fNu~oUU!\ Mai Agric (S^^^^^ LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. GI(eceroed Accessions No. / If * *. Class No. PRUNING -BOOK THE PRUNING -BOOK A MONOGRAPH OF THE PRUNING AND TRAINING OF PLANTS AS APPLIED TO AMERICAN CONDITIONS BY L. H. BAILEY Sttogtafc THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. 1898 All rights reserved ic. Dept. COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY L. H. BAILEY J. Horace McFarland Company Harrisburg, Pa. OP T UNIVERSITY ^ OUTLINE PAET I THE FUNDAMENTALS CHAPTER I PAGES THE PHILOSOPHY OP PRUNING 1-20 Does pruning devitalize plants ? 4 CHAPTER II THE FRUIT-BUD 21-75 The bud and the branch 22 The leaf -bud and the fruit-bud 27 The fruit -spur as illustrated by the apple . . 30 The fruit -spur as illustrated by the pear ... 40 The fruit -spur as illustrated by the plum and cherry 46 The peach and the apricot 50 Gooseberries, currants and juneberries .... 56 Co-terminal fruit-bearing 59 Grapes and brambles 63 How to tell the fruit -buds 66 Summary synopsis of the positions of fruit- buds . • 74 (v) VI OUTLINE CHAPTER III PAGES THE HEALING OF WOUNDS . 76-132 The nature of the wound 82 Suggestions to the pruner 95 When to cut the branches 102 Dressings for wounds 109 How to make the cut 114 The mending of trees 116 CHAPTER IV THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 133-190 1. Heavy top-pruning produces wood .... 136 2. Heavy root -pruning lessens wood .... 138 3. Heavy top-pruning rejuvenates the plant . 139 4. Pruned plant resumes its normal habit . . 150 5. Habit varies from youth to age 153 6. One part lives at expense of another . . . 154 7. Watersprouts are results of disturbed equi- librium 155 8. Plants grow from uppermost buds .... 157 9. Heading-in develops lateral buds .... 157 10. Effect of obstructions 161 11. Checking growth induces fruitfulness . . . 162 12. Fruit-bearing is determined by habit . . . 163 13. Girdling and the like are special practices. 167 14. Pruning thins the fruit 174 15. Heading-in induces fruitfulness 180 16. Season of pruning influences fruitfulness. 181 17. Pruning depends upon locality and climate. 185 18. What influences the healing of wounds ? . 189 19. Dressings 190 20. General law . 190 OUTLINE vii PAKT II THE INCIDENTALS CHAPTER V PAGES SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 193-340 The form of the top 193 How to trim young plants 205 Root-pruning 227 Root -pruning when transplanting 232 Subsequent treatment of the plants 250 Management of top -worked trees 263 Management of dwarf trees 269 Ringing and girdling 281 Pruning tools 297 Remarks on specific plants 309 Apple 309 Apricot 310 Cherry 313 Orange 314 Peach 315 Pear 319 Plum 320 Quince 322 Blackberries and raspberries 323 Currants and gooseberries 327 Shade trees 333 Hedges 333 Ornamental plants 335 CHAPTER VI SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 341-389 European practice 342 Trees and bushes in pots 374 Other special modes of training 384 Vlll OUTLINE CHAPTER VII PAGES AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING— GENERAL SKETCH . . 390-430 Pruning the grape 402 Pruning young vines 411 When to prune 413 Summer pruning 414 Making the trellis 416 Tying 426 CHAPTER VIII AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING — THE VARIOUS MODES . 431-493 The upright systems 436 Horizontal arm spur system 437 The high renewal 441 Fan training 455 The drooping systems 458 The true or four- cane Kniffin 460 Modifications of the four-cane Kniffin . . . 466 The two-cane Kniffin, or umbrella system . 469 The low, or one -wire Kniffin 472 The six-cane Kniffin 473 Eight-cane Kniffin 474 Caywood, overhead, or arbor Kniffin .... 474 The cross-wire system 477 Renewal Kniffin 478 The Munson system 480 Modified Munson 485 Miscellaneous systems 486 Horizontal training 486 Post training 488 Arbors 490 Remodeling old vines 41) 1 OUTLINE IX CHAPTER IX PAGES VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 494-530 California practice 494 Proper method of making cuts 498 Short and long -pruning 500 Pruning of young vines 503 Systems of pruning 505 Summer pruning 521 Classification of the varieties 525 Glass-house practice 528 INDEX . 533-537 PART I THE FUNDAMENTALS 1896 '1895 1894 1. The history of a lilac shoot. THE PRTJNING-BOOK CHAPTER I THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING A lilac branch is shown in the engraving on the opposite page (Fig. 1). Its most important characteristic, — as of any branch, — is the fact that its various parts are unlike. We must discover the reasons for these unlikenesses or differences. The branch is five years old. The dates mark the termination of the growth of each year. The terminal growths all grew in 1897. Since the branches of any year spring from buds which were formed the previous year,fcswe can determine the normal method of branching of the lilac by examining the buds upon the current year's growths. The branches a and b are each seen to have five pairs of buds. The buds are on op- posite sides of the branch. The twig growth or branching of the lilac, therefore, should be a successive series of forks; but such is notably not the case. In other words, the normal method of branching has not taken place; and the reason is, 2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING that not all the branches could develop in the severe struggle for existence. The effect of this struggle for existence is to be seen even in the buds upon the current year's growths, as on a and 6. The largest and strongest buds are on the tips, and, as a rule, the buds are smaller and weaker the nearer one approaches the base of the shoot. This unequal development of the buds is undoubtedly associated chiefly with the amount of sunlight to which the different parts of the shoot were exposed. It is further to be observed that the twin ter- minal buds are not often alike. The difference is marked at &. It is evident that, if each of these buds develops a branch, the two branches will be very unlike. Let us now trace the history of this interesting lilac branch. The first growth ended at the point marked 1893. In 1894, a shoot grew from each of the terminal buds, and three other shoots developed. It is noticeable, in the first place, that the strongest shoots are those arising from the terminal buds, while the lowest buds developed no shoots and still remain dormant (s). In the second place, it is to be observed that no two of the five branches are alike. Three branches are strong, but two, m, n, have succumbed in the struggle for existence, and are now dead. That is, pruning has begun. Tracing the strong branch at the right (running HISTORY OF A BRANCH d off to 0), it is seen that it grew to 1894 the first year. The second year it grew to 1895; and in that year, also, one branch, r, was developed. It is noticeable, too, that two branches started from the end of the 1894 growth, but one of them failed, and only a short stnb now records the fact. The third year the branch grew to 1896, and a very small branch, q, now dead, was produced on the growth of 1895. The fourth year (1897) the branch grew to o, and a single shoot, p, grew on the growth of 1896. Altogether, this branch has made forty efforts to produce branches (that is, forty buds on the growths pre- vious to 1897, but not all traceable in the illus- tration), only five of which, r, at 1894, #, jo, and o have been successful; and of these five branches, two are dead, and only one, o, seems likely to persist. That is, in the struggle for existence, only one effort in forty has been successful. The large branch on the left, terminating at i, may now be examined. The first year it grew to 1894. The second year it grew in the direction ?, but that branch died and the year's growth was lost. The stub or remains of this branch is seen at I. The third year the branch grew to 1896. The fourth year (1897) the terminal branch grew to i, a side branch to j, and another side branch, now nearly dead, grew to k. The entire branch (1893 to i) has made over twenty efforts at branches, four of which efforts were successful, 4 THE PHILOSOPHY OP PRUNING but two of which, &, Z, are now dead. That is, two efforts, *', j, out of more than twenty, give promise of being useful. It is noticeable that whereas these two branches — terminating at o and at i — are of the same age, they have developed in very different size and form. Without waiting for the details, we may say that the entire branch in Fig. 1 has made about one hundred and forty attempts at branches. Of these attempts, or buds, twenty -four have pro- duced branches, and of these branches, nine are already dead. The lessons to be derived from this study of the lilac branch may be applied to all plants. They are: (1) there are more efforts at branches than there are branches; (2) there is, therefore, severe struggle for existence; (3) the results are that differences arise and that some branches die. In other words, plants must and do prune themselves. DOES PRUNING DEVITALIZE PLANTS?* A year ago I read a paper before this Society upon some of the relations between grafting and the vitality of the plant [reprinted in The Nursery- Book, third edition, pp. 82-94] , and it seemed to me that the sum of the argument showed that grafting, while often improperly and injudiciously done, is not of itself a devitalizing or injurious *Address before the Peninsula Horticultural Society, January, 1893, and published in the Proceedings of the Society for that year, pp. 43-49. NATURE OP PRUNING 5 practice. I now ask you to follow a similar argu- ment with reference to pruning. This subject is, perhaps, even more important than the other, for every owner of a fruit tree expects to prune, or at least he considers the advisability of the opera- tion. There is the; greatest difference of opinion as to the merits of particular styles and methods of pruning, and perhaps equal difference as to the effect of the operation on the life and health of the tree. Perhaps every fruit-grower has observed evil effects to result from pruning, and many of these observers have reasoned therefrom that pruning is itself injurious, or at least haz- ardous. I cannot, of course, uphold nor explain away the examples of injury which follow prun- ing. They are patent even'to the casual observer; but we must not exalt individual instances, how- ever numerous, into proofs of the perniciousness of pruning. There should have been at this day sufficient study and experience to enable us to pass upon the merits of the practice, as a whole. It is urgent, also, that the subject be discussed, for however much of correct teaching may be pro- mulgated, there is a constantly recurring wave of error and prejudice. For myself, I am convinced that pruning, even when somewhat heroic, is not a devitalizing practice; and in support of this conviction I shall present arguments from three sources, — philosophy, plant physiology, and com- mon experience. I must say at the beginning, 6 THE PHILOSOPHY OP PRUNING however, that I do not propose to discuss me- chanical injuries to the trees, as a result of wounds, for we all know that such injuries are a result of careless or injudicious pruning. My proposition is this: Does it injure a plant to remove a part of it! Is the entire growth of a plant necessary to its health and longevity? 1. The argument from philosophy. There is an intense struggle for existence among all or- ganisms. The world is now full, and there can probably be no permanent increase in the sum total of animals and plants. If one species in- creases, another must decrease. Changes in the numbers of individuals are, therefore, largely matters of readjustment between different types. Each kind is held down to a certain equilibrium in relation to other kinds. It is easy to see that any species of animal or plant could completely occupy the surface of the globe, if it could mul- tiply to the full extent of its powers. Not only do some species compete with others, but the individuals of the same species compete with each other for standing room. The greater the num- ber of thistles in a given field, the less is the opportunity for another thistle plant to gain a foothold. Now, a tree is essentially a collection or colony of individual plants. Every branch, even every joint of the branch, is endeavoring to do what every other branch does — to bear leaves, flowers and seeds. Every branch competes with COMPETITION IN THE TOP 7 every other branch; and there are more germs of branches — that is, more buds — than there can be branches upon any tree. So it comes that no two branches of a tree are exactly alike, but are what their position or condition makes them to be. Some are strong and some are weak. That is, there is no definite or proper size or shape for any branch, as there is for the different mem- bers of an animal or flower. The limbs and organs of an animal are not competitors but co- partners, each performing some function or office which another does not, and they all obtain a defi- nite maturity of size and shape. But a branch never attains its full size until it ceases to grow and thereby begins to die. Branches are not or- gans, but competing individuals. If all these statements are true, then three conclusions fol- low: there is struggle for existence amongst the branches of a tree, and some of the contestants perish; the destruction of these branchess must conduce to the betterment of the remaining ones; all the branches of a tree are not necessary to it, but some of them may be a detriment to it. In other words, pruning is a necessity. Two years ago a wild black cherry tree came up near my door. The first year, it sent up a single straight shoot nineteen inches high, which produced twenty -seven buds and one branchlet eight inches long. This branchlet bore twelve buds. At the end of the first season, therefore, " lUNlVERSITY & THE PHILOSOPHY OP PRITNIN& the little tree had produced a total of thirty -nine buds, one branchlet, and twenty -seven inches of growth. The second year, 1892, nineteen of these thirty -nine buds produced branches and twenty- did not start. These nineteen branches made a total growth of 231 inches, and produced 370 buds. The terminal branch or shoot grew thirty- six inches long. Here, then, is a little tree two years old and four and one -half feet high which has made an effort to bear 409 branches. It is plain that more than ninety per cent of these efforts must be futile. Many of the buds will not start, but the tree now has a total of twenty- seven branches and subdivisions as a result of its first year's growth; if it makes a proportional number this year from the growth of 1892, it will bear 216 branches at the close of 1893 and will have made a total effort of about 3,500 branch - germs or buds. This little tree will undergo a severe pruning in the coming years, although a knife does not touch it.* But the natural thinning of the top will con- tinue in geometrical ratio as long as the tree grows; and after a time this pruning will become more severe, for larger branches will be sacrificed. Probably less than a fifth of the buds upon any tree ever make branches, and less than a fifth of the branches persist. The greater part of these "The subsequent history of this cherry tree, and record of its tragic death, may be found in "The Survival of the Unlike," pp. 88, 89. INSTRUCTIVE CHERRY TREES 9 branches die before they come to bearing age, no doubt, but some of them perish after they have attained to a considerable size. A forest tree grows a tall, straight bole because the side branches are lopped roff; and the more vigorous this prun- ing, the taller and stronger the tree becomes. Another black cherry tree, two years old, found in the woods, is shown in Fig. 2. The first year it grew from the ground to «, and it bore buds at regular intervals, — about two dozen of them. The second year, the terminal bud sent out a shoot to 5, and thirteen lateral buds gave rise to branches. Of these thirteen lateral branches, obviously only three stand any chance of living in the dense shade of the forest. In fact, four or five of the lowest twigs were dead when the picture was made; showing that the struggle for existence does not always result from competition among fellows, but may arise from the crowding of other plants. These three strong branches in Fig. 2 are less than four feet from the ground, but other old cherry trees standing near it had no branches within fifteen and twenty feet of the ground. They no doubt branched low down, as this one, but the branches eventually died in the struggle; and we therefore have reason to conclude that of all the branches on this little tree, only the ter- minal one, b, can long survive. One has only to look on the forest floor to see how freely trees 2. The curious history of wild cherry tree. 3. Upright habit of the sweet cherry. RECORDS IN TREE TOPS 11 have shed their twigs. The trunk of a tree, then, is the remainder in a long problem of subtraction. A young tree of the sweet garden cherry is 4. Diffuse habit of the sour cherry. shown in Fig. 3, and one of the Morello or pie cherry in Fig. 4. In the former, the terminal growths are strong, and the leader, or central trunk, has persisted. The latter has long since 12 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING lost its leader, and the side growths are strong. Let the reader now figure out how many buds have perished (or at least failed to make perma- nent branches) in each of these trees, if they are supposed to be seven years old. Any garden cherry tree will give him the probable number of buds to each annual growth. Even without the figures, it is evident that there are very many more failures than successes in any tree top. So every tree is a record of defeats and dis- asters in order that the stronger parts may live. It is safe to conclude that if nature is such a searching and undogmatic primer, man may prune, too. Those persons who declaim that pruning is unnatural, should be taken into a neglected orchard and be made to see what has transpired in the tree tops. I may be met here with the criticism that arti- ficial pruning is excessive ; but I answer that it is not different in kind from natural pruning, and that it is fully warranted by the different ob- jects in view. The ultimate object of nature is the production of seeds, and the more viable seeds produced, the better. Many small fruits, therefore, are desired. Man covets the fleshy portion of the fruit, or some other character which is of minor importance to the plant. He must, therefore, thin the plant rigorousty, — re- duce the struggle for existence — in order that size and quality may come before number. He THE VITALITY OF THE PLANT 13 simply deflects the energy into another channel. 2. The argument from plant physiology is equally important. It is a common assertion that cutting off a limb is an injury because it removes a given amount of tissue in the pro- duction of which the plant expended effort ; that is, that pruning exhausts the plant. This statement assumes that a plant has a certain fixed vitality, from which a given amount is withdrawn whenever a portion of the plant is cut away. I might illustrate this by supposing that a plant has an initial vitality represented by the figure 10 ; then, if one- tenth of the top is removed, there is left a vitality of 9. But this assumption is wholly gratuitous. The vi- tality of a plant is very largely determined by the conditions under which it grows — the charac- ter of the soil and treatment ; and, I may add, that as plants have no nerves, they cannot die of shock, as we sometimes hear it said. Every fruit-grower knows that two trees of the same initial vigor may differ widely from each other in thrift and healthfulness at the expiration of five years, if given different soil and care. If the plant is very largely what its food supply and other environments make it to be, if it is constantly renewed and augmented, then the removal of a portion of it cannot destroy its vitality unless the removal is so great as to interfere with the nutrition of the remaining 14 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING parts. It may be replied that the tissue, the wood, which is removed in large limbs, might have been saved to the tree by directing it into other parts of the top by means of earlier prun- ing. This may be true ; but I must contend that this saving would have resulted only in an economy of time by building up the other parts earlier in the lifetime of the tree, and not in an economy of vitality, for vitality is constantly renewed. It may be a question if we really save a pro- portionate amount of time by early pruning ; that is, whether we can direct the same amount of growth into the remaining portions of the plant by pruning very early in its lifetime as we can by pruning when the superfluous branches have attained some size and have, per- haps, begun to bear. There is an exact balance between the feeding capacity of the plant — that is, its root-system and food supply — and the super- ficial growth of the plant. The more active and efficient the root, the larger the top. If we remove a large portion of this top, there is an endeavor to supply the deficiency by an exceed- ingly rapid growth. So pruned plants are nearly always more vigorous than unpruned ones, be- cause of the concentration of a somewhat con- stant food supply into a smaller number of branches. Therefore, pruning must have much the same effect as manuring. The stimulating PRUNING INCREASES VIGOR 15 effect of this new growth, or new disposition of energy, must be felt upon the root- system also ; and I can conceive that it is a point for discussion as to whether this stimulus and re- sponse to new conditions may not be greater when the pruning is somewhat heroic than when it is so evenly distributed over the lifetime of the tree as to be imperceptible. Growth is cer- tainly more emphatic following a heroic pruning, but it may not be greater in sum than that which follows several prunings of equal aggre- gate severity. My own observation and experi- ence lead me to believe that annual pruning of all fruit trees is desirable, but I am equally con- vinced that it does not pay, either in cost of pruning or in good to the tree, to cut out all the superfluous twigs at each pruning. These superfluous twigs can often be left until they are two or three or even four years old with advantage. Although stimulating effects may result from the considerable unbalance of the plant when many branches are removed, these superfluous and unpruned twigs often afford a very useful shelter or sun -screen to the inner parts of the top, and they lessen the danger of over -pruning, by which the nutrition of the tree may be injured. I have said that pruning increases vigor. Two trees of Siberian Crab were set near my house in the spring of 1890. These trees are as near 16 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING alike as any two apple trees which I have ever seen, and they stand only twenty -five feet apart. I measured the growth of 1891 on one of these trees and found it to have been 745 inches. The tree was then thoroughly pruned (February 17), and this pruning removed 460 inches of wood, of which 432 inches was new- wood. The total weight of this wood was seven and three-eighths ounces. The other tree was not pruned. During 1892, the unpruned tree produced 118 new twigs, with a total length of 1,758 inches, while the pruned tree produced 120 new twigs and made a total growth of 1,926 inches. The pruned tree, therefore, made 14 feet more growth than the other, which is a large proportion for a tree only three years set ; and the growth was stouter upon this tree, also. In other words, a% tree from which about forty feet of branches had been cut bore at the end of a single season fourteen feet more wood than a similar tree which had not been pruned. Aside from the greater growth which this prun- ing induced, the experiment shows — in common with all similar ones — that it is impossible, as I have already said, to injure trees by what is called a shock. It is often said that the time of the year when pruning is performed influences the amount of growth. It is said that pruning in winter makes wood and pruning in summer makes fruit. It is certainly true that winter NUTRITION 17 pruning makes more wood in the current year than summer pruning, because the season's growth is nearly or quite completed when the summer pruning is performed ; but beyond this state- ment it is not the purpose to venture at this point (see Section 16, Chapter IV.). I have said that pruning, of itself, cannot be injurious so long as it does not interfere with the nutrition of the plant. It is important, therefore, that I explain how this interference occurs. A plant derives a certain portion of its food from the soil in the shape of soluble inor- ganic materials. These materials ascend to the leaves through the young wood, and become associated with organized compounds like starch and sugar. These organized compounds are used in the repair and growth of all parts of the plant, and they are, therefore, distributed to the leaves, twigs, trunk and roots. The growth of the roots is, therefore, largely determined by the amount and vigor of the top or leaf-bearing portion. The removal of the greater part of the top may interfere, therefore, with the vigor of the plant by preventing the supply of a sufficient amount of elaborated food. This difficulty is sometimes experienced in the girdling or ringing of grape-vines, which prevents the distribution of the elaborated plant -foods to the roots. It should be said, however, that the grape is pruned the most severely of all fruits, and it is, 18 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING therefore, easy to overstep the danger line ; and yet it is strange that while certain writers dis- parage the pruning of trees they do not object to the common pruning of the vine. In fruit trees the instances of injurious interference with nutrition by pruning are rare, and they need not be further considered here. This is proved by the good results which so often follow the heroic treatment of top -grafted trees. But, you want to say, if pruning is not devital- izing, if the removal of strong branches induces more vigorous growth in the remaining ones, and if there is little danger of disturbing the nutrition of the tree, it must follow that there can be no objection to the removal of large branches. I cannot agree to this inference, al- though I am willing to say that the removal of such branches may not be objectionable so far as direct injury or shock to the vitality of the tree is concerned. But there are important reasons why large branches should not be removed. Such pruning exposes dangerous wounds, it is apt to open the tree so much that some of the remaining parts scald and borers obtain a foothold, it may despoil the symmetry or convenience of the tree, and such branches may represent a certain amount of energy which should have been earlier directed elsewhere; and aside from all this, the cutting away of very large branches often indicates a lack of enterprise and forethought on the part of the TESTIMONY OF EXPERIENCE 19 grower, and suggests the feeling that he may be remiss in all his operations. But while I dis- courage the removal of branches three and four inches in diameter, I must repeat that it is not because I consider such practice a devitalizing one. And I should much prefer the removal of such large branches to total neglect. I have my- self removed many such branches ten and fifteen years ago from apple trees which are to-day in most perfect health and vigor. 3. If philosophy and physiology show that pruning is not a devitalizing process, common experience affords still stronger proof. One of the commonest absurdities in our horticultural literature is the admonition to prune only with a knife, thereby avoiding the cutting of large limbs, while there is not an orchardist in the country who practices this advice if he prunes thoroughly. If scientific teaching and permanently successful practice are opposed, then the teaching is wrong. I am afraid that some of our accepted teaching on the subject of pruning will not stand the test of time. I have frequently observed that well pruned trees live as long as those unpruned, and I am inclined to believe that they may live longer ; and they produce more during their lifetime. But suppose that pruning is a devitalizing process — what then? Even then we could not afford to discontinue it. The gains in size and 20 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING quality of fruit, in ease of cultivation and spray- ing of the plants, are advantages which progressive horticulture can never forego. Advise a grape- grower to discontinue pruning ! It appears to be safe to conclude, from the foregoing considerations, that pruning is a legiti- mate practice, finding warrant in wild plants, in physiology and in the experience of centuries. It is not of itself, as ordinarily performed, a devitalizing practice, while its advantages are several and important. There is abundant op- portunity for improvement in methods, and every plant needs a particular treatment, and perhaps some species or varieties demand little, if any, thinning ; but as a whole, pruning is indispensable to successful horticulture. CHAPTER II THE FRUIT -BUD Since one of the objects of pruning is to secure more and better fruit, it is very important that the reader know what the fruit -buds are and upon what part of the plant they are produced. The best way of gaining this knowledge is to examine the plants in company with a competent instruc- tor ; but since the author can produce neither of these requisites, the reader must be content, for the time, to look at pictures and to read about them. The book will explain a few type examples, and will suggest methods of inquiry. It is hoped, however, that as soon as the page becomes dull, the reader will betake himself to the tree, and there obtain his knowledge first hand; but if he should complain that the book and the tree do not always tell the same story, the author will declare that the observer did not see what he looked at. Without further parley, let us look at the plants.* *Parts of these observations are adapted from the author's "Lessons with Plants." (21) 22 THE FRUIT -BUD THE BUD AND THE BRANCH A twig cut from an apple tree in early spring is shown in Fig. 5. The most hasty observation shows that it has various parts or members. It seems to be divided at the point / into two parts. It is evident that the portion from f to h grew last year, and that the portion below / grew two years ago. The buds upon the two parts are very unlike, and these differences challenge investi- gation. In order to understand this seemingly lifeless twig, it will be necessary to see it as it looked late last summer (and this condition is shown in Fig. 6). The portion from /to h, — which has just completed its growth, — is seen to have only one leaf in a place. In every axil (or angle which the leaf makes when it joins the shoot) is a bud. The leaf starts first, and as the season advances the bud forms in its axil. When the leaves have fallen, at the approach of winter, the buds re- main, as seen in Fig. 5. Every bud on the last year's growth of a winter twig, therefore, marks the position occupied by a leaf when the shoot was growing. The portion below /, in Fig. 6, shows a wholly different arrangement. The leaves are two or more together (a a a a), and there are buds without leaves (bbbbj. A year ago this portion looked like the present shoot from / to h, — that is, the 5. An apple twig. Same twig before leaves fell. 24 THE FRUIT -BUD leaves were single, with a bud in the axil of each. It is now seen that some of these bud -like parts are longer than others, and that the longest ones 7. Present year's shoot of apple. are those which have leaves. It must be because of the leaves that they have increased in length. The body c has lost its leaves through some acci- dent, and its growth has ceased. In other words, the parts akaaaa are like the shoot / h, except that they are shorter, and they are of the same age. One grows from the end or terminal bud BUDS AND BRANCHES 25 of the main branch, and the others from the side or lateral buds. Parts or bodies which bear leaves are, therefore, branches. The buds at b b b b have no leaves, and they remain the same size that they were a year ago. They are dormant. The only way for a mature bud to grow is by making leaves for itself, for a leaf will never stand below it again. The twig, therefore, has buds of two ages, — those at b b b b Last year's shoot of apple. are two seasons old, and those on the tips of all the branches (a a a a, hj, and in the axil of every leaf, are one season old. It is only the ter- minal buds which are not axillary. Buds are buds only so long as they remain dormant. When the bud begins to grow and to put forth leaves, it gives rise to a branch, which, in its turn, bears buds. It will now be interesting to determine why certain buds gave rise to branches and why others remained dormant. The strongest shoot or branch of the year is the terminal on&-££-&yL_ The next IVKRSITY \ t ~ 26 THE FRUIT -BUD in strength is the uppermost lateral one, and the weakest shoot is at the base of the twig. The dormant buds are on the under side (for the twig grew 'in a horizontal position). All this suggests that those buds grew which had the best chance, — the most sunlight and room. There were too many buds for the space, and in the struggle for existence those which had the best opportunities made the largest growths. This struggle for existence began a year ago, however, when the buds upon the shoot below / were forming in the axils of the leaves, for the buds near the tip of the shoot grew larger and stronger than those near its base. The growth of one year, there- fore, is very largely determined by the conditions under which the buds were formed the previous year. All these remarks are still further illustrated by Figs. 7 and 8. Fig. 7 is the current year's growth of apple. The leaves are placed singly, and there is a single bud in the axil of each. (The two awl -like bodies at the base of each leaf are stipules, or appendages of the leaves.) Fig. 8 is a shoot a year older than the other. Four buds were formed in the axils of as many leaves in the previous year; one of these buds is dor- mant, but the other three have produced short, leafy branches. Any tree or shrub will show the same differences between the two last annual growths. STUDIES OF FRUIT -BEARING 27 THE LEAF-BUD AND THE FRUIT-BUD Another apple branch is shown in Fig. 9. It seems to have no slender last year's growth, as Figs. 5 and 6 have at / h. It, therefore, needs special attention. It is first seen that the "ring" marking the termination of a year's growth is at a. There are dormant buds at b b. The twig above a must be more than one year old, however, because it bears short lateral branches at e e. If these branchlets are themselves a year old (as they appear to be), then the 'portion / g must be a similar branch, and the twig itself fa fj must be two years old. The ring marking the termina- tion of the growth of year before last is, therefore, at /. In other words, a twig is generally a year older than its oldest branches. The buds c c (Fig. 9) are larger than the dor- mant buds Cb bj. That is, they have grown; and if they have grown, they are really branches, and leaves were borne upon their little axes in the season just past. The branchlets d d d are larger (possibly because the accompanying leaves were more exposed to light) , and e e and g are still larger. For some reason the growth of this twig was checked last year, and all the branches re- mained short. We find, in other words, that there is no necessary length to which a branch shall grow, but that its length is dependent upon local or seasonal conditions. 10. Opening of flower-bud of apple. 9. Formation of fruit-buds. 11. Opening leaf -buds of crab-apple. STUDIES OF FRUIT -BEARING 29 There are other and more important differences in this shoot. The buds terminating the branches (e e g) are larger and less pointed than the others are. If they were to be watched as growth be- gins in the spring, it would be seen that they give rise to both flowers and leaves (Fig. 10), while the other buds give leaves only (Fig. 11). In other words, there are two general kinds or types of buds, fruit -buds (that is, flower- buds) and leaf -buds ; and checking the growth induces fruitfulness. If the buds on the ends of the branchlets e e g produce flowers, the twig cannot increase in length; for an apple is invariably borne on the end of a branch (which is often so short as to be called a spur) , and therefore no terminal bud can form there. If growth takes place on the twig next year, therefore, it must arise from one of the lower or leaf -buds. The buds terminating the branchlets d d d will stand the best chance of continuing the growth of the twig, for they are the largest and strongest, and are most exposed to sunlight. These failing, the opportunity will fall to one or both of c c; and these failing, the long- waiting dormant buds may find their chance to grow. The reader should see these dormant buds for himself. In other words, there are more buds upon any twig than are needed, but there is, thereby, a provision against emer- gencies. 30 THE FRUIT -BUD THE FRUIT-SPUR AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE APPLE We have now found (Figs. 9, 10, 11) that there are two kinds of buds, the leaf -buds, and the fruit -buds (or flower -buds). Some of these fruit- The fruit-spur and leaf-spur. buds on the apple tree terminate short branches (e e which bore its first good crab-apple. crop of apples last year. This *This account of these three apple twigs is adapted from the author's leaflet entitled "Four Apple Twigs," issued as a nature-study suggestion by the College of Agriculture of the Cornell University, 1896-7. This leaflet (and also "Lessons with Plants") contains the detailed his- tory of an older and more complicated branch. 34 THE FRUIT -SPUR simple twig is plainly of . two years' growth, for the "ring" between the old and new wood is seen at B. The main stem from the base to B grew in 1895 (the picture was made in January, 1897), and the part from B to the tip grew in 1896. The buds on these two parts look very unlike. Let us see what these differences mean. We must now picture to ourselves how this shoot from B to 10 looked last summer while it was growing. The shoot bore leaves, one below each bud; or, to be more exact, one bud developed just above each leaf. These buds did not put out leaves. They grew to their present size and then stopped (see fh, Fig. 6). What are these buds of the tip shoot propos- ing to do in 1897? We can answer this question by going back one year and seeing what the buds on the lower (or older) part of the shoot did in 1896, as we did in Figs. 5 and 6. Upon that part (below B) the buds seem to have increased in size. Therefore, they must have grown last year. There were no leaves borne below these buds in 1896, but a cluster of leaves came out of each bud in the spring. As these leaves expanded and grew, the little bud grew on; that is, each bud grew into a tiny branch, and when fall came each of these branches had a bud on its end to continue the growth in the year to come. What we took to be simple buds at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are therefore little branches (compare Fig, 9). A two-year-old shoot from a young apple tree. Half size. m 17. A three-year-old shoot and fruit-spurs. Half size. 36 THE FRUIT -SPUR But the strangest part of this twig has not yet been seen, — the branches are of different sizes, and three of them (7, 8, 9) have so far out- stripped the others that they seem to be of a dif- ferent kind. It should be noticed, too, that the very lowermost bud (at 1) never grew at all, but remained perfectly dormant during the entire year 1896. It will be seen, then, that the dor- mant bud and the smallest branches are on the lower part of the shoot, and the three strong branches are at the very tip of the last year's growth. If, now, we picture the twig as it looked in the fall of 1895, we will see that it consisted of a single shoot, terminating at B. It had a large terminal bud (like those at 7, 8, 9, 10), and this bud pushed on into a branch in 1896, and three other buds near the tip did the same thing. Some of these branches grew to be larger than others because of more sunlight and more room on this outward or upward end. In 1897, — if this shoot had been spared, — each of these four largest twigs (7, 8, 9, 10) would have done the same thing as the parent twig did in 1896 : each would have pushed on from its end, and one or two or three other strong branches would probably have started from the strong side buds near the tips, the very lowest buds would, no doubt, have remained perfectly in- FRUIT -SPURS OF APPLE 37 active or dormant for lack of opportunity, and the intermediate buds would have made short branches like 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. In other words, the tree always tries to grow onward from its tips, and these tip shoots eventually become strong branches, unless some of them die in the struggle for existence. What, now, becomes of the little branches lower down! From another apple tree the twig shown in Fig. 17 was taken. We see at once that it is very unlike the other. It seems to be two years old, one year's growth extending from the base up to 7, and the last year's growth extending from 7 to 8 ; but we shall see upon looking closer that this is not so. The short branchlets at 3, 4, 5, 7 are very different from those in Fig. 16. They seem to be broken off. The fact is that the broken ends show where apples were borne in 1896. The branchlets that bore them, therefore, must have grown in 1895, and the main branch, from 1 to 7, grew in 1894. It is plain, from the looks of the buds, that the shoot from 7 to 8 grew during the year 1896. Starting from the base, then, we have the main twig growing in 1894; the small side branches growing in 1895; these little branches bearing apples in 1896, and the terminal shoot also grow- ing in 1896. Why was there no terminal shoot growing in 1895? Simply because its tip de- veloped a fruit -bud (at 7), and therefore could not 38 THE FRUIT -SPUR send out a branch ; for there are two kinds of buds, — the small, pointed leaf -bud and the thic£, blunt fruit -bud. If the branchlets, 3, 4, 5, 7, are two years old, the dormant buds — 1, 2 — must be the same age. That is, for two long years these little buds have been waiting for some bug to eat off ,the buds and leaves above, or some accident to break the shoot beyond, so that they might have a chance to grow; but they have waited in vain. We have now found, therefore, that the little side shoots upon apple twigs may become fruit- branches or fruit -.spurs, while the more ambitious branches above them are making a display of stem and leaves. But will these fruit -spurs bear fruit again in 1897? No. The bearing of an apple is hard work, and these spurs did not have enough vi- tality left to make fruit-buds for the next year; but they must perpetuate themselves, so that they have sent out small side buds, which will bear a cluster of leaves and grow into another little spur in 1897, and in that year these new spurs will make fruit -buds for bearing in 1898. The side bud is plainly seen on spur 5, also on spur 4, while spur 7 has sown a seed, so to speak, in the bud at 6. It is, therefore, plain why the tree bears every other year (see page 32, Figs. 13, 14). There was one tree in the orchard from which the farmer had not picked his apples. Perhaps FRUIT -BEARING OF APPLE 39 the apples were not worth picking. At any rate, the dried apples, shriveled and brown, hang on the twigs in midwinter, and even the birds do not seem to care for them. One of these twigs is drawn in Fig. 18. Let us see how many apples this twig has borne. We can tell by the square- cut scars. An apple was once borne at 1, another 18. A fruit-spur -svhich has borne six apples. Half size. at 2, another at 4, another at 5, another at 6, and another at 7, — and at 7 there will be a scar when the apple falls. Six apples this modest shoot has borne! We may speculate how many of them got ripe, or how many were taken by the worms, or urchins. A curious thing happened when the fruit was growing at 2. Two side buds started out, instead of one, and both of them grew the next year. But one of the little branchlets fell sick and died, or a bug nipped off its end, or it starved to death; and the grave is still marked by the little stick 40 THE FRUIT -SPUR standing at 3. The other branchlet thrived, and eventually bore apples at 4, 5, 6 and 7. We have found that these fruit -spurs bear only every other year; then, if this branch has borne six apples, it must be twelve years old. The truth is that it is about twenty years old, for some years it failed to bear; but the age cannot be traced in the picture, although it could be made out from the branch itself. THE FRUIT-SPUR AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE PEAR An old fruit -spur of a pear tree is shown in Fig. 19. One year it grew from the base to a, and there formed a fruit -bud. Let us suppose that this year was 1880. In 1881, a pear matured from this bud, as may be seen by the large scar at a. In this year, also, a lateral bud developed. In 1882, this bud gave rise to a shoot. The "rings" whence it started are plainly seen at a a. It is noticeable, also, that the spur ceased to grow in the direction a. In this year, 1882, the shoot grew to the rings b b, and there developed a fruit- bud. In 1883, this fruit -bud opened and pro- duced flowers, one of which bore fruit, as shown by the large scar (bj. The short growth from b b to b is that which took place in the elongation from the bud in this spring of 1883. While this fruit was developing, a leaf -spur pushed out from just below the fruit (bj, and grew to the next FRUIT -SPURS OF PEAR 41 series of rings (c c) . A weaker bud also de- veloped, which in 1884 pushed toward c. The six years' growths can be traced on this side shoot, and it once made a flower -bud, and a fruit set at c; but the small size of the scar shows that the fruit never attained maturity. It probably fell in very early summer. It is apparent that there is an alternation in the fruit -bearing of the pear, as in that of the apple; from this we may infer that there is something like an alter- nation of effort, or division of labor, in the successive growths of many plants. The further history of this interesting pear spur (Fig. 19 ) may be summarized as fol- lows: 1884, the barren shoot grew to e e, and made a fruit- bud; 1885, pear borne and carried to maturity at e, two side buds developing, and also two weaker spurs at d and d d, — giving four chances of continuing the growth of the main spur; 1886, the spurs d and d d remained small and slender, but one of the upper branches grew Old spur of pear. 42 THE FRUIT -BUD on to g and there made a fruit -bud, while its twin bud (upon the left) did not elongate; 1887, fruit borne at g, but it did not mature (as shown by the small size of the scar) , and the spur con- tinued to h, and there made another fruit -bud; the twin bud now pushed on to / and made a fruit -bud, and the spurs d and d d are alive, but evidently doomed soon to perish; 1888, fruits were borne at / and h (the bearing year having 20. An old pear spur been changed), but neither of them matured, the side spurs pushed on to // and Ji h, and an at- tempt was made at fruit -bearing at d; 1889, all shoots elongated and all end in leaf -buds, show- ing that the change in the bearing year had in- terfered with the normal development, for this should have been the year of fruit. Our spur, therefore, is ten years old; it has borne good fruits three times, and has made five unsuccess- ful attempts at fruit -bearing; some of the branches are too weak for further usefulness; FRUIT -BEARING OF PEAR 43 and dormant buds still remain on the old wood near its base. The struggle for existence in an old pear spur is still further illustrated in Fig. 20. On five of the strongest and upturned branchlets there are fruit-buds. Some of the branchlets terminate in the small and pointed leaf -buds, and some are dead. If the reader has become expert in read- ing the histories of twigs, he may find in this picture the records of ten efforts at the bearing of pears. Another pear twig is drawn in Fig. 21. In 1895, a pear was borne at a, and in that year two side buds were developed (as they have formed in Figs. 13 and 14). In 1896, these two buds gave rise to branches or spurs, each of which developed a fruit-bud at its end, & c. It was on the 17th of April, 1897, that the picture was made. Three weeks later all the buds had burst (Fig. 22). Buds 6, c, d, e, produced flow- ers, and / made only a feeble effort at leaves. That is, all but one of the buds are fruit-buds. In July, however, the branch looked like Fig. 23. Although several flowers had been produced by each of the four fruit -buds, only one flower in the bud b and another in c persisted and set fruit. Another twig upon this same pear tree was drawn (Fig. 24) upon the 17th of April, 1897. There are three thick, rounded buds which are evidently fruit -buds. They terminate spurs which 21. Twig of a Bartlett pear 23. The filial result. FRUIT -BEARING OF PEAR 45 spring from the top of the growth of 1895. That is, the spurs grew and developed fruit -buds in the season of 1896. On the 4th of May, the twig 24. Three fruit-spurs of pears. looked as in Fig. 25. The three buds had pro- duced flowers, only one of which still persists, and even that soon fell. No fruits were pro- 25. The sequel. duced. The buds were too weak to set fruit, although they produced blossoms. Still another pear twig is seen in Fig. 26. It is evident that only the lowest bud is a fruit -bud. 46 THE FRUIT -BUD The others are too small to be fruit -buds. In May the twig was drawn again (Fig. 27). THE FRUIT-SPUR AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE PLUM AND CHERRY A spur from a plum tree is shown in Fig. 28. If we begin with the tip of the shoot, we deter- mine that last year's growth began at c, the pre- 26. Leaf-spurs and a fruit-spur of pear. 27. The sequel. vious year's at ft, and the preceeding year's at a. The lower side spur has grown to a a, then to & 6, then to the end. It will be seen that the FRUIT -BEARING OF PLUM 47 28. Fruit-spur of plum. 29. Spur of Lombard plum. buds and side spurs are borne usually near the ends of the growths, but the many scars show that buds were once present on the lower or older parts, but have perished in the struggle for existence. The spur differs greatly from OF THK UNIVERSITY 48 THE FRUIT - BUD those of the pear, in the fact that the buds are in twos or threes rather than single. It is diffi- 30. Spur of Satsumaplum. 