral. In addition, 20 species of octocorals
have been reported. Crabs are abundant, both on the beach and in the freshwater streams. In
total 44 species of crustacean and 140 species of molluscs have been recorded.
Cultural Heritage There is shipwreck, dating from the 18th century, located close to the
mouth of the Perezoso River.
Local Human Population The local fishermen utilise the fish populations of the reef largely
by hook and line techniques, netting being rarer, but diving for lobsters is still permitted.
Spear fishing is prohibited.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Recreational activities are centred on the bay next to the reef,
with many visitors, in the absence of a marina ox diving centres, using a locally provided glass
bottom boat to view the inner reef area.
Scientific Research and Facilities An extensive marine resources inventory has been
completed. Several additional studies on terrestrial flora and fauna are carried out each year
by visiting scientists, while the coral reef has been studied by scientists from CIMAR of the
Universidad de Costa Rica. There are simple laboratory facilities at the Park headquarters and
skiffs with outboard motors for marine research are available.
Conservation Management A team composed of personnel of the Costa Rican National Park
Service and CATIE have developed a master plan. The document is now under review by Park
Service personnel (Bozo, 1986).
Management Problems In the past areas were cleared for cocoa and bananas; this is no longer
permitted. Harvesting of coconuts is allowed along the beach, but causes no real problems.
There was widespread mortality of the Diadema antillarum population during the 1983 El Nino
phenomena, and reefs are affected by increased siltation, measurable over the past 15 year
period.
Staff A superintendent, four guides, five guards and two labourers.
Budget No information
Local Administration Parque Nacional Cahuita, Servicio de Parques Nacionales, Ministerio de
Agricultura y Ganaderia, San José.
References
° Bozo, M.A. (1986). Parques Nacionales Costa Rica National Parks. Fundacion Tinker E.U.A.
° Cordoba Jaramillo, T. (1967). Estudio sobre los recursos sociales de la region cacofera de
Cahuita en la zona altantica, Costa Rica. Tesis Mag. Sc. Turrialba, Costa Rica: Instituto
Interamericano de Ciencias Agricolas.
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Costa Rica
° Lemieuz, G. (1969). Oportunidades para el desarrollo turistico del litoral atlontico al sur de
Puerto Limon, Costa Rica. Tesis Mag. Sc. Turrialba, Costa Rica: Instituto Interamericano de
Ciencias Agricolas.
° UNEP/IUCN (1987). Directory of Coral Reefs of International Importance. Vol.I. Atlantic
and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. FAO, Rome.
° Wallis, Orthello L. (1972). The significance of Cahuita National Monument. Departamento de
Parques Nacionales, San José, Costa Rica.
° Wellington, G.M. (1974). An ecological description of the marine and associated
environments at Monumento Nacional Cahuita. San José, Subdireccién de Parques
Nacionales. 81 pp.
Date August 1987
Irazu Volcano National Park (Cartago Volcano)
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 8.16.04 (Central American)
Geographical Location The central highlands, Cartago province; about 10km due north-east
from the city of Cartago. 9°58’N, 83°50’W.
Date and History of Establishment Irazu Volcano was first established as a national park on
30 July 1955, in accordance with the Organic Law No. 1917 of the Costa Rican Institute of
Tourism. Article 6 of this law decrees that this Institute is responsible for the guardianship
and the conservation of the zones found in a radius of 2km around the craters. In 1961 the
Law of Lands and Settlements declared the Irazu Volcano as national property from 3,000m at
sea level to the summit.
Area 2,308ha
Land Tenure About two-thirds government land; the rest private holdings.
Altitude 900-3,432m (summit of the volcano).
Physical Features Irazu Volcano is the highest peak in the central volcanic Cordillera
(3,432m). The site consists of the Irazu mountain, an active volcano, which forms a single
mountainous spur which narrows to the east. On its long axis there are several volcanic cones
with their still well-formed craters. Recent lava flows are visible at the base of the secondary
crater, the Cervantes Gulch. On the summit of the volcano there are two craters, the eastern
and extinct mouth, Diego de la Haya crater, and the western mouth that stretches 1,050m in
diameter. In the 300m deep crater of Diego de la Haya is a lake full of sediment washed down
from the sides of the crater. A plain called the Hermosa beach is the first level or outer
crater. It forms a wide terrace around the southern edge of the present crater. The first
records of an eruption date from 17 February 1723 (there have been numerous eruptions since
that date - 1726, 1821, 1918........ ) while the last violent period took place between 1963 and
1965.
The present volcanoes in the mountasin range rise over a foundation of volcanic rocks dating
from the lower Tertiary period (50-60 million years ago). At the base of these cones there are
remains of sediments deposited probably in the upper Tertiary period (10-20 million years
ago). The Cordillera began to be formed in the Pliocene period (11 million years ago) and
underwent major activity. Today the activity is reduced to a moderate emission of gases and
vapours from the fumaroles on the north-west slopes of the volcano. The park consists of
basalt andesite along with old lava flows, ash alpilli and pyroclastic accumulations. The rocks
contain a high percentage of feldspar and plagioclase-andesite as well as small amounts of
melanocratic compounds (Boza and Mendoza, 1981).
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Costa Rica
Climate Ground temperatures of 18.5°C have been recorded around the craters. The
temperature rising to 82°C where the gases are expelled from the fumaroles.
Vegetation At the present time, only small patches of vegetation remain in the volcanic peak
zone, generally in the river beds. Here it is possible to distinguish several oak species,
mainly Quercus costaricensis and other trees such as Escallonia (Saxifragaceae), dogwood
(Cornaceae) and magnolia (Magnoliaceae).
On the volcano’s summit are numerous species which have been able to recolonise after the last
volcanic activity. The most abundant species include Arctostaphylos rubescens, Hypericum
silenoides, Acaena elongata, Gunnera insignis, Smilacina paniculata, Vaccinium consanguineum,
and Pernettia coriacea (see Boza and Mendoza, 1981 for complete list). Below the timber line
oak forest, mostly Quercus costaricensis, is the dominant vegetation type in non-agricultural
areas.
Fauna Most noteworthy are the birds such as the rose-throated hummingbird, volcano juaco,
mountain robin, black guan, band-tailed pigeon and quetzal (Selasphorus flammula, Junco
vulcani, Turdus nigrescens, Dendrocopus villosus, Chamaepetes unicolor, Columba fasciata,
Diglossa plumbea and Pharomachrus ocinno). Among the mammals are Sciurus sp., Sylvilagus
brasiliensis, coyote Canis latrans, mexican porcupine Coendu mexicanus and _ brocket
deer Mazama americana. In general the fauna is scarce and not obvious to the general observer
(Boza and Mendoza, 1981).
Cultural Heritage The nearby city of Cartago used to be the capital of the province. The
volcano has been visited by numerous explorers and naturalists over the centuries including
Alexander von Frantzius in 1859 and Karl Sapper in 1899 (see details in Boza and Mendoza,
1981).
Local Human Population There are numerous small farms and cattle pastures on the lower
slopes of the park. The local economy is based on cattle and potato farming.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The area is very scenic and has magnificent panoramic views of
the surrounding oceans and is used heavily for tourism. A good road connects the volcano with
the cities of Cartago and San José. A number of facilities have been built by the Institute of
Tourism.
Scientific Research and Facilities Considerable research has been done on the geology of the
area; very little on biological aspects (for details about volcanology of the area and for
reference lists see Boza and Mendoza, 1981).
Conservation Management The National Parks Service took over management of the park in
1976 (from the Costa Rican Institute of Tourism). A new management plan was elaborated by
a SPN/CATIE team and revised by SPN personnel. This plan recommends a change of
management category from National Park to National Monument including in the same unit the
500ha Ricardo Jimenez National Recreation Area.
Management Problems The fauna and flora of the upper part of the volcano has suffered
considerably from the effects of the 1963-65 volcanic eruptions and the onslaught from the
felling of forests to create cattle pasture land and potato fields. About 60% of the flanks of the
crater below the tree line (about 3,100m) is now under pasture or agriculture. Dairy farming is
increasing in the least disturbed areas to the north and north-east of the volcano. A large
number of television and radio relay antennas exist on the crater rims.
Staff One superintendent, one guide, seven guards and two labourers. (Note: The Costa Rica
Tourism Institute was in charge of the area until about two years ago; the Park Service began
active management in 1978).
Budget No information
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Costa Rica
Local Administration Parque Nacional Volcan Irazu, Servicio de Parques Nacionales,
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, San José.
References
° Boza, M.A. (1986). Parques Nacionales Costa Rica, Fundacion Tinker, G.U.A., Costa Rica.
° Boza, M.A. and Mendoza, R. (1981). The National Parks of Costa Rica.
° CATIE/Servicio de Parques Nacionales (1981). Plan de Manejo y Desarrollo del Monumato
Nacional Volcan Irazu. 180 pp (draft).
Date August 1987
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ECUADOR
Area 270,678 sq km
Population 9,250,000 (1983)
Parks and Reserves Legislation The first conservation legislation came into existence in
November 1926, the law "prohibiting the hunting of heron in the coastal provinces" (MAG,
1977). Subsequently, laws leading to the creation of national parks and reserves were initiated
with the declaration of the Archipelago de Colon (Galapagos) Park in May 1936 (Supreme
Decree No. 31). The next major conservation law was the Supreme Decree No. 523 of 1964,
designating "reserve zones and natural monuments". In 1970, law No. 818 on "protection of
wildlife and forestry resources" was passed and led to the immediate establishment of the
nature reserves of Cotacacachi-Cayapas and Cayambe-Coca. The law also allowed for the
protection and development of natural flora and fauna according to Article 39. The current
legislation relating to all protected areas is based on Decree No. 1306 of 27 August 1971. It is
the fundamental law on protected areas in Ecuador and permits the creation of conservation
areas without recourse to long bureaucratic procedures (Paucar, 1984). The law specifies the
following points:
1. National parks and reserves are designated at the request of the Forestry Service and the
Direction of Tourism through inter-ministerial accord.
2. All areas considered for reserves or national parks become public land and are
subsequently available for expropriation.
3. National parks and reserves cannot be utilised or exploited for agriculture, livestock,
forestry, hunting, fishing or colonisation (MAG, 1977; Paucar, 1984).
Invoking Decree No. 1306, the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG) and the Ministry
of Industry, Commerce and Integration, signed the Interministerial Accord No. 322 of 1979.
