|) & Medical

| Biological

CREAM SEPARATION

BUTTERMAKING

\ lean UNIVERSITY OF CANADA
3 Series 1.—No. 8.

—EEE.

CREAM SEPARATION
and BUTTERMAKING

Fic. 80.—A wood-shed may be a suitable place
for @ separator.

Reprinted, with adaptations, from ‘CREAM SEPARATION”
and “FARM BUTTERMAKING,” by E. S. Guthrie, in
“Cornell Reading Courses.”

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
University of Toronto

http://www.archive.org/details/publicationsO8khak |

CREAM SEPARATION

E. S. GUTHRIE.

Cream separation is one of the important processes
in the handling of dairy products. The dairyman who
uses a cream separator is interested not only in the
proper operation of his machine in order to prevent
undue loss of milk-fat, but also in the proper location
of the separator from the standpoint of sanitation and
convenience. The purpose of this lesson is to give
the persons operating cream separators an understanding
of the principles of separation as well as a few suggestions
concerning the operation, the location, and the care of
separators.

SEPARATION BY THE FORCE OF GRAVITY.

The separation of cream and skimmed milk is possible
because of the difference in the specific gravity of
these two substances. The
specific gravity of cream is
difficult to obtain because
cream is exceedingly vari-
able in fat content and
because it has a tendency
to incorporate air. The

Fie. 81.—The shallow-pan :
method. specific gravity of milk-

fat is .90 or .91. In view of

the fact that about one-fourth to one-half of cream is
milk-fat, it is readily seen that cream is much lighter

3

than skimmed milk. The force of gravity acts in direct
proportion to the weight of matter. Skimmed milk is
attracted to the earth with greater force than milk-fat
because it is heavier. The lighter substance, cream, is
crowded away from ‘the earth, or to the surface of the
vessel that ee ad So ee In raaaery. phraseology,
therefore, cream “rises.”

There are three methods of cream separation depending
on the force of gravity. They are the shallow-pan
method, the deep- setting method, and the water- dilution
method. In the first method, the cream is skimmed
off with a shallow, dipper, and in
the other two methods the skimmed
milk is drawn off leaving ‘the
cream. — These gravity methods,
however,. have distinct. disad-
vantages, one of the most im-
portant of these disadvantages
being the loss of a small amount of
milk-fat. each time they are used.
Tests of the relative merits of the
- gravity methods of separation have
been-made in order to determine
how great this loss is.

Fic. 82. — The deipe
ae: method.

According. to. experiments made by Hunziker,* the
percentage of milk-fat in the skimmed milk separated
from cream by these gravity methods of cream separation
is as follows: water-dilution method, .68 of 1 per cent.
of fat; shallow-pan method, .44 of 1 per cent. of fat ;
deep-setting method, .17 of 1 per cent. of fat.

* The Hand Separator and the Gravity Systems of Creaming. By
u ae age Purdue University. Agricultural Experiment Station.
ulletin

4

This loss of milk-fat from the milk of a single cow
giving 5,000 pounds of milk each year, is shown in
Figure 81. The skimmed milk usually amounts to
about 85 per cent. of the whole milk, which in this
case would mean 85 per cent. of 5,000 pounds of whole
milk, or 4,250 pounds of skimmed milk. In the
manufacture of butter certain amounts of moisture,
salt, and casein are incorporated. Thus it is possible
to make more butter from a certain amount of milk-
fat than there was original fat. This increase is known
as overrun. In the computation
shown in Fig. 84 allowance was
made for an overrun of one-sixth
of the original amount of milk-fat.

According to the statements
given, if the price of butter were
30 cents a pound there would be
an annual loss of $9.60 on each
cow by the use of the water-dilu-
tion method. and $2.25 on each
cow by the use of the deep-setting
method. These losses are computed =
on the basis of the amount of Fic. 83.—The water-
milk-fat lost through the use of eS a
these methods as compared with the amount lost if
a modern centrifugal separator were used.

