PROTECTED LANDSCAPES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM COUNTRYSIDE COMMISSION Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge http://www.archive.org/details/protectedlandsca92ukco Cover Photos: Little Sound between Skomer and Midland Isle, Marloes and Dale HC Ray Wo tmx re Above Hailes Abbey, Cotswolds AONB Duncan Poore Llanfair Hill, Shropshire Hills AONB Archie Miles/CC Hurst Farm near Chilham, Kent Downs AONB Mike Williams/CC Loch Tummel and Schiehallion, Loch Tummel NSA Duncan Poore Distributed by: Countryside Commission Publications Printworks Lane Levenshulme Manchester M19 3]P Telephone: 061-224 6287 © Countryside Commission 1992 ISBN 0 86170 324 3 CCP 362 Price £12.50 WORLD 836-- — { PROTECTED " PROTEGTED AREAS LANDSCAPES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM Prepared by Duncan and Judy Poore for the COUNTRYSIDE COMMISSION with the assistance of CYNGOR = CEFN GWLAD — SY ENGLISH VEN NATURE =/ COUNTRYSIDE ———————— counter! —— FOR WALES ihe = = ” —— ENVIRONMENT SERVICE COUNTRYSIDE for Northern Ireland COMMISSION FOR SCOTLAND WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE PROTECTED LANDSCAPES INTHE Sy : UNITED KINGDOM a National Park & The Broads Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty National Scenic Area Environmentally Sensitive Area Heritage Coast New Forest NORTHERN IRELAND REPUBLIC IRELAND CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgements Protected landscapes in the United Kingdom The British landscape How the British landscape is protected Categories of protected landscape Responsibilities Conclusion National Parks and equivalent areas (England and Wales) Brecon Beacons Dartmoor Exmoor Lake District Northumberland North York Moors Peak District Pembrokeshire Coast Snowdonia Yorkshire Dales Norfolk and Suffolk Broads New Forest National Scenic Areas (Scotland) Other protected landscapes Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty England and Wales Northern Ireland Heritage Coasts England and Wales Environmentally Sensitive Areas England Wales Scotland Northern Ireland Addresses Bibliography Acronyms and abbreviations PREFACE The British Isles are relatively small, long- settled and crowded. This long occupation means that there are no true wilderness areas and almost all of our landscapes bear the indelible impression of man’s continuous habitation, farming and industrial activities. However, the landscapes created often have great beauty and charm and the British have a strong emotional relationship with their countryside. One consequence has been a consistent national desire, initially led by non-governmental organisations — but for the last 40 years also accepted by government — to prevent undesirable and destructive development in the countryside and to conserve the best of it for the nation to enjoy. The way in which this has been achieved, through the designation of protected landscapes, is the subject of this book. The term ‘protected landscape’ is taken from the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Among the categories recommended by IUCN to provide fully for any nation’s conservation needs is that of Protected Landscapes (Category V), whose purpose is “to maintain significant areas which are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of nature and culture, while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism, and supporting the normal life-style and economic activity of these areas. These areas also serve scientific and educational purposes as well as maintaining biological and cultural diversity”. The areas described in this book, and especially the National Parks of England and Wales, illustrate the IUCN concept well. They also equate to the Council of Europe’s Classification C of protected areas. What distinguishes the United Kingdom’s approach to conserving important landscapes is the acceptance that not only will established land uses, principally agriculture, continue but also that the maintenance of many of those landscapes depends upon sustaining traditional farming practices. Also, there is an implicit recognition of the contribution that the way of life of the local people makes to the enjoyment of the area by visitors. The inspirational quality of such cultural landscapes is best illustrated by the place of the Lake District — at present a candidate for World Heritage status — in the history of art, literature, conservation and tourism, but each protected landscape displays a remarkable example of “the harmonious interaction of man and land”. The objectives of this book are two-fold: e to illustrate the variety of scenery and natural resources that are protected in the United Kingdom; e to show how protection is achieved in practice. We aim to provide audiences with an account of the distinctive way in which the finest landscapes of the United Kingdom are protected. Although this is not an account of nature conservation, the systems of landscape protection and nature conservation in the United Kingdom are mutually supportive and are now becoming even more closely blended. Thus, many National Nature Reserves and Sites of Special Scientific Interest contribute to the conservation of protected landscapes, and the reverse is also true. The first edition of this book was published to coincide with the International Symposium on Protected Landscapes held in the English Lake District in October 1987. It was at this Symposium that the Lake District Declaration was adopted. Together, the Symposium and the book have, we believe, made a significant contribution to an appreciation of the United Kingdom’s experience and what it may offer to other countries. A companion volume in 1987, Protected landscapes: Experience around the World, was published by IUCN as a further contribution to the Symposium. There have been a number of changes since 1987, both in the United Kingdom and internationally, so the Countryside Commission has taken the lead in commissioning the preparation of a new edition of the book as a contribution from the United Kingdom to the 1Vth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas to be held in Caracas, Venezuela, in February 1992. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The information in the book results from collaboration between the Countryside Commission, the Countryside Commission for Scotland, the Countryside Council for Wales, the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland, and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance given by the staff of all these organisations; those in charge of the National Parks, the Broads and the New Forest; and staff of the National Trust, the National Trust for Scotland and of the successor bodies of the Nature Conservancy Council. The information contained in this edition is accurate to 1 December 1991. PROTECTED LANDSCAPES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM The British landscape There can be few countries in the world that have so rich a variety of landscape in such a small compass as the United Kingdom. The tempestuous breakers and soaring seabirds of St Kilda on the Atlantic seaboard and the ice-laden winds sweeping over the high plateau of the Cairngorms or the ridges of Snowdon provide all the wildness and challenge that anyone may wish. An early summer morning on a New Forest lawn with the mists rising over the water, grazing deer and the sun-dappled shade under ancient oaks is the rural idyll of many people. The harmony between village architecture in softly blending traditional materials, and the pattern of fields bordered by stone walls backed by the outlines of an Iron Age hill fort, give a sense of peace and the continuity of rural life. Britain has all of these: the rocks, the bones of the landscape, span all epochs from the pre-Cambrian to the most recent; there are glaciated and un-glaciated landforms (though no glaciers); our position on the Atlantic fringe of Europe and the great range of latitude (from 50 to 61 degrees north) leads to a variety of climates and moods — from the wet and blustery November day in the west, to the vast arching skies of continental East Anglia and the cool, clear light of the long days of the northern summer in the Shetlands. And, over all, the traces of the past are evident wherever they have not been covered by later buildings or effaced by the plough. Many things are encompassed in our understanding of the word landscape: the geological structure of the land, its soils, animals and its vegetation; the patterns of human activity — fields, forests, settlements and local industries — both past and present. It is a matter not only of beauty, of aesthetic appreciation of nature and architecture, but also of the whole ecology of an area and the history of its occupation and use by people. The entire United Kingdom has been moulded to some extent by human occupation. The traces are very slight, it is true, high in the mountains or on the remoter parts of the coast; at certain seasons there, it is possible to get the illusion of complete wilderness. However, there is very little in Britain that can honestly be said to conform to the international ideal of the National Park. There are landscapes of the very highest quality, as is evidenced by the millions that come to visit them every year, landscapes of such value to the nation that their character must be safeguarded, but these are all lived in and used, and most are privately owned; even the high moors and the remote islands are used for economic purposes — indeed much of the character of most of them depends upon continuing habitation and use. Here lies the dilemma: how to preserve the character of these landscapes — and to make them available to be enjoyed — ina world of changing economic pressures and social conditions. This is not a matter for Britain alone; a high proportion of the natural beauty and diversity in the world occurs in areas that are used by man. Indeed, the protection and management of such areas is the main objective of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in establishing its Category V of Protected Landscape. The management objectives of this category are defined as: “To maintain significant areas which are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of nature and culture, while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism, and supporting the normal life style and economic activity of these areas. These areas also serve scientific and educational purposes, as well as maintaining biological and cultural diversity”. We are confident that the ways in the which the United Kingdom has tackled these problems will have interest and value elsewhere in the world. How the British landscape is protected The concept The concept is very simple. In a country where most of the land is privately owned and is used by people for their livelihood, ownership by the State is not a possible answer; protection has to be achieved in more subtle ways. The means adopted are, on the one hand, the control of development and, on the other, incentives to favour beneficial kinds of land management. At the same time various categories of land have been established by statute that are subject to a graded system of controls and attract different incentives — the most important, the National Parks, are subject to the most powerful measures. In addition, special arrangements have been made in the National Parks for a management authority to design policies and coordinate action. This system, though complicated, has three great advantages: @ it can grow within the framework of existing policies and legislation; e it places the responsibility for protection (within national guidelines) firmly with the people who live in and use the countryside; e itis flexible; changes in the degree of control or of incentive can be readily introduced without fundamental changes in the law; and it has been possible to adopt different approaches to suit conditions in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Legislation The main measures that are the foundation of present policies for landscape protection were designed during the Second World War as part of national plans for post-war reconstruction and they became law in the late 1940s. The most significant for their effects on the British countryside were the Acts of Parliament dealing with planning (the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 for England and Wales and the parallel Acts for Scotland and Northern Ireland). With their subsequent amending legislation, these form the basis for all regional and local planning and for the control of development. Planning authorities were established, which were given the duty of preparing development plans, now structure plans, local plans and unitary plans; these lay down the main lines for tuture development. Also, most physical developments can only proceed after planning permission for them is granted by the planning authority; there is provision for a public inquiry if there are objections; and controversial cases can be referred to the Secretary of State. At the same time a number of reports were commissioned by the government on aspects of the use and conservation of the countryside, notably by John Dower, a great advocate of National Parks, and by committees chaired by Sir Arthur Hobhouse, and by Sir Douglas Ramsay for Scotland. There were separate reports devoted to nature conservation. The main outcome of this work was the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949, which provided the foundation for the British system of protected areas, both for landscape and for nature conservation — a system that has been added to and refined in later years but never fundamentally changed. In the field of landscape protection the 1949 Act provided for two categories of protection: National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). These provisions of the Act only became effective in England and Wales and the National Parks Commission set up to implement them only operated in England and Wales. Scotland and Northern Ireland followed different courses. In the field of nature conservation, which is closely allied to landscape protection and complements it in many ways, three categories were established: National Nature Reserve (NNR), Local Nature Reserve (LNR) and Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). The Nature Conservancy (becoming the Nature Conservancy Council in 1973) was established to operate the national policy for nature conservation not only in England and Wales, but also in Scotland. Measures for Northern Ireland followed later. Since then these categories have played a fundamental national role in effective landscape conservation — all of them in England and Wales, the NNR, LNR and SSSI in Scotland. The ten areas that were selected under the 1949 Act as prospective National Parks were all in upland Britain, with the Principal legislation affecting protected areas England and Wales The New Forest Acts 1877, 1879, 1949, 1964 & 1970 National Trust Acts 1907, 1919, 1937, 1939, 1953 & 1971 Town and Country Planning Acts 1947, 1971 & 1990 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 Countryside Act 1968 Local Government Act 1972 Nature Conservancy Council Act 1973 Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 Local Government Planning and Land Act 1980 Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (and Amendment Act 1985) Mineral Workings Act 1985 Agriculture Act 1986 Norfolk and Suffolk Broads Act 1988 Environmental Protection Act 1990 Scotland National Trust for Scotland Order Confirmation Acts 1935, 1938, 1947, 1952, 1961 & 1973 Town and Country Planning Act (Scotland) 1947 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967 Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1972 Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1991 Northern Ireland Amenity Lands Act (Northern Ireland) 1965: superseded by — Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 exception of the Pembrokeshire Coast. Various proposals for areas in the lowlands were not accepted (some of these have now become AONBs); but there were two of very special importance, the New Forest and the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads. These, because of their special status and problems, have been the subject of their own legislation and special arrangements, and are considered to be equivalent in quality to National Parks. A number of areas had been proposed by the Ramsay Committee as National Parks for Scotland. When it was decided not to apply the National Park provisions of the 1949 Act to Scotland these were named ‘National Park Direction Areas’ in which special planning conditions were to apply. These areas were later embraced within the category of National Scenic Area (NSA), which was adopted in 1980 as the principal category for landscape protection in Scotland. A further review, The mountain areas of Scotland: Conservation and management, prepared by the Countryside Commission for Scotland (CCS) at the invitation of the Scottish Office Minister for Home Affairs and the Environment, was published in 1990. Its wide-ranging recommendations for improved management and protection of the whole of the Scottish uplands included proposals for the establishment of four National Parks in Scotland, with the priority areas identified as the Cairngorms and Loch Lomond-Trossachs, both areas under significant pressure from recreation and tourism. Although Government in its response has said that it does not rule out the possibility of National Parks in the future, it has not agreed to the introduction of enabling legislation for this purpose at this stage. Under the Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1991, a new designation of Natural Heritage Area (NHA) has been introduced for Scotland, which could essentially supplant the NSA and is intended to provide added protection for selected areas, including nature conservation as well as landscape protection. The management of these areas should be founded upon the voluntary principle. Government has stressed that Natural Heritage Areas are not a substitute for National Parks. In Northern Ireland three categories have been adopted: AONB, NNR and Area of Special Scientific Interest (ASSI) corresponding closely to the SSSI of England, Scotland and Wales. Categories of protected landscape National Park (England and Wales) Designated by the Countryside Commission and confirmed by the Secretary of State for the Environment; or in Wales designated by the Countryside Council for Wales and confirmed by the Secretary of State for Wales. “A National Park may be defined, in application to Great Britain, as an extensive area of beautiful and relatively wild country in which, for the nation’s benefit and by appropriate national decision and action: e@ the characteristic landscape beauty is strictly preserved; @ access and facilities for public open-air enjoyment are amply provided; e wildlife and buildings and places of architectural and historic interest are suitably protected; while e@ established farming use is effectively maintained.” John Dower, 1945 National Scenic Area NSA (Scotland) Identified by the Countryside Commission for Scotland and designated by the Secretary of State for Scotland. “Areas ... of national scenic significance ... which ... we consider to be of unsurpassed attractiveness which must be conserved as part of our national heritage.” Countryside Commission for Scotland, 1978 Natural Heritage Areas NHA (Scotland) Designated by Scottish Natural Heritage. “{Areas] of outstanding value to the natural heritage of Scotland [for which] special protection measures are appropriate.” Natural Heritage Scotland Act 1991 Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty AONB (England and Wales) Designated by the Countryside Commission and confirmed by the Secretary of State for the Environment; or in Wales designated by the Countryside Council for Wales and confirmed by the Secretary of State for Wales. “Parts of the countryside of England and Wales which, while they lack extensive areas of open country suitable for recreation and National Park status, are nonetheless of such fine landscape quality that there is a national as well as a local interest in keeping them so.” Countryside Commission, 1983 Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty AONB (Northern Ireland) Designated by the Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland). An extensive area of countryside within which the outstanding natural and cultural landscapes demand policies to safeguard their quality and to promote their enjoyment by the public. Heritage Coast (England and Wales) Defined by the Countryside Commission and specified in local authority development plans. “Heritage coasts cover the finest stretches of undeveloped coast in England and Wales. Their natural beauty, and their enjoyment by the public, gives them a special claim for both protection and sensitive management.” Countryside Commission, 1991 Environmentally Sensitive Area ESA (United Kingdom) Designated by the Minister of Agriculture. “Areas of national environmental significance whose conservation depends on the adoption, maintenance or extefision of a particular form of farming practice; in which there have occurred, or there is a likelihood of, changes in existing farming practices which pose a major threat to the environment; which represent a discrete and coherent unit of environmental interest; and which would permit the economical administration of appropriate conservation aids.” Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1987 In addition, the following categories of land are protected for nature conservation rather than landscape; they often contribute, however, to landscape protection. Site of Special Scientific Interest SSSI (England, Scotland and Wales) Notified by the Nature Conservancy Council or its successor bodies Any area of land [which, in the opinion of the Nature Conservancy Council or its successor bodies] is of special interest by reason of its flora, fauna, or geological or physiographical features. Area of Special Scientific Interest ASSI Notified by the Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland). Comparable to the SSSI. National Nature Reserve NNR (England, Scotland, Wales) Declared by the Nature Conservancy Council or its successor bodies. Land of national importance being managed as a nature reserve by the Nature Conservancy Council or its successor bodies under an agreement with them, or by an approved body. National Nature Reserve NNR (Northern Ireland) Land of national importance managed as a nature reserve by the Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland), under agreement with the Department or by an approved body. Areas of protected landscapes (October, 1991) Designation Number Area/length National Parks and The Broads _— || 14,011 sq km New Forest | 376 sq km National Scenic Areas (Scotland) 40 10,018 sq km AONB (England and Wales) 39 20,439 sq km AONB (Northern Ireland) 8 2,824 sq km Heritage Coasts 44 1,493 km* ESA (England and Wales) 12 5,503 sq km* ESA (Scotland) 5 2,195 sq km* ESA (N. Ireland) 2 404 sq km* *These may overlap with other categories. The early policies were framed on the assumption that conservation of the landscape was fully compatible with existing methods of farming, although there was some concern about the extension of forestry plantations. Most of the checks and balances were associated with physical developments such as new buildings, roads, quarries and power stations, which required planning permission under the planning Acts. But it became apparent in the 1960s and 1970s that the changing intensity and structure of agriculture, and the great expansion of forestry planting, were at least as important in changing the landscape, in affecting access and in leading to a decline in habitat for wildlife. The Porchester Report on Exmoor highlighted the problem in relation to the ploughing of moorland to provide better grazing for stock. These concerns led to the introduction of the Wildlife and Countryside Bill, which gave an unprecedented amount of parliamentary exposure to the question. The resulting Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 introduced very important measures affecting protected landscapes and SSSIs. In the case of landscape, it empowered the relevant authority to enter into management agreements with owners or occupiers of land “so as to conserve or enhance the natural beauty or amenity of the land or promote its enjoyment by the public”; it gave power to the Secretary of State for the Environment, together with the Minister of Agriculture, to prohibit the conversion of moor and heath into agricultural land if it had not been so in the preceding 20 years; and there were other similar measures. In the case of SSSIs the constraints were even stronger. The Nature Conservancy Council (NCC) was required to notify the owners and occupiers of any SSSI and to provide them with a list of operations likely to damage the special interest. Any person intending to carry out any of these operations must give the NCC notice of their intention. The NCC would then enter into negotiations with them, with the aim of concluding a compensatory management agreement. Similar provisions apply in Northern Ireland where the role of the NCC is taken by the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. To this concern over the changes in landscape brought about by agriculture is now added the very serious question of farm surpluses in Europe and migration from the remoter parts of the countryside. This has led to proposals to use funds for agricultural support to help farmers to adopt practices that are kind to landscape and to wildlife. The result is the designation of 19 Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ten in England, five in Scotland, two in Wales and two in Northern Ireland); and the Government has announced its intention of designating more (see p.49). In June 1991, with special Government funding, the Countryside Commission launched Countryside Stewardship, a pilot scheme that offers farmers and land managers incentive payments for re-creating some traditional English landscapes and allowing public access to them. Responsibilities There have always been differences in the organisation of landscape protection in the various parts of the United Kingdom and there has recently been a re-allocation of responsibilities between agencies. In England the ultimate responsibility lies with the Secretary of State for the Environment; but in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland it is exercised by the respective Secretaries of State for those countries. The responsible authority in England and Wales was the Countryside Commission, which became the successor to the National Parks Commission with wider responsibilities under the Countryside Act 1968. In Scotland, the Countryside Commission for Scotland, established under the Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967, was responsible. In Northern Ireland, action was delayed until 1965 when responsibilities for both nature conservation and landscape protection were given to the Environment Service of the Department of Environment by the Amenity Lands (Northern Ireland) Act 1965, now superseded by the Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (Northern Ireland) Order 1985. The Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 established the Council for Nature Conservation and the Countryside (CNCC) to advise the Department on matters relating to landscape protection. Starting in 1990 there were sweeping organisational changes, designed to provide greater national autonomy to Scotland and Wales and greater integration, in those countries, between the conservation of landscape and of nature. The Countryside Commission lost its responsibility for Wales and this was vested, together with responsibility for nature conservation in Wales, in a new body, Cyngor Cefn Gwlad Cymru (the Countryside Council for Wales). Nature conservation in England remained separate under a new body, the Nature Conservancy Council for England (English Nature), which was essentially the English part of the NCC. The NCC itself ceased to exist, becoming divided into into three national fragments. In Scotland, the change is taking place in two stages. In 1991 the Scottish part of the NCC became independent as the Nature Conservancy Council (Scotland) (NCCS), and in 1992 this will join with the Countryside Commission for Scotland to form Scottish Natural Heritage. Thus, after 1 April 1992, the principal organisations concerned at country level will be: e The Countryside Commission — for landscape conservation, public access and enjoyment in England; e English Nature — for nature conservation in England; e@ Scottish Natural Heritage — for both landscape and nature conservation, and public access and enjoyment, in Scotland; e The Countryside Council for Wales — for both landscape and nature conservation, and public access and enjoyment, in Wales; e@ The Conservation Service of the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland — for both landscape and nature conservation in Northern Ireland. A crucial part is played in the operation of the whole system by local government — the county councils, regional councils, local and district councils. The above agencies and the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland develop policies and standards; they identify the various categories of protected area; and they have the power to disburse money to further their policies. The country agencies, too, being independent statutory bodies, can bring influence to bear on the government to change policies that they feel are harmful to their cause. They work largely with the local authorities in whose areas the National Parks or other protected areas occur. Only in two National Parks, the Peak District and the Lake District, is there a special planning authority for the Park; for all other National Parks decisions are made by statutory National Park Committees. In four National Parks where the Park only covers one county, the National Park Committee is a committee of the county council; in three National Parks where the Park covers two counties, one county council takes the lead; and in the remaining National Park, the Brecon Beacons, there is a joint committee of the four counties involved (see p.13). In England, Scotland and Wales an important supplement to the work of the Countryside Commissions has been provided by the Nature Conservancy Council (NCC). The Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) selected by the NCC are proving to have a very special importance in preserving natural features that are often also of importance for landscape and there is, not