The Accord defined Ecuadorian wildland management categories (Article No. 1). This act
subsequently led to the creation and establishment of legal boundaries for national parks,
ecological reserves, fauna production reserves and natural recreation areas. The 1981 "Forestry,
Natural Area Conservation and Wildlife" Law (No. 74, Article No. 1) declared all flora and
fauna as state property. Management plans are required for all parks and reserves (Article 70).
Provision is made within the legislation for expropriation of private property witnin the parks
(Article 73) and authorisation is granted to limit visitation (Article 75). | Unauthorised
occupation or damage to any land is prohibited (Article 18).
National Parks (Parques Nacionales) in Ecuador are extensive natural areas of at least
10,000ha. They are designated for their ecological diversity, unique flora or fauna and/or
geology, as well as for their great natural significance for science, education and public
recreation (MAG, 1977). Visitors are allowed to enter, under controlled conditions, for
purposes of inspiration, education, research, culture and recreation. Zoning is based upon
means of access and management priorities for each protected areas (Interim Accord No. 333 of
1979, Article 1).
Ecological Reserves (Reservas Ecolégicas) are extensive areas with one or more ecosystems,
with fauna and flora of great national significance or threatened with extinction. These
reserves must have sufficient area, at least 10,000ha, to conserve "wildlife, geology, cultural
sites or partly altered habitats".
Essentially, ecological reserves safeguard the environment of large regions and regulate land
use and development of rural zones. They are under direct management control of government
organisations and prohibit exploitation or occupation, although visitors are allowed to enter for
education, research and recreation (Figueroa, 1983).
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Ecuador
National Recreation Areas (Areas nacionales de Recreacién) are areas of at least 1,000ha where:
1. tourism or recreational resources exist in a natural or semi-natural environment of great
scenic beauty.
Ds They are located in areas which are easily accessible from major population centres of
the country.
3. Tourism and recreational activities are encouraged, as is environmental education and
scientific research.
4. Management includes encouraging wildlife as an attraction for recreation or tourism
(Wetterberg, 1985).
Geobotanical Reserves (Reservas Geobotanicas) are areas dedicated to the preservation of
outstanding geological resources where research, education and recreation are permitted
(Figueroa, 1983; Wetterberg, 1985).
Fauna Production Reserves (Reservas Faunisticas) are located in areas of 1,000ha or more
where "economic" wildlife species exist, where subsistence hunting for sport, subsistence or
commercial enterprises (Wetterberg, 1985).
The World Heritage Convention was ratified on 16 June 1975 with two sites being inscribed
(Galapagos Islands and Sangay National Park). One biosphere reserve has been designated, that
of the Archipelago of Colén-Galdpagos, in 1985.
Ecuador accepted the Convention on international Trade (CITES) through executive decree No.
77 of 1975.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management The 1971 law for protection of national
parks and reserves (Decree No. 1306) provided for the administration and control of the park
system by the Forest Service, in close collaboration with the National Tourist Office and the
General Fisheries Directorate. The head of the administration dealing with protected areas is
the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG), immediately below which is the National
Forestry Programme (PRONAF) and its subsidiary the Department of Natural Areas and
Wildlife (ANVS). The directorate of ANVS is divided into four sections, that of a) national
parks and reserves, b) wild flora and fauna conservation, c) basic research and studies and d)
forestry protection. The national park and reserve section is further sub-divided into the
various administrative offices for each area. The larger protected areas have an administrative
and wardening infrastructure with offices located in the nearest and most-centrally located
large towns (Wetterberg, 1985).
Addresses Departamento de Areas Naturales y Vida Silvestre, Ministerio de Agricultura y
Ganaderia, Quito.
Additional Information Ecuador is divided into three distinct zones; the Sierra or uplands of
the Andes consisting of high mountain ridges (and highly prized farming land with 2.57 million
inhabitants; the coastal plain between the Andes and the Pacific, with 2.02 million inhabitants
(25%) and a dominance of fruit plantations; and the Oriente, the upper Amazon basin on the
east of the country, consisting of undeveloped tropical forest (3% of the population). The
territory of Ecuador is divided into various categories of land use, with 10% arable land, 8%
pastoral land and 52% forest land (Butland, 1977).
The principal problems affecting the protected area system in Ecuador were identified by
Ponce (1981) and Wetterberg (1985). The greatest threats come from:
a) Human settlement and colonisation in the parks and along the boundaries.
b) Conflict between park authorities and regional development organisations.
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Ecuador
c) Oil exploration and the associated increased access into the hinterland.
d) Lack of professionally and technically trained personnel.
e) Lack of management plans for the majority of protected areas (Paucar, 1984).
References
°
°
Butland, G.J. (1977). Latin America, a regional geography. Longman, London.
Figueroa, S. (1983). Importancia y conservacién de la vida _ silvestre Ecuatoriana.
MAG/PNF, Quito. 33 pp.
IUCN (1981). Conserving the natural heritage of Latin America and the Caribbean: the
planning and management of protected areas in the Neotropical Realm. Proceedings of the
18th Working Session of IUCN/CNPPA, Lima. TUCN/UNEP/UNESCO/WWF. Gland,
Switzerland. 324 pp.
IUCN (1982). Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas. Commission on National Parks
and Protected Areas. Tycooly, Dublin. 436 pp.
Lovato, A. (1984). Sistema Ecuatoriano de conservacién de areas _ naturales.
MAG/PRONAF, Quito. 30 pp.
MAG (1977). Recopilacién de Leyes de Parques Nacionales, Reservas y Conservacion de
Flora y Fauna silvestres de Ecuador, 1926-1977. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia,
Quito.
Paucar, A. (1984). An evaluation of the situation of National Parks and equivalent reserves in
the republic of Ecuador, based on the National Development Plan, 1980-1984: a regional
perspective. Unpublished report. 12 pp.
Ponce, S.A. and Huber, R.M. (1982). Ecuador’s active conservation program. Parks, Vol. 6,
No. 4, 7-10. IUCN, Gland.
Ponce, S.A. (1981). Parques nacionales, reserves naturales y vida silvestre. Cap.
IX. Diagnostico de la situacién del medio ambiente en el Ecuador. Tomo II. Fundaci6n
Natura, Quito. 12 pp.
Putney, A.D. (1976). Estrategia preliminar para la conservacion de areas sobresalientes del
Ecuador. Informe final sobre una propuesta estrategia preliminar para la conservacion de
areas silvestres sobre-salientes del Ecuador. Organizacion de la Naciones Unidas para la
Agricultura y la Alimentacion. UNDP/FAO-ECU/71/527. Documento de Trabajo No. 17.
Science & Technology Division (1979). Draft environmental report on Ecuador. A\D/DS/ST
Contract No. SA/TAO/1-77 with US. MAB Secretariat. Library of Congress, Washington.
Wetterberg, G.B. (1982). Ecuador - Forestry project. Wildlands and Wildlife component.
USDI, Quito.
Wetterberg, G.B. (1985). Decade of progress of South American National Parks.
International Affairs, National Parks Service, Washington.
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
Unspecified areas
Pululahua Reserva Geobotanica 3,806 *
National Recreation Areas
Cajas 28,808 *
EI! Boliche 1,077 *
Pululahua Reserva Geobotanica
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 8.33.12 (North Andean)
Geographical Location The park is located to the north of Quito and adjacent to San Antonio
de Pichincha (Cala cali parisj-parroquia) - Pichincha province. 00°05’N, 78°40’W ??
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Ecuador
Date and History of Establishment The site was originally declared a National Park in 1966.
In 1971 the law of National Parks and Reserves was passed (Decree No. 1306 of 27 August
1971) and the Pululahua Geobotanical reserve was subsequently created in February 1978. The
geobotanital reserve is deciated to the preservation of outstanding geological resources where
research, education and recreation are allowed (Figueroa, 1983).
Area 3,806ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude 1,600-3,200m
Physical Features The site consists of the slopes and crater of the extinct volcano, Mt.
Pululahua.
Climate No information
Vegetation The vegetation shows marked altitudinal zonation and is characterised by poor
forest cover, scrub vegetation and rough grass lands.
Fauna No information
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population Within the protected area is a total of 80 families.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities _ The park, although close to the capital city, receives 1,000
visitors a year (Wettenberg, 1982). There were no buildings in 1982.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management In 1982 there was still no management plan for the park
(Wettenberg, 1982). The objectives of the reserve’s management are to conserve the woods and
vegetation cover in the suburbs of San Antonia de Pichincha, Calacali and surrounding towns
and villages. Current plans include training of staff for at least minimal knowledge on
wildland and wildlife management concepts. Their employment depends on budget allocations
but even with predictions of expansion the park will be understaffed by normally accepted
international criteria (Wettenberg, i982).
Management Problems No information
Staff In 1982 there was a single guard but the prejected staff for 1987 was due to be 1
professional warden (peritos forestales) and 3 guards (Wettenberg, 1982).
Budget No information
Local Administration No information
References
° Anon (n.d.) La reserva ecologica esta en 5 parques nacionales. El Comercie "Quito" Martes,
20 de Julio de 1982.
° Figueroa, S. (1983). Importancia y conservacion de la vida silvestre Ecuatorranau -
MAG/PNF, Quito, 33 pp.
Wettenberg, G.B. (1985) Decade of progress for South American National Parks.
International Affairs, National Park Service, Washington.
° Wettenberg, G.B. (1982) Ecuador - forestry project (No. 513-0023) Wildlands and Wildlife
Component. USDI, Quito - Jan. 24- Feb. 19, 1982.
Date August 1987
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Ecuador
Cajas Area Nacional de Recreacié6n
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 8.37.12 (South Andean)
Geographical Location The park is located in the equatorial region of western Ecuador. It is
18-22km west of the city of Cuenca (450km from the capital, Quito). The surrounding villages
include Soldados and Angas in the south, Molleturo in the north and Miguir in the west
(provincia del Azuay). 2°46’S, 79°12’W.
Date and History of Establishment The site was created as an Area Nacional de Recreacion
under the Interministerial Act No. 203 of 6 June 1977, following Law No. 1306-IX/1971 on
National Parks and equivalent reserves. A series of regulations exist controlling recreation,
forest exploitation, livestock grazing and fishing as well as prohibiting hunting. The park is
laid out in distinct zones depending upon scenic importance, recreational value and
conservation needs (zona de uso intangibile, zona de uso extensivo and zona de uso intensivo).