31. Buds and spurs of cherry. cult to distinguish which are leaf-buds and which fruit -buds. The character of the buds is to be determined from their positions rather than from their shapes. The first point to FRUIT -BEARING OF PLUM 49 Cherry spurs. notice in determining which are leaf-buds and which fruit -buds is the direction of growth of the entire spur. The pear spur (Fig. 19) is crooked and forked' because the fruit- buds are terminal ; if, therefore, the plum spur is straight or continuous in growth, it is because the terminal buds are leaf -buds. The side buds may therefore be inferred to be fruit-buds. The reader should examine a plum tree in either flower or fruit 'for further light upon this point; and from all his observations he will be able to satisfy himself that there are at least two general types of spurs upon fruit trees, — with termi- nal fruit -buds and terminal leaf -buds. The fruit -bearing of the common plum is further illustrated in Fig. 29, which shows the growths of the two last years. The last season's growth is from a to e, and upon The same spurs in May. 50 THE FRUIT -BUD this part there are no fruit -buds. The second year's growth, below a, bears many fruit -spurs, each of which has several fruit -buds, thus ex- plaining how it is that plums are borne in dense clusters. It is noticeable that the strongest spurs are nearest the top of the two years' growth, where more sunlight was received. A spur of a Japanese plum, Fig. 30, shows clustered fruit -buds. A single smaller leaf -bud is in the center of each cluster. Japanese plums also bear from twin fruit -buds on the last year's growth, in the way of the peach and apricot. A twig of Morello cherry is shown in Fig. 31. It is of two years' growth. The division between the two years is seen between 2 and 3. Above this division, the buds are single and in the axils of leaves ; below it, they are clustered on spurs. The rounded buds on these spurs, 1, 2, are fruit -buds. Fig. 32 shows two cherry spurs, one a leaf -spur and the other a fruit- spur. The four large buds on the fruit- spur are flower -buds ; the central one is a leaf -bud. Fig. 33 shows how the same spurs look when they have burst into growth. THE PEACH AND THE APRICOT The next picture (Fig. 34) shows a twig cut from a peach tree in spring (or winter). It is two seasons old, as shown by the ring at a, and FRUIT -BEARING OF PEACH 51 by the different buds upon the two parts. Upon the older portions there are dormant buds; there are also curious angular bodies at e e e. We understand what the dormant buds mean, but the other bodies demand explanation. They are not growing branches, because they have no buds. The truncate or squared ends are scars. These cannot be leaf -scars, because no buds are left above them (and we have found that buds grow in the axils of leaves). They must, then, be fruit -scars (or flower -scars). If we could have seen this twig (below a) in the spring of last year, a piece of it would have looked like Fig. 35. Three buds are borne to- gether, the two lateral ones (which are evidently fruit -buds) being large and thick. If it were the habit of the peach to bear three leaf -buds together, the method of branching of the peach tree would tend to be by threes, but we know that this is not the fact. We know that these objects a a are not spurs (or branches), because the leaf- scar is visible below each one. That is, they are normal buds, formed the previous year in the axils of leaves. If we could go back to this previous year, we should find the condition shown in Fig. 36, in which a triplet of leaves is making this group of buds; but there are other leaves borne singly, and in the axils of these only leaf -buds are borne (as a rule). From this it is seen that the method of fruit -bearing of the peach is very 36. The formation of the triple buds. 34. Twig from 35. Triple a peach tree, buds of peach. 37. Partly grown peach. FRUIT -BUDS OF PEACH 53 different from that of the apple, pear, plum, and cherry. It must now be determined why the fruit -scars are single on the twig in Fig. 34, while the fruit -buds are in pairs (with a leaf -bud between them) in the first place (Figs. 36, 35). Fig. 37 shows a half- grown peach which has arisen from one of the buds. A flower was produced from each bud, but in the struggle for existence one of them (and also the leaf- bud) perished. The twig in Fig. 34 has no buds upon the bodies which bore the peaches; therefore, these bodies are not leaf -bearing branches (or spurs) , and they do not bear again. We have seen (Figs. 36, 35) that these fruit -buds are formed on the axial growth of the current year, and bear the next year, and not upon spurs. Very short fruit-bearing growths often arise from two or three -year -old wood of the peach, but these are really not spurs— although they look like spurs — because they , T. . , . 38. Fruit-buds of bear but once. It is plain, Moorpark apricot. 54 THE FRUIT -BUD therefore, that the peach -grower should always aim to so manage his trees as to have a liberal supply of new growths. An apricot shoot is seen in Fig. 38. It is of two seasons' growth. Upon the last year's 39. Short branching spur of apricot. 40. The three buds with but a single leaf. growth, above a, the buds are borne singly, in twos, or in threes. Normally, a bearing young twig has buds in threes, as the peach has, the middle one being a leaf-bud, but one or two of the triplet often perishes in the struggle for ex- istence. Below a there are fruit- spurs, much as in the plum. These spurs in Fig. 38 are long and simple, and bear several buds ; but one often finds branching spurs, like Fig. 39, reminding him SIMPLE AND MIXED BUDS 55 of the pear, although the apricot spur never attains such great age as the pear spur does. The apricot, therefore, makes fruit -buds both upon the current year's growth and upon spurs. We have found (Fig. 36) that the triplet buds of the peach are subtended by three leaves. The 41. Struggle for existence among the apple flowers. apricot is not so, for the three buds are borne in the axil of a single leaf (Fig. 40). We have seen in Figs. 10, 22 and 33 that the blossom-bud of the apple and pear and cherry contains leaves as well as flowers. These leaves persist through the season and aid in nourishing the fruit. Notice them in Figs. 14 and 23. They are also shown in Fig. 41; and this picture (as, also, Fig. 14) shows how it is that apples are usually borne 56 THE FRUIT -BUD singly although the flowers are in clusters of six or more. In the peach, however, the fruit -buds do not contain leaves (Fig. 37), and, moreover, the flowers are borne singly. Fig. 42 shows that the same is true of the apricot. We may say, there- fore, that the blossom -buds of the peach and apricot are simple, and that those of the apple, pear, plum and cherry are mixed. GOOSEBERRIES, CURRANTS AND JUNEBERRIES In the gooseberry shoot in Fig. 43, it is plain that the part from a to b grew the last season, and the portion below a two seasons ago. The upper portion has simple buds, while the lower portion has what appear to be elongated buds, but which are really fruit -spurs. Each of these spurs, then, bore a cluster of leaves last year, as if it had been an apple spur. If the reader will examine currant and gooseberry bushes at any time of the year, he will readily conclude that they usually bear fruits on spurs, but that these spurs gener- ally bear only two or three times. The two-year-old twig of a black currant is drawn in Fig. 44. It was taken in spring, and yet the remains of the old fruit -stems persist on each of the spurs. The point of attachment of these stems shows the lengths of the spurs of the year before, and the crook in the spur at that point shows that the fruit -bud was terminal \ 42. The single and leafless flowers of apricot. Gooseberry shoot. 44. Fruit-bearing of the black currant. 58 THE FRUIT -BUD (as it must be in Fig. 43, since the spur con- tains but a single bud), also that the subsequent growth of the spur arose from a side bud. In fact, two of the spurs, a, &, developed two side buds. The fruit -bearing of the gooseberry and 45. Bearing shoot of dwarf juneberry. black-currant, therefore, is by means of spurs. The black-currant bears mostly on last year's wood, but the red and white currants bear mostly on two -year -old wood. The juneberry twig (Fig. 45) shows that this plant also bears upon spurs ; and upon each of the four spurs shown in the illustration the old fruit -stem still remains. The best clusters the A MAPLE SHOOT 59 following year may be expected to come from the strong terminal buds. CO-TERMINAL FRUIT-BEARING The expanding shoot of a maple is illustrated in Fig. 46. It came from a winter bud termi- nating a twig. The enlarging scales of this bud are at 1, 2, 5, 4. This shoot bears not only 46. Expanding shoot of Norway maple. 60 THE FRUIT -BUD flowers but leaves, and the shoot is growing. That is, the axis has elongated considerably since the opening of the bud. A quince flower is drawn in Fig. 47. This, Flowering shoot of quince. too, is borne upon a leafy shoot of the season. That is, a shoot sprung from the terminal winter bud, and after this shoot had grown several inches a flower was produced. Such methods of 48. Twig of quince. 49. Branch of small-fruited hickory. 62 THE FRUIT -BUD flower -bearing may be called co- terminal, be- cause they terminate the axial growth of the season. We can now understand the winter twigs of the quince. Fig. 48 is such a twig. There is a fruit -scar at d. We know that the shoot grew the same year in which the fruit was borne ; and this is further proved by the presence of 50. Cane of grape vine. axillary buds upon the shoot between c and d. Another fruit was borne at b. While this latter fruit was growing, side shoots started off in two directions, one extending to / and the other to g. During the following winter the tip of the branch g died, and in the spring two shoots sprung from it, one growing to d and bearing a fruit, and the other to e and not bearing. The branch 1) f made a number of lateral shoots, for its tip also had died before the growing sea- son began. The twig 48, then, is four years old. HOW GRAPES BEAR 63 In like way, the reader may trace the history of any of the hickories (Fig. 49), butternut and walnuts, in all of which the fruit -bearing is also co -terminal. GRAPES AND BRAMBLES A bit of a grape cane, with a bud, is shown in Fig. 50. In May, this bud has given rise to a shoot like that in Fig. 51. As the shoot grows, flower -clusters arise. Two such clusters are now well developed, and a third is forming near the tip; and the shoot will continue to grow from the tip, a. This shoot, in fact, is to become a cane, growing several feet in length before the close of the season; but the flowers will not con- tinue to form, for only two to four clusters are borne, as a rule, upon each cane, and these are all near the base of the cane. In the fall, the grapes hang from the lower, or older, joints (Fig. 52), the cane continuing in the direction a; 5L The young grape and from some or all of the axillary buds on this cane, other flower -bearing shoots may arise the following year. Therefore, 64 THE FRUIT -BUD we may say that the fruit of the grape is borne upon growing shoots of the season which arise from wood of the last year's growth. If, there- fore, two to four clusters of grapes may be ex- pected from each bud upon the. recently matured canes, the pruner can determine how many buds he shall leave, — that is, how long he shall cut his canes, — to produce a given crop. In fall and winter, a recent black raspberry cane looks like A, Fig. 53. In the following summer, the bud above A sends forth a shoot, the remains of which may persist the next winter and look like B. This shoot bore several leaves, and a cluster of berries at its top. The red rasp- berry, blackberry and dewberry behave in a simi- lar way. These plants are, therefore, like the grape in the fact that they bear fruit upon leafy shoots of the season which arise from wood of the previous year's growth; but they differ from the grape in the fact that the fruit is borne on the end of the shoot, and the shoot, therefore, cannot itself develop into a long cane. In other words, the canes of the brambles arise each year from the root — and bear the following year — whereas the canes of the grape arise from other canes. Very many plants bear their flowers or fruits at the ends of leafy shoots of the season, and their fruit -bearing might, therefore, be said to be co- terminal (page 59) ; but this term should be 52. The fruit-bearing of the grape. 66 THE FRUIT -BUD restricted to those plants in which the leafy shoot is short and reaches its growth soon after the opening of the win- ter bud. Roses, some spi- reas, and many orna- mental plants, bear flowers at the ends of long summer shoots (see Fig. 54); and in such plants the aim should be, if many flowers are desired, to secure many strong sea- sonal growths. HOW TO TELL THE FRUIT-BUDS We have now found that there are three elements or factors which aid one in determining the places at which the plant is to bear flow- ers or fruits, — the habit or manner of growth of the plant, the character of the spurs, and the looks of the buds. Thus, we are to look for the fruit -buds on the last year's growth of the peach and black cur- 53. Fruit-bearing rant, upon two or three years' growth •aspberry. Q^ ^ re(j curran^ generally on spurs of apple, pear and plum; and the like. We know that, as a rule, a spur which matures fruit one HOW TO TELL FRUIT -BUDS 67 year produces only leaf -buds that year, and makes blossom buds the following year. We know th,at these fruit -buds are often formed a season ahead, in which case they can be distinguished in the 54. Flower-bearing of wild rose (Rosa Sayi). winter, as in most of the fruits ; but we also know that in roses, and some other plants, there is no way of telling in advance, — except by ex- perience,— how many flower -buds there will be. 68 THE FRUIT -BUD We have found that the winter fruit -bud is generally larger, thicker and rounder than the winter leaf -bud, and it is usually more pubescent 55. Leaf -bud of pear. 56. Flower-bud of pear. 57. Leaf -bud of apricot. or fuzzy. There are weak fruit-buds, however, which are very like leaf -buds; and these weak buds usually do not carry fruit to maturity. The only positive means of determining fruit -buds is by an examination of the interior. The winter bud is really an em- bryo branch. It contains in miniature or in rudiment as many leaves or flowers as the resulting branch is normally to bear. With a razor or very 58. Flower-bud of i •, • /? , -, • apricot in section. sharP kmfe> Cut a bud m tw° lengthwise. Sharp eyes can de- termine between leaf -buds and fruit -buds in apples, pears, and most other fruits ; but it is best to have a small lens. A common pocket THE FRUIT -BUD OP PEARS 69 lens is usually sufficient. If the section of a pear or apple bud looks like Fig. 55, it is a leaf -bud; if like Fig. 56, it is a flower -bud. 59. Pear spur with leaf -buds. 60. Pear spurs, E with three fruit-buds. The globular bodies in the latter are the mini- ature unopened flowers; one sees them further expanded in Fig. 10. The imbricated plates in Fig. 55 are bud -scales and leaves; one sees them expanded in Fig. 11. A leaf -bud of apri- 70 THE FRUIT -BUD cot is seen in section in Fig. 57. A flower -bud (taken after it had begun to swell) is shown enlarged in Fig. 58. The pictures will aid the inquirer in deter- 'mining the fruit-buds in pears and apples; and discussions in Chapter IV. may also help him 61. Tips of pear shoots; 2 has fruit-buds. to understand them. Fig. 59 is a pear spur. In 1897, it bore fruit at its end, a, and two side spurs, each terminated by a leaf -bud, arose from below the fruit. In 1898, these two branches may be expected to produce fruit -buds and to bear in 1829. Fig. 60 shows a terminal leaf- bud at A, and three terminal fruit-buds at E. Below these three is a leaf -bud. These two twigs in Fig. 60 are short spurs. In Fig. 61 are shown the tips of three strong THE FRUIT -BUD OF APPLES 71 top shoots from a dwarf pear tree. Shoot 1 is terminated by a leaf -bud, and shoot 2 by four fruit -buds. During the season, the end of shoot 3 was injured. The dead tip is still seen at e. Two side buds developed, and there was a great deposition of tissue below each one ; but both of these buds are still leaf -buds. (See Chapter IV. for further discussion of this common occur- rence.) Two apple spurs are reported in Fig. 62. One, s, ends in a leaf-bud, and the other, o, in a fruit- bud. Both set fruit the year before, but the fruits did not persist. Fig. 63 shows tips of 3KI d strong apple shoots. At d is 62. Apple spurs; o has a fruit -bud. 63. Tips of apple shoots : e is a fruit-bud. a leaf -bud and at e a fruit -bud. Observe that the stoutest twigs bear the fruit -buds. In some cases, the two sexes — the stamens and pistils — are in different flowers on the same plant, and in a few trees (as willows and poplars) they 72 THE FRUIT -BUD are on different plants. Plants are said to be monoecious when the stamens and pistils are separate on the same plant, and dioecious when they are on different plants. In both cases, it is necessary that the inquirer should find two kinds of blossom -buds, if he desires to locate the parts. Fig. 64 is a twig from a filbert taken in winter. The catkins, or flower -clus- ters, are two at each joint. With the first warmth of spring, the cat- kins elongate and dangle in the wind. But they bear only staminate or male flowers. The pistil- late or fruit-bearing flow- ers are hidden in short, rounded buds, and the pistils do not protrude un- til spring. Fig. 65 shows a twig of hazel (filberts and hazels are very closely allied) taken in early spring, and the styles of the pistillate flowers are protruding from 65. Pistn- the two lower buds. Other monoecious fruit plants } are the walnuts, butter- nut, hickories, and chestnuts, but chestnuts pro- duce their flowers in summer, and the buds from which fruits are to come cannot be so well dis- 64. Winter cat- kins of filbert. WINTER -KILLED BUDS 73 tinguished in winter except by their position upon the tree. In the walnuts and hickories, the pistillate flowers are co- terminal, but the staminate flowers arise from lateral winter flower -buds on the last year's growth. If the reader has followed the discussions in this chapter he will have derived a general knowledge of the external features of fruit -spurs and fruit-buds. It now remains for him to ver- ify and expand his knowedge by examining the plants themselves. It will not be profitable to detain him longer here. It will be necessary only to answer the question which he will be sure to ask, — how to tell when fruit -buds are winter -killed. It is generally the embryo flowers which are 06. Apricot buds live, killed by cold, although, in and dead- Lon^- . . , . , _ tudinal section. severe winters, the entire bud of the mixed fruit -bud type may be killed, so that the bud makes no attempt to swell on the approach of spring. The normal color of the interior of 6L Peach buds' live and dead. Cross fruit -buds is green or greenish. section. When the interior is black or very dark brown, it is generally safe to infer that the bud is dead. Figs. 66 and 67 illustrate dif- ferences between live and dead buds, the dead buds being on the right in each case. It should 74 THE FRUIT -BUD be added, however, that much of the reporting upon condition of fruit -buds is little more than guessing. The surest way to determine the con- dition of the buds is to examine them carefully under a lens or dissecting microscope. Having determined just how a dead bud looks, in the particular plant under consideration, the inquirer may then extend his observations to a more general examination in the field. SUMMARY SYNOPSIS OF THE POSITIONS OF FRUIT-BUDS The positions of the fruit-buds in any species vary with the age and vigor of the plant, with the variety, and other conditions ; but the habit- ual modes of fruit -bearing may be conveniently presented in synoptical form : I. Flowers produced immediately from dis- tinguishable winter buds. (a) Buds lateral, and no spurs: Peach, almond (mostly), Japanese plum (in part), apri- cot (in part), filbert, hazel. (&) Buds terminal for the most part, on spurs: Apple, pear, cherry, plum (mostly), apricot (mostly), almond (in part), currant (in part), gooseberry. II. Flowers on shoots of the season. (c) Co-terminal, — borne in early spring on the end of a very short shoot which POSITIONS OF FRUIT -BUDS 75 arises from a winter bud: Quince, medlar, hickories, walnut. (d) Terminal, or approximately so, on lateral summer shoots: Raspberry, blackberry, dewberry, orange. (e) Lateral on strong shoots (or on canes) : Grape, chestnut, persimmon, mulberry, olive. (/) Terminal on terminal shoots: Loquat. CHAPTER III THE HEALING OF WOUNDS Let us consider for a moment the general make-up of the plant cylinder. The young shoot is tightly enveloped with bark. We observe that in many plants the increase in diameter of the stem comes about by the formation of rings of new tissue (or new wood) under the bark, and we know that in all plants the growth in the thick- ness takes place upon the inside of the cylinder, and not upon the very outside. It is evident, then, that the covering of bark must expand in order to allow of the expansion of the woody cylinder within it. The tissues must, therefore, be under con- stant pressure or tension. It has been determined that the pressure within a growing trunk is often as much as fifty pounds to the square inch. A piece of an elm branch ten years old is drawn in Fig. 68. It is an 68. Cracking of the bark on an elm branch. (76) STRETCHING OF THE BARK 77 inch in diameter, yet the bark at the top is smooth and intact. At one time, the shoot was not more than one -eighth of an inch in diameter at this point. The reader may figure out how 69. Piece of bark from an old elm trunk. 70. A dead branch and the mass of healing tissue at its base. much this bark has expanded by the combined action of intercalary growth and stretching. The lower part of the limb shows that the outer layers of bark (which are long since dead, and act only as protective tissue) have reached the limit of their expanding capacity and have begun to split. The reader will now be inter- ested in the bark upon the body of an old elm tree (Fig. 69); and he should be able to suggest one reason why stems remain terete or cylin- 78 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS drical, and why the old bark becomes marked with furrows, scales and plates. If, for any reason, the bark should become so dense and strong that the trunk cannot expand, the tree is said to be "bark-bound." Such a condition is not rare in orchard trees which have been neglected. When good tillage is given to such trees, they may not 'be able to overcome the rigidity of the old bark, and, therefore, do not respond to the treatment. Sometimes the thin- ner-barked limbs may outgrow in diameter the trunk or the old branches below them. The remedy is to release the tension. This may be done either by softening the bark (by washes of soap or lye), or by separating it. The latter is done by slitting the bark -bound portion (in spring), thrusting the point of a knife through the bark to the wood and then drawing the blade down the entire length of the bark -bound portion. The slit is scarcely discernible at first, but it opens with the growth of the tree, filling up with new tissue beneath. Let the reader consider the ridges which he now and then finds upon trees, and determine if they have any sig- nificance. In other words, are the trunks of trees ever perfectly cylindrical f If not, what may cause the irregularities ! Do trunks often grow more on one side than the other! Slit a rapidly -growing limb, in spring, with a knife blade, and watch the result during the KNOTS AND KNOT-HOLES 79 season. Consult the woodpile, and observe the variations in thickness of the annual rings, and especially of the same ring at different places in the circumference. We have seen that some of the side branches on the little cherry tree (Fig. 2) died, and that all the others will probably perish. Fig. 70 shows a dead limb on an oak tree. The limb became weak because the shade was too dense, and because branches above it took more than their share of food. Finally, borers 71. A knot hole. 72. Knot in a hemlock log. and fungi attacked it, and it died. It rotted slowly away, year by year its twigs fell, and finally a heavy fall of snow broke it off as we 80 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS now see it. As soon as it died, it became a men- ace to the tree, for the rot in its tissues might ex- tend into the trunk. The tree made an effort to cover it up. The tissue piled higher and higher about its base, reaching for the end of the wound. The limb was eaten away by decay, and became smaller and smaller in diameter, leaving a cup -like ring about its base. Finally it broke off, and a knot-hole was left. Such a knot-hole is seen in Fig. 71. Knot-holes on the bodies of trees, then, are the cavities left by dead and decaying limbs. A hemlock log, split lengthwise, is drawn in Fig. 72. A knot extends to the center. This knot is the remains of a limb, and is nearly as old as the trunk, because it starts from the very center ; that is, the limb sprung off when the tree was a mere sapling. The probability is that it is just one year younger than the trunk, for branches usually start only on the second year's wood, unless some stress of circumstances starts out the older and dormant buds. The limb finally died and broke off, and the stub was buried. The tissue has now grown out to the end of the stub, and nothing remains but to close over the hole. If the limb had rotted away, a squirrel or a woodpecker might have taken up his quarters in the cavity. The wood- chopper, however, found only a knot ; and a board sawed from the log would have had a IMPROPER CUTTING OF LIMBS 81 knot whenever the saw cut across the old stub. If the knot were loose, it would fall out, and the board would have a knot-hole. Knots and knot-holes in boards, therefore, represent cross - 73. Improper cutting of a limb. 74. Proper cutting of a limb. sections of branches ; and each one is the record of an event in the history of the tree. A limb was sawn from a tree. Several years afterwards a drawing was made of the stub (Fig. 73). The limb had not yet healed-in. The reason is apparent: the stub had been left so long that the tissue had not yet been able to pile up over it, and, having no life in itself, F 82 THE HEALING OP WOUNDS the branch could not make healing tissue of its own. The stub is now a monument to the man who pruned the tree. Fig. 74 shows how an- other limb was cut, and although the wound is not nearly so old as the other, it is being rap- idly closed in. There are most important prac- tical lessons, then, to be learned from this study of knot-holes, — two of which are that nature is a most heroic pruner, and that limbs must be sawn off close to the parent branch if the wounds are to heal well. THE NATURE OF THE WOUND The foregoing paragraphs give the reader a general view of the practical problems involved in the expansion of trunks and the healing of wounds. It will be profitable, however, to give some of the problems more specific attention. The increase in diameter of the stem or trunk is made by the growth of cells from the cambium, which is a tissue lying upon the outside of the woody cylinder and beneath the bark. From its inside, the cambium produces wood, and from its outside, it produces the soft or inner bark. As the outer bark is ruptured by the expansion of the stem, portions of the inner bark give rise to the corky external and protective layers. A mere abrasion or surface wound, which does not expose the wood, is healed by the formation of new cork THE CALLUS 83 cells from the inner bark; but a wound which exposes the wood is healed by growth from the cambium . The cambium, then, is the active, living tissue of the plant cylinder. The wood cells soon be- come lifeless, and have no power to grow or to multiply. It is apparent, therefore, that when a 75. Cross-section of callus on an apple tree. limb an inch or more in diameter is cut off, the exposed hard wood can never heal, as a wound heals in flesh. The pressure on the cambium being relieved, however, excessive growth arises from it and from the inner bark, and a mass of tissue, known as a callus, rolls out over the wound and covers it. Fig. 74 is an excellent picture- of this callus ring. The ring will eventually cover the wound; and if a longitudinal section of the healed wound were then made, we should find the condition shown in Fig. 75, — the end of the old stub remaining as sharp-cut as it was when left 84 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS by the saw, and capped over with wood, much as a fruit -jar is capped with a metal cover. This Fig. 75 is one of the most important pic- tures in the book, and it is drawn most accurately from a normal and average specimen. It is im- portant because it shows that the end of the old stub has no organic or vital connection with the callus which covers it, but it is merely hermeti- cally sealed in, as a nail or a plug of wood might be.* So far as the vital functions of the tree are concerned, this stub is a foreign and useless body; and no dressing can be expected to hasten the healing -over process. The callus ring grows rapidly for a year or two. But hard bark forms on this callus, as it does on other growing wood, and tension or pressure thereby arises and checks the growth. This bark even forms on the under side or lip of the callus. Over the end of the stub in Fig, 75 there is a thin layer of bark. We have already found that slitting the bark upon a trunk relieves the pres- sure and allows of extra -rapid growth at that point. Suppose, then, that if the callus ceases to grow, the operator make a circular cut with a knife -point on the inner edge of the callus -roll ! In surface wounds which expose the wood, the callus also forms from the cambium and covers the denuded area. If the injury does not extend *If the reader desires to know how a graft-stub is buried, he may con- sult Fig. 133 in the last edition of "The Nursery-Book." WHY SHOULD WOUNDS HEAL? 85 below the sapwood, or if the wood has not dried out and died, the callus may make a vital connec- tion with the exposed surface of the wound. The reader now wants to ask what purpose the healing of the wound may serve the plant. The healing serves as a protection. It prevents or checks evaporation from the exposed parts, and prevents decay by protecting the wood from the weather and by excluding bacteria and fungi. A rotten heart, or rotten wood of any kind, is a diseased condition; and this disease is the work of living organisms. The exposed wood dies. It cracks and checks. The surface collects dust, which, with the dead cells, makes a thin soil in which germs find con- genial conditions for growth. Even after the wound is covered by the callus, the mycelium of the fungi may continue to extend itself in the wood, often reaching the heart and causing the trunk to become hollow. Normally, the heart of a tree should never decay; but sooner or later, most trees are exposed to injuries, either in top or root, through which the organisms of destruc- tion may enter. The pictures will help us to understand. Fig. 76 shows a cross -section of a maple trunk in which a nail is imbedded. The wood closed tight about it and no harm resulted. Now, this was the nail upon which a sugar -maker hung his bucket. Just below it was the tap-hole; and this 86 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS hole, now completely covered by the wood, is seen in Fig. 77. But mischief has come to pass. The tap-hole was an open wound, and fungi entered; 76. Nail buried in the wood. 77. Tap-hole buried in the wood. and the discolored tissue shows the progress of the decay. Pictures of ash logs are shown in Fig. 78. The one on the right had a perfect -looking trunk, although a scar was discernible at one point. A section of the trunk shows that a large limb was once broken off and its stump completely buried under the new tissue; but the log is rotten- hearted (a), and the decay of the old stump (bj THE ROTTEN HEART 87 shows where the mischief began. The stnmp on the other log is not yet closed in, and its end is decayed; and a colored streak (c) running down the heart of the old limb shows the trouble that is coming. A hickory stub has been covered (Fig. 79), and, from outside appearances, the tree is now safe; 78. Disease in ash trunks. but a section (Fig. 80) shows that decay began before the healing was complete, and the injury is already serious. Even in the apple stub in Fig. 75, wound -rot is serious. The rougher the surface of the wound, the greater is the likeli- 88 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS hood that disease will gain an entrance. On perfectly smooth and solid wounds, the greatest 79. A healed-in stump. danger is on the lower edge, where the up -rolling callus -ring forms a cup which holds water. It would be untrue to conclude that decay fol- lows from all serious and exposed wounds. Fig. 81 shows a section of a maple log, in which the THE ROTTEN HEART 89 buried stump is hard and sound; but such in- stances are the exception, particularly in humid climates. We are now able to understand that while 80. The stump is diseased. dressings or applications to the wound cannot directly hasten the healing process (page 84), they may aid it by preventing the decay of the parts, and they may be the means, thereby, of OF THK UNIVERSITY 90 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS saving the tree. That is, dressings are preven- tive, not curative ; and in this they are akin to the antiseptic dressings of the surgeon, which A sound knot. prevent contamination of the wound and thereby allow nature to heal it. In order to present another view of wood decay as a result of pruning, I have asked my col- league, B. M. Duggar, to prepare a few para- graphs on the subject, and these now follow: " The exposed surface left by the pruning saw THE WOUND DISEASES 91 is a mechanical injury as truly as the mark of the whiffle- tree or of the wind. If this exposed surface is not cared for, it may prove an inlet for disease and decay. Unfortunately, this matter has not received adequate attention from mycologists studying wound-rot fungi ; and all that we can do at this place is to suggest in a general way what may take place, especially in the larger wounds. It is not to be understood that all neglected wounds lead to wound -rot dis- eases ; but the point is that they may induce such diseases, since a certain amount of death and decay are inevitable ; and the larger the wound, the greater the danger. "First, then, we are concerned with the condi- tions which bring about and encourage this rot- ting. It is well known that when only the corky outer layer of bark is removed, another corky layer is readily formed for needed protection ; but when a branch is sawn across, as in prun- ing, the wood elements are directly exposed to the air. It is then impossible for a corky layer to be formed, and it may be several years before a callus will inclose the exposed part. The sap- wood of this exposed area soon loses connection with the active functions of the plant, and .dies. All heart wood is inactive, but in sound trees it is thoroughly protected from the air, while the exposed scar left by the pruning saw is open to weather. The open tubes which make up the 92 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS younger wood may be blocked to a large extent by ingrowths and often by gummy substances, but this does not give complete protection. Moisture is absorbed, oxidation proceeds, and the dissolved organic matter is the beginning of a fertile ground to which wind and rain must bring the germs of bacteria and of our common dead-wood molds. These germs find lodgment, and sufficient moisture for their germination and growth. It is a small beginning, but it is suffi- cient gradually to form a soil more retentive of moisture and full of the products of decay, — con- ditions more favorable for the development of wound -rot fungi. "From what is known of this matter, it seems fair to assume that bacteria are prominent in this first slow process of weathering; but they are doubtless only secondarily concerned in the deeper- seated injuries where the decay has penetrated to a considerable portion of the trunk. In most cases, they seem to prepare the way for fungi belonging to the toadstool family. One is every- where familiar with these fungi growing upon dead logs or stumps, or even upon the decaying parts of living trees. The fleshy parts which we see are produced at the surface for the pro- duction of the spores or reproductive bodies ; but the truly vegetative parts are usually be- neath the bark or within the tissues, and it is well to note how these develop from the spores. THE DISEASES OF WOUNDS 93 Germination consists in sending out a few deli- cate threads from the spores. These threads enter the moist, decaying parts, branch consid- erably, and at first confine themselves to that portion which is already dead. As they grow farther and farther inward, they may become so well established and so vigorous as to induce decay of themselves. They may encourage the further entrance of air and moisture, and thus continually they may be preceded by the atmospheric conditions necessary for their fur- ther action. At any rate, entrance to the trunk may thus be effected ; and with this en- trance local rotting is induced, and eventually the decay may extend to a considerable portion of the trunk. There are many instances of rot in which the conditions do not favor the forma- tion of the fleshy fructification of the fungus, and the cause of the decay may not be very evident. "In the case of some trees used for timber, and many other deciduous trees, there are well- known rots and decays caused by members of this toadstool family, some of them being pecu- liar to a single species of tree, and others very general in their attacks. Some of these fungi are truly parasitic, being able to enter through very small branch wounds, passing rapidly to the sound tissues, where decomposition and decay readily follow. 94 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS "In Germany the large, fleshy, sulphur -yellow punk -fungus, Polyporus sulphureus, is known to have attacked and caused decay of pear trunks, gaining an entrance through a wound. This fungus occurs in America, and while it is not reported on orchard trees, I have found it grow- ing luxuriantly upon the wild cherry, Prumis serotina, killing the trunk, apparently, for a con- siderable distance below a dead branch. "The common little agaric, Schizophyllum com- mune, I have observed growing in clusters be- tween the new bark and the dead wood on an apple tree to which the knife had been severely applied after sun -scorching, but this fungus doubtless only aids decay. "Among pyrenomycetous fungi, there are some which may take advantage of the injuries from pruning. In Europe, Nectria ditissima is known on the apple and bird cherry, producing on the smaller branches the characteristic canker spots. This fungus must enter through abrasions or pruning wounds, and the decay which follows is often considerable. Nectria cinnabarina is an- other one of these fungi, common in this country on many hosts, and this I observed last year on a large branch of pear, extending to a considerable distance either way from a broken branch of small size. "Rots and decays as a result of pruning de- serve more attention, in order that we may TREATMENT OF WOUNDS 95 fully understand the necessity for proper asep- tic treatment." SUGGESTIONS TO THE PRUNER If the reader has grasped the principles involved in this discussion of the healing process, he will be able to arrive at many sound conclusions respecting the rational making and treatment of wounds. He will also see how futile it is to attempt to construct any theory of the manage- ment of wounds from a few isolated experiments; for the interpreted results of such experiments often contradict fundamental principles, and there- fore cannot be true, however clear and unequivo- cal they may appear to be. First of all, the primer wants to know how and when he shall cut the limbs so that they will heal as quickly as possible. Let us think about the matter, and see. A twig of a peach tree was cut back in the fall. By spring it had died back an inch, as shown in Fig. 82. This stump cannot heal over of itself. If it is ever inclosed, it must be buried by the growth of a branch which shall spring from a side bud. There is such a bud on the twig, and if a branch arises from it, the stump may be overtopped in the course of a few years; but the probability is that this bud will not grow, because the drying out of the twig has injured it. The responsibility must fall, therefore, on a lower bud. 96 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS Two dwarf pear shoots are reported in Fig. 83. The one on the left was cut at some distance above a bud, and the dead and dangerous stub persists. The twig on the right was cut just above a bud, and the wound is already securely covered. 82. The dying-back 83. Poor and good heading-in of a winter-cut shoot. of dwarf pear. There are two important lessons to be drawn from these simple examples, — the nature of the healing process, and the relation of the length of the stub to the welfare of the uppermost buds. In respect to the healing process, it may be said that stubs which project far beyond a branch or far from a trunk, rarely heal over. The end of the branch being removed, the stub cannot heal itself, but the healing must depend upon the activities of other parts or branches. This state- ment is an exceedingly important one, and we shall see its applications as we proceed. THE LIFELESS STUBS 97 In respect to the welfare of the buds which are near an open wound, the pictures seem to tell contradictory stories. In Fig. 82, the bud is in danger; but in Fig. 83, one wound healed over because the bud was near it. These apparent contradictions are explained by two circumstances. The twig in Fig. 82 was on a newly-set, fall-planted tree. The roots had not yet taken hold of the soil, and could not supply the moisture which was lost from the wound. The cell contents were therefore injured. The twigs in Fig. 83 were on well-established trees. Again, the cut in Fig. 82 was made in the fall, and those in Fig. 83 in late winter. Conditions, therefore, greatly modify the problem; but, as a rule, it may be said that in severe and dry winter climates, and particularly with tender fruits, heading -in of the annual growths had better be done late in winter rather than early in winter; and this is especially true of recently fall -set trees. The healing of the stub takes place most quickly, other things being equal, when a strong bud or branch stands close to the wound, provided, always, that this bud is not injured by the drying out of the stub. How long this stub may be and not cause injury to come to the bud, depends, as we have seen, upon circumstances. If the cut is made in spring, the bud may usually stand close to the edge of the wound; if it is made in winter, the stub should usually be about a quarter of an inch long. In 98 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS the pruning of trained trees, European gardeners often take off the shoots in winter when there is time to spare, leaving the stubs two or three inches longer than desired; in spring an assistant, who may have had insufficient experience to en- 84. In memory of the pruner. 85. The bulge at the base of the branch. able him to block out the pruning, goes over the trees and cuts back the stubs to a fresh bud. The reader has already seen in Fig. 73 the monument which a man erected to his memory. It is a stump which is so long that it cannot be healed over; for, as we have seen, a leafless and THE LONG AND USELESS STUB 99 branchless stump has no life in itself. The only chance for this stub to be healed -in is from the activities of the trunk; but the end of it is too far removed from the base of supplies to receive much benefit therefrom. Having no vital part in the life of the tree, it is side -tracked, and must starve. Fig. 84 is another case. Above the stub at the right a cluster of toadstool fungi has found a happy foothold. Where should these limbs have been cut? There is an enlargement — or brace — at the base of a limb, and this bulge is usually larger the longer and more horizontal the limb. This bulge is well shown in Fig. 85. It is a common notion, — which the writer, much to his humiliation, once aided to promulgate, — that the cut should be made just beyond the bulge, and at right angles to the direction of the limb. This leaves "a stub like that in Fig. 86. The proper way, however, is to cut as shown in Fig. 87, for all parts of the wound are then in most intimate relations with the trunk, which supplies the materials to be used in covering the exposed surface. The area of the wound is larger, to be sure, but this is of minor consequence; and to such large wounds it is expected that the operator will apply a dressing. The writer has no doubts as to the soundness of the advice given in the last paragraph, but he is glad to fortify it by two excellent authorities. Professor Sargent, in his introduction to the 100 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS American edition of Des Cars' pruning book,* says that "it is necessary to prune in such a manner that no portion of an amputated or dead branch shall be left on the trunk. The 86. The wrong way to make the wound. Side and front views. cut should always be made close to and perfectly even with the outline of the trunk, without re- gard to the size of the wound thus made. This *A. Des Cars, A Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees. By Charles S. Sargent, Boston, 1881. HOW TO CUT THE LIMB 101 is the essential rule in all pruning, and on its observance the success of the operation depends." Des Cars himself speaks as follows: "It follows that a wound caused by the amputation of a branch 87. The right way to make the wound. Side and front views. must, in order to heal properly, be made perfectly even with the trunk, that every part of its outer edge may be brought into direct communication with the leaves through the net -work of cells destined to convey the descending sap." 102 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS WHEN TO CUT THE BRANCHES. — At what season of the year shall wounds be made, so far as the healing process is concerned ? There are as many opinions as there are months in the year. This is the best of evidence that there is no one season in which wounds always heal better than in all other seasons. It is indication that the time of the year at which the wound is made is less important than some other factor or factors. We have seen that the healing of serious wounds is a process which depends primarily on the cambium. Healing cannot begin, there- fore, when the cambium is inactive, as it is in late fall and winter. We have also seen (Fig. 82) that ex- posed tissue may die back during winter ; and this is ;/,, particularly true in '> ,J i j severe and dry cli- mates. There is always a tendency for the cambium and bark to die about the edges of a wound made in late fall or winter, and this sometimes progresses so far that the edge of the bark becomes loose. All this is clearly a disad- 88. Healing of a wound. WHEN TO PRUNE 103 vantage to the healing process ; and the check- ing of the stnb from its longer exposure is also to be considered. On the other hand, pruning in the growing season of spring exposes the plant to bleeding. It is not germane to the present discussion to consider the effect of this bleeding on the plant, although it may be said that injury rarely fol- lows. It is said, however, that the sap sours upon exposure to the air and injures the bark and cambium about the edges of the wound. Although this is a very common notion, I have looked in vain for a number of years for a single confirmation of it. Fruit trees rarely bleed to any extent, and on trees which do bleed, it is doubtful if this injury follows. The Japanese walnut bleeds profusely. On the 10th of April, 1896, I cut a limb two inches in diameter from one of these trees. The sap ran freely, and kept the bark wet for two weeks for a distance of nearly two feet below the cut. At this writing (Jan. 15, 1898) the wound looks as shown in Fig. 88. It is healing well on all sides, and there has never been the least injury from the bleeding. Moist wounds, however, do not allow of the efficient application of dressings. Let us now go to the trees. In the fall of 1891, experiments were begun at Cornell to determine the best season for the making of wounds and the best dressings for covering 104 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS them. The tests were made on vigorous mature apple trees (Greenings, Baldwins and Kings). Branches were cut every month in the year, and at various lengths. Dressings were made of tar, linseed oil, grafting wax, white lead paint and tallow. The results were studied in the winter of 1895-6. It is unnecessary to re- count the full experiment at this place, but wounds representing typical average conditions are shown in Figs. 89-92, and these we may profitably examine. Unless otherwise stated, these wounds are selected from two very sim- ilar Greening trees standing side by side. One tree is designated (1) and the other (2). Fig. 89.— (1) cut Oct. 31, 1891. Fig. 90.— b (1) cut Nov. 18, 1891. bb (1) cut Dec. 19, 1891, wood frozen. bbb (2) cut Feb. 23, 1892. c (1) cut Oct. 12, 1891. cc (1) cut May, 1892. ccc (1) cut Nov. 18, 1891. d (2) cut Oct., 1892. dd (2) cut Mar. 25, 1892. ddd (2) cut Feb. 1892. Fig. 91.— e (2) cut June 20, 1892. f (1) cut Oct. 12, 1891. g (2) cut July 27, 1892. h (2) cut Sept. 15, 1892. i (2) cut Feb. 23, 1892. j (2) cut July 27, 1892. . WHEN TO PRUNE 105 Fig. 91.— k (2) cut July 27, 1892. 1 Baldwin, cut May 26, 1892. m (1) cut Oct. 31, 1891. n (1) cut Jan. 2!, 1892. o (1) cut Jan. 21, 1892, wood frozen. p (1) cut Oct. 12, 1891. Fig. 92.