SEPARATION BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.

Centrifugal force acts in direct proportion to the weight
of matter. The specific gravity of skimmed milk is
greater than that of cream; therefore the skimmed
milk is forced from the centre of a separator bowl with
a greater velocity, and the cream is crowded, or con-
centrated, toward the centre of the bowl.

5

The purpose of the bowl- devices in separators.

There is a device in all separator bowls which guides
or feeds the whole milk into the region of the greatest
centrifugal force. With one exception, all centrifugal
separators with which the author is familiar have interna]
bowl parts, such as discs, cones, blades, and the like.
The purpose of these parts is to form pathways for the

4 «JS

Fig, 84.—A comparison of the amount of butter lost in the
skimmed milk from one cow producing 5,000 pounds of
milk in one year, by the use of different methods of cream
separation. Reading from left to right: Water-dilution
method, 33 pounds ; shallow-pan method, 22 pounds ;
deep-setting method, 8.5 pounds ; centrifugal method,
1 pound,

skimmed milk and cream to pass each other. It must
be remembered that these devices do not cause separation;
they simply aid the centrifugal force. The introduction
of these devices has made possible the use of a much
smaller bowl for a given capacity. In the evolution

6

of improvement in this direction, the bowls of cream
separators have become lighter, and they are consequently
easier to turn and to handle. The separator referred to
as being the one exception has a long and narrow tube-like
bowl in the smaller sizes in which it is manufactured.

The regulation of the percentage of fat in cream.

The richness, or the percentage of fat, in cream derived
from whole milk by the use of a centrifugal separator
is regulated by either a cream screw or a skimmed milk

Fic. 85.—A comparison of the amounts of cream from one can
of whole milk separated at different temperatures. The pounds
of fat in the whole milk and ineach pail of cream are practically
the same.

screw. Two main facts should be remembered in this
connection by the person operating a centrifugal separa-
tor when he sets either of these screws. The first of
these facts is that the richness of the cream depends

7

on the point in the bow] from which it is drawn. The
richest cream is that which is drawn from the centre
of the bowl, and the richness decreases as the distance
from the centre of the bow] increases. The other fact is
that the smaller the proportion of cream is to skimmed
milk, the richer the cream is in fat. The percentage
of fat in cream should be regulated according to the
use that is to be made of the cream. Ordinarily for
churning purposes, the proportion of cream to skimmed
milk should be approximately one to eight, or one to
ten. For example, in one hundred pounds of whole
milk testing 4 per cent. fat. there are four pounds of
fat (100 pounds x 4 per cent. = 4 pounds fat). Inten
pounds of cream that have been separated from the
given 100 pounds of whole milk and that test 40 per cent.
fat, there are approximately four pounds of fat
(10 pounds x 40 per cent. = 4 pounds). If there is
no waste, there are 90 pounds of skimmed milk (100
pounds—10 pounds = 90 pounds). The ratio of
the cream (10 pounds) to the skimmed milk (90 pounds)
is one to nine. If cream having a lower percentage
of fat is desired. this ratio will be less. Cream with
a lower percentage of fat is often used on the table and
for making ice cream. In separating cream for these
purposes the ratio of cream to skimmed milk should
be about one to four, to five, or to six, depending on
the percentage of fat in the whole milk. It is readily
seen that a comparison of the quantities of cream and
skimmed milk obtained in separation gives a close
approximation of the percentage of fat in the cream.
These ratios are shown in Fig. 85, which also gives
the results of temperature study of one separator.
This topic is discussed later in the lesson. The figure
makes clear the fact that if cream with a high percentage

8

of fat has been separated, no more fat has been opntained
from a given amount of whole milk than if the cream
has a low fat content, for the weight of the cream is less.

If a well-made centrifugal separator is operated pro-
perty, 1t will separate cream containing as high as 45 to
50 per cent. of fat, and there will be only the normal loss
of fat in the skimmed milk. Usually it is not desirable
that cream should contain more than 40-to 45 per cent.
of fat, for very rich cream is wasted by sticking to cans,
dippers and other utensils. and it is difficult to obtain
a representative sample of it for testing.