surprisingly, a considerable overlap between them; for example in England and Wales the National Parks contain more than 1,800 sq km of land that has been notified as SSSI (more than 13 per cent of the area of the Parks), and the AONBs contain more than 690 sq km (4 per cent). In contrast to the two Countryside Commissions, the NCC was a land-holding agency; although it had very close relations with the local authorities, it owned and managed its own nature reserves and was directly responsible for negotiating management agreements to secure the value and integrity of the SSSIs. These functions will be continued directly by English Nature in England and will be inherited by the new agencies in Scotland and Wales. In addition, because actual implementation of nature conservation policies will be carried out by three separate agencies*, a Joint Nature Conservation Committee has been established to consider and give advice on: @ any nature conservation matter of national or international importance or which otherwise affects the interests of Great Britain as a whole; @ any nature conservation matter that arises throughout Great Britain and raises issues common to England, Scotland and Wales. Archaeological monuments, traces of prehistoric occupation and buildings of historical or architectural merit are also important features of the landscape. These are the responsibility in England of the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England (English Heritage); in Wales of Cadw, Welsh Historic Monuments; in Scotland of Historic Scotland, previously the Historic Buildings and Monuments Directorate of the Scottish Development Department (now the Scottish Office Environment Department); and in Northern Ireland of the Environment Service of the Department of the Environment. There are various categories that are afforded special protection: Scheduled Ancient Monuments, Listed Buildings, and Conservation Areas (groups of buildings of special merit in towns and villages). There are many other organisations that contribute to the protection of landscape in different ways. Among the most important are the National Trust (operating in England, Wales and Northern Ireland) and the National Trust for Scotland. The National Trust was founded in 1895 and among its first purchases were areas in what is now the Lake District National Park. The Trusts own substantial areas of beautiful country, often in National Parks or other protected landscapes, and many buildings of great merit. Their purposes conform completely with the objectives of landscape protection. Those of the National Trust for Scotland, for example, contain the following phrases: “for the purposes of promoting the permanent preservation for the benefit of the nation of lands and buildings in Scotland of historic or national interest . . . and as regards lands for the preservation (so far as practicable) of their natural aspect and features and animal and plant life . . “. Land held by the National Trusts can be declared ‘inalienable’ and cannot be sold by the Trusts or acquired from them without special parliamentary procedure. Land is also acquired and managed for conservation purposes by local authorities and by many voluntary organisations: for woodland preservation by the Woodland Trust; for nature conservation by the many local Naturalists Trusts associated together in a broad federation with the Royal Society for Nature Conservation and, in Scotland, by the Scottish Wildlife Trust; for birds by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). Advocacy for landscape protection is provided by the Council for the Protection of Rural England (CPRE) and its sister bodies in Wales (CPRW), Scotland (the Association for the Protection of Rural Scotland), and Northern Ireland (the Ulster Society for the Preservation of the Countryside). The cause of the National Parks is especially promoted by the Council for National Parks, another national voluntary organisation, and a separate Scottish Council for National Parks has recently been re-established. Conclusion In this field nothing stands still. We can expect continuing changes in the social and economic forces that bear upon the people who live in the countryside, which in turn will alter the ways in which they affect the landscape. Landscape protection requires constant vigilance and the continual revision of the measures required to protect. The combination of measures adopted in the United Kingdom appear to have the strength and flexibility to respond adequately to these challenges. Only time will tell. *An additional complication has been introduced for Scotland under the Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1991. Under the provisions of this Act an independent Advisory Committee will be set up to review SSSIs to which the owner and occupier of the land has registered an objection. Scottish Natural Heritage ts obliged to consider the advice of this Committee. NATIONAL PARKS AND EQUIVALENT AREAS (England and Wales) The most beautiful, spectacular and dramatic expanses of country in England and Wales have been given the status of National Park by Parliament in recognition of their importance. There are ten National Parks, ranging in size from 584 to 2,292 sq km; Brecon Beacons, Dartmoor, Exmoor, the Lake District, Northumberland, the North York Moors, the Peak, the Pembrokeshire Coast, Snowdonia and the Yorkshire Dales. In addition, there are two with special characteristics and histories, the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads (the Broads) and the New Forest. The Broads is protected through legislation that puts it on a par with National Parks. The Countryside Commission considers the New Forest to be of comparable quality to the National Parks. The National Parks were established under the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. Their first aim is to provide protection for the countryside, while also taking care of the distinctive ways of life found within them; and their second aim is to provide opportunities for relaxation and outdoor recreation. The National Parks Commission was set up by the 1949 Act to designate areas as National Parks and to advise on their running. In 1968 it became the Countryside Commission, keeping those responsibilities along with new ones for the countryside as a whole. Since 1991, the Welsh responsibilities of the Countryside Commission have been transferred to the Countryside Council for Wales. The Parks are ‘national’ in the vital sense that they are of special value to the whole nation because of their beauty and the opportunities they provide for leisure. In a crowded and long-inhabited country such as Britain there cannot be found pristine areas of country undisturbed by man, such as are required by the IUCN definition of National Parks. The rich patterns of our landscape were created by farmers and landowners over many generations and the land still remains largely in their hands. Nearly 250,000 people live in National Parks, which are living, working landscapes with local communities. They correspond exactly to the types of landscape envisaged by the IUCN Category V. National Parks and equivalent areas in England and Wales Each Park is administered by a Park Authority. In two instances, the Peak and the Lake District, a special Park Authority or Board has been set up to administer the Park. In seven of the remaining National Parks the authority is a National Park committee of the county council, with one county taking the lead in the three Parks that are located in two counties. In the remaining Park, the Brecon Beacons, there is a joint committee of the four counties involved. The national interest is reflected in several ways: one-third of the members are appointed by Ministers; three-quarters of the running costs are met by central government; and the Countryside Commission provides a national oversight of the status of National Parks. The Norfolk and Suffolk Broads are administered by a special authority set up by Act of Parliament; and the New Forest by the Forestry Commission under a specific mandate from the Minister of Agriculture. National Parks: permanent staff Brecon 36 Dartmoor 49 Exmoor 39 Lake District 104 Northumberland 45 North York Moors 5I Peak 142 Pembrokeshire Coast 63 Snowdonia 88 Yorkshire Dales 62 Broadly, the aims of the National Parks are met in two ways. The National Park Authorities are responsible for planning matters and can strongly influence any decisions made about physical developments in the Park. They can, and do, oppose any developments within a Park that they judge will harm its quality as landscape. They can also do much to influence the management of the land and attitudes to landscape by many measures. Among these are: @ negotiating agreements on land management and access for the public; e planting and managing broadleaved woodlands; @ assisting in the upkeep of paths, fences and stone walls (the Upland Management Service); e buying land to protect its traditional character and to secure access; @ encouraging small-scale industrial, commercial and tourist development that meets local needs and fits into the scene; @ offering grants to farmers who wish to retain traditional features; @ setting up information centres, car parks, picnic areas and, in some areas, simple overnight accommodation; @ employing rangers to help and advise visitors; e publishing a wide range of books and leaflets; @ arranging talks and guided walks; @ running training and field study courses; @ encouraging volunteers to undertake conservation work in the Parks; @ operating a youth and schools liaison service. Other organisations with similar aims do much to help. Large parts of the Parks are scheduled as SSSIs and are therefore subject to all the restraints on use and open to opportunities for conservation management that are the responsibility of the NCC and its successors; some parts of Parks are managed as National or Local Nature Reserves. The National Trust also has considerable land holdings in the Parks. Nevertheless, the National Parks face constant threats caused by changes in the social and economic conditions both of those who live and work in them and those who visit them, for example: changes in agriculture, increased afforestation, demands for mineral extraction, building of new roads and upgrading of old ones, the need of land for military training, water power schemes, increased pressure for development, loss of local employment, the shortage of affordable housing for local people, e changes in the nature of the resident population, @ increasing numbers of visitors, @ inadequate funds. National Parks Name Area (sq km) Date designation Residents (thousand) Visitor days (million) order confirmed Brecon 1351 1957 32.0 71.0 Dartmoor 954 1951 33.0 85 Exmoor 693 1954 10.0 25 Lake District 2222 195] 40.0 20.0 Northumberland 1,049 1956 25 1.0 North York Moors 1,436 1952 25.0 11.0 Peak 1,438 1951 40.0 20.0 Pembrokeshire Coast 584 1952 22.0 8.0 Snowdonia 2,142 1951 25.0 90 Yorkshire Dales 1,769 1954 18.6 95 National Parks: budgets Name Total (£ million) Central (%) Local (%) Self-generated (%) Brecon 1.60 32 18 30 Dartmoor 235 58 35 7 Exmoor 77 1 B 0 Lake District 4.52 5 7 32 Northumberland LL 63 2I 16 North York Moors 1.67 58 20 2 Peak 5.57 50 20 30 Pembrokeshire Coast 1.70 67 7 16 Snowdonia 3.22 50 16 34 Yorkshire Dales 2.65 58 20 n At present the most topical are the changes in the whole structure of rural land use brought about by agricultural over-production within the European Community (EC). The direction of any new policies is critical, if sympathetic land management is to remain econemically viable in the marginal land that forms the core of most protected landscapes in Britain. Because of the changing context it is clear that there should be periodic reassessments of the situation. One was carried out in 1974 and another has just been completed, at the invitation of the Countryside Commission, by a National Parks Review Panel under the Chairmanship of Professor Ron Edwards. In its report, Fit for the future, the Review Panel concluded that the essence of the concept of National Parks lay in the striking quality and remoteness of much of their scenery, the harmony between man and nature they displayed, and the opportunities they offered for suitable forms of recreation. A new impetus and a new mission were required if National Parks were to fulfil their original purpose and respond to future challenges. This required action locally (to overcome barriers that have frustrated innovation), nationally (to provide a combined voice for National Parks), at the European level (by environmental 9 legislation on National Parks or protected landscapes) and internationally (by promoting British National Parks as a model of protected landscapes elsewhere). The Committee made many recommendations — a new National Parks Act, a re-interpretation of National Park purposes, independent Boards (on the model of those in the Lake District and the Peak Park) for all National Parks, wider powers, more resources, a Clear statement of planning principles, a closer integration of nature conservation and landscape, and more concern for the needs of the Park’s residents. The proposed re-interpretation of the purposes of National Parks introduces a significant new emphasis. They should be: @ to protect, maintain and enhance the scenic beauty, natural systems and landforms, and the wildlife and cultural heritage of the area; @ to promote the quiet enjoyment and understanding of the area, in so far as it is not in conflict with the primary purpose of conservation. The Countryside Commission gave a broad welcome to the report. The Government has made a preliminary announcement that it accepts the key recommendation that all National Parks should have independent Park Authorities, and has substantially increased the National Parks’ funding. The National Parks, the Broads and the New Forest are working examples of how BRECON BEACONS Description The Brecon Beacons National Park lies in South Wales (parts of counties of Dyfed, Gwent, Mid-Glamorgan and Powys), north of Swansea, Cardiff and Newport. It contains the most impressive mountains in southern Britain and those nearest to London, consisting of a north-facing escarpment broken only by the fertile Usk valley. The extensive uplands, much over 300 metres, are composed of ancient sedimentary rocks. Some of the mountains have flat tops where they are capped with resistant conglomerate. In the glaciated corries great sweeps of scree fall from the cliffs. In the centre are the Beacons, a fine series of peaks, with a magnificent four-mile ridge crowned by Corn Du and Pen y Fan (886 m), the highest summit in the Park. The wild Black Mountain and the ancient Royal hunting ground of Fforest Fawr lie to the west. To the north-east the broad valley of the Usk separates the Beacons from the Black Mountains, which stretch to, and across, the English border. To the south, Carboniferous limestone and millstone grit underlie a contrasting landscape of deep-cut gorges and caves; sink holes and waterfalls give national importance to the Park. Much of the upland is common land, covered with moorland vegetation and subject to extensive grazing. Arctic-alpine plants, many of them at the southern limits of their range in Britain, form communities on ungrazed crags. The woods and scrub on the limestone cliffs and steep valley sides contain many interesting plants and have a number of rarities, including one endemic sub-species of whitebeam (Ley’s whitebeam). Twenty per cent of the Park is considered to be of national importance for nature conservation. This is an area of stock farming. Livestock bred on the hill farms are sent to the lowlands for fattening. The hedged and walled fields, interspersed with small patches of deciduous woodland, make an attractive contrast to the open moors above. There are nearly 1,000 small woods of native broadleaved trees, many of them landscapes in IUCN Category V can be protected. They demonstrate how planning controls, flexible incentives for conservation management, and goodwill may be used to retain the qualities of these landscapes in a Designated 1955 Confirmed 1957 National Park Major road Railway Land over 1000tt National Trail County boundary — -— National boundary Brecon Beacons National Park unmanaged, which stand in sharp contrast to the large areas of commercial forestry scattered throughout the Park. These plantations (covering 8.6 per cent of the Park area), together with the 19 reservoirs in the Park, have produced the most significant recent changes in the landscape. Active quarrying continues at a number of sites, particularly in the limestone, and its extent is a cause for concern. About 32,000 people live in the Park. The former county town of Brecon, with a population of 7,400, has a long history and many ancient buildings. The Park is close to the densely populated areas of South Wales; it is visited by about 7 million visitors a year, about two-thirds of them day visitors. Other visitors stay in the Park, including those who use the 100 or more outdoor activity centres. Recreation takes many forms. Walking is very popular, and the routes vary from the tow path of the Monmouthshire and Brecon Canal (the only canal lying almost wholly within a National Park) and disused railway lines, to high-level paths among the mountains. Exploration of the caves and underground passages is a challenging sport for the dedicated. 10 changing world. They also demonstrate that these values can only be safeguarded by constant vigilance and by imaginative and innovative measures of. management. 1,351 sq km HEREFORD & WORCESTER Management The National Park Authority is active over the whole range of Park functions. An important feature is the preparation of a Landscape Strategy Map, which will be used to give broad guidance on priorities. Land will be divided into three categories where the preference will be for: semi-natural vegetation, broadleaved woodlands or ‘adaptable’. The potential for recreation in different parts of the Park has been assessed. The National Park Authority has purchased 87 sq km of common land. It has initiated more than 100 woodland management schemes and planted more than 450,000 trees in order to retain the characteristic appearance of the landscape. About 20 threatened sites of high ecological value, such as flower-rich and wet meadows, have been safeguarded by informal management agreements. Visitor services cater for hundreds of thousands of people each year; these are designed to increase the public's understanding of the Park and their appreciation of its value. Matters for immediate concern are: the changing pattern of upland agriculture; the need to improve public paths and access to and within the Park; improving liaison with educational groups and with the local community; and the conservation of archaeological features and buildings. In addition to these activities the Authority is endeavouring to tackle the problem of affordable housing for local people, which is a problem in all rural areas, not only the National Parks. Management plans National Park Plan First Review 1987; Second Review due to be completed in 1992. Land ownership Most of the land is in private ownership; 30 per cent is open moorland with commoners’ rights. The National Park Authority holds 170 sq km of common land and has a management agreement with Welsh Water on more than 28 sq km of the Great Forest of Brecknock. Other public bodies (including the National Trust, the Countryside Council for Wales, the Forestry Commission and Welsh Water ) own 17 per cent. Since 1987 the Authority has been able to buy Mynydd Du (87 sq km), Gwernyfed Commons (5.6 sq km) and Garn Goch (a common containing a hill fort/Ancient Monument). Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: 5 (7.9 sq km) Other nature reserves: 2 Local Nature Reserves (2 sq km) and 18 others (Wildlife Trust Reserves) DARTMOOR Description Dartmoor National Park lies in the county of Devon in the south-west of England, between Exeter to the east and Plymouth to the west. It is the largest and wildest open space in southern England. The core of the Park is an upland of granite, much of it standing at over 300 metres. Two blocks in the north-west and south, separated by the River Dart and its tributaries, extend more than 460 sq km and consist of smooth-contoured hills and wide expanses of bog. Tors, where the granite has weathered into rugged shapes, cap many of the hills. The highest of these are High Willhays (621 m) and Yes Tor (618 m). The land in the north-east is at a lower altitude and merges into the farmland of lowland Devon. The wildness of the Park depends upon the wide expanses of high, unenclosed “ ‘2 wae Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 60 (280 sq km approximately) Areas of international importance: caves of the Ogof Ffynnon Ddu complex, which are the second longest and the deepest known in Britain. The built environment Conservation Areas: 3 Listed Buildings: 900 listed Grade 1, 2*, or Grade 2 — 630 buildings previously listed as Grade 3 (old listing system ) could be listable as Grade 2. Designated 1951 Confirmed 1951 National Park Major road Railway Land over 1000ft National Trail -- County boundary §=—-— A Dartmoor National Park Pen y Fan, Cribyn, Brecon Beacons National Park Colin Horsman/CC . a Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: approximately 4,000 known. The Park contains more than 150 Scheduled Ancient Monuments, of which five are in the direct care of Cadw, Welsh Historic Monuments. Carn Goch near Llangadog is the largest Iron Age fort in South Wales, with more than 0.12 sq km enclosed in stone banks. Administering authority Brecon Beacons National Park Authority, 7 Glamorgan Street, Brecon, Powys LD3 7DP 954 sq km Greator Rocks, Dartmoor National Park Chris Chapman/CC ground and the changing weather. Mist and cloud frequently shroud the hills and the average annual rainfall is high (2,540 mm). The streams and rivers that rise in the bogs run in wide valleys in their upper reaches; where they leave the moor they pass through bands of harder rocks and cascade down waterfalls and rocky gorges in steep, wooded valleys. Stock rearing is the main agricultural use. The small fields enclosed by stone walls, banks and hedges contrast with open, unenclosed moorland. But both are used, for many farmers claim their commoners’ rights to graze animals on the open moor. They are the successors to 5,000 years of pastoral agriculture; indeed the Park has a unique assembly of early sites and monuments, and complete prehistoric and medieval landscapes have survived. Tin, copper and iron have all been extracted from the moor and traces of these industries remain, dating from the Iron Age to the 20th century. The indestructible local granite or moorstone, much used as a building material, has ensured the survival of many Ancient Monuments and buildings. The Park is the best area in England for studying the design and construction of early medieval farmhouses — sometimes all that now remain of the earlier, larger settlements high on the moor. There are about 33,000 residents in the Park. Some live in isolated farms, some in moorland villages, but the majority live in the villages and small i iN towns that lie in the lower valleys on the fringe of the moor. These, with their attractive stone, slate- hung or colour-washed buildings, many with thatched roofs, are a delightful contrast to the upland settlements. Ashburton was a stannary town, Lydford a centre of administration, and Widecombe-in-the- Moor was made wealthy with wool. All owe something to the moor and its granite. The special character of the Moor makes it a mecca for tourists, and the Park is visited by some 8.5 million visitors a year. Management The passing of the Dartmoor Commons Act 1985 was a major achievement. Under this Act the Dartmoor Commoners’ Council was constituted for the maintenance and promotion of a proper standard of livestock husbandry on the common lands. It also secures and legalises public access to 364.4 sq km of moorland common which, in conjunction with the 805 km of footpaths and bridleways, does much to promote enjoyment and freedom of movement for pedestrians and horseriders. The National Park Authority has, however, the problem of reconciling this with the military use of large areas of the wildest part of the Park. Although minor concessions have been obtained, an obtrusive military presence remains. The Moor is also important as a water catchment area. The Duchy of Cornwall, which owns 291 sq km of the National Park, has developed, in consultation with the National Park Authority, a management plan for its Dartmoor estate that complements and furthers, as far as possible, the National Park purposes in conserving the landscape while pursuing a reasonable economic return. The Authority has negotiated more than 50 management agreements. Several are specifically concerned with the integrity of the moorland, which is considered to be of paramount importance. They include agreements to bury overhead cables and restrict coniferous plantations. There is also a general voluntary agreement regulating afforestation. In its own woods, the National Park Authority is demonstrating different types of woodland management with the aim of reviving active management of important valley woodlands. There are eight agreements for the protection of archaeological features, but this aspect of conservation is still not satisfactory. Only 430 sites have been scheduled by the Department of the Environment out of the 6,000 or more identified, and only six are under guardianship. Pressure for more limestone and china clay extraction and for road improvements continues and is difficult to resist where a case is made for them in the national interest. But the procedures introduced in 1980, whereby the National Park Authority is informed of applications for Ministry of Agriculture improvement grants, has worked well and a much better understanding has developed between farmers and the Authority. In this climate of improved understanding, the National Park Authority is setting out to achieve sensible arrangements for regulation of grazing and moorland management, and regulating access, legalised in the Dartmoor Commons-Act 1985, for the mutual benefit of residents and visitors. Damage to moorland has been a major issue in recent years, arising out of military activities, winter feeding of grazing stock, over-use by trekking establishments, and excessive recreation pressures. The Authority has worked successfully with relevant authorities, organisations and private interests to limit and restore such damage. It is also actively involved in trials and management schemes to sustain heather moorland, which has diminished in extent due to bracken invasion and grazing practices. The role of the Authority in supporting the local community is developing strongly with planning policy and practical initiatives and works in the areas of local housing need, employment opportunity, village enhancement, and the provision of infrastructure and social facilities. The significance of tourism, as both potential threat and opportunity, is clearly recognised, and the Authority is fully involved with nine other local authorities and tourist organisations in the Dartmoor Area Tourism Initiative. This Initiative aims, by way of an Interpretation Strategy and a three-year programme of work, to direct tourism activity towards areas best able to cater for, and benefit from, the industry, and to harness commercial and sponsorship support for practical conservation work of value to the National Park. EXMOOR Description Exmoor National Park lies in the counties of Devon and Somerset in south-west England; Exeter is 40 km to the south and Taunton 20 km from the eastern boundary. The Park contains a wide variety of magnificent landscapes. Despite its comparatively small size, the sweeping lines of rolling moorland on the central plateau give a great feeling of remoteness and space. To the north the moorland terminates in towering cliffs above the Bristol Channel. Rocky headlands, steep wooded ravines, plunging waterfalls and jumbles of fallen rock make this an area of outstanding scenic beauty. It was defined a Heritage Coast in April 1991. Inland, the grass moorland — the former Royal forest — is surrounded by the heather-clad commons; much of this lies at over 300 m. The whole is dissected by deep combes, and contrasts with the neatly enclosed farmland. Dunkery Beacon, the highest point in the Park at 520 m, overlooks the Brendon Hills to the east. These are heavily wooded in the north but to the south a landscape of enclosed fields surrounded by banks and fine beech hedges is typical. Exmoor is mainly farmed with beef cattle and sheep but there is some dairying around the Brendons. Management plans National Park Plan 1977; First Review 1983; Second Review 1991. Management plan for the Duchy of Cornwall estates. Land ownership Most of the land is in private ownership. The Duchy of Cornwall is the largest private landowner (29.6 per cent). The National Park Authority owns 1.4 per cent, and other public bodies (National Trust, Forestry Commission, Water Authority, Ministry of Defence and English Nature) about 11 per cent. Forty per cent is common land over which commoners have certain rights. There are more than 50 owners of common land but the majority belongs to the Duchy. Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: 3 (2.5 sq km) Other nature reserves: 4 (0.6 sq km) Exmoor National Park The Park is rich in wildlife. There are many different habitats and about 37 per cent is covered with native plant and animal communities; more than 1,800 red deer, the largest British mammal, roam the moors and woods. The cliffs are the nesting place of a wide variety of seabirds. Many of the habitats are small and specialised, and particularly vulnerable to agricultural improvements such as Designated 1954 Confirmed 1954 Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 28 (154 sq km) The built environment Conservation Areas: 17 in villages and small towns. One of these, Ashburton, has also a town scheme involving the Department of the Environment, the National Park Authority and the district council. Listed Buildings: 1,750 (being reviewed) Outstanding large houses and their parks: Castle Drogo (1911-1930) Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: The Park contains many monuments of the last 5,000 years, including the greatest concentration of visible prehistoric remains in north-west Europe. Administering authority Dartmoor National Park Authority, Parke, Haytor Road, Bovey Tracey, Newton Abbot, Devon TQ13 9JQ 693 sq km National Park Major road Railway Land over 1000H National Trai! County boundary — -— 10m drainage, and to incidental damage from pollution. The ancient woodlands, mainly coppiced in the past, are composed of native species and are rich in invertebrates. However, the future of some woodlands is threatened by lack of management and uncontrolled grazing. Lynton and Lynmouth, where traditional stone and slate buildings contrast with more ornate Victorian styles, . Countisbury Cove, Exmoor National Park F.B. Pearce/CC form the largest settlement. In the fertile vale of Porlock, to the east, the villages have cottages of colour-washed cob, stone and thatch. Culbone, the smallest parish church in England, commemorates St Beuno, one of the early Celtic miusstonaries. Management The most important concern of management is to retain the remaining areas of moorland. Farming, the traditional land use, has had its share of economic ups and downs. The first half of this century saw a disastrous decline in farm incomes. After 1945, new techniques and Ministry of Agriculture grants made it possible to ‘improve’ huge areas of moorland. Soils and climate are such that nearly all of the Park could be improved. By 1968 it was estimated that only 32 per cent could be classified as moorland and heath. These areas were mapped from 1980 onwards and, of the 190 sq km of moor and heath identified in 1989, 160 sq km have been included on the Section 3 Conservation Map as being particularly important to conserve. From the late 1940s to the mid 1970s moorland was lost continuously to agriculture and, to counter this, a voluntary notification system was introduced, together with management agreements between landowners and the National Park Authority to protect moorland. Ninety per cent of the funding for this work came directly from the Department of the Environment, and the National Park Authority’s pioneering work has become enshrined in the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Although the threat of ploughing has receded, there is still a need to conserve the farmed landscape; there is grant aid for hedge laying and other landscape improvement work, and the National Park Authority has introduced a pilot scheme to help to develop a system of support for farming that encourages farmers to take an environmental management role. This will help to conserve the landscape and safeguard the economic future of hill farming, which is so important to the social and economic welfare of the National Park. Riding and walking are very popular and public access within the Park is continually being improved. A comprehensive network of 1,200 km of paths has been established with a waymarking system begun in the early 1960s. There are 40 km of permissive paths negotiated with landowners and farmers, including new access onto areas with management agreements. Changing economics have led to loss of jobs, particularly in agriculture. Exmoor was the first National Park to establish a Tourism Development Action Programme. More people are employed, full-time, in the tourist industry than in agriculture. Management plans Exmoor National Park Plan 1977; Second Review 1991. Management plans are being prepared for all National Park Authority land. Planning policies for the Park are contained in County Structure Plans and a number of local plans. A new Park-wide local plan is due to be published, for consultation, late in 1992. Land ownership Most of the land is in private ownership. The National Park Authority owns 7 per cent, the National Trust 10 per cent, and about 66 per cent of the coastline is publicly owned. Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: none Other nature reserves: 3 Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 9 The built environment Conservation Areas: 8 Listed Buildings: 642 Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: the Park contains remains of many periods; Tarr Steps, the Longstone near Challacombe; Bronze Age stone rows and burials mounds; Iron Age forts. Other: relics of 19th century mining; field patterns of the enclosures of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Administering authority Exmoor National Park Committee, Exmoor House, Dulverton, Somerset TA22 9HL LAKE DISTRICT Description The Lake District is situated in the north-west of England in the county of Cumbria, west of a line between Carlisle to the north and Lancaster to the south. It is the largest of the National Parks and forms a natural geographical and cultural unit. It is a land of contrasts: tranquil lakes reflecting the everchanging skies; rugged peaks glimpsed through swirling clouds; or pastoral landscapes with stone-walled fields, scattered trees and sturdy farmsteads below the open fells Recognition of the exceptional qualities of Lakeland came early. Tourists have come to admire the scenery and refresh the spirit for more than two centuries. The area has inspired painters and poets and their work has enthused millions both far and near. This very particular admiration and affection has generated much care and concern for the area, especially when changes were threatening. It was here that Wordsworth wrote of “a sort of national property” and here that the National Trust for England and Wales came into being and where it has gone from strength to strength, now owning nearly one-quarter of the Park The Ordovician and Silurian rocks that form the core of the Park are more than 400 million years old, and during their long history have been greatly Designated 1951 Confirmed 1951 2,292 sq km National Park == Railway —— Major road Land over 100011 County boundary —-— Lake District National Park altered by massive earth movements and the welling up of igneous material. Now they stand as a dome surrounded by younger sandstones and limestones Glaciers have sculptured these rocks. The hardest and most resistant at the centre — the Borrowdale Volcanics — stand out as dramatic peaks; among them Helvellyn (950 m) and Scafell Pike (978 m), the highest mountain in England. The Ashness Bridge, Derwent Water and Skiddaw, Lake District National Park COI/CC \HEUVELUNN \\~ Skiddaw Slates in the north form bold, wide-horizoned hills reaching up to 931 m on Skiddaw, and the softer Silurian Slates in the south remain as rounded hills amid more gentle scenery. Several valleys radiate out from the central dome, each valley with one or more lakes, 16 in all. These are the jewels of the Lake District and they vary greatly in character: the great stretch of water that is Windermere, the remote and scree-girt Wastwater or the domestic charm of Grasmere. Man has been using the area for more than 5,000 years and has left many traces on the landscape, from the great stone circle of Castlerigg near Keswick to the bobbin mills at Stott Park; from the Neolithic axe factories in Langdale to the mineral workings and stone quarries found throughout the hills. For most of the period the area has been used mainly for stock rearing and wool production, although in earlier times the valley floors were cultivated. Traces of Iron Age fields can be seen in Upper Langdale and at Blindcrake a wealth of early fields survive. After the Norman conquest several monasteries had sheep walks in the area of the Park; the remains of two, Shap and Calder, are scheduled monuments. The fine turf, close cropped by generations of sheep, is one of the delights of the fell walker. Except for the high tops most of the scenery has been strongly influenced by man and the continuance of these landscapes depends on prosperous farming. The Park covers land from sea level to 978 m. There is a wide variety of habitats, many of great ecological importance nationally — there are 94 SSSIs — and internationally. Esthwaite North Fen has been studied for nearly 150 years and is a proposed Ramsar site. The Borrowdale woods are internationally important for their unusual number of oceanic bryophytes. Management Reconciling the needs of about 40,000 inhabitants, 20 million visitors and the conservation of the landscapes of the Park is a continuing exercise. Because so much of the landscape depends on the economics of hill farming, there is now considerable concern as measures are taken by the European Community to reduce the sheepmeat surpluses. The most popular informal outdoor activity is walking, especially on the fells. The Park Authority pioneered the Upland Management Service and this has been continued for more than a decade. The Service helps to repair and build walls, restores paths and provides guidance and information for visitors and does much to foster good relations between those who work in the Park and those who come for recreation. Brockhole, the main visitor centre, in a fine mansion on the shores of Lake Windermere, caters for all tastes and helps the tourists to enjoy their visits to the full. The increasing use of the lakes for recreation has required action by the National Park Authority. Byelaws covering 20 of the smaller lakes ban all power-driven vessels; on three of the larger lakes a 10 mph speed-limit has been introduced, and a similar limit is under consideration for the largest lake, Windermere. Some lakes have already been used as reservoirs and demand continues; this is one of the matters where a balance has to be struck between the integrity of the Park and the national interest. Many of the most attractive semi-natural plant communities depend on traditional farming methods. These produced a mixture of haymeadows and grazings, interspersed with patches of deciduous woodland and small areas of wetland. Intensification threatens these rich communities of plants and animals. The Park Authority has purchased some broadleaved woodlands and entered into agreements for the management of meadows and wetlands. The farmsteads, villages and small towns of the Park are an important part of its attraction. There are many very interesting vernacular buildings and the Authority has made 17 Conservation Areas. The two towns of Keswick and Bowness/Windermere are particularly important for tourism. Pressures for further tourist development are continuous and a careful balance has to be maintained between provision for the tourist industry — Cumbria as whole earns £300 million every year from tourism — work for the resident population and maintaining the charm and beauty of the Park. Management plans Lake District National Park Plan First Review 1986. (Supplemented by: Joint Management Plan for Haweswater; Windermere Management Plan; and Bassenthwaite Management Plan.) Land ownership Just under one-half (41.1 per cent) of the land is publicly owned, including the most significant parts for conservation: the National Park Authority 3.9 per cent; the National Trust 25.9 per cent (24.2 per cent owned, remainder under covenant); the Forestry Commission 5.9 per cent; and North West Water 6.0 per cent. The rest is privately owned. Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: 5 Other nature reserves: 13 Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 94 (15 per cent of Park) Areas of international importance: The Park has been proposed as a World Heritage Site; three Ramsar sites are proposed but not yet confirmed at Esthwaite Water, Morecambe Bay and Ravenglass; Borrowdale woods are of international importance for their oceanic flora; the area contains one of the highest breeding densities of peregrine falcons in the world. The built environment Conservation Areas: 17, including villages and parts of small towns; Listed Buildings: 1,709 (being reviewed) including 27 of Grade 1 and many examples of vernacular farm and village buildings. Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: 138 Scheduled Monuments (being reviewed); the Langdale Neolithic axe factories; traces of traditional field patterns of all periods. Others: industrial monuments of mining and water-powered mills; mansions of wealthy industrialists and their parks provide a pastoral landscape with trees around the lakes. Administering authority Lake District National Park Authority, Busher Walk, Kendal, Cumbria LAY 4RH NORTHUMBERLAND Description The Northumberland National Park is in the extreme north of England in the county of Northumberland, with Carlisle to the south-west and Newcastle upon Tyne to the south-east. Its northern limit is the crest of the Cheviot Hills on the Scottish border; its southern boundary lies south of the dramatic whinstone sill along which runs Hadrian's Wall, built in the 2nd century AD to defend the northern bounds of the Roman empire. Its wild, rolling hills and upland valleys are frontier country, seeing centuries of conflict between the Romans and the Celtic tribes, and later between the Scots and English. The Wall, castles and fortified houses all bear witness of this turbulent past. The area is now sparsely inhabited, open country, the domain of the sheep and the walker — the resident population is only 2,500. But there is plenty of internal variety. In the north, the Cheviot Hills rise to 815 m, rolling hills of volcanic rocks covered by wide expanses of grassland and moor, whose delicate colouring and wide skies give a tremendous impression of space. Secluded valleys radiate from the centre, with crags and small woods of birch, rowan and oak. The Simonside Hills and Harbottle Moors, in the middle of the Park, are formed of sandstones and other sedimentary rocks and are in sharp contrast, being mainly covered with heather. To the south, substantial areas are afforested, part of the Border Forest which lies mainly outside the Park to the west and is the largest expanse of man-made forest in Britain. The country of the Roman Wall has a character all of its own. Between these blocks of upland run the valleys of the Rede and the North Tyne, with their stone-built farms, meadow pastures and shelter belts of trees. The waters of the Designated 1955 Confirmed 1956 / BORDERS REGION “ = ‘om, = \ National Park Major road 2 = Railway — Land over 1000ft CUMBRIA National Trai ---— County boundary §=—-— National boundary -=+*-= Northumberland National Park North Tyne are impounded by the Kielder Water reservoir, a lake as large as Ullswater in the Lake District, situated on the edge of the National Park. Three-fifths of the land in the Park is privately owned: one-fifth is a training area for the Ministry of Defence (MOD), inherited from the days before the Park was established; and one-fifth belongs to the Forestry Commission. Apart from the forest, this is a land of sheep. The special character of the landscape and the pattern of settlement both depend upon the continued prosperity of the sheep farmer. The future of upland agriculture is, therefore, of great concer to the Park Authority. Management The area of the Park around Hadrian's Wall, a historic monument that is now a World Hadrian’s Wall, Northumberland National Park Simon Warner/CC 7 1,049 sq km JIYNE & WEAR? Heritage Site, and the unpopulated hills of Cheviot are very different in character. The management of them requires different approaches. Provision of recreational and information facilities and effective wardening are important in the south; this includes agreements with the National Trust on the management of the Hadrian’s Wall Estate, one of the most popular stretches of the Wall — centred on Housesteads Fort, and provision of information services there. On the hills, by contrast, it is a matter of reconciling access for walkers with sheep farming. About one million people visit the Park each year, half of these from Tyneside. Legal access for the public on the hills is restricted to the footpaths and rights of way. The National Park Authority has initiated access agreements in some areas and also has a wide range of guided walks, books and leaflets appealing to varying abilities and interests, which greatly enhance people's enjoyment. The Pennine Way passes through the length of the Park and considerable work is now in hand to alleviate problems of severe erosion on vulnerable peat. Long before the Park came into being, large areas were being used for military training and forestry. Access to the firing range at Otterburn is restricted but there is cooperation with the MOD in improving the appearance of existing facilities and promoting access where it is safe. The MOD has produced a conservation plan for the ranges. The Forestry Commission plantations, mainly of conifers, are considered by many to be an intrusive element in the open landscape. But, as the forests are felled and progress into their second rotation, imaginative steps are being taken to diversify the crop, especially through the planting of broadleaved species. In addition, the Commission has opened many drives and waymarked walks within their forests for the benefit of the public. The Park Authority has also initiated a substantial programme for bringing semi-natural woodland under management, and is helping landowners and farmers by its Conservation Grants Programme to conserve and enhance the natural beauty of the landscape. Assistance is given to provide help with managing rights of way. The most persistent and pressing issue, as in many of the other Parks, is the changing structure of upland agriculture. The conservation of many elements of the landscape is dependent upon a satisfactory economic base for rural land use. Development pressures are slight; the Park Authority has to determine about 60 planning applications each year. NORTH YORK MOORS Description The North York Moors National Park lies in north-east England at the junction of the counties of North Yorkshire and Cleveland. The rich agricultural Vale of York is to the south, and to the north the heavily industrialised areas of Teeside and Tyneside. The heather-covered hills of the Park, which rise to heights up to 454 m, stand out clearly from the flat surrounding vales. From the roads, which follow the ridges, there are breathtaking views across the undulating hills and down the deeply incised dales where farmland and woods surround abbeys, castles and small villages. High, rugged cliffs above the North Sea form the eastern boundary where there are attractive fishing villages, such as Robin Hood's Bay and Staithes, with steep streets leading to minute harbours. This is a defined Heritage Coast. The Park is an uplifted plateau of Jurassic rocks forming a series of scarps, most of which face north, composed of limestones, sandstones, gritstones, shales and clays. A number of small rivers drain southwards down the dip slope, forming beautiful, wooded dales that cut through the Tabular Hills between Helmsley and Pickering. Mineral deposits such as iron Management plans National Park Plan 1977; First Review, 1984; Second Review due in 1992. Land ownership Of the land in the Park, 20 per cent belongs to the Ministry of Defence; 20 per cent to the Forestry Commission; the remainder is private but small areas belong to the Park Authority. Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: 2 Other nature reserves: 2 Local Nature Reserves; 20 Wildlife Trust reserves some jointly managed with the Forestry Commission. Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 31 (2 more than 10 sq km) Areas of international importance: the Irthinghead Mires are a Ramsar site. The built environment Conservation Areas: Nil Listed Buildings: 200 Designated 1952 Confirmed 1952 Stockton— on-Tees sy 5) YY 4 / CLEVELAND _“leveland ~= Way " 1 Helmsley, S { NORTH YORKSHIRE North York Moors National Park stone, alum and coal occur throughout the Park and have been exploited in the past, the iron for 2,000 years until the last mine closed in 1964. Further exploitation of minerals, especially potash, is a threat. The Park contains one of the finest assemblages of archaeological sites in 18 WR SNSER Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: 196 Scheduled Monuments, including stretches of Hadrian’s Wall and associated Roman features. Some significant areas still to be scheduled. Many Iron Age hill forts — Yeavering Bell is the largest. Other: the convergence of ancient drove roads from Scotland; sites of several deserted villages with their old ridge and furrow lines; stone-walled sheep pens (stells), a feature of the Cheviot valleys. Castles, pele towers and bastle houses (fortified farm steadings) associated with the long period of unrest prior to the Union of the Crowns. Administering authority National Park and Countryside Committee, Eastburn, South Park, Hexham, Northumberland NE46 1BS 1,436 sq km National Park Major road Railway Land over 100011 National Trail County boundary ~— -— 10km ~ S Cleveland Way \ _o Wolds Way Britain ranging from the Palaeolithic to the recent industrial past. From 3500 Bc, mixed farming was carried on in the Hambleton and Tabular Hills, and there are remains of rudimentary field enclosures from Neolithic times. Field clearance and deliberate burning to provide grazing began in the Mesolithic and continued throughout the Bronze Age, with accelerating podsolisation of the soils. The boundaries of the small-scale settlements of this period survive as the parish boundaries of today. Many landscape features from the Iron Age also remain: large linear earthworks, field patterns, house and defensive sites, and remains of smelting works. A fine Roman road can still be seen on Wheeldale Moor and there is a unique group of military practice camps near Pickering. Forty medieval crosses are found on the moor and the religious foundations of the period, such as the magnificent Rievaulx Abbey, have left their legacy. The Whitby—Pickering Railway constructed by George Stephenson still runs through a spectacular and roadless landscape of gorges and remote valleys. There is a wide range of habitats and 68 per cent of the Park is of high ecological value. About one-third is covered with moorland and upland heaths, and some 60 per cent of this has some form of protection. These heaths are managed for sheep and red grouse, and are the nesting place of the merlin. Unusually, they have developed over young rocks in an area of relatively low rainfall (760 mm generally, 1,000 mm on high moors), probably as a result of early man’s activities. There are now substantial areas of peat that are vulnerable to fire during drought. Mixed deciduous woodlands cover five per cent of the Park and are of considerable variety, depending on the type of soil. Many have rich plant communities, including a number of rarities. The wooded ravines along the coast are valuable resting places for many migratory birds. These species-rich woodlands contrast strongly with the 20 per cent of the Park that is covered with forestry plantations. The remaining 40 per cent of the area is farmland, and within this there are many sites of great ecological and aesthetic value such as damp haymeadows, daffodil fields and limestone grassland. The Park has 1,818 km of public rights of way. The public has traditional, but no formal, access to the open moorland. There are 16 regionally and nationally known long distance paths, the best known being the Cleveland Way (175 km) around the boundaries, and the Lyke Wake Walk, an east-west route of 67 km. As the Park lies within a short distance of highly urbanised areas it is visited by many people — 11 million visits in a year and as many as 137,000 visitors on a fine Sunday afternoon. Management Agriculture is the main land use, taking up 48 per cent of the Park, including some enclosed moorland. Without thriving agriculture the landscape and social fabric (25,000 people live in the Park) would decline; but intensification can destroy the character of the area. The loss of heather moorland, 155 sq km since 1950, has had a major effect. The Park Committee has initiated a Moorland Management Programme to improve the state and future prospects of the moor. It has also purchased Lockton High Moor to demonstrate moorland conservation techniques. Complementing this programme, the Committee carries out Upland Management Schemes to assist farmers to maintain landscape features, and to repair and restore those that have deteriorated from lack of labour or have been damaged by over-use. The North York Moors Farm Scheme allows a whole farm approach to conservation, and offers grants to farmers for environmental improvement work. Sixty per cent of the broadleaved woodlands are less than 4 ha in size and are showing little sign of regeneration. If this deterioration continues, sites will be lost that are valuable for animal husbandry — over wintering stock — and for intrinsic ecological interest. The Committee has begun several Woodland Management and Tree Planting Schemes. In the last decade many trees have been planted: in 1990/91, 1695 trees and 10,000 hedging plants. They have also acquired Levisham Woods as a demonstration area for the conservation of woodland. Ten management agreements for the conservation of areas of high nature conservation interest are in operation, most of these on farmland and the Committee has also initiated a number of Farm Conservation Plans. Management plans National Park Plan 1977; First Review 1984; Second review 1991. Management Plan for the Bransdale Moor estate (6,237 ha, much an SSSI) accepted in lieu of Inheritance Tax. 19 Moorland, North York Moors National Park Charles Meecham/CC Land ownership Most of the land is in private ownership: the National Park Authority owns 2 per cent; the National Trust about | per cent; the Water Authorities 4 per cent; and the Forestry Commission 16.5 per cent. Of the protected moorland, 49.4 per cent is common land; 12.1 per cent is covered by Inheritance Tax exemption, and the National Park Committee owns 1.6 per cent. Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: 3 Other nature reserves: | Local Nature Reserve (Farndale more than 10 sq km); 8 Yorkshire Wildlife Trust Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 40 The built environment Conservation Areas: 27. There are town schemes in Staithes and Robin Hood’s Bay. Listed Buildings: 800 (being resurveyed) Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: 300 Scheduled Ancient Monuments; there are also many areas of special archaeological significance, prehistoric, Roman and medieval; four are under the guardianship of English Heritage. Administering authority North York Moors National Park Committee, The Old Vicarage, Bondgate, Helmsley, York YO6 5BP PEAK DISTRICT Called Peak National Park Description The first established of the National Parks, the Peak lies at the southern end of the Pennines. The road between Huddersfield and Oldham crosses the northern tip of the Park, the city of Sheffield reaches its eastern boundary and the conurbation of Manchester lies to the west; Nottingham, Derby and the Potteries are within 30 km of its southern border. In short, the Peak National Park lies at the centre of the old industrial heart of England. About one-third of the population of the country lives within 80 km of its borders and is easily able to reach this magnificent open space with its two very contrasting landscapes — the Dark Peak with its imposing escarpments and wild, sepia moors of the high hills, and the softer, greener plateau of the White Peak. The rocks of the Park belong to the Carboniferous series, which have been raised into a dome by later earth movements. The core of the southern part is a great mass of limestones of different ages and characteristics. A band of shales surrounds the limestone and separates it from the millstone grit, which bounds the Park on the east and west and dominates the north. Here most of the land is above 300 m and rises from steep valleys and wide expanses of moor and bog to hills such as Bleaklow (628 m) and Kinder Scout (636 m). To the south, the limestone forms an extensive plateau at about 300 m, which is abruptly and deeply incised by narrow, steep-sided dales; miniature canyons, buttresses and isolated pinnacles are part of the scenery. The vegetation of the Park reflects the underlying differences in the rock. Vast areas of millstone grit, much of it peat covered, carry heather on the better drained soils with cotton grass moors and bogs on the wetter ground. Remnants of the native birch and oak woods survive in steep valleys but are rare, contrasting with the dark spreads of recent conifer plantations. The grasslands of the limestone plateau and the dales are very rich in species. Native woodlands have long disappeared from the upland but shelter belts and hilltop clumps are a characteristic landscape feature. Fine examples of native woodland with many Designated 1950 Confirmed 1951 é ee MANCHESTER eee, \ National Park Major road Railway RS > Land over 1000Ht National Trail County boundary —-— | ey) | Tren! Peak National Park species are found in the dales, and rare plants are found in grassland and in rocky habitats. A number of species of bat, now all protected, roost in some of the limestone caves. Early man has left many signs of his presence in the Park. Bronze Age landscapes are found along the eastern gritstone edges and numerous ‘lows’ mark the burial mounds of this period. Mam Tor near Castleton is one of several Iron Age hill forts, and Celtic field systems remain at Blackwell near Taddington. Both limestone and gritstone have been quarried for centuries and used for all types of building. The Park has a number of fine houses and parks, the best known being Chatsworth, built of the local gritstone, with its grounds laid out, and the River Derwent tamed, by ‘Capability’ Brown. Many minerals are found in the Park. For at least 2,000 years lead has been mined and this has left traces in the limestone area both in place names and on the ground. The undulating grasslands of the plateau have smaller scale irregularities where the miners dug the veins of lead, called ‘rakes’. Lead-mine shafts and other features remain as monuments to the era; many villages still have a mining character; and the vegetation reflects the historic activity with lead-tolerant species of plants. 20 1,438 sq km WEST YORKSHIRE ~ .