— q (1) cut Oct. 12, 1891. r (1) cut Oct. 12, 1891. s (2) cut Aug. 26, 1892. t (2) cut June 20, 1892. u (2) cut May 26, 1892. v (2) cut Mar. 25, 1892. w (2) cut June 23, 1892. x (2) cut Mar. 23, 1892. y (2) cut Feb. 23, 1892. z (2) cut Feb. 11, 1892. zz (2) cut May 26, 1892. zzz (1) cut Dec. 19, 1891, wood frozen. Every month, except April, is represented in these incisions. Let us pick out the wounds which are healing well. They are Fig. 89, all of Fig. 90, and e, f, i, j, k, 1, m, w, y, z. These were made in the months of February, March, May, June, July, October, November, December, — nine months. The wounds which are not heal- ing well are g, h, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, zz, zzz. These were made in January, March, May, June, July, August, September, October, December, — nine months. Comparisons giving similar re- sults could have been made on a more extended scale and for every month in the year, from Ideal results in the healing of a large wound. Four years' growth of callus. A smaller wound on the lower side entirely closed. WHEN TO PRUNE 107 the wounds which are not reported in these pic- tures. We are forced to conclude that some factor other than season is the most important in de- termining the healing of these wounds. It re- quires but a superficial examination of the pic- tures to show that these important factors are two, — the position of the wound in the tree, and the length of the stub ; and of these the former is the more important. Wounds on strong limbs, especially those which are vertical or ascending, heal best (compare Fig. 89, Fig. 90, and e, i, j, k, 1, in, w, y). Very long stubs die back, instead of healing (see n, o, p). Wounds lying close to the -parent branch heal best, and those cut beyond the bulge or shoulder are inter- mediate between these and the very long stubs. (Compare, in the first category, Fig. 89, b, bb, bbb, c, cc, ccc, ddd, e, i, j, k, 1, m, w, y, z; and in the second category, d, dd, f, h, q, r, s, t, v, x, zzz.) Three of the wounds were made when the wood was solidly frozen. Of these, bb is healing well, showing that pruning when the wood is frozen does not of itself delay the healing process. (See Section 3, Chapter IV., for a further dis- cussion of this question.) Wounds o and zzz are not healing well, but the reason is to be sought in the position and nature of the wound, not in the fact that the wood was frozen at time of cutting. d dd ddd 90. The healing of wounds. DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 109 The conclusion, — and my general opinion, — in respect to season of pruning, so far as the healing of wounds is concerned, is this : The ideal time is in spring, before growth begins (late February, March and early April in New York), but more depends on the position of the wound in the tree and the length of stub than on the time of year. DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS. — Having now obtained a general conception of the nature of the healing process, we are prepared to understand that a dressing for a wood wound must possess two properties, — it must check the weathering of the wound, and it must prevent the growth of bac- teria and fungi; and it must also be of such a nature as not to injure the cambium and bark. In other words, the ideal dressing is a protective compound and an antiseptic. It does not hasten the healing process, except as it prevents decay. It is preservative and preventive. It follows from the above considerations that the first thing to be sought in a wound dressing is durability. Paint and tar answer this require- ment. It should also have intimate contact with the wood. Wax and shellac do not satisfy this requirement, for they tend to peel off and to crack. Lead paint and tar are antiseptics, whereas wax, shellac, tallow and the like, are not. Bor- deaux mixture is also an almost perfect anti- 91. The healing of wounds. DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 111 septic, and if it had the power of persisting and of preventing checking or weathering, it would be an ideal wound dressing. On quick -healing wounds it can be used with great satisfaction, as we shall discover later ; and it is a question if it would not pay to thoroughly spray trees, from which many small limbs have been cut, with the mixture. This advice has other recommendations than its suggestion for the preserving of wounds, for Bordeaux mixture is an excellent general fun- gicide; it cleans the trunks and branches of lichen or "moss;" and it probably exerts the same in- fluence as the washing of trees in softening the bark and preventing the parts from becoming bark -bound (see page 78). Paint and tar are the dressings most universally recommended. Tar and coal-tar are popular with foresters, but it is certain that they often injure the cambium and bark of fruit trees. Dressings of tar, and even bandages of tarred paper, made to protect plants from borers, often destroy the bark, particularly on young trees. Des Cars strongly advises coal-tar for forest trees, but makes this remark respecting its use on fruit- trees: "The application of coal-tar should not be made except with considerable caution in the treatment of wounds on drupaceous fruits (cher- ries, peaches, plums, etc.), and especially on the plum tree. It has often been observed that the bark of fruit-trees of this class has suffered from 92. The healing of wounds. DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 113 the application of coal-tar. This is not the case, however, with pome -bearing trees (apples, pears, etc.); to these coal-tar may be applied with per- fect safety." Card reports* that in experiments in Nebraska "coal-tar seems to have been a posi- tive hindrance to the healing process, not one wound having been reported as healing extremely well." It is not said, however, whether the tar injured the tissues, or whether the apparent re- sults may not have been due to the position and character of the wound quite as much as to the dressing. In my own experiments, which I have already reported (pages 104 to 109), tar did no damage. In fact, the rapid -healing wound bbb, Fig. 90, was dressed with tar. In those experi- ments, paint, grafting -wax, linseed oil and tallow were also used, but all the differences in the healing of the wounds were evidently the result of other conditions than the dressings. I will expand my affirmation on page 109 to read: The position of the wound on the tree and the nature of the cut exert more influence in determining the healing than either the season in which the wound is made, or the kind of dressing which it receives. My conclusion is, after having had the question in mind for a decade, that a heavy application of lead paint is the best all-round dressing for com- "Notes on Pruning, Bull. 50, Nebraska Experiment Station. H 114 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS mon pruning wounds; and this, I believe, is the commonest opinion with careful orchardists. How TO MAKE THE CUT. — I have just spoken of the "nature of the cut." I refer to both the length of the stub and the smoothness of the wound. The length of stub has been dis- cussed (Figs. 84-87). If the danger to wood wounds arises mostly from the absorption of moisture and the entrance of germs from the atmosphere, then it must fol- low that a wound which is smooth and solid is better than one which is haggled or splintered. We can conceive, too, that the progress of the cal- lus would be greatly obstructed by notches and splinters. Most of my readers — assuming that I shall have such — need no explanation of Fig. 93. The dis- aster would have been pre- vented if the operator had cut the limb as suggested in Fig. 93. Careless pruning. „ . . . n -, 94. A cut is first made as at a, sawing the limb half in two, and then the cut is made at b. The stub is then sawn off close, as shown in Fig. 87. Every pains should be taken to prevent the splitting of the wound or the tearing away of the bark, for ragged wounds seldom heal without becoming seriously diseased. Although this is not the proper place for the MAKING THE WOUND 115 discussion of pruning tools (see Chap. V.), it may nevertheless be said that for the severing of large limbs no tool leaves a better wound than a sharp saw. If the wound is not torn or split by the 94. How to prevent the splitting of the wound. weight of the limb, it will not be necessary to smooth the cut with a knife, — as some persons recommend. Chisels leave good wounds, although they are likely to split the wound near its upper side when they are operated from the ground with a mallet. It is surprising how careless many people are in the making of wounds on trees. Axes and hatchets are often brought into requisition, and the operator goes at his work as he would at a stick of timber. Leonard Coates' remark will apply to more states than one : " Many pruners in California have mistaken their voca- tion: they are carpenters." 116 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS THE MENDING OF TREES Plants are exposed to injuries of storm, weather- ing, and animals, and to the disasters which result from the struggle for existence ; and they are maimed by careless pruners and workmen. Many of these injuries can be repaired, and the preced- ing discussions will help us to understand how. A few cases may be explained, however, as a means of further elucidating the subject. Label wires were carelessly left on the trunks of young trees. The re- sults are seen in Figs. 95 and 96. It will be noticed that the larger diameter is above the girdle. This is easy of explanation. We have already found (page 17) that the materials taken in by the roots are not directly available or useful in the making of plant tissue. They ascend to the leaves, and are there 95. The mischiev- elaborated, in connection with ma- ous label wire, terial taken from the air, into organ- ized compounds, or become incor- porated with such compounds. These organic compounds — of which starch is the chief— are transferred to every part of the plant to build up its tissues. The transfer takes place in the inner layers of bark; therefore, whatever food EFFECTS OF GIRDLING 117 passes down the stem is intercepted at the girdle and is there deposited as abnormal tissue. Fig. 97 shows how a gir- dled pine tree lived, oi- inches and piled up tissue above the barrier, until the roots were starved and the tree 96. Ruined by a label wire. inches 97. A girdled pine. The lower part had four annual circles of wood and the upper part eight circles. died. All these remarks have a direct bearing on the question of ringing, which we shall discuss in Chapters IV. and V. 118 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS The careful observer will often see the callus of wood wounds growing most rapidly from the upper side. In Fig. 88 the bark has grown down over the wound. In Fig. 75, the point of union of the opposite sides of the callus ring is at &. This stub stood hori- zontal on the tree, and 1) was the lower side. The union of cion and stock sometimes acts as an obstruc- tion to the free downward movement of sap, causing a bulge on old 98. Suggestion to prevent gall- ing of a staked tree. 99. Bridge-grafting of a girdled trunk. top -grafted trees; but this phenomenon should not be confounded with the normally more rapid growth of some cions, due to the variety, as com- pared with that of the stock (see Fig. 133, Nur- TREATMENT OF GIRDLED TREES 119 sery-Book) . The reader will also notice the depo- sition of tissue above the braces in Fig. 107. We now see the importance of preventing the girdling of trees by label wires and by careless tying to stakes; but we are also informed that a girdle is not necessarily fatal to a tree. If the young wood remains live and moist, the crude food materials may pass up from the roots, and the plant continues to live for some time, and in the case of coniferous trees, often for several years. If the girdle is made early in the season, the tree may cover the girdle with bark the same year, and thus live on; but if the girdle is made late in the season, the sap wood is likely to dry out and die, and the tree to perish before the return of another season. If it is desired to kill trees quickly by girdling them, the girdle should extend through the sapwood. In the treating of girdled trees, it is first nec- essary to see that the exposed wood does not become dry and diseased. Trim away the rough edges of bark, apply an antiseptic (a wash of Bordeaux mixture is to be recommended), then cover the entire surface with melted wax* and bind it up with cloth bandages. Fruit trees may *Many recipes for tree-waxes may be found in "The Nursery-Book." The following is excellent: Into a kettle place one part by weight of tallow, two parts of beeswax, four parts of rosin. When completely melted, pour into a tub or pail of cold water, then work it with the hands (which should be greased) until it develops a grain and becomes the color of taffy candy. OF THB UNIVERSITY 120 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS be saved in this way, even if the girdles com- pletely encircle the tree and if they are as much as a foot long, providing the trees are vigorous, and the treatment is applied before the wood becomes hard and dry. If the tree is particularly choice, or if the girdle is unusually serious or of long standing, and especially if the wounds extend into the wood, it may be advisable to supply a connection be- tween the separated parts of the trunk. Fig. 99 explains how this may be done. The edges of the girdle are trimmed, and cions are inserted under the bark so as to bridge the wound. These cions are cut to a wedge shape on either end as for ordinary cleft -grafting,* and they are inserted between the bark and wood. A cloth bandage is tied about each edge of the wound, to hold the bark in place over the cions, and melted wax is then poured over the entire work, covering the exposed wood and also the edges of the bark for a couple of inches or more back from the wound. It will do no harm if the cions are buried in the wax. Care should be taken that the cions do not send out shoots from their buds. Some persons prefer to cut the buds from the cions to avoid this difficulty, but it is probably better to leave the buds on, inasmuch as their effort to grow may hasten a union. Fig. 100 is a cross -section of *The whole subject of grafting is explained in "The Nursery-Book." BRIDGE -GRAFTING 121 such a bridge -grafted tree, as it looked seventeen years after the work was done. This specimen was reported in The Rural New-Yorker in 1892 by Leroy Whitford; the picture is reproduced from that paper. 100. Cross-section of bridge-grafted tree. Body wounds on trees may be treated in the same way as girdles, — dress the edges back to live bark, scrape out all splintered and decayed wood, apply Bordeaux mixture or paint (or other anti- septic), then cover with wax. Fig. 101 shows 122 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS such a wound properly trimmed and cleaned. It was a case of disease starting at a knot. The knot has been wholly cut away, and all diseased tissue is removed. If decay is now checked, the healing callus will soon cover the area. This will at once suggest what is to be done with the dead patches of bark left by body attacks of pear -blight, borers, injury from sun- scald, gnawing by horses, loose bark, and the like. It is but a step from these cases to those of the splitting of the trunk by cold, concerning the treatment of which so many questions are asked. Fig. 102 is a sweet cherry tree which was split to the heart by a cold winter and then neglected. The bark has rolled back through the action of alternate wetness and dryness, the wood has become life- less and the crack has gaped. Fig. 101. Treatment 103 *s a peach tree which was of a body similarly injured; but in this case wound. the kark wag trimme(j back to the quick as soon as spring opened and the injury discovered, and the area was painted with Bor- deaux mixture. At the end of the same year, the wound was nearly healed, and the tree is prob- ably the better for the accident, since the pressure TREATMENT OF SPLIT TREES 123 of a hide -bound trunk has been released. In these cases of splitting it is very important that the bark be trimmed back at once, before it be- gins to roll and loosen it- self; for as often as the bark rolls the healing is interfered with and forced 102. A neglected weather split. 103. A treated split. further back from the original wound. In the cherry and some other trees, there is a strong tendency for the bark to roll, and in such cases it is advisable to bind the wound with cloths, having first applied melted wax to keep the parts fresh and soft. 124 THE HEALING OP WOUNDS Among the most difficult wounds to treat are the rotten cavities following careless pruning. Such a cavity is seen in Fig. 71. The decay has often progressed so far that it cannot be checked. The things to be done are to remove all diseased tissue and then to close the cavity. Cut out the rotten and discolored tissue with a knife or bore it out with an auger. Then soak it with an antiseptic. Now drive a plug of wood tight into the hole (A, Fig. 104), paint the surface, trim the edges of the wound to live tissue, and let nature take her course. Large wounds are sometimes covered with tin or zinc. This is good as far as it goes, but the diseased tissue should first be removed. It is impossible, however, to cover the wound so tight with the metal as to keep out germs. If the cavity is securely plugged, and the sur- 104. Plugging face smoothed and kept painted, a cavity. tlie resuits will usually be better. What is to be done in such a case as Fig. 105? It would probably be best to cut off the limbs at A and B, and allow the remaining branch to form the top. In that case, the wound at A must be trimmed back smooth and clean, and painted or otherwise protected. It may be desirable, how- ever, to save the broken part. In that case, head it back, raise it into position, and bolt it fast. TREATMENT OF CROTCHES 125 An iron bolt may be run through the base, hold- ing it securely in place, and a brace may be sup- plied higher up, as shown in Fig. 106. These bolts are run through the trunk or branches and drawn up with a nut. Both the nut 'and the head 105. In need of repairs. of the bolt should be large, so that they will not draw into the wood. The bolt should fit tight in the auger hole. When the work is done, apply paint or other covering at the place where the bolt emerges. The bolt will soon be buried, as the nail is buried in Fig. 76, and the tree does not suffer. 126 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS Very large branches may be raised and secured in this way. Be careful to keep the old split well covered with wax or thick paint. If it is necessary to apply long braces in the top of the tree, it is often advisable to run short bolts through the branches, and on the inner ends to have hooks or eyes into which another rod or a chain may be secured, thus allow- ing for the moving of the branches in the wind. It is a common practice to support crotches and weak branches by putting bands or chains about them, but the reader will at once see that this is wrong; and Fig. 107 will fix the error in his mind. There is still another way of treating such cases as Fig. 105. If a stub is left by the breaking of the limb, the stump may be smoothed and cions set in it freely, the remaining top being shortened- in at the same time. One or two good branches may be obtained from the cions, and the symmetry of the tree be thereby restored. In Fig. 108, the large branch on the right was grown from a cion set between the bark and wood in a splintered 106. Crotch held by a bolt. BRACING A CROTCH 127 stub (which terminated at a) six inches in di- ameter. The ideal treatment is to prevent the crotch from splitting. This can be done by not having the crotch, or by bracing it before it shows signs of weakness. The bolt (Fig. 107) may be used for this pur- pose. A living brace may be grown over the crotch, as shown in Figs. 109 and 110. Two small limbs, preferably not larger than the little finger, arising from opposite branches, are twisted Fig. 107. Right and wrong meth- tlghtly together, the ods of bracing a crotch. free ends being al- lowed to project as they may beyond the oppo- site branch. In a year or so the bark of the two will begin to knit together, at which time the free tips — and many shoots which have arisen from lateral buds — are headed -back or removed. As the branches continue to unite, the leafy parts are curtailed, and in a few years a perfectly solid and continuous living brace will be formed from limb to limb. Fig. 109 is from an actual example, which the writer has had under observation for more years 128 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS than he cares to admit. Fig. 110 was made in a different way. The brace is a single branch aris- ing at the right. When as large as one's finger, it was thrust through a slit made through the branch at the left, allowing it to project two 108. A repaired apple tree. or three feet beyond the wound. It soon grew fast, and the free part was then removed; the result is a perfect union and a strong living brace. In closing this sketch of tree surgery, I must enter my protest against reckless treatment of street trees. The most wanton and inconsiderate DUTY TOWARDS STREET TREES 129 despoiler of shade trees at present is the lineman who runs telephone and telegraph wires. He generally has no appreciation of the value of a tree, and still less of any need of giving thought to the proper cutting of the limbs. Everything 109. Living brace in a Talman Sweet apple tree. is secondary and subsidiary to the lining of the wires, and the result is that many fine trees are wickedly sacrificed. Our duty towards street trees is vigorously set forth in the following sketch by Professor Farlow:* "I must not, however, close my remarks on this subject without uttering an emphatic protest against the way in which the shade trees of our *W. F. Farlow, "Diseases of Trees likely to Follow Mechanical In- juries". Lecture before Mass. Hort. Soc., Mar. 7, 1891. I 130 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS cities and towns are treated. The responsibility rests not only with those who, perhaps uninten- tionally and ignorantly, are directly guilty of what an enlightened public opinion should regard as vandalism ; but it rests in part on ourselves, if we do not in all possible ways seek to give information to the public, and attempt by all legal means to secure the enforcement of such regulations as shall assure proper protection for our trees. As it is, the care of the trees in our public grounds, parks, and streets is too often placed in the hands of those who are ignorant of the principles of vegetable physiology, and tffl, aA ^ \ their efforts to prune and cut down trees are guided only by ' what seems to them temporary conven- ience, or by what commends itself to their not infrequently perverted sense of the beautiful. When the whim seizes them 110. Living brace in a Newtown and they wish ' to get Pippin apple tree. rid of a stately tree, it is only necessary for them to say that it is rotten, and dangerous because likely to fall. Many times I have seen trees whose shade could ill be spared, cut down because their trunks were OUR DUTY TOWARDS TREES 131 rotten, when examination after they were felled showed that they were sound and would have lasted many years. It ought to be considered a crime to cut down a handsome tree — certainly in public grounds — unless compelled by absolute necessity. When it is thought necessary for the public safety to destroy animals supposed to be suffering from contagious diseases, there is, at least, a consultation, and the opinion of experts is asked. I hope that the time will come when it will not be allowed to cut down trees which are public property, except on the advice of those whose training entitles them to be called experts. "If one is amazed sometimes at the abuses of trees on the part of those who are their author- ized guardians, it must be admitted that the poor condition of our trees is principally due to the recklessness of the public. * * * In most of our streets the trees are very near the edge of the side- walk, if they do not project into the street itself. Those on the corners of the streets are almost sure to be grazed by passing vehicles, and as wagon after wagon passes along, the grinding process is kept up until the wood is exposed. It is per- haps fortunate that such trees are short-lived, for they become very unsightly, and when they die, the curbstone can be replaced as often as is necessary. "Walk along any of our streets where the 132 THE HEALING OP WOUNDS trees are placed on the edge of the sidewalk, and notice the effects due to our general negli- gence. In some instances you will find that the house -owners have placed guards around the trunks, and the trees are symmetrical and have attained a good size. But in most cases, they have been left to take care of themselves. Bright and early the milkman comes along and jumps off with his can, leaving his horse to make a scanty breakfast by gnawing the bark of the nearest tree. Later on come the butcher and the grocer, whose horses lunch upon what was left by their predecessor, inflicting an amount of damage to the tree limited only by the length of time which their owners are pleased to spend in conversation with the girls in the kitchen. Last of all comes, perhaps, the doctor, whose visits, if they are not 'frequent, are pro- portionally long. He, at least, ought to know that trees cannot be wounded with impunity. No wonder that the bark is not only soon re- moved and the wood exposed, but since the horse is an animal which prefers the softer bark to the harder wood, the fresh borders of the wound are repeatedly attacked, until deformities of enormous size are produced, and, apart from the danger of fungous growths, the nutrition of the tree is seriously deranged." CHAPTEK IV THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING We are now prepared to enter on a discussion of some of the more fundamental considerations governing the rational pruning of plants. It is difficult to write on pruning, from the fact that no two plants are alike, and many and various objects are to be attained. It is impossible to instruct any person in pruning by merely showing him how to do the work on a given plant ; for the very next plant may present a new set of problems. If there are no generalizations or principles to be enunciated, then writing on the subject is well nigh useless. It is astonishing how few lucid conceptions there are of the problems at issue in pruning, and of the factors which modify the results. There is no literature which seems to clearly analyze the whole subject, at least from the fruit-grower's stand- point, and to present any consecutive body of laws upon which the intending operator can act. It is unavoidable, therefore, that the present sketch should be far from complete and satis- factory. There are two great classes of ideas concerned (133) 134 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING in the pruning of plants, — those which are asso- ciated directly with the welfare and behavior of the plant, and those which are associated with the mere form or size to which the plant shall attain. The former includes questions of pruning proper; the latter comprises questions of training, which depend primarily on the taste and abilities of the pruner. Shall I grow my trees to round heads or conical heads, high heads or low heads, one trunk or two trunks ? Whichever you like. It is largely a question of personal preference and opportunity, as it is whether you shall plow with horses or oxen, build a rail fence or board fence, or plant Ben Davis or Baldwin apples. Of all the operations connected with the grow- ing of trees and shrubs, pruning and training bring the person into closest contact and sym- pathy with the plant. One shapes and cares for the plant tenderly and thoughtfully, working out his ideals as he would in the training and guiding of a child. There are some persons, to be sure, who cannot feel this sympathetic contact with a plant : they are the ones who, if they prune at all, use an axe or a corn -knife. If a person can- not love a plant after he has pruned it, then he has either done a poor job or is devoid of emo- tion. It is a pleasure to -till the soil and to smell the fresh crumbly earth, but the earth does not grow; it is still a clod. The plant responds to every affectionate touch. Spraying, that modern WHY WE PRUNE 135 evolution of horticulture, is not to be compared with pruning in producing a sense of fellowship with plants. In fact, spraying has the opposite effect with me. When I have sprayed a plant, I am conscious that I have besmeared it, and have taken a mean advantage of a lot of innocent and defenseless bugs ; and I want to quit the premises forthwith. We shall now try to find a few general state- ments, upon which we can all agree, respecting the principles which underlie the practice of pruning and training. Some of these principles follow from a general consideration of the way in which a plant lives and grows, some of them are re- statements or summaries of discussions in the preceding chapters, and others are suggested by direct experiment. All of them are intended to be general truths, not statements of specific facts. Writings on pruning are usually confusing, be- cause they are a mass of details, facts and opin- ions, with little effort to arrive at laws or prin- ciples. I advise beginners not to read them. Principles must come first if practice is to be satisfactory. The details are to be worked out on the plant itself, after the operator has learned why. Before entering upon this disputed ground, we may pause to say that the reasons for pruning may be ranged under eight general heads: 1. To modify the vigor of the plant. 2. To produce larger and better fruits or flowers. 136 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 3. To keep the plant within manageable shape and limits. 4. To change the habit of the plant from more or less wood -bearing or fruit -bearing (or flower- bearing) . 5. To remove superfluous or injured parts. 6. To facilitate spraying and harvesting. 7. To facilitate tillage and to improve the con- venience of the plantation. 8. To train the plant to some desired form. 1. Heavy pruning of the top of a plant tends to increase the production of wood for strong vegetative growth ). A plant growing under normal conditions has a perfect balance of top and root. The top and root mutually supply, support and nourish each other. The one must respond to the other. The more root, the greater the amount of crude ma- terials taken in; and the greater the amount of these materials, the greater must be the elaborat- ing leaf surface, and the greater, therefore, the growth of all parts of the plant. If a large part of the top is removed and the root is untouched, the balance is broken. An equal amount of root supplies a smaller amount of top. There is more food for all the remaining branches. The re- sult is greater growth of these parts than they normally would have made ; or new parts — suckers — may arise. Let the reader recall the crab -apple HEAVY PRUNING MAKES WOOD. 137 trees described on pages 15, 16, or let him con- sider the behavior of the dwarf pear tree in Fig. 111. All these considerations explain the gar- dener's rule that in roses and other ornamental plants, the weak kinds should be heavily pruned and the strong kinds lightly pruned.* If it is necessary to re- sort to severe pruning for the purpose of correcting the shape or training of a plant, and it is de- sired at the same time to avoid excessive growth, the operator should re- move the superfluous parts gradually. This caution is important, even in the training of herbaceous plants. A grower of winter toma- 11L Heavy P™ning produces wood (in this case, a pro- toes writes me as follows fusion of watersprouts). on this point: "I find that when planted thickly in the beds the foliage needs heavy trimming to keep it within bounds; and would say further of this trimming that it "See, for example, Ernest Walker, in "Garden-Making," page 298. 138 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING must be done frequently, and only a moderate pro- portion of the leafage removed at one time, for if heavy trimming is indulged, it will cause a fresh, strong growth which splits open the partly developed fruits, exposing the interior or seed cells of the fruit and rendering it unfit for sale. Our practice is to remove the outer end of the leaf and afterwards take off a joint at a time as the leaves on the inner part increase in size under the trimming, as the first two leaf- lets on the leaf stalk eventually attain almost as large size as the entire leaf under ordinary treat- ment. The gardener tells me that the splitting of the fruits would also result from stopping the ends of the shoots while the plants are still in growth. Of course, the fresh shoots coming up from the roots would tend to overcome this vigor- ous growth of the plants and consequent splitting." 2. Heavy pruning of the root tends to lessen the production of wood. The food supply is cut off. Root -pruning is to be compared to poor feeding. The reader knows that he prunes the tops of transplanted plants because the roots have been cut, and he must thereby reduce the area to be supported. Root- pruning is practicable chiefly in the growing of specimen plants, or in small amateur plantations, particularly when trees are trained on walls, cor- dons, and the like. (Consult Chapter V.) REJUVENATING THE PLANT 139 3. Heavy pruning of the top tends to rejuve- nate weak or declining plants. This is because the remaining parts receive more food. The proposition is really a corollary of Section 1, but it has such distinct and important applications that it is well to give it an indepen- dent statement. When plants begin to fail from general debility (not from the attacks of insects or fungi), manure or prune them heavily, or do both. It is generally best to remove the weakest parts, particularly if the decline has progressed far ; but if it is desired to save the particular branches which are involved, a heavy pruning of the healthy parts may be expected to throw new activity into the weak ones In many cases, however, it is im- possible to rejuvenate weak branches ; but suck- ers or watersprouts may be developed, and these may form a new head. Old and decrepit peach trees are often headed -back severely for the ex- press purpose of securing this new wood. The tops of birches, maples and other ornamental trees sometimes show signs of failing. If there are no borers or other specific troubles, the tree should be heavily pruned, and if the trunk and roots are sound, renewed activity may be expected. Under Section 1 (page 136) we found that weak kinds or varieties of plants should be pruned severely and strong kinds moderately. These re- marks were meant to apply to plants of different habits, not to weakness due to disease or debility; 140 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING yet the rule holds good in either case, — heavy pruning for wood, light pruning to maintain the habitual condition. One must be careful, how- ever, not to apply these contrasts to differing branches on the same plant, for it is a fact that one branch may appropriate the food of another (see Section 6) ; if, therefore, it is desired to even up the branches on any plant, prune the strong shoots severely and the others only moderately, and thereby throw the energy into the weaker shoots. This type of pruning is often done in the summer. "Meehan's Monthly" gives the following advice on this point: "This summer pruning is espe- cially effective with coniferous trees. In the case of pines, we know that in the springtime three or four branches push out at the end of last year's sprouts, looking like gas burners. The central one is very vigorous and those on the sides are weaker. If we pinch out the point of the stronger ones the sap at once flows into the weaker ones, and they become strong, and new buds form at the place where the strong one was pinched off. Next year this bud continues the growth of the branch almost as straight as if it had never been pinched -back. We can pinch off the terminal bud of the main stem, a new bud forming a leader without any bend. One who understands this business of summer pruning of evergreens can so manage that trees form an absolutely perfect speci- men from the ground to the top, no one branch WINTER -INJURED PLANTS 141 being any stronger than another. The chief thing to remember is that in summer pruning the weak branches of the shoot should not be touched ; it is only the stronger ones that require checking." These remarks have a most important bearing on the treatment to be given to severely winter - injured trees. My own thought about the mat- ter is expressed in the following quotation from " Principles of Fruit- Gro wing" : "The proper treat- ment for frozen-back trees must be determined for each particular case; but it should be borne in mind that the injured portion is no longer of use to the plant, whereas it may be a positive detriment by accelerating the evaporation of mois- ture. The best treatment for plants seriously injured upon the extremities is to cut them back very heavily. This severe heading -in— sometimes to the extent of three or four feet — removes the driest and weakest portions, and concentrates the energy of the tree into a comparatively small area of top. Heavy pruning always tends toward the production of wood, and this wood production is probably never more needed than in winter- injured trees, for it tends to renew the vitality of the tree. The philosophy of this becomes appar- ent upon a moment's reflection. The browned and injured wood can never regain its former usefulness. New tissue must be developed as quickly as possible, in order to carry forward and to maintain the vegetative energies. This new 142 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING tissue is laid on over the old, and the old, there- by, quickly becomes sealed in, so to speak, and removed from the agencies of decay. Every obser- vant fruit-grower knows that if a tree which is severely winter- injured in limb and trunk were to bear even a partial crop of fruit in the coming season, it would very likely die outright. If, however, all its energies were directed to the development of new tissue, the injury might soon be over- grown. The injured wood, like the heartwood of the tree, is soon removed from active participation in the vital processes. It there- fore follows that the danger re- sulting from the browning or blackening of the wood by winter- injury depends very much upon the sub- sequent treatment of the plant. Fig. 112 shows the body of a young plum tree (in longitudinal and cross- wise sections) which 112. Showing the new tissue „ , , , formed around winter-injured WaS frOZ6n black m wood. the severe winter of WINTER -INJURED PLANTS 143 1895-6. It was heavily pruned in the spring of 1896, and in the fall had made a ring of bright new wood, which was amply sufficient to maintain the tree in perfect health for a long life. This appearance is common in nursery stock the year following a very hard winter, but such trees may not be permanently injured. "There are instances in which this heavy head- ing-back seems to do more harm than good. These are cases in which the entire tree is almost uniformly injured, and the plant seems to need the stimulus of all its buds to bring out the feeble life which is still left to it; but these cases are comparatively rare. It is probable that the greater number of reported instances of death due to heavy pruning of winter -injured trees are of such trees as would have died under any treat- ment. Winter -killed -plants often retain suffi- cient vitality to enable them to leaf out or to bloom, and sometimes even to begin growth, but when the stored vitality of the tissues is ex- hausted the plant perishes. This explains the phe- nomenon which, after a bad winter, nearly always puzzles the unobservant fruit-grower, of trees starting into feeble growth, and then suddenly dying when warm and dry weather approaches." There are many unsolved problems associated with the pruning of winter-injured trees in very severe climates. There are evidently two factors concerned in the question, — the general effect of 144 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING heavy pruning on the tree, and the injury result- ing from the wounds. In the dry and cold cli- mates of the North, Northwest and the Plains, there is excessive evaporation from winter-made wounds, and this injury may be so great as to make severe winter pruning inadvisable in many localities. (See Section 17.) It is therefore dif- ficult to judge of the merits of controversies con- cerning the advisability of the heavy pruning of winter -injured trees, particularly in severe cli- mates, because two or more unanalyzed problems may be involved. Since opinions differ as to the advisability of severely heading -back trees which are much in- jured by cold, I here insert extracts from letters of various fruit-growers in the Northwest, to whom I was referred by E. S. Goff, of the Uni- versity of Wisconsin. Professor Goff himself writes as follows: " I have discussed the question as to the advisability of pruning winter- injured trees with Wisconsin friends. Some of them are very positive that pruning such trees in spring has caused their death in several cases ; also that similar trees not pruned until they had recovered vigor, have out- grown the effects of the winter and made good trees. The hypothesis that I have used to explain the opinions that such trees should not be pruned in spring is this: The buds, being enfeebled by cold, are not able to use a large quantity of water from the roots, and hence thinning out the buds, which naturally tends to increase the pressure of sap in the remaining ones, proves injurious. That this is true, I am by no means sure, but the fact that winter- PRUNING IN THE NORTHWEST 145 injured trees often throw up many sprouts from the base of the trunk, seems to me evidence in the affirmative." Professor Budd, Iowa: "In cutting back injured parts of raspberry, blackberry, shrubs, or the orchard fruits in- jured by winter, I prefer to wait for the starting of the buds, and then cut to the point where the buds start in a healthful way. But in severe injury, such as that of the Florida orange trees, I gave the advice to cut before there was any show of buds." Professor Green, Minnesota: "I prefer to prune after the trees have leafed out quite a little, rather than early in the spring. Early spring pruning, and pruning just as the sap starts strongly, is liable to cause bad wounds, that heal slowly, and the wood is apt to die back in apple trees in this section when so pruned. But this latter trouble we some- times avoid by covering all the wounds with grafting- wax. Then, in the case of winter- injured wood, we can tell more certainly as to the extent of the injury, if the pruning is not done until the growth has started." O. M. Lord, Minnesota City, Minn.: "My experience with apple trees, though covering a period of more than forty years at this place, has been limited to few varieties and to my own grounds. I have found that it is almost sure death to cut or trim apple trees at any time except when the trees have begun to leaf out. I do not know of any trees in the fruit line that will bear such severe cutting as the native plums, but I prefer to trim them when the foliage is nearly full." J. S. Harris, La Crescent, Minn.: "My opinion, based upon a long experience in this Northwest, is that if the injury is so great that any considerable portion of the top will need to be removed, the pruning had best be done as soon as the winter is broken, and long enough before spring opens that there shall be no starting of sap. The pruning shall extend down to uninjured wood and the wounds prop- erly covered. Where the injury is not so great as to re- 146 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING quire the removal of much wood, I prefer the last half" of June for such pruning. Our experience here is, the worst time of all for pruning is when the trees or buds are about ready to swell and start, until they are nearly fully open." A. J. Philips, Sec. Wisconsin Horticultural Society, West Salem, Wis. : "My plan with a tree that has been injured would be to prune it after the severe weather of winter is over, and before the tree exerts any of its weakened forces, to start growth on all the top, thereby concentrating its strength on a smaller surface. But in this trying climate I spend but little time trying to bring back trees that are badly injured. I much prefer to top work those varieties that are subject to injury on a known vigorous and hardy stock. My rule now is to top -work one hundred each year on three to five-year-old stocks, and my orchard is grad- ually increasing in value and productiveness." B. Wade Hewett, Pardeeville, Wis.: "My experience has taught me that the earlier trees can be pruned in the spring after severe freezing is past, the better. To be sure, sometimes trees are so badly tipped-back that it becomes necessary to wait for the selection of a leader until the buds are well swollen, but all possible trimming should be done before this. For best results, I would say, do all fruit-tree trimming before leaves break." Charles Hirschinger, Baraboo, Wis.: "Severely injured trees should not be pruned till the year following, not in the year of injury. If pruned, wait till after the leaves are half grown, or, better, till June first. Severely injured trees are sometimes killed by early pruning, or by pruning the same year that they were injured; but if left till the next year, they frequently recover, and wounds heal over nicely, which is often not the case if pruned same year they are injured." George J. Kellogg, Janesville, Wis.: "Prune injured shade (except maples) trees in March after zero weather is past. Prune fruit trees after the weather will not get PRUNING FROZEN ORANGE TREES 147 colder than 10° above zero. Farther south, where zero weather is not likely to prevail, prune shade and fruit trees any time in winter, at least thirty days before the buds are likely to open." The great Florida freezes of 1894-5 brought much discussion as to the proper methods of treat- ing frozen orange trees. Many persons cut the trees back to fresh wood, others practiced root- pruning at the same time to equalize root and top, and others did nothing. The last-named persons practically lost badly frozen trees. The writer studied the effects of the various treatments in the winter of 1896-7, and it seemed clear that vigor- ous cutting-back is to be recommended in such cases. Some of the best results were seen on the estate of H. S. Williams, at Rockledge, Fla.; and Mr. Williams' own advice* is here reprinted: "As a rule, all my trees were budded low, and on sour stocks. In April they began to show signs of life, vary- ing from two to fifteen feet from the ground. All the branches, with but few exceptions, were killed back to the main trunk. Some trees were killed to the ground on south side, while on the north they threw out vigorous sprouts up some two or three feet. * * * Some of the sprouts, high up on the trunk, where the wood did not have vigor enough to sustain life — a mere shell under the bark — have died the past summer, but not as many as I was led to expect. The crop of the season of 1894-95 was ten oranges. The present crop, 1895-96, may be 30 boxes. Owing to the excess of roots over the top, hence the excess of sap and food taken up by the roots, the fruit is somewhat coarse, *As given in Indian River Advocate, Dec. 4, 1896. 148 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING while some trees have the red -rust, causing the fruit to split and drop. This disease, however, will rapidly disappear as the roots and tops become more evenly balanced. As some trees were flowing more sap than others when the last freeze struck them, so some were hurt much worse than others, even though standing side by side in the grove. The present condition of the trees, however, is, in the main, very satisfactory, and the fruit-bearing wood should give us a fair crop another season— say 20 or more boxes where we now count one. The rapid growth of this new fruit -producing wood will tax our ingenuity to the utmost to keep it from being crushed by its own weight, as these sprouts have, in many instances, but a thin shell of live wood to give them strength as against the wood fiber from the wood of the tree, as is the case with the tree in its normal condition. These sprouts, growing at an angle of some forty-five degrees, when weighed down with fruit will have to be artificially supported with the greatest care. * * "Profiting by the experience of the past, I would change but little in the work done to bring out my orange grove to the best advantage, and in the least possible time. If all the trunks of the trees had been well wrapped the morning after the second freeze, or better yet, the day before, if the Signal Service would give us the notice in time, it would, no doubt, prove of invaluable benefit. " Then I should advise the following treatment : Cut off the lower branches and cut top immediately above. The trees treated in this way, as before noted, are alive all around the trunk, and the branches and sprouts thrown out seem to be more firmly united with the trunk than any others. Cut all trees less than six years set close to the ground, and draw the dirt away from the collar, so as to ex- pose the surface roots slightly to the sun. As soon as prac- ticable, plow the grove, breaking as many roots as may come in contact with plow, and have a man follow with keen grub-hoe, and cut off all such roots smoothly. FROZEN GRAPE VINES 149 "If one has a small grove, I would advise digging a trench fully ten inches deep, grading the distance from trunk according to size of tree, and cutting off all roots. Some trees treated in this way, a year after the freeze, show a marked improvement in the way of growth the sec- ond summer just passed. As soon as the sprouts from the ground get large enough, insert your buds and get them started as soon as possible. If you wait until the next spring the buds will make too rank a growth. *• * * "Regarding the number of buds that is best to let grow, there is a great diversity of opinion, and it will take years to decide positively what is really best. In all my younger trees, where the stump will probably heal over, I have adopted the rule to let only one grow, as we much prefer to have a single trunk only. In the case of old trees killed to the ground, I cannot but think that it will be a temporary make -shift at the best, to get a few oranges while the newly -set tree is growing, so that it really makes small difference whether two or half-a-dozen are grown. Never have we had such an opportunity to change our varieties." How to treat grape vines which are frozen after growth has begun is also a perennial ques- tion. Much will depend on the severity of the freeze, and on the amount of growth which had taken place. The following extract* is believed to explain the best method of procedure : "In proceeding to treat frozen vines, it must be borne in mind that the injured parts are of no further use to the plants, and they are very apt to weaken the plant by causing it to lose much of its moisture. The rational procedure, there- : Principles of Fruit-Growing," p. 329. 150 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING fore, is to strip off all the frozen shoots soon after the disaster, so as to allow the energies of the plant to divert themselves to the production of new shoots. When the injured parts are soft and small, it is customary to remove them by pulling them off, rather than by cutting them off. In well pruned vineyards the cost of strip- ping ought not to exceed one dollar an acre." 4. A pruned plant tends to resume its natural habit. Every plant has individuality. One plant is un- like every other plant. It may be round-headed, conical-headed, very straight or strict, prostrate, and the like. In whatever way or however much the plant may be pruned, it immediately makes an effort to regain its former or habitual shape and behavior ; and the more vigorous the plant, the more rapidly and completely does it resume its former state. Vigorous firs and spruces make a new leader without difficulty; the Northern Spy tends to grow erect, however much it is pruned, whereas the Longfield tends as persis- tently to droop. It is evident, therefore, that the most rational pruning — when fruit and the welfare of the plant are chief concerns — is that which allows the plant to take its natural form, merely correcting its minor faults here and there. In a pear orchard, for example, there should be as many types or methods of pruning as there THE LEADER RENEWS ITSELF 151 are varieties of pears. Arbitrary ideals are use- ful only when it is desired to sacrifice other considerations to mere form and looks. (See Chapter VI.) They are chiefly useful in the growing of plants for certain ornamental effects and when it is necessary, — because of lack of space, or uncongenial climate, or growing under glass — to train to some definite form. It is well to remember that mere handsomeness or comeli- ness of the plant is unimportant in fruit-growing. On this point, A. J. Downing writes as follows: "Every fruit tree, grown in the open orchard or garden as a common standard, should be allowed to take its natural form, the whole efforts of the pruner going no further than to take out all weak and crowded branches." One cannot visit a forest without seeing that pruned and injured trees tend to regain their for- mal stature. Observe how the leader was re- newed in Fig. 113, — a tree which was once broken over. The new leader, which sprung from the declined trunk, now continues the bole of the tree. In Fig. 114 several leaders have started from the prostrate trunks, each one simulating the upward growth of the original tree. These re- marks will also apply to the roots. It is the com- monest notion that a tap-root should not be cut, else the plant will be shallow -rooted; but a new tap — or, what may be better, two or three tap- roots— arises from the old (from a, Fig. 115). The 113. Renewal of the leader in a broken tree. HABIT OF YOUNG PLANTS 153 tap-root is one of the ancestral bogies of horticul- turists ; and, like the sap, being out of sight, almost any assertion may be made of it without danger of disproof. The direction of the roots is much influenced by the particular piece of earth in which they grow, but beyond this, roots be- 114. Renewal of leaders on trunks which were crushed to the horizontal. have essentially as branches do, in respect to pruning. 5. The habit of the plant varies from youth to age. Young plants are vigorous and rapid -growing. They tend to make strong, upright growths. Eventually they reach a limit of stature, and the nearer they approach that epoch the less rapid is the growth. Fruit -bearing tends to reduce growth and to broaden the top. Young pear trees, par- 154 THE PRINCIPLES OP PRUNING ticularly of the Kieffer type, make very long and erect growths, but when bearing -time arrives the growth is less marked and the limbs spread. The treatment of a young tree, therefore, may be very different from that demanded by the same tree when it arrives at maturity. 6. One part of a plant may live at the expense of another part. We know that the plant cannot make use of the ma- -TT terials taken in by the roots * and leaves until these ma- • terials have been elaborated in the green parts. The elab- orated material is distributed to every living and growing point. Some of this mate- rial is stored, particularly in the fall, and from this stored us. Renewal of the material the early bloom and leader on the root. growtll Qf spring is partly and sometimes largely made. Strong spring shoots are supplied from other parts of the plant as well as from newly appropriated materials. On this point Sorauer writes* that "it must not be forgotten that at the commencement every *" Physiology of Plants for the Use of Gardeners," translated by Weiss, 146. WATERSPROUTS 155 young shoot draws like a parasite upon the food matter of the older branch; this applies as much to the consumption of water as to the stored -up material." More than this, one shoot may rob another, and thereby grow the faster. Shoots may be both parasites and robbers. Very vigorous shoots rarely have leaf surface enough to supply their own needs. Being profusely supplied with water, they appropriate building materials which have been elaborated by other branches. Such shoots are watersprouts or suckers. Robbers should be arrested. 