The fat content of cream cannot be controlled to a
definite percentage by the regulation of the cream screw
or the skimmed milk screw, and the percentage of fat
in cream will not remain constant even when these
screws are not changed. There are certain factors that
affect the percentage of fat in cream to a greater or less
degree as it is being separated*. The effect of these
factors on the percentage of fat in skimmed milk is not
so noticeable as their effect on the percentage of fat in
cream.

Factors that affect the percentage of fat in cream and in
skimmed milk separated by a hand centrifugal separator.

The temperature of the whole milk.—The temperature
of milk that is being separated should be such that the
milk will flow easily, in order to facilitate rapid and
thorough separation of the cream and the skimmed milk.
The temperature does not need to be as high as the body
temperature of a cow, whichis normally about 101.4° F. ;
however, if the separation is done on the farm, milk

* A more complete study of the conditions that affect cream separation
is recorded in Bulletin 360 of the Cornell University Agricultural Experi-
ment Station.

9

should be separated as soon as possible after it has been
milked, especially in the winter. In creameries and in
other places where milk is separated after it has cooled,
the temperature of the milk should be raised to 85° to

Per-
cent-

age _

40

go° 80° 75° 90° 80°

90? [33° 90° 80°
Separator | Separator 2 Separstor 3 Separator 4 Separator 5

Fic. 86.—A diagram representing percentage of fat im cream
as influenced by the temperature of the whole milk. Tem-
peratures are expressed in degrees Fahrenheit.

90° F. before it is separated. The temperature of the
whole milk has a direct effect on the percentage of fat
in the cream and the skimmed milk. In order to show
the exact effect of variation in temperature, tests of

10

eream and skimmed milk that had been separated by
five different types of separators were made. ‘The results
of these tests are given in Figs. 86 and 87. Thecream
and the skimmed milk separated by all of the separators
were not affected alike by different temperatures. From
a study of Fig. 83, it may be thought that there is an
advantage in having the whole milk at a low temperature

- go? Bo? 9 > 7 =
Separator 1 Separator 2 Sepsrator 3 Separator 4 Separator 3

Fie. 87.—A_ diagram representing percentage of fat in
skimmed milk as inflwenced by the temperature of the
whole miik, Temperatures are expressed in degrees
Fahrenheit.

because the cream from two of the separators contained
a much higher percentage of fat when the temperature
was low than when it was normal. However, the loss
of fat in the skimmed milk was comparatively greater.
as shown in Fig. 87. When the amount of fat in the
skimmed milk does not vary greatly, the amount of cream
from a certain quantity of whole milk decreases in direct
proportion to the increase of the amount of milk-fat in

11

the cream. This fact is clearly brought out in Fig. 85.
It should be noticed in Fig. 85 that the weight of the fat
in the whole milk and in all three pails of cream was
approximately the same, but that there was a distinct
variation in the weight of the cream.

The rate of speed.—The centrifugal force that causes
separation in the modern separator is produced by the
rapid revolving of the bowl. The separator bowl about

oy)

Revolutions 6 54 50 oo 50 45 38 35 45 60 so
Separstor | Separstor 2 Sepsra tor 3 Separator 4 Separator 5
Fie. 88.—A diagram representing percentage of fat im

cream as influenced by the number of revolutions of the
separator crank per minute.

four inches in diameter makes approximately 9,000
revolutions per minute. Thus a point on the cirecum-
ference of the bowl travels at the rate of somewhat
less than two miles ver minute. The number of turns
of the crank necessary to effect thorough separation of

milk varies for different machines from 45 to 65 turns
per minute. A slight variation in the speed of the crank
has a great effect on the velocity of the bowl ; and care
must be exercised in producing a uniform speed, if
uniform results are to be expected. The effect of a
decrease of six or ten revolutions of the crank per minute
on the percentage of fat in the cream is considerable,
as shown in Fig. 88; and the effect on the percentage
of fat in the skimmed milk is very slight, as shown in
Fig. 89. A shght variation in the speed of the crank
does not affect the amount of fat separated from the
whole milk, but it does affect the quantity of the cream
separated.