— covets IS SOUTH — YORKSHIRE N eS Management Quarrying remains an important use of the land and one that exercises the Park Board considerably. The boundaries of the Park were drawn to exclude the heavily quarried area around Buxton but Eldon Hill and Topley Pike, among others, are both active quarries within the Park. During 1985/86 the Park Board had to make its case against extensions to these quarries at lengthy public enquiries, and the Secretary of State upheld the Board’s case at both. Exploitation of other minerals, including fluorspar, continues. The Board has to be vigilant to reconcile the landscape integrity of the Park with the national interest in these minerals. The well-being of the communities in the Park depends upon steady employment and those in upland areas were among the first to suffer from the recession. The Park Board, in association with several other bodies, has carried out an Integrated Rural Development scheme, originally sponsored by the European Community, in Longnor and Monyash. Two of the conclusions are that social, economic and environmental interests should be considered together for a successful rural policy, and that the management and development of attractive landscapes and villages depend crucially on the willing involvement of those who live and work there. A re-survey of the buildings of the Park has resulted in more than 2,500 being listed, of which almost 12 per cent are in urgent need of repair. Sometimes the best means of restoration is to turn the building to a new use; for example many of the redundant but beautiful old, stone barns have been converted to camping barns — cheap, simple and dry accommodation for walkers. There are now 12 of these in the Park, and the Board provides a booking service for them. In 1989 the Ministry of Agriculture introduced a grant scheme with emphasis on grants for environmental improvement. The consultations between farmers and the Park Board before grants are approved have been very valuable and have become the starting point for the negotiation of many of the Board's Farm Conservation Agreements, which encourage environmental management and enhancement and which reward the farmers for that action. These agreements safeguard a variety of sites, including flower-rich meadows, wetlands and “ef i ee — woodlands. By late 1991 the Board had concluded 300 agreements. Reconciling the protection of landscape quality with legitimate commercial forestry calls for close cooperation between the landowner, the Forestry Commission and the Park Board. After lengthy discussions, this has recently been achieved with the Chatsworth estate for felling and replanting In sensitive areas. The Peak Park Board has, for many years, pioneered new ways of dealing with large numbers of visitors. This remains a problem, particularly in the very popular places such as Dovedale, Castleton and the Pennine Way, which starts in the Park. Losehill Hall, the Park's study centre, and four information centres help visitors to learn about the Park and its value. Traffic management schemes such as those in the Goyt and Upper Derwent valleys enable the public to enjoy the Park free from traffic. The Peak District National Park was, in 1966, the first area to receive the European Diploma of the Council of Eurc ype. Noe Stool, Kinder Scout, Peak National Park Mike Williams/CC 2 Management plans National Park Plan 1978; First Review 1989 Joint management plans with water companies and other interests for Longdendale, Dovestone, Macclesfield Forest and Wildboarclough, Upper Derwent Valley, Upper Don Valley, Goyt Valley. Management plans for Board’s own estates (60 sq km). Land ownership Most of the land is privately owned: 15 per cent is owned by water companies, 4 per cent by the Peak Park Planning Board, and 10 per cent by the National Trust. Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: | (3.2 sq km) Other nature reserves: 20 (2.5 sq km) Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 51 (238 sq km) Areas of international importance: the limestone dales and Kinder—Bleaklow plateau. The built environment Conservation Areas: 30 in villages and small towns Listed Buildings: 2,500 Outstanding large houses and their parks: many including Chatsworth, Haddon Hall, Lyme Hall and several round Hathersage. Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: many important sites as well as 198 Scheduled Ancient Monuments, including Big Moor, Arbor Low (in the guardianship of English Heritage) and Mam Tor. Others: Saxon crosses; many remains of lead mining including Magpie Mine, Tideslow Rake, Oxlow Rake, Lathkill Dale; Winster village and surroundings; early water-powered cotton mills, including Cressbrook. Administering authority Peak Park Joint Planning Board, Aldern House, Baslow Road, Bakewell, Derbyshire DE4 1AE PEMBROKESHIRE COAST Description The Pembrokeshire Coast National Park takes the form of coastal strips and islands around the south-west peninsula of Wales in the county of Dyfed. The presence of the sea permeates everywhere, and the magnificent cliffs and attractive bays, the brilliant sheets of flowers along the cliff tops and hedgerows, the mild sunny climate and the rolling Preseli Hills — so much a part of Welsh prehistory and folklore — give the Park a very particular quality. The ages of the rocks in the Park cover an immensely wide span of geological time — from the pre-Cambrian near St David's to the Carboniferous in the south. The imprint of many ancient earth movements can be seen in the rocks, but two of the most important elements of the current landscape result from fluctuations in the relative levels of sea and land during the last few million years. These are the great sinuous inlet of Milford Haven, which owes its appearance to the drowning of the lower parts of ancient river valleys (rias), and the remarkably level plateau at about 60 m above the sea —a wave-cut platform, exposed by a drop in sea level, which now forms much of the peninsula. There are a few exceptions to this uniform horizon; the most notable being the Preseli Hills, which rise to a height of 543 m on Foel Cwmcerwyn. Although there is much windy weather and a fairly low rainfall (average 787 mm) the climate is equable, frost infrequent and the growing season long. There is much sunshine and the Park is a pleasant place in which to live. The climate and the fertile soils support intensive arable farming along the coast; the early potato crop is well known. Dairying predominates inland and sheep on the Preseli Hills. There is a rich and varied flora from the heather moorland and bogs of Preseli to the sheets of western gorse, and the wealth of flowers along the cliff tops and in the sheltered hedgerows and lanes of the farmland. Saltmarshes, sand dunes and cliffs increase the variety of habitat. There are some rarities but it is the profusion of many kinds of common flowers that give most pleasure. The cliffs of the mainland and islands are Designated 1951 Confirmed 1952 Naoral eat) |) Mayor road ——— Railway — Land over 100011 National Trail 0 Pembrokeshire Coast Path \\ ST BRIDES BAY Pembrokeshire Coast National Park famed nesting sites for many thousands of seabirds — puffins, guillemots, razorbills, Manx shearwaters, storm petrels, fulmars, gannets and all of the species of British gulls. The rare chough breeds in several places and many migratory birds also visit the coast and the islands. Grey seals have their largest breeding colony in Wales on Ramsey. There is evidence of early human activity everywhere in the landscape. Limestone caves were occupied 20,000 years ago. Impressive tombs (cromlechs) stand along the cliff tops and on the hills as memorials to the Neolithic inhabitants, and the National Park Authority owns one site on the slopes of the Preselis, Castell Henllys. Here, archaeological research continues beside a reconstructed Iron Age hill fort, thus giving visitors a vivid picture and understanding of life on these hills in the past. Perhaps the most well known activity from this period is the use of doleritic stones from Preseli at Stonehenge, 290 km away on Salisbury Plain. The first Iron Age settlers came to Wales from Gaul 2,500 years ago and have left their legacy of defensive embankments, hilltop forts and stone-walled fields, some of which are still in use today. The vigour of the monastic movement within the early Christian church has left its mark in the ancient 22 584 sq km —-> Aton Teifi settlement of St David's and in the notable group of chapels dedicated to Celtic saints that lie along the coast, mainly at landing places for those on pilgrimage to St David's. The division of Pembrokeshire into the Welsh north and the English south is directly attributable to the Norman occupation of south Pembrokeshire in the late 11th century. The ruins of a number of small castles survive along this line but the most impressive castles that remain (such as Pembroke, Carew and Manorbier) were built behind it; only some of these are within the Park. Wiseman’s Bridge was the scene of a rehearsal for the 1944 D-Day Normandy landings. The resident population is 22,000 — the highest population density of any National Park. Tenby, with a population of 5,000, is a historic sea port with much fine architecture — one-half of all the Listed Buildings of the Park are in the town. About 1.5 million visitors stay in the Park (1984 estimate) for an average of 11 nights, 95 per cent coming from more than 20 miles away. They bring considerable trade to the area (recent estimates suggest £122 million per year) but pressure for holiday accommodation results in many applications for housing development; the National Park Authority deals with more than 800 planning applications every year. Congestion on some narrow roads and strain on public and Park services are continuing problems at some times of the year. Management The National Park Authority has been active in conservation management. It has a number of agreements for the conservation of natural sites, the most numerous being those to conserve moorland from intensification of agricultural use. A Map of Moor and Heath has been prepared; complete cover of aerial photographs has been commissioned, and mapping has been extended to all natural and semi-natural habitats. The Authority has acquired a number of broadleaved woodlands. It has entered into more than 20 tree planting agreements, and about 5,000 trees are planted each year. During the Second World War the Park was of great strategic importance and contained many war-time airfields. This has left its legacy of derelict sites, which the Authority is actively clearing with help from the Welsh Development Agency. One of those sites, St David's Airfield, was the subject of a controversial Anglo-American defence proposal in 1990/91. This would have involved the construction of a large and unsightly radar base in the heart of the National Park but the proposal was subsequently cancelled. The National Park Authority has recently received powers to establish, control and improve footpaths. Access to the moorland — 10 per cent of the Park — is traditionally free, but elsewhere the needs of farming have priority, so that footpaths are especially important. The best known is the Pembrokeshire Coast Path (292 km), a National Trail, which opened in 1972. There is a footpath network of more than 650 km in the farmed area, and the National Park Authority is hoping to open a new 110-km circular walk in the less well-known inland Daugleddau sector of the Park around the upper reaches of the Milford Haven waterway. There are seven information centres run by the Park Authority, which also runs an active Park interpretive programme of guided walks, talks and tours throughout the year — in all about 280 events including a dramatic presentation in Carew Castle each summer. The Authority is active in conservation schemes in the towns and villages, and has prepared local plans for the Park’s three main population centres and several informal village plans. There are two important Conservation Areas, Tenby and St David's. The latter includes the Cathedral of Wales’ patron saint and the Bishop’s Palace. Both areas are ‘outstanding’. In a pioneering move between British and French National Parks, the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park last year signed a twinning agreement with the Pare Naturel Régional d’Armorique in Brittany. The two areas share much in common — geography, landscape, economic circumstances, history — not least a close affinity between the Welsh and Breton languages and culture. Key pledges in the twinning agreement include the protection and promotion of each other's heritage, both natural and cultural, and the promotion of economic development “which respects and is in harmony with the environment and cultural identity of each area, and which will ensure human activity which is both harmonious and lasting”. Exchange visits of staff of each Park have already taken place on a number of occasions. The Authority runs a National Park Conservation Awards Scheme biennially. Management plans National Park Plan 1977; reviewed every 5 years. Land ownership Most of the land is in private ownership: the National Park Authority owns 0.5 per cent; the National Trust 4.7 per cent, including about 30 per cent of the coastline; the Forestry Commission 1.2 per cent; the Ministry of Defence 4.5 per cent; the Countryside Council for Wales 0.5 per cent; and other public bodies 0.6 per cent. Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: 3 Skomer Island Marine Nature Reserve. Other nature reserves: 21 Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 48 (77 sq km) Areas of international importance: Most of the islands and many cliff habitats and their adjacent waters. 2B The built environment Conservation Areas: 2, and one in which the Park boundary bisects a village. Listed Buildings: 800 including St David's Cathedral and Bishop’s Palace, and Carew and Manorbier Castles. Tenby and Newport, both medieval planned towns, Tenby with intact town walls. Scheduled Ancient Monuments: 200 (a similar number unscheduled). Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological: Skomer Island has an Iron Age landscape; the Preseli Hills are little changed since Neolithic times; there are Iron Age settlements and field boundaries on St David’s Head and, overall, many remains of Iron Age promontory forts and hill forts. Other: Medieval strip fields at Angle; many defensive sites including mid-Victorian examples round Milford Haven. Administering authority Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Committee, County Offices, Haverfordwest, Dyfed SA61 1QZ SNOWDONIA Description The Snowdonia National Park stands in the north-west of Wales in the county of Gwynedd. Snowdon, the highest mountain in Wales and England, is one of the magnificent assembly of hills that have kept this corner of Wales a cultural and patriotic stronghold for centuries. The language, tradition and culture of the Welsh still flourish. Being close to the sea in the north and west, the full splendour of the mountains can be appreciated, giving them a stature far in excess of their 1,000 metres. The rocks of the Park began as sediments in Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian times, but they have had a turbulent history of uplift, folding, tilting and compression, interspersed with periods of igneous activity, so that they have been much changed. Slate, once the source of an industry that has left an indelible mark on the landscape, is one of the products of these events. During the last million years, glaciers have carved the hardened rocks into rugged mountains, gouged out valleys and lakes, left hanging valleys and waterfalls, and deposited moraines. Nine major groups of mountains can be distinguished, separated by fine, often wooded, river valleys. Several main roads use the valleys so that any traveller gets an impression of the wild and mountainous country. The character of the different groups varies from the rocky and precipitous such as Tryfan (917 m), much used for preparatory climbing before ascents of Everest, to the smoother contours of Diffwys and Y Llethr looking out over Cardigan Bay. The summit of Snowdon, Yr Wyddfa Fawr, rises from the junction of five converging ridges, three of them knife edged. From the top, magnificent views extend westwards to the sea, and east and south across miles of mountainous country. It is no wonder that to the Welsh it has always been a very special place, and is now a magnet for tourists. Sandy beaches and dunes, estuaries and river meadows, ancient deciduous woodlands, grasslands, moorlands and peat bogs, and the sparse vegetation of the rocky tops and screes are all found in the National Park. With more than 50 lakes, and many smaller pools, there is also a great variety of freshwater life. The Designated 1951 Confirmed 1951 National Park Major road Railway Land over 1000t National Trail County boundary = —— -—— National boundary Snowdonia National Park gwyniad, a small endemic fish, is found nowhere in Britain except in Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake). Much of the vegetation is semi-natural, having been shaped by centuries of grazing. Unusually for Britain, goats were one of the principal grazing animals and they are credited with the almost total destruction of the indigenous forest. In 1066 native forest covered 60 per cent of the area; 900 years later it was reduced to 3 per cent. Many of the SSSIs and nature reserves are deciduous woods with their rich assemblages of plants and animals. The Park Committee is doing much to improve their management and plant trees. The Forestry Commission has considerable areas of commercial forest in Snowdonia, this being one of the first areas to be planted after the Commission came into being in 1919. Above the treeline, arctic-alpine vegetation survives in the rigorous climate; here the delicate Snowdon lily, an endemic, is to be found. Man has left his mark on the landscape for millenia from the megaliths of the early Neolithic to the slate quarries of the last century. New Stone Age men were the first people to leave evidence of an ‘industry’ in the Park; at Craiglwyd, near Penmaenmawr, there is the site of an axe factory whose products have been found at Stonehenge. For two centuries slate was a boom industry, and the tips and abandoned quarries can be seen in many places, sometimes quite wild and remote, 24 2,142 sq km Liyn Efyrriny although the Park boundary has been drawn to exclude the most heavily exploited areas. Buildings, fences and gravestones of slate give a very particular character to some areas such as Llanberis and Harlech, and the legacy of the industrial past adds a further interesting dimension to the history of land use in Snowdonia. The Romans and the drovers have left their roads and the sheep farmers their stone walls and enclosures, the Welsh kings and princes their castles, of which perhaps the most romantic is Harlech Castle, immortalised by Turner, which Edward I built as part of his girdle of impregnable fortresses surrounding Snowdonia. Management The first recorded tourist, an Englishman, climbed Snowdon in 1639. The latest figures suggest that around 400,000 now make the ascent each year; between 250,000 and 300,000 on foot, the rest in the railway. There are six well-defined paths up the mountain, and by the 1970s all were showing signs of excessive wear and tear. Also, the buildings on the summit, which were privately owned, had got into a state of considerable disrepair. The Countryside Commission gave special funds of more than £500,000 to the National Park Authority to rebuild the structures on the summit and restore and reinforce the footpaths. A ground staff of 12, and three wardens, cope with the crowds of visitors. Restoration of footpaths is a constant task and one in which the Authority is becoming very skilful. Similar problems to those experienced on Snowdonia are now being addressed on a number of the other popular mountain peaks, in particular Cader Idris in the southern part of the Park. As the majority (60 per cent) of the land in the Park is in private ownership, the Authority plays an important role as a buffer between the owners and the visitors and others who use the Park The main use of the land is for stock farming, principally of sheep. The farms were small but amalgamations have taken place and the agricultural workforce is much reduced. Farmhouses in more remote areas have been deserted or taken over as ‘second homes’ by people not resident in the area. Tourism is becoming the dominant industry of the area; very many people pass through or visit the Park (probably of the order of 9 million visitor days). Conversely, rural depopulation continues and support is needed for local communities through the creation of further jobs and maintenance of services After an experimental period in the early 1970s, the National Park Committee agreed in 1977 to establish a permanent Upland Management Service. This works both for the benefit of farmers, by assisting them in their care of landscape features, and for visitors in helping them to appreciate the land use background to the National Park. Better roads to the Park continue to lead to great increases in the number of visitors. There is a visitor centre at Betws -y-Coed, through which a residential study centre at Plas Tan-y-Bwlch and five other visitor information centres are run by the National Park Authority. These add to the enjoyment and understanding of the Park and all it contains Management plans National Park Plan 1977; First Review 1987; Plan for Snowdon Management Area; Structure Plan; 6 local plans. A plan for Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake) has been completed and a local plan for the Bala area Is nearing completion Land ownership Most of the land is in private ownership: the National Park Authority owns 0.5 per cent; the National Trust 200 sq km Cwm Bychan, Snowdonia National Park Philip Evans/CC 25 in Gwynedd, much of it in the National Park; the Forestry Commission 16 per cent; the Water Authority 6 per cent; and common land covers 11 per cent Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: 18 (58.4 sq km) Other nature reserves: | (0.36 sq km) Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 88 (476 sq km) The built environment Conservation Areas: 14 Listed Buildings: about 900 Outstanding large houses and parks: Plas Tan-y-Bwlch, Gwydyr Castle. Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: 132 listed; this is estimated to be only 5 per cent of the total; of these 7 are in guardianship Other: many remains of slate mining and of gold, copper and lead mining Administering authority Snowdonia National Park Committee, Penrhyndeudraeth, Gwynedd LL48 6LS YORKSHIRE DALES Description The Yorkshire Dales National Park lies astride the Pennines in the north of England in the counties of North Yorkshire and Cumbria; there are more than 20 main dales, differing much from each other in character and atmosphere. To the south lies a highly populated industrial area — eight million people live within 90 minutes drive of the southern boundary — while, to the north, thinly settled uplands stretch to the Tees and beyond. About 10,000 people live in the scattered farms, villages and small market towns of the Park. Limestone is at the heart of the Dales country. Impressive inland cliffs at Gordale Scar and Malham Cove; wide stretches of limestone pavement; dramatic gorges and waterfalls; unexpected swallow holes; deep caves, underground rivers and passages; and a landscape of pastoral valleys patterned with dry-stone walls, isolated barns and stone-built villages — all are derived from the great thickness of Carboniferous limestone that underlies the Park, sometimes at considerable depth. Limestone is dominant in the terraced landscapes of Wensleydale and Wharfedale where narrower bands are interspersed with shales, sandstones and even some thin seams of coal. Above the limestone, millstone grit caps the fells, which attain their greatest heights in the west. Whernside (737 m), Ingleborough (722 m) and Pen-y-Ghent (693 m) form a compact group of challenging tops that comprise the popular Three Peaks Walk. Most of the area lies at over 180 m and the growing season is short. Stock farming is the most important land use, dairying in the dales and sheep farming on the hills. The pattern of settlement was laid down in the centuries between 700 and 1000 Ap when Danes and Angles penetrated the dales from the east and established their nucleated villages; and the Norse, coming from the west, founded their isolated farmsteads high up the valleys. After the Norman invasion, four centuries of monasticism finally removed the indigenous tree cover from the hills and dales, where large flocks of sheep brought wealth to the Church. It was after the dissolution of the monasteries that yeomen farmers produced the main features of the cultural landscape that is so highly prized Designated 1953 Confirmed 1954 National Park Major road Railway Land over 1000ft oe */ Stock 2) tex — . National Trail { oe = unty boundary LANCASHIRE ° 10km Yorkshire Dales National Park today. Many of the dry-stone walls, so characteristic of the area, are the result of enclosures carried out between 1760 and 1820; the fields were usually between 3 acres and 12 acres. But in a number of places, for example Malham and in Wharfedale, it is possible to contrast these with the older, smaller enclosures round village croft fields. The history of the landscape can be read in the pattern of its stone walls. Earlier people have left their marks on the landscape — field systems of the Iron Age and earlier, the large Iron Age fort on the summit of Ingleborough, and the Roman garrison post at Bainbridge. Mineral exploitation has been carried on for hundreds of years and some quarrying continues to detract from the landscape. In the past, lead was mined extensively, exploitation reaching a peak in the 18th and 19th centuries. Relict landscapes with evocative ruins remain to this day. Some of the tiny hamlets in Arkengarthdale are the scattered homesteads built by the miners as they exploited the ore-bearing ground. Much of the Dales landscape is open with wild expanses of moorland and rough grassland. The broad summits and ridges of the wetter fells have a ‘skin’ of peat and a vegetation of cotton grass, bilberry and heather, while the slopes and drier ground support rough grassland or heather. In contrast, the thin, free-draining soils of 26 1,769 sq km .¢ NORTH YORKSHIRE y \\Gouthwaite Res. Ne the limestone support a herb-rich grassland, including the nationally important blue moor-grass types that are confined to the limestones of Northern England. An important feature of the limestone areas is the extensive limestone pavements, which are of geological interest as well as the refuges for a number of rare plant species. The National Park Committee, in conjunction with English Nature and the Countryside Commission, has recently completed an evaluation of all limestone pavements within the Park and is engaged in a programme to bring all important sites under the statutory protection of Limestone Pavement Orders. Although woodland forms a small proportion of the vegetation, the many small woodlands on steep gill sides or on the valley side scars are a characteristic element in the landscape. The National Park Committee is particularly concerned to ensure that semi-natural woods and woodlands, which are important in the landscape, are managed sympathetically, and offers advice and grants for stock proofing and tree planting. The Committee owns a number of woods and has re-introduced rotational coppice management to One important site. Much of the valley-bottom land is managed by traditional farming methods, and many herb-rich haymeadows remain, although agricultural intensification continues to be a threat. Management The importance of the haymeadows of the National Park has been recognised by government and five dales have been included in the Pennine Dales Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA), which was set up in 1987 with the objective of securing the conservation of herb-rich meadows through the support of environmentally sensitive farming methods. Outwith the ESA, the National Park Committee pursues the protection of haymeadows through management agreements with farmers, and this approach is also used to protect other habitats and landscape features of importance. About 8 sq km of land are protected by management agreements The large area of moorland and rough grazing are the habitar of a range of bird species including red grouse, birds of prey such as merlin and peregrine, and wading birds such as golden plov er, curlew, snipe and dunlin. The farmed lands are important for lapwing, redshank and yellow wagtail, while the river systems support goosander, dipper, common sandpiper and kingfisher. The National Park Committee is concerned to ensure that populations of endangered species are monitored and protected, and supports the efforts of local ornithologists as well as collating data on the bird populations of the National Park. There are 1,770 km of footpaths, of many origins — drove roads, packhorse and miners’ routes and turbary tracks. Britain’s first long distance footpath, the Pennine Way, traverses the Park for 75 km. The Park Committee has provided signposts, stiles and bridges and has a programme for repair and restoration. The Committee is particularly concerned with the Three Peaks Walk, which has become exceptionally eroded; 150,000 people climb Ingleborough each year. Active steps are being taken to restore a good surtace across the very fragile, upland soils. There is a large interpretive programme, which is closely integrated with the general management of the Park The Committee, through development control and conservation initiatives, endeavours to maintain the rich heritage of traditional buildings and unspoilt villages. Following assessment of the villages in the National Park, the Committee is proposing a programme of Conservation Area designations, which could add a further 61 to the 23 that already exist. The Conservation Areas of Dent, Sedbergh and Askrigg, in particular, have benefited in recent years from major programmes of enhancement works, involving repairs to, and reinstatement of, traditional floorscapes, undergrounding of overhead power lines and sympathetic street lighting. The Committee’s activities also extend to conserving landscape features Gordale, Yorkshire Dales National Park David Hughes/CC 27 such as isolated barns and other farm buildings, dry-stone walls and traditional meadows. In 1989 a barns and walls conservation scheme was established in 72 sq km of Upper Swaledale and Arkengarthdale, which was designated a Conservation Area. The scheme received funding from English Heritage and the Countryside Commission, and has recently been awarded a grant from the European Community. Under the scheme, high levels of grant are offered for appropriate repairs to these traditional agricultural structures. An increasing number of barns are being stripped of their sandstone roofing slates. To avoid this practice, and to provide suitable material for roofing repairs to the area's traditional buildings and for new buildings, the Committee is exploring the possibility of small-scale stone extraction being reintroduced in the area. A feasibility study confirmed the presence of potentially viable, workable reserves at a number of sites. The National Park contains many remains from the lead industry, which was a major part of the local economy and social life of the area until the turn of the century. In 1987 the Committee concluded guardianship agreements for three sme!t-mill sites, at Grinton, Old Gang and Surrender in Swaledale. Since then there has been a substantial commitment to further survey, excavation and consolidation work, assisted by funding from English Heritage. Another aspect of the Committee's archaeological conservation activities has been the continuing financial support given to university groups investigating the historic landscapes of selected areas of the Park. Since 1985, a Sheffield University team has been researching ancient land boundaries and settlements in Swaledale, and groups from Manchester University started a programme of field work on features in Littondale in 1990. As a result of the announcement in April 1989 that the Settle—Carlisle railway line would remain open, British Rail has reintroduced regular, year-round services. Residents and visitors continue to enjoy this spectacular route and benefit from the access it offers. There are initiatives to promote the development and marketing potential of the line, and to conserve its architectural interest, much of which survives intact. To this end the Committee, in collaboration with other local authorities along the route, has designated the line a Conservation Area. A management plan is being prepared to establish an agreed approach to the conservation of landscape, nature and buildings within the framework of British Rail’s operational needs. The plan will include the funding by the Committee of selected non-operational works, in addition to the modest commitment it has already made to the repairs to the famous Ribblehead Viaduct. In the late 1980s the National Park Committee became increasingly concerned at the apparently deteriorating condition of a number of ‘green lanes’ in the Park. The increase in use by four-wheel drive vehicles and trail bikes, together with local agricultural traffic, had reduced the surfaces of some of the lanes to a state that not only made it extremely difficult for other users but also was also visually and ecologically damaging. During the summer of 1988 a survey was carried out to assess the extent of damage on 36 lanes, comprising approximately 153 km of the network NORFOLK AND SUFFOLK BROADS Called The Broads Description The Norfolk and Suffolk Broads are the largest area of freshwater wetland in England, unique in landscape, history and appeal — “an enchanted land of mysterious misty fens, slow winding waterways, wet tangled woodlands and acres of marshes where cattle graze below an immense open sky”. They lie in the lowlands of East Anglia in an area roughly bounded by the towns of Great Yarmouth, Lowestoft, Bungay, Norwich and North Walsham. Two rivers, the Bure and the Yare, flow into the sea at Great Yarmouth, and it is the alluvial plains of these two rivers and their tributaries that form the area known as the Broads and which, after many vicissitudes, came under the jurisdiction of the Broads Authority in 1978. Under the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads Act, which was enacted in 1988, a new Broads Authority with conservation, navigation and recreation functions came into being. within the Park. Of the lanes surveyed, 29 were severely damaged. The Park Committee has now started a programme of work to establish the legal status of the routes, the appropriateness of the various uses, and the extent and nature of maintenance being carried out. It has also begun to restore the damaged ground. Management plans National Park Plan Review 1984. Land ownership Nearly all of the land is in private ownership, only 2 per cent being publicly owned, divided between the National Trust (1.3 per cent), the National Park Committee, Yorkshire Water, English Nature and the Ministry of Defence. Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: 3 Other nature reserves: 7 Yorkshire Wildlife Trust Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 83 including Malham Tarn. Many of the The Broads The River Bure, and its tributaries the Thurne and the Ant, drain the area north-west of Yarmouth; the Yare flows 28 Present Broads Authority started 1989 caves are included in larger geomorphological SSSIs; 4 (Kilnsey, Douky Bottom, Jubilee and Victoria) are also classified as Ancient Monuments. The built environment Conservation Areas: 23 Listed Buildings: More than 1,700, including 18 Grade 1 and 65 Grade 2*. Historical sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: 114 Scheduled Ancient Monuments, including more than 60 stone circles, settlements, and burials; 3 Roman sites; 3 linear earthworks and 2 inscribed crosses; 4 ecclesiastical buildings; 2 towers and 1 castle. A further 2,500 unscheduled archaeological sites and features are recorded in the Sites and Monuments Record for the National Park. Administering authority Yorkshire Dales National Park Committee, Yorebridge House, Bainbridge, via Leyburn, North Yorkshire DL8 3BP 303 sq km The Broads Major road Railway County boundary =—— »— 10km| / broadly eastward from Norwich to the sea, while its tributary the Waveney flows east from Bungay to near Lowestoft where it turns sharply to the north, joining the Yare not far from its mouth. The character of the present Broads is largely a creation of man. There are navigable waterways, open broads, reed beds, fen, carr woodlands of willows and alder, reclaimed grazing marshlands and some cultivated lands. There are also 46 broads (areas of still, open water) covering about 8 sq km within the flood plain of the rivers system that provides 200 km of navigable, lock-free waterways. The Broads themselves are entirely man made. Great beds of peat formed in the valleys of the East Anglian rivers after the end of the last Ice Age, over land that was affected by periodic invasion and recession of the sea. Large steep-sided peat cuttings were excavated in these beds for fuel in medieval times and these were flooded by a rise in sea level during the 13th century. The succession of vegetation that colonised these cuttings — plants of open water giving way to reed and sedge beds and finally to woodland — were in their turn exploited and managed. One product was the famous Norfolk reed used in thatching. Other areas were drained and turned into grazing marshes, rich in wetland plants and a paradise for wading birds; drainage mills are still an important feature of the landscape. The open waters were used for water transport — there are substantial docks in Norwich — and for fishing and wildfowling. The resident population is small, only 5,500 people. Villages around the floodplain are attractive, usually grouped round a riverside quay (‘staithe’) or village green. The area has long been popular for recreation and a mecca for naturalists. About 250,000 people take boating holidays each year, and the total number of visitors using the water is probably more than | million. The decline in traditional economic uses has been parallelled by a massive growth in the use of the waterways for boating and by great pressure to intensify agricultural production from the grazing marshes in the 1970s. The delicately balanced plant and animal communities of the Broads have not been able to withstand these changes; but it is upon these communities that the character of the Broads ultimately depends. Management There has been a serious decline during the last 40 years in the natural beauty and scientific interest of the Broads; the problem has been to find effective solutions when so wide a range of interests and of local, regional and central government agencies are involved. Ever since a proposal in the Hobhouse Report of 1947 to make the area into a National Park was not accepted by government, there have been a number of initiatives to bring things under control. The Nature Conservancy’s Report on Broadland in 1965 urged a strategic approach and stimulated the setting up of a Broadland Consortium, which published a plan in 1971, but little was done. In 1976 the Countryside Commission reopened the question; and as a result a non-statutory Broads Authority was established in 1978. It arrested the decline and began to improve matters. The new Broads Authority is continuing this work, helped by greater powers and more resources. There are five sets of main problems: management of water space; changes in water quality; bank erosion; the management of the fens; the management of the grazing marshes. Water quality The central problem has been the deterioration of the quality of the water, which has resulted from increased levels of nitrates from farm run-off and phosphate from sewage effluent. These chemicals have stimulated the growth of microscopic algae at the expense of the larger, water plants. A number of steps are being taken, the first and most important has been to reduce the levels of phosphate in sewage effluent and this is being carried out on selected rivers by the water companies, regulated by the National Rivers Authority (NRA), which is responsible for water quality, and the Broads Authority. In addition, the enriched mud has been pumped out from a number of broads by the Broads Authority, to help create conditions conducive to aquatic plant growth. A large programme of research and experimental management is being run jointly by the Broads Authority and the 29 NRA to find the most appropriate techniques for restoring a stable aquatic system. Work is currently focused on the effects of food-chain manipulation and chemical dosing of sediments to prevent phosphate release. Bank erosion This is mainly caused by the large number of motor boats. It is aggravated by the loss of the vegetation of the banks, which is partly due to water quality changes. Measures are being taken to reduce the wash from the boats by introducing selective speed limits; developing sympathetic hull designs; and restoring vegetation by rebuilding the banks, stabilising them with netting and asphalt matting, and encouraging the regrowth of reeds. The Fens The natural development of vegetation in open water leads to the build-up of peat and a gradual progression to dry land covered with bushes and trees (carr). In the past this process has been checked by cutting of reed, sedge and marsh hay, most of which has now ceased. This has resulted in a threat to internationally important plant and animal communities. An extensive programme of fen management work has been initiated to combat this neglect and is aimed at the many thousands of acres of fens in private ownership. Advice, grants and a crucial labour supply are provided, together with the specialist machinery needed. The same range of help is also available to a variety of conservation organisations who are already embarking on this vital work. Grazing marsh More than one-quarter of the grazing marsh acreage was lost to the plough under incentives provided by the Common Agricultural Policy in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The deepening and pollution of drains led to a serious decline in wild plants; and new barns, power cables and concrete roads have intruded on the landscape. The rate of arable conversion increased dramatically in the early 1980s. The Broads Authority found that management agreements were ineffective in stemming the tide, and argued for an alternative approach. As a result, the Broads Grazing Marsh Conservation Scheme, an experimental scheme to continue less intensive farming, was sponsored by the Countryside Commission and the Ministry of Agriculture, based on Halvergate Marshes and Haddiscoe Island. This voluntary scheme began in 1985, to run for 3 years; it offered a grant of £50/acre/year; 90 per cent of farmers opted for it. It has now been overtaken by the declaration of the Broads as an Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA). Under this, two levels of grant are offered — £50 for those who continue traditional methods and £80 for those willing to practise more positive management for wildlife. This scheme has been very successful, with 95 per cent of the grassland in the Broads floodplain in agreements, 35 per cent being at the higher amount of grant, which, because it leads to higher water levels and less intensive management, produces greater benefits to wildlife. The ESA scheme is now being reviewed and it is likely that even greater incentives will be available in future to enhance environmental benefits. The following issues are at present being considered in relation to management: e the scope for extending waterspace NEW FOREST Description The New Forest lies between Southampton and Bournemouth in the south-west of the county of Hampshire, bordering, for eight kilometres, the coastline of the Solent to the east of Lymington. It is one of those rare areas that are of unique merit — for its ecology, its history and its beauty. Nowhere else in lowland Britain is there still remaining a large expanse of uncultivated land on recent ‘soft’ rocks. There are smaller areas elsewhere, but only in the New Forest can one lose oneself in a landscape of heath and bog, clear, meandering streams, and woods of venerable oak and beech; watch the deer and badger; and imagine oneself in the Middle Ages. The Forest cannot be understood outside its historical context. The area has been a protected landscape for more than for navigation (or,conservation) — this is very contentious; e a flood alleviation scheme for the entire Broads area — a preferred option will be put forward by the NRA in May1992, possibilities are a barrier at Yarmouth, the creation of washlands, bank raising etc; e the need to gain a firm commitment from the NRA to a flood protection, water resources and water quality improvement programme, to safeguard the future of Broadland; e the development of green tourism initiatives, eg electric boats, areas for quiet, non-damaging boating. Management plans Draft Strategy and Management Plan 1982; definitive version 1987. The new Authority is producing a fresh Broads Plan. The recently enlarged ESA includes the whole of the Broads Authority area. Land ownership The land is mostly in private ownership: much is owned by the Norfolk Naturalists’ Trust and the RSPB; the National Trust owns 6 sq km; the Broads Authority owns 1.5 sq km. Natural areas of special interest National Nature Reserves: 3 Other nature reserves: 1 Local Nature Reserve. Sites of Special Scientific Interest: 32 Areas of international importance: 2 sites under the Ramsar Convention in the Bure Marshes NNR and Upper Thurne Broads. (There is a proposal to include the whole of the Broads area as Ramsar and Special Protection Areas sites.) The built environment Conservation Areas: 11 Listed Buildings: being reviewed; Horsey Windpump belongs to the National Trust. Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: none, but the peat diggings and research results from peat stratigraphy are of great archaeological Importance. Administering authority Broads Authority, Thomas Harvey House, 18 Colegate, Norwich, Norfolk NR3 1BQ Designated 1079 376 sq km New Forest Major road Railway County boundary §=— -— Perambulation as defined in 1964 New Forest Act, The New Forest 30 900 years; during this time the purposes for which it has been preserved have changed several times, but in spite of this its integrity has been preserved. It was in about 1079 that William | created a royal hunting preserve to be called the ‘New’ Forest. At that time the area was a wild area of woods, heaths and bogs with a scatter of farms and settlements. Although parts had certainly been cultivated since the Bronze Age, and there was a flourishing Roman pottery, the poor soils ensured that the population was small. The act of ‘afforestation’ meant that no land could be enclosed with fences, which might prevent free movement of deer, but the people were allowed to continue grazing their stock. Few tree seedlings could survive the browsing of such numbers of animals and the woodlands began to retreat. So, beginning in the 15th century, a trend started to enclose areas of the forest for the growing of timber, which was the most important raw material of the period. In 1698 the Crown assumed that the power of inclosure, by which up to 6,000 acres could be inclosed at any time and the animals of the commoners excluded, could be rolled on, as mature woods were thrown open, to allow further inclosure. This diminution of grazing was exacerbated by the competition from the deer, themselves grazing animals. A critical situation developed by the mid-19th century. The sovereign no longer hunted deer — the last record was some 200 years earlier — and the way was open for a fundamental change in the management of the Forest. In 1851 the Deer Removal Act 1851 was passed, under which the deer were to be eliminated in return for the commoners’ agreement that 10,000 acres of open land could be fenced and used for timber production; and all Rights of Common (to grazing, firewood, turf, marl and mast) were registered, the Court of Verderers being set up by statute to safeguard these. This led to tension between the commoners and the Crown over inclosures, especially as it proved impossible to exterminate the deer; eventually, after examination by a Select Committee, the Crown gave up its rolling power of inclosure under the New Forest Act 1877. The beauty of the New Forest was used as an argument in evidence to this Committee and the scene was set for the present objectives of management — a balance between commoners’ rights, the production of wood, the natural beauty of the Forest, and its enjoyment by the public. No other area in Britain has the combination of a large proportion of Crown land (now managed by the Forestry Commission) subject to common rights, which are administered by a body set up by Statute (the Verderers). It is to this balance of interest that the New Forest owes its survival into an age in which the quality of its landscape is nationally recognised. The New Forest lies in the Hampshire Basin, a shallow depression in the chalk, which is filled with Tertiary deposits of sands and clays laid down in shallow seas and by rivers. These were topped by later gravels and have since been eroded into a gentle landscape of gravel plateaux and shallow valleys. Poor sands and gravels covered with heath are more common in the north; richer loams and clays, well-wooded, predominate in the south. There are extensive bogs in the valleys fed by springs where porous soils lie on top of the clay. The Forest was once largely covered in trees but early cultivation and grazing turned much of this into heath. The open forest now is a mosaic of heath and bog; grassland, furze and bracken; and woodland (the ‘Ancient and Ornamental Woodlands’) — a mosaic that is mainly the result of natural change in the vegetation under the influence of fluctuating numbers of grazing animals and of ancient inclosures. The inclosable forest is a mixture of conifers and of broadleaved woodlands, predominantly oak and beech. All of these are of great value and interest for their plants and animals; the extent of the area, its continuity with the past, its variety of habitat and the quantities of ‘edge’ all contribute to this richness. The Forest is one of the strongholds of the smooth snake and sand lizard, of the Dartford warbler, and of many rare plants, among them the wild gladiolus. The beauty of the Forest found its way into literature, in the late 18th century — William Gilpin, the exponent of the ‘picturesque’, was the Vicar of Boldre in the New Forest. The changing combinations of heather and woodland, 31 water and majestic trees, open vista and intimate retreat, the colour contrasts of heath, bracken, pine and oak, of the deep shade of forest and the brilliance of the open heath — all have a perennial appeal that brings ever-increasing numbers of people to admire and enjoy. Management The management of the Crown land in the Forest (270 sq km out of a total of 377 sq km) is the responsibility of the Forestry Commission, guided by a policy given by the Minister of Agriculture in 1971. It has been their difficult task to balance the production of timber, the rights of commoners, the claims of nature conservation, the beauty of the landscape, the trunk roads that pass through the Forest and the need to provide for the very large numbers of people who now visit the Forest. For example, the number of day visitors is estimated at 9.25 million a year, and the number of camper/nights increased from 90,000 in 1956 to 800,000 in 1983. There have been notable successes in reconciling the different interests. e Since 1972 a firm policy has been implemented on access and recreation. Cars are excluded from the open forest and ‘wild camping’ has been outlawed. Controlled car parking, camping and caravan sites have been provided (2.4 sq km of car parks and camp sites). e@ There isa Minute of Intent between the Forestry Commission and English Nature recognising the whole Forest as of National Nature Reserve status, with close consultation on the management of the Forest — especially on the Forestry Commissions’s statutory obligation to drain and clear coarse herbage in the interest of the commoners’ animals and on the management of the Ancient and Ornamental Woodlands. e Deer numbers are limited to Red (170), Fallow (1,500), Roe (360) and Sika (90). e@ The main through roads have been fenced to keep animals off them. e@ The Forest estate is managed, in spite of constraints, to produce 34,000 cubic metres of softwood and 4,000 cubic metres of hardwood annually. Recent developments The New Forest is an excellent example of the way that policies are modified to respond to changing circumstances. In the early 1980s the New Forest District Council developed the idea of a New Forest Heritage Area, wider than the area of Crown land, it being evident that the area of high landscape value was not confined to the New Forest Perambulation, and that this core area was strongly influenced by the planning and management of the land outside it. In 1986, the Forestry Commission, stimulated by mounting concern about the decline in the traditional pastoral economy and the pace and scale of new developments associated with greater wealth and prosperity, initiated a far-reaching review. After extensive consultation the resulting Review Group reported in 1988. It enthusiastically adopted the idea of the New Forest Heritage Area: “We look towards the day when any reference to the New Forest will automatically mean the Heritage Area, when planning policies are unified and a common identity has developed for this wider New Forest that lies at the heart of our recommendations” and made the significant recommendation: “The New Forest Heritage Area should be recognised at Government level as requiring special protection, being of the highest national and international importance and of equal status with the National Parks and the Broads”. The Government agreed with this in principle, recommended the establishment of a Heritage Area Committee (now called the New Forest Committee) and urged the Committee to agree boundaries for the Heritage Area “to incorporate essential grazing land as well as the best of the landscape round the Forest’s Perambulation”. The New Forest Committee, representative of the Verderers, local government and the interested national agencies, has been in existence since 1990. Its principal aims, concerned with the whole Heritage Area, are: to promote the conservation of the traditional character; to review and recommend action to maintain the balance of nature and socio-economic forces; and to prepare and promote a strategy for coordinated management. So far it has reviewed the boundaries of the Natural Heritage Area, after extensive public consultation, and is making its decisions about revised boundaries known to the relevant district councils and to the Ministers concerned. The recently published report of the National Parks Review Panel, Fit for the future, recommended that the New Forest should be formally recognised as a National Park but with a tailor-made constitution. The Countryside Commission has endorsed this recommendation and a government response is now awaited. Established Oak trees, New Forest, Hampshire lanthe Ruthven 32 Management plans Management Plan 1972-1981; Management Plan 1982-1991. These have been agreed with the Verderers and English Nature, and are based on a policy statement (the Mandate) in 1971 and reaffirmed in 1982. Land ownership The largest part is Open Forest (Crown land) (49 per cent); private commons, agricultural and residential land account for 28 per cent; the total inclosable land is 23 per cent of which inclosures under the 1877 Act amount to 19 per cent and the remaining 4 per cent are inclosures under the 1949 and 1964 Acts, Crown freehold inclosures, and leasehold land. Natural areas of special interest The whole New Forest is recognised to be of National Nature Reserve status and is scheduled as an SSSI. Its valley bogs, oceanic heaths and ancient forests are of international importance. It contains one-half of the remaining area of Anglo-Norman heathland, the most important tract of this habitat in Europe. The built environment Conservation Areas: 13 Listed Buildings: Being revised; more than 800 in the parishes of the New Forest District (some of these are outside the boundaries of the ‘perambulation’ of the New Forest). Outstanding large houses and parks; Beaulieu Abbey, Rhinefield House, Moyles Court. Historic sites and landscapes Archaeological sites: 96, including numerous barrows, earthworks and 4 Roman potteries. Other: The whole New Forest is historic, the intact survival of a medieval hunting forest containing very numerous signs of past occupation, many unidentified and unstudied. Administering authority The Forestry Commission, Office of the Deputy Surveyor of the New Forest, The Queen's House, Lyndhurst, Hampshire SO4 7NH NATIONAL SCENIC AREAS (Scotland) The reasons why Scotland has no National Parks are complex and have been partly explained in the introductory sections. Yet one of Scotland’s greatest assets, and one that gives it international repute, is its magnificent scenery of mountains and lochs, wide, heather-covered moors and woodlands of pine and birch enriched by the superb and shifting colours of its oceanic climate. The protection of this scenic heritage, and the need to enable people to enjoy it fully, have been an issue for many years. To do so has been an important part of the work of the Countryside Commission for Scotland (CCS) and will be of its successor, Scottish Natural Heritage. After the publication in 1978 of a report by the Countryside Commission for Scotland, Scotland's scenic heritage, the Secretary of State for Scotland made an Order under the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1972 designating the 40 National Scenic Areas (NSAs) identified by the Commission in its report. This selection of sites, mainly in the north and west of the mainland and in the Islands, amounts to 12.5 per cent of the land and inland-water surface of Scotland. In 1987 the CCS and the Scottish Development Department commissioned a review of the effectiveness of landscape designations in Scotland. The resulting report was not very encouraging, the only effective result being, apparently, in the consultation procedures for forestry grant applications. The study revealed that development plan policies for NSAs were few and showed little consistency and, moreover, that there was a clear conception among planning authorities, government agencies and interest groups that the designation has not been very effective. This conclusion may have been a contributory factor behind the recent extensive review and public consultation on the mountain areas of Scotland referred to earlier. However, the CCS has been pursuing the National Park question for many years and was specifically invited by its Minister to look at arrangements on National Park lines as part of its review. The position under present legislation is that the status of NSAs has not been changed, nor have the planning conditions applied to them, but it is likely that a number of them could be absorbed in the Loch na Keal, Isle of Scarba, Lunga & the NORTHERN IRELAND 100k National Scenic Areas in Scotland future into the proposed new Natural Heritage Areas and be afforded the degree of protection that corresponds with their new status. Asa very high proportion of the land in the National Scenic Areas is privately owned, protection is mainly exercised through special development control procedures. In addition to the normal control of development under the Town and Country Planning Acts, the local authority is bound to consult the CCS where the proposed change or development falls within certain categories: e schemes for five or more houses, flats or chalets except for those within towns and villages for which specific proposals have been made in an adopted local plan; e@ sites for five or more mobile dwellings or caravans; e all non-residential developments requiring more than 0.5 ha of land, excluding agricultural and forestry developments; @ all buildings and structures over 12 m high (including agricultural and forestry developments); e vehicle tracks (including those for agriculture) except where these form part of an afforestation proposal that 33 North West Sutherland Loch Rannoch ~ ~~ & Glen Lyon GB Loch Tummel Tweeddale Leadertoot ass lu> ~ East ith Stewartry | ENGLAND has been agreed by the planning authority (all tracks within NSAs are now subject to planning control); e all local highway roadworks outside present road boundaries costing more than £100,000. If the local authority wishes to proceed in a manner contrary to the policy and advice of the CCS, the case must go before the Secretary of State for a decision. In addition to this statutory base, much has been done, and continues to be done, as a result of good will and an increased sensitivity to the natural beauty on the part of landowners and authorities. The Town and Country Planning Acts, however, have little or no control over changes and developments in agriculture and forestry. To many it appears that the most potent threat to the highland landscape comes from new forestry plantations. Although consultation between the Forestry Commission, the local authorities and the CCS takes place where large-scale afforestation is proposed, no statutory control for the protection of landscape is, as yet, available, although the CCS has made firm proposals in its policy publication, Forestry in Scotland: A policy paper. Legal provisions are available for making management agreements for the conservation of areas of high landscape value, but these have not yet been used. In many ways stronger powers for conservation lie with other bodies. For example, at least 13 NSAs contain areas owned or managed by the National Trust for Scotland, the main arm of the voluntary sector concerned with landscape protection. Ownership, in the hands of such a body as