Area 28,808ha
Land Tenure Private and public ownership
Altitude 3,150-4,450m
Physical Features The park topography has largely resulted from extensive glaciation in the
Quaternary period, when the glaciers left behind U-shaped valleys, frontal and lateral
morraines, as well as numerous glacial lakes. The highest point in the park is Arquitectos
(4,450m), a former volcano, but there are numerous other peaks over 4,000m such as at San
Luis, Portada de Baute, Portada de Burines and Yanaurco. The rock substrate is largely
volcanic in origin, consisting of lavas, andesites and pyroclasts. The area is rich in standing
water with at least 232 lakes over 10ha in size. These lakes were formed from river deltas or as
a series of morraine dammed river valleys, resulting in a string of boxed lakes (hence the name
"Cajas" from caja or box). Such lakes include Laviuco, Ingacocha, Ingacarreteto, Mamamag,
Luspa, Toreadora and Atugyacu (Loyala, n.d.; Erazo, n.d.). The diversity of lakes represents a
complete range illustrating each stage in succession from oligotropic deep lakes, through
mesotrophic and eutrophic habitats, to shallow pools and boggy depressions. Other forms of
water are in abundance and there are numerous mountain torrents and small tributaries
forming the Tomebamba and Yanuncay rivers.
Climate The reserve lies in the equatorial zone and exhibits a cold/humid climate. There is a
recorded average of 1200mm rainfall per year and a temperature level which ranges only
slightly from month to month: 3-6°C (February-May), 5-9°C (June-August) and 6-12°C
(September-January). Greatest temperature changes are between night and day with extremes
of 24°C and -5°C.
Vegetation The park has long been affected by man and the introduction of domestic
livestock such as cattle, horses and especially sheep, yet much of the climax vegetation still
survives in a relatively undamaged condition. The area has been divided into various
bio-ecological zones, depending on altitude, climate and vegetational associations (Holdridge
classification). These are a) the montane cloud forest zone (bosque humedo-montano) from
2,800-3,400m, b) the subalpine zone (piso subalpino) from 3,400-4,200m and c) the alpine zone
(piso alpino) in the mountain peaks above 4,200m.
a) The montane cloud forest zone consists of i) woodland dominated by Myrtus sp.,
Weinmaria fagaroides, Podocarpus sp., Vallea sp., Escallonia myrtilloides, Alnus
jurulensis, Solanum stellatum, S. pteropodum, Osteomeles glabrata and Siphalicampylus
gigantus; ii) grasslands (Pradera) - herbaceous communities dominated by Alchemilla
pectinata, Trifolium repens and various Graminea species; iii) chaparral (chaparro), an
arrested seral vegetation community dominated by scrub species (the climax woodland is
ye
Ecuador
prevented from forming because of overgrazing and fire management). Representative
species include Embrotium grandiflorum, Lomatia oblicua, Ceratostema sp., Lorantus
nitidus, L. piguantus and Chusquea sp.
b) The subalpine zone consists of two main habitats, that of i) scattered woodland patches
dominated principally by Polylepis incans and Ginoxis sp., associated with Escollonia sp.,
Berberis insignis, orchids and bromeliads, ii) steppe (pajonal) where the dominant species
include tussock grass Stipa sp. in association with Chuquiragua insignis, Senecio
vaccinioides, Berberis sp. and Loricaria (MAG, n.d.).
Cc) The alpine zone is principally composed of Stipa sp. along with Lericaria sp.
and Gnaphalium sp.
The lakeside vegetation includes Juncus and Cyperaceae (MAG, n.d.).
Fauna The montane cloud forest includes over 60 species of bird, including altitude Tucan
(Andigena hypoglauca, A. laminirostris), owl Bubo virginianus, trogan Trogan personatus,
woodpeckers and humming-birds. Representative species in the pradera savannah
include Sylvilagus brasilensis, Nothoprocta curvirostris, Gallaria guitensis and Gallinago sp.,
whilst the birds of the chaparral include Columbus fasciata, Leptotilla verreauxi, Zenaida
auriculata and Turdus sp. At higher altitude there are condors Vultur gryphus and
also Phalioboenus carunculatus and Odocoileus virginianus.
The lakes are rich in coot, duck and migratory birds as well as brown and rainbow trout,
amphibians and water insects. Typical water birds include Rallus sp., Anas discord,
A. georgina, A. flavirostris, Larus serranus, Podiceps sp. and Penelope montagnii (Loyala, n.d.).
Mammals of the park include tapir Tapirus roulini, mustelids Mustela frenata and Conepatus
quitensis, also Didelphys azarae, Dasyprocta variegata and deer Odocoileus virginianus, Mazama
rufina (Loyala, n.d.).
Cultural Heritage The modern town of Cuenca was founded by the Spanish in 1557. Before
this date the area was variously inhabited by the old Canaris culture, which was a centre of
astrology in the XV century, and subsequently conquered by the Tupac-Yupanqui Incas who
established a central monarchy at Cuenca. Today in the park there are numerous
archaeological ruins, including a sun-worshipping temple and the Inanan great highway of the
ancient Inca. Precolonial (pre-Spanish) dwellings can be found along the Inganan near Lake
Mamamag and numerous other lakes. Near Molleturo are the ruins of Paredones, one of the
most important and best preserved ruins in Azuay (Loyala, n.d.).
Local Human Population The nearby city of Cuenca has a large population (105,000
inhabitants) many of whom use the park for recreation. Local human activities continue
within the park and include livestock herding (1,500 bovines, 300 equids and 800 sheep -
MAG, 1978), charcoal production and trout fishing (Lake Llaviuco). There are at present no
inhabitants within the park, but there are a number of small villages on the park boundary
(total population 300-400 people).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is of major recreational value for the native
population of Ecuador, being particularly important for its magnificent scenery. The number
of visitors each year averaged 5,172 in the mid-1970s of which the vast majority came from
the nearby city of Cuenca (Escandon, n.d.; El Comercio, 1982). The park can be easily reached
from Cuenca along numerous well-maintained roads. Information and guided tours are
obtainable at the Centro de Informacion y Guardiania by Lake Toreadora (3,780m). Activities
are orientated toward environmental education and outdoor pursuits such as camping, hiking,
fishing and rock climbing. Visitor hiking trails have been created and signposted as circular
tours around the park. Future proposals include tourist hotels, visitor centres and
environmental education establishments around Lake Llaviuco (MAG, 1978).
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Ecuador
Scientific Research and Facilities The environmental education programme in the Cajas is
well developed and has been active since the mid-1970s. In the 1978-1979 season over 1,000
students from the Cuenca area high schools and universities were brought to one of the two
environmental education trails that are designated in the areas of intensive recreational use.
They were also given courses on park ecology and Ecuadorian conservation. Studies by CRE
(Centro de Reconverci6n Economica) involve ecological maps, identifying areas of high soil
erosion risk, and recording the climax vegetation communities. Research on the lake
succession of Cajas has been undertaken by Loyala and the Facultad de Agronomia de la
Universidad Catélica of Cuenca (Loyala, n.d.).
Conservation Management The main management priorities for the park authorities are to
maintain the Cajas area for the recreational benefit of the people of the region and the nearby
cities. This is achieved through promoting recreation, environmental education activities,
maintaining the social and traditional rights of the local people (such as grazing rights) and
protecting and restoring the archaeological and historical remains. By-laws exist concerning
the management of the park. The woods are managed and exploited commercially whilst the
savannah is maintained by grazing and burning. Hunting is forbidden throughout the park.
The NRA is divided into different management and land use zones with priorities to maintain
and protect the great scenic value of the park. The management zones include: a) zona de uso
intangible (restricted use area), located to protect areas of biological interest from potentially
damaging recreational activities. b) zona de uso extensivo (extensive use area) representing a
zone of environmental investigation and education and outdoor recreational activity. Road
construction, fishing and timber exploitation is permitted. This zone is largely restricted to the
subalpine areas of the park. c) zona de uso intensivo (intensive use area) which corresponds to
the most accessible zone in the park and is under the greatest pressure from visitors. Activities
permitted in the zone include commercial wood exploitation, fishing, restricted hunting,
environmental education and motoring. This zone is proposed for the development of
hostelries, motels, restaurants and information centres (Loyala, n.d.; MAG, 1978; UCNW, 1985).
Management Problems One of the greatest environmental problems in the park is excessive
soil erosion resulting from abuse of the vegetation cover. There is timber extraction and Stipa
burning/overgrazing. Polylepis sp. of the paramo is exploited for charcoal and wood is
illegally gathered as fire wood or grazed, inhibiting plant regeneration. [Illegal fishing is
destroying the native lake fish populations.
Staff There are six permanent park guards and wardens (proposals to increase this figure to at
least 15).
Budget No information
Local Administration Programa de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, Ministerio de
Agricultura y Ganaderia, Direccion Agropecuaria, Zona 9, Cuenca (tel: 82 3053).
References
° Anon. (1981). Seminario sobre preservacion del area del Cajas preparase. Mercurio. Junio 6.
° Crea (n.d.). Area nacional de recreacion "Cajas", areas basicas de planificacion y desarrollo
de las que forma parte el parque. Report. 27 pp.
° El Comercio (1982). "Cajas". El Comercio. Quito. 20 Julio.
° Erazo, M. (n.d.). Lagunas y cuencas lacustres: ubicacion y descripcion fisica; Area nacional
de recreacion "Cajas". Report. Engineers Dept., Cuenca State University.
° Escandon, F. (1984). Cajas, national recreation area, 7th anniversary. National Direction of
Tourism. 2 pp.
° Escandon, F. (n.d.). Administracion del area nacional de recreacién "Cajas". Report. 2 pp.
° Loyala, H. (n.d.) Area nacional de recreacion "Cajas". 109 pp.
° MAG (1978). Area nacional de Recreacion "Cajas". Direccién Agropecuaria, Cuenca.
° MAG (n.d.). Los Parques nacionales y reservas equivalentes en el Ecuador, el Area Nacional
de Recreacion "Cajas". 9 pp.
° MAG (n.d.). Area nacional de recreacién "Cajas"; Directrices ecologicas para la proteccion
y desarrollo del Direccién Agropecuaria, Cuenca.
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Ecuador
° Salazar, A.P. and Huber, R.M. (1982). Ecuador’s active conservation program. Parks. Vol.
6(4): 7-10.
° UCNW (1985). El Cajas expedition 1985. Unpublished report, University College of North
Wales.
Date August 1987
EI Boliche Area Nacional de Recreacién
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 8.33.12 (Northern Andean)
Geographical Location This equatorial protected area is situated in the northern Andes
between Quito (63km) and Latacunga (32km). It is found on the main Panamerican highway
between the Mts. Ruminahui and Cotapaxi and is adjacent to the Cotopaxi National Park
(Canton Latacunga, province Cotopaxi). 0°35’S, 59°00’W
Date and History of Establishment The site was created as an Area Nacional de Recreacion
on 26 July 1979 under Article Number 11 - Decree 1306 (1971).