All hand separators have the number of revolutions
of the crank necessary for efficient separation marked
on the crank, and all power separators have instructions
as to the proper rate of speed at which they should be

Fic. 89.—A diagram representing percentage of fat in
skimmed milk as influenced by the number of revolutions
of the separator crank per minute.

operated. Naturally the manufacturer is careful not
to state a rate of speed for his separator that will give
results just above the border line of poor separation.
If these instructions given by the manufacturers are
followed carefully, the separation of milk will be found
to be thorough. The fact is, however, that the cate of

13

speed may drop several hundred revolutions of the bowl
below the number designated for correct speed, and

Panentags 3 s 5 3 4 s
Separator 1 Separstor 2

Fia. 90.—A diagram represciting
the percentage of fat im cream as
influenced by the percentage of fat
tn whole milk. The figures on the
lefi of the diagram represent per-
centage of fat in cream, and those
underneath represent percentage
of fat in whole milk.

still the skimmed milk
will contain approxi-
mately the same percent-
age of milk-fat as when
the bowl is revolving at
the so-called normal
speed. In the case of the
hand separators this
amounts to five or ten
revolutions of the crank
less than the number
given for normal speed.
Percentage of fat in
whole milk.—The per-
centage of fat in whole
milk is variable. In this
respect the milk from
individual cows may
vary as much as two or
three per cent. from one
milking to another, and
yet the cow may appear
to be in a normal con-
dition. The fat content
of the milk of a herd is
not so variable as the fat
content of the milk
from a single cow. Other
things being equal, the

larger the herd is, the smaller is the variation of the
fat content of the milk. The difference in the percentage of
fat in milk is not so great from day to day as it is from

14

milking to milking, and this variation is still less from
week to week and from month to month. ‘The influence
of a variation in the fat content of the whole milk on the
percentage of fat in the cream is shown in Fig. 90. The

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Fie. 91.—The barn is not a desirable location for a
separator.

percentage of fat in the cream is in almost direct pro-
portion to the percentage of fat in the whole milk.

Variation in the quantity of whole milk or in the amount
of liquid used for flushing.—There is a variation in the
quantity of milk from one milking to another, and this
causes a variation in the amount to be separated from one
time to another. There are very few persons operating

15

separators who use a fixed amount of skimmed milk
or water for flushing the separator bowl. For the hand
machines two or three quarts of flushing material are
sufficient. The amount of flushing material that goes into
the cream is only a small percentage of the total, and it
aifects only slightly the percentage of fat in the cream.
Under average conditions these factors are not of much
importance if approximately the same quantities of
milk and flushing material are used each time.

‘Slime deposit.—If the passages for the cream and the
skimmed milk in a separator are closed or partly closed
by slime deposit, the efficiency of the separator will be
aifected. The slime deposit is composed of fibrin from
the milk and of dirt, and it accumulates in a greater or
less amount even from the best of milk. Generally, this
accumulation is not sufficient to cause excessive loss of
fat in the skimmed milk if the separator is run the length
of time of the average separation. The length of the
period of separation will be considered later in the lesson.

ADVANTAGES OF THE CENTRIFUGAL METHOD OF CREAM
SEPARATION OVER THE GRAVITY METHODS.

1. Ordinarily, fewer utensils are used in the centrifugal
method than in the gravity methods. If the herd is
composed of only two or three cows, this may not be
true ; but if there are eight to ten cows, it is true.

2. The skimmed milk that has been separated from the
cream by a centrifugal separator is fresher and warmer
for use in teeding stock than the skimmed milk produced
by the old methods. This may not be an advantage in
some cases; however, in no case is it a detriment.