the National Trust for Scotland, confers the greatest protection. Therefore, National Scenic Areas that contain National Trust properties are likely to be well protected. Benefactors, giving property to the Trust, have foreseen future changes and many have entered into conservation agreements that are a type of restrictive covenant for that particular property. Of the NSAs, St Kilda (now a listed World Heritage site) belongs to the Trust and there are substantial holdings in Shetland (Fair Isle), Tongue, Wester Ross, Kintail, Ben Nevis and Glencoe, Loch Rannoch and Glen Lyon (Ben Lawers), and smaller holdings in others. Change and development takes place on Trust property, but each proposal is considered on its merits, always against the background of the conservation of the natural beauty and heritage. National Scenic Areas have a further degree of statutory protection where they coincide with NNRs and SSSls. In the past these have been declared and notified by the NCC and, in NNRs, the NCC has owned or managed the land for the well-being of wildlife and natural features. In April 1992 these responsibilities will be assumed by Scottish Natural Heritage. It seems likely that, where there is a coincidence of landscape and scientific interest as repre- sented by NSAs and SSSls, such areas could be candidates for consideration as NHAs. In the case of SSSIs the land managers are notified of activities detrimental to the value of the scientific value of the designated site, and management agreements, possibly with compensation for potential loss of income, are entered into. Although these provisions do not have landscape protection as their prime objective, they have been an effective mechanism for preserving landscape quality. The new combination, in Scottish Natural Heritage, of responsibilities for nature and landscape, and their enjoyment by the public, is intended to bring a unified approach to the conservation of Scotland’s natural heritage. This will be particularly important in Scotland where the qualities of nature and landscape are so intimately interwoven, and where existing landscape designations have not proved to be particularly effective. Furthermore, the new arrangement brings to an end, both in Scotland and in Wales, the formal division between landscape conservation and its enjoyment on the one hand, and nature conservation on the other —a division first framed in the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. This opens a new chapter in the way in which the United Kingdom seeks to manage its protected areas. This new approach is given added emphasis in Scotland where Scottish Natural Heritage is also given the duty of seeking to ensure that “anything done to the natural heritage of Scotland is undertaken in a manner which is sustainable”, thus providing a clear echo, with statutory authority, of the World Conservation Strategy and its successor, just issued by IUCN, UNEP and WWF, Caring for the Earth: A strategy for sustainable living. Cuillins from Bla Bheinn, Isle of Skye, The Cuillin Hills NSA Duncan Poore 34 Assynt—Coigach Highland Region 10 SSSIs (2 NNRs) Dramatic landscape of rugged and 902 sq km strange-shaped hills of sandstone and quartzite rising from rolling glaciated terrain of peat bogs and lochans; Suilven and Stac Pollaidh are the most striking. An island of limestone round Inchnadamph provides a green contrast to the surrounding gneiss. Strongly indented coastline. Ben Nevis and Glen Coe Highland/Tayside/Strathclyde 1,016 sq km 13 SSSIs (1 NNR) Three valleys (Glen Etive, Glen Coe and Glen Nevis) ascend steeply from their sea lochs through dramatic country of high mountains, Ben Nevis (1,141 m) being the highest in Britain. The rivers all rise on the wild and desolate Moor of Rannoch — once the focus of glaciation in this part of Scotland. The Cairngorm Mountains Highland Region/Grampian 672 sq km 8 SSSIs (1 NNR) The high plateau of the Cairngorms is the most extensive area over 1,000 m in Britain with four summits (Cairngorm, Ben Macdhui, Cairn Toul and Braeriach) over 1,200 m; its scale is unmatched elsewhere. Seen from below the rounded slopes and sculptured corries are framed by remnants of the Caledonian pine forest. The Cuillin Hills (Isle of Skye) Highland Region 219 sq km 3 SSSIs The jagged gabbro of the Black Cuillin and the smooth pink granite of the Red Cuillin contrast to form a mountain area of great scenic splendour, penetrated by the narrow fjord of Loch Coruisk. Deeside and Lochnagar Grampian/Tayside 9 SSSIs (2 NNRs) The broad valley of the Dee with the pine forest of Ballochbuie and the parkland of 400 sq km Balmoral, backed by the high plateau and corries of Lochnagar. Dornoch Firth Highland Region 6 SSSIs A shallow, winding firth with bays, sands, 75 sq km flats, shallows and promontories. Bordered at the seaward end by pasture and arable farmland, and rising, inland, to rounded granitic hills, wooded on the lower slopes. East Stewartry Coast Dumfries and Galloway 3 SSSIs A contrast between tidal flats and 52 sq km surrounding moorland hills with well-wooded lower slopes and promontories. Traditional villages. Eildon and Leaderfoot Borders 4 SSSlIs A humane and cultivated landscape round 36 sq km Melrose in the wide, fertile valley of the Tweed, with abbeys and mansion houses. Backed by the volcanic Eildon hills, beloved of Walter Scott. Fleet Valley Dumfries and Galloway 5 SSSIs The village of Gatehouse of Fleet marks the change from the estuary to an inner valley 53 sq km with rich farmland, flanking woodlands and moorland above. Glen Affric Highland Region 2 SSSIs The Glen contains one of most extensive 193 sq km remnants of the native Caledonian pine forest along the slopes above Loch Beinn a’Mheadhoin and Loch Affric. The high mountain ridge to the north is framed by water and majestic trees. Glen Strathfarrar Highland Region 1 SSSI (1 NNR) Steep-sided glen with extensive natural 38 sq km pine forest and backdrop of high mountains beyond Loch Beannacharan. Hoy and West Mainland Orkney Islands 4 SSSIs The spectacular sandstone cliffs and the 148 sq km rolling glaciated hills of Hoy (481 m) contrast with the cultivated lowlands of the West Mainland. Many remains of ancient occupation. Jura Strathclyde 2 SSSls The shapely quartzite cones of the Paps of Jura (700-800 m) rising from rolling moorland dominate the views from the coast of mid-Argyll. 218 sq km Kintail Highland Region 163 sq km In a few miles the River Shiel plunges from the main east—west watershed of Scotland into Loch Duich, bordered on both north and south by steep, smooth-contoured grass—covered mountains with sharp ridges and sculptured corries. Knapdale Strathclyde 6 SSSIs (2 NNRs) Long, parallel rock ridges penetrated by 198 sq km narrow arms of the sea, and by freshwater lochs, form the setting for a varied landscape of woodland, plantation, moor and farmland. Knoydart Highland Region 6 SSSIs 395 sq km Strongly glaciated and rugged mountain country penetrated by the two magnificent sea lochs of Loch Nevis and Loch Hourn. One of the most remote and inaccessible parts of the Highlands, and one of the wildest and most beautiful. Kyles of Bute Strathclyde 2 SSSIs 44 sq km Enclosed arms of the sea between steep, rocky, well-wooded hill slopes with the moorland of the island of Bute to the south. Kyle of Tongue Highland Region 6 SSSIs (1 NNR) The deeply indented sea loch of the Kyle of 185 sq km Tongue bordered with crofting settlements contrasts dramatically with Ben Hope (927 m) and Ben Loyal (764 m) rising from the moorland to the south. Loch Lomond Strathclyde/Central 18 SSSIs (1 NNR) The Loch lies across the Highland Boundary Fault. The north is narrow, fjord-like; the 274 sq km south, with its richly wooded islands, lies in more open landscape backed by the coniferous plantations of the Queen Elizabeth Forest Park and by shapely Ben Lomond (974 m). Loch na Keal, Isle of Mull Strathclyde 6 SSSIs A varied seascape studded with small 127 sq km islands, including Staffa with the famous columnar basalt of Fingal’s Cave; sea lochs bordered with wood, pasture and moorland. 35 Loch Rannoch and Glen Lyon Tayside/Central Region 484 sq km 9 SSSIs (1 NNR) The open landscape of Loch Rannoch with its pine and birch woods backed by the graceful cone of Schiehallion contrasts with the rich, grass-covered hills of the narrow winding Glenlyon. Ben Lawers is famous for its arctic-alpine plants. Loch Sheil Highland Region 1 SSSI 134 sq km A deep narrow fjord winding between the spurs of precipitous mountains. Glenfinnan has strong historical associations with the Jacobite uprising. Loch Tummel Tayside 7 SSSIs An intimate blend of loch, heather hills, birch and oak woods, with small farms and 92 sq km mature plantations of conifers. Famed for the Queen’s View. Lynn of Lorn Strathclyde 5 SSSIs 48 sq km Arms of the sea run betwen low, parallel ridges of limestone, with rich farmland, luxuriant oakwoods and the parkland of large houses. Morar, Moidart and Ardnamurchan Highland Region 159 sq km 6 SSSIs A gentle coastal landscape of great diversity and interest with the Small Isles in the background. Rocky and sandy bays with wooded slopes. Nith Estuary Dumfries and Galloway 1 SSSI (2 NNRs) An extensive horizontal landscape of sands, 93 sq km mudflats and saltings where the River Nith and Lochar Water flow into the Solway Firth, framed in cultivated and wooded lowlands. North Arran Strathclyde 6 SSSIs (1 NNR) The rugged granite peaks (Goat Fell, 874 m) 238 sq km and deep glens rise from cultivated raised beaches and the rich vegetation of the coast. A highland outlier in the gentle landscape bordering the Firth of Clyde. North West Sutherland Highland Region 4 SSSIs (1 NNR) Indented, rolling coastline and inland 205 sq km moorland of Lewisian gneiss from which rise the quartzite peaks of Ben Stack, Arkle and Foinaven (909 m). The island of Handa with bird colonies on sandstone cliffs. River Earn (Comrie — St Fillans) Tayside 1 SSSI 30 sq km Where lowland meets highland — a mosaic of farmland and rocky pasture in a setting of heather-covered hills. River Tay (Dunkeld) Tayside 5 SSSIs 56 sq km The broad strath of the Tay lies between the low hills on the line of the Highland Boundary Fault — a harmonious pattern of tich farmland, birch and oakwood, plantations of conifers, especially larch, and Dunkeld with its cathedral and ‘Little Houses’ of the 17th century. Gannets over Boreray, St Kilda NSA Duncan Poore St Kilda Western Isles 1 SSSI (NNR) Dramatic volcanic islands and isolated 9 sq km stacks with sheer cliffs (370 m) teeming with nesting gannets and other seabirds. The gentle slopes of the Village Bay with its deserted township add poignancy to the scene. Now a World Heritage Site. Scarba, Lunga and the Garvellachs Strathclyde 1 SSSI 19 sq km A varied group of islands of contrasting rocks and shapes — the Garvellachs, on which are the oldest ecclesiastical buildings in Scotland, set in a sea with fierce tide races. Shetland Shetland Islands 13 SSSIs (1 NNR) Four areas of coast and two offshore islands 156 sq km with magnificent coastal scenery of cliffs, stacks, skerries, geos and caves. Includes the most northern point in the British Isles. Important colonies of nesting seabirds 36 The Small Isles Highland Region 6 SSSIs (1 NNR) The islands of Rum, Eigg, Muck and Canna 155 sq km provide a perfect foil to one another and their characteristic shapes enrich the view from many places on the west coast — the mountainous Rum, low-lying Canna and Muck, and Eigg with its battleship shape dominated by the lava Sgurr. South Lewis, Harris and North Uist Western Isles 14 SSSIs 1,086 sq km Exposed mountain and moorland of the Outer Islands with crofting landscape, machair, wide sandy beaches and rocky headlands. South Uist Machair Western Isles 3 SSSIs 61 sq km Wide, soft landscape of sea, flower-rich machair, beaches of snowy shell sand, and shallow lochans. The Trossachs Central 2 SSSIs On a smaller scale than the Highlands, a 46 sq km magnificent blend of woodland, loch and mountain. A celebrated literary beauty spot associated with Scott and Ruskin. Trotternish (Isle of Skye) Highland Region 1 SSSI 50 sq km Spectacular scenery of columnar basalt cliffs and pinnacles offset by green meadows and lochans produced by massive landslips. Below lie crofting settlements and moorland. Upper Tweeddale Borders 1 SSSI A winding valley of farmland, pasture and 123 sq km varied woods with buildings of many periods, widening at intervals to give extensive views to the higher, rounded grassy hills beyond. Wester Ross Highland Region 17 SSSIs (3 NNRs) The most magnificent mountain 1,453 sq km landscape in the north of Scotland. Six great mountain groups of sandstone and quartzite strongly sculptured by glaciation and separated by coastal fjords and inland lochs. Caledonian pine forest and oak woods contrast with extensive moorland. OTHER PROTECTED LANDSCAPES AREAS OF OUTSTANDING NATURAL BEAUTY England and Wales Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (generally known as AONBs) contain the finest countryside in England and Wales outside the National Parks, and there is a national as well as a local interest in looking after these areas carefully. These areas are designated by the Countryside Commission or the Countryside Council for Wales and confirmed by the Secretary of State for the Environment or the Secretary of State for Wales. The Commission and the Council have the task of advising government, local authorities, conservation organisations, farmers and landowners, and all who are affected by the designation, on appropriate policies for them. There are now 39 AONBs, amounting to 20,439 sq km or 13.5 per cent of the total area of England and Wales. The latest to be confirmed, in June 1991, is the Blackdown Hills AONB. There was a major review of policies for AONBs by the Commission in the late 1970s, leading to a statement by the Secretary of State for the Environment on 29 July 1982, followed by an articulation of policy by the Commission in 1983. In 1989/90, during a period of rapid changes in the countryside, the Commission looked once again at how AONB policies have worked and whether they should be revised. The consultants who conducted this review found that there was concern about a number of matters: e damage to landscape, habitats and historical features as a result of agricultural development, afforestation, mineral workings, recreation, physical development and pollution; @ uncertainties caused by the growing pressure for recreation, in particular uncertainty about the appropriate level of provision for recreation in AONBs, conflict between quiet enjoyment and more intrusive forms of A Ife North Pennines \ Arnside & Silverdale p ~ \ humberland \ Coast fia Howardian ay Forest of Bowland | pte A» Norfolk Coast \ $ Sutfolk Coast & Heaths Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in England and Wales recreation, and congestion on narrow roads; @ economic and social questions such as the availability of affordable housing for local people and the reconciliation of the need for rural economic development with countryside conservation; e@ problems of loss of impetus due to shortage of resources and the number of organisations and agencies involved. Arising from their analysis, the Countryside Commission issued a policy statement, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty: A policy statement 1990. This was broadly endorsed by the Secretary of State for the Environment in a Statement on AONBs made to Parliament in January 1991. This has led to a re-articulation of policy jointly by the Countryside Commission and the Countryside Council for Wales in 1991. The policy in relation to designation has been reformulated as follows. e The primary purpose of designation is to conserve and enhance natural beauty*. e In pursuing the primary purpose of designation, account should be taken of the needs of agriculture, forestry, other rural industries and of the economic and social needs of local communities. Particular regard should be paid to promoting sustainable forms of social and economic development, which in themselves conserve and enhance the environment. e Recreation is not an objective of designation, but the demand for recreation should be met so far as this is consistent with the conservation of natural beauty and the needs of agriculture, forestry and other uses. The Commission has nearly completed its programme of designation. After the designation of the Nidderdale Moors, the Tamar and Tavy Valleys and the Berwyn Mountains (the last now a matter for the *Nature conservation is not a formal objective except in so far as it is included in the statutory definition of ‘natural beauty’. Nevertheless, the AONBs do contain a large proportion of land that is designated SSSI or is managed as nature reserve, both of which provide an additional safeguard to the quality of the landscape. 37 Countryside Council for Wales), the Commission sees no case for further designations. Moreover, the recent experience of boundary variations has proved so time-consuming that there are no plans for further comprehensive boundary reviews, although small changes may be considered if there is a need for them. Future priorities lie in: @ management, treating each AONB as far as possible as a single management unit, supported by a statement of intent and management plan; e the establishment of Joint Advisory Committees for each AONB, supported by a specialist AONB officer or, where necessary, an AONB unit; @ more stringent development control over major developments, especially of roads and mineral extraction; @ sensitive treatment of small developments and farm buildings; @ tourism not only consistent with AONB objectives but also designed to further them; @ environmental assessment of all proposals for major developments. The AONB designation and its purpose are still not well understood, so another priority is to raise awareness about the purpose of the designation and the importance of the countryside in AONBs, and to gain a commitment to them. Attention will be directed to local people, local authorities, government agencies and departments, and key decision makers. The Commission’s policies on development plans and development control are as follows. e Planning policies for AONBs should be set out in regional guidance, structure plans and local plans. e Development control policies for AONBs should promote the conservation of those features that contribute to their special character. e@ Major developments should be regarded as inconsistent with the aims of designation, except where it is proven that the development is in the national interest and no alternative site is available. e@ Schemes for major roads or motorways should avoid AONBs wherever possible. Where a new road or motorway is unavoidable, the route and its design should be chosen to minimise damage to the environment. e Applications for substantial mineral workings, or extensions to existing workings, in AONBs should be subject to the most rigorous examination to assess the need for the minerals and the environmental effects of the proposal. e Anenvironmental assessment should accompany all proposals for major development in AONBs. e@ Small-scale developments, where essential to meet local community needs and provided for in approved development plans, are normally acceptable in AONBs — such developments should be within, or immediately adjacent to, existing towns and villages, and should be in sympathy with the architecture and landscape character of the area. e Farm buildings should be sited, designed and landscaped with particular care. The Commission’s policies for management action address the positive actions that are needed: @ to encourage the adoption, throughout the countryside, of farming and forestry policies and practices that also serve environmental and access needs; e@ tocomplement such policies by management action promoted by local authorities, including countryside management services, provision for recreation, and schemes to improve the AONB environment; @ to encourage a variety of approaches to achieving an enhanced level of management on the ground, including approaches involving the voluntary sector, charitable trusts and local communities. The Commission and the Council consider that these policies provide a sound basis for the planning and management of AONBs. Nevertheless, in a wider policy framework set out in 1991 in Caring for the countryside, the Commission proposes a new Countryside Act, which would include a formal redefinition of the purposes, title and funding arrangement for AONBs with the intention of further strengthening their conservation and management. 38 Anglesey Designated 1966 Confirmed 1967 50 miles of Heritage Coast 221 sq km Almost all of the coastline of Ynys Mons (Isle of Anglesey) is in the AONB. The very ancient, rugged rocks give rise to dramatic scenery of great variety, with many habitats for rare plant species. Arnside and Silverdale Designated 1972 Confirmed 1972 Abuts the Lake District National Park A soft green and silver landscape of 75 sq km saltmarsh, low cliffs and reclaimed mosses rise to pastures and outcrops of small-scale limestone hills with superb views of the Lake District from Arnside Knott. Blackdown Hills Designated 1990 Confirmed 1991 Abuts East Devon AONB The Blackdown Hills are best known for the steep, wooded scarp face to the north. 370 sq km To the south, the land dips very gently as a plateau, deeply dissected by valleys and combes. The area has retained, to a surprising degree, a truly rural character. The windswept plateau and the Iron Age forts capping many hill tops contrast with villages, nestling in deep, wooded valleys surrounded by an intricate pattern of small enclosed fields and high-hedged lanes. Cannock Chase Designated 1958 Confirmed 1958 This, the smallest inland AONB, is still a wild place with deer, rare butterflies, open 68 sq km heath and oakwoods within an easy day’s journey of 3 million people. It requires exceptional local effort to maintain. Chichester Harbour Designated 1963 Confirmed 1964 This is one of the last wild coasts of 74 sq km southern England where farmland leads down to saltmarsh and mudflats. The estuary, a wetland of international status, is thronged with wading birds and watertowl. Chilterns Designated 1964 Confirmed 1965 Variation confirmed 1990 833 sqkm In the southern part, the steep chalk scarp overlooks the vale of Aylesbury and is characterised by the famous beech woods with their carpets of bluebells in spring. Further north it gives way to rolling downland. The gentle dip slope dissected by steep, dry valleys curves down into the London basin. Clwydian Range Designated 1984 Confirmed 1985 A spectacular 20-mile ridge standing out 157 sqkm above the valley of the Dee and the fertile vale of Clwyd. Its open heather tops and limestone crags contrast with the green pastures below. Cornwall Designated 1959 Confirmed 1959 Camel Estuary Extension confirmed 1983 958 sq km 10 stretches of Cornwall's Heritage Coast (253 km) Abuts North Devon AONB This is a fragmented AONB containing some of Britain’s finest coastal scenery, including Land’s End and the Lizard. Extensive rolling dunes, and spectacular cliffs on the north coast, contrast with tiny coves, picturesque fishing villages and the oak-fringed stretches of the Fal and Helford rivers of the south. Inland it also includes the high moorland of Bodmin Moor. Cotswolds Designated 1966 Confirmed 1966 Variation confirmed 1990 The Cotswold hills rise gently west from the 2,038 sq km broad, green meadows of the upper Thames to crest a dramatic escarpment overlooking the Severn and Evesham vales. The Jurassic limestone gives the hills and valleys their character and the villages their warm honey-coloured stone. Cranborne Chase and West Wiltshire Downs Designated 1981 Confirmed 1983 Abuts Dorset AONB Sandstone hills give way to smooth, rolling 983 sq km downland, steep, wooded scarps and the wide, open landscapes of the chalk countryside. An AONB noted for archaeological interest and the presence of many natural sites containing rarities. Dedham Vale Designated 1970 Confirmed 1970 Extensions confirmed 1978 and 1991 This is an exceptional example of a lowland 90 sq km river valley. Undulating slopes fall gently to the slow-moving River Stour and its hedged watermeadows, copses and river- bank willows; the epitome of the farmed English countryside and famed as Constable country. Dorset Designated 1957 Confirmed 1959 Abuts Cranborne Chase and West Wiltshire Downs AONB and East Devon AONB 50 km of Purbeck Heritage Coast and 41 km of West Dorset Heritage Coast. Covering almost 40 per cent of the county 1,129 sq km of Dorset, the AONB stretches along one of Britain’s finest coastlines, with the great pebble spit of Chesil Beach and the gem of Lulworth Cove among its treasures. Inland the heaths, chalk downs, pastoral vales and deep country lanes are still reminiscent of Hardy's Wessex. East Devon Designated 1963 Confirmed 1963 Abuts Dorset and Blackdown Hills AONBs 27 km of East Devon Heritage Coast 268 sq km Devon red sandstone meets the sea in a coastline of sheer, high cliffs, steep, wooded combes and coves, its line startlingly broken by the white chalk of Beer Head. Inland the landscape rises to high, flat and surprisingly remote plateaux, often topped by heathland commons. East Hampshire Designated 1961 Confirmed 1962 Abuts Sussex Downs AONB Open, rolling down, superb ‘hanger’ 383 sq km woodlands, deep, flowery lanes and colour-washed half-timbered villages typify this rich, farming country. Forest of Bowland Designated 1963 Confirmed 1964 Abuts Yorkshire Dales National Park A landscape of grandeur and isolation 802 sq km dramatically dominated by gritstone fells and vast tracts of moorland. Deeply cutting, upland streams flow to the broad valleys of the Ribble and Lune, with their well-wooded landscapes dotted with stone- built farms and villages. 39 Gower Designated 1956 Confirmed 1956 59 miles of Heritage Coast. 188 sq km A peninsula with a classic coastline, now Heritage Coast, surrounding en area of traditional farming with many varied and unusually rich, natural habitats. High Weald Designated 1980 Confirmed 1983 The underlying sandstones and clays give 1,460 sq km rise to a rolling landscape patterned with small fields and hedges among many woods — remnants of the ancient Wealden forest. Brick, tile and weatherboard houses, and the many cones of oasts, give the area a unique flavour. Howardian Hills Designated 1986 Confirmed 1987 Undulating wooded hills rising gently 204 sq km between the flat, agricultural plains of the vales of York and Pickering. The attractive red-pantiled limestone village houses and the wealth of landscaped parks around great country mansions give the AONB its special character. Isle of Wight Designated 1963 Confirmed 1963 45 km Heritage Coast 189 sq km More than one-half of this holiday island is designated as an AONB. Its core of chalk downland ridges end in the gleaming white stacks of the Needles. The unstable southern cliffs, cut by deep wooded chines, are of great scientific interest. Isles of Scilly Designated 1975 Confirmed 1976 64 km of Heritage Coast A scattering of tiny granite islands 28 miles off Lands End, this, the smallest AONB, has a range of coastal habitats from white 16 sq km sand beaches to rugged cliffs. Sub-tropical vegetation thrives in the mild climate and the islands are an important landfall for migrating birds. Kent Downs Designated 1967 Confirmed 1968 14 km of Dover/Folkestone/South Foreland Heritage Coast The AONB follows the North Downs from the Surrey border to the sea, ending in the White Cliffs of Dover. Inland, it is a prosperous landscape with historical 878 sq km villages, gracious parklands and great houses. Famous bluebell woods clothe the steep scarp, and protected areas in the downland are the last sites of many rare orchids. Lincolnshire Wolds Designated 1973 Confirmed 1973 A gentle landscape of rolling chalk hills 558 sq km and huge skies that is sparsely inhabited and little known, although it was the inspiration for the poet Tennyson. The traditional sheep have been replaced in many areas by arable farming but the unchanged areas are actively conserved. Lleyn Designated 1956 Confirmed 1957 90 km of Lleyn Heritage Coast. 