7. Watersprouts are results of a disturbed equi- librium of the plant; and the formation of watersprouts is influenced more by the vigor of the plant and the amount of prun- ing than by the season of the year in which the pruning is done. This is really a corollary to Section 1. We know that heavy pruning produces wood, and this extra production may arise either as an elongation of existing shoots or in the origina- tion of wholly new shoots. When these new shoots are particularly lusty, they are water- sprouts. Fig. Ill explains the outcome of heavy pruning. If the reader agrees to the above propositions, then he must admit that the season of pruning 156 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING has a very secondary influence on the production of watersprouts, however confidently he may have asserted to the contrary; for if the plant is not vigorous, and if the root force is not in excess of the top, watersprouts cannot arise. To be sure, watersprouts may follow the bending or twisting of the top, but even in this case the equilibrium of root and top is disturbed, as we shall find in Sections 10 and 13. It is probable that the season of pruning exerts some influence on the appearing of watersprouts. After midsummer, watersprouts cannot arise, as a rule, for growth has then ceased; and if the plant is pruned at that epoch it may have opportunity to re -adjust its energies before another year, and thereby exert its redundant forces rather more in the prolongation of existing growths than in the establishing of new ones. I must admit that this philosophy is difficult of proof (see Section 16), but it is as good an hypothesis as I can for- mulate to sustain what is a sound maxim of practice, viz., that the operator should not allow the fear of watersprouts to dictate the season of pruning. In fact, watersprouts are a result of pruning as weeds are of plowing, and the like- lihood of the appearing of either is in propor- tion to the preceding neglect. Subsequent prun- ing is the remedy for watersprouts, as tillage is for weeds. HEADING -IN 157 8. The tendency of plants is to grow from the uppermost buds; and this tendency is most pronounced in young plants. We have had ample proof of this in Chapters I. and II. We know that it must be so, too, from the fact that it is the natural outcome of struggle for light and air, and from the fact that were it not so, strict -stemmed plants would grow broad rather than high. If these considerations do not satisfy the reader, let him go out and look. We may prune in such way as to maintain or augment this natural tendency, or to thwart it. The means of checking it are of two types, — hindering the upward flow of sap (as by girdling, notching, bending, twisting, and the like, discussed in Sections 10, 13, and in Chapter V.), and by heading -in. To consideration of the latter cate- gory we shall now proceed. 9. The heading -in of young growths tends to develop the lateral and the dormant buds. That is, headed- in plants thicken and broaden their tops. The objects of heading-in are two, — to correct an objectionable habit, and to induce fruit -bearing. The latter consideration is dis- cussed specifically in Section 15. Inasmuch as* the shape which a plant shall assume is largely a question of personal prefer- ence, it is impossible always to give good advice respecting the heading-in of trees and shrubs. 158 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING The rational heading- in of trees for the purpose of correcting the habit devolves upon four con- ditions or factors, — the rapidity or amount of growth, the distance apart of the trees, whether the trees are dwarfs or standards, and the personal choice of the owner of the trees. In fruit trees, annual growths of three feet or more may be headed-in, particularly if the trees are close together and it is necessary to reduce the size of head. This operation is necessary only with young and unfruitful trees, as a rule, for we have found (Section 5) that mature and fruit -bearing trees rarely grow wantonly. If mature trees are making too much growth, the fundamental remedy is to check the growth rather than to cut it off, for heavy heading-in tends to augment the difficulty (Section 1). The growth may be checked by modifying the tillage or fertilizing of the plantation, unless the excessive growth is due to excessive pruning. In dwarf trees, it is essential that heading-in be practiced, in order that the top shall not overbalance the root. This question is discussed in its specific aspects in Chapter V. In general, the matter of heading-in resolves itself into a question of personal ideals. If the owner wants a thick -topped and round-headed tree, heading-in is necessary. If he wants a free - growing, open -centered tree, heading-in should be avoided, except, perhaps, while the HEADING -IN 159 tree is very young. Although the writer's per- sonal opinions upon this subject may be of no value to the public, they may nevertheless be ex- pounded by a concrete ex- ample. A Kieffer pear tree is shown in diagram in Fig. 116. It is two years set. When planted, it was a mere whip. The first season it sent out four very strong lateral branches, as shown in the picture. At the end of that season the growths were cut back half their length. The second sea- son, two to four shoots started from near the top of each shortened branch. If a similar treatment be given at the end of the second year, still other lat- eral growths will arise the following year, and the tree 116' Diaeram to rePre' sent cutting-back of will have far too many young tree. branches. Three things can now be done. The existing branches may be headed -in as represented by the two long lines ; some of the branches may be cut away bodily, 160 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING as shown by the several short bars; the treat- ment may be a combination of these two. One thing is clear: the tree now has too many branches for its size, and some of them (say half of the secondary ones) should be cut away. Whether any further, heading -in shall be done, is a local question. If the tree is making a growth of three feet or more, heading- in would probably be advisable. This heading -in tends to make the branches thick and stocky, thereby enabling them to support the forthcoming crops of fruit. As the tree approaches maturity, heading- in may be less frequent and less severe, and it may even- tually cease. To every one who contemplates the cutting -back of trees, it should be said that heading -in neces- sitates more pruning in the interior of the top This is particularly true of early summer prun ing, which often causes new lateral growths to become so numerous as to be very troublesome (as, for example, in summer pruning of grapes). The writer, then, believes in heading-in vig- orous young fruit trees of very strong -growing varieties, for the purpose of inducing a stockier growth of the branches and of promoting the early branching of the main or scaffold limbs. As the tree increases in age, the heading-in should be less and less, and should generally cease when full bearing arrives. If the mature tree grows too rapidly, the fundamental correc- OBSTRUCTING THE SAP 161 tive is to withhold tillage or manure. Another motive for heading- in is merely to keep the tree in shape, or to trim into some desired form. This is a matter of a personal ideal, and, although the writer's ideal is counter to this, there is no arbi- trary standard by which the one ideal or the other is to be judged. The writer believes that an open- centered and free -growing fruit-tree is generally preferable to a compact -headed and sheared -in tree, but most excellent commercial results, par- ticularly in stone-fruits, are often secured under the latter method of tree- growing. The orchardist should determine his own purpose when he begins to prune his trees, and then carry out his plan systematically and logically to the end. Aside from these purposes, there remain the necessary heading-in of dwarfs (Chap. V.) and the heading-in for production of fruit -buds (Section 15). 10. An obstruction just above a bud or limb tends to produce strong longitudinal growth in that part ; an obstruction below it tends to produce a thickening of the part and a quiescent state. The obstruction below the bud tends to cut off the supply of water, upon which rapid growth largely depends ; but the deposition of elaborated materials from the leaves builds up tissue. Since rapid wood growth is hindered because of the obstruction to the up ward -moving sap, the 162 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING parts tend to thicken rather than to elongate. We are already prepared for these assertions from the study of girdling (Figs. 95, 96, 97, 107). A complete obstruction amounts to a severing of the shoot or heading- in ; and we have already found (Section 9) that heading -in tends to de- velop strong growths from the lateral buds. The common methods of obstructing the movements of sap are by girdling or ringing, notching, and bending or twisting the shoot. Girdling by the re- moval of bark, however, is such a complete ob- struction as to starve the part below the girdle, and the statements which may be made concern- ing its effects do not always apply to notching and bending the shoot. (See discussion in Chap. V.) It should be remembered that the upward move- ment of sap takes place in the young or sap- wood, and a notch only through the bark does not directly affect this movement. The downward movement takes place in the inner bark, or bast, and a notch only through the bark is, therefore, able to check it. A notch through both the bark and sapwood cuts off both movements and is equiv- alent, in this respect, to cutting off the shoot. 11. Checking growth, so long as the plant re- mains strong and healthy, induces fruitful- ness. Very strong growth is usually at the expense of fruit -bearing. Tilling and manuring may be FRUIT -BEARING IS A HABIT 163 carried so far as to make the plant over -vigorous and under -fruitful. Heavy pruning may do the same. Other conditions aside, deep notching of the twig above a bud, tends to make the bud pro- duce a long, woody shoot; notching below the bud tends to make it develop a fruit -spur (see Section 13). Heading -in tends to start woody shoots from the buds near the cut. Girdling just through the bark (or ringing) tends to de- velop fruit-buds above the wound. If, however, the girdle is below the foliage (that is, on the stem or trunk), new shoots which may arise below the wound must grow at the expense of material stored in the part below the wound ; and if such stored nutriment is small, shoots may not be able to start. Girdling by cutting through the young wood tends to develop strong growth below the girdle and to starve and kill all the parts above it. In a word, a strong supply of root -sap tends to stimulate wood growth ; a pronounced deposition of elaborated food tends to develop fruit -buds. 12. Fruit -bearing is determined more by the habitual performance and condition of the plant than by the kind or extent of pruning; it is associated with a quiescent rather than with a stimulated or fitful state ; and the habit is more amenable to treatment when the plant is young than when it is old. Plants vary greatly in fruit -bearing. Some of 164 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING this variation is a matter of individuality. No two trees are alike in this respect any more than they are in form of top or length of life. Some of the variation, however, is due to soil or other environment. It is natural, however, for plants to bear, and when they once come into bearing they should be maintained in that habit by continuous good care. With such plants, any treatment which greatly disturbs their equilibrium tends to break or upset the bearing habit. If, however, through neglect or poor management, plants have never acquired a bearing habit, the grower may experiment, hoping to find something which will bring them into fruit. One type of experiment is to change the management of the land ; another is to modify the plant -food ; an- other is to change the method of pruning; another is to give treatment for insects and diseases. The principle under discussion is the most im- pprtant one enunciatedin this hook, from the fact lihaTMt—aflivises the fruit-grower to depend more on good, thoughtful and consecutive man- agement of his plants year by year than upon any disconnected, spasmodic or unusual treatments now and then. A good plan moderately worked out is better than a hundred experiments. Let us apply these reflections to the treatment of a neglected and unfruitful apple orchard. The general advice is to till, fertilize, prune and spray ; and this advice is good. The pruning, OVER -BEARING 165 however, has more effect in bringing the trees into shape and in correcting the neglect of pre- ceding years than in directly inducing fruit -bear- ing. A heavy pruning adds vigor and produces new wood (Sections 1, 3). The orchard is reno- vated and rejuvenated, and the grower may then begin and carry forward a consecutive treatment, which he should have begun when the trees were planted. After two or three years, the trees begin to steady down, and fruit -bearing should then begin; but fruit -bearing cannot be maintained if the orchard is allowed to lapse into its former condition. We are now able to see that the common habit of pruning the orchard heroically every two or three years is one of the very best means of keeping the trees unbalanced and upset, and of in- ducing wood growth, and thereby preventing fruit- bearing. All efforts to make plants bear annually must fail unless consecutive good care is given year by year. Light pruning every year is more useful than the same aggregate amount of pruning given only in occasional or even iu alternate years. Over -bearing is itself a disturbance of equilib- rium, and is almost necessarily followed by a reac- tion of under -bearing. This corollary has such im- portant bearing on practice that it should receive careful attention. One extreme follows another, and the oftener these extremes occur the greater is the likelihood that they will become an unremedi- 166 THE PRINCIPLES OP PRUNING able or fixed habit of the plant. It is interesting to note that the habit of alternate bearing is most pronounced in plants of long life, suggesting that the habit is largely, if not wholly, the result of the frequent occurrence of over -bearing while the plant was young. Apples and pears are par- ticularly given to alternate bearing, plums and peaches less so, bush -fruits still less, and strawber- ries not at all. It is a question, therefore, if any treatment can set some old orchards into annual bearing. The habit of alternate cropping may have become too fixed to be changed; and, at all events, pruning is only one of the means of over- coming and correcting the habit (see Section 14). Although it is a cardinal principle in horticul- ture that checking growth induces fruitfulness, it- is only a means of inducing a bearing habit; and when this habit has once been secured, every effort should be exerted to maintain it. It does not follow, however, that trees of slow growth are necessarily most fruitful. The most fruitful apple tree I know is one which has made a very heavy growth from the beginning ; but the bearing habit was early induced by good tillage and good feeding, and the extra growth enables it to bear the more fruit. This bearing habit, as I have said (page 163), is sometimes a matter of individ- uality in the plant, sometimes a question of va- riety, and oftener a question of good and rational care begun when the plant is young, SPECIAL PRACTICES 167 13. All means of obstructing the movement of sap — as notching, shredding, bending, twist- ing, girdling — are matters of special and local application, and are to be associated more with modes of training than with prun- ing proper. This principle is the complement of Section 12. If the habitual performance of the plant — in- duced by consecutive rational treatment — deter- mines its usefulness, then the treatment of indi- vidual buds and spurs must be merely incidental and special matters. The fact is, that all the advice in respect to notching, bending, and the like, is born of the amateur and garden - culture fruit-growing of the Old World. Whether the authors were conscious of the fact or not, our older American pomological writings are direct offshoots of European small -area practices. The emphasis is placed first on varieties, and always on facts rather than on principles. In vegetable gardening literature the same has been emphati- cally true, and it was not until Henderson wrote his "Gardening for Profit" that the large -area and commercial American gardening found its tongue; but even Henderson followed the detached and cyclopedic method of arrangement, which is born of a desire for facts and ready -reference rather than for great truths and principles. But the transcendent merit of Henderson's book — which marks an epoch in American horticultural litera- 168 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING ture — is the fact that it caught the rising com- mercial spirit of the time and threw off the bonds of the amateur. These remarks will, I hope, put the reader in the right attitude towards all these petty matters of pruning, as it will towards the common fault of putting emphasis first on varieties and other isolated, local and personal facts. If a person must train his pear tree or peach tree to a wall or a trellis, then he must perforce count his buds, force spurs to arise at stated intervals, and be familiar with the refinements of pinching, ring- ing and notching Grape training is much con- fused because people do not distinguish that it involves two sets of ideas, — the pruning to remove superfluous wood, and the training into some set form. The number of buds to leave on the cane depends more on the system of training than on the principles of pruning. We have already enunciated a principle which underlies the results of the notching and bend- ing of shoots (Section 10). Full directions for performing these operations may be found in European writings. It may only be said here that these practices are not generally productive of predictable results in fruit -bearing; but the ob- struction to the movement of elaborated sap tends to develop fruit, whereas the obstruction to the movement of crude or root -sap tends to develop wood. EFFECTS OF NOTCHING 169 Notching into the wood above a bud tends to produce strong growth from that bud. Notch- ing just through the bark above a bud, tends to weaken the bud, because the root -sap is not stopped and the elaborated sap is stopped. Notching into the wood below a bud tends to pile up reserve materials at the bud and thereby to induce fruit -bear ing. Notching just through the bark below a bud tends to pile up tissue at the bud, but since the root -sap is not cut off, the bud may use this tissue in rapid growth, and fruit-bearing, therefore, may not be induced. (See remarks on page 162.) Girdling or ringing (practice discussed in Chap- ter V.) tends to develop fruit -buds above the girdle. Bending the shoot to a horizontal or deflexed position tends to lessen growth, per- haps because of its position, but chiefly because of the kinking or modification of the tissues at the bend. The following extracts from recent studies by Koopmann* give a clear conception of the effects of notching: "Notches are made on twigs of one year's growth or more, to influence a particular bud in various ways, or they are *Karl Koopmann, " Elementarlehren aus dem Gebiete des Baumschnitts" in Landwirtschaftliche Jahrbiicher, xxv. (1896), heft 4 u. 5. Koopmann's studies in pruning have been commended by state and society medals. This memoir gives copious references to the German literature of prun- ing. A most significant conclusion of this extensive study of special methods of pruning-treatments is the following sentence (which the OF TRK TJNIVERSITY 170 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING made below or above a twig in order to influence the de- velopment of this twig, or of a larger part of a tree. "Notches in the bark under a bud are equivalent to one- third or one-fourth girdle, and can be made as girdles are. The effect of the operation in causing the production of fruit is confined, in this case, to a single bud ; at least a more extended influence on the parts above it is hard to observe, and probably does not exist, as the hindrance to sap movement is very small, and the root is not essentially drawn into participation. If, however, many such notches or partial girdles are made on a twig and following each other closely, as perhaps in the case of following the spiral of the bud positions, the effect must be more and more nearly that of a complete girdle. "A notch above a bud into the sap -carry ing wood has a contrary effect, as of a one-third or one-fourth cutting-back, which really is done. If the twig were cut off at the same point, a large number of rapidly-growing woody shoots would be expected, particularly if the cutting-back were done in older wood. The deeper into the sap- carrying tissues the knife advances, the more pronounced must be the result. The crude sap taken up by the root and not directly of use in building tissue, c^in only do the work of fitting for use the stored reserve materials. For these reserve materials, thus set into solution, there is no other outlet than that they be worked up and used in a leaf- bud that had remained dormant or in a newly forming adventitious bud below the notch. However, as soon as student should consider in connection with our Section 12) : " Je weniger wir zu sehneiden haben am Baum, desto gesunder bleibt er und desto schoner entwickeln sich die Friichte" (The less we are obliged to cut a tree, the sounder it remains and the finer its fruits develop). This sentence must not be taken to mean that Koopmann would discourage pruning, but that it is the part of wisdom to resort to pruning as little as possible, and yet obtain the desired results. The student will find an excellent account of special treatments of pear shoots and spurs in Opoix's "La Culture du Poirier," Paris, 1896. EFFECTS OF NOTCHING 171 growth has taken place, the organ, whether originally weak or strong of constitution, is stimulated to the greatest activity through the energetic up ward -pushing root-sap, and the result of this is, by fall, a wood branch of luxu- rious development. "A pronounced notch in very old wood calls forth either a very rank twig or is without effect. In these cases, it is evidently caused by the absence of a bud or a location for one. If untoward conditions of nutrition are present, it may possibly be due to a defective storage of the necessary reserve materials. This latter supposition it might be diffi- cult to prove. " The freezing of buds can call forth similar results on the youngest wood, as those just described for old wood on which there are, in general, no buds able to grow. On many plants the buds suffer sooner than the cambium layer of the wood. This is less noticeable on orchard wood than on many natural woods; on the latter, in spite of the strongest flow of sap, the sprouts will be missed under such circumstances. w The notchings spoken of in the foregoing paragraphs have great importance to the fruit-grower, partly in the shaping of the tree and partly in the production of a balance in the branching (or clothing) of t-he scaffold limbs of dwarf orchard trees. But the notches above a bud into the bark, and under a bud into the wood, cannot attain any impor- tance in practice. " From what is known about the circulation and effect of the sap, it may follow with some degree of clearness that a notch above a bud, which removes but the bark and bast layers, must tend to enfeeble and prevent sprouting, be- cause the upward -moving sap is not stopped at the bud, and the products of assimilation, which are a surplus from the leaves, are withheld from the bud as long as the wound is open. Many practical experiments with this notch gave^ however, chiefly two results. In most cases no marked 172 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING change could be determined on the bud. It remained dor- mant, and thereby passed naturally to its destruction, whether more rapidly than other buds not artificially in- fluenced, we have so far not been able to determine. In many other cases, a sprout did develop which sometimes grew into a long shoot. This appearance made the matter very unclear, until it was noticed that in such cases the cuts had not been made with the care which they require. The bark and bast layers had been removed, but at the same time the younger layers of wood had been injured, as ap- peared very prominently in longitudinal sections. " There yet remains the notching into the wood below a bud, and this, again, must be looked upon as a partial cut- ting-back. Through such a notch the bud is cut off from the root, and the cambium fluids are piled up at the bud, which is, therefore, too abundantly supplied with reserve materials without being itself caused to grow. The result is similar to the notching into the bark, only the wound is larger, and therefore takes a longer time to heal. The deeper the sap -carrying wood -layers are cut, the less is the tendency of the bud to develop a shoot, and it usually re- mains as a well -developed fruit-bud without any clearly observable lengthening of the axis, as though sleeping; or it develops a leaf rosette, in order to bear fruit the next year. A notch in younger wood, so executed between two buds that both are equally influenced, results always in a woody shoot from the lower one and a fruit-bud, or a very small fruit- spur terminated by a fruit-bud, from the upper one; the woody shoot is self -active, the fruit-bud seem- ingly a parasitic creation. As the notch into the bark under the buds, with reference to the production of fruit-spurs, has generally the same effect as a notch into the wood, the latter is superfluous. A slight damage to the outer wood (splintschicht), however, does not in any way lessen the expected result. "While in the foregoing we have kept in view the effect of EFFECTS OF NOTCHING 173 notches on single buds, an exhaustive treatment of the sub- ject requires a short notice of the influence which similar notches exert on already existing branches. Bark-notches above or below a branch bearing spurs act in a very slight degree on the branch in question ; a complete girdle around the base of the branch acts, of course, as an ordinary girdle. A quarter girdle on the under side causes the same effect, but in a small degree, for the stopping of the cam- bium fluids is almost completely obviated by the possibility of their moving off to one side. An upper cut out of the bark can also have but the same small influence on the spurs of the branch under experiment, as the cut attains the importance of a quarter girdle to the spurs while the branch itself can in no way be influenced by this bark -notching, because the downward -flowing cambium fluid from the spurs can, of course, be held back, but cannot exert an in- fluence on the branching below the girdle. In practice, therefore, such bark injuries have no importance whatever. "It is otherwise with vigorous notches in the wood below or above a branch. By means of these notches the root -sap is either cut off or led to these branches. The more vig- orous the notching on a spur above one of its branches, the more the latter receive of the crude sap, and the leaves are the more stimulated to activity; the leaves become larger, the internodes of greater length, the number of shoots and leaves is increased, and an increased production of wood is the result. Directly opposite is the effect of a notch under a branch or twig. A large portion of the supply destined for the assimilating organs is cut off from the branch, and the diminished production of wood is a natural consequence. The sap hindered in its course is carried to other branches in increased quantities, and particularly to one which may be notched above and therefore already favored, if such should happen to be in the immediate neighborhood of the first. " With reference to the technical execution of the notches, 174 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING it may be said that they are made in the bark with a knife in simple notch form, or like a half -moon. As to the notch in the wood, the simple notch is used, also a gable-like cut. The latter seems to have a slightly increased effect. In place of the notches, in wood of a greater age than six years, carefully made simple saw cuts, perpendicular to the axis of the spur, or roof -like in form above or below the organs to be influenced — aggregations of buds, twigs or branches— are more desirable, as notches generally cause too large wounds if they are to enter the wood to a sufficient depth. A saw cut made at the proper time in the early spring heals outwardly in from six to eight weeks, although it causes in the wood a not insignificant wound, and can cause necrotic appearances on sickly trees. As, however, the never-healing wood wounds are protected from injurious influences from without by walling over, permanent ill results need not be feared. Weak or sickly trees and stone fruits should be spared from such treatment as much as possible, as every disease -producing organism is given a new ground to occupy by such saw cuts." 14. Pruning may be made a means of thinning the fruit ; and thereby it may indirectly contribute to the control of the bearing year of the plants. Fruit is thinned both by picking it off and by removing the buds which are to bear it. The removing of the buds may be accomplished ex- peditiously by pruning. This pruning may be the heading-back of shoots upon which fruit-buds are borne or the removal of fruit -spurs. The operator must first know the mode in which the plant bears its flower-buds. Heading-back of the EFFECT OF THINNING THE FRUIT 175 annual growth thins peaches, quinces, raspber- ries, blackberries, black currants, and, to a less extent, red and white currants, and grapes, — all those plants which develop blossom -buds on the wood of the last season, or which have a co- terminal habit (page 59) of fruit -bearing. The great disadvantage of thinning fruit by means of pruning is the impossibility of knowing how many buds or young fruits may subsequently be destroyed by cold, insects or diseases. Yet the practice should be more generally in vogue, for in most cases of too heavy prospective fruit- bearing the danger can be partially averted by a cheaper means than hand-picking the young fruits. With tender fruits and in cold climates, this thinning by pruning should be delayed until danger of winter- injury is thought to be past. The second part of the proposition is very im- portant,— the fact that the energies of the tree can be conserved by thinning the fruit. This is really a corollary of Section 12. It is necessary to discover just how this conservation comes about. We have observed (see Figs. 13, 14, 15) that there is an alternation in fruit- bearing on the individual spur because the demands made by the fruit are so great that a fruit -bud cannot develop the same year. In the year of fruit- bearing, therefore, a small leaf -bud develops to continue the spur the following year ; and in this following and barren year, a fruit -bud is devel- 176 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING oped for bearing the succeeding year. Alternate- years' fruit -bearing, therefore, is largely a ques- tion of food supply. If, then, we are to make the tree bear every year, we must supply more food materials to the tree (a subject which is not germane to this treatise) or remove part of the fruit. Removing the fruit affects chiefly the spur on which it is borne ; in large fruits, as a rule, one spur, or one branch of a spur, matures one fruit : therefore, it must follow that if thinning the fruit induces annual bearing in some spur -fruits, it must be because one spur is made to bear one year and another spur to bear another year. That is, there is an alternation in fruit -bearing on the spur, the same as before, but the bearing year of part of the spurs is changed by means of the thinning. It would seem, therefore, that the thinning will have most effect in inducing annual bearing when it removes all the fruits from certain spurs, thereby allowing these spurs to bear in the alternate years. But it is probable that no amount of thinning can pro- duce an annual -bearing habit unless the plants receive other necessary consecutive good care. It is a question if it would not be advisable to change the bearing year of entire plants, thereby allowing part of the trees in an orchard to bear one year and the others to bear the following year. It is a fact that the bearing year of fruit trees CHANGING THE BEARING YEAR 177 can often be changed by removing the crop very early in the season; but it is also true that the trees tend to revert to their accustomed habit, and it is probable that this reversion is the more rapid and the more complete the older the tree (page 166) and the more indifferent the general treatment of it. In fruits which are most syste- matically thinned (either by picking the fruit or by means of the accustomed methods of pruning) , annual bearing is the most pronounced. The grape and peach are examples. Of trees which are not habitually thinned, it seems as if annual bearing is a quality of short-lived species more than- of long-lived species, as suggested on page 166. In the short-lived species, as the bush- fruits, there is not sufficient time, perhaps, to allow such habits to become thoroughly fixed. Bearing in mind the alternation in fruit-bear- ing in the spurs in Figs. 13 and 14, let us con- sider what might happen if the fruit were re- moved when very small. Fig. 117 tells the story. In this case, the very young fruit was removed, and two blossom -buds have developed the same season. In this spur the bearing year is changed. We also found that the bearing year was once changed in the pear spur shown in Fig. 19. I must hasten to say, however, that this change in the bearing year does not always follow the removal of the flowers or young fruits, for very much depends on the habit of the tree-, as well as 178 THE PRINCIPLES OP PRUNING on its general thrift and vigor; but it is safe to say that removing the flowers or very young fruits from a spur or branch tends to cause that part to bear the following year. The fact that work is expended in the bearing of fruit may be understood if one examines the swellings on the spurs or fruit- bearing twigs of pears. In Fig. 118, these swellings (are seen at a a. The scars at the ends show that fruit was borne there. In the transfer of food to this point and the arrest of longi- tudinal growth, a building up of mechanical tissue has taken place ; and it is probable that the long Pear fruit- £r°wth of the lateral branches buds resulting (which, in this case, bear only leaf- from the re- ku(is) has been made possible by the moval of fruit. **'•-'• mi -i Natural size excess of nutriment. The reader must not confound these swellings with the thickening due to mere arrest of longi- tudinal growth, as shown in 3, Fig. 61 (which is also mentioned in Section 15). Chemical tests show that these swellings (like Fig. 118) are not storage reservoirs of plant -food. My colleague, Mr. A. L. Knisely, has made ex- aminations of these swellings for me, and found that the starch -like contents of the swellings were less than that of vigorous and normal shoots of the same age. In normal twigs, the moisture was HEADING -IN TO PRODUCE FRUIT 179 found to be 50.94 per cent ; in swellings, it was 59.20 per cent. In both samples, the contents (as starch, dextrine, pentosans, and the like) were calculated as reducing sugar. In normal winter twigs, the reducing sugar was 28 per cent; in the swellings, at the same date, it was 27.1 per cent. Calculated to fresh substance, the percentages were 118. Swellings on pear, resulting from fruit-bearing. Half size. 13.74 for the twigs and 11.06 for the swellings. These tests still further show that these swellings are mechanical tissue, resulting from the strain of fruit -bearing, and that they are not to be 180 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING looked upon as conducing in any way to sub- sequent fruitfulness of the plant. 15. Heading -in induces fruitfulness by check- ing exuberant growth and by encouraging the formation of short lateral growths. In Section 9 we have discussed effects of head- ing-in on the growth of wood and the form of the top of the plant. We are now enquiring what effect it has in inducing fruit-bearing. So far as heading -in tends to check woody growth, it conduces to the formation of fruit -buds ; but very heavy heading-back amounts to a heavy pruning and it may, therefore, conduce to the very opposite of fruit production. Therefore, there can be no specific statements as to how much or how frequent heading -in shall be to in- duce productiveness. Everything depends on the vigor and age of tree, extent of cutting, and other local conditions. In fruit-trees which are making a normal growth (say 12 to 20 inches) at bearing age, cutting off a third or fourth of the annual growth may be advisable ; but it must be considered that this cutting -back may have other objects than the inducing of fruit -bearing, such as thinning the fruit, keeping the tree in shape, preventing dwarf trees from outgrowing their stocks, and keeping the stature small in crowded plantings. Heading -in to induce fruit- fulness must not be confounded with the head- SEASON FOR PRUNING 181 ing -in of young trees to check too long and slender branches. It is doubtful if an occasional heading -in has much effect in developing fruit - bearing. It should no doubt be an accustomed practice, if employed at all for this purpose. There is no question that heading -in the ter- minal growths tends to develop short spur- like branches in the interior of the top; and the tendency of such branches is to develop fruit - buds. However, it is a question if this result is not an advantage to training rather than to the ultimate productiveness of the tree. That is, it concentrates the fruit in a smaller space; but if the top is allowed to take its natural course, it will probably develop as great pro- lificacy as if it is headed- in. It is often a dis- tinct advantage of heading- in that it tends to develop fruit -bearing early in the lifetime of the plant. As a matter of practice, the writer believes that the value of heading- in as a means of induc- ing fruit-bearing has been overestimated. 16. The season in which pruning is done has some influence on fruit -bearing, for winter pruning tends to produce wood, whereas summer pruning does not. Plants which are cut in midsummer, or later in the growing season, seem to have the power to adjust themselves to the new conditions dur- ing the same season (page 156). That is, the 182 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING effect of the pruning is very largely taken up before the return of spring, which is the season of growth. Plants which are pruned in winter, or any time during the dormant period, expend their redundant energy at once in growth, upon the return of the growing season. Aside from all this, the removal of leaves during the sum- mer reduces the working or elaborating surface, and thereby tends more in the direction of starving or weakening the plant than in feed- ing or strengthening it. It is well known, for example, that watersprouts are less frequent following summer pruning than following win- ter pruning. These remarks are necessarily very general, and the condition of the plant and amount of cutting may be expected to obscure results which might be expected to transpire in typical or selected cases. If the pruning is such as to check wood growth without percep- tibly weakening the plant, fruit-bearing is gen- erally promoted ; and herein lies the value of summer pinching of strong or leading shoots. In respect to the proper time for pinching, Sorauer remarks : * " The greatest success will attend the process if the pinching takes place just at the period when the buds have still sufficient time to swell up and become stored with food material, but when the supply of water begins to diminish, so that the upper *« Physiology of Plants," 138. WHEN DO FRUIT -BUDS FORM? 183 buds do not grow out into long laterals. * To prevent disappointments, we state emphat- ically,— as the practice is very common, — that no fixed rule can be laid down for the com- mencement of summer pruning. Trees may even be pinched to death. The favorable time for this operation depends on the climate, the soil, the variety and even upon the individual char- acteristics of the plant." The reader should know that the effect of this pinching depends very much on the gen- eral habit and vigor of the plant, and that it is very difficult to predict results unless the particular plant has been under training for some time (and preferably from the time it was planted). The best results in pinching the tips of shoots are obtained when plants are trained to definite forms, as on walls, cordons, in glass houses, or in arbitrary pyramids or other geo- metrical figures. The practice is, therefore, of little use in the commercial fruit-growing of this country. The operator must not expect fruit -buds to form in the same year in which pinching or heading -back is done, although such immediate results are sometimes obtained. If heading -in is done before active growth has ceased, mis- chievous lateral growths may be expected (Sec- tion 9) ; if done after the leaves have ceased to be active, little if any results may be antici- 184 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING pated. Theoretically, the proper time is just as growth begins to cease, which, in the North, is in early summer The shoot in Fig. 12 (Stark apple) was cut back in winter, and the follow- ing season the fruit -bud a was formed. This was a comparatively weak shoot on the lower part of the tree. Had it been a strong termi- nal twig, the bud a would probably have pro- duced a long shoot. The injury to the shoot 3 in Fig. 61 (at e) occurred about midsummer. The two lateral buds received an extra food supply and gave rise to late -season branchlets. The parts became greatly thickened, but only leaf -buds formed. It is probably correct to say that heading -in and pinching exert more marked effects, in inducing fruit -bearing, in subsequent years and in proportion to the persistency with which they are practiced, than in the very year of the operation. Before we can suggest perfectly rational treat- ment to produce fruit -buds, we must know at what period in the formation of the winter bud the differentiation between the leaf -bud and the blossom- bud takes place. This question cannot be answered with our present knowledge. In its very earliest stages, it is probable that the winter bud is undifferentiated ; but its character is probably determined before it be- comes conspicuous on the branch. At all events, it seems to be settled, as a matter of practice, PRUNING ON THE PLAINS 185 that any treatment designed to produce blossom- buds must be made before midsummer if it is to have effect in that year. In general, how- ever, as has been said, the effect of treatment is to be expected in the year or years follow- ing the treatment, rather than in the very year in which it is applied. 17. The effect of pruning, as well as the neces- sity of it, depends greatly upon locality and climate. Not only does the vigor of plants differ widely in different places, but there are local dangers to be avoided. In the coldest parts of the country, winter -made wounds are the means of depriving the tree of much of its moisture (page 143) ; in such regions, plants need the protection of a continuous cover of bark. In the hot and dry interior regions, sun- scalding often follows very heavy pruning, and there has thus arisen a feeling that trees should not be pruned on the Plains. It is undoubtedly true that in those regions out- door plants need less pruning than in humid cli- mates, but trees which need to be so heavily pruned that they are injured by sun- scald are usually those which have been neglected in the beginning. On this subject Card writes* as fol- lows: " Shall we prune fruit trees in the West ? To the east- *Fred W. Card, "Notes on Pruning", Bull. 50, Nebr. Exp. Sta. 1897. 186 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING era man this will appear like a foolish question, and he will at once say, Why, yes, of course ; prune fruit trees everywhere. To the western man it will not appear so foolish ; indeed, many men upon the Plains would say No! in answer to this question. Where is the trouble? Plainly a difference in conditions. The eastern fruit-grower has learned by experience that pruning is an essential part of his method of treatment. The western grower, on the other hand, has not only found that he can produce good fruit without pruning, but has sometimes found injurious results from it. He may, therefore, if his experience is somewhat limited, jump at the conclusion that all prun- ing is to be avoided. Some of the reasons for pruning which apply in the moister climate of the eastern states lose their force wholly, or in part, upon the Plains. The eastern grower finds it necessary to thin his trees and admit light and air to produce fruit of high color and good flavor. The western man, on the other hand, finds that, under his conditions of intense sunlight and low humidity, fruit will develop color well regardless of such precautions. The eastern grower, if he neglects this, may find his fruit suffering from attacks of fungous dis- eases; but in general, fungi are less troublesome in the dryer climate of the Plains, so this reason likewise loses its force. "Yet there are reasons for pruning which are worthy of consideration, even in Nebraska. It is frequently essen- tial to correct bad habits of growth in young trees, and this occurs as often in one climate as in another. Then, too, a tree which has come to maturity may attempt to do more than it can perform, so that it becomes neces- sary to thin the fruit. This, in part, can be done by pruning. In the case of small fruits and grapes it is wholly so done, though with trees additional measures are often needed. Still another reason would make itself evi- dent to any one who would pick fruit for a short time in PRUNING IN WASHINGTON 187 some of the trees which may be seen in Nebraska. Pick- ing fruit is not an easy task under the best of conditions, and when the tree is so full of limbs and suckers jthat it becomes almost inaccessible, the work is doubly aggravat- ing. Pruning is needed in Nebraska as well as in New York, but the methods employed, or at least the measure of wood which is cut away, will need to be varied. In general, it should be much less severe in the western states than in the Atlantic states. The main thing needed is to watch the habit of growth of the young trees, to prevent the formation of undesirable and crowding limbs, and to remove occasional suckers and water-shoots which may spring out from the trunk and base of the branches as the tree gets older. " The top of the tree needs to be kept more dense than in moister climates. The fruit itself is much less likely to suffer from shade than from exposure to wind and sun. In the eastern states it is necessary to keep the lower limbs well up from the ground, or the fruit produced upon them will be lacking in color and flavor. In the West this is an unnecessary precaution, and low-headed trees are much in favor because they are believed to suffer less from the wind and to protect the bodies of the trees from sun -scald." The different ideas to be followed in two parts of one state are set forth by Balmer : * " Climatic conditions will largely determine what prac- tice we shall adopt in pruning our fruit trees. In a state like Washington, where such dissimilar climatic conditions exist as between the regions west of the Cascades and the regions east of the Cascades, no practice can be laid down that will be applicable to both sides of the range. What would be a perfectly proper practice west of the *J. A. Balmer, "Pruning Orchard Trees, "Bull. 25, Wash. Exp. Sta., 1896. 188 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING Cascades, where the sun is obscured a large part of the year, and where the moisture conditions are conducive to a large wood growth, would be almost suicidal on the east side of the range, and vice versa. Therefore it will be necessary to adopt a different practice for each side. "Let us first observe the conditions prevailing in Eastern Washington. Here we have a long, dry summer, with a fierce, scorching sun and strong, drying winds, with a maximum rainfall of probably less than eighteen inches per annum, followed by a severe winter with fluctuating temperature and sudden changes. In portions of the fruit belt there is barely enough natural moisture in the" ground to sustain a tree. Under these conditions who can wonder that trees on the east side come to maturity at an early age, and produce fruit at a time in their lives when they ought to be making wood growth and establishing a strong, healthy frame for future usefulness. And yet con- ditions which at first sight would seem totally unfitted for the production of healthy trees and fine fruit are, with the aid of intelligent cultivation and judicious use of water, made to produce abundantly of the choicest fruits of the earth. "There is no question in my mind as to what is the proper method to adopt in pruning our fruit trees on the east side of the mountains. We must prune in winter, and prune hard. The tendency of all our young trees is to run to premature fruiting, cherries carrying a crop of fruit at two years old, and pears and apples bearing full crops at five and six years old. To overcome this ten- dency in our trees we must practice a system of pruning that is conducive to wood and leaf growth, and to dis- courage all forms of summer pruning and pinching. The practice of allowing nature to have her sway in our orchards has been tried and found wanting. A tree left to nature's way will soon become a brushpile in the air. "The above practice is recommended for all regions east HEALING OF LARGE WOUNDS 189 of the Cascades. Trees on the west of the mountains should be treated a little differently. In most sections on the west side, and especially in the warmer valleys, trees make an extraordinary wood growth. It is no uncommon thing to find young prunes and cherries making a growth of six to ten feet in a single season. The excessive mois- ture in soil and atmosphere, and the mild climate, are con- ducive to this rapid growth. Trees grow late in the season, and there is some difficulty in securing thoroughly ripened wood. To cut back severely in winter aggravates the evil, and more and longer wood is the result. The way to check this excessive growth is to resort to sum- mer pruning and pinching and even to root -pruning. 18. The healing of large wounds is influenced chiefly by the kind of plant, the general vigor of the plant, their position on the plant, the length of the stump, and the character — as to smoothness or roughness — of the surface ; other factors are the healthfulness of the wood, and the sea- son in which the cut is made. These questions have been considered in detail in Chapter III. Theoretically, the best time to make the cut, so far as healing is concerned, is in the early part of the growing season, for the healing process then begins without delay; but other factors exert much greater influence than the mere season of cutting. Wounds on pome- fruits (apples and pears) heal more readily than those on stone-fruits. Those on the common shade and timber trees (except pines and spruces) usually heal very quickly. 