3. The fat, which is the most valuable constituent of
milk, is immediately obtained in a small quantity and is

16

therefore more readily cooled and otherwise handled.
If the old gravity methods of separation are used, about
36 hours are required for the cream to “rise.”

4. Cream separation by the centrifugal method is more
thorough than by the gravity methods because less milk-
fat is left in the skimmed milk.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN BUYING A CENTRIFUGAT.
SEPARATOR.

A question that comes to the purchaser of a cream

separator is, “‘ Which is the best separator ?”’ Since

improvements in the construction of separators are

Fic. 92.—A convenient and inexpensive building in which

to make farm butter. The gasoline engine is located in
the lean-to.

being macle constantly, it is impossible for any one person
to collect sufficient data to determine this point. How-
ever, there are a few points concerning separators that
should help to guide the buver of one. The following
is a list of these points :

———

17

1. Szze.—Ordinarily for farm use, a separator should
be of such a size or such a capacity that it will separate
the milk produced by a herd at one milking in one-half
hour or less time. Usually a farmer’s time is worth
enough to make it cheaper for him to buy a separator
that is large enough to do his separating in the proper
length of time than it is for him to use more of his time in
operating a smaller machine.

There are conditions on the farm that must be con-
sidered in the selection of a separator of proper size.
It may be the plan of the farmer to increase 01 decrease
the size of his dairy herd, and, since a separator will wear
for many years, these plans for the future must be borne
in mind. In buying a separator for creamery use, both
the maximum and minimum amounts of milk for
different seasons of the year should be considered.

2. Supplies for repairing purposes.—The obtaining of
supplies without difficulty is one of the most important
considerations in buying a separator, and this point
should be especially emphasized in localities where trans-
portation facilities are rather limited. Most of the com-
panies manufacturing cream separators have supply
centres in many sections of the country, so that in case
of a breakdown new parts can be quickly obtained.
Some dealers in separators carry a stock of supplies. —

3. Other factors.—The other factors to be considered
need but little discussion. The following ones are
mentioned so that the prospective buyer of a separator
may have a fairly complete list of the points to be con-
sidered. The factors are: preference to certain makes ;
price ; amount of power required for opeiation ; acces-
sibility to parts’and number of parts to be cleaned ;
simplicity of entire construction ; indication of dura-

18

bility ; efficiency, as shown in the amount of milk-fat
left in the skimmed milk and as shown in the ability
of the separator to separate the guaranteed number of
pounds of whole milk per hour.

THE LOCATION OF A CREAM SEPARATOR,

The location of a separator in a creamery is not
so difficult a problem as the finding of a suitable place

Fic. 93.—A satisfactory building in which milk may be
handled in a sanitary manner, and a good location for a
separator

for a separator on some farms. ‘The two main considera-
tions in either case are sanitation and convenience.
The separator should be placed in such a position that

19

during the period of separation the milk and the cream
will not come in contact with bad odours and sources
of contamination from micro-organisms. In creameries
or other large dairy plants no such sources of trouble
should exist. On farms separators are often placed
in barns -and in some cases behind the cows, as

Fic. 94.—Interior view of the building shown in Figure 93.

shown in Fig. 91. Under no circumstances should
a separator be placed in such a position, even though
it is convenient to the cows, and to the calf pens and the
pig pens where the skimmed milk is fed.

There are probably more hand separators located in
the kitchen than in any other one place on the farm,

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especially during the winter. The kitchen is a con-
venient location for a separator because itis a comfortable
place in which to work, and it is near the source of hot
water, which is absolutely essential in the proper care
of dairy products. The woodshed is also usually near
the source of hot water and is likewise a convenient place
for a separator. Either the kitchen or the woodshed
may be used with satisfactory results if the floor is
sufficiently solid to prevent vibration of the machine
when it is in operation, and if proper precaution is exer-
cised in ventilation and in the prevention of such odours
as those coming from burned bacon, cabbage, onions,
and the like. The one great