Area 1,077ha
Land Tenure No information
Altitude up to 3,650m
Physical Features The protected area is formed on the foothills of the volcano Mt Ruminahui
(4,782m) in the peaks between the valleys of Machachi and Latacunga. The volcano
Ruminahui forms a triangle of peaks along with Mts Cotopaxi and Sincholagua (the Avenue of
Volcanoes). The topography is essentially gently rolling countryside which rises in the north to
Mt Sunfana.
Climate The area is located in the tropics and has a mean minimum temperature of 12-16°C
and mean maximum of 22-25°C depending upon altitude. Rainfall averages at 3800-4800mm
per year with relative humidity figures above 80%.
Vegetation The natural high altitude forests of the Andean region has largely been destroyed
by man leaving vegetation dominated by bunch grasses and small shrubs. The high altitude
vegetation of the area is represented by montaine wet forest and montaine rain forest with
relict Polylepis and Gnoxys in a tiered canopy woodland structure around the accommodation
facilities. A large proportion of the woodland consists of pine plantation. The open paramo
habitat typically includes Hyperium laricifolium, Brachyotum lepidifolium, Polylepis incana
and Oreopanax argentata (MAG, n.d.).
Fauna’ The fauna has been much reduced after centuries of human pressures. One of the
major more representative mammals of the area is the llama Llama glama (MAG, n.d.).
Cultural Heritage No information
Local Human Population The park is situated only 65km from Quito, the capital city.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park receives numerous visitors, with up to 60,000 in
1981. The site is well equipped with paved roads and has dramatic mountain views, scenic
woods, picnic, barbecue and camp sites along with mountain log huts (run by the Departmento
de Areas Naturales y Vida Silvestre). Sports are possible on the southern fields of El Boliche
and trekking is popular throughout the park. Provision of additional sports facilities is
planned. There are seminar and conference facilities at the Administration Centre.
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Ecuador
Information expositions, audio-visual displays and leaflets are availabe at the Casa de
Administraci6n in the north-west of the park close to the railway facilities (Anon., 1982;
MAG, n.d.).
Scientific Research and Facilities |The station of NASA is situated only a few kilometres
from the site and can be reached by paved road. There is also the Estacion forestal de campo
de Cotopaxi, research facilities and plant re-introduction pens in the extreme south of the park
(MAG, n.d.; Putney, 1976).
Conservation Management The Area Nacional de Recreacién El Boliche was set up expressly
to preserve the natural environment and provide recreation for the population of the capital
city. By 1979 the El Boliche ANR authorities were establishing management plans for:
a) the type of recreation facilities;
b) how the watershed and forests of the park are administered;
c) to identify the type of information services required.
Subsequently camp sites, information/interpretation centres, visitor trails and roads were
established with the aims of ensuring that people would visit for longer than just weekend
trips. Forestry projects and afforestation programmes have been undertaken by the Ministerio
de Agricultura y Ganaderia with priorities to control soil erosion and create future timber
reserves. The first forest trees were planted in 1929 around the forestry station, with
subsequent planting in 1959 at Mirador Sunfana and in 1973 along the Pan American highway.
A total of between 7-8 million trees have been planted in the Cotopaxi area. Current projects
include the breeding and re-introduction of llama into the wild. In the future the park
authorities hope to breed vicuna from Peru and Bolivia. There are various restrictions to
prevent forest fires, litter and disturbance from domestic animals (dogs are prohibited).
Hunting and fishing sports are prohibited (Anon., 1982; MAG, n.d.; Putney, 1976).
Management Problems No information
Staff Warden staff are present (MAG, n.d.)
Budget No information
Local Administration Departamento de Administracion de Areas Naturales Vida Silvestre,
Direccién de Desarollo Forestal, 560 Piso Edificio del Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia,
Quito. Tel: 518-593.
References
° Administracion de Areas Naturales y Vida Silvestre (1979) Area Nacional de Recreacion El
Boliche. MAG, Quito.
° Anon. (1982) La reserva ecologica esta en 5 parques nacionales. El Comercio, Quito. 20
Julio 1982.
° MAG. (n.d.) Area nacional de recreacién El Boliche. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia.
° Putney, A.D. (1976) Informe final sobre una propuesta estrategia preliminar para la
conservacion de areas silvestres sobre-salientes del Ecuador. UNDP/FAO/71/537. No. 17.
° Salazar, A.P. and Huber, R.M. (1982). Ecuador’s active conservation program. Parks. 6(4);
7-10.
Date August 1987
345!
MARTINIQUE
Area 1,079sq.km
Population 328,566 (1982)
Parks and Reserves Legislation Since 19 March 1946 the status of Martinique has been that of
an Overseas Department of France, and the island is subsequently subject to the same
legislation as metropolitan France. The general framework for establishing national parks is
provided by Act No. 60-708 of 22 July 1960 and its enforcement order, No. 61-1195 of 31
October 1961. The Nature Conservation Act (Loi sur la protection de la nature) of 10 July
1976 applies to all aspects of conservation and the establishment of nature reserves. Subject to
the owner’s consent the decision to establish a reserve is issued in the form of a decree after
the local authorities have been consulted (as stipulated by Decree No. 77-1298 of 25 November
1977). The approval for a nature reserve on private property is valid for a six-year period,
renewable by tacit agreement.
The concept of regional natural parks was advanced in the early 1960s, their aim being to
provide facilities for tourists, to preserve traditional architecture and landscapes, and stimulate
local enterprises and rural development. In the Martinique regional natural park, wildlife
conservation is also of importance amd there are zoned areas to safeguard the differential land
uses in the park. The criteria for establishment and designation of regional natural parks was
set out in Decree No. 67-158 of 1 March 1967 and updated by Decree No. 75-983 of 24
October 1975. The designated protected areas of Martinique include nature reserves (réserves
naturelles), regional natural parks (parcs naturels régionaux) and maritime hunting reserves
(réserves de chasse maritime) all of which have been established following standard
metropolitan France guidelines. Martinique is covered by CITES in its position as a French
Overseas Department.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management The Direction de la Protection de la
Nature is responsible for establishing parks and reserves as well as the regulation of hunting.
The parc naturel régional is managed by a board composed of representatives of the
municipalities, communes and professional organisations (including the Union Régional des
Associations de Protection del’Environnement 4 la Martinique). The board is largely an
advisory body which is unable to undertake its own management work. The Office Nationale
des Foréts is actually responsible for administering major natural habitats within the protected
areas. The Caravelle peninsula reserve is maintained by the "parc naturel" authorities for its
nature conservation interest and protected by a local wardening system.
Addresses
° Parc Naturel Regional, Ancienne Caserne Bouille, Fort-de-France.
° Siege du Parc, Tivoli, Ancien Collége Agricole, 97200 Fort-de-France.
Additional Information The lesser Antillian island of Martinique lies within the tropical belt
and is represented by 25% of the land surface as forest (Butland, 1977). The largest area under
cultivation is accounted for by banana plantations and sugar cane (11,500ha) whilst fisheries
and tourism are increasingly important elements of the economy (Butland, 1977; ICBP, 1987).
Research in Martinique is conducted by the Délégation Régional 4 l’Architecture et a
’Environnement, the Institut Scientifique et Technique des Péches Maritime and the Institut
National de la Recherche Agronomique (ICBP, 1987).
There are five non-governmental conservation groups, the Societe pour l’Etude de la Protection
et l’Aménagement de la Nature en Martinique, the Société des Amis du Parc, the Alliance
Nature et Developpement and the Association pour Nature et Environnement (ICBP, 1987).
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Martinique
References
° Butland, G.J. (1977). Latin American, a regional geography. Longman, London.
° Desjeux, C. et Desjeux, B. (1984). Les Parcs Naturels régionaux de France, Editions Créer,
Nonette, France.
ICBP (In press) Martinique. ICBP Island Database (draft) April 1987.
IUCN (1982). Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas. YUCN Commission on National
Parks and Protected Areas, Tycooly, Dublin.
° Parc Naturel Régional (n.d.) La forét martiniquaise. Parc Naturel Régional de la Martinique.
° Putney, A.D. (1982). Survey of Conservation priorities in the lesser Antilles. Final Report
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Managament Program.
° Stehle, H., Stehle, M., and Quentin, L. (1935-1939). Flore de la Guadeloupe et Dependences
et de la Martinique. Catholic Press, Basse-Terre.
°
°
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
Regional Nature Parks
Martinique 70,150 *
Martinique Parc Naturel Regional
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 8.41.12 (Lesser Antillean)
Geographical Location The park is located in the lesser Antillean island of Martinique in the
Caribbean. It consists of two separate zones making up 60% of the island from the north-west
tip (Cap St. Martin) down to near the peninsular of the La Caravelle Nature Reserve and the
main town, Fort de France. A separate extension to the park extends from the Baie de Fort de
France, surrounds the village of Riviére-Salée down to the southern tip of Martinique, the
Pointe de Salines. 14°36’N, 61°05’W
Date and History of Establishment Martinique is part of the French Antilles, an overseas
department of France administered by mainland French laws and regulations. The site was
established as a Parc Naturel Régional in 1975 following the French decree of 24 October 1975
and subsequent Ministerial Act of 24 August 1976.
Area 70,150ha (517ha in the La Caravelle Réserve naturelle, 250ha in the wetland reserve of
Fort de France).
Land Tenure The montane areas are under private ownership as is most of the coastal strip.
The rest of the island is essentially under public ownership.
Altitude 0-1,397m
Physical Features The park consists of the volcanic hilly and mountainous region of the
island as well as coastal cliffs, beaches and reefs. The cultivated lowlands (at altitudes less than
500m) from Fort de France, Le Lamentin and the Caravelle peninsular are excluded from the
park. The highest point is Montagne Pelée (1,397m) a dormant volcano (last erupted 1928) to
the south of which is a volcanic escarpment of just under 1,000m. The south of the island
reaches a maximum of under 300m. The rocks of the island range from labradorite, basalt and
granite of recent volcanic origin to calcareous sediments of limestone as on the La Caravelle
peninsular. Clays are also present along with siliceous sands and beach sands of coral origin.
Much of the geomorphology derives from the Oligocene period. The tufas are of the Eocene
and recent periods, whilst the calcareous material was deposited in the lower Micoene
(Aquitanian period). Minerals include quartz along with quantities of zeoliths and amythyst,
yellow and red jasper and rare silicified wood. The island is rich in water supplies and the Mt.