161 sq km Nowhere is far from the sea on the long, low peninsula of Lleyn — famous for the unspoilt beauty of its coastline. From the foot of Yr Eifl’s abrupt volcanic peaks a countryside of neat-hedged fields, narrow lanes and whitewashed farms sweeps westwards. Malvern Hills Designated 1959 Confirmed 1959 The special quality of the Malverns lies in 105 sq km contrasts: the north-south ridge, mountains in miniature, rising from the pastoral farmland of the Severn Vale; the farmed, lived-in landscape and the open-grazing commons; the distant views of the flat-topped Cotswolds to the east and the wild mountains of Wales to the west. Mendip Hills Designated 1972 Confirmed 1972 Variation confirmed 1989 198 sq km The imposing ramparts of Mendip rise steeply from the Somerset Levels. The only area of Carboniferous limestone in the south gives a dramatic landscape of gorges, caves, rocky outcrops and thickly wooded slopes, and a high plateau with a network of dry-stone walls, pock-marked from early lead mining, with many archaeological sites. Norfolk Coast Designated 1967 Confirmed 1968 64 km of North Norfolk Heritage Coast Abuts The Broads The remotest and wildest of Norfolk’s 451 sq km marsh coastlands with flowing dunes, sand flats and a shining maze of inter-tidal creeks, saltmarsh and lagoon. It is outstanding for wildlife and contains several major nature reserves. North Devon Designated 1959 Confirmed 1960 Abuts Exmoor National Park and Cornwall AONB. Coincides with Hartland (Devon) Heritage 171 sq km Coast (37 km) and a short section of the Exmoor Heritage Coast (3 km). This is essentially a coastal AONB containing some of the finest cliff scenery in Britain. The landscape at Hartland Point, sheer crags and razor sharp reefs pounded by the full force of the Atlantic gales, is perhaps the finest, and is a marked contrast to the sand dunes at Braunton Burrows in the Taw-Torridge estuary. North Pennines Designated 1978 Confirmed 1988 Abuts northern boundary of Yorkshire Dales National Park The 300-800 m upland massif at the northern end of the Pennine chain is a 1,983 sq km wild landscape of heather moor and blanket peat, a marked contrast to the green dales with their neat, walled pastures, slate-roofed villages and white-painted farms. The National Nature Reserve in Upper Teesdale, with its rich assemblage of arcticalpine flora, is one of the many areas that are important for wildlife. Northumberland Coast Designated 1958 Confirmed 1958 Coincides with the North Northumberland Heritage Coast (96 km) A length of lonely, low-lying coast where 135 sq km soft sandstone and limestone rocks dip gently to the sea, dramatically interrupted where the Whin sill reaches the coast. Here are the ancient strongholds of Bamburgh, Dunstanburgh and Warkworth castles. Offshore, Lindisfarne and the rocky Farnes add their special qualities of religion and natural history. North Wessex Downs Designated 1971 Confirmed 1972 Abuts the Chilterns AONB along the Thames The great whalebacks of chalk downland, although much is now arable, have a 1,730 sq km particular feeling of remoteness. The northern crest with the turf-cut horse and the ancient Ridgeway dominate the highly cultivated Vale of the White Horse. To the south the more gentle slopes fall to the meadows and orchards of the Vale of Pewsey and the forests of Savernake. Quantock Hills Designated 1956 Confirmed 1957 A narrow, gently curving 12-mile ridge, the Quantock Hills lie between the Bristol 99 sq km Channel and the Vale of Taunton Deane. The magnificent views from the heathery ridge give a surprising air of remoteness in contrast to the enclosed woodlands of the steep valleys. Shropshire Hills Designated 1958 Confirmed 1959 A rich green country of looming ridges and 804 sq km lush vales with several distinctive upland areas, each different depending on the geology. They include the steep-sided rift valley of Church Stretton and the pre-Cambrian moorland of the Long Mynd; the volcanic peak of the Wrekin; the Clee Hills, sandstone with a basalt cap; and the limestone outcrop of Wenlock Edge. Solway Coast Designated 1964 Confirmed 1964 The AONB stretches along the Cumbrian shore of the Solway Firth with extensive views of the Galloway Hills, The 7.5-metre continuous raised beach is the 115 sq km most characteristic feature. Low tides expose wide stretches of sand, intertidal mudflats, saltmarsh and, upstream, peat mosses. It is a very important area for overwintering wildfowl. South Devon Designated 1959 Confirmed 1960 75 km of South Devon Heritage Coast 337 sqkm Stretching from Torbay to Plymouth, the AONB is very varied: secluded coves, jagged cliffs at Bolt Head, golden sands at Slapton and the tree-shaded serenity of the Dart and Kingsbridge estuaries — fine examples of drowned valleys or rias. South Hampshire Coast Designated 1967 Confirmed 1967 Coincides in part with the New Forest 77 sq km An area with a special sense of remoteness along the broad waters of the Beaulieu and Lymington estuaries, providing a haven for wildlife in various nature reserves in the coastal woodlands and lonely expanses of saltmarsh, tidal flats and shingle. Inland, broadleaved woodlands, grazed meadows, pines and sandy heaths form the natural fringe to the New Forest. Northern Ireland The Environment Service of the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland is the government body that has been given authority to protect the best natural, unspoilt and scenic areas of Northern Ireland. Its aim is to maintain and enhance the quality of the countryside and to enable enjoyment and pleasure for present and future generations. It also has a responsibility to conserve plant and animal communities and a range of protected sites representative of natural conditions and features found in Northern Ireland (a responsibility carried in England, Wales and Scotland by the successors of the Nature Conservancy Council). The Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) is, at present, the only category of protected landscape that is used in Northern Ireland. Although there is power to designate National Parks under both the 1965 Act and 1985 Order, the Department of the Environment considers that, in the present Northern Ireland context, it is better to conserve landscape and natural beauty through the Suffolk Coasts and Heaths Designated 1969 403 sq km Confirmed 1970 Coincides with the Suffolk Heritage Coast (57 km) This AONB protects the last remnants of the once extensive coastal heathlands and the low but wild coastline of crumbling cliffs and tidal spits. Inland the traditional gentle agricultural landscape remains with flower-fringed lanes and colour-washed village houses. It is a very valuable wildlife area, including the famous RSPB Minsmere reserve. Surrey Hills Designated 1956 Confirmed 1958 Abuts Kent Downs and Sussex Downs AONBs The AONB spans Surrey from west to 419 sq km east; from the sandy open heathland around Frensham, through the beech woods of the chalk scarp overlooking the Weald and the wooded undulating Greensand ridge rising to Leith Hill (290 m), to the North Downs to the south-east of London. It is a very popular area for Londoners and is under great pressure from developers and visitors. Ss ! NORTHERN IRELAND Wary REPUBLIC OF IRELAND Sussex Downs Designated 1965 Confirmed 1966 Coincides with Sussex Heritage Coast (13 km) Abuts East Hampshire and Surrey Hills AONBs The landscape is dominated by the 983 sq km prominent north-facing downland scarp that runs almost continuously from Eastbourne to Hampshire. The Downs meet the sea in the fine cliffs of Beachy Head and the Seven Sisters. Inland the AONB protects the wooded and richly farmed landscapes at the foot of the Downs and into the Weald. Wye Valley Designated 1971 Confirmed 1971 The Wye Valley, winding down from 326 sq km Hereford to Chepstow, is one of the most beautiful lowland landscapes. In the north the river meanders through broad meadows with fine hedgerows and scattered woods. Where it reaches the limestone, downstream of Ross-on-Wye, it cuts deeply into the plateau to form sheer, wooded limestone cliffs with superb views to the valley floor. \ Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Northern Ireland development and management of AONBs. It does not, for the foreseeable future, intend to designate any National Parks. Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty are designated under Article 14 of the Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (Northern Ireland) Order 1985. Under 4l this legislation the Department may formulate proposals in relation to any AONB for: @ conserving or enhancing the natural beauty or amenities of the area; e conserving wildlife, historic objects or natural phenomena within it; @ promoting its enjoyment by the public; e providing and maintaining public access CO It. The Department is advised by the Council for Nature Conservation and the Countryside on matters to do with the countryside and nature conservation. The Environment Service coordinates policies and management for the AONBs through liaison with other parts of central or local government. Town and country planning powers are administered by the Planning Service of the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland; agricultural, forestry and drainage powers by the Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland; and recreation and access by the local authorities. Some AONBs fall within the areas of a number of local authorities. Following the 1985 Order, the areas of AONB designation under the old Amenity Lands Act 1965 are being reviewed. The review is based upon a change in emphasis away from development control to a broader conservation objective, achieved through evolving and implementing policies relating to the protection of the prized countryside contained in the AONB. Land use, of which agriculture is a key part, is given its due importance, along with planning and consideration of scenery. Nature conservation and heritage features are all part of this integrated appraisal of the countryside. Four AONBs have been designated so far under the new legislation. There are proposals for additional AONBs in Fermanagh, as well as the other five still to be reviewed. Antrim Coast and Glens Designated 1988 706 sq km The famous glens of Antrim cut into the edge of a high, rolling basalt plateau in the north-east corner of Ireland. The plateau is a wind-swept moorland interrupted by recent afforestation; the plateau edge and steep glen sides are often wooded, and the valley bottoms and coast contain a concentration of farms, small villages and harbours. Wide, sandy bays separate majestic headlands of basalt. Basalt columns, Giant's Causeway, Causeway Coast AONB Duncan Poore 42 Causeway Coast Designated 1989 40.5 sq km This strip of north coast is mainly cliff-edged and rock-bound with contrasting strata of basalt and chalk. Above the cliffs the intensively farmed, exposed landscape retains the original clachan settlement pattern and associated field systems. Small harbours and salmon fisheries are sited precariously on the rocky coastline, but where the rock defences have been breached there are long, sandy strands backed by dunes. This is a World Heritage listed site. Lagan Valley Designated 1965 The Lagan Valley is an attractive 20 sq km well-wooded drumlin landscape in the green belt between Belfast and Lisburn. At its heart is the Lagan Valley Regional Park, with a concentration of recreation facilities. Lecale Coast Designated 1967 30 sq km A varied coastal area between Strangford Lough and Mourne AONBs. The coast, which is mostly low-lying, has a number of small rocky bays and sandy beaches. Mourne Designated 1987 570 sq km The Mountains of Mourne are a tight cluster of heather-covered granite peaks rising to over 700 m. Their deep, glaciated valleys open out in the south onto a broad coastal plain with a unique, stone-walled farm landscape. The coast varies from cliffs of boulder clay to fine sandy beaches and enclosed sea loughs with extensive mudflats. Being within an hour's drive of Belfast, the mountains are popular for hill walking, and the coastline includes the popular seaside resorts of Newcastle and Rostrevor. North Derry Designated 1966 130 sq km The dramatic basalt escarpment of Binevanagh dominates the coastline of County Londonderry. Its lower, landslipped slopes run into the accreted shoreline of Magilligan Point with its eight-kilometre strand. The rounded summits of the basalt hills to the south are forested. Ring of Gullion Designated 1991 About 100 sq km The distinctive landscape of this compact area reflects its volcanic origins. A circle of rugged hills, seven miles in diameter, encloses a sheltered basin in the centre of which sits the massive, heather-clad mountain of Slieve Gullion. The neat, rectangular fields and well-preserved traditional farmhouses contrast with the rough and rocky hills. HERITAGE COASTS England and Wales One of the main recommendations springing from the study of coastal preservation and development begun by the then National Parks Commission in 1966, which culminated in 1970 in the publication by the Countryside Commission of The coastal heritage: The planning of the coastline, was the proposal that selected stretches of undeveloped coastline should be given a special protective designation as ‘Heritage Coasts’. The Government response to this recommendation was set out in a joint Department of the Environment/Welsh Office Circular The planning of the undeveloped coast, issued in 1972. This welcomed the concept and recommended local authorities to define Heritage Coasts in their development plans, and to prepare management plans for them in consultation with the Commission. However, it was decided not to adopt any new statutory designation. Much has been achieved since 1972. Forty-four separate Heritage Coasts, representing the finest coastal scenery, have been defined stretching along 1,493 km of coast — just over one-third of the total coastline of England and Wales. They stretch, on average, 2—3 km inland. They are not only the finest coastal landscapes but also contain about one-half of the coastal Sites of Special Scientific Interest, and their popularity as places for people to enjoy for sport, informal recreation and holidays is undisputed. Most Heritage Coasts coincide with the coastal frontages of established National Parks and AONBs; and one-third of the heritage coastline is in the ownership of the National Trust. The purpose of Heritage Coast Sperrin Designated 1968 1,010 sq km The Sperrin Hills to the west of Lough Neagh are characterised by rounded, peat-covered hill summits, with steep-sided glens running into wider valleys. The river landscapes of the Glenelly, Owenkillew and Owenreagh valleys are particularly attractive. The lower slopes are divided into linear fields, known as ladder farms. Heritage Coasts in England and Wales definition is not simply to identify them for protection purposes but also to focus attention on the management needs of these fine coasts, where the interests of landscape and nature conservation, sport, recreation and tourism, and the issues of pollution and water quality are interlocking and distinctive. Indeed, litter, marine pollution and water quality are decisive factors for the environmental health of Heritage Coasts as experienced by those who live on them and visit them. There have been many successes in the last 20 years, through the setting up of 43 Strangford Lough Designated 1972 190 sq km In the east of County Down, rising sea levels have submerged low-lying drumlin topography, creating a fascinating landscape of numerous small. round islands and intervening seawater bays and channels. A number of large, wooded estates are sited on the shoreline. The varied marine habitats are of international importance for wildlife. The lough is popular for water-related recreation. Completely defined Samm Laterally defined Proposed aa management services by local authorities to carry out practical action; through the incorporation of Heritage Coasts in development plans; through the work of the National Trust and Enterprise Neptune; and through the establishment of the Heritage Coast Forum. But much remains to be done, and new issues have arisen, particularly those of the health of the inter-tidal zone and coastal waters. Consequently, the Countryside Commission, in its role as adviser to the government, has recently reviewed policies and priorities for Heritage Coasts and has made a number of recommendations about objectives, the status of the ‘Heritage Coast’ definition, the control of development, coastal management and many other matters. The Commission has recommended a redefinition of objectives as follows. The finest stretches of coast justify national recognition as Heritage Coasts — they should be given effective protection and management; stronger measures should apply there than elsewhere. The main objectives for Heritage Coasts should be: @ toconserve, protect and enhance the natural beauty of the coasts, including their terrestrial, littoral and marine flora and fauna, and their heritage features of architectural, historical and archaeological interest; e to facilitate and enhance their enjoyment, understanding and appreciation by the public by improving and extending opportunities for recreational, educational, sporting and tourist activities that draw on, and are consistent with, the conservation of their natural beauty and the protection of their heritage features; @ to maintain and improve (where necessary) the environmental health of inshore waters affecting Heritage Coasts and their beaches, through appropriate works and management measures; e@ to take account of the needs of agriculture, forestry and fishing, and of the economic and social needs of the small communities on these coasts, through promoting sustainable forms of social and economic development, which in themselves conserve and enhance natural beauty and heritage features. The Countryside Commission no longer wishes to press the case for a statutory designation but, instead, urges the government to give recognition to the national importance of Heritage Coasts and to include reference to these in its Planning Policy Guidance Notes in similar terms to National Parks and AONBSs. The Commission also urges that policies for the control of development within Heritage Coasts should be incorporated at all levels of local government planning, and that developments affecting inshore waters should be subject to rigorous control by the relevant departments and agencies. There should be an environmental assessment of all major developments. Many Heritage Coasts now have management plans and staff including ranger services; all should do so by the year 2000. Success in this field requires the cooperation of a large number of authorities and organisations — for those responsible for the land are usually different from those dealing with coastal waters. It is hoped that this statement of policies and priorities will be incorporated into government policies and guide the actions of the many bodies concerned. Arch Rock, Freshwater Bay, Tennyson HC Mike Williams/CC Status of Heritage Coasts in England and Wales Name Date defined Lengthinkm Completely defined East Devon June 1984 21 Exmoor April 1991 45 Flamborough Headland August 1989 19 Glamorgan July 1989 26 Godrevy-Portreath August 1986 9 Great Orme July 1989 1 Gribbin Head-Polperro August 1986 24 Hamstead December 1988 I Hartland (Cornwall) April 1986 I Hartland (Devon) February 1990 37 Isles of Scilly December 1974 64 The Lizard April 1986 | Lundy February 1990 \4 North Norfolk April 1975 64 North Yorkshire and Cleveland May 1981 57 Pentire Point-Widemouth August 1986 52 Penwith August 1986 54 Purbeck June 1981 50 Rame Head April 1986 8 The Roseland April 1986 53 South Devon December 1986 15 Spurn October 1988 18 St Agnes April 1986 ii} Suffolk September 1979 57 Sussex April 1973 B Tennyson December 1988 34 Trevose Head April 1986 4 West Dorset February 1984 4\ Laterally defined Aberffraw Bay July 1973 8 Ceredigion Coast December 1982 34 Dinas Head July 1974 15 Dover-Folkestone November 1975 u Gower June 1973 59 Holyhead Mountain July 1973 N Lleyn March 1974 90 Marloes and Dale July 1974 46 North Anglesey July 1973 30 North Northumberland February 1973 %6 South Foreland November 1975 i South Pembrokeshire July 1974 62 St Bees Head February 1989 6 St Brides Bay July 1974 1 St David's Peninsula July 1974 83 St Dogmaels and Moylgrove July 1974 9 Proposed North Devon ———— Aberffraw Bay Sand dune beach and rocky headland. Ceredigion Coast High cliffs north of Aberystwyth with a sand and shingle shore. Three stretches of cliffed coast south of Aberystwyth and Cardigan. Dinas Head Cliffed headland. Dover—Folkestone High, vertical chalk cliffs. East Devon Varied red sandstone cliffs to west; chalk-capped cliffs to east. Extensive landslips between Axmouth and Lyme Regis. Exmoor Seaward edge of Exmoor National Park. High ‘hog’s back’ cliffs cut by several deep, stream valleys. Flamborough Headland Prominent chalk headland covered by boulder clay. Internationally important colonies of seabirds, including the only mainland gannet colony. Glamorgan Sand dunes, unstable limestone/shale cliffs with wide, sand beaches in the west. Godrevy—Portreath Cliffed headland. Gower Limestone cliff coastline with sand dunes. Wetland and marsh in Burry Estuary. Great Orme Limestone headland, high cliffs and some caves. Rich plant, insect and bird life. Gribbin Head-Polperro Cliffs, coves and sandy beaches. Hamstead Drowned estuary of Newtown River is a main feature. Saltmarsh, mudflats, low clay/limestone cliffs. Hartland (Cornwall) High, flat-topped sandstone cliffs, offshore reefs, hanging valleys and coastal waterfalls. Hartland (Devon) High, flat-topped sandstone cliffs, offshore reefs, hanging valleys and coastal waterfalls. Holyhead Mountain High sheer cliffs and stacks, South Stack lighthouse. Isles of Scilly Group of about 140 islands and skerries. Low, rocky, granite cliffs and white, sandy beaches. The Lizard Imposing rugged cliffs, coves, stacks and islets, Unusual rocks. Lleyn Isolated north coast: low cliffs with prominent headland of Yr Eifli, cliff height generally increases westwards. South coast: wide, sandy bays and rocky headlands. Includes Bardsey Island (Ynys Enlli). Lundy Granite island off north coast of Devon. Rugged cliffs. Seabird colonies and archaeological interest. Marloes and Dale Mostly sandstone cliffs to south of St Brides Bay. Includes Skomer and Skokholm islands. North Anglesey Cliffs and pebbled coves. North Norfolk Marsh land coast. Sand flats, shingle beaches, saltmarsh and sand dunes. Famous terneries. North Northumberland Varied coastline of cliffs, rocky headlands, mudflats, sand dunes and wide bays with sand beaches. Includes Lindisfarne and the Farne Islands. North Yorkshire and Cleveland Seaward edge of North York Moors National Park. High cliffs with landslips and undercliffs. Three large bays with many smaller ‘wykes’. Pentire Point-Widemouth Indented and undulating coastline. Rugged cliffs with inlets and coves. Penwith Rugged, granite cliffs, including Land’s End. Purbeck Varied, sandy beach and sand dune complex north of Swanage. Chalk, limestone and clay cliffs to south. 45 Rame Head Cliffed headland. The Roseland Cliffed coast with two prominent headlands. South Devon Cliff-dominated coastline cut by five estuaries. Three extensive beaches and other smaller ones. South Foreland High, vertical chalk cliffs. South Pembrokeshire Limestone and sandstone cliffs. Sand dunes at Freshwater West Bay. Spurn Large sand/shingle spit. Mudflats, sand dunes. High interest for birds, plants, insects and land forms. St Agnes Cliffed headland. St Bees Head Red sandstone headland with sheer, fissured cliffs. Seabird colony. St Brides Bay Steep cliffs and stacks. Large, sandy beach at Newgale. St David’s Peninsula Long stretch of cliffed coast. Includes Strumble Head, St David’s Head and Ramsey Island. St Dogmaels and Moylgrove Cliffed coast. Suffolk Estuaries, tidal marshes, low cliffs and shingle beaches. Sussex High, chalk cliffs. Tennyson High, chalk cliffs, landslips and undercliffs. Downland and heathland. Trevose Head Two-kilometre long rocky promontory with distinctive lighthouse. West Dorset Varied. High unstable clay/sand cliffs in west and lower sandstone cliffs in centre. Extensive pebble bank of Chesil Beach in east. ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS In recent years much of the harm done to the natural beauty of the countryside has been caused by changes in the practices and structure of agriculture and forestry. These effects could only be mitigated in National Parks and, for nature conservation, in SSSls. Until 1985 there seemed to be no possibility that the money available for national agricultural support could be used to encourage less intensive and more environmentally sensitive methods of farming. The scheme for Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) had its origins in the United Kingdom — because of the continuing pressure to plough grazing marshes in the Broads for the production of arable crops, and comparable pressures for intensification in other environmentally important areas. It was the influence of the United Kingdom that led to significant changes in the European Community, with the promulgation on 12 March 1985 of Article 19 of Council Regulation (EEC) The Machair Lands) of the Uists & bebe fi Whitlaw /, Eildon’ Stewartry Y a 2 IRELAND w Se Pennine Dales fi i Mourn g io a Mountains & Sleive au ReRCee Ic \ Cy IRELAND = Shropshire Breckland, Borders no. 797/85 on improving the efficiency of 3 pe agricultural structures. (See below). ENGLAND This Article was implemented in the United Kingdom by Section 18 of the Agriculture Act 1986, which empowered Ministers to designate ESAs. The detailed criteria set by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) and the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland (DAFS) were that the ESAs should be areas: e of national environmental significance; e whose conservation depends on the adoption, maintenance or extension of a particular form of farming practice; e in which there have occurred, or there is a likelihood of, changes in farming practices that pose a major threat to the environment; e that represent a discrete and coherent unit of environmental interest; and which would permit the economical administration of appropriate conservation aids. \ yp River Vv’ Valleys Test Valley = Somerset Lovet & Moors Environmentally Sensitive Areas Article 19 Council Regulation (EEC) no. 797/85 1. In order to contribute towards the introduction or continued use of agricultural production practices compatible with the requirements of conserving the natural habitat and ensuring an adequate income for farmers, Member States are authorised to introduce special national schemes in environmentally sensitive areas. 2. For the purpose of this article, ‘environmentally sensitive areas’ means in particular areas of recognised importance from an ecological and landscape point of view. 3. The aid may be granted to farmers who undertake to farm environmentally important areas so as to preserve or improve their environment. The farmer’s undertaking must stipulate at least that there will no further intensification of agricultural production and that the stock density and the level of intensity of agricultural production will be compatible with the specific environmental needs of the area concerned. 4. Member States shall forward to the Commission all such prospective schemes, together with a list of areas qualifying for aid under those schemes. 46 From lists of possible candidate sites prepared by the Countryside Commissions, the Nature Conservancy Council, English Heritage, Cadw, and the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland, ten designations have been made (to date) in England, five in Scotland, two in Wales and two in Northern Ireland. Under this imaginative scheme, farmers in the ESAs are encouraged to volunteer to adopt or continue farming practices that will safeguard the characteristic landscape, wildlife and archaeological features of each area. They are offered a five-vear agreement that awards them an annual payment in return for following a prescribed set of farming practices, which includes both restrictions (eg drainage works, use of fertiliser and levels of grazing) and positive works (eg maintenance of hedges, barns and ponds). The practices and rates of payment are standard within areas but differ between one ESA and another. The agreement depends upon the completion of a plan identifying the features of the farm to which the prescribed practices will apply. The Agriculture Departments, as required by the Act, have recently conducted reviews of the effects of designation and are establishing schemes for the monitoring of these effects. In Wales, for example, the monitoring will comprise: @ acomprehensive land-cover survey of each ESA, including, where appropriate, linear features such as field boundaries; e@ a landscape assessment of each ESA; e@ aselective biological monitoring of key habitats; @ asurvey of the principal features of historical interest. Details of these features will be collected at the time of designation for comparison with the situation three or four years later. Summarising the problems of the ESAs, it is evident that they are related to all aspects of intensified land use — ploughing of pastures and heathlands, more intensive use of grasslands and haymeadows, drainage, enlargement of fields and elimination or neglect of traditional field boundaries, dense commercial afforestation, failure to replace isolated trees or groups of trees, and increased use of pesticides and herbicides. All of these are driven by the prevailing economics of land use. In response, there are now indications that the Government is considering the designation of further ESAs. As a result, the countryside agencies have been asked to re-examine the criteria for selection, and have proposed a new set of criteria, based on the original, but refined and elaborated in the light of experience. On 20 November 1991, Agriculture Minister Mr John Gummer announced a proposal to increase greatly the number of ESAs. Twelve new areas will be added in England and two in Wales; two more are proposed for Northern Ireland and there will also be an increase in Scotland. These proposals will treble the area within ESAs in England and expenditure on ESAs in the United Kingdom will rise from £13 million in 1990 to nearly £65 million in 1994. In 1992 the following ESAs will be established in England: Avon Valley (Hampshire), Exmoor, Lake District, North Dorset/South Wiltshire Downs, North West Kent Coast, and South Western Peak. The following will be established in England in 1993: Blackdown Hills (Devon/Somerset border), Cotswold Hills, Dartmoor, Essex Coast, Shropshire Hills and Upper Thames Tributaries. The two new areas proposed for Wales will be selected from Anglesey, the Clwydian Hills, Radnore and Preseli. In Northern Ireland, areas have been proposed in Fermanagh and in County Antrim (including Rathlin Island). The Countryside Commision for Scotland and the Nature Conservancy Council for Scotland are jointly discussing with the Scottish Office details of future new ESAs in Scotland, of which there may be up to five. Information about the new ESAs arrived too late for full details to be included in this publication. England Breckland Designated 1988 940 sq km Characteristics: This is an undulating landscape of glacial sands overlying chalk. Most of the forest was cleared and the land densely settled in prehistoric times. Now it is a landscape of dry heaths, which were maintained in the past by sheep and rabbits; large arable fields; small meres; 47 and lines of pines planted to reduce wind erosion. Light soils and a semi-continental climate have produced a very distinctive flora and fauna. The area is also rich in prehistoric and medieval remains. Need for designation: Intensification and extension of arable farming is changing the landscape; there is a deterioration of heaths and grasslands through lack of grazing; and the area is experiencing a fall in water tables. Objectives of management: To maintain heathland by suitable grazing, encourage the development of marginal arable land to heath, maintain or increase grasslands in river valleys, encourage annual and biennial plants in the margins of arable fields, and protect archaeological and historical features. The Broads Designated 1987 299 sq km This area largely coincides with that under the jurisdiction of the Broads Authority. The new measures are effectively a continuation and expansion of the Broads Grazing Marshes Scheme instituted by the Countryside Commission. Characteristics: The area has open water, reed-beds, fen and fen woodland, meadows and grazing marshes. The open-water Broads are the result of medieval peat diggings. It is rich in wildlife everywhere, especially in the fen, open water and ditches; unimproved haymeadows and grazing marshes. The farming carried out is arable, livestock or mixed. Need for designation: Transformation of grazing marshes to arable or re-seeded pasture is changing the whole area; deepening or filling in of drainage dykes, reduced grazing