190 THE PRINCIPLES OP PRUNING 19. Dressings do not hasten the healing of wounds, but they allow the healing to progress unchecked because they may pre- vent disease ; a good dressing, therefore, is one which is antiseptic and durable, which affords mechanical protection, and which does not itself injure the tissues. The various questions involved in this state- ment have been somewhat fully discussed in Chapter III., in which it was concluded that lead paint is perhaps the best single dressing or pre- servative for wood wounds. 20. The best pruning is that which results from a definite purpose or ideal, and tvhich is founded on a consideration of fundamen- tal principles and a careful study of all the local conditions; and special prun- ing-treatments designed to promote fruit- bearing are of secondary importance to the consecutive good care of the plant. PART II THE INCIDENTALS CHAPTEE Y SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE Having now traversed the fundamental prob- lems involved in the pruning of plants, we may give attention to various details of practice. These details are largely personal opinions, and are, therefore, of restricted application; for prac- tice must vary with every personal ideal and every environmental factor. The advice in this chap- ter is not given with the expectation that the reader shall follow it literally, but it may suggest some of the methods which may be employed to secure given results. The reader is again urged to bear in mind the distinction between training or trimming the plant into some desired form, and pruning for definite results in the welfare of the plant and in fruit -bearing. THE FORM OF THE TOP Much of the discussion respecting the best way in which to prune young plants is confused be- cause the disputants are not agreed upon the form of top which it is desired to produce. It goes without saying that different treatments must be given two trees if one is to have a high head and M (193) 194 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE one a low head; and yet persons give the most dogmatic advice upon the pruning of newly -set trees, without once stopping to consider what form or height of tree is to be ultimately obtained. It will be well, therefore, to have a brief discussion of the form of the top before considering the details of practice. The form of the top is largely a matter of per- sonal preference, as we have already said ; but there are distinct arguments in favor of various ideals. It is not the province of this book to consider these arguments, for they are not pri- marily matters of pruning. The book desires only to aid the operator in working out his ideal, not in deciding what ideal is best for his condi- tions. Yet a few general hints may be given. The mental ideal has freest scope in ornamental plants, for questions of profit and loss enter very little into the problem. As a question of art, it should be said that the natural habit of the plant is, in nearly all instances, far better than an artificial or geometrical habit. This is both be- cause of the greater intrinsic beauty of a free- growing tree or shrub, and because the plant is less important for its own sake than for the part it contributes to the general foliage -mass of the place. These questions are somewhat fully dis- cussed in "Garden -Making." The satisfaction derived from a formal bush resides in the perfect- ness of its formality. As soon as it becomes THE FORMAL HEAD 195 ragged, it is unkempt, and is neither formal nor free. The suggestion is, that trees and shrubs which are trimmed into formal shape should be sheared several times dur- ing the growing season, not in winter alone. Fig. 119 illustrates the point. The bush was sheared in winter. The operator wanted a flat -topped and thick -topped specimen ; but he had such a speci- men only in winter, for the bush began to cover its shame with the first opportunity of spring, by making long and free growths. In this case (Fig. 119), therefore, the strong new growth is a blemish, because the operator did not want it (although it should be said that he took the very best means to secure it by pruning heavily in winter). In a fruit-tree, however, a similar growth might not be a blemish, because the object of heading -back in this case is not to produce a definite form of tree, but to keep the plant within bounds, and to modify the fruit- bearing habit. Fig. 120 shows headed -in plum trees as they look when first leaved out. Fig. 121 119. The winter-sheared bush. 196 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE shows the appearance in fall, after the season 's growth has taken place. These pictures are made from selected and typical trees, as grown by a man in the famous plum -growing region at Geneva, New York, where heading -in is much practiced. From one -third to two -thirds of the annual growth is sheared off every winter. In distinction from these plum trees, let the reader consider Fig. 122. This picture is made 120. Headed-in plum trees. May. from a typical plum tree as grown by a New York man who does not head -in his trees. Both these men are successful plum -growers. The trees bear as well in the one case as in the other. Shall I head -in my plum trees? That depends upon whether you want trees like Fig. 120 or Fig. 122, — that is, upon whether you want to head them in or whether you do not ! The* relative merits of high heads or low heads for fruit trees are always in dispute. This con- HIGH AND LOW HEADS 197 troversy is partly the result of confusion of ideas, and partly of differing mental ideals and of va- rying climates. Two factors are chiefly con- cerned in these disputes, — the question of ease of cultivation, and the question of injury to the trunk by sun -scald. It is the commonest notion that short trunks necessarily make low heads, and yet anyone who can see a tree should know bet- ter. The number of trunks which a tree has, does not determine the direction of the leaf -bearing limbs. The tree in Fig. 123 can be worked around as easily as it could be if it had only one long trunk. In fact, branches which start high from a trunk are very apt to be- come horizontal and to droop. There must be a certain number of main or scaffold limbs to form the head. If these limbs are taken out compar- 121. atively low, they may be trained in an upright direction and hold their weight and position. If they are started out very high, they will not take such an upright direction, Headed-in plum tree. September. 198 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE because the tree will not grow beyond its normal stature. High -trained trees are often practically lowest -headed. Tillage is as easy about such a tree as Fig. 124 as about one like Fig. 125; and 122. Free-growing plum tree. the former will often hold its shape the longer if properly pruned. The question of the relation of modern tillage of orchards to low heads is dis- cussed in "Principles of Fruit -Growing." In regions where tree trunks are apt to sun- HIGH AND LOW HEADS 199 scald, the bodies should be short. In nearly all regions outside of the Atlantic States this danger threatens, and it is often serious on the Plains and westward. Nearly all writers urge short bodies and low heads for the Pacific Coast. In the Plains regions it is a common prac- tice to shade the trunk by some artificial means, but it is a question if low -head- ing would not be a better practice. What length of trunk constitutes a high head or a low one, depends upon the species of tree under consideration. In ap- ple trees it may be said that a top is high when the branches start not less than five "feet above the ground, and low when they start not over three feet. Pears, peaches and plums are sel- dom started as high as five feet. The question of high or low heads is largely one of climate, meth- ods of tillage to be employed, and kind of tree; but the writer believes that in the East the commoner error is to train too high rather than too low. A high-headed short-trunked tree. 200 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE Wickson*, of California, protests strongly against the prevailing fashion of high -topped trees : " Low heading has for us all the advan- tages for which this practice is approved in other 124. Vase-form peach tree. parts of the world; viz., accessibility of fruit and ease of pruning, symmetry and solidity, and consequent decrease of danger from high winds, and greater facility of approach to the trunk with the horse in cultivation. This last point has been contested on our own soil, for experi- *« California Fruits," 149. 125. A long trunk does not necessarily give a high top. 202 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE ence has demonstrated that properly trained trees with low heads and obliquely -rising branches are handier for the cultivator than high -headed trees with drooping, horizontal branches. But these &JS,,L%K-- "* 4r *~f£ ^ \'f&' "' ~ '<>f %-2?l «• VJ§*C* 126. Open-centered framework for apple tree. general advantages of low -trained trees are not the chief ones secured in California in low -head- ing. Hundreds of thousands of trees have been destroyed by the exposure of a long, bare trunk to the rays of the afternoon sun. The sun- burned sides have given the conditions desired TWO TYPES OF APPLE HEADS 203 by borers, and destruction has quickly followed. Sometimes young trees have not survived their first season in the orchard, because of burned 127. Ideal framework for apple tree. bark ; or this, with the added injury of borers. It is found by California experience that the growth is more vigorous in the branches when they emerge near the ground." 204 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE The number of main or scaffold limbs should be decided upon, in a general way, before prun- ing of the young tree is seriously begun. Too many limbs are more frequent than too few. Four or five scaffold limbs are usually sufficient for an orchard tree. The operator should also consider whether he wants the trunk to continue beyond the branches. Figs. 126 and 127 suggest the problem. In Fig. 126 is shown a "single story" apple tree, and in Fig. 127 a "double story" tree. It is impossible to secure the latter form in all varieties of apples, and rarely possible with peaches, but it is nearly always easily secured with pears. Wherever such form can be obtained, the writer believes that it (Fig. 127) is to be preferred. It is then possible to secure a greater surface for fruit -bear ing, the load is more evenly distributed, and there is less danger of splitting of crotches. This high -centered framework is secured by allowing the leader to continue. The leader may be cut back when the tree is planted, but a new one will start, and this may be allowed to grow. It will soon reach the limit of its height and make a normal system of branches, as shown in Fig. 127. Two most important points in the general prun- ing of fruit trees are, (1) to determine upon the proper framework for the top, and (2) to there- after keep the tree open and shapely, allowing it to continue its natural habit of growth. TRIMMING YOUNG TREES 205 HOW TO TRIM YOUNG PLANTS The general questions involved in the pruning of woody plants when they are transplanted are dis- cussed in "Principles of Fruit -Growing"; and that account is here reproduced, after the study of which we may proceed to a consideration of va- rious specific applications. "So far as the root is concerned, it is advisable to cut away all roots which are broken or badly torn. These should be cut off just back of the injury. It is the custom to cut off the ends of all roots of the size of a lead pencil or larger, for a clean, smooth wound is supposed to heal quicker than a ragged one. These cuts are made from within outwards, so that the wound is more or less slanting across the roots, and so that it rests firmly upon the ground when the tree is set. When the tree is planted, all the roots should be straightened out to nearly or quite their normal position. If it is found that one or two roots run off to an inordinate length, they may be cut back to correspond somewhat with the main root system. "Perhaps half the entire root system of the young tree is left in the ground when it is dug. It is, therefore, evident that the top should be cut back to a corresponding amount. In fact, the top should be more severely shortened -in than the root, because the root, in addition to being reduced, is also dislodged from the soil, with 206 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE which it must establish a new union before it can resume the normal activities. Trees which are allowed to carry too much top when planted may fail outright to grow; or if they start, they are very likely to be overtaken by the droughts of summer. Even if they live, the growth is gen- erally small and uncertain, and the tree may fall a prey to borers or a victim to high winds. On the other hand, trees may be trimmed too severely when set. Except possibly in the case of peaches, it is probably unwise to trim the trees to a mere pole; and with peaches, it may be better to leave spurs with at least one bud than to trim to a whip. There should be a number of strong, bright buds left upon the top, for these are the points where early and active growth begins. These buds are upon strong branches. If they are removed, the weaker or half dormant buds upon the main trunk or low down in the crotches must take up the work, and these start slowly and often feebly. "There are two general methods of trimming the tops of young trees at planting time. One method cuts back all the branches to spurs of from one to three buds; or sometimes, particularly with dwarf pears set when two years old, the side branches may be cut entirely away, leaving only the buds on the main stem or trunk. The tree, therefore, 'feathers out7 the first season; that is, it makes many small shoots along the main trunk. The following fall or spring, the top is started at TRIMMING YOUNG TREES 207 the desired height. Fig. 128 shows a peach tree as received from the nursery, and Fig. 129 the same tree trimmed in this manner, ready for 128. Peach tree as re- ceived from the nursery. 129. The tree pruned. 130. planting. This method is the one generally best adapted to the peach, which is always set when a year old; but for other fruits, unless the trees are slender and without good, branchy tops, it is doubtful if it is the best practice. If the bodies 208 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE are thought not to be stiff enough, this manner of trimming may be used to good advantage. The main shoot should usually be headed -back in this as in all styles of trimming, in order to make the trunk stocky. "The second method aims to start the top at the required height when the tree is planted. It is adapted only to strong and well grown stocks which have a more or less branching and forking top. From three to five of the best branches are left, and these are headed -back to a few buds each. Fig. 130 shows a pear tree, trimmed in Fig. 131, and the illustration may be considered to represent a good example of its class. Many of our best planters prefer the spur system for all trees, and there are some who would trim all newly set trees to a straight whip; but there is much to be said for both methods. "It may be said in general, then, that peach trees and all small or slender trees, should be well headed-back and spurred (Fig. 129); but that strong, well -branched trees may have the head started at the desired height at the time of setting, all the branches being well headed -back (Figs. 130 and 131). Fig. 132 shows a small plum tree cut to spurs, and the roots have also been properly dressed. Figs. 133 and 134 show second-class apple trees. In these the tops are not well formed, and it might be best to trim to a whip, allowing the branches A to become the 132. Young plum stock well trimmed. N 133. Second-class apple tree, showing leader at A. 134. Second-class tree, showing leader at A. 210 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE leaders. Such whips may look very crooked and scrawny, but they will straighten as they grow. The lines in Fig. 135 show where a grape plant should be pruned. The top should be cut at a and &, the upper roots trimmed off at c and d, and the main roots cut in from e to /. "The trees may be trimmed before they are planted, although it is generally better to do it just after they are set, especially if 'the tree is trimmed after the method of Fig. 131, for one can then better estimate the proper height, the ope- ration is easier done, and there is no further danger of breaking off plant, showing where the limbs by the han- it should be pruned. dling of the tree. One foot is planted firmly at the base of the tree, and then with one hand the branch to be removed is bent upwards and with the other the knife is applied to the under side, and the cut is made neatly and easily (Fig. TRIMMING WHEN SETTING 211 136). Never cut downwards on a limb, for a ragged wound nearly always follows. "In fall -set trees it is generally inadvisable to prune them before spring (unless the tops are so heavy and the bodies so weak that they are likely to be injured by wind), because the cut surfaces are likely to dry out. The roots of the tree are not yet sufficiently established in the soil to supply the added evaporation which takes place from the wounds. If it seems to be desirable to trim the trees when they are Set, they should be cut back only part way. They may be cut again, to fresh wood, in the spring." (Page 96.) Having the general subject now well in mind, we may consider various par- ticular questions of practice. The ex- 137. Showing J where to cut ^en^ to which cutting -back may be the limbs, desirable in young trees is shown in Trimming a newly 212 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE the various preceding pictures. It is also illus- trated in Figs. 137 and 138, in each of which the marks across the branches show where the cutting may be done. Fig. 139 is designed to 138. Showing where to cut the limbs. 139. Trimming to stubs. show where the branches may be severed in trees which it is desired to head -in very closely. One or two of the lower branches are to be entirely cut off, and others cut back to one or two buds, as shown at c. In all the cases which we have so far considered, SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 213 it is assumed that the operator desires to have a distinct trunk to his tree, and to start the top at a height of three feet or more from the ground. It is upon this assumption that nurserymen prune their trees, making a single shaft. Persons who wish a very low -topped tree, therefore, may find difficulty in obtaining it from the strong -bodied trees which the nurserymen supply. When it is desired that the limbs shall start low, it is gen- erally best to buy yearling trees. These carry strong, live buds on the main shaft, with very few or weak side branches. What side branches may exist are cut off, and the tree is headed -back to a single whip, so that side branches are thrown out freely near the base of the plant. Fig. 140 illustrates such treat- ment. At the expiration of the first year, the tree should look something like that in Fig. 141, at which time some of the branches may be removed, leaving only as many as it is desired shall form the main or scaffold limbs. Some fruit-growers prefer to allow the leader to continue in trees of this kind ; but it is usually desirable to take out the leader and to allow the tree to form all its top upon four to six main branches, which arise at intervals along the short trunk. Two -year- old ming to a" trees may also be trimmed to a whip, whip. 214 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE and if they are headed -in, or the young growths near the top are taken off as they start, one may expect to secure branches near the base. 141. The second year's growth. 142. Two years old, trimmed to a whip. Fig. 142 shows a two -year -old tree which has been trimmed to a single cane ; a branch is starting near the ground. By heading- in this tree when it is set, or soon after growth begins, the bottom branches may be still further encouraged. SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 215 Although peach trees are planted when they are one year old, they have generally been trimmed up in the nursery, so that the lower branches are destroyed. The tendency for such trees is to throw out branches near the top, and it is often impos- sible to make them branch within two feet of the ground, where many people desire that the top shall arise. Fig. 143 is a tree which has thrown out two sets of branches, one near the top of the long trunk, and the other near the base. After this tree has grown one season, it may be cut off at the point indicated by the bar ; and the tree should then make a low and vase -formed top, like that shown in Fig. 124. Balmer gives the follow- ing advice* for the pruning 143- Opportunity for a of young trees in Wash- choice' ington (and the same advice will apply to California, or to any place in which low heads are desired) : *Pruning Orchard Trees, Bull. 25, Wash. Exp. Sta. See also page 187. 216 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE "Low heading is the watchword for planters in eastern Washington. Commence with a yearling tree, switches preferred [as in Fig. 140] , for in these we find the entire bud system intact, and we can head our trees at any desired height. All trees that naturally have a tall, upright habit of growth, such as apple, pear and sweet cherry, ought to be headed not higher than twenty to twenty -four inches from the ground. And all stone fruits, such as peaches, plums, prunes, apri- cots, etc., ought to be headed a little lower, say twelve to eighteen inches from the ground. Yearling trees, as usually found in the nurseries of the state, will range from two to four, or even seven or eight feet high. At planting time, whether it be spring or fall, these ought to be headed -down to the proper height. I am aware that it seems like a great sacrifice to take a strong young tree and cut away three-fourths of its top, but it must be done, and done at once; for if you allow one year to pass without attention to this topping, your chances to secure a wrell-formed, low-headed tree are lost. For while you may at any time cut a tree back to the desired height, yet, to cut back into wood that ^is two or three years old never gives the same results as does attention to this matter at the proper time. "It will be seen that the treatment of the tree the first season is of a very simple nature. Your STARTING THE HEAD LOW 217 young orchard contains a lot of stubs sticking out of the ground to a height not exceeding two feet. During the first season's growth these stubs will develop numerous branches, almost every bud will start, and what was lately a stub will become a little forest of shoots. [See Fig. 141] . * * * Allow every limb and every leaf to develop to its fullest extent. Remember that the leaves are to a tree what our lungs and blood are to us, — its very life. And every leaf you deprive the tree of in summer is robbing it of its tissue-forming organs. Without leaf action there can be no root action ; and the fullest development in root and branch can only be secured by religiously preserving the foliage. "We will proceed to prune our tree for the second time. The switch that you planted and headed back last year has developed a number of shoots, may be five or six, but more often fif- teen or twenty. From these select from three to five of the strongest, best ripened limbs (cutting out all the rest), at the same time exercising care to have them evenly fill the space around and above the tree. Observe carefully that no two limbs emerge from the trunk opposite each other, forming what is known as a crotch. A crotch in an old tree is always an evil, causing a weak spot, where the tree will be likely to- break down or split during a heavy fruit crop. The remedy is in your own hands ; when you m f OF i ftJNlVERSITY \ V*c= 218 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE prune your two-year-old tree, cut out every limb that forms a crotch with its neighbor. "The tree in Fig. 144 will convey the idea of what a two-year-old tree ought to be like after having received its second pruning. Notice the arrangement of the limbs. All crotches have been avoided; from the ground to the lowest branches is twelve inches, and the entire height of the tree thirty inches. Contrast this little stocky tree with the weaklings of the same age one commonly meets in orchards to-day, with thin, misshapen trunk three or four feet high, surmounted by two or three long spindling branches, the whole innocent of knife and shears. No wonder our trees break down ; they have not strength to carry a heavy crop of fruit! "After having selected the desired number of limbs intended to form the frame of the tree, shorten these back to within a foot of the trunk, always cutting to a plump promi- nent bud. The tree may be spread, or it may be contracted, by cutting to a bud which points outward, for the former, and to a bud that inclines inward for the latter. You need not hope to alter the character of the tree by this cutting to a bud, 4i- Pruned ie STARTING THE HEAD LOW 219 yet a little may be done to improve its shape. As a rule the weaker the growth the harder it ought to be cut back ; this will encourage an in- creased wood growth the following summer. Trees treated in this way make a growth that is often very perplexing to the amateur ; the result of this shortening -in of all the limbs will be an increased number of shoots to treat the follow- ing season. * * * "The third pruning is conducted on the same lines as the second, with this difference: Select the limbs you wish to continue the upward growth of the tree ; these will usually be not more than two on each of those left last year, observing the same care not to leave crotches, and shortening -in the growth made in that sea- son; but instead of taking off all of the inside shoots clean to the branch, they are left an inch or two long, and in the course of a season or two all these stubs that you leave will be con- verted into fruit- spurs. I would practice pruning if for no other reason than to develop every bud on all the limbs, and would treat these buds in such a manner that all would eventually become fruit-spurs. * * * The third season's pruning, then, differs from the first and second in leaving a part of all the growth, instead of taking it off clean, as in the case of very young trees. I object to leaving spurs before the third season, for the reason that by so doing we encourage a fruit- 220 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE ing condition in our trees at too early an age, and this is the very end we are trying to defeat. "The necessary pruning during the following two or three years does not materially differ from that described for the third year. Let the aim be a symmetrical low, somewhat round-headed tree— the top ought not to be too full of wood— and not too thin! Do not expect that every tree can be pruned so as to assume an ideal form, for in this you will be disappointed. No two trees have exactly the same habit of growth. Some are tall and close, others spreading and willowy. All may be vastly improved by an in- telligent use of the knife during the early years of the tree's growth. At the age of four or five years we find cherry, plum, and even apple and pear, rapidly developing fruit buds. And as this condition becomes evident, the use of the knife had better be gradually discontinued. All the pruning necessary on bearing trees is to en- courage a proper development of the leading shoots, and if these are making a growth of over twenty -four inches annually, they ought to be shortened -in to encourage a stocky habit of tree. All weak shoots appearing lower down on the tree should be cut back to within an inch or two of the limbs, thereby forming a full and correct system of fruit -spurs on every part of the tree." In contrast to this instruction for the low heading of trees, I insert directions given by T. SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 221 G. Yeomans & Sons, of New York, most success- ful fruit-growers, but who start the limbs of apple trees not less than six feet from the ground: "The trees should be carefully examined, and all broken or bruised roots carefully pruned; and with apple, standard pear and peach trees not over seven feet high, every side branch should be cut away, leaving the tree a straight stem. The reasons for this are: (1) this pruning will reduce the top to correspond with the diminished capacity of the roots, so ."that they will furnish a full supply of sap, and cause it to stand and grow vigorously; (2) it will stand more upright, and not be so liable to be swayed about by the winds, and allows one to dispense with a stake, which many recommend for holding the tree in an up- right position, but which commonly injures, if it does not destroy, the tree; (3) the buds on the last year's growth of the upright stem will form all needed branches, of better form and more vigorous growth than the old ones would if left on, and will be at the necessary height from the ground, as cannot be the case where they are spurred." We have already discussed the importance of pruning near a bud (Figs. 82 and 83), because the part which projects beyond the bud dies and remains a dangerous part. We have also found that trees which are planted in the fall should not be cut back severely, because the roots, not hav- 222 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE ing a hold upon the soil, cannot supply the mois- ture which is lost from the wound. The stubs are, therefore, cut back to a fresh bud in the spring, just before growth begins, leaving a stub above the bud not more than a quarter of an inch in length. Figs. 145 and 146 illustrate the 145. Shaping the top. 146. Shaping the top. proper pruning of trees with reference to the buds. It is considered by some pruners to be important to cut to a bud which stands upon the outside of the twig, thereby causing the top to spread. It is usually the top bud which grows, providing the stub is not dried back and the bud is strong and healthy. If this top bud is on the inside of the limb, it does not tend to spread so far from the perpendicular as one which is on the SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 223 outside. Figs. 146 and 147 are made from the same plant, the latter illustration being taken in May. It will be seen that the top buds are the ones which have grown, and that the tendency of the upper growth at 3 is more nearly perpendicular than that at 1. As growth pro- gresses, however, the shoot 1 will turn upwards and will very nearly approach the perpendicular. It is not often worth the while to pay much attention to the location of the upper bud, with re- spect to the axis of the shoot, but it is certainly important to trim back to a strong, healthy bud. The illustrations 145 and 146 show the proper method of leaving the main scaffold branches. They arise alternately from the main stem, and there- fore do not form crotches, and there is little danger that such injuries will occur as that shown in Fig. 105. If it is desired that the leader shall continue so as to form a two-storied tree, like that in Fig, 127, the shoot from the uppermost bud may be allowed to 147. How the growth starts. 224 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE grow for this purpose. That is, even though the leader is cut off, the plant throws out a new one, as we have already seen (Section 4, Chapter IV.).: It is often impossible to start the top in the form in which we desire, and our ideals may 148. The scaffold limbs. change from year to year, so that we may be called upon to modify the form which we at first projected. It will also be necessary to thin the top considerably, else too many scaffold limbs will arise. Fig. 148 shows a Bartlett pear tree at the end of its second year in the orchard. At the left, the unpruned tree is shown; and at the right, all the limbs have been removed except three, which it is desired shall form the frame- work of the tree. When set, this tree was cut SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 225 back to three limbs, as may be determined by the method of branching of the specimen upon the left; and from the end of each of these stubs two or three branches arose during the next season. Now that the tree has established itself, and it is no longer necessary to head -in the young growths, this forking branching will not occur, and the \ IRT1 I/I -H^, • ^ -kj 149. Raising the top. tree will now need comparatively little attention in pruning, except, of course, that all the super- fluous growth shall be removed each year. Fig. 149 shows the treatment of a Bartlett pear which the owner had started too low. He has now taken off the lower circles of limbs and has elevated the top by about a foot, leaving two or three stubs for the foundation of his growth for the year to come. There is more difficulty in starting the tops of 226 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE peach trees than of most other fruits, from the fact, as has been said, that the trees are usually pruned too high in the nursery. The trees are also likely to die back from the top, especially if they have been set in the fall; and since they have few buds on their bodies, they may throw out adventitious shoots near the point of union of the bud with the stock. Fig. 150 shows a typical case of this kind, in which the trunk •A has died back nearly to the ground. The two lowermost branches arise from the stock and are, therefore, to be sacrificed; but the first strong shoot which comes from the bud is allowed to grow, and all the rest is cut away, as shown in Fig. 151. The grower now has the plant under his con- trol, and can start the top where he may choose. Peach trees also have a tendency to throw out strong growths from one side and to be blind or dormant on the other side. Such one-sided growth from the top of a peach trunk is shown in Fig. 152. In this figure, the long trunk has been cut back to the 150. A common fault with peach trees. 151. How to manage it. AWKWARD PEACH TREES 227 branches, and these branches should now be headed -in to five or six buds. Strong shoots, with an upward ;, tendency, will now \ start from the base of these branches, and at the end of the second year, a tree something like that in Fig. 153 may be se- cured. If it is de- sired to start the limbs of a peach tree Very low, to make a 152. Another trouble low head, the tree with young peach should be cut to a trees' stub a foot or two long when it is planted. 153. How to correct it. ROOT-PRUNING In order to understand the vexed question of root -pruning, it is necessary that the subject be analyzed. We prune the roots I. Of established plants— 1. To keep the growth within bounds, particularly when it is desired that the plant shall be dwarf ; 2. To concentrate or contract the foraging of the roots; 3. To make plants fruitful. 228 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE II. Of plants which are being transplanted. We have already found (Section 2, Chap. IV.) that root -pruning checks growth: it cuts off a part of the food supply. Checking growth in- duces fruitfulness (Section 11, Chap. IV.). The same principles of physiology govern the practice of root -pruning as that of top -pruning. The wounds heal by the formation of a callus, germs of decay enter exposed wounds, new or adventi- tious roots start as the result of heavy pruning, the severed leader (or tap-root) tends to renew itself (see Fig. 115), and the general remarks respecting seasons for pruning apply to roots with nearly the same force as to tops. Since roots have no buds, the new branches do not arise in as definite order as they do on tops, but this is a mat- ter of no consequence, for the shape of the root system is of no practical importance. The direc- tion of the roots is important, however, — whether they run horizontally and near the surface, or perpendicularly. The direction of the roots, how- ever, is not determined primarily by methods of pruning, but by the nature of the plant, by the soil, and the position of moisture and food. The root -pruning of established plants is prac- ticable only on a small scale. It is practiced in amateur plantations, or in those cases in which it is desired to keep plants within definite bounds or shapes. It is essentially a garden idea. It is practiced in European enclosures, in the growing ROOT -PRUNING 229 of trees to pyramids, cordons, 011 espaliers, and the like (see Chapter VI.). By cutting the roots, they are kept within a prescribed area, and do not interfere with other plants. The tops of the plants are thereby checked of exuberant growth, and are more manageable on walls and trellises. In Europe, these small bearing trees are often taken up and replanted, in order to keep them within bounds. In the well tilled gardens, and in cool and moist climates, it is often thought to be de- sirable to keep the roots near the surface ; but in American orchard conditions it is desirable that the roots strike deep. In the large -area or field conditions under which American fruits are grown, root -pruning is rarely necessary or even useful. Under such conditions, the plant takes its natural habit and reaches its normal stature, and fruit -bearing comes naturally with the maturity of the plant ; or, if fruit -bearing does not come,, the fundamental treatment lies in correcting faults of tillage, soil, varieties, or other cardinal matters. In our country, root -pruning may be associated with ringing or girdling, and such other special opera- tions which may be used experimentally now and then, when other means have failed. It is of special rather than of general importance. The European books and periodicals contain many detailed instructions for root -pruning, and to these the reader should go if he desires ex- 230 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE plicit information on practices. A single typical quotation is here inserted to show the general nature of the advice. "Root-pruning of pyramidal pear trees on quince stocks.* — Before entering on the subject of root -pruning of pear trees on quince stocks, I must premise that handsome and fertile pyramids, more particularly of some free -bearing varieties, may be reared without this annual or biennial operation. If the annual shoots of the tree are not more than eight or ten inches long, no root -pruning need be done. I have a large plantation of pear trees on the quince stock, which have been made very handsome and fertile pyramids, yet they have not been root-pruned, neither do I intend to root -prune them. But I wish to impress upon my readers that my principal object is to make trees fit for small gardens, and to instruct those who are not blessed with a large garden how to keep the trees perfectly under control : and this can best be done by annual, or at least biennial attention to their roots ; for if a tree be suffered to grow three or more years, and then be root-pruned, it will receive a check if the spring be dry, and the crop of fruit for one season will be jeop- ardized. Therefore, those who are disinclined to the annual operation, and yet wish to confine the growth of their trees within limited bounds by root -pruning, say once in two years, should only operate upon half of their trees one season ; they will thus have the remaining half in an unchecked bearing state ; and those who have ample room and space may pinch their pyramids in summer, and suffer them to grow to a height of fifteen or twenty feet without pruning their roots. I have seen avenues of such trees in Belgium, really quite imposing. In rich soils, where the trees grow so freely as to make shoots eighteen *Thomas Rivers, "The Miniature Fruit Garden." ROOT - PRUNING 231 inches in length in one season, they may be root-pruned annually with great advantage. "The following summary will perhaps convey my ideas respecting the management of pyramids and bushes when cultivated as garden trees. In small gardens with rich soils, either root-prune or remove all the trees annually early in November. In larger gardens, perform the same operation biennially at the same season. For very large gardens with a dry, good subsoil, in which all kinds of fruit trees grow without any tendency to canker, and when large trees are desired, neither remove nor root-prune, but pinch the shoots in summer, thin them in winter when they become crowded, and thus make your trees symmet- rical and fruitful. "Pyramidal pear trees on the quince stock, where the fruit garden is small, the soil rich, and when the real gardening artist feels pleasure in keeping them in a healthy and fruitful state by perfect control over the roots, should be annually operated upon as follows : A trench should be dug around the tree, about eighteen inches from its stem, every autumn, just after the fruit is gathered if the soil be sufficiently moist,— if not, it will be better to wait till the usual autumnal rains have fallen ; the roots should then be carefully examined, and those inclined to be of perpendicular growth cut with the spade, which must be introduced quite under the tree to meet on all sides, so that no root can possibly escape amputation. All the horizontal roots should be shortened with a knife to within a circle of eighteen inches from the stem, and all brought as near to the surface as possi- ble, filling in the trench with compost for the roots to rest on. The trench may then be filled with the compost (well -rotted dung and the mold from an old hotbed, equal parts, will answer exceedingly well); the surface should then be covered with some half-rotted dung and the roots left till the following autumn brings its annual 232 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE care. It may be found that, after a few years of root- pruning, the circumferential mass of fibers will have be- come too much crowded with small roots ; in such cases, thin out some of the roots, shortening them at nine inches or one foot from the stem. This will cause them to give out fibers, so that the entire circle of three feet or more around the tree will be full of fibrous roots near the surface, waiting with open mouths for the nourishment annually given to them by surface dressings and liquid manure. "Thus far for the gardener who does not mind extra trouble,— who, in short, feels real pleasure in every opera- tion that tends to make his trees perfect in fruitfulness and symmetry. But it is not every amateur gardener that can do this, nor is it always required in the south of England, except for small gardens and in rich, moist soils, in which pear trees are inclined to grow too vigorously. But with our too often cool, moist summers in the northern counties, annual root-pruning is quite necessary to make the trees produce well-ripened wood. In other cases, as I have be- fore observed, shortening the shoots in summer, taking care to produce a handsome pyramidal form, and if they are inclined to grow vigorously, biennial root-pruning, will be quite sufficient." ROOT -PRUNING WHEN TRANSPLANTING. — Root- pruning results from the removal of plants. That is, it is practically impossible to dig up plants of any size— as shrubs or trees — without cutting some of the roots. The severed roots, when as large as a lead pencil, should be cut back to live, un- injured wood, and the wound should be clean-cut. This is to ensure rapid healing. How short the roots shall be cut is a problem to be settled for each case, in the same way as the similar problem DO ROOTS STRIKE FROM THE CALLUS ? 233 respecting the proper length to leave the branches. In general, it may be said that the main roots of 154. Roots do not start from the callus. trees two to four years old may be left six to eight inches long. There is much discussion as to where the new roots arise in transplanted trees. It should first be said that the roots do not necessarily arise from the callus,* although this is the almost uni- *See also, L. C. Corbett, 9th Ann. Rep. W. Va. Exp. Sta., 196. 234 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE versal notion. In fact, they very rarely, if ever, arise as an outgrowth of the callus tissue. From an apple tree two years old, one side of the root was shaved. The tree was planted, and after growing two years, was taken up and photo- graphed (Fig. 154). The callus had formed on both sides of the wound, but no roots had started from it. The new roots usually arise from firm, strong roots the size of a lead pencil or larger; but they may also arise from the hair -like roots which are on the tree when it is transplanted, although the common opinion is to the contrary. The place from which the new roots arise is largely deter- mined by the habit of the individual plant. In some cases, all the roots will spring from the main shaft or trunk, and in others they seem to arise almost indiscriminately from the trunk, large roots and very fine roots. The figures, carefully drawn, from actual examples of apple trees, illus- trate the point. The root shown in Fig. 155 was trimmed of all its fine roots when transplanted. It is seen that the new roots start from various parts of the root system. The root in Fig. 156 had some small, but not very fine, roots left. The new roots are starting from near the ends of these roots, large and small alike. (See also Fig. 161.) In none of these cases do the roots start from the calluses. The common notion that roots will start directly downward if the old roots are cut diago- DO ROOTS FORM PROM THE CALLUS? 235 nally on the under side, so that the callus looks downwards, is a fallacy. The direction of the roots, as already said (page 228), is determined 155. Where the new roots start. 156. Where the new roots start. by the nature of the plant, the texture of the soil, and by the water and food supply. The position of the callus does not influence it. As a matter of practice, it is generally inad- 236 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE visable to exercise much care to save the very fine roots when transplanting shrubs and trees, for such roots are apt to be killed by short exposure to the weather, and to be injured in shipping and transplanting ; but the common notion that they are of no use in a transplanted tree, and that new roots do not arise from them, is false. Within the past few years a so-called system of close root -pruning has been advocated in this country. It is the result of the experiments and writings of H. M. Stringfellow, of Texas, and has come to be known as the Stringfellow or stub -root system. It cuts off practically all the roots, leaving only stubs an inch or two long ; and it cuts back the tops to a mere stump twelve to eighteen inches high. This method of treat- ing trees at transplanting time has been the subject of writings which are distinguished more for their controversial spirit and their evident attempt to uphold an hypothesis than for any clear analysis of the subject. The best exposi- tion of the subject is contained in Stringfellow's "New Horticulture", published in 1896.* There seem to be three leading conceptions *Some of the current writings may be found in Texas Farm and Ranch, 1895, reprinted in Galveston Tribune, Dec. 20, 1895 ; Fruit Growers' Journal, Feb. 15, 1894, Feb. 1 and May 1, 1896 ; California Fruit Grower, May 30, 1896. Excellent contributions in support of the method, by T. L. Brunk, may be found in American Farmer, July 15, 1892, and Fruit-Growers' Journal, Jan. 15, 1896. Report of experiments is made in Bull. 39, Texas Exp. Sta , by R. H. Price. THE STRINGFELLOW THEORY 237 upon which the superiority of this stub -root sys- tem is assumed to rest : Seedling non- trans- planted trees are longer -lived, hardier and healthier than the trees of orchards ; this su- periority is largely due to the presence of a tap- root system ; the nearer the transplanted tree is reduced to the form of a young seedling or cut- ting, the greater is its tendency to develop a tap-root system. All these categories are mere assumptions. The old seedling trees at which we wonder are a few out of many. For every one that has reached a hale old age, hundreds have probably perished; and since the dead are not in evidence, we enlarge the exception into the rule. As a matter of fact, the orchards of to-day, at least in the East, are more uniformly healthy and productive than the seedling or- chards of other days. In our time, every break in the orchard is missed and commented upon ; in those times, the breaks were of small consequence.* In the second place, a tap-root is not an in- *A fuller discussion of this question may be read in Essay XX., "Survival of the Unlike". Mr. Stringfellow cites such seedlings as the original tree of Sudduth pear and Mammoth Black Twig apple. It would be interesting to know what has become of all the other seed- ling pears and apples which presumably started at about the same time. Such trees are isolated facts, not averages; they do not necessarily show laws or tendencies. It is easy to find such patriarchs among grafted and transplanted trees. For example, the so-called original Tompkins County King apple is a grafted and transplanted tree, and it still bears well, although about seventy years old, and outliving most of its progeny. 238 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE variable attribute of seedlings, any more than a distinct leader is always an attribute of their tops. Some plants have tap-roots and some do not. They vary in this regard, as they do in stature, form, kind of fruit, or habit of growth. When seedlings first start, they usually have a tap-root, but this tap-root tends to vanish as the root system enlarges and becomes diffuse, in the same way that the leader in the top may be lost. There is no evidence that a tree necessarily thrives better if it has a tap-root (see page 151). In the third place, a tap-root does not form merely because the roots are cut long or short, or in one way or another. If it is the habit of a plant to develop a tap-root, it will generally do so, even after its original tap is cut (Fig. 115), unless prevented by some peculiarity of soil. It will generally throw down two or even several tap-roots instead of one. It must follow, how- ever, that in short -pruned roots, these new leaders will be very close together and approxi- mately under the main shaft of the tree, and therefore appear to constitute a truer tap-root system than when they arise at some distance to the side of the main shaft ; and it is probable that the centermost ones will tend to be the stronger. The gist of the whole matter, so far as the theory is concerned, is that individual instances and the results of certain experiments have been STUB -ROOT PRUNING 239 enlarged into an hypothesis which has been ap- plied to all plants. The stub-root system is really not a system at all. It is not founded on a body of principles. It is a matter of practice, which will sometimes be useful and 157. Stringfellow's model. 