Pelée, Massif du Carbet and Morne Jacob massifs are important watersheds for the entire
island. Major rivers include the Lézarde with its estuary, Lamentin Baie and the river Salée,
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Martinique
with its source in Mt. du Vauclin (504m) in southern Martinique. Other rivers in the south are
only temporary. Coral reefs exist in the Baie de Fort de France, on the south coast near Le
Diamant, and on the east coast from Baie des Anglais up to the Ile de Ramville (Loup
Bordelais, Garou and Caye Mitan) (Portecop, 1979).
Climate Average annual rainfall reaches a maximum in the Martinique highlands around
Montagne Pelée of 7620mm dropping to 1270mm per year on the south-west. Lowest is
500mm at Ste Anne. There are fairly well defined dry seasons in the winter months. The
island is within the hurricane belt and maximum rainfall occurs in September-October. Trade
winds prevail and moderate the temperature which reaches 30-32°C in calm periods.
Vegetation The vegetation of Martinique is very diverse with up to seven main biotypes
which have been identified (Portecop, 1979). Altitude and the degree of aridity has a marked
effect upon the vegetation types. At highest altitudes, 800m and above, are cloud forests
which lead down to rain forests from 800-500m. The greater proportion of Martinique was
once naturally covered by "moist" forest. Coastal areas consist of dry woodland and mangrove,
and in areas of low rainfall (less than 127cm/year) are cactus scrub.
The marine zone includes the vast seagrass meadows, dominated by Thalassia testudinum. The
mangroves are of three types: a) black mangrove consisting of Rhizophora mangle
with Cymodocea namatorum, Caulerpa sp., Udothea sp.; b) Avicennia mangrove dominated
by Avicennia anitida and white mangrove characterised by Conocarpus erecta and Laguncularia
racemosa.
The sandy littoral vegetation consists of Jpomea pes-caprea, Canavalia maritima, Thespesia
populnea and the euphorbia Hipyomane mancinella. The arid zone is characterised by cacti and
succulents such as Cephalocereus nobilis, Opuntia dilleni and the agave Furcrea tuberosa.
The dry forest consists of vegetation of 20-30m in maximum height, dominated by Tabebuia
pallida, Elaphirum simaruba, Pisonia frangrans, Fagara martinicencis and Ceiba pentendra, and
an understorey of Eugenia ligustrina and Randia mitis. The herbaceous layer is very poor. At
higher altitudes are forests dominated by mahogany Swietenia mahagoni (Fiard et al, n.d.;
Portecop, 1979; UNEP/IUCN, in prep.)
Fauna The marine zone is characterised by seagrass meadows and reefs, consisting of the
corals Siderastrea radians, S. siderea, Porites astreoides, P. divaricata, Manicina areolata,
Solenastrea bournoni and Millepora alcicornis. The green turtle Chelonia mydas and hawksbill
turtle Eretmochelys imbricata breed on the southern shores (Carp et al., 1982; UNEP/IUCN, in
prep.).
In the mangrove habitats are rich faunal components, dominated by the molluscs Crassotrea
rhizaphorae, Brachidontes recurvus, Isoguomon alata, Murex brevifons and Luttorina angulfera.
There are also crabs Ucides cordatus and Ucca rapax (UNEP/IUCN, in prep.). The
characteristic mangrove birds include Gallinula chloropus cerceris, Nyctacorax violacea, Ardea
herodias adoxa, Coccyzus minor vincentis and Ictenis bonana along with the passage
(July-December) birds Arenaria interpes morinella, Charadrius semipalmatus, Actitis macularia
and Tringa fluvipes. There are also lizards such as Sphaerodactylus vicenti ronaldi (Pinchou,
1963; IUCN, 1982).
The magnificent frigatebird Fregata magnifiens, sooty terns Sterna fuscata and brown
noddies Anous stolidus are amongst the coastal avifauna. The dry forest is characterised by the
birds Zenaida aurita aurita, Columbigallina passerina trochila, Eteania martinica and the
endemic Ramphocinclus brachyurus, whilst the martinique oriole Icterus bonana is characteristic
of the humid forest zone (Pinchou, 1963; IUCN, 1982; Van Halewyn et al., 1984).
Cultural Heritage Historic ruins include 17th century distilleries and colonial houses. Cock
pit fighting - (fights of "cocks versus fer-de-lance snake") is still an important sport in
Martinique. The original inhabitants of the island were the Arawak Indians. Today the
inhabitants are of French, African and Carib origin. Many remains of the prehistoric Arawak
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Martinique
period are displayed in the Musée Départemental. There is a ruined city, St Pelée, on the
slopes of the volcanic Mount Pelée and at Trois Islets across the bay from Fort de France
Napoleon first met Josephine (Desjeux et Desjeux, 1984).
Local Human Population The park is highly populated with up to 300 inhabitants/sq.km., and
a total figure of 80,000 people living in 34 parishes (communes). The economy of the island is
based on tourism, fishing, aquaculture and the banana and rum industries. Beef cattle
(Brahman) are bred and grazed on the grass pastures of the northern island (Desjeux et
Desjeux, 1984; UNEP/IUCN, in prep.).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities _An ecomuseum for the park is housed at the Ancien Collége
Agricole in Tivoli. On the island there are nine museums, including those for geology,
conchology and the rum industry, as well as the Parc des Floralies des Trois-Islets with
representatives of different Martinique bird species. Activities include 33 hiking trails,
swimming, scuba diving, snorkelling and spear fishing. Golf, cycling and sailing are also
catered for. Festivals are important highlights to the Martinique year for tourists and iocal
people alike (Desjeux et Desjeux, 1984)..
Scientific Research and Facilities | Extensive surveys have been undertaken on the marine
environment. From 1983 to 1984 a major survey was carried out during the Corantilles II
programme under the auspices of the Comité Régional Martinique (COREMA) de la Fédération
Frangaise d’Etudes et de Sports sous Marins.
Conservation Management Protection in the park does not extend to the marine areas but
includes the wetland of the Fort de France Bay where hunting is prohibited. The park is of
significant ecological interest for a diversity of ecosystems ranging from the relatively
undamaged Mt Pelée tropical cloud forests to the internationally important migratory bird
wetland at the Baie de Fort de France. The park is managed primarily to safeguard the natural
and cultural heritage of the island, including the maintenance and development of the rural
economy. The forests are protected and actively managed by the Office National des Foréts.
The Caravelle peninsula reserve is maintained by the Parc Naturel authorities for its nature
conservation interest and protected by a warden system (Desjeux et Desjeux, 1984;
UNEP/IUCN, in prep.).
Management Problems Threats to the environment on Martinique are urban and industrial
development, as well as sewage pollution (in Baie de Fort de France). The soils erode easily in
deforested areas and on steep slopes and this has led to excessive siltation in the coastal areas,
often harming the marine life such as the coral. The shallow lagoonal areas are excessively
fished by the local people. Recent hurricanes, such as Hurricanes David and Allen, have
caused damage to a variety of habitats in Martinique from coral reefs to montaine forests
(UNEP/IUCN, in prep). Tibouchina chamaecistus (V) is being depleted through picking of its
flowers in the high altitude regions of the park (ICBP, 1987).
Staff There is one game warden managing Caravelle reserve.
Budget No information
Local Administration Ancien Collége Agricole-Tivoli, BP 437, 97205 Fort de France. Tel:
(19-596) 73.17.25.
References
° Carr, A., Meylan, A., Mortimer, J., Bjorndal, K and Carr, T. (1982). Surveys of sea turtle
populations and habitats in the Western Atlantic. NOAA Technical memorandum
NMEFS-SEFL-91, U.S. Department of Commerce.
° Desjeux, C. et Desjeux, B. (1984). Les Parcs Naturels régionaux de France, Editions Créer,
Nonette, France.
° Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program (1980). Martinique, preliminary data
Atlas, survey of conservation priorities in the Lesser Antilles. Caribbean Conservation
Association, University of Michigan and UNEP.
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°
°
Martinique
Fiard, J-P et al. (n.d.). La Forét Martiniquaise, présentation et propositions de Mesures de
Protection. Parc Naturel Régional de la Martinique.
IUCN (1982). IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas. Tycooly International
Publishing Ltd., Dublin.
Parc Naturel Régional (n.d.). Parc Naturel Régional de la Martinique - Presqu’ile de la
Caravelle réserve naturelle. Parc Naturel Régional de la Martinique.
Pinchou, R. (1963). Les Oiseaux; Faune des Antilles Frangaises. Fort de France
Portecop, J. (1979). Phytogéographie, cartographie écologique et aménagement dans une ile
tropicale: le cas de la Martinique. Documents de Cartographie Ecologique, Laboratoire de
Biologie Végétale. Université de Grenoble (France). No. XXI.
UNEP/IUCN (in prep.). Directory of Coral Reefs of International Importance. UNEP
Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. FAO, Rome.
Van Halewyn, R and Norton, R.L. (1984). The status and conservation of the seabirds in the
Caribbean. In : Croxall, J.P., Evans, P.G.H. and Schreiber, R.W. (Eds.). Status and
Conservation of the World’s seabirds. ICBP Technical Publications No. 2. Cambridge.
Date July 1987
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PERU
Area 1,285,215.6 sq km
Population 16,000,000 (1980)
Parks and Reserves Legislation The two main laws dealing with the establishment and
management of protected areas are the Decree Law No. 21147 of 5 May 1975 (Forestry and
Wildlife Law) and the Supreme Decree No. 160-77-AG of 31 March 1977 (Regulations of units
of conservation). The Forestry and Wildlife Law relates to the establishment of conservation
"units" in Peru as public domain (Chap. 11, title 2). All units are established formally by
supreme decree and signed by the President of Peru. Article No. 1 of the Law states that since
the forest resources and wildlife are in the public domain, there are no acquisition rights.
Indeed, in Article 20, the Law allows for expropriation of land. Infraction relative to flora and
fauna is also dealt with in the Law (Chap. |, title 6). Articles 16-19 define the four categories
of conservation unit, varying from national park to hunting reserve. Conservation units or
protected areas are also dealt with in the Agrarian Reform Law No. 17716 (1969) which states
that national parks and forests, forest reserves and archaeological zones declared by law are not
to be considered for land distribution under the reform law (reiterated in the Decree Law No.