stock and abandonment of grazings, lowered water tables and nitrogen run-off are all leading to problems. Objectives of management: To maintain the features of landscape, wildlife and archaeological interest by encouraging the continuance of traditional livestock farming where it still occurs and its expansion into some areas that are now managed more intensively. North Peak Designated 1988 502 sq km Characteristics: The area lies wholly within the Peak National Park. It comprises high, gritstone moorland dominated by the Kinder Scout and Bleaklow plateaux; valleys, some of which have been partially afforested or accommodate reservoirs; pasture divided by dry-stone walls with scattered farmsteads and hamlets; and widespread bog and moorland plant communities with populations of grouse, raptors and moorland waders. Need for designation: Deterioration of the moorland vegetation is occurring through changes in sheep grazing and failure to burn heather on a regular cycle; there is neglect of valley pastures; and increased pollution. Objectives of management: To maintain and improve the quality and extent of moorland vegetation by low-intensity sheep grazing, to maintain the character of the landscape round the hamlets and the associated broadleaved woodlands. Pennine Dales Designated 1987 160 sq km Characteristics: This area covers the upper parts of a number of dales, including parts of the Yorkshire Dales National Park and the North Pennines AONB - each a landscape of haymeadows, wet meadows, pasture and rough grazing, small woods, dry-stone walls and field barns. It has rich flora and wading birds on the wet pastures and fine archaeological landscapes. The farming is undertaken under adverse conditions and comprises hill sheep, store cattle and some dairying. Need for designation: The introduction of drainage, reseeding and fertilising crops is damaging the habitats. The abandonment of hay making, neglect of barns, walls and woods, and inappropriate new buildings all contribute to adverse landscape changes. Objectives of management: To maintain the small-scale landscape pattern and the richness in plants and animals of unimproved grasslands. Shropshire Borders Designated 1988 210 sq km Characteristics: The area is wholly within the South Shropshire AONB and comprises rolling hills of moorland with valleys of pastures and oak woods, crossed by Offa's Dyke. It is the haunt of otters, buzzard and snipe. Need for designation: The intensification of farming, both of cattle and sheep, is affecting hedgerows and woodland regeneration. Objectives of management: To encourage less intensive land management in order to preserve and enhance landscape patterns. Somerset Levels and Moors Designated 1987 270 sq km Characteristics: This is one of the two largest surviving areas of wetland in England. It is a wide alluvial basin of grassland crossed by rivers and ditches, with pollarded willows — an unspoiled wetland rich in plants, birds and insects. The peat contains prehistoric trackways and settlements of international importance. Farming in the area is mainly dairy farming with some beef and sheep. Need for designation: The introduction of drainage, ploughing for arable farming, and improvement of grassland is changing the wetland and grassland habitats. Objectives of management: To maintain and improve wetland areas for wildlife, by supporting livestock farming, and safeguard archaeological remains. South Downs Designated 1987-88 33 sq km Within Sussex Downs and East Hampshire AONBs. Characteristics: This is open, chalk downland with rich, grassland flora, insects and other invertebrates. It has many surviving field patterns and archaeological remains from the Neolithic period onwards. Need for designation: Ploughing or intensified management of grassland, the encroachment of scrub and spray damage are destroying the downland; the decay of buildings, walls and hedges is spoiling the landscape. Objectives of management: To maintain the quality of the turf by suitable grazing and scrub clearance, protect wet valley grasslands from further damage, encourage the re-conversion of arable to chalk grassland, and conserve traditional landscape and archaeological features. Suffolk River Valleys Designated 1988 321 sq km Characteristics: This comprises seven river valleys, partly within the Suffolk Coast and Heaths and Dedham Vale AONBs, characterised by grasslands, reed beds, ditches and hedgerows in sharp contrast to the arable farming in most of 48 the rest of Suffolk. Its wetlands and unimproved grasslands are complementary to the coast as a habitat for wading birds. Need for designation: Pressures to extend the area of arable farming have caused problems. Objectives of management: To protect the remaining grassland and to convert some arable back to grassland; to maintain ponds, ditches, reed beds, hedges and trees. Test Valley Designated 1988 269 sq km Characteristics: This is the finest example in England of a chalk stream flowing through downland country. It is a valley bottom of peat, silt and tufa, characterised by natural grassland, disused water meadows, and sedge and reed beds. It hosts plant communities of calcareous wetlands and grasslands, and its river is of high quality for game fish. Need for designation: Pressures for the extension of arable crops and increased use of fertiliser on grasslands are damaging the traditional pastures of wet river valleys. Objectives of management: To encourage traditional management of livestock and use of the river floodplain. West Penwith Designated 1987 72 sq km Characteristics: This lies wholly within the Cornwall AONB. It comprises a coastal strip of cliffs, heathland, farmland of small, walled or hedged fields with large, granite boulders, which is bordered inland by moorland. The coastal and inland heaths are both of great interest for wildlife. This is an area exceptionally rich in archaeological remains. The farms are small and are engaged in specialist dairying. Need for designation: Reclamation of scrub and moor; and the neglect or removal of walls, hedges, narrow lanes and old buildings, are taking their toll on this landscape. Objectives of management: To support small-scale dairying in order to preserve all of these characteristic features. RS eee a rll, Wye Valley from Pont Marteg, Cambrian Mountains ESA Colin Horsman/CC Wales Cambrian Mountains Designated 1987-88 1,530 sq km Characteristics: These are extensive, open hills of grassland and heath with enclosed farms and oakwoods in the valleys; and haymeadows rich in wildflowers. Many upland birds survive here, especially the red kite. There are extensive archaeological remains. Farming is mostly upland stock rearing for beef and sheep, except for one-quarter of the area, which is afforested. Need for designation: Intensification of farming or afforestation and overburning of moorland is destroying this habitat. Objectives of management: To encourage the continuation of low-intensity stock rearing and enhance the quality of broadleaved woodlands, and to safeguard archaeological monuments. Lleyn Peninsula Designated 1988 397 sq km Characteristics: This includes all of Lleyn AONB. It is a peninsula of small, family farms; heather-covered hills, and valleys with pattern of small fields and stone-faced boundary banks, and traces of open-field systems. It combines sub-montane and maritime elements and supports a population of choughs. Need for designation: Intensification of farming and afforestation threatens the area. Objectives of management: To encourage traditional land use, particularly the maintenance of moorland and haymeadows. Scotland Breadalbane Designated 1987 1,200 sq km Characteristics: An area of hills interspersed with lochs, straths and glens. Traditional farm steadings and field boundaries contribute to its scenic value. Semi-natural woodland of broadleaves and Scots pine are of especial scenic and wildlife importance. The arctic-alpine vegetation of the hills above Glen Lyon and Loch Tay are of special renown, and the hills provide ranges for birds including the golden eagle and merlin. There is considerable archaeological interest, including stone circles, burial mounds and crannogs. Need for designation: Increased grazing levels may damage rough grazings and herbicide use reduce floristic quality. Lime and fertilisers could seriously disturb floristic diversity. Grazing in woods inhibits regeneration. Objectives of management: To enhance semi-natural woodlands, prevent reduction of floristic diversity, protect ranges of rare moorland birds, prevent pollution of water bodies and maintain landscape features such as field boundaries. Loch Lomond Designated 1987 420 sq km Characteristics: The loch is the largest area of inland water in Britain — waterfalls, water meadows, wooded promontories, bracken and heather, deciduous and conifer woodland — all contribute to the area’s exceptional landscape value. Other features include 49 the uplands, which provide a good variety of habitats, notably scrub communities, muirs, heather, grasslands and extensive blanket bogs. There are also several features of archaeological interest, including a scatter of sites and monuments around the loch. Need for designation: Increased grazing intensities would disturb the environmental quality of the open, rough grazing. Afforestation may have landscape impact and threaten wildlife habitat. Native woodlands require protection from grazing. Water quality may deteriorate because of farm effluents. Objectives of management: To enhance the quality of the native woodlands, protect water quality, retain existing areas of heather, maintain the environmental quality of the rough grazings, and ensure that new farm buildings are appropriately designed and sited. The Machair Lands of the Uists and Benbecula Designated 1988 75 sq km Characteristics: The area includes the drier machair plain and some of the nearby wetland areas. It is considered to be of outstanding ornithological interest and is particularly important for the breeding of waders and corncrakes. The vegetation is rich in species that are relatively uncommon or are rare elsewhere in the British Isles, and the great masses of flowers throughout the late spring and summer on the sand dunes and in the pastures contribute to the scenic value of the area Need for designation: Over grazing and excessive use of herbicides, pesticides and fertiliser, the tendency to abandon traditional rotations of cultivation, and pollution of water courses are damaging the habitat. Earlier cutting for hay or silage is destroying birds’ nests. Damage by ploughing of features of historical interest and destruction of the dunes and other surfaces by vehicle tracks are all contributing to destroying the landscape. Objectives of management: To return to practices that will restore the traditional appearance and wildlife values of the area, particularly the wealth of wild flowers and nesting birds. Highland Cattle, Glen Lyon, Breadalbane ESA Duncan Poore Stewartry Designated 1988 420 sq km Characteristics: The landscape ranges from sandy bays, rocky caves and marshes along the coast in the south to rounded hills in the north. Traditional farm buildings built of stone, and field boundaries of stone dykes and hedges, wetlands, unimproved grasslands and semi-natural or broadleaved farm woodlands all make the area scenically attractive. There is considerable botanical interest, but in particular the coastal areas, valleys and lochs are important for wintering birds, especially many species of duck. Need for designation: Over grazing and uncontrolled grazing where traditional dykes and hedges have ceased to be stockproof are causing the destruction of farm woodlands. There is a loss in variety of vegetation of rough grazing from the application of fertiliser and lime; impoverishment of species numbers from pesticide and herbicide treatment; a loss of wetlands, dykes and hedges, and deterioration in heather moors. Objectives of management: To restore farm woodland, dykes, hedges and heather moor, reverse the impoverishment of plant species, and protect the wetlands. Whitlaw/Eildon Designated 1988 80 sq km Characteristics: The landscape is dominated by the Eildon Hills and, to a lesser extent, by Black Hill. The middle stretches of the Tweed run through the area. The wooded nature of the Tweed valley, the stone buildings of farms, the stone dykes and hedges all contribute to the scenic value. The unimproved grasslands, heaths and wetter basin mires all contain a wide range of flowering plants and insects. It is an area rich in archaeological remains and there are many historical sites. Need for designation: Overgrazing and poaching on rough grazing and unimproved pasture, agricultural improvement from fertiliser treatment and drainage of rough grazing and wetlands are reducing the scenic value. There is a reduction in the variety of species of plant from fertiliser application and liming. The landscape is suffering from the removal of hedges and construction of vehicular tracks in vulnerable countryside, unsuitable new farm buildings, destruction of archaeological features, and neglect of stone dykes and hedges. Objectives of management: To restore the shape of the traditional landscape with rebuilt dykes, replanted or maintained hedges; to protect the basin mires and areas of wetland and reverse the trend in the reduction of plant and animal species; and ensure the security of archaeological features. 50 Northern Ireland Glens of Antrim Designated 1989 74 sq km Characteristics: The ESA includes four of the nine Glens of Antrim and the intervening coastal headlands, all within the Antrim Coast and Glens AONB. The glens cut deeply into the Antrim plateau, and the steeper slopes retain remnants of hazel and birch woodland. There are species-rich grasslands on flushed lower slopes. A particular feature are the strips of fields, or ladder farms, that run up the valley sides. The Glens have a rich archaeology surviving in unimproved, marginal farmland. Need for designation: Clearance and grazing of woodland, dereliction of hedges, loss of traditional ladder farm field pattern, reclamation of species-rich grassland, and intrusive new farm buildings contribute to reducing the scenic quality. Objectives of management: To prevent further loss, and enhance the quality, of native woodland; conserve species-rich grassland; restore and renovate hedges; retain the traditional field patterns; and protect archaeological sites. Mourne Mountains and Slieve Croob Designated 1988 330 sq km Characteristics: The ESA includes all of the enclosed farmland of the Mourne AONB. Stone walls, traditional farm buildings, green lanes and farmyards are distinctive landscape features; small areas of lowland heath occur within field parcels and woodland is a feature of the steep valley sides. Need for designation: Loss of walls and hedges, reclamation of heathland, intrusive farm buildings, and dereliction of traditional farmhouses and barns are all changing the landscape. Objectives of management: To maintain small-scale field patterns and field boundaries, retain traditional buildings, integrate new buildings into landscape, prevent loss of semi-natural habitats, and protect archaeological sites. ADDRESSES Association for the Protection of Rural Scotland, 14a Napier Road, Edinburgh EH10 5AY Association of County Councils, Eaton House, 66a Eaton Square, London SW1W 9BH Broads Authority, Thomas Harvey House, 18 Colegate, Norwich, Norfolk NR3 1BQ Cadw, Brunel House, 2 Fitzalan Road, Cardiff CF2 1UY Conservation Service, Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland, Calvert House, 23 Castle Place, Belfast BT 1 1FY Council for National Parks, 246 Lavender Hill, London SW11 1LN Council for Nature Conservation and Countryside, Calvert House, 23 Castle Place, Belfast BT1 1FY Council for the Protection of Rural England, Warwick House, 25 Buckingham Palace Road, London SW1W OPP Council for the Protection of Rural Wales, 31 High Street, Welshpool, Powys SY21 7)P Countryside Commission (Headquarters), John Dower House, Crescent Place, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL50 3RA Eastern Regional Office, Ortona House, 110 Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 1LQ Midlands Regional Office, Cumberland House, Broad Street, Birmingham B15 1TD North West Regional Office, 184 Deansgate, Manchester M3 3WB Northern Regional Office, Warwick House, Grantham Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 1QF South East Regional Office, 71 Kingsway, London SW2B 6ST South West Regional Office, Bridge House, Sion Place, Clifton Down, Bristol BS8 4AS Yorkshire and Humberside Regional Office, 8a Otley Road, Headingley, Leeds LS6 2AD Countryside Commission for Scotland, Battleby, Redgorton, Perth PH] 3EW Countryside Council for Wales, Plas Penrhos, Ffordd Penrhos, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2LQ Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland, Pentland House, Robb’s Loan, Edinburgh EH14 1TW. Department of the Environment, 2 Marsham Street, London SW1P 1AB English Heritage, Fortress House, 23 Savile Row, London W1X 1AB English Nature, Northminster House, Peterborough PE] 1UA Forestry Commission, 231 Corstorphine Road, Edinburgh EH12 7AT The Forestry Commission, Office of the Deputy Surveyor of the New Forest, The Queen’s House, Lyndhurst, Hampshire SO4 7NH Historic Scotland, 20 Brandon Street, Edinburgh EH3 5RA Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Monkstone House, City Road, Peterborough PEI 1JY Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Whitehall Place, London SW1A 2HH National Parks Brecon Beacons National Park Authority, 7 Glamorgan Street, Brecon, Powys LD3 7DP Dartmoor National Park Authority, Parke, Haytor Road, Bovey Tracey, Newton Abbot, Devon TQ13 9JQ Exmoor National Park Committee, Exmoor House, Dulverton, Somerset TA22 9HL Lake District National Park Authority, Busher Walk, Kendal, Cumbria LA9 4RH Northumberland National Park and Countryside Committee, Eastburn, South Park, Hexham, Northumberland NE46 1BS North York Moors National Park Committee, The Old Vicarage, Bondgate, Helmsley, York YO6 5BP Peak Park Joint Planning Board, Aldern House, Baslow Road, Bakewell, Derbyshire DE4 1AE Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Committee, County Offices, Havertordwest, Pembrokeshire, Dyfed SA61 1QZ. Snowdonia National Park Committee, Penrhyndeudraeth, Gwynedd LL48 6LS Yorkshire Dales National Park Committee, Yorebridge House, Bainbridge, via Leyburn, North Yorkshire DL8 3BP The National Trust, 36 Queen Anne's Gate, London SW1H 9AS The National Trust (Northern Ireland), Rowallane House, Saintfield, Ballynahinch, Co. Down BT24 4LH The National Trust for Scotland, 5 Charlotte Square, Edinburgh EH2 4DU Nature Conservancy Council for Scotland (NCCS), 12 Hope Terrace, Edinburgh EH9 2AS RSNC, The Wildlife Trusts Partnership, The Green, Witham Park, Waterside South, Lincoln LN5 7JR Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Beds SG19 2DL Scottish Council for National Parks, 15 Park Terrace, Stirling FK8 2)T Scottish Development Department, Rural Environment and Nature Conservation Division, New St Andrews House, Edinburgh EHI1 3SZ Scottish Natural Heritage, 23 Chester Street, Edinburgh EH3 7ET Scottish Wildlife Trust, 25 Johnston Terrace, Edinburgh EH1 2NH Welsh Office Agriculture Department, Plas Crug, Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 ING Welsh Office, Cathays Park, Cardiff CF1 3NQ The Woodland Trust, Autumn Park, Dysart Road, Grantham, Lincs NG31 6LL BIBLIOGRAPHY Anon, The Lake District Declaration, in Foster, John. 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Cobham Resource Consultants, The effectiveness of landscape designations in Scotland: A review study; report for the Countryside Commission for Scotland and the Scottish Development Department, 1988. Conroy, ].W.H., Watson, Adam, and Gunson, A.R. (eds), Caring for the high mountains: Conservation of the Cairngorms, Centre for Scottish Studies, Aberdeen, 1990. Countryside Commission, The coastal heritage: The planning of the coastline, 1970 Countryside Commission, New agricultural landscapes: Issues, objectives and action, CCP 102, 1979. Countryside Commission, A review of Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, CCP 140, 1980. Countryside Commission, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty: A policy statement, CCP 141, 1980. Countryside Commission, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty: A policy statement, CCP 157, 1983. Countryside Commission, A better future for the uplands, CCP 162, 1984. Countryside Commission, Public Inquiry on the proposed North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty: Proof of evidence of the Countryside Commission, 1985 Countryside Commission Bibliography No. 7: National Parks, CCP 200, 1989. Countryside Commission, The New Forest landscape, CCP 220, 1986. Countryside Commission, Capital Tax relief for outstanding scenic land, CCP 204, 1990. Countryside Commission, Heritage landscapes management plans, CCP 205, 1986. Countryside Commission, Planning for a greener countryside, CCP 264, 1989. Countryside Commission, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in England and Wales, CCP 276, 1989. Countryside Commission, Directory of Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, CCD 54, 1989. Countryside Commission, Planning and management of Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, CCP 295, 1990. Countryside Commission, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty: A policy statement 1990, CCP 302, 1990. 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Dartmoor Commons Act 1985, HMSO, 1985. Dartmoor National Park Authority, Dartmoor National Park Plan, 1977. First Review, 1983. Second Review, 1991. Dartmoor National Park Authority, The work of the Authority 1985-86, 1986. Department of Agriculture, Northern Ireland, Environmentally Sensitive Areas in Northern Ireland: A first report, HMSO, 1990. Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (Countryside and Wildlife Branch), Causeway Coast AONB — guide to designation, HMSO, 1989. Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (Countryside and Wildlife Branch), Antrim Coast and Glens AONB ~ guide to designation, HMSO, 1990. Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (Countryside and Wildlife Branch), Dallat, Cahal, Antrim Coast and Glens — a personal view, HMSO, undated. Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (Countryside and Wildlife Branch), Antrim Coast and Glens — Historic Monuments, undated. Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (Countryside and Wildlife Branch), Hammond, Fred, Antrim Coast and Glens — industrial heritage, HMSO, 1991. Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (Countryside and Wildlife Branch), Mourne AONB — policies and proposals, HMSO, 1989. Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (Countryside and Wildlife Branch), Fermanagh: Its special landscapes, HMSO, 1991. Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (Countryside and Wildlife Branch), Ring of Gullion — guide to designation, HMSO, 1991. Department of the Environment, A study of Exmoor: Report by Lord Porchester KBE to the Secretary of State for the Environment and the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, November 1977, HMSO 1977. Department of the Environment, Report of the National Parks Policies Review Committee (the Sandford Report), HMSO, 1977. DOE/WO Circular, The planning of the undeveloped coast, 12—72/36-72, 1972. Edwards, R., Fit for the future: Report of the National Parks Review Panel, CCP 334, 1991. Edwards, R., Fit for the future: Report of the National Parks Review Panel: executive summary, CCP 335, 1991. Exmoor National Park Committee, Exmoor National Park Plan, 1977. First Review, 1986. Second Review, 1991. Foster, John, Protected landscapes: Summary proceedings of an International Symposium, IUCN, Countryside Commission, Countryside Commission for Scotland, CCP 248, 1987. Green, Bryn, Countryside conservation, Allen & Unwin, 1981. Gubbay, Susan, A future for the coast?: Proposals for a UK coastal zone management plan, Marine Conservation Society, 1990. HMSO, This common inheritance: Britain's environmental strategy, 1990. Hopkins, Tony, Northumberland National Park, Webb & Bower/Michael Joseph, 1987. Houston, John and Jones, Ceri (eds), Planning and management of the coastal heritage: Symposium proceedings, Southport 1989, Sefton Metropolitan Borough Council, Southport, 1990. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Landscape changes in Britain, 1986. IUCN/UNEP/WWE, Caring for the Earth: A strategy for sustainable living, 1991. Lacey, William S. (ed), Britain’s National Parks, Windward, 1984. Lake District National Park Authority, National Park facts and figures, 1986. Lake District National Park Authority, The Lake District National Park Plan, reviewed 1986, 1986. Land Use Consultants, A planning classification of Scottish landscape, Countryside Commission for Scotland, OAs Lane, Stewart, Nature conservation in National Parks in England and Wales: Report to Nature Conservancy Council, 1989. Linton, D. L., The assessment of scenery as a national resource , Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1968. MacEwen, A. and MacEwen M., Greenprints for the countryside? The story of Britain's National Parks, Allen and Unwin, 1987. MacEwen, Ann and MacEwen Malcolm, National Parks: Conservation or cosmetics? , Allen & Unwin, 1982. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Environmentally Sensitive Areas, 1989. Ministry of Town & Country Planning, National Parks in England and Wales (the Dower Report), Cmd 6628, HMSO, 1945. Ministry of Town & Country Planning, Report of the National Parks Committee (The Hobhouse Report), Cmd 7121, HMSO, 1947. 53 Murdoch, John (ed), The Lake District: A sort of national property, Countryside Commission and Victoria & Albert Museum, CCP 194, 1986. Murray, W.H., Highland landscape; a survey, National Trust for Scotland, 1962. National Park Authorities, Conference of National Park Authorities: Harrogate 1988, 1988. Nature Conservancy, Report on Broadland, 1965. North York Moors National Park Committee, Annual Report April 1985—March 1986, 1986. North York Moors National Park Committee, North York Moors National Park Plan, 1977. First Review, 1984. Second Review, 1991. Northumberland National Park & Countryside Committee, Northumberland National Park Plan, 1977. First Review, 1984. Peak Park Joint Planning Board, Annual Report No. 34, April 1985—March 1986, 1986. Peak Park Joint Planning Board, Peak District National Park, National Park Plan, 1978. Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Authority, Pembrokeshire Coast National Park handbook, 1983. Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Committee, Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Plan 1977-1982, 1977. Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, Functional strategies 1987-1992, 1986. Poore, Duncan and Judy, Protected landscapes: The United Kingdom experience, Countryside Commission, Countryside Commission for Scotland, Department of the Environment of Northern Ireland, CCP 233, 1987. Redhead, Brian, The National Parks of England and Wales, Oxford Illustrated Press, 1988. Rural Development Commission et al, Tourism in the National Parks, 1991. Scottish Development Department, Scotland's Natural Heritage: The way ahead, 1990. Scottish Information Office, Factsheet 5: Planning for development, 1984. Scottish Information Office, Local Government in Scotland, 1984. Scottish National Parks Committee and the Scottish Wildlife Conservation Committee, National Parks and the conservation of nature in Scotland, Cmd 7235, HMSO, 1947. Scottish National Parks Survey Committee (Ramsay), National Parks; A Scottish survey, Cmd 6631, HMSO, 1945. Smith, Roland, The Peak National Park, Webb & Bower/Michael Joseph, 1987. Smith, R., Wildest Britain: A visitor's guide to the National Parks, (2nd edition), Poole: Blandford, 1986. Snowdonia National Park Committee, Snowdonia National Park Plan Draft, 1977. First Review, 1987. Stroud, David A., Mudge, G.P. and Penkowski, M.W., Protecting internationally important bird sites: A review of the EEC Special Protection Area network in GB, Nature Conservancy Council, 1990. Styles, Showell, Snowdonia National Park, Webb & Bower/Michael Joseph, 1987. Sumner, Heywood, (2nd edition), A guide to the New Forest, 1925. Thomas, Roger, Brecon Beacons National Park, Webb & Bower/Michael Jospeh, 1987. Tubbs, Colin R., The New Forest, an ecological history, David & Charles, 1968. Victoria & Albert Museum, The discovery of the Lake District, 1984. Waltham, Tony, Yorkshire Dales National Park, Webb & Bower/Michael Joseph, 1987. Weir, John (ed.) Dartmoor National Park, Webb & Bower/Michael Joseph, 1987. Welsh Office Agriculture Department. Environmentally Sensitive Areas: Wales. 1989. Williams, Herbert, Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, Webb & Bower/Michael Joseph, 1987. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AONB Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ASSI Area of Special Scientific Interest (ES Countryside Commission for Scotland CPRE Committee for the Protection of Rural England CNCC Council for Nature Conservation and the Countryside CPRW Committee for the Protection of Rural Wales DAFS Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland EC European Community EEE European Economic Community ESA Environmentally Sensitive Area lake Heritage Coast IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (World Conservation Union) LNR Local Nature Reserve MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food MOD Ministry of Defence NCC Nature Conservancy Council NCC(S) Nature Conservancy Council (Scotland) NHA Natural Heritage Area (Scotland) NNR National Nature Reserve NPA National Park Authority NRA Nature Reserve Agreement SNH Scottish Natural Heritage SPA Specially Protected Area SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest 54 Woodell, S.R.J. (ed.), The English Landscape: Past, present and future, Wolfson College Lectures, 1983. Oxford, 1983, Wyatt, John, The Lake District National Park, Webb & Bower/Michael Joseph, 1987. Wyatt, J., A visitor's guide to the National Parks of England and Wales, Webb and Bower and Michael Joseph in association with the Countryside Commission, 1988. Yorkshire Dales National Park Committee, Initial National Park Plan, 1977. First Review, 1984. Yorkshire Dales National Park Committee, Progress through partnerships , 1988. COUNTRYSIDE COMMISSION John Dower House Crescent Place, Cheltenham Gloucestershire GL50 3RA Telephone: 0242 521381 Fax: 0242 584270 ISBN 0 86170 324 3 CCP 362 Price £12.50 Designed and Produced by Earl & Thompson Marketing Limited Gloucester