158. The wrong ideal. sometimes not. Its success depends on local and incidental conditions. It would be as true to say that because many people find the pyramidal training of dwarf pears to be useful, therefore it is necessarily best everywhere and for all species and varieties. The accompanying pictures, from Stringfellow s "New Horticulture," show the method of this stub -root pruning. Fig. 157 is the correct form, — "cut back just below the collar, and just under the first good side roots." We should "not leave any length of the main or tap-root, with side 240 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE roots cut back,"* as in Fig. 158. It is impossible to cut Fig. 158 to the form of Fig. 157, because the root did not grow in the same way. This is true of most trees, especially if budded stock ; they cannot be cut ac- cording to directions. Peach trees lend themselves most readily to this form ; also cutting -grown pear trees (such as are grown in the South). The theory is that the new roots arise from the under surfaces of roots which are cut as in Fig. 157, and then grow directly downwards. Fig. 159 is Brunk's model of a peach tree properly trimmed, show- ing both root and top, the whole being only fifteen inches long. -Fig. 160 shows the results which Mr. Stringfellow secures from stub -roots and long roots. In 1896, experiments on the stub -root pruning were begun at Cornell, and these are now reported. This account of the tests is in- serted more for the purpose of affording concrete in- stances with which to discuss the statements advanced in support of stub -root prun- 159. Brunk's model. *"Hold the tree top down, and cut all roots back to about an inch, sloping the cuts so that when the tree is set the exit surface is down- STUB -ROOT PRUNING 241 ing than to make a record of an experiment. Not all the trees were trimmed in the String- fellow fashion, for other problems than mere stub -root pruning were in mind. Besides the four hundred trees here reported, the roots of two hundred apple trees were cut in different 160. Results of stub-root and long-root pruning (after Stringfellow). No. 1, trimmed to stubs ; No. 2, ordinary long roots. ways, in order that the formation of the new root system might be studied. The trees were commercial northern -grown, and were set in a moist and well -tilled sandy loam. They were set on the 4th of May, which was as early as wards. Experience has shown that the roots are generally emitted per- pendicularly to the plane or surface of the cut. This final pruning should be done shortly before planting, so as to present a fresh surface for the callus to form on. If trees are to be kept some time, or shipped by a nurseryman, abftut two inches of root should be left, the planter to cut back as directed when the tree is set. About a foot of top should be left. More or less makes no difference. If the tree is well staked, three feet may be left without diminishing the growth much."— Stringfe llow in "The New Horticulture," 85. 242 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE the ground could be fitted. Every care was taken to have all the conditions ideal and uniform. One hundred trees were set each of peach, plum, pear and apple. Each kind was divided into four or five lots, one lot being cut very short, and the others successively longer, until the last lot, in which the roots were not trimmed. The weather for the first month after planting was hot and dry, but the land was frequently tilled to conserve the moisture. The trees were photo- graphed before being planted, and some of them were removed at intervals and again pho- 161. New roots start tographed. In this way, from both the trunk and the the prOCCSS of root form- fine roots. ation g carefully studied. It was found, as I have already indicated (pages 228, 235), that neither the place of origin of the new roots nor the direction of them was determined by the mode of pruning. Fig. 161 is an apple root trimmed to a simple stub, with some of the fine side roots, a, left on. The new roots arose both from the main trunk and from STRINGFELLOW ROOT - PRUNING 243 the small rootlets, and none of them arose from the callus ; and there was no tendency for them to arise from the lower end of the stub (compare Figs. 154, 155, 156). Two similar apple trees were trimmed in differ- ent ways, and a month after planting they were taken up and engravings made. The close-pruned specimen (Fig. 162) was barely alive, but the other (Fig. 163) was making a good growth. The roots shown in Figs. 161 and 162 are not of the form pre- scribed by Mr. String- fellow, nor is it possi- ble to prune most strong New -York -grown trees in that fashion. How- ever, many of the trees had strong lateral roots, and with these care was taken to copy the ortho- dox form; and some ff of these are illustrated. For example, Fig. 164 162. Reduced to a cutting. 163. Better results shows the roots of four with roots left. 244 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE average peach trees after they had grown two seasons. The one at the left was trimmed to the form advised in Fig. 157, and yet it was the most shallow -rooted of all the trees ; and 164. Typical results in peach trees. many other trees told the same story. Yet this mode of pruning has for its object "to con- centrate all the vital energy of the newly set tree on a limited root -surf ace, and compel it to strike several strong, perpendicular tap-roots, and while doing this, not to allow its attention to be diverted to forming side or lateral roots at the same time."* Some of the facts of this experiment at Cornell may be presented in the following form (the planting dates being in May, 1896, and the final notes taken December, 1897) : *Stringfellow, "New Horticulture," 100. ROOT -PRUNING PEACHES 245 PEACH (HORTON EIVERS) (Twenty trees in each lot) A. Roots normal, six inches long. Sixteen lived. All roots had a strong downward tendency. See right-hand root in Fig. 164. Average weight of trees, December, 1897, seventeen pounds. B. Roots cut to four and one-half inches long. Eighteen lived. The strongest, thriftiest, most shapely trees in any of the lots. Roots all striking downwards. C. Roots cut to three inches long. Fifteen lived. Ten had downward -growing roots, and five had very flat or horizontal root systems. D. Roots cut to two inches long. Nine lived. Five had down- ward-growing roots and four had horizontal roots. E. Roots cut to one inch long. Twelve lived. Six had roots with downward tendency, and six had all roots almost perfectly horizontal. The three left-hand specimens in Fig. 164 are from this lot E. The tree on the extreme left weighed one pound fourteen ounces, and rep- resents an average specimen. The second from the left weighed five pounds eight ounces, and is the best tree in the lot. The third from the left is the only one in the lot that had a distinct tap-root. It weighed four pounds five ounces. From first to last, the moderately pruned trees were clearly the best, and the stub -root trees were poor and weak, even after two years7 growth. PEAR (BARTLETT) (Twenty-five trees in each lot) A. Normal. Roots six to eight inches long. Twenty-one lived; sixteen first-class trees. 246 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE B. Tap -root not trimmed; side roots two to three inches long. Twenty -two lived ; sixteen first-class trees. The best lot. & and &&, Fig. 165, are average roots; & weighed three pounds eight ounces, and && three pounds twelve ounces. C. Tap-root not trimmed; side roots one inch long. Fifteen lived; seven first-class trees. A poor lot. D. Tap-root cut to six inches; side roots one inch long. Fifteen lived; 1 first-class tree, d, Fig. 165, was the dd d bb b 165. Typical results in pear trees. only tree in the lot worth saving, dd shows a tree still living after having been in the ground two years, but it had made no roots whatever. It was trimmed to a bare stump when set. Six trees behaved in this way, and only two of them made a callus on the wound. The tops did not grow, but they supported a few leaves. The stub -root probably absorbed a little moisture, and there was some food stored in the wood, so that the plant was able to live. SHORT -ROOT PRUNING 247 PLUM (LOMBARD, BUDDED ON MYROBALAN ROOTS) (Twenty-five trees in each lot) A. Normal. Tap-root, eight inches; side roots, three to six inches. Twenty-three lived. Right-hand specimen in Fig. 166 is an average root. Weight of tree and root, five pounds ten ounces. B. Tap, six inches; side, two to four inches. Twenty-three lived. C. Tap, four inches; side, two inches. Twenty-four lived. D. Tap, four inches; sides, one inch. Twenty-two lived. Left-hand specimen, Fig. 166, is an average root. Weight six pounds ten ounces. All the lots were remarkably uniform in size and thriftiness. From the tops it would have 166. Stub-root and long-root on plum. been difficult to distinguish them. The short- pruned roots gave the shallowest root systems, however. It is easy to account for the large size of the short -pruned trees, for the Myrobalan plum grows readily from cuttings. 248 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE APPLE (HUBBARDSTON, BUDDED STOCK) (Twenty-Jive trees in each lot) A. Normal. Roots six to eight inches. Twenty lived; sev- enteen first-class; a, Fig. 167, average specimen, one pound fourteen ounces. B. Roots two to three inches long, and tap not cut. Eigh- teen lived; thirteen first-class. &, Fig. 167, average 167. Average results on apple trees. specimen (a good root system!), one pound fourteen ounces. C. Roots one inch long, and tap not cut. Twenty lived; twelve first-class, c, Fig. 167, best specimen in the lot, two pounds eleven ounces. D. Roots one inch long, and tap cut back, thirteen lived; four good trees, but not first-class, and four more with fairly good roots but poor tops, d, Fig. 167, average and typical specimen. THE STRINGFELLOW METHOD 249 In all these trees, except the Myrobalan plum roots, the short -root pruning was a decided dis- advantage. Yet there is no contradicting the fact that others have obtained good results from it, and it has been put to a successful commercial test. All this shows, as has been said (page 238), that stub -root pruning is to be considered a mat- ter of local practice, not a matter of general principle. The practice may be good and it may not : the explanation or assumed theory is wrong. It will probably be found to be best adapted to the South, where plants grow from cuttings more readily than in the North ; and the nature of the land as respects texture, and the nearness of the water-table, will probably influence the result. The kind of tree may also be important. The stubbing -back of the top is a disadvantage to those who desire to grow long -bodied trees. It is always well to challenge established prac- tices and accepted theories, for thereby we make progress. In this respect, Mr. Stringfellow and his followers have no doubt done a distinct ser- vice.* Perhaps we have placed too great value on a large root -system when transplanting trees, and *Aside from its merits as a matter of pruning, Mr. Stringfellow sees the following advantages of stub-roots: (l) Saving the nurseryman in digging his stock; (2) Saving in packing the stock; (3) Saving in trans- portation; (4) Saving in planting; (5) Reducing danger of carrying in- sects and diseases; (6) Enables the planter to set extra large trees, which the nurseryman now has to throw away, and thus obtain fruit much sooner. 250 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE our opinions may need to be revised; but it does not follow that the opposite extreme is the better. The writer prefers trees with roots on ; but he has no quarrel with those who prefer them with roots off. SUBSEQUENT TREATMENT OF THE PLANTS Having now obtained a general conception of the type of tree which we wish to grow, and having started off the main or scaffold branches, the subsequent treatment consists in cutting out all interfering and superfluous limbs and keep- ing the top within the shape which we have in mind. It is impossible to give specific advice as to wrhat branches should be cut, for every branch is a problem in itself, and must be solved for itself. In fruit trees, the head should be kept fairly open, so that all parts are exposed to sun and air, and the tree is made accessible to pickers, and easy to spray. All limbs which tend to make an over -vigorous growth should be cut out or checked, in order that the tree may keep its balance, and limbs which run directly crosswise the top, and those which rub each other, should be removed. Some of the problems connected with the form of the top may be suggested in a series of pic- tures taken from an individual tree of Rhode Island Greening. This tree was set in the spring of 1889. Having grown two years without prun- BEHAVIOR OF A GREENING TREE 251 ing, in the fall of 1890 it looked like Fig. 168. In the winter of 1890-1 it was pruned, as shown in Fig. 169. The tree stands in rich soil and has made a heavy growth. As the top begins 168. Greening tree of two seasons' growth (1890). 169. The same pruned. to expand, the apparent length of the trunk decreases, and in the fall of 1892 the tree looked as shown in Fig. 170 ; that is, tops which may appear to be very high when trees are young may appear to be low when the trees have 170. The same tree, two years later (fall of 1892). 171. The tree again pruned. BEHAVIOR OF A GREENING TREE 253 attained some age. All these pictures (168-174) are drawn with great care to a scale, and the length of trunk bears a true proportion to the width of the top in every case. In the winter of 1892-3 the tree, as shown in Fig. 170, was pruned to the extent shown in Fig. 171, and the 172. The same tree starting into growth (1893). following summer (that is, 1893) the tree had the form shown in Fig. 172. Late in the season of 1894 the tree was drawn again, as shown in Fig. 173. The following winter it was again pruned, and in the spring of 1895 it had the appearance of Fig. 174. It will be seen that the long and stilt -like character of the tree has wholly 173. The tree in the fall of 1894. 174. In the spring of 1895, having been pruned in the winter. PRUNING YOUNG APPLE TREES 255 disappeared, and the very perceptible crook in the trunk has tended to straighten. The tree now begins to have character, and its four scaf- fold limbs are well established. The tree is not ideal in form, however, since it has too much 175. Tetofsky apple tree. 176. The Tetofsky pruned. of a crotch ; and at the present time a living brace has been interwoven between the two crotches, as shown in Fig. 109. A Tetofsky apple tree, two years planted, is shown in Fig. 175. It is a variety which makes very few strong interior growths, and therefore needs comparatively little thinning. It is already 177. Longfleld apple, four years set. 179. Windsor cherry, four years set. 180. The tree pruned. PRUNING YOUNG APPLE TREES 257 making conspicuous fruit -spurs alongside the upright branches. The pruning of the tree is shown in Fig. 176. There are three main or scaffold limbs. Some of the other branches, which are left, it may be necessary to remove as time goes on ; but it is always difficult to determine in the beginning just which ones are 181. Well-formed pie cherry. wanted, and it is well not to trim the tree too heavily, so as to reduce its leaf-bearing capacity, and to set it into too strong growth of water- sprouts. A Longfleld apple tree is shown in Fig. 177. The variety has a weeping habit, and the effort must be to encourage the upper limbs and to remove the lower or drooping Q *f " OF TRK UNIVERSITY S>F trn 258 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE is done is shown in Fig. 178. The tree was started too low in the first place, and it has a bad crotch ; and later on, the large fork on the right was entirely removed. It then had 182. Apricot in need of pruning. PRUNING OF YOUNG TREES 259 183. One way of treating Fig. 182. a good form, but the tree is now weeping as much as ever ; that is, it is impossible to over- come the natural habit of the tree, and however high the Longfield may be trained, it will eventu- ally reach nearly or quite to the ground. A sweet cherry (the Windsor) is shown in Figs. 260 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 179 and 180. This also has a bad crotch, and eventually one of the branches was cut away, as shown in A, Fig. 180, leaving a tree of good form, with the branches started about four feet high. The general thinning of the top, as shown in Fig. 180, is perhaps about right. A sour cherry (Early Richmond) is shown, after prun- ing, in Fig. 181. This tree has an almost ideal type of branching, and' the pruning is about as near perfect as we can ordinarily make it. An apricot tree is shown in Figs. 182 and 183. This tree grows against the south side of a building, although it is not trained on the wall. It is desired, therefore, to have a very flat and spreading top. The branches were started low, but they arise too nearly from a common point, thereby making a bad crotch, yet the apricot is less likely to split than trees which bear heavier loads of fruit. The tree was neglected for three or four years, and when pruning became necessary, it was thinned out to the extent shown in Fig. 183. The head can thereafter be kept free and open with only a slight amount of annual cutting. A neglected peach tree, four years planted, is shown in Fig. 184. It is very thick, and some of the lower branches are weak and almost dead because they have been overshaded by the dense top. This tree was pruned to the form shown in Fig. 185, and is now a handsome and prolific 184. Neglected peach tree, four years set. 185. The tree pruned. 186. Two-year-set peach tree, before pruning (Hale). 187. The peach tree pruned and headed-back. 262 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE tree. Figs. 186 and 187 are adapted from photo- graphs published by J. H. Hale, to show the •..-•- 188. Headed-back upon transplanting. methods of treating a peach tree. In Fig. 187, the tree has been thinned and headed -back. In the transplanting of large or established trees, it is very necessarv that the tops be headed- TOP -WORKED TREES 263 back, and the more serious the cutting of the roots, the more extensive should be the cutting- in of the top. Fig. 188 shows a six -year -old cherry tree which has been cut back after trans- planting. In all such cases, it is important that old and dry stubs are not left on the trees. The stubs should be cut back from time to time as new branches start, always giving preference to the strong growth, and cutting out the feeble wood. MANAGEMENT OF TOP-WORKED TREES When trees are top -budded or top -grafted, it is usually the purpose to change their entire top to the new variety. The methods of performing the work, and the general position of the buds or grafts, are somewhat fully discussed in the last edition of "The Nursery -Book." In old trees it is generally desirable to graft all the leading limbs, thereby endeavoring to maintain the origi- nal shape as nearly as possible. In young trees, only two or three of the limbs can be grafted or budded, and sometimes the whole top is cut off and the main stock or trunk is grafted. The grafting of the main trunk has some disadvan- tages, because a bad fork is apt to occur at the graft, and it is usually better, therefore, to set the cions or buds in the branches. Fig. 189 shows the treatment of a small apple tree which is top- budded. Three buds are inserted, one in the 264 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE main trunk or leader, and one in each of the two side branches. The buds are inserted in summer, 189. Top-budded apple tree. and early the next spring the limbs are cut a quarter of an inch above each bud, as in A. Fig. 190 shows another tree in which many buds have been set, all of which are growing. It shows that the stubs project beyond the buds. As soon as the TOP -WORKED TREES 265 190. Top-budded apple tree. buds have begun to grow vigorously, these stubs should be cut back close to the base of the new branch, to facilitate their healing over. 266 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE A strong pear tree was grafted in three limbs. The grafting was done in April. In September of the same year, the tree looked as shown in Fig. 191, being very much entangled with strong Lv^ 191. Top-grafted pear. watersprouts, because of the severe pruning. Be- fore growth began the following spring, all of this adventitious growth was removed, the tree then looking like Fig. 192. Some of the branches of the stock were left, since the grafts were not yet large enough to form the whole top. If too much of the stock is cut off the cions tend to TOP -WORKED TREES 267 grow too long, and are likely to be broken by snow and wind. In trees which have been set only two to four years, the top can be changed in two years ; 192. The pear tree pruned. but apple trees which are fifteen or twenty years old can ordinarily not be changed so rapidly. Four or five years may be required in some cases. Fig. 193 is a Lombard plum tree which was grafted to a Japanese variety. The tree was four years old when grafted, and the second year there- 193. A plum tree changed to a new variety. 194. In need of attention. TOP -WORKED TREES 269 after all the old top was removed, as shown in the illustration. It will now be necessary to cut off some of the cions and to thin out the top, much as if the tree were recently planted. It is always essential that the operator look out for adventitious growths or suckers from the stock, after the tree has been changed to the de- sired variety. The equilibrium of the tree has been so much upset by the heavy pruning that these watersprouts and auxiliary growths may arise for several years. Fig. 194 is a Kilmarnock willow. This is a weeping variety, which is grafted upon a strong, upright -growing stock. In this case, the stock has thrown out long suckers, and the drooping head is beginning to famish and die. These suckers should be removed as soon as they begin to form, else good results cannot be obtained with the cion. This trouble of suckering from the stock is very apt to occur in ornamental plants, as in top -worked weeping and variegated varieties. Such varieties are gen- erally weak growers, and cannot take up the exuberant strength of the root. MANAGEMENT OF DWARF TREES Dwarf plants are those which do not attain to the normal or habitual stature of the species or variety to which they belong. There are two general categories of dwarf plants, — dwarf va- rieties, and dwarf individuals. The former class 270 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE retains its dwarf ness of itself, without artificial aid. It is the nature of such plants to be dwarf. The manner of their origin is usually obscure, and it appeals to the plant -breeder.* The sec- ond class is forced to be dwarf by some treat- ment which is applied to each individual plant. Plants are dwarfed by three means, — By grafting or budding on a slower -growing root ; By confining the tops by means of pruning or training ; By confining the roots by means of pruning or by growing in pots, boxes, or other re- stricted place. The first category is not a subject for discussion in a pruning -book, but it may be said that it is not enough that the plant be worked on slow- growing root: it must also be systematically headed -in if its stature is to be kept within bounds. This is true of dwarf pears, dwarf apples, dwarf cherries, and all the rest. Root -pruning, as a means of limiting growth, has already been discussed (page 227) . In prac- tice, it is nearly unknown in this country. In small areas it can be employed, but it is inappli- cable to our commercial plantations. *A discussion of dwarfs from the bi-eeder's standpoint may be found in "Plant-Breeding;" from the propagator's standpoint, in "The Nursery-Book;" and from the fruit-grower's standpoint, in "Principles of Fruit-Growing." PRUNING DWARF TREES 271 Top -pruning of a dwarf has two objects, — to limit the growth, and to train the plant to some desired form. Pruning to limit growth is merely heading -back. This should be done every winter. How much the growth shall be headed -back de- pends on its length and the age of the tree. Dwarf pears and apples which make an average growth of eighteen to thirty inches on their uppermost twigs are usually headed -back a half to five -sixths of that growth. This cutting- back will induce a lateral or interior growth (Sec- tion 9, Chap. IV.), and this must be thinned out. It is generally best to prune very late in winter or early in spring, and to cut to within three- eighths inch of a bud (see Figs. 82, 83). Pruning to secure some desired shape of the top must, of course, be governed by the ideal of the operator. There are two general forms to which dwarf fruit trees are pruned, — the pyra- mid and the inverted cone. The pyramid is popular in Europe, and the Old World writings contain minute descriptions of the details of pruning for this ideal. Fig. 195 shows dwarf pear pyramids in the grounds of the Royal Hor- ticultural Society, at Chiswick, England. The essential feature of this type of training is a central shaft from which successive tiers of branches are taken. The flat -topped or inverted -cone -shaped style of training is the commonest ideal in commercial 272 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE American orchards, although there are few plan- tations in which it has been systematically worked out. Probably the best example of it in America is the orchard of T. G. Yeomans & Sons, Wai- worth, New York, an orchard which is still vig- 195. Pyramidal training of dwarf pears. England. orous and productive, although it has been com- mercially successful for nearly half a century (planted in 1852). Good trees from this planta- tion are shown in Fig. 196. The essential feature of this type of training — which the writer believes to be the best for American conditions — is a framework of several approximately coordinate branches arising near the ground. DWARF PEARS 273 Since the Yeomanses have been so successful with dwarf pears, it will be profitable to study their description of the method of pruning, and #• 196. Flat-topped training of dwarf pears. New York. These trees were forty-five years old when the picture was taken. especially so, also, since this account seems to be the clearest exposition of dwarf pear pruning for commercial orchards which is accessible to the American student:* "Experience has convinced me that, with good trees of well chosen varieties, on any good land, which is never too wet, and with the culture a good farmer gives his other crops, and the important — nay, more, the indispensable — requisite to success,— thorough pruning,— no one need fail *This sketch is a copyrighted article published in the nursery circulars of T. G. Yeomans & Sons, at the time when the firm was in the nur- sery business. Reprinted by permission. R 274 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE of attaining a degree of success highly satisfactory and profitable. " A dwarf pear tree should never be planted at one year old. A good one-year-old tree consists of a single upright shoot or stem, from three and one -half to five feet high, and should be cut off at about two feet from the ground; and in order to give a smooth, handsome stem or trunk, let the buds be rubbed off to the height of one foot from the ground, leaving on the upper portion six to nine buds, more or less. With, the tree standing in its original posi- tion in full vigor, and cut back as above stated, each one of these buds will throw out a good, strong branch, which gives a full, round, distaff form to the tree. This is the time and manner, and the only time, when that desirable shape can be given on which the future form and symmetry and beauty depends. To avoid what is termed a crotched or forked-top tree, in which the two uppermost branches are about of equal vigor and height, let the second branch from the top be pinched off when about nine inches or a foot long, which will check and weaken it, while the upper- most one becomes a strong, central leader. Whereas, if the tree be transplanted at one year old, and cut back as above stated, the vital forces of the tree will be weakened half or three -fourths by transplanting, and as the result, only two or three (more or less) of the buds on the trunk will grow so as to form branches, and they, perhaps, only at the top or all on one side, while the remaining buds remain dormant, never afterwards to be developed, as the other branches form new channels, which will more readily carry the sap to the other and upper portions of the trees. "For transplanting, therefore, let a tree be two or more years old from the bud, well cut back at one year old, and with six to nine main branches, which form the framework or foundation, which is to give form and character to the future tree, with proper care and management. "The annexed cut (Fig. 197) will illustrate a two-year-old DWARF PEARS 275 tree, as above described, its lower branches about one foot from the ground, its upper branches being the strongest and most upright, and those below less vigorous and more hori- zontal. I speak of this more particularly for the reason that all the cuts which I have noticed in works on pomology, and in agricultural papers represent a two-year-old tree, with branches much the long- est and strongest at the bot- tom and diminishing in vigor towards the top, except, per- haps, the center top branch ; while all experience illustrates the principle that the sap flows most freely and readily to the upper branches, giving them vigor, strength and upright- ness, to the diminution of the same characteristics in those below. The dotted lines indicate where the branches should be cut back at the time of planting. "In cutting a tree, with the branches formed as above described, let the leader be cut down within four or six inches of the place where the one-year-old tree was cut off, and just above a good bud on the side of the tree over the previous year's cut, thus keeping the leader in a perpen- dicular position over the original trunk or bottom of the tree. "If the side branches aro too horizontal, upper buds are left for their extension ; if too upright, lower buds are left. Side direction may be given, if desirable, to fill wide spaces, in the same way. Cut the other branches at such a distance from the trunk that the ends of them will form a pyra- mid, the base of which should not be over twelve to sixteen inches in diameter, and in smallish trees much less; thus 197. Treatment of two-year-old dwarf pear tree. 198. Treatment for a three- year-old tree. 276 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE the lowest branches will be left the longest, the object of which is to check the natural flow of sap to the upper branches, and induce it to flow more forcibly to the lower ones, increasing in vigor and force of the latter as much as possible, which must be done at that time or never. "The Fig. 198 represents a three-year-old tree, after it has been pruned at two years old and made the third years' growth, and showing where it should be cut back at that time. All subsequent pruning will become easy to any one who has attended to these directions thus far — observing the same principles— thinning out or cutting back any sec- ondary or other branches, as shall seem necessary to admit light and air, or give vigor or symmetry of form to the tree ; but as the greater force of sap will flow to the central and upright branches, they will need to be cut-back most, retaining as near as may be the pyramidal form. Pruning may be done at any time from November to April." These trees, shown in Figs. 197 and 198, start out with a pyramidal treatment, but as they ma- ture, they approach the form shown in Fig. 196 ; and the Yeomans trees are now not over twelve feet high, although nearly fifty years old. Other illustrations may elucidate some of the ways of treating dwarf pears. Fig. 199 is a tree at the end of its first season's growth in the orchard. The forks near the ends of the branches show where it was cut at planting time. Fig. 200 shows the way in which it was again pruned. A dwarf pear three years set is shown in Fig. 201. The top "was started wrong, — with only two branches and these in the form of a crotch. DWARF PEARS 277 When pruned (Fig. 202) two sprouts were left. The tree will now have four scaffold branches ; but it will never be a model tree. A low -branching Duchess dwarf pear is shown in Fig. 203. This variety is a narrow and tall 199. Dwarf pear at end of first year in the orchard. grower when young. It has a well-marked leader and several scaffold limbs. It is pruned in Fig. 204. This will make a good tree. The pruning of dwarf apples is essentially like that advised for pears. If the tree is on 278 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE Paradise stock, very close attention must be given to pruning, else the top will become too large for the root. If it is on the larger -growing 201. A bad-formed tree. 202. The tree pruned. Doucin stock, a somewhat freer growth may be allowed. The following remarks on pruning dwarf apples are by Lodeman : * "Dwarf apple trees should be very thoroughly pruned from the time they are set. The object of this pruning is three-fold: the wood which is capable of bearing fruit will *Dwarf Apples, Bull. 116, Cornell Exp. Station. DWARF APPLES 279 be more freely produced, the fruit- spurs will be distributed evenly over all the lower parts of the tree as well as the top, and the tree will be kept in a dwarf habit. These results may not be obtained if too little wood is removed. Each year's growth, if vigorous, should be cut back at 203. A Duchess dwarf pear, four years set. 204. The tree pruned. least one -half or two -thirds, and generally more may be removed with perfect safety. Occasionally, dwarf trees will be found in which the natural vigor of the cion seems to have stimulated an undue growth of roots, so that the tree, instead of remaining small, increases rapidly in size, and soon it bears little resemblance to the plants fre- 280 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE queiitly illustrated in books to show how a dwarf apple tree ought to appear. The annual growths may be from one to two feet in length, and at this rate good -sized trees are formed in a short time. "The tree shown in Fig. 205 represents a good type. The original from which the drawing was made was five A good dwarf apple tree. feet in height, the lowest leaves being but eighteen inches from the ground. The top has been allowed to assume its natural spreading form, but a firm control has continu- ally been exercised over any too ambitious efforts of the branches. The tree has practically the same form and size which it will retain during its entire existence. The main branches will increase in circumference, the outer DWARF APPLES 281 limbs will gradually lengthen, and the fruit- spurs will become more crooked, yet the tree will always be low and spreading. The one criticism which might be made is that the lowest fruiting branches are still too high. The foliage of the ideal dwarf apple tree almost touches the ground; it has all its main branches well studded with smaller ones, or with fruit- spurs, so that when in full leaf, it shall appear 'feathered' from bottom to top.* * "Much wood is allowed to remain near the ground and in the center of the tree, for it is always easier to remove superfluous branches than it is to insert them when they are wanted. The form of the pruned tree is that of a rather broad vase, this being the shape which the tree naturally assumes. During the coming season, it should be well provided with foliage, so that none of the main branches shall be exposed to the full glare of the summer sun. The fruit produced will also receive proper shade. The specimen as a whole may be considered as a good type of dwarf apple tree which has not been forced to assume a form which is unnatural to it." RINGING AND GIRDLING Girdling is a generic term used to designate the making of a wound completely around a stem. A girdle may extend only through the bark, or deep into the wood. Ringing is a specific horti- cultural term used to designate a girdle which extends only through the bark. The wound may be a simple incision with the point of a knife, or it may be made by the complete removal of a section of bark. In horticultural practice, gir- dling into the wood is rarely desirable, and we shall, therefore, use the word ringing. 282 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE We have already seen the philosophy of ring- ing (pages 161, 166). It promotes fruitfulness of the part above the rings, because the elaborated food is held there, not being able to pass the girdle in its downward course. The fattening of the top, so to speak, is at the expense of the part below the ring. If the bark is not allowed to cover the ring, the root must eventually starve, unless there is foliage below the ring to support it. As a matter of practice, however, the ring is made in spring and is allowed to heal, and the direct effect is, therefore, confined mostly to the year in which the ringing is performed. Ringing is useful in two ways, — it may set un- productive trees into bearing, and it may modify the fruit which is borne above the ring. The former effect usually does not come until the year following the ringing — sometimes not till the sec- ond year. The latter effect is immediate. The philosophy of the one is that the extra food tends to develop fruit -buds ; the philosophy of the other is that the extra food hastens the maturity and increases the size of the fruit already growing. Ringing to induce fruit -bearing is to be re- garded as a special practice. It is generally a last resort, — not because ringing injures the tree (for it usually does not), but because there are more fundamental and general means of promoting fruitfulness (read pages 163-166). If a tree here and there persists in being barren, ring it as an RINGING 283 experiment. If the whole plantation is fruitless, and has yet received all the care which legiti- mately makes for fruitfulness, then ring all the trees ; then if they do not bear, graft them or cut them down. Ringing is sometimes done on young trees in test plantations to bring them early into bearing, but young trees are often seriously in- jured thereby. Ringing is usually done about the time growth begins to start. It is well to experiment on one or two branches first. Run the point of a knife- blade around the stem, sinking it to the wood. This will usually be sufficient; but removing an inch of bark at this season of the year usually does no harm if the tree is vigorous (see page 116) . I have known rings six inches wide, on apple trees, to heal perfectly in a single season, with no dressings applied; but such wounds are unneces- sary and dangerous. Ringing to increase the size and hasten the maturity of fruits is such a well-known practice that reputable societies have long refused to award premiums to fruits which have been modified in this way.* The quality usually suffers. It is customary to make the ring just after the fruit has set, so that individual specimens may be selected. A strip of bark a quarter of an inch wide is often taken out. The part above the ring should bear *See, for example, page 203, 4th Ed. "Horticulturist's Rule-Book." 284 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE an abundance of foliage, else there will be insuf- ficient food to support the fruit. Gaucher remarks* that "the width of the bark to be removed from the whole circumference of the shoot or branch varies between three arid five milli- meters [a millimeter is .039 inch, hence one -tenth to two -tenths inch]. Wider than this, the cut should not be made, as otherwise it is to be fgared the wound would remain open all summer and bring about the death of the part above the cut." "If performed extensively upon a tree," writes Lindley,t ringing "is very apt, if not to kill it, at least to render it incurably unhealthy; for if the rings are not suffiiciently wide to cut off all communication between the upper and lower lips of the wound they produce little effect, and if they are, they are difficult to heal." In 1893 the writer made a symposium t on ring- ing grapes, most of which is here reprinted: "Grapes can be made to ripen earlier and to grow larger if the vine is girdled in early summer. Many fruit-plants have been girdled or ringed for centuries, but the utility of the practice is still in dispute. A mere narrow girdle or incision around the trunk may cause an apple or pear tree to come into bearing, and as the wound heals over in a few weeks, probably no harm can result. But the section of bark removed from the grape vine is so large that the wound never heals, and the whole cane is cut away at the annual winter pruning. The renewal wood of the vine is not *Die Veredeluugen, 364. t Theory of Horticulture, Amer. ed. 255. tAmerican Gardening, xiv. 74-80. RINGING OF GRAPES 285 ringed, however, and this maintains the growth of the plant. But it is a question if this renewal wood is sufficient to keep the plant strong and healthy. Grape-ringing is practiced by many growers in the Hudson Kiver Valley, and mostly with good success so far as the precocity and en- largement of grapes is concerned. It is yet a question if it is profitable throughout a series of years and with all varie- ties of grapes. "Girdling or ringing various fruit-trees was certainly practiced by the Romans, and the Agricultural Society of France awarded a premium to Buchatt about a century and a half ago for a method of ringing the grape-vine. The practice, both with grapes and other fruits, has had an in- termittent history, and it appears never to have become an accepted practice for any number of years. This fact is presumption against the operation. But its application to the American vine is comparatively recent. The first valu- able experiments made with the ringing of the grape vine in America were begun in 1877, at the Massachusetts Agri- cultural College, and the practice has been employed there more or less continuously since that time. A valuable re- port was made upon the composition of ringed grapes in the report of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture for 1879. "The status of grape-ringing in this country may be expressed as follows: Ringing usually hastens maturity and increases size of fruit; it is supposed to lessen the quality of the fruit ; its effect upon the vine is not clearly determined. " The quality of the fruit of girdled vines has been made the subject of much chemical inquiry at the Massachusetts Experiment Station, and as this point is an exceedingly important one, and is under much discussion at present, we have reproduced Dr. Goessmann's analyses very freely. The following table is from Dr. Goessmann's report for 1889: 286 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE Effects of Ringing Grapes, 1889. NAME AND CONDITION. Date. Specific gravity. |d ll m P Is .si it 02 Hartford Prolific, not ringed. . Hartford Prolific, ringed Wilder, not ringed Wilder, ringed Delaware, not ringed 1877. Sept. 3, Sept. 3, Sept. 3, Sept. 3, Sept. 4, Sept. 4, Sept. 4, Sept. 4, Sept. 6, Sept. 6, Sept. 6, Sept. 6, Sept.26, Sept.26. Oct. 5, Oct. 5, 1.045 1.065 1.055 1.075 1.065 1.075 1.060 1.075 1.0625 1.085 1.045 1.070 1.065 1.080 1.075 1.085 Per ct. 12.85 17.18 15.41 17.24 15.75 19.14 16.60 18.45 16.60 21.48 13.46 17.53 17.63 24.47 20.92 Per ct. 8.77 12.50 10.42 14.70 11.76 15.15 11.37 16.31 13.51 15.63 7.46 13.88 13.70 19.61 17.50 17.86 Per ct. 68.25 72.76 67.62 85.26 74.66 79.16 68.48 87.42 68.31 72.76 55.42 79.18 78.27 80.13 85.37 Delaware, ringed Agawam, not ringed Agawam, ringed lona, not ringed lona, ringed Concord, not ringed Concord, ringed Concord, not ringed Concord ringed Concord not ringed Concord, ringed Date. 100 PARTS OF GRAPES CONTAINED— i i 3 S Concord, not ringed 1889. Sept.23, Sept.23, Oct. 8, Oct. 8, 84.69 .42 83.00 .53 84.51 .37 82.69 6.24 8.13 6.09 8.50 Concord ringed "In 1888, Dr. Jabez Fisher, of Fitchburg, Mass., 'the father of grape -growing in northern Massachusetts,' began experiments in connection with the Massachusetts College RINGING GRAPES 287 which have extended to the present time, and have given invaluable results. The following analyses of grapes, which grew from vines girdled by him July 5, were reported by Dr. Goessmann in Bulletin 7 of the Massachusetts Hatch Experiment Station in 1890 : September 20. Ringed. Not ringed. Moisture at 100° C 83.00 per ct. 84.69 per ct. Ash 42 per ct. . . per ct. Sugar 8.13 per ct. 6.24 per ct. Soda solution required to neutralize acid 84.4 C.C. 75 C.C. October 1. Moisture at 100° C 82.69 per ct. 85.51 per ct. Ash 37 per ct. .53 per ct. Sugar 8.50 per ct. 6.09 per ct. Soda solution required to neutralize acid 50 CO. 48 C.C. "In every case the amount of sugar was greater in the ringed grapes. " The experiments at the Massachusetts College were, on the whole, satisfactory, and seemed to show that ringing is advisable, and that it does not injure the vine ; but Dr. Fisher's experiments upon a larger scale, which are detailed below, show opposite results." Dr. Jabez Fisher on Ringing "Knowing that a number of cultivators had girdled their grape vines for two or three years with satisfactory results, and noting the commendation which began to come from the Massachusetts Agricultural College, I determined to ascertain how much value there might be in the method. I could find no account of any careful experiments directed to this end, and having three acres of bearing Concord vines, well sit- uated for comparative experimentation, I decided to try girdling a few of them. The girdling was done in July, 288 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 1888, when the berries were about one -fourth of an inch in diameter. The girdled fruit showed color August 24, and the ungirdled September 2, a difference of nine days. A temperature of 29° on the morning of October 1 killed all the foliage and froze the ungirdled berries, leaving the others untouched, but though the girdled ones were nearly ripe, the season was such that the appreciable amount of sugar they contained was insufficient to give them value for any purpose, and the entire crop was left unharvested. "In 1889, I girdled, July 2 to 5, one each of two bearing arms on sixty vines. This was done by taking out a ring of bark from one-half to three-fourths of an inch wide around the arm near the trunk. The result of this operation was to increase by 30 or 40 per cent the size of the berries at maturity, and they showed color August 12, while those on the opposite half of the same vines began to color August 18, six days later. Sep- tember 20, grapes on girdled vines were fit for market, while the others became fully ripe October 1, a difference of ten days. "In order to get a good understanding of these results and their value, I made a comparison as the matter then stood. I was an earnest inquirer, with little faith, but en- tirely open to conviction. I had gained ten days in time, which, in an unfavorable season, might mean the difference between success and failure. In addition to this gain, the berries would weigh from one -fourth to one -third more from their increased size, and this, again, would add to their attractiveness and thus help their sale. On the other hand, the normal amount of rain, 3.35 inches during Sep- tember, resulted in splitting open from 20 to 40 per cent of the berries, the larger proportion on the heaviest and best clusters. This entailed not only the loss of these split berries but also the time required in cleaning the clusters for market, leaving them deformed and unsightly. The THE RINGING OF GRAPES 289 berries were also soft and did not bear carriage well, and as a result nothing was gained in price from their earli- ness. There was no opportunity to institute a comparison of quality September 20, as at that time those not girdled were sour and unpalatable. The girdled ones seemed to the anxious waiter to be nearly perfect, but in five^or six days the not -quite -ripe ungirdled ones were preferred, and October 1, when the latter had arrived at perfection, the former were left uneaten. These girdled grapes were com- paratively flat, insipid and unsatisfying. They were quite as sweet to the taste as the others but lacked their refresh- ing sparkle, partly from seeming to be less acid and partly from suggestive, incipient decay. This was the case whether they had been housed September 20 or left on the vines until October 1. "These results were unsatisfactory. I repeated the experi- ment, using for the purpose the same vines and adding to their number. In this I was largely influenced by the con- sideration that if we should have a dryer September, the objectionable features mentioned would be reduced to a minimum. "In 1890 I girdled, in all, vines covering nearly an acre. They were all Concords, trained on the renewal system, each vine having two bearing arms six feet long. These arms are fruited but once, and replaced every year by new canes grown for the purpose, upon which no fruit is al- lowed while growing. Half the vines, those in alternate rows, had only one arm girdled. The others were girdled on both arms, which comprised all of the bearing wood except two, three or four central canes that sprung from the trunk bolow the arms. The operation was performed July 18 and 19. The girdled grapes showed color August 17, the ungirdled August 25. Those girdled were first sent to market September 22, and the others October 3. Sep- tember 22 specimens of each were sent to Dr. C. A. Goess- mann, of the Agricultural College at Amherst, Massachu- 290 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE setts, for analysis, and I give here the percentage amounts of grape-sugar and tartaric acid respectively : Ringed. Not ringed. Sugar 9.29 7.36 Acid (tartaric) 1.17 1.15 "At this time the girdled grapes were fairly well ripened, very nearly as good as they became a week later, and bet ter than those gathered October 8. They were sweet, with about the right porportion of acid, while those not girdled were quite sour and entirely uneatable. October 8, samples were gathered of each and again analyzed, with the results here given: Ringed. Not ringed. Sugar 9.12 6.65 Acid (tartaric) 74 .51 "At this date the girdled grapes had lost their refreshing sparkle, while the others were quite satisfactory, being sweet and having sufficient acid; yet the analysis tells us that while the former had lost nearly two per cent of sugar, together with more than 36 per cent of acid, the latter had lost nearly ten per cent of the sugar that they contained September 22 when uneatable, but had also lost more than 55 per cent of their acid. It would appear from these analyses that it is not so much the absolute amount of sugar present which renders fruit palatable by its sweet- ness, as the corresponding absence of an excess of accom- panying acid; and that the sense of taste is quite unre- liable in judging of the amount of sugar present. "The proportionate enlargement of the berries was about the same as in 1889, and notwithstanding that more than five inches of rain fell between September 6 and 18, yet, because of the looseness of the berries on the clusters and the fine weather which followed, the girdled crop ripened with only a trifling loss by splitting of berries, so that it was all marketed by the time that the other grapes were RINGING GRAPES 291 ready to follow. The average price which the girdled grapes sold for during this time was but very little higher than that the main crop commanded. Concord here is not early enough to compete with grapes raised farther south, and it brings quite as good prices later. "An important circumstance forced itself upon my atten- tion about this time. Upon these vines, half of which had been girdled, it was found that the fruit upon the un- girdled arm colored and ripened very slowly. It was so far behind that [of vines not treated, and so general, that the conviction could not be avoided that the girdling of one -half of the vine had correspondingly retarded the ripening on the other half. So prevalent was this tardiness that the crop of the average vine as a whole was less val- uable than where girdling was not practiced. A little later it was found that upon those vines that had both arms girdled, where a few clusters remained upon the central shoots not treated, these clusters did not ripen so as to be of any value. They remained red and very sour to the end. This was the point where light began to show through. I had by the operation of girdling been simply transferring the nutritive pabulum that would naturally have gone equally to all parts of the vine to a portion only. The vine possesses in its sap sufficient material, if natur- ally elaborated, to ripen its entire crop, but if one part of it is caused to receive an excess, there must be a corre- sponding deficiency elsewhere. Another idea was suggested: whether it were possible for girdled vines to mature and ripen their roots so as to be in condition to furnish a crop the following year. It might be that as the bearing vine was all cut away at the fall pruning, there would be no use for the corresponding roots [if there are such!], as they would die under any circumstances. The new or renewal cane was not girdled, and its particular roots might not be affected by the girdling of the other parts of the vine. "Having determined that the gain in value of the crop 292 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE by girdling in my case was not enhanced, as a whole, in any material degree, and being in possession of all the conditions for ascertaining the after-effects upon the vine and its roots, I decided to continue the operation no fur- ther, but to watch the results in the season of 1891. As the spring opened there was no noticeable difference in the size or appearance of the canes, whatever their previous treatment. It was observed that the buds on the vines that had been girdled broke quite unevenly, that the clusters of fruit -buds were smaller and the early growth of the new canes less vigorous than with others. This state of affairs was intensified as growth progressed, becoming more and more apparent as the season advanced. While all were entirely healthy, the vines which had been girdled in 1890 showed a decided lack of fruit and smaller and weaker canes for fruiting in 1892. A favorable autumn made up a part of this difference, and at the close of the season all the vines looked well and the grapes were thoroughly ripened. "In harvesting the crop I kept the fruit grown upon three different plots separate. No. 1 had never been girdled, No. 2 had had one-half of each vine girdled, and No. 3 both halves. From each plot 120 vines were selected, each lot covering about 11,500 feet. All were contiguous and fairly comparable with each other. After the leaves had fallen, I measured with calipers the diameter of each new cane of these 360 vines, 720 canes in all, at half their length, three feet, from the trunk. "In the first column of the following table, 100 is assumed as the product of average ungirdled vines. In the second and 1&ird columns, the percentages of the half-girdled and full-girdled vines, respectively, are given. The difference between the whole amount of fruit and that denominated first-class consisted of small and fragmentary clusters, which could be disposed of only at inferior prices. The quality of all the fruit was satisfactory. RINGING GRAPES 293 Not ringed. Half ringed. Full ringed. Total fruit 100 83 62 First-class 100 77 59 Diameter of new canes 100 97 87 " I cannot avoid the conclusion that wherever a grape vine will fairly ripen fruit by natural processes, girdling is an operation that cannot be commended, certainly not for its commercial results. Its disadvantages are greater than its advantages. The fruit possesses no attractions for the connoisseur, and one year or more must be given the vine to recover from its effects. It is possible that in some sit- uations or circumstances where the seasons are not long enough to ripen the fruit naturally, a crop might be saved by girdling if the grower were willing to devote the suc- ceeding season to generous feeding, without production of fruit, in order to fit the vine for a crop in alternate years. I doubt somewhat if even this is feasible, as my vines girdled in 1890 have not yet full recovered." Hinging in the Hudson River Valley " For many years, I know not how long, it has been known that by obstructing the return flow of sap in the part of a grape vine bearing fruit, the size of the fruit would be in- creased, and it would color abnormally early. This could be attained by removing a ring of bark, or binding the branch tightly with a wire. It is only within the last decade that this knowledge has been turned to practical account in America. Some twelve or fifteen years ago, grape-growers in the Hudson River Valley would occasionally exhibit%t the fairs enormous specimens of grapes. That the vines produc- ing them had been girdled was frequently charged, sometimes denied ; and if admitted, it was with shamefacedness, and the specimens were generally ruled out of the competition. A little later a few vines were girdled, and their product 294 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE put on the market. The practice grew annually, until now a large proportion of the vineyardists of the region girdle more or less vines. A prejudice against the practice ex- isted in the minds of many who had never experimented in this line, and it was charged that the fruit of vines thus treated was only fit to sell, that the method was de- structive to the permanent value of the vines, and was fraudulent and ruinous. "That some varieties of grapes, when girdled, produce much larger fruit more than a week earlier, without ma- terially impairing its quality, is a fairly well-established fact. About two or three years ago one of the state experiment stations is said to have reported [see previous pages] that girdling increased the amount of sugar in the fruit, improved its quality, increased its size, and hastened its ripening. This statement encouraged the practice. " That girdling destroys the flavor of some varieties has been well shown ; that others when girdled never seem to ripen, or in other words remain sour, is also true. 