22175, Article 54, which states that "lands declared as parks, reserves, sanctuaries, or as
national or protected forests, cannot be appropriated for other purposes"). The 1977 Supreme
Decree on "regulations of the units of conservation" defines the national system of conservation
areas or units (SINUC) as including national parks, national reserves, national sanctuaries and
historic sanctuaries. The regulations also require preparation of management plans and define
protected area zonation. Additional areas which are not specified in the "national system of
conservation units" are protected and designated under supreme resolution or ministerial
resolution. These categories include national forests and protection forests, hunting reserves
(state and private), communal reserves and fishery reserves (Wetterberg, 1985). The
conservation units defined in the Forestry and Wildlife Law (No. 21147, Articles 16-19)
include:
National Parks (Parques Nacionales), relatively large areas protected in their natural state for
their associations of wild fauna and flora and scenic beauty.
National Reserves (Reservas Nacionales) are areas set up for the protection of wildlife "whose
conservation is of national interest". The wildlife can be propagated and its products utilised
by the state, or if the reserves are on agricultural or livestock land the Ministry of Agriculture
can authorise the utilisation of wildlife by the landowners. Mineral exploitation is also possible
within national reserves (Supreme Decree No. 069-82-AG).
National Sanctuaries (Sanctuarios Nacionales) are areas set up to protect, in a natural state, a
species or a community of flora and fauna. Other types of national sanctuary include those
natural or geological formations of scientific interest, as well as areas of natural landscape
interest (Wetterberg, 1985).
Historical Sanctuaries (Santuarios Hist6ricos) are areas established at historic sites to protect the
natural heritage and landscape of the region. They also aim to maintain the heritage and
country crafts of the local peoples and promote the area for its cultural and recreational value.
Other protected area categories relate to forestry protection or hunting, and are defined by
Wetterberg (1985).
One of the earliest international conservation agreements made by Peru was ratification of the
"Convention on the protection of the flora, fauna and beautiful natural scenery of American
countries" signed in November 1946. Peru accepted the Convention on International Trade
(CITES) on 30 December 1974 (ratified in Decree Law No. 21080 of 18 June 1975). The
accords on the "Conservation of the fauna and flora of the Amazon territories" was signed with
Brazil on 7 November 1975 and with Columbia on 30 March 1974. Peru also ratified the
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Peru
"Convention on nature protection and wildlife preservation of the western hemispere" in Article
No. 101 of the 1979 National Constitution. Three biosphere reserves were listed and accepted
by the MAB Committee in 1977 (Manu, Huascaran and Nor-oeste) and the World Heritage
Convention was ratified on 24 February 1982, with one site inscribed in 1983 (Macchu Picchu)
(Ponce del Prado, 1983).
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management The General Directorate of Forestry and
Fauna (Direccion General Forestal y de Fauna) of the Ministry of Agriculture was originally
responsible for the usual technical activities of the National Parks administration under Decree
Law No. 19608 (21 November 1972), while the regional organisations of the Ministry were
responsible for managing the other protected areas. Since 1981, however, the responsibility for
conservation is being shared by various Government agencies (Ponce del Prado, 1983).
Ultimate responsibility for conservation policy decisions still rests with the General Directorate
of Forestry and Fauna, but this is supported by INFOR (Instituto Nacional Forestal y de
Fauna), which has responsibility for executive management of the entire national system of
conservation units. INFOR governs the general directorate of conservation which is divided
into two units, that of conservation and wildlife. The conservation unit directorate is
responsible for a proportion of the parks, reserves and sanctuaries (Ponce del Prado, 1983;
Wetterberg, 1985). The day-to-day management of protected areas is the responsibility of the
regional development agencies, which provide the necessary funding and integration with other
development projects and land-use plans (Anon., 1982; Ponce del Prado, 1983; Wetterberg,
1985).
Addresses
° Direccion General Forestal y de Fauna, Ministerio de Agricultura, Natalio Sonchez 220 (3er.
Pisdo), Lima
° Instituto Nacional Forestal y de Fauna, Lima
Additional Information Peru is divided into four regions running north-south along the
country. The Costa is a narrow coastal plain consisting of large tracts of desert broken by
fertile valleys and is rich in oil fields; the Sierra contains the Andes, with peaks of over
7,000m where most of the livestock is bred; the Montafia, fertile sub-tropical uplands which
separate the Andes and the forests of eastern Peru and are largely undeveloped; the Selza, or
Amazonian jungle in the east, which is largely undeveloped rainforest where oil exploration has
been underway since 1973. Land use in Peru is roughly divided into 68% forest, 21% pastoral
land and 2% arable (Butland, 1977). Threats and problems specific to the protected area system
are based on a lack of public awareness of conservation. As a result, these areas are of
secondary importance in government policy, and have low visitor figures (Wetterberg, 1985).
The division of park administrative responsibilities makes it difficult to manage the parks
effectively. For example, policy and regulatory matters are the responsibility of the General
Directorate of Forestry, while financial matters and project administration are coordinated by
INFOR, and the day-to-day running of the protected areas is the responsibility of the regional
development corporation (Wetterberg, 1985). Other problems affecting protected areas include
shortage of personnel and adequate funds. There tends to be a lack of skilled staff, but
especially a lack of commitment among the professionals in charge of the units (Dourojeanni,
1985; Wetterberg, 1985). Specific threats to protected areas include mining and oil exploration,
road building, pollution and reservoir construction, in addition to unlawful hunting and
livestock grazing (Dourojeanni, 1985).
References
° Anon. (1982). Tropical Forest Campaign: Peru. Fact Sheet No. 12. WWEF/IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
° Butland, G.J. (1977). Latin America, a regional geography. Longman, London.
° Dourojeanni, M.J. (1985). Management problems in the Andean National Parks and
protected areas of Peru. The Hindu-Kush Himalaya. Kathmandu: King Mahendra Trust for
Nature Conservation and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development.
159-161.
° Dourojeanni, M.J. and Ponce, C.F. (1978). Los parques nacionales del Peru.
° INFOR (1986). Sistema nacional de unidades de conservacion. Instituto Nacional Forestal y
de Fauna.
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Peru
Ponce del Prado, C.F. (1983). Peru. Informe de la mesa redonda sobre parques nacionales,
otras areas protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. FAO, Santiago de Chile, 8-10 Junio 1983.
43-59.
° Wetterberg, G.B. (1985). Decade of progress of South American National Parks.
International Affairs, National Parks Service, Washington.
Protected Landscapes
(hectares)
Historical Sanctuaries
Chacamarca 2,500 *
Pampa de Ayacucho 300 *
Subtotal 2,800
Information on a third historical sanctuary, Macchu Picchu, is also included.
Santuario Historico de Chacamarca
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 8.36.12 (Puna)
Geographical Location The site is situated in the Andean highlands of Junin district,
immediately to the south of the city of Junin. 11°12’S, 75°58’W
Date and History of Establishment The site was created as an historical sanctuary (santuario
historico) on 7 August, 1974, under the law (supreme resolution) 0750-74-AG.
Area 2,500ha
Land Tenure Property of rural communities of Chichausiri
Altitude 4,000-4,125m
Physical Features The Junin pampas which form part of the Bombon meseta are flat plains of
the high Andes. The pampas of the high plateau are composed of Recent Quaternary moraine
deposits of conglomerates and clays, as well as "fluvial glaciers" which fill depressions and
hollows of the plateau.
Climate The mean annual temperature averages 5°C with a total mean annual rainfall of
800mm. The dry season lasts from May to September and the wet season from October to
April.
Vegetation The vegetation is of the very humid tropical paramo type, with typical puna
grasslands of Calamagrostis sp., Festuca sp., Stipa sp., Distichia muscoides, Plantago rigida,
Hypochoeris sp. and Gentiana prostrata (Ministry of Agriculture, 1980).
Fauna The most representative park fauna include mammals cavy Cavia tschudii, Colpeo’s
fox Dusicyon culpaeus and hognosed skunk Conepatus rex. Birds are typically represented by
Andean lapwing, rufous-bellied seedsnipe, Andean tinamou, mountain vizcacha, buff-necked
ibis, Puna ibis and Andean goose (Ptilosceles resplendens, Attagis gayi, Nothoprocta pentlandii,
Lagidium peruanum, Theristicus caudatus, Plegadis ridgwayi and Chloephaga melanopotera).
Cultural Heritage The park was established to protect the scenery on the site of the historic
battle of Junin and today the site is marked by an obelisc. There are numerous relicts of the
ancient Pumpush culture and in the area there is also the remains of the Inca Way
(Dourojeanni, 1982).
Local Human Population No information
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Peru
Visitors and Visitor Facilities Visitors to the park can visit the site of the historic battle of
Junin as well as hike around the area. Major tourist circuits include the
Junin-Huallay-Chacamarca trail which passes by the National reserve of Junin lake as well as
the sanctuaries of the Junin battlefield and of Huayllay. The park is accessible by road or by
rail (Dourojeanni, 1982).
Scientific Research and Facilities All scientific work is undertaken in collaboration with the
nearby Junin National Reserve authories.
Conservation Management The authorities aim to maintain the cultural heritage (including the
archaeological remains of the Pumpush culture), promote the area for its cultural and
recreational value and conserve and even re-create the traditional landscape and scenery of the
region, as it would have been at the time of the historic battle of Junin. Traditional activities
in the park are regulated. There is no managemement infrastructure in the park itself. It is
dependent on Junin National Reserve for all conservation work (Ministry of Agriculture, 1980).
Management Problems _ Traditional agriculture and cattle breeding activities are regulated by
Ministry of Agriculture.
Staff No information.
Budget The site receives no official funding for nature conservation. Funding sources
include the education sector and the military.
Local Administration All administration is organised by the authorities of the Junin National
Reserve, Ondores Forestry District, Ondores, Junin.
References
° Dir. Gral. Forestal y de Fauna (1980). Reserva nacional de Junin, Santuario Nacional de
Huayllay, Santuario nacional de Chacamarca. Systema nacional de unidades de conservacion,
Lima.
Dourojeanni, M. (1982). El Lago de Junin como centro de un circuito turistico por las
provincias de Huarochiri, Canta, Junin y Pasco. Revista Forestal del Peru, YI (2): 53-68,
Lima.
° Ministry of Agriculture (1980). Pampa de Ayacucho Informe 056-80-DC-DGFF of 17
April, 1980.
Date August 1987
Santuario Histérico Macchu Picchu
Management Category II & X (National Park and World Heritage Site)
Biogeographical Province 8.35.12 (Yungas)
Geographical Location The site is located on the highest part of the eastern highlands of the
Andes, above the Rio Urubamba northwest of Cuzco (Cuzco Department). 13°10-13°13’S,
72°33-72°37W
Date and History of Establishment Created as an historical sanctuary (santuario hist6rico) on
8 January 1981, under law (supreme resolution) DS 001-81-AA. The site was designated as a
World heritage site in 1983.
Area 32,592ha
Land Tenure Private ownership (property of four main "predios": Mandorpampa, Quente,
Torontay and Rita-Quente)
2954-
Peru
Altitude 1,452-3,600m
Physical Features The site lies in the Selva alta zone, and includes part of a highly dissected
mountain massif of the high Andes plateau which rises steeply from the Urubamba river
valley. The area around the ruins of Macchu Picchu consists of many rocky pinnacles with
exposures supporting thin soils, although the area also includes sites with complex systems of
old Inca terraced land constructed to conserve the soils. The Urubamba alluvial basin is an
almost continuous zone of arable and pastoral farming land. Geologically the area is very
complex, being a combination of marine sedimentary rocks of the Cretaceous-Tertiary period
and intrusive rocks and volcanic material, including lavas and granites. The sedimentary
deposits include Ordovician schists, slates and quartzites. Streams and rivers feed the major
Rio Urubamba valley system as well as smaller valleys in the north such as that of Quillabamba
(MAA, 1986).
Climate The annual temperature averages 16°C and the total mean annual rainfall is
1500-3000mm at low altitudes. At 2,500m altitude the average temperature drops to 10.2°C,
with a total annual rainfall of 2170mm. The dry season lasts from May to September and the
wet season from October to April.
Vegetation The site has been influenced by man for many centuries leading to a combination
of man-made habitats, paramo grassland, Polylepis thickets, partially degraded virgin forest
and former cultivated land which has reverted back to forest or scrub. The mountain peaks
around the ruins of Macchu Picchu are typified by rocky exposures, thin soils, grasses and
woody shrubs. At lower altitudes patchy woodlands predominate, their distribution very much
depending upon past human interference especially during the Inca period when the form of
agriculture was highly sophisticated. The vegetation rises from the dry subtropical forest along
the river valleys to the very humid low montane forest. Tree genera represented in the denser
woodland include mahogany Cedrela, Podocarpus (the only conifer in Peru), Lauraceae Ocotea,
Cunoniaceae Weinmannia, Nectandra and also Cecropia in the Conocephaleae family. There are
a number of tree ferns represented including Cyathea and also palms such as Geromoina,
Guasca and Riupala (MAA, 1981). Around the rivers and streams are reeds Phragmites, willow
and alder, while close to the ruins themselves are open grassland habitats, low shrubs and
scattered thickets of Polylepis and bamboo (Parker et al, 1982). The high altitude subalpine
paramo includes many Graminae, Festuca, Stipa and Puya sp. such as P. raimondii. The
mountain ridge lines are characterised by the bamboo Gaudua (Parker et al., 1982).
Fauna Mammals include otter, dwarf brocket deer, long-tailed weasel, Pampas cat and ocelot
(Lutra longicaudis, Mazama chunyii, Mustela frenata, Felis colocolo and Felis pardalis). One
of the most threatened species found within the area is spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus
(Jorgenson, 1982). The bird community includes Andean condor Vultur gryphus and Andean
cock-of-the-rock Rupicola peruviana. In the low altitude areas and agricultural fields are
mountain caracaras Phalcobaenus megalopterus and Andean lapwing Vanellus resplendus, whilst
in the riverside trees are red-backed hawks Buteo polysoma and American kestrels Falco
sparverius, as well as speckled teal Anas flavirostris and Andean gull Larus serranus. In the
narrow stream valleys are torrent duck Merganetta armata, white-capped dipper Cinclus
leucocephalus and fasciated tiger-heron Tigrisoma lineatum. Birds around the ruins include
black-tailed trainbearer Lesbia victoriae, white-winged black-tyrant Knipolegus aterrimus,
tufted tit tyrant Anairetes alpinus, cinereous conebill Conirostrum cinereum, blue-capped
tanager Thraupis cyanocephala and rufous-collared sparrow Zonotrichia capensis. Also a new
species of wren Thryothorus commonly lives in the bamboo thickets (Parker et al., 1982).
Snakes such as Boa are present and there are numerous lizards and frogs in the damper areas.
Cultural Heritage The park was established to protect the landcape of the renowned Macchu
Picchu archaeological site, founded by the Inca culture. It is thought that it was a royal Inca
residence and was perhaps the centre for collecting coca, a royal monopoly, from surrounding
plantations. Eventually the site fell into ruin, was covered by the encroaching forest, and "lost
to science" until re-discovery in 1911. There are also the remains of the Inca Way in the area,
and local legends abound (including that of the spectacled bear which is supposed to serve as a
messenger between the spirits of the high elavations and those of the jungle).
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Peru
Local Human Population Much of the park area is settled with many small communities and
farms especially on the lower slopes. The original inhabitants were skilled in irrigation works,
and terraces, and drainage and irrigation canals extend long distances across irregular ground.
The land tends to be settled on the grassy mountain ridges, which are maintained by fire
management and grazing regimes, while the natural forests survive on the steep slopes and in
more inaccesssible gorges and valleys. Agriculture (maize and barley) and livestock grazing
(llamas and sheep) are the dominant economies and affect a full 20,000ha of the total 32,592ha
of the park. Additional local income comes from tourism associated with the Inca ruins (MAA,
1981; Peyton, 1983). The nearby city of Cuzco was the Inca capital and is today still an
important town with well over 105,000 inhabitants. It is the administrative and commercial
centre for a considerable part of the Urubamba basin.
Visitors and Visitor Facilities In the mid 1980s some 180,000 visitors per year visited the Inca
Trail as well as to the historical sanctuary itself. The park is accessible by road or by rail from
the lower valley and then bus or car to the ruins along steep mountain routes. Accommodation
includes an hotel and camping facilities. A museum exists at the ruins and there are plans to
develop the area further for tourism.
Scientific Research and Facilities Since 1982 research has been undertaken on the ecology of
the spectacled bear in cooperation with the New York Zoological Society (Peyton, 1982).
Vegetation transects have been undertaken, and over 4,500 herbarium specimens have been
collected. Numerous bird studies have been made (Parker et al., 1982).
Conservation Management The site was established to protect the natural heritage (flora,
fauna and geological) and landscape of the region around the ancient ruins of Macchu Picchu.
It also aims to maintain the cultural heritage and promote the area for its recreational value.
Macchu Picchu is reported to be the most important revenue-producing park in Peru, and
management is oriented to deal with heavy tourist use of certain parts of the site. Jurisdiction
is divided between seven government departments. This has caused some difficulties in the
past, however meetings are now underway to bring together the different agencies involved in
sanctuary management. Main environmental work is undertaken by the local ministry of
agriculture with main offices at Cuzco (Macchu Picchu HEP HQ), however much of the day to
day management of the landscape is undertaken by the landowners themselves. The park is
surrounded by intensively managed agricultural lands which are burned annually (Jorgenson,
1982). The area is important for the spectacled bear, but its habitat is reported to be
insufficient for a viable population (although the site forms an important corridor between the
oriental and central range populations of the bear)(Jorgenson, 1982). Jorgensen (1982) and
Peyton (1982), both of whom work on bear populations, have made proposals suggesting the
re-drawing of the site boundaries to divide the natural habitats from the farm land by buffer
zonation. They also suggest extending the park boundaries to the Rio Santa Maria in the
province of La Convencion and to the Apurimac River.
Management Problems’ The lack of a master/management plan, difficulties of departmental
coordination, and the fact that around two-thirds of the park is under agricultural or livestock
influence are serious problems facing park management. It has also been reported that there is
currently insufficient control of park use by the local population. Another more specific
porblem is the increased tourist pressure on the Inca Way and remains, and the damage caused
(Dourojeanni, 1985).
Staff No information
Budget No information
Local Administration Region Agraria IX, Cuzco, Matara 394- Cuzco Tel: 2970-63
References
°* Dourojeanni, M.J. (1985). Management problems in the Andean National Parks and
protected areas of Peru. In The Hindu Kush-Himalaya. Kathmandu: King Mahendra Trust
for Nature Conservation and the International Centre for integrated mountain development
Pp. 159-161.
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Peru
Jorgenson, J.P (1982). Peru report. Spectacled bear specialist group Newsletter 3. 6-8.
° Jorgenson, J.P (1983). Peru field report. Spectacled bear specialist group Newsletter 4.
11-12.
° MAA (1981). Lista de informacion actualizada sobre unidades de conservacién. Ministerio
de Agricultura y Alimentacion, Lima. Report. 2pp
° Parker, T.A. (1980). Notes on little known birds of the upper Urubamba Valley, southern
Peru. Auk 97: 167-176.
° Parker, T.A. and J.P. O’Neill (1976). An introduction to bird-finding in Peru: Part II. The
Carpish Pass Region of the Eastern Andes along the Central Highway. Birding 8: 205-216.
° Parker, T.A., Parker, S.A. and Plenge, M.A. (1982). An annotated checklist of Peruvian
birds. Buteo books, Vermillion, South Dakota.
Peru (1981). Macchu Picchu. World Heritage nomination.
Peyton, B. (1983). Spectacled bear habitat use in the historical sanctuary of Macchu Picchu
and adjacent areas. Abstract of paper presented at the 6th international conference on bear
research and management, presented by the Bear Biology Association, The Grand Canyon
Squire Inn, Arizona, February 18-22, 1983.
° Plan COPESCO (1974) Macchu Picchu Report and plan. Centro de Servicios del Parque
Nacional Macchu Picchu. 114 pp.
°
Date August 1987
Santuario Histérico Pampa de Ayacucho
Management Category V (Protected Landscape)
Biogeographical Province 8.36.12 (Puna)
Geographical Location The park is located in the Puna High Andes, near Quinua in the
department of Ayacucho, province of Huamanga and district of Quinua (Southern Peruvian
Sierra). The park is roughly triangular in shape; the eastern section consists of the Cerra
Condorcunca and Curi Orcco, the park boundary then passes westwards along the river valley
by the villages of Chihuacoraro and Potampampa to the Sunal munumento Quinua, just to the
north-east of Quinua. 13°02’S, 74°06’W.
Date and History of Establishment The site was created as an historical sanctuary (santuario
historico) on 14 August 1980 under the law (supreme resolution) DS 119-80-AA.
Area 300ha
Land Tenure State owned and property of the rural community
Altitude Altitudes range from 3,250 to 3,800m above sea level.