'A girdled Catawba rivals a cucumber-pickle for acidity, and a Delaware so treated never gets sweet.' Empire State loses all character when girdled, while Martha and Wyom- ing Eed suffer no loss in quality. Concord and Champion are girdled freely without bad effects. Worden and Lady sometimes crack badly when girdled ; both are very thin- skinned varieties. As a general rule, the more delicate - flavored grapes, especially if they contain foreign blood, deteriorate most by girdling. " The operation is a severe tax on the vine, particularly in a dry season. Therefore, over-bearing must not be al- lowed. When a vine too heavily loaded is girdled, it will stop growing at about the time for the fruit to begin to color, and the fruit will not ripen. It is the opinion of a careful observer, who has practiced girdling the last five seasons, that 25 per cent less fruit should be left on a girdled arm than on the same arm if left ungirdled. Some vineyardists RINGING GRAPES 295 girdle the same vine only every other year; others girdle two of the four arms grown in the Kniffin system of train- ing. All agree that heavy fertilizing is necessary to keep up the vigor of girdled vines. All weak -looking vines are left ungirdled. " The time for girdling is shortly after the fruit is formed, and when the young grape is about the size of a pea. It is done by removing a ring of bark nearly an inch broad from the arm or branch of last year's wood. One or two shoots of the present season's growth should be left back of 206. Grape ringing-knife. the girdle for renewal, or for the next season's bearing wood. A knife is made specially for this purpose ; its form is shown in the illustration (Fig. 206) . It consists of two hooked blades, attached to a wooden handle, parallel to each other and about seven -eighths of an inch apart. The inner part of each blade is filed to a cutting edge. A chisel -shaped knife is fastened on the back of the handle. In operation the blades are hooked over the vine and the handle passed around it, at the same time holding the blades firmly on the vine; this will cut two lines seven-eighths of an inch apart through the bark. The knife is then lifted from the vine, turned over, and with the chisel -shaped part the ring of bark is severed and lifted from its place. The whole opera- tion is performed in a few seconds. " The grapes should be removed from the shoots left grow- ing back of the girdle, as it is desirable that these shoots should make a vigorous growth of wood for bearing fruit the next season. The vine beyond the girdle makes a great growth of wood and fruit, and the edge of the girdled spot calluses and partly overgrows the naked wood. Shortly 296 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE after the fruit has been harvested the girdled part is sev- ered from the vine for the benefit of next «year's bearing wood. " Whether girdling grape vines is a profitable operation or not can be determined only by a succession of carefully conducted experiments. Its real effect on the quality of 207. The incisions. The bark removed The cane in the fall. the fruit of those varieties which are best adapted to it is, as yet, not fully determined. Whether two vines, with precisely the same treatment, except that one is girdled annually, will for a series of years show a difference of profit in favor of the girdled one, is only a matter of con- jecture. The effect of girdling on grape-juice for wine- making is also yet to be tested. All these are subjects for investigation at our experiment stations. "The accompanying picture (Fig. 207) shows the effect of girdling in augmenting the size of the cane above the girdle, and also the general shape of the wound."— W. D. B., Middle Hope, Orange County, N. Y. From John Burroughs, Hudson Eiver Valley. "My opinion of the practice of girdling grape vines is, that on the whole, it is poor business. Grape -growers, I RINGING GRAPES 297 fear, are killing the goose that lays the golden egg. If all take to girdling, where is the advantage? It is like the crowd all getting up on chairs at the show; what better off are they? Girdling hastens the coloring up of most varieties of grapes, but hastens the ripening very little, while it dis- tinctly injures the quality of certain kinds. Girdled Dela- wares are uneatable. People who buy them probably lose their appetite for Delawares for some time. They are as sour as vinegar. Bed grapes seem to be injured by girdling more than black ones. Girdled Niagaras are large and pleasing to look upon, but their quality is not equal to the ripe ungirdled fruit. Moore Diamond is ruined by girdling. Wordens are not increased in size by girdling, but they color four or five days earlier. They are, however, much more liable to crack, as are all other girdled kinds. Fruit on a girdled Moore Early is larger and earlier, and the qual- ity is not much injured, but it may crack badly. A vine heavily loaded will not ripen its fruit any earlier by being girdled. Girdle other kinds if you will, but when you come to the Delaware, hands off!" PRUNING TOOLS It is often said that all pruning should be done with a pocket knife, meaning thereby that the pruning should receive such constant attention that the removal of large branches is unnecessary. It is even said that the only safe pruning tool is the thumb and finger, which should be used to pinch out the objectionable growths as soon as they start. Theoretically, these statements may be true, but practically they are of little value, because it is impossible for any person who has 298 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE more than a few plants to give such close atten- tion to each one, and it is often impossible to 208. Pruning-knife. tell which branches should be removed until they have assumed their permanent character- istics. 209. Priming-shears. The most essential pruning tools are three, a heavy knife (Fig. 208), hand shears (Figs. 209, 210), and a narrow saw (as e, Fig. 211). 210. Pruning-shears. Aside from these types, there are various patterns of chisels and hooks. Various characteristic pruning tools are shown 211. Various pruning tools. 300 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE in Fig. 211. Those marked a, d, e are common and very useful kinds of saws. Those with teeth on both edges have the advantage of keep- ing longer in repair and of allowing relatively fine and coarse work ; but in crotches the saw is likely to injure the limb which it is desired to save. A slight curve to the blade (as in a) allows the operator to make a very forcible draw cut with the concave side. The back- saw, c, is very useful for small limbs and for grafting, for the stiff back allows the use of a thin plate and consequently of small teeth ; and the tool leaves a very smooth wound. Its disadvantage is that it is too broad to be worked in crotches and other crowded places. Saw ~b is known as an orange -tree pruner. The tool / is one of the handiest and most efficient of all pruning saws, notwithstanding its clumsy appearance. The blade turns at both ends, allowing it to be used at any angle with reference to the frame and adapting it to the most constricted places. Tool g is a combination of saw and chisel. It is mounted on a pole, and the chisel is operated with a mallet applied to the end of the handle. Tool h is also mounted on a long handle, and is a combination of a saw and a shear tool. Long- handled tools are of minor value, particularly in orchards, for the operator should be very close to his work. They are useful in taking out limbs here and there and for use on orna- PRUNING TOOLS 301 mental trees which are difficult to climb. The Waters7 tree-pruner, — which is very useful for heading -in outlying limbs, — works upon the prin- ciple of the knife in h, Fig. 211. A tool of the same principle, but looking upward instead of down- ward, is shown in Fig. 212. Other shear tools are shown in Figs. 209, 210, 213, 214, 215, 216. An exchange describes the tool shown in Fig. 216 as follows: "Anyone can make pruning shears like those here illustrated for his own use. The movable shear, to which the pitman rod is at- tached, does most of the cutting. Both shears are made of thin, hardened steel. From the bolt- hole in the movable shear, a rod (the pitman) longer or shorter, to correspond with the length of the pole used, runs to the lever shown at the bottom of the cut. In pruning trees and vines, the handle of the lever is raised, which forces up the bar and opens the jaws of the shears.* * 212. A gooa * * The jaws of the shears t001 for heading-in outstretching limbs must be ground at an angle some- and removing small what more acute than that com- branches. 302 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE monly employed for tailors7 shears. The highest part of each bevel must come against the bevel upon which it acts." A pruning chisel is shown at r>. The first American pictures of grape pruning and training. 180G. EVOLUTION OF GRAPE TRAINING 393 the public, and became an accepted practice. The fundamental principles of pruning are alike for both European and American grapes, but the de- tails of pruning and training must be greatly modified for different species. We must under- stand at the outset that American species of grapes demand an American system of treatment. The earliest American pictures of grape training of which I know are those in S. W. Johnson's "Rural Economy," published at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1806. These pictures are here re- produced full size (Figs. 254, 255) . The successive figures illustrate the events in the pruning. Fig. 1 shows the growth of the first year and Fig. 2 the first pruning. Fig. 3, the second year's growth, is pruned to the condition shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 6 shows the training, the bearing canes being sup- ported on the main stake and the growing or re- newal canes on intermediate stakes. Figs. 7—12 show the system of renewal. To one familiar with grape training, these various pictures sug- gest European patterns. John Adlum, of the District of Columbia, ap- pears to have been the first person to systemati- cally undertake the cultivation and amelioration of the native grapes. His method of training, as described in 1823, is as follows: One shoot is allowed to grow the first year, and this is cut back to two buds the first fall. The second year two shoots are allowed to grow, and they are tied 394 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each plant, about five or six feet high ; " in the fall each cane is cut back to three or four buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are spread apart "so as to make an angle of about forty -five degrees with the stem," and are tied to stakes ; 256. Dufour's trellis training. 182G. this season about two shoots are allowed to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall the outside ones are cut back to three or four buds, and the inner ones to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year, and the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer canes or branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches jipon either side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the stake as they grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs are tied to a third stake set near EARLY TYPES OF TRAINING 395 the root of the vine. The outside branches are to be cut away entirely at the end of the fourth year. This is an ingenious renewal post system, and it is easy to see how the Horizontal Arm and High Renewal systems may have sprung from it. Dufour's sketch of training on mulberry trees, suggested by European practice. 1826. The next important account appears to be that of John James Dufour, who wrote the "American Vine -Dresser's Guide" in 1826. Dufour published the second pictures of grape- train ing, two of which are here reproduced (Figs. 256, 257). A part of Dufour's sketch will interest us: 396 AMERICAN GEAPE TRAINING " Now for bowers and espaliers or hedgerows : Any way a vine is trained on the lattice work as to furnish regularly the wall for an espalier, and top of a bower, answers the purpose. But as the sap of plants, and of grape vines par- ticularly, always tends to run upwards, it will happen that a vine which is to give branches at different heights, the uppermost of all will shoot overgrown branches of the lowest part, which will be always weak; therefore, if a high wall or a large bower in a garden is to be covered with an espalier of vines, the wall or bower must be divided in sections, that one vine may furnish wood enough to fill one story in that section; say from fifteen to thirty feet long, according to the force of the ground. The height of one story being about three feet; a wall of eighteen feet high and fifty feet long would offer two sections, and five stories, also it would require ten vines to furnish it; one per story in each section; then five vines, or as many as there are stories must be planted before each section, not close to the wall or bower, but four or five feet from it ; and when the vines are strong enough to be laid as directed for vines planted by mulberry trees, they are to be laid down in the same way, nine or twelve inches deep, and raised against the wall or bower, and pruned to three eyes : Vines planted immediately where they are to grow would perhaps do as well; but I have done myself and seen it done the other way. It is supposed that a vine which is to nourish more branches and more fruit than one in a vineyard, will be stronger if it runs some space into the ground, it will surely shoot more roots from the stock; but I think any plant will get roots in proportion to the branches it has to nourish : also, I do not think that it is absolutely necessary to plant them first at a distance from a wall or a bower, but it is surely better to do it against a tree, on account of the roots of the tree, which keeps the ground very dry within their reach ; it is best, however, to do it always when it can be done most conveniently. After the vines DUFOUR'S TRAINING 397 have acquired the proper strength, they are to be trained along the laths, so that one vine should furnish one story only, or that all its branches should shoot on a horizontal line, and nowhere else. (See Fig. 256.) The vine in the left edge of the section being brought up twelve or fifteen inches perpendicular to the lowest lath, there it must be bent square to the right, and tied to the lath as far as the other edge of the section. If that do not give too great a load to the vine, every foot along the lath, a bud must be left to grow, and the vine is full loaded with twelve or fifteen growing buds, so that a lath twenty-five feet long will require two or three years to fill it, without overloading the plant. The next vine being brought up perpendicular, three feet higher to the second lath, and there bent and tied along the lath about as the first one ; there may be also twelve or fifteen buds to grow, one being left at each foot; all the buds in that part of the vines which are per- pendicular, must be rubbed off except one or two just under the elbow where the lath in that section has to be filled up with a next year's shoot, when the vine of one story has reached the boundary of the section, there it must be stopped. The next vine, or the third, must go up first to the third lath, and so on until the middle of the section, where, after having brought the vine up to its lath, it must be then bent to the left, having there more room. To have a perfect espalier or bower, it requires much nursing until the wall or bower is completely filled, then you will have a horn every foot along each lath except the top one, which must be left naked, that you may tie to it the sprouts of the story under it. This horn must be made anew every year, by the pruning, as directed for the festoons between the mulberry trees, and what grows from them must be suckered and tied to the lath above, and may be pinched a couple of feet higher up. What grows on the top or roof of a bower, may be left to grow at liberty after it has been pruned. An espalier of vines thus trained cover a wall or a 398 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING bower most beautifully, and bears abundance of grapes, which, come to fine perfection and make a noble appearance ; every exposure I expect would answer in this country; the southwest is the exposure that I saw grapes come first to maturity. There is in Swisserland such an espalier in full perfection, thirty feet high, on the side of a large barn, planted there by myself thirty five years since." The sketch in Fig. 256 " shows a piece of an espalier or hedgerow. Letter L the laths ; b the horns to be renewed yearly; h the horizontal branches. At the lower lath as it appears immediately after the training of it. Along the next lath above, shows the horns made the subsequent prun- ings." Fig. 257 "represents two mulberry trees and vines trained from tree to tree— letter h the main horizontal branches — L the lath — m the trees — b the horns to be renewed every year, and what will grow from them will often hang as shown by the branch with leaves and fruit on." The great diversity of opinion which exists among the best grape - growers concerning the ad- vantages of different systems of training is proof that many systems have merit, and that no one system is better than others for all purposes. The grower must recognize the fact that the most im- portant factor in determining the merits of any system of training is the habit of the vine — as its vigor, rate of growth, normal size, relative size and abundance of leaves, and season and character of fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in some particular habit, and it therefore requires different treatment in some important detail. Varieties may thrive equally well upon the same NEED OF INSTRUCTION 399 general system of training, but require minor modifications ; so it comes that no hard and fast lines can be laid down, either for any system or any variety. One system differs from another in some one main principle or idea, but the modifi- cations of all may meet and blend. If two men practice the Kniffin system, therefore, this fact does not indicate that they prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is impossible to formulate rules for grape - training ; it is, therefore, im- portant that we understand thoroughly the phi- losophy of pruning and training, both in general and in the different systems which are now most popular. These Chapters (VII. and VIII.) on grape train- ing are a revision of my "American Grape Train- ing," published by the Rural Publishing Company in 1893. The motive of the book was thus set forth in the preface: "This little book has grown out of an attempt to teach the principles and methods of grape training to college students. I have found such teaching to be exceedingly diffi- cult and unsatisfactory. It is impossible to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures. The student must apprehend the principles slowly and by his own effort. He must have time to thoroughly assimilate them before he attempts to apply them. I therefore cast about for books which I could put before my class, but I at once found that there are very few succinct accounts of the sub- 400 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ject of grape pruning and training, and that none of our books portray the methods which are most largely practised in the large grape regions of the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my own notes into shape for print, and this I have now done. And inasmuch as all grape- growers are students, I hope that the simple account will find a use beyond the class-room. "This lack of adequate accounts of grape train- ing at first astonished me, but is not strange after all. It must be remembered that the cultivation of the native grape is of very recent origin. There are many men who can remember its begin- ning in a commercial way. It seldom occurs to the younger generation, which is familiar with the great vineyards in many states, that the Concord is yet scarcely forty years old, and that all grape- growing in eastern America is yet in an experi- mental stage. Progress has been so rapid in recent years that the new methods outstrip the books. The old horizontal arm spur system, which is still the chief method in the books, has evolved itself into a high renewal training, which is widely used, but which has not found its way into the manuals. The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period of incubation, and is now taking an assured place in vineyard management. So two great types, opposed in method, are now con- tending for supremacy, and they will probably form the basis of all future developments. This THE CONFUSED IDEALS 401 evolution of American grape training is one of the most unique and signal developments of our modern horticulture, and its very recent departure from the early doubts and trials is a fresh illus- tration of the youth and virility of all horticul- tural pursuits in North America. "This development of our grape -training should form the subject of a historical inquiry. I have not attempted such in this little hand-book. I have omitted all reference to the many early methods, which were in most cases transportations or modifications of European practices, for their value is now chiefly historical, and their insertion here would only confuse the reader. I have at- tempted nothing more than a plain account of the methods now in use ; in fact, I am aware that I have not accomplished even this much, for there are various methods which I have not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly of local use or adaptation, arid they are usually only modifi- cations of the main types here explained. It is impossible to describe all the variations in grape training in a book of pocket size ; neither is it necessary. Nearly every grower who has given grape raising careful attention has introduced into his own vineyard some modifications which he thinks are of special value to him. There are various curious and instructive old books to which the reader can go if he desires to know the history and evolution of grape training in America, He 402 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING will find that we have now passed through the long and costly experiment with European sys- tems ; and we have also outgrown the gross or long -wood styles, and now prune close, with the expectation of obtaining superior and definite re- sults."* PRUNING THE GRAPE Pruning and training are terms which are often confounded when speaking of the grape, but they represent distinct operations. Pruning refers to such removal of branches as shall in- sure better and larger fruit on the remaining portions. Training refers to the disposition of the different parts of the vine. It is true that different methods of training demand different styles of pruning, but the modification in prun- ing is only such as shall adapt it to the external *In the original edition, all the manuscript was read by three persons —by George C. Snow, Penn Yan, N. Y. ; William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. YM and L. C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment Station at that time, but now professor of horticulture in West Virginia. Mr. Snow is a grower in the lake region of Western New York, and employs the High Renewal system; Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River Valley, and practices the Kniffin system; while Mr. Corbett has been a student of all the systems, and has practiced two or three of them in commercial plantations. In this revision, I have been greatly aided by John W. Spencer, Westfield, N. Y., one of the representative grape- growers of the famous Chautauqua district. To these persons is to be attributed very much of any value which the book may possess. The reader will find a good account of grape training by the late E. G. Lodeman, in Year-Book of the Department of Agriculture for 1896. For southern conditions he should consult Starnes' "Grape Culture," Bull. 28, Ga. Exp. Sta. HOW THE FRUIT IS BORNE 403 shape and size of the vine, and does not in any way affect the principle upon which it rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence, there is but one method ; training is largely a conven- 258. Grape shoot. ieuce, and there are as many modes as there are fancies among grape -growers. All intelligent pruning of the grape rests upon the fact that the fruit is borne in a few clusters near the base of the growing shoots of the season, and which spring from wood of last "•^veR'AfTy8 "* OF YHK TJNIVKRSIT ' 404 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING It should be said here that a growing, leafy branch of the grape vine is called a shoot; a ripened shoot is called a cane ; a branch or trunk two or more years old is called an arm. A shoot, as it appears in the northern states in June, is shown in Fig. 258. The whole shoot has grown within a month, from a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared, and these are to bear the grapes. Flowering is now past, but the shoot will continue to grow, perhaps, to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking time, therefore, the grapes all hang near the lower end or base of the shoots or new canes, as in Fig. 259 and Fig. 52, page 65. In Fig. 259, the old cane was cut at A. Then a shoot started from a bud at B and grew beyond BB, and another shoot sprung from the uppermost bud. Each bud on the old cane, therefore, produces a new [cane which may bear fruit as well as leaves. At the close of the season, this long ri- pened shoot or cane has produced a bud every foot or less, from which new fruit -bearing shoots are to spring next year. But if all these buds were allowed to remain, the vine would be over- taxed with fruit the coming year, and the crop would be a failure. The cane is, therefore, cut off until it bears only as many buds as experi- ence has taught us the vine should carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be removed, or HOW THE FRUIT IS BORNE 405 "rubbed off/' next spring if the young growth seems to be too thick, or if the plant is weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two or three clusters. Some shoots will bear no clus- 259. The bearing wood. ters. From one to six of the old canes, each bearing from five to ten buds, are left each spring. The number of clusters which a vine can carry well depends upon the variety, the age and size of the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and cultivation. Experience is the 406 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING only guide. A strong vine of Concord, which is a prolific variety, trained in any of the ordinary systems and set nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry from thirty to sixty clusters. The clusters will weigh from a fourth to a half pound each. Twelve or fifteen pounds of mar- ketable grapes is a fair or average crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty -five pounds is a very heavy crop. The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is essentially a thinning process*. In the winter pruning all the canes of the last season's growth are cut away except two to six, which are left to make the fruit and wood of the next year ; and each of these remaining canes is headed - back to three to ten buds. The number and length of the canes which are left after the prun- ing depend upon the style of training which is practiced. A vine which may completely cover a trellis in the fall will be cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind the fact that the grape, unlike the apple, pear and peach, does not bear distinct fruit -buds in the fall, but buds which produce both fruit and wood the following season. Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have pruned our vine in the fall of 1891 to two canes, each bearing ten buds (Fig. 260). We will call these canes A and B respectively. In 1892, there- fore, twenty shoots grew from them, and each of HOW MANY BUDS TO LEAVE 407 these shoots or new canes branches, or produces laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892 Al, A2, A3, Bl, B2, and so on. Each of the new canes bears at the base about two clusters of grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clus- ters. These clusters stand opposite the leaves, as BlO B9 B8 B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 Bl C / , I J \ I D Al A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A? A8 A9 AlO / / 260. Diagram to illustrate pruning. seen in Fig. 258. In the axil of each leaf a bud is formed which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in 1893. If each of these new canes, Al, A2, etc., produces ten buds — which is a moderate number — the vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with two hundred buds for the next year's growth and crop ; but these buds should be re- duced to about twenty, as they were in the fall of 1891. That is, every year we go back again to the same number of buds, and the top of the vine 408 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING gets no larger from year to year. We must, therefore, cut back again to two canes. We cut back each of these original canes, A and B, to one new cane. That is, we leave only Al and Bl, cutting off A2, A3, etc., and B2, B3, etc. This brings the vine back to very nearly its con- dition in the fall of 1891 ; but the new canes, Al and Bl, which are now to become the main canes by being bent down horizontally, were borne at some distance — say three or four inches — from the base of the original canes, A and B, so that the permanent part of the vine is constantly lengthen- ing itself. This annually lengthening portion is called a spur. Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position, however, although this dia- grammatic sketch illustrates clearly the method of their formation. The common method of spur- ring is that connected with the horizontal arm system of training, in which the arms A and B are allowed to become permanent, and the up- right canes, Al, A2, Bl, B2, B3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds of these arms each year. The cane Al, for instance, is cut back in the fall of 1892 to two or three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will grow from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one cane is left after the pruning, and this one is cut back to two or three buds; and so on. Thus the spur grows higher every year, although every effort is made to keep it short, both by re- THE SPUR 409 ducing the number of buds to one or two and by endeavoring to bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few years. Fig. 261 shows a short spur of two years' standing. The horizontal por- tion shows the permanent arm. The first upright part is the remains of the first -year cane, and the upper part is the second -year cane after it is cut back in the fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one fruiting -bud, 6, the small buds, a a, being rubbed out. There are serious objections to spurs in any position. They be- come hard and comparatively life- less after a time ; it is often diffi- cult to replace them by healthy, fresh wood; and the bearing portion of the vine is constantly reced- """" "~ 26i. Spur, ing from the main trunk. The bearing wood should spring from near the central parts of the vine, or be kept "near the head," as the grape - growers say. In order to do this, it is customary to allow two canes to grow out each year back of the canes Al and Bl (Fig. 260), or from the head of the vine; these canes may be designated C and D. These canes, C and D, are grown during 1892 — when they may bear fruit like other canes — for the sole purpose of forming the basis of the bear- 410 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ing top in 1893, while all the old top, A and B, with the secondary canes, Al, A2, Bl, B2, B3, etc., is cut entirely away. Here, then, are two distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the succeeding year: either from spurs, which are the remains of the previous top ; or from renewals, which are taken each year 262. Renewal pruning. from the old wood near the head of the vine, or even from the ground. Renewals from the ground are now little used, however, for the}- seldom give a sufficient crop unless they are headed -in the first fall and are allowed to bear the second year. It should be borne in mind that the spur and renewal methods refer entirely to pruning, not to training, for either one can be used in any system of train- ing. Spur pruning, however, is growing in dis- favor among commercial grape -growers, and renewal is more or less used in all systems of training. RENEWAL 411 Renewal pruning is illustrated in Fig. 262. This engraving shows the head of a vine seven years old, and on which two canes are allowed to remain after each annual pruning. The part extending from & to / and d is the base of the bearing cane of 1892. In the winter of 1892-3, this cane is cut off at d, and the new cane, e, is left to make the bearing wood of 1893. Another cane sprung from /, but it was too weak to leave for fruiting. It was, therefore, cut away. The old stub, 5, /, d, will be cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1893-4. In the meantime, a re- newal cane will have grown from the stub c, which is left for that purpose, and the old cane, & d, will be cut off just beyond it, between c and /. In this way, the bearing wood is kept close to the head of the vine. The wound a shows where an old stub was cut away this winter, 1892-3, while & shows where one was cut off the previous winter. A scar upon the back of the head, which does not show in the illustration, marks the spot where a stub was cut away two years ago, in the winter of 1890-1. This method of pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely, and if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short, the head will not enlarge out of proportion to the growth of the stock or trunk. PRUNING YOUNG VINES.— The time required after planting to get the vine onto the wires or trellis varies with the strength of the vine when 412 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING set, the variety, the soil and cultivation, and the system of training ; but, as a rule, the training begins the second or third year, previous to which time the vine is pruned, not trained. Two -year- old vines are most popular for planting, although in the strong varieties, as Concord and Niagara, well -grown yearling vines are probably as good, if not better. The strong -growing kinds are commonly set from eight to ten feet apart in the row, and the rows eight or nine feet apart. Dela- wares and other small vines may be set closer, although eight feet is preferable. When set, the vine is cut back to two or three buds. During the first year, the young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the ground at will, as seen in Fig. 263. In the fall or winter, all the canes but one are cut off, and this one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is, therefore, no larger at the expiration of a year's growth than it was when planted ; but in the meantime the plant has become thoroughly established in the soil, and the second year's growth should be strong enough to form the basis for the permanent trunk or arm. If, however, the second year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before, and the third season's growth used for the trunk. On the other hand, the growth of the first year is sometimes carried onto the wires to form the permanent trunk and arms, but it is only with extra strong vines in good soil that this practice is admissible. From WHEN TO PRUNE GRAPES 413 this point, the treatment of the vine is discussed under Training (Chapter VIII.). WHEN TO PRUNE. — Grape vines may be pruned at any time during the winter. It is the practice 263. A newly-planted vineyard, among most grape -growers in the North to prune as time permits from November to late in Feb- ruary, or even early in March. The sap flows very freely from cuts made in spring and early summer, causing the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in Europe as "weeping," and in order to prevent this loss, pruning is stopped six 414 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING weeks or more before the time at which the buds usually swell. It is yet a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine, but it is a safe practice to prune early. The vine is cut off an inch or two beyond the last bud which it is desired to leave, in order to^avoid injury to the bud from the drying-out of the end of the cane. The pruning is done with small hand pruning- shears. The canes are often allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is accom- plished, although it is the practice with most growers who use the Kniffin system to cut the strings before pruning. The removal of the severed canes is known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the pruner sometimes leaves the strip- ping to boys or other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at any time after the pruning is per- formed, until spring. It must be done before the growth starts on the remaining parts of the vine, however, to avoid injury to the young buds when tearing the vines off the trellis. SUMMER PRUNING. — There is much discussion as to the advisability of summer pruning. It is essential to the understanding of the question that the grower bear in mind that this summer prun- ing is of two kinds — the removal or "breaking- out" of the superfluous shoots, and heading -in or "stopping" the main canes to keep them within limits. The superfluous shoots are such as spring from small, weak buds, or those which break from SUMMER PRUNING 415 the old arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start from the very base of the old cane are usu- ally weak, and should be removed. Buds in this position are shown at a a, in Fig. 261. The sec- ondary or axillary branches, which often start from the base of the season's shoots, should be removed or broken out. These superfluous shoots are pulled off from time to time as they appear, or the buds may be rubbed off before the shoots begin to grow. The heading -in of the main canes, while desir- able for the purpose of keeping the vine within bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals which choke up the vine, and which do not mature, and in those styles of training in which very little wood is allowed to grow, the practice may pre- vent the development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface to properly sustain the vine. Vines are often weakened by summer pruning. These dangers can be overcome by careful attention, however, especially by heading-in very lightly, and by doing it as late in the season as possible, when new lateral growth does not start readily. The necessity of much heading-in has been largely obviated in late years by the adoption of high and drooping systems of training, and by setting the vines far apart. The strong varieties, like Con- cord, Brighton and Niagara, should be set ten feet apart in the row, especially if grown upon the Kniffin system. Catawba, being a very up- 416 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING right grower, and especially well adapted to upright training, may be set eight feet apart, and Delaw^res are often set as close as six or eight feet. It is doubtful, however, if any variety should be set less than eight feet apart for trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where the growth is large because of the long seasons, vines are often set more than ten feet apart. In the South, the rows should run north and south, that the fruit may be shaded from midday sun. The only summer heading -in now generally recom- mended is the clipping of the tips when they fall over and begin to touch the ground. This clip- ping is often done with a sickle or sharp corn- cutter. MAKING THE TRELLIS The fall or winter following the planting of the vineyard, the trellis is begun if the upright sys- tems are used (see Chapter VIII.) ; but this opera- tion is usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin systems, and stakes are commonly used, or at least recommended, during the second season. In the South the trellis is made the first year. The style of trellis will depend upon the style of train- ing, but the main features are the same for all. Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar, locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart that two vines can be set between each two. If the vines are set nine feet apart, the posts may be VINEYARD POSTS 417 eighteen or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand four or five feet from each post. If the posts in the row are eighteen feet apart and the rows eight feet apart, about three hundred and thirty posts will be required to the acre. Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are driven 264. A poor way of bracing the post. with a heavy maul, although many people prefer to set the end posts in holes, thinking that they endure the strain better. In all loose soils, how- ever, posts can be made as firm by driving as by setting with a spade. All posts should be as firm as possible, in order to hold up the heavy loads of vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it is a common practice to lean them slightly uphill, for there is always a tendency for the posts to tilt down the slope. For the Kniffin systems, es- pecially for the strong -growing grapes, the posts must stand six or six and one -half feet high when 418 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING set, but a foot less will usually be sufficient for the upright and horizontal systems. The posts should stand higher at first than is necessary for the support of the wires, for they will need to be driven down occasionally as they become loose. The end posts of each row should be well braced, bfe 265. Bracing the end post. as shown in Figs. 289, 290. A style of brace which is sometimes recommended, is to anchor the post to a stone, as in Fig. 264, but this is imprac- ticable. Fig. 265 illustrates the bracing of fence posts, of which the Prairie Farmer says: "The usual way of bracing, shown in the upper figure, is faulty, the brace being too high up on the post and standing too vertical. It should rest nearly against the center of strain on the post and more nearly in a horizontal position, as shown in the lower figure. A wire connecting the top of the WIRE FOR THE TRELLIS 419 second post with the bottom of the end post pre- vents the brace from pushing it over." It is only a question of time when iron posts will come into general use. Second-hand steam- pipe could no doubt be used. Iron posts are not only more durable, but they do not harbor insects and fungi. The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the top wire in the Kniffin training, which is usu- ally No. 10, as the greater part of the weight is then upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but it is often heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasionally used for the middle and upper rows in the upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The following figures show the sizes and weights of these and similar iron and steel wires: No. Diameter in inches. Weight of 100 feet. Feet in 2,000 pounds. 9 .148 5.80 pounds. 34 483 10 .135 4.83 11 .120 3.82 12 .105 2.92 13 .092 2.24 14 .080 1.69 15 .072 1.37 16 .063 1.05 41408 118 343 145 985 190 476 The plain annealed iron wire costs about three cents per pound, and the galvanized — which is less used for vineyards — three and one -half cents. Of No. 12 wire, about one hundred and sixty pounds is required per acre for a single run on rows eight feet apart, and about five hundred 420 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING pounds for three runs. The cost of No. 12 wire per acre, for three runs, therefore, is about fifteen dollars. The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by staples driven in firmly, so that the wire will not pull through readily of its own weight, but still loosely enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In other words, the head of the staple should not quite touch the wire. Grape staples are of three lengths, about an inch, inch and a- quarter, and an inch and a-half respectively. The shortest length is little used. The medium length is used for hard -wood posts and the longest for soft posts, like chestnut and cedar. These staples cost five cents per pound, usually, and a pound of the medium length contains from ninety to one hundred of the No. 10 wire size. An acre, for three wires, will therefore require, for this size, about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy regions, the wires should be placed on the wind- ward side of the posts, and on hillsides it should be on the up-hill side. There are several devices on the market for stretching the wires on a trellis, such as the "come-alongs" used by linemen and fence build- ers. The one commonly used in the Chautauqua district of New York is shown in Fig. 266. The hook is secured to the post, and the wire is held in the clamp or jaws at the opposite end. The operator pulls the rope, and when the wire is 266. Wire stretcher. 267. Parallel wire stretcher. W8. Paralie! wire stretcher, in operation, the s,ack being pulM up by the strap. 269. Westfield grip. 422 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING taut, slips the rope in the catch at a. The loose end of the wire is then secured to the post, and the machine is removed. Other forms of "come- alongs" are shown in Figs. 267, 268, 269.* There are various means of securing the wires to the end posts, but the commonest method is to wind them about the post once and secure them with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon itself, forming a loop. The wires should be drawn taut to prevent sagging with the weight of fruit and leaves. In order to allow for the con- traction of the wires in winter, some growers loosen the wires after harvest, and others provide some device which will relieve the strain. The Yeomans patent grape-vine trellis is a simple and effective lever -contrivance attached to each wire, and which is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to tighten them in spring. The end post is sometimes provided upon the back with a square -headed pin which works tightly in an inch and a -half auger hole, and about which the end of the wire is wound. A square -headed iron wrench operates the pin, while the tension of the wire around the side of the post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is not durable, how- ever. An ingenious man can easily contrive some device for relieving the tension, if he should think it necessary. As a matter of practice, however, *Manufactured by Eureka Tempered Copper Works, North East, Penna. CARE OF THE TRELLIS 423 the wires soon stretch and sag enough with the burden of fruit and vines to take up the winter contraction, and most growers do not release the wires in fall. It will be found necessary, in fact, to tighten the wires and to straighten up the posts from year to year, as they become loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the ground firmly about all the posts every spring. The wires should always be kept tight during the growing season, to prevent the whipping of the vines by the wind. This is espe- cially important in white grapes, which are discolored by the rubbing of leaves and twigs. Unless the vines are very strong, it will be necessary to put up only one wire the first winter. A German knack for taking up the slack is shown in Figs. 270 and 271. The device is made from heavy wire, and the trellis wire is caught up and wound about it, as seen in Fig. 271. A notch filed in either end of the device prevents it from slipping. Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in Fig. 256, but these are always less durable than Device for taking up the slack. 424 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING the wire trellises and more expensive to keep in repair ; and in the older portions of the country, where timber is dear, they are also more expen- sive at the outset. They catch the wind, and, not being held together by continuous strands, are likely to blow down in sections. Fuller partic- 271. The slack gathered up. ulars concerning the styles of trellis are given in the discussions of the different systems of training. Spencer gives the following supplementary ad- vice for the trellis and general lay-out of the vineyard : "The vineyardists of the Chautauqua grape belt have de- veloped a mode of pruning and training of grapes which has many features peculiar to that district. The trellis is made of two wires, of No. 9 or No. 10 gauge, and chestnut posts. The posts are from six feet to eight feet in length, and cost one cent per lineal foot at the railroad station. In later years, since experience has shown how important air and sunshine are in ripening the fruit, eight-foot posts are most commonly used. Grape posts should be somewhat LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD 425 heavier than those commonly used for wire fence — from a third to a half larger — and the heaviest should be sorted out for the end posts, for these bear the strain of the wire. An experienced farmer need not be told that they should be sharpened with a true lead -pencil taper, excepting the crooked ones, which should be so beveled as to counteract the crook in driving. "The usual distance apart for the posts in the row of grapes is one post to every three vines, or, in other words, twenty- seven feet, and for ease- in stretching the wire, they should be in as straight a line as possible. The posts are driven, but a hole should first be made by an unusually large crowbar with a bulb near the lower end. After the posts are stuck into the holes, they are most conveniently driven by the operator standing in a wagon which is hauled through the row by a horse. A fair weight of maul is twelve pounds, and it requires a good man to swing one of that size all day. Iron mauls are commonly used because they are the cheapest, but one with an iron shell filled with wood "brooms" or frays the top of the post less than the iron maul. Eighteen inches is a fair depth to drive the posts on most soils. If the proprietor delegates the driving to another man, he had better direct that twenty and twenty-two inches be the proper depth, for to the man swinging the maul the post seems deeper than it really is. "A vineyard should have a break or an alley at right angles to the rows as often as every fifty grape vines, for the purpose of dumping grape brush and shortening the trip when hauling fauit. If the vineyard is in fair thrift, longer rows will give so much brush as to be inconvenient in hauling out. " The end posts should not only be the largest of the lot, but should also be well braced. The most common mode is the "hypotenuse brace," consisting of a stiff rail or a four- by-four scantling twelve feet long, with one end notched into the post about midway between the two wires, and the 426 AMERICAN GEAPE TRAINING other end resting on the ground against a two -foot peg of about the same size as the end post. "The wires (two wires in the Chautauqua trellis) should be strung on the windward side of the post ; that is, on the side from which the prevailing winds come. This is very important when the wind is blowing at thirty to forty miles an hour, and the vines have sails of many square feet of foliage, and perhaps three and four tons of fruit per acre. The staples should be of the same gauge of wire as that used in barbed wire fences, but about one-half inch longer, unless the grape posts should be of hard wood like locust, then fence staples will be long enough. The bottom trellis wire is usually placed from twenty -eight to thirty -two inches from the ground. Owing to the arm system of pruning in the Chautauqua grape belt, the height of the lower, trellis wire is permanent. The upper trellis wire is, in many instances, raised as the vineyard comes to ma- turity. The first year of fruiting, it may not be more than twenty-four inches above the lower wire, and year by year be raised to thirty and thirty-two inches. It is not ad- visable to go more than thirty -six inches apart without putting in a middle or third wire. Each spring many of the posts will sag, and the upper wire will be slack, and many of the braces will be out of place. All of these faults should be corrected just before tying up the canes." TYING Probably the best material for tying the canes and shoots to the trellis is raffia. This is a bast- like material which comes in skeins, and which can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for about twenty cents a pound. A pound will suffice to tie a quarter of an acre of upright training through- out the season. Raffia is obtained from the strip- TYING THE VINES 427 pings of an oriental palm (RapMa Ruffia). Wool- twine is also still largely used for tying, but it is not so cheap and handy as raffia, and it usually has to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the winter pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of the vine. Some complain that the raffia is not strong enough to hold the vine during the season, but it can easily be doubled. Osier willows are much used for tying up the old canes in the spring, and also for summer tying, espe- cially in the nursery regions where the slender trimmings of the cultivated osier willows are easily procured. Wild willows are often used if they can be obtained easily. These willows are tied up in a small bundle, which is held upon the back above the hips by a cord passed about the body. The butts project under the right hand, if the person is right-handed, and the strands are pulled out as needed. The butt is first used, the tie be- ing made with a twist and tuck, the strand is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is employed in like manner until it is used up. When wool- twine is used, the ball is often held in front of the work- man by a cord which is tied about it and then passed about the waist. The ball is unwound from the inside, and it will hold its shape until the end becomes so short that it will easily drag upon the ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, after the manner of carrying seed -corn. Raffia is not so easily carried in the field as the wool -twine 428 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING or the willow, and this fact interferes with its popularity. Green rye straw, cut directly from the field, is much used for tying the shoots in summer. Small wire, about two -thirds the size of broom -wire, is used occasionally for tying up the canes in spring, but it must be used with care or it will injure the vine. Corn -husks are also employed for this purpose when they can be se- cured. Bass -bark is sometimes used for tying, but in most of the grape regions it is difficult to secure, and it has no advantage over raffia. It is very important that the old -canes be tied up early in spring, for the buds are easily broken after they begin to swell. These canes are tied rather firmly to the wires to hold them steady ; but the growing shoots, which are tied during the summer, are fastened more loosely, to allow of the necessary increase in diameter. Further advice on tying is given by Spencer: "Tying is done by women, boys and girls and cheap men. The tying materials are wire, wool-twine, raffia, willow and carpet-rags. By turning to Fig. 278, it will be seen how the canes are arrayed on the two trellises after the Chautauqua method. The horizontal arms, at the lower wire, are more or less permanent, and they are loosely confined to the wire, always by string or willow. The vertical canes, which are fastened to the top trellis, are now universally tied with annealed wire of No. 18 gauge, and cut in lengths of four inches. The economy in using the wire is the despatch in tying, and the fact that the work can be done on cool days when light gloves are necessary. The 272. Tying with wire. The first movement. 273. The second movement. 274. The third movement. 275. The tie complete. 430 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING use of wire has been strenuously opposed by people who have never used it. The objection has been that the fine wire would chafe the cane so that the cane would break and fall from the trellis. Such instances occur rarely, and when they do, it is so late in the season that the tendrils of the vine are ample to hold it to the trellis. The cane should be tied to the windward side of the wire for the same reason that the wire was stapled on the windward side of the post. In using the wire tie, the operator stands on the opposite side of the trellis from the cane, and follows the movements as illustrated in Figs. 272-275. This opera- tion puts on the wire with the fewest number of move- ments, binds the cane snug to the trellis, and makes a loop that falls from the trellis on the following season, when the cane is torn away. The tying wire should be thoroughly annealed, so that it can be easily bent and give no springy reaction after being worked. This wire is also useful in tying thorny shrubs to a trellis when a mittened hand is necessary to hold the branches in place while the other hand makes the tie." CHAPTER VIII AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CON- CLUDED—THE VARIOUS MODES The grape is trained for the purpose of keeping the vine in convenient shape and to allow each cluster to receive its full share of space and light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated and sprayed, and the grapes are readily harvested, and it is only upon such vines that the best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some kind of train- ing is essential, for a vine will not often bear good fruit when it lies upon the ground. Grape train- ing is described by one vineyardist as a process of hanging the vine up for air and sunshine, and he thinks that different ways of accomplishing that object may be equally good. He likens it to the hanging -out of a washing. He says that his mother and his wife each has her particular way of putting a washing on the line, and each is punctilious that her favorite method shall be ob- served. He says that he speaks from experience, for he has been bossed by both. In essence, there are three general types or styles of training, which may be denominated the upright, drooping, and horizontal, these terms (431) 432 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED designating the direction of the bearing shoots.* The upright systems carry two or more canes or arms along a low horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across a trellis from below upwards, and the shoots are tied up, as they grow, to t'he wires above. The horizontal systems carry up a per- pendicular cane or arm, or sometimes two or more, from which the shoots are carried out hori- zontally, and are tied to perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping systems, represented in the Kniffin and post -training, carry the canes or arms up on a high horizontal wire or trellis, and allow the shoots to hang without tying. To one or another of these types all the systems of American grape training can be referred. There is no system of training which is best for all purposes and all varieties. The strong -grow- ing varieties more readily adapt themselves to the high, drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although the Delaware is often trained on a com- paratively low Kniffin with good effect. The high or drooping systems are of comparatively recent origin, and their particular advantages are the sav- ing of labor in summer tying, cheapness of the trellis, and the facility with which the ground can be cultivated without endangering the branches of the vine. The upright training distributes the bearing wood more evenly upon the vine, and is * Classification first made in the original edition of "American Grape Training." THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS 433 thought, therefore, to insure more uniform fruit ; it keeps the top near the root, which is sometimes thought to be an advantage, and it is better suited to the stature of the small -growing varieties. There is, perhaps, a greater temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping systems than in the others, because the shoots need no tying, and do not, therefore, demand frequent attention, whereas in the upright systems the shoots soon become broken or displaced if not watched. For very large areas, or circumstances in which the best of care cannot be given the vineyard, the Kniffin or drooping systems are perhaps always to be recom- mended. Yet the Kniffin profits as much from diligence and skill as the other systems ; but it will give better results than the others under partial neglect. The strong varieties, especially those making long and drooping canes, are well adapted to the Kniffin styles ; but the smaller sorts, and those stronger kinds which, like Ca- tawba, make an upright and stocky growth, are usually trained on the upright systems. But the merits of both systems are so various and even so little understood, that it is impossible to recom- mend either one unqualifiedly. The advantages in either case are often little more than matters of personal opinion. It should be said, however, that the Kniffin or drooping systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are evidently destined to overthrow much of the older upright training. EB 434 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED This fact does not indicate, however, that the upright system is to be entirely superseded, but rather that it must be confined to those varieties and conditions for which it is best adapted. The two systems will undoubtedly supplement each other. The horizontal systems are occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are little known. To Mr. Spencer, who has observed many modes of training, the subject appeals as follows : " The fundamental idea of grape pruning is to find the proper balance between the energy which the vine has and the labor that it is expected to perform. What we treat as training is nothing more or less than spreading the vines to light and air, and there are many ways of doing it. Many of them are good, and some better for some varieties of grapes and for certain locations. As a rule, the difference in results of different methods of train- ing is not worth the contention that it has pro- voked. The great point is to determine what the plant is capable of doing, and then to cut and train the top to correspond. Select any system of training which you fancy or with which your help is the most familiar, anu then leave your wood in the form most convenient for that system." Spencer gives the following notes on general methods of grape pruning in the Chautauqua vineyards: PRUNING IN CHAUTAUQUA 435 "A large part of the pruning is done in the winter months — some beginning in the fall soon after the crop is har- vested. Two grades of labor can be employed in this opera- tion—the skilled and the unskilled. The man of skill, or the expert, goes ahead and blocks out. He stands in front of a vine of far more tangled brush than that seen in Fig. 282, and, at a glance, tells by a judgment ripened by much ob- servation, just how many buds are required to ballast and not over-ballast the vine for another year. As the expert stands before the vine making the estimate, he might be likened to a man weighing a ham with steelyards, pushing the weight backward and forward, notch by notch, finding the point of balance. The expert, with his pruning shears, makes a dive here and a lunge there, a clip at the bottom and a snip at the top, and with a few more seemingly wild passes, all wood is severed from the bearing vine, but the number of buds desired to give fruit another year are left. The unskilled help, who receives possibly a dollar a day less than the expert, follows the expert, cutting the tendrils and other parts of the vine that are attached to anything but the trellis. The next process is ' stripping' the brush, and it is one involving brute force, ragged clothes and leather mittens. If the laborer does not put on a ragged suit, he will be apt to have one before he is done with his job. There is a little knack even in doing this work to the best advantage. The dismembered vines still hang to the upper trellis and often cling with considerable tenacity, and a particular jerk or yank, more easily demonstrated than described, is most effectual to land the brush on the ground between the rows. - "The next operation is to haul the brush out to the end of the row. Many tools have been devised for this purpose, some of them involving considerable expense. It is now the universal practice to use a simple pole— one a little larger than would be used to bind a load of logs, and not so large as required in binding a load of hay. It may be a 436 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED sapling about four inches at the butt and two and one -half inches at the top, and ten to twelve feet long. The small end is to be held in the right hand, and the butt end to be pushed along the ground. A horse is hitched to this pole by a rope drawn through an inch hole about four feet from the butt or ground end. When starting at the end of the row, it seems that the straight pole would not gather any brush at all. It is a question of catching the first wad, and all the rest of the brush will cling to it. At the end of the row, the brush is hauled to a convenient pile, where it is to be burned, and is dumped by letting the end of the pole held in the hand revolve over towards the horse. If the pole hits the horse, the operator will see that there is not enough stretch of rope between the pole and whiffletree, and more must be provided." The cost of pruning an acre of grapes is re- ported as follows:* Blocking out . ."".$1.00 Cutting curls . . .... . . . 1.50 Stripping, removing brush, tapping posts, stretching wire . . . . 1.50 Labor of tying 1.50 Cost of ties . . . • .25 $575 THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS The upright systems are the oldest and best known of the styles of American grape training. They consist, essentially, in carrying out two hori- zontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low wire, "John W. Spencer, Proc. W. New York Hort. Soc., 1896, p. 44. HORIZONTAL ARM 437 and training the shoots from them vertically. These shoots are tied to the upper wires as they grow. This type was first clearly and forcibly described in detail by A. S. Fuller, in his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it became known as the Fuller system, although it was practiced many years previous to this time. HORIZONTAL ARM SPUR SYSTEM.— There are two types, or styles, of this upright system. The older type and the one described in the books, is known as the Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method, the two horizontal branches are perma- nent, or, in other words, they are true arms. The canes are cut back each fall to upright spurs on these arms, as explained on page 409 (Fig. 261). Two shoots are often allowed to grow from each of these spurs, as shown in Fig. 276. These spurs become overgrown and weak after a few years, and they are renewed from new shoots which spring from near their base or from the arm itself. Sometimes the whole arm is renewed from the head of the vine, or even from the ground. The number of these upright canes and their distance apart upon these permanent arms depend upon the variety, the strength of the vine and soil, and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to twenty inches apart upon the arm is the com- mon distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry five canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the canes are distributed at intervals of about 438 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED twenty inches. Some very strong vines of vig- orous varieties will carry eight canes upon the two ;/,* v*v* 27G. Horizontal arm spur training. arms together, and in this case the canes stand about a foot apart. In the fall or winter, the cane is cut away and the strongest new cane which springs from its base is left for the bearing wood of the following year. This new cane is itself headed -in to the height of the trellis ; that is, if the uppermost and lowermost wires are thirty -four inches apart — as they are in the Broc- ton vineyards of Western New York, where a modification of this system is largely used — this new cane is shortened -in to about thirty -six inches long. On this length of cane there will be about seven good buds in the common varieties. A modification of this horizontal arm system is HORIZONTAL ARM 439 shown in Fig. 278. It is used in the vineyards of Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in this case are very short, and canes are taken out only at two or three places. The picture shows a vine in which two or three canes are taken from 277. Horizontal arm. (Diagram.) the end of each arm, making five canes for the bearing top of the vine. These canes are cut back to spurs in the fall, as explained in the above paragraph. Sometimes one or two other canes are taken out of these arms nearer the main trunk. One is taken out in Fig. 278. The advantages urged for this style of training are the stronger growth which is insured by so few canes, and the 440 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED small amount of old or permanent wood which is left to each vine. The true horizontal arm training is less popular than it was twenty years ago. It has serious faults, especially in the persistence of the old 278. Chautauqua or Brocton training. spurs, and probably will eventually give place to other systems. Aside from the spur-pruning, the system is much like the following, which is a modification to allow of renewal, and to which the reader is referred for further details. This modification, which may be called the High Re- newal,* and which is one of the most serviceable Term first used in the original edition of " American Grape Train- ing," 1893. HIGH RENEWAL TRAINING 441 of any of the styles of training, although it has never been fully described, we shall now consider. THE HIGH RENEWAL.— This is an upright train- ing which is now very extensively employed in the lake regions of New York and elsewhere. It starts the head or branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches from the ground. The ideal height for most varieties is probably about r( Gros Colman, Black Mo- rocco (!), Cornichon (?), Emperor, Tokay (!), Almeria, Pizzutello, Cal- ifornia Black Malvoisie. TYPE VI.— Malbec, Petite Sirah and Serine, Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc (on rich bottom soils), Merlot, Gros Mansenc (? on rich bottom soils), Chauche Noir, Bastardo, Trousseau, Ploussard, Etraie de 1'Adhui, Chauche Gris, Franken Riesling (on rich soils). 328. Old arm GLASS-HOUSE PRACTICE There are many systems of train- ing vines in graperies. In fact, nearly every gardener has a mode or a method of his own, which he insists is better than all others ; and this is proof that many systems are equally good. In general, the vine is trained to one arm, which extends from the ground to the top of the house. From the sides of this arm, spurs are taken out ; and these spurs are cut back each o °ne Or with short spurs, shows a part of an arm after prun- GLASS-HOUSE PRACTICE 529 ing, with the very short spurs. Some growers prefer to have longer spurs, as in Fig. 329. It I 329. Long-spur pruning. is generally desired to have an alternation of fruit- bearing on these spurs. This is done by pinch- ing the flower clusters from some of the shoots, or by cutting to a strong or fruit -bearing bud on one spur, and to a weak or barren bud at HH 530 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING the very base of the other. The weak bud gives only a shoot ; but the next year it is cut to a strong bud and the neighboring spur is cut to a weak one. The vine in Fig. 329 has spurs in pairs. The one on the left has already been cut six times. The pruning of this vine is explained in Fig. 330. The former prunings are marked by the letters. A more de- tailed view of an old spur is given in Fig. 331. It is generally best to prune the vines as soon as the fruit is off, there- by allowing the vines to be protected during the winter, and destroying the lodging places of insects and fungi. 330. The spurs pruned. 331. An old spur. INDEX PAGE Adlum, quoted 391,393 Almond, fruit-bearing 74 Althsea 338,340 Anderson, A. K., quoted 382 Apple, fruit-buds 22,30, 69 — leaf-bud 27, 69 — flowers 55 — pruning and references 309 — root-pruning 248 Apples, dwarf 278 — experiments on 103 Apricot, fruit-bearing 50, 74 — pruning and references 310 Arbor Kniffin 474 Arbors, of grapes 490 Arches 351 Arm, defined 404 Ash logs 86 Azalea 340 Bacteria in wounds 92 Balmer, quoted 187, 215, 308 Barberry 340 Bark-bound 78 Bark, expansion of 76 Barns, William D 402 grape training 466 quoted 296 Bast, for tying 428 Beach, quoted 328, 331 Bearing year 176 Bellair, G. A., quoted 363 Bending 167 Bioletti, F. T., quoted 494 Blackberry, fruit-bearing 64, 75 — pruning 323 Bleeding 103, 413 PAGE Bois, D., quoted 355 Bolting trees 125 Bordeaux Mixture for wounds. .109, 119, 121 Borers, injury by 122 Brambles, fruit-bearing 63 Brehaut, quoted 364 Bridge-grafting 120 Brunk, T. L., quoted 236, 240 Buchatt, on ringing 285 Bud, cutting near 221 Budd, Professor, quoted 145 Budded trees 263 Burning prunings 308 Burroughs, on ringing 296 Bushes, pruning 195, 335 Butternut, fruit-bearing 72 California 200, 215, 308, 310 — vine pruning 494 Callus 83 — on roots 233 Cambium 82 Candelabrum 358 Cane, defined 404 Card, on pruning 185 — quoted 113 Caywood system 474 Chautauqua training 434, 439 Cheal, J., quoted 349 Checking growth 162 Chemical analyses 178 Cherry, black 9 — fruit-spur 46, 74 — pruning and references 313 -split 122 — struggle for existence in 7, 11 (533) 534 INDEX PAGE Cherry, wild 7 Chestnut, fruit-bearing 72, 75 Chisels for pruning 115, 302 Clematis 340 Climate and pruning. . .185, 187, 199 Coal-tar for wounds Ill Coates, quoted 115 Come-alongs 420 Conifers, pruning 140 Copings for fruits 350 Co-terminal fruit-bearing 59, 74 Corbett, quoted 233, 402 Cordon 342, 343, 357 Cornell, W. T 458 Cornell, root-pruning at 240 Crab, flowering 340 — pruning 15 Crittenden system 476 Cross-wire system 477 Crotches 125 Currant, fruit-bearing ... .56, 66, 74 — pruning 327, 340 Cutting-back 95, 157, 174, 180, 195, 205 Dendroseope 303 Des Cars, quoted 100, 111, 302 Devitalizing by pruning 4 Devol, W. S., quoted 306 Dewberry, fruit-bearing 64, 75 — pruning 323 Dextrine 179 Downing, A. J., quoted 151 Dressings 84, 89, 109, 190 Drooping grape training 458 Du Breuil, quoted 343, 368 Duf our, quoted 395 Duggar, B. M., quoted 90 Dwarfing 227 Dwarfs, management of 269 Eisen, book by 494 Elder 340 Elm, growth of bark 76 Elms, inarched 388 Espalier 342,343,357 PAGE Evergreens, pruning 140, 150 Exochorda 340 Fan training 455 Farlow, W. F., quoted 129 Fences, for fruits 351 Filbert, fruit-bearing 72, 74 Fisher, on ringing 286 Florida freezes 147 Form of top 193 Forsythia 340 Freezing, splitting by 122 Frozen trees, repairing 141 — wood 107 Fruit-bud 21, 27, 68 Fruit-spur 30 et seq Fuller, grape training 391 Fungi of wounds 92 Garden and Forest, quoted 337 Gardeners' Chronicle, quoted. . .384 Gaucher, quoted 284 Girardin's grafts 345 Girdles, repairing 120 Girdling 17, 116, 119, 162, 163, 167, 281 Glass-house grape training 528 Gnawed trees 122 Goblet training 368 Goessmann, on ringing 285 Goff , E. S., quoted 144 Gooseberries, training 384 Gooseberry, fruit-bearing 56, 74 — pruning 327 Grafted trees 263 Grafting vines 492 — wounds 120 Grape, fruit-bearing 63, 75 — ringing 284 — training 390 — young plant 210, 411 Grapes, frozen 149 Graperies 528 Green, Professor, quoted 145 Habit of fruit-bearing 163 Hale, J. H., quoted 262,316 INDEX 535 PAGE Hardy, J. A., quoted 361 Harris, J. S., quoted 145 Hartwig, quoted 364 Haviland, Sands 474 Hazel, fruit-bearing 72, 74 Heading-in 96, 157, 174, 180, 195, 205 Healing of wounds 76, 189 Hedges 333 Hemlock knots 79 Henderson, quoted 167 Hewett, B. W., quoted 146 Hickory, fruit-bearing.... 61, 72, 75 — log 87 High renewal 441 Hirschinger, C., quoted 146 Hofer, A. F 490 Horizontal arm 437 — training 486 Hudson, R., girdling 293 Husks, for tying.- 428 Hydrangea 338, 340 Inarching 120, 388 Indian Riv. Advocate, quoted ..147 Iowa 145 Iron, sulfate of 344, 347 Johnson, S. W., quoted 393 Juneberry, fruit-bearing 56 Kalmia 340 Kellogg, G. J., quoted 146 Kerria 340 Kieffer pear, treatment of 159 Knife 298 — ringing 295 Kniffin, William 459 Kniffin training 432, 460 Knisely, quoted 178 Knot-holes 81 Knots 79 Koopmann, K., quoted 169 Label wires 116 Leader 150 Lichen on trees Ill Lilac, pruning 336, 340 PAGE Lilac shoot 1 Lindley, quoted 284 Lodeman, on grape training 402 — quoted 278 Loquat, fruit-bearing 75 Lord, O. M., quoted 145 Macomber, J. T., quoted 384 Magnolia 340 Maple, fruit-bearing 59 — log 88 — tapping 85 Marvin, D. S., quoted 457 Mask, pruning 307 Medlar, fruit-bearing 75 Meehan's Monthly, quoted 140 Mending trees 116 Minnesota 145 Mock orange 336, 340 Moss on trees Ill Mulberry, fruit-bearing 75 Munson training 480 Myticuttah shears 304 Nectrias 94 Neff, J. B., quoted 310 Notching 167, 169 Oak knots. 79 Obstructions to sap 161, 167 Olive, fruit-bearing 75 Opoix, quoted 170 Orange, fruit-bearing 75 — pruning 314 Oranges, frozen 147 Ornamental plants 335 Overbearing 165 Overhead grape training 474 Paint for wounds 109, 113, 190 Peach, fruit-bearing 50, 74 — pruning and references 315 — root-pruning 245 — twig of 95 Peaches, laying down 384 Pear, fruit-spur 40, 74 — pruning and references 319 — root-pruning 230, 245 536 INDEX PAGE Pear twigs, swellings on 178 Pear-blight 122 Pears, dwarfs 271 Pentosans 179 Persimmon, fruit-bearing 75 Philips, A. J., quoted 146 Physiology of pruning 13 Pine, girdled 117 Plains, pruning on the .144, 185, 199 Plashing 334 Plugging cavities 124 Plum, fruit-spur 46, 74 — headed-in 195 — pruning and references 320 — root-pruning 247 Polyporus sulphurous 94 Pome-fruits 189 Poplars, fruit-bearing 71 Positions of fruit-buds 74 Post training 488 Pots, trees in 374 Powell, quoted 313 Prairie Farmer, quoted 418 Price, R. EL., quoted 236 Principles of pruning 133 Prunus serotina, wound on 94 Punk-fungus 94 Pyramids 342, 356 Quince, fruit-bearing 60, 75 — pruning and references 322 Raffia 426 Raspberry, fruit-bearing 64, 75 — pruning 323 Reasons for pruning 135 Reducing sugar 179 Reid, E. W., quoted 306 Rejuvenating trees 139 Renewal, denned 410 Rhododendron 340 Ringing 17, 281 Rivers, on pot trees 382 — on pyramids 358 — on root-pruning 230 Robbers.. ...155 PAGE Root-pruning 138, 227 Rose, flower-bearing 67 Roses, pruning 137, 336, 340 Rural New-Yorker, quoted.. 121, 307 Sargent, C. S., quoted 100 Saws 300 Scaffold limbs 204 Schizophyllum commune 94 Scraping trees 121 Season for pruning 181 Shade trees, pruning 333 Shaping the top 222 Shears 298, 301 Shellac for wounds 109 Shoot, defined 404 Shredding 167 Shrubs, pruning 195, 335 Snow, Geo. C 402 Snowball 340 Sorauer, quoted 154, 182 Spencer, John W. . .402, 424, 428, 434 Spirea, pruning 336, 340 Splitting of trunks 122 Spur 30 et seq. — defined 410 Standard 342 Starch in twigs 179 Starnes, H. N., quoted 402, 486 Stone-f ruits 189 Straw, for tying 428 Strawberry, trimming 304 Street trees, injuries to 129 Stringfellow system 236 Stripping vines 414 Stub-root pruning 236 Subsequent treatment 250 Suckers 155 Sugar, reducing 179 Sulfate of iron 344, 347 Summer pruning 140, 181 Sun-scald '. 122, 185 Tallow for wounds 109 Tamarisk 338, 340 Tap-hole 85 INDEX 537 PAGE Tap-root 151 Tar for wounds 109 Thinning the fruit 174 Thomas, quoted 391 Thomson, quoted 365 Tools 297 Top, form of , 193 Top-worked trees 263 Training, specific modes 341 Transplanting, root-pruning at.. 232 Trellis, for grapes 416 Trunk, expansion of 76 Twisting 167 Tying grapes 426 Umbrella training 469 Upright grape training 436 Van Dusen, H. P., quoted 469 Vase 356 Veitch, quoted 384 Viburnum 340 Vines, grafting 492 Vineyard, layout of 424 Vinifera grape training 494 Vitis vinif era 494 Walker, E., quoted 137, 336 Walls for fruits 348 Walnut, fruit-bearing 72, 75 — Japanese 103 Warneken, quoted 376 PAGE Washington 187, 216 Waters' pruner 301 Watersprouts 155 Waugh, quoted 483 Wax for wounds 109 — recipe for 119 Weeping of Tines 413 Weigela 340 When to prune 102, 181, 189 Whitf ord, Leroy , quoted 121 Why we prune 135 Wickson, quoted 200, 315, 494, 509, 516 Williams, H. S., quoted 147 Willow, Kilmarnock 269 Willows, for tying 427 — fruit-bearing 71 Winter-injured trees 141 Winter-killed buds 73 Wire, for tying 428 — for vineyards 419 Wire-stretchers 420 Wisconsin 144, 146 Wool twine, for tying 427 Wound, how to make 99, 114 — nature of 82 Yeomans, on pruning 221, 272 Young trees, trimming 205 Hurat Srtents Serfes. Edited by PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. BOOKS which state the underlying principles of agriculture in such language that they may be read at the home fireside, in the office, at the club or grange, or used as text -books. Each is substantially bound in blue cloth. These books combine the results of the very latest and best science with the best skill of practical farm work and manage- ment. Each one is written by a specialist who has attained reputation for long-continued and conscientious work. Each volume is readable, simple, clear-cut, practical, up to date, and thoroughly scientific and reliable. The detailed information given in these volumes is of the most val- uable character to every cultivator of the soil. Five volumes are now ready: THE SOIL : Its Nature, Relations, and Fundamental Principles of Management. By F. H. KING, Professor of Agricultural Physics in the University of Wisconsin. 303 pages, 45 illustrations. 75 CtS. It comprises an introduction, which discusses the making of soils by natural agencies ; and chapters follow on the nature, functions, origin and wasting of soils ; texture, composition, and kinds of soils ; nitrogen of the soil ; capillarity, solution, diffusion, and osmosis ; soil water ; conservation of soil moisture ; distribution of roots in the soil ; soil temperature ; relation of air to the soil; farm drainage ; irrigation ; physical effect of tillage and fertilizers. It has received the warmest approbation of teachers and farmers in all parts of the country. " I consider it a most desirable addition to our agricultural literature, and a distinct advance over previous treatises on the same subject, not only for popular use, but also for students and specialists, who will find many new and useful suggestions therein." E. W. HILGAKD, Director of Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND : A summary Sketch of the Relationship of Farm-Practice to the Maintaining and Increasing of the Productivity of the Soil. By I. P. EGBERTS, Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University. 440 pages; fully illustrated. $1.25 Plural Science Series. Edited by PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS: A Sueeinet AC- count of the History, Principles and Practice of the Application of Liquids and Powders to Plants for the Purpose of Destroying Insects and Fungi. By E. G. LODEMAN, late Instructor in Horticulture in the Cornell University. 399 pages, 92 illustrations. $1.00 The only complete manual of the spraying of plants, and the standard work upon the subject. The first part is a complete his- tory of the rise of spraying, both in this country and abroad. There are also full illustrated accounts of pumps and nozzles, complete recipes of formulas, and the like. The second part, com- prising 135 pages, is an alphabetical illustrated account of the various insects and fungi, with methods of treating them. The book as a whole is not only a complete monograph upon the sub- ject, but a most valuable manual of practice. " I have looked it carefully over with a great deal of interest, and feel that it is a very timely book, and one that can be safely recommended to all horti- culturists and fruit-growers as the best." PRES. H. H. GOODELL, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING; By PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. 520 pages, 114 illustrations. $1.25 This book is designed to treat all those underlying matters of fruit-growing which are common to most or all of the various fruits. The author in preparing a monograph upon the Apple, concluded that it would serve the purpose of his readers better if all the essentials of fruit-growing were placed in a separate and initial volume. He has, therefore, delayed the preparation of the Apple book for the present. « The Principles of Fruit-Growing" is a unique book, and brings the very best science of the day to join hands with the best prac- tice. It includes illustrations of every important operation, and may be taken as a consensus of the opinions and methods of the most successful growers. The contents are as follows : Intro- ductory Discussion, comprising an inventory and classification of fruits, the fruit zones, the outlook for fruit-growing ; the Location and Its Climate, with a full discussion of frosts ; the Tilling of Fruit Lands ; the Fertilizing of Fruit Lands ; the Planting of Orchards ; Secondary Care of Orchards ; Diseases, Insects and Spraying; Picking and Packing and Storing Fruits, Shipping, etc : and a bibliography of American writings on the subject. Plural Srtettrx Series. Edited by PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS: A Treatise upon the Nature and Qualities of Dairy Milk, and the Manufacture of But- ter and Cheese. By HENRY H. WING, Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry in the Cornell University. 280 pages, 33 illustrations. $1.00 This is the only book which adequately covers the whole field of dairying. Its range is indicated by the table of contents : Secre- tion of Milk ; Composition of Milk ; Testing of Milk ; Ferments and Fermentations of Milk, and their Control; Market Milk ; Sep- aration of Cream : Ripening of Cream ; Churning ; Finishing and Marketing Butter ; Milk for Cheese-Making ; Cheddar Cheese- Making ; Varieties of Cheese ; By-Products of the Dairy ; Butter and Cheese Factories ; Statistics and Economics of the Dairy In- dustry ; Appendix, comprising useful rules and tests, metric sys- tem, dairy laws, and references to dairy literature. *** So long as the demand warrants, new volumes will be added to the RURAL SCIENCE LIBRARY. Definite arrangements have now been completed for the following : PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue Univ. PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. BREWER, of Yale University. BUSH FRUITS. By F. W. CARD, of University of Nebraska. PLANT PATHOLOGY. By B. T. GALLOWAY and associates, of United States Department of Agriculture. SEEDS AND SEED-GROWING. By G. H. HICKS, of United States Department of Agriculture. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AND NITROGEN-GATHERING. By E. W. HILGARD, of University of California. FEEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. JORDAN, of New York State Experiment Station. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. By F. H. KING, of the Uni- versity of Wisconsin. FERTILIZERS. By E. B. VOORHEES, of N. J. Exp. Station. RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. By GEORGE T. FAIR- CHILD, Ex-President of the Agricultural College of Kansas. FARM POULTRY. By GEORGE C. WATSON, of Pennsylvania State College. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 36 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK. Edited by PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. COMPRISING practical hand-books explaining the methods practiced by the horticulturist. They are tastily bound in green flexible cloth. Four volumes are now ready, all written by PROFESSOR BAILEY, of Cornell University. PLANT -BREEDING: BeinS Five Lectures upon the Amelioration of Domes- tie Plants. 293 pages, 20 illustrations. $1.00 This is the only book devoted to this subject. It comprises five chapters or lectures : The Fact and Phylosophy of Variation ; The Philosophy of the Crossing of Plants ; How Domestic Varieties Originate ; Borrowed Opinions, being translations from the writ- ings of Verlot, Carriere, and Focke ; Pollination, or How to Cross Plants. Chapter III. contains the list of fifteen rules for plant- breeding which DeVarigny, the eminent French writer, has called "the quindecalogue of the horticulturist," and of which he says, "Solomon— if he had devoted himself to horticulture— could not have judged more soundly than Mr. Bailey." It is the purpose of the book to tell how varieties of cultivated plants come about, and how man may originate them. "I have read the work on ' Plant-Breeding,' by Professor L. H. Bailey, with keen interest, and find it just what I expected from such a source ; viz., a most satisfactory treatise on a subject of most pressing horticultxiral impor- tance. Professor Bailey combines a breadth of view with knowledge of detail, and produces written work most delightful to the scholar, and at the same time fit to command the respect and correct the practice of the craftsman. I honor Professor Bailey as a leader in the advancement of horticulture." E. J. WICKSON, Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. THE HORTICULTURIST'S RULE -BOOK: A compendium of useful information fop fruit-grow- ers, truek-gardeners, florists, and others. Fourth edition. 312 pages. 75 CtS. This is the standard work of reference for horticulturists, and is now so well known that a detailed description is no longer neces- sary. The fact that the index contains 2,000 entries shows the great range of its contents. It is heaping full of information up- on such matters as recipes for insecticides and fungicides, descrip- tions (with remedies) of insects and diseases, weeds, lawns, graft- ing-waxes, seed and planting-tables, tables of yields, rules for greenhouse heating and management, with figures, methods of storing produce, tariff and postal rates, rules of societies for nam- ing and exhibiting specimens, score-cards and scales of points, analyses of fertilizing substances, lists of currant horticultural books and journals, with prices and publishers, etc. Snrtes. Edited by PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. THE NURSERY - BOOK • A Complete Guide to the Multiplication of Plants. Third edition, thoroughly revised and extended. 365 pages, 152 illustrations. $1.00 This manual, which has been one of the most popular of recent horticultural books, was first published in 1891. In this third edi- tion, all the features of the first two editions have been preserved, and the work has been extended to include many new subjects, such as seed-testing, mutual influence of stock and cion, the ques- tion of the devitalizing effects of graftage, the management and fertilizing of nursery lands, the grading of trees, storing of trees, trimming trees in the nursery, the healing of wounds, dwarfing trees, root-grafted vs. budded trees, and a full glossary. Very many new and original illustrations have been added. The book comprises full practical directions for seed-sowing, the making of all kinds of layers, stools, cuttings, propagation by bulbs and tubers, and very complete accounts of all the leading kinds of budding, grafting and inarching. Aside from this, The Nursery List is an alphabetical catalogue of about 1,500 plants, — of fruit, kitchen-garden, ornamental and greenhouse species, — with direc- tions for their multiplication. The book is the most complete treatise of its kind in the language, and is the standard reference book of nurserymen. "This book should be in the home of not only every horticulturist, but of every family, irrespective of occupation, who love flowers or ornamental plants, for it treats of the propagation of these as well as of food-plants."— Michigan Frtiit- Grower. THE FORCING-BOOK: A Manual of the cmtiva- : tion of Vegetables in Glass Houses. 266 pages, 88 illustrations. $1.00 A handbook of instructions upon the forcing of vegetables for market, which is the completest work of the kind yet published in this country. It is based on careful experimentation at the Cor- nell University Station, and a long familiarity with the forcing business. It contains full estimates of the cost of heating forcing- houses and of the labor necessary to run them, with illustrated chapters on the construction of forcing-houses, and their manage- ment. Very complete directions are given for the watering, venti- lating, shading, and piping of houses ; for the control of insects and fungous diseases, the making of forcing-house soils, etc. Then follow detailed instructions as to how to force lettuce, cauli- flower, radish, asparagus, rhubarb, pea, salad plants and mints, root-crops, pepino, cucumber, muskmelon, bean, pepper, egg-plant, and others. The final chapter is a collection of summaries of the leading points in the management of each croup, so arranged that the busy man can turn to any one of them instantly. The book should be had by every person who has a greenhouse. (SErdm-QIraf t Edited by PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. THE FORCING-BOOK-Continned. wThe discnssion of the various forms of houses, with their structural de- tails, is very complete, although concise, and for the space it takes it gives more valuable information than can be found elsewhere in the same compass. All such practical questions as would be treated under the head of soil, fertil- izers, irrigation, shading, pollination, etc., have received careful study, and the beginner can feel safe in following them to the letter."— Garden and Forest, "It would have saved us dollars and dollars if we could have had it a few years ago." C. J. PENNOCK, Kennett Square, Pa. GARDEN-MAKING: Suggestions for the Utilizing of Home Grounds. By L. H. BAILEY, aided by L. R. TAFT, F. A. WAUGH, and ERNEST WALKER. 417 pages, 256 illustrations. $1.00 Here is a book literally « for the million " who in broad America have some love for growing things. « Every family can have a garden. If there is not a foot of land, there are porches or win- dows. Wherever there is sunlight, plants may be made to grow; and one plant in a tin-can may be a more helpful and inspiring garden to some mind than a whole acre of lawn and flowers may be to another." Thus Professor Bailey introduces his subject, and the book which follows is one to instruct, inspire, edify and edu- cate the reader, if he can raise his eyes from city cobble-stones! It tells of ornamental gardening of any range, with lists of trees and shrubs most suitable for various effects ; treats of fruits and of vegetables for home use, and gives the word of instruction so often wanted, but hitherto unattainable in any one simple and com- pact book. No modern American work covers this important field. The illustrations are copious and beautiful. GARDEN-MAKING includes General Advice; the Plan of the Place (The Picture in the Landscape, How to make the improvements, etc. ) ; Planting the Ornamental Grounds ; The Fruit Plantation ; The Vegetable Garden; Seasonal Reminders (Calendars for North and for the South). hg Trrrfessm: Not included in either of the foregoing series. THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE ; A coiiee- tion of Evolution Essays Suggested by the Study of Domestic Plants. Second edition. $2.00 This is an illustrated volume of 515 pages by Professor Bailey. containing an immense amount of fact, experiment and philosophy irg frsfessnr THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE-Continued. respecting the evolution of plants, and particularly of their modi- fication under cultivation. It is the most thoroiigh discussion of the running-out of varieties, acclimatization, and the like. It is, in fact, the only book which can be called a philosophy of horti- culture. Jt comprises thirty essays, as follows: The Survival of the Unlike ; Neo-Lamarckism and Nee-Darwinism; The Plant Individual in the Light of Evolution, or The Philosophy of Bud- Variation, and its Bearing upon Weismannism ; Experimental Evolution amongst Plants ; Van Mons and Knight, and the Pro- duction of Varieties ; Some Bearings of the Evolution-Teaching upon Plant-Cultivation ; Why Have our Enemies Increased J ;. Coxey's Army and the Russian Thistle, or a Sketch of the Philos- ophy of Weediness ; Recent Progress in American Horticulture; On the Supposed Correlations of Quality in Fruits; The Natural History of Synonyms; Reflective Impressions of the Nursery Business ; The Relation of Seed-Bearing to Cultivation ; Variation after Birth ; A Pomological Alliance ; Sketch of the Relationship between American and Eastern Asian Fruits ; Horticultural Geo- graphy ; Some Emphatic Problems of Climate and Plants, Com- prising "Speculative Notes upon Phenology (the Physiological Constant, and the Climatal Modification of Phenological Phenom- ena)," and "Some Interrelations of Climatology and Horticul- ture "; Are American Fruits Best Adapted to American Conditions? ; Acclimatization : Does it Occur ? ; On the Longevity of Apple Trees ; Sex in Fruits ; Are Novelties Worth their Cost ? ; Why do Promising Varieties Fail ? ; Reflections upon the Longevity of Varieties, comprising "Do Varieties Run Out?" "Ai%e the Varieties of Orchard Fruits Running Out ?"" Studies in the Longevity of the Varieties of Tomatoes"; Whence Came the Cultivated Straw- berry?; The Battle of the Plums; The Evolution of American Grapes ; The Progress of the Carnation, comprising "Types and Tendencies in the Carnation," "John Thorpe's Ideal Carnation," and "Border Carnations"; Evolution of the Petunia ; The Amelio- ration of the Garden Tomato, comprising « The Origin of the Tomato from a Morphological Standpoint," "History of the Trophy Tomato," "The Probable Course of Evolution of the Tomato," and " Direction of Contemporaneous Improvement of the Tomato " ; Glossary. " Whatever Professor Bailey writes is interesting reading. He has the rare gift of an entertaining style, and what he writes people want to read. All his previous books have be«ni widely read, and this will prove no exception to the well-established rule. The secret of this popularity, if there be any secret about it, is that when he writes he has something new to say,— something based upon experiences and observations. These are by no means all his own, for he has the ability to see with the eyes of other people, as well as with his own. He is thus able to bring into his pages a rich mass of new matter, which gives them aditiomil interest and value." PROFESSOR C. E. BESSEY, University of Nebraska, in " Science." THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 66 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK Announcement of Important Horticultural Books. In addition to the volumes extending the Rural Science Series, as given on a previous page, the fol- lowing important works are in preparation: THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS. A com- panion volume to " The Survival of the Unlike," and written on the same original lines, by PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. It will be copiously illustrated, and is now on the press. A TEXT BOOK OF AGRICULTURE FOR SCHOOL USE. Designed to supply a practical and efficient statement of the Elements of Agricultural Science. By PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE. To be published in three large illustrated volumes, dated 1900. This work will be the first comprehensive and adequate pre- sentation of American horticulture in its widest sense, and under the editorial supervision of Professor Bailey will con- tain signed articles by eminent specialists on various topics, arranged alphabetically. The illustrations may be expected to excel in beauty and accuracy any found in horticultural literature to-day; they are being now prepared by artists of ability, upon a consistent plan. The typography and binding will be likewise of high grade, befitting a work of inter- national importance. 8^* Inquiry is solicited concerning terms of publication, etc., of this work. Address THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 66 Fifth Ave. NEW YORK. THIS* BOOK ON WILL INCREASE TO DAY AND TO $l-r OVERDUE. SEVENTH DAY LD 2l-50f»-8,'82