Physical Features The park is situated in the Peruvian highlands and consists of flat and
sloping terrain of the Condorcunca hills. It is composed of Upper Tertiary Ayacucho volcanic
material which was formed after late Miocene mountain folding. The eastern section of the
park consists of the steep slopes of the Cerra Condorcunca and Curi Orcco massifs as well as
the river Ouabredo Aborsapaio which then flows westwards along the valley south of
Chihuacoraro, towards Quinua.
Climate The dry season lasts from May to September and the rainy season f rom October to
April. Precipitation ranges from 750-1000mm per year with temperatures of 3-12°C.
Vegetation The park is typified by high altitude expanses of grasslands (paramo-altiplano).
Dominant vegetation are grasses of the genera Calamagrostis, Festuca and Stipa
(particularly Stipa ichu). In some areas bushes and shrubs are common, and include such
species as Plantago sp., Ephedra americana, Trifoloum amabile and Alchemilla pinnata (Dir.
Gral. Forestal y de Fauna, 1981).
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Peru
Fauna The fauna of Ayacucho includes many typically Andean species. Among the mammal
fauna are deer Odocoileus virginianus, Dusicyon culpaeus and cat Felis jacobita. The rich Puna
type avifauna includes Puna tinamou, spotted nothura, ornate tinamou, Andean tinamou,
American kestrel, white-throated caracara, Andean lapwing, buff necked ibis and
grey-breasted seedsnipe (Tinamotis pentlandii, Nothura maculosa, Nothoprocta ornata,
N. pentlandii, Falco sparverius, Phalcoboenus albogularis, Vanellus resplendens, Theristicus
caudatus and Thinocorus orbigyianus) (Dir. Gral. Forestal y de Fauna, 1981).
Cultural Heritage On 9 December 1824 there was a great battle on the Pampa de Ayacucho
between the revolutionary Peruvian forces and the Spanish authorities, the result of which led
to the historic "Act of capitulation" by the Europeans. Today a pyramidal monument marks the
spot where the battle took place. The entire area is rich in archeological remains and includes
many ruins from the pre-inca Wari period (500-1000 AD).
Local Human Population There is no major settlement within the park itself but on the limit
of the reserve are the communities of Chihuacoraro and Potampampa and the town of Quinua.
The local economy is partly based on livestock rearing and also rural agriculture (Ministry of
Agriculture, 1980).
Visitors and Visitor Facilities The site is of particular recreational value to the inhabitants of
the adjacent town of Quinua, it is also accessible from many other towns and cities via
Ayacucho (road or air transport). Accommodation is available in Quinua and the main activities
are based on outdoor pursuits such as hiking. Tourist trails are available and include the
circuit of Ayacucho, ruins of Wari and Quinua.
Scientific Research and Facilities No information
Conservation Management The park was established to protect the natural heritage and
landscape of the region where the historic battle of Ayacucho was fought. It also aims to
maintain the cultural heritage and country crafts of the local peoples and promote the area for
its cultural and recreational value. Traditional activities in the park are regulated. Management
is primarily based on preserving the traditional landscape. Traditional agricultural and cattle
breeding activities are regulated by the Ministry of Agriculture.
Management Problems No information
Staff No information
Budget The site has received no official funding for nature conservation. Funding sources
include the education sector and the military.
Local Administration Dir. Gral. Forestal y de Fauna, Lima. Region Agraria, XV1-Avenida 28
de Julio No. 622, Ayacucho.
References
° Dir. Gral. Forestal y de Fauna (1981). Santuario Historico de la Pampa de Ayacucho. Dir.
Gral. Forestal y de Fauna, Lima.
° Ministry of Agriculture (1980). Pampa de Ayacucho Informe 056-80-DC-DGFF of 17
April, 1980.
Date August 1987
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AFRICA
Outside of South Africa it is difficult to identify any area specifically set up as a protected
landscape in sub-Saharan Africa, the protected areas having largely been established for their
nature conservation importance, usually in areas of low population, or from where inhabitants
could be moved. A few sites could be listed, including the Chimalavera Regional Nature Park
of Angola, the Marsabit Nature Park of Kenya and the tourist areas of Namibia/SWA, but
these remain largely unconvincing. It has also been suggested that areas such as the
Ngorongoro Conservation Area of Tanzania, or the Luangwe Valley of Zambia are protected
landscapes, however, we would interpret these as true multiple-use management areas. More
difficult to define are the dozen or so recreation parks of Zimbabwe, where recreation in a
natural setting is a major objective. Most of these areas are "artificial" to a greater or lesser
extent, extensively managed, and identified by the Department of National Parks and Wild Life
as multiple-use areas. In North Africa, as in sub-Saharan Africa, there is a large network of
category II protected areas, yet only two identified protected landscape areas, El Kala National
Park in Algeria and Toubkal National Park in Morocco. Both were originally listed by IUCN
as category II sites, however following site visits they are considered to be more appropriately
category V. Unlike many other large protected areas in North Africa, they have zoned areas
which include significant proportions of domestic livestock grazing land, agricultural land and
associated rural village communities.
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ALGERIA
Area 2,381,741 sq.km
Population 21,463,500 (est. 1984)
Parks and Reserves Legislation The first conservation legislation and forestry code came into
existance in 1912. Subsequently from 1923 to 1939 a series of 14 National Parks were set up
by the occupying French authorities. Following independence the conservation laws and
forestry regulations lapsed. In 1979 a study was instigated to establish a new legal framework
intended to cover all aspects of nature conservation and the creation of parks and reserves. In
1982-83 major changes became apparent with a proposal being put forward on 5 February
1983, one on hunting passed on 21 August 1982 and one on the general management of forests
passed on 23 June 1984. These would include a new statute for national park and nature
reserve creation and management, on pollution control and the protection of non-domestic
species. Simultaneously a new council of hunting is directed to create hunting reserves and
construct a list of wild species. These measures are intended to be part of a national strategy
for the conservation of fauna. One national park was established by the Ministry of Culture in
1972 (decree 72-168); the next four are governed by decrees 83-458 of July 1983 (decrees
83-459 to 83-462) in accordance with the law on the protection of the environment of 5
February 1984. The basic park statutes are set out in 83-458. The national park legislation
provides for five zones in each park, zone one (integral reserve) to zone five (peripheral) where
tourist installations may be built, while the basic aims are to promote nature protection,
tourism and sporting activities. Nature reserves will be smaller but confer stricter protection
with buildings being forbidden (MHEF, 1983; Bouzid, 1987). The World Heritage Convention
was ratified on 24 June 1974 with one site being inscribed. The Wetlands Convention was
acceded to on 4 November 1983 with two sites inscribed.
Parks and Reserves Administration and Management In the 1960’s the Department of Water
and Forests, Ministry of Agriculture and Agricultural Revolution held general responsibility
for conservation. In the 1970’s a Ministére de la Mise en Valeur des Terres et de la Protection
de l’Environnment was established. At present overall responsibility is with the Ministére de
Hydraulic, de l'Environnement et des Foréts (MHEF). Below the vice-Minister for MHEF
there are six divisions including the Direction de la Sauvegard et de la Promotion de la Nature
(DSPN). The DSPN is itself divided into 3 sections; those concerned with "Parcs nationaux et
réserves naturelles", "loisirs et foréts" and "environnement". The sous-direction for the national
parks and reserves is sub-divided into bureaux of "parc nationaux", "réserves naturelles" and
"faune et flore en disparition". All research is undertaken by the Laboratoire d’ornithologie et
d’Ecologie des Vertebrates which is part of the Institut National Agronomique. This
multiplicity of organizations resulted in a recommendation in the FAO report of 1979
(TCP/ALG/6703) for a protocol to ensure coordination between these bodies. Each national
park has its own budget. The Director is appointed directly by the Minister and has powers of
independent action. The aims of the legislation and administration of protected areas is to
continue the conservation of native flora and fauna within a framework of a national
conservation network and the consolidation of existing protected establishments (namely
national parks, regional parks, nature reserves and hunting reserves). The FAO report
recommended an ecosystems inventory and the construction of a protected areas list as part of
a national plan for a protected areas system (Drucker, 1987).
Addresses
° Direction de la Sauvegard et de la Promotion de la Nature, MHEF, Ex Grande Seminaire,
Kouba, BP86, Alger.
Departemente de recherche en ecologie forestiére et environnement, INRF, BO37, Cheraga,
Alger.
° Laboratoire d’ornithologie et d’ecologie des vertebrates, INA, El Harrach.
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Algeria
Additional Information Northern Algeria has been densely populated ever since Roman times
but the south until recently has remained unexplored. The result was that the coastal areas
have been intensively managed for 2,000 years, but the mountain forests and areas in the
Sahara desert remained relatively undamaged until comparatively recently. The northern part
of the country is represented by a mediterranean flora and fauna over to the southern foothills
of the Atlas mountain ranges which run east-west parallel to the distant Mediterranean coast.
To the south of the mountain and Haut plateau is steppe-land which quickly runs into the
Sahara desert. An outlier of mediterranean vegetation survives on the Hoggar mountains in the
extreme south of the country. The greatest habitat losses in recent years have been through the
felling and burning of extensive forests and also from the conversion of grazing land,
especially Atlas steppe, to arable land. Management of the reserves and parks appears to be
very effective and well controlled. Their protection is often enhanced by being surrounded
and enclosed by fences. The new National Park at El Kala is perhaps the one exception since
much of its lakes are under threat from drainage (Drucker, 1987).
References
° Bougazelli, N., Djender, M. and Thomas, J-P. (1976). Project de Parc National Marin
Lacustre Terrestre de El Kala (Annaba) Algeria). Report presented to the UNEP Expert
Consultation on Mediterranean Marine Parks and Wetland, Tunis, 12-14 January 1977.
° Bouzid, C. (1987). Expose sur la protection de la faune et de la flore. Presente en lere annee
de magister INA, El Harrach. March 1987.
° Carp, E. (1980). Directory of Wetlands of International Importance in the Western
Palearctic. I1\UCN/UNEP.
° Chalabi, B., Skinner, J., Harrison, J. and Van Dijk, G. (1984). Les zones humides du
Nord-Est Algérien en 1984. Report No. 8. Stichting Werkgroep International Wad-en
Watervogelonderzoek, Nederland.
Drucker, G.R.F. (1987). Protected areas in Tunisia. Unpublished report. Sussex, England.
° FAO, (1979). Programme de Cooperation Technique. Amenagement de 1l’Environnment
Rural, Notamment des Parcs Nationaux, Algerie. Rome. TCP/ALG/6703.
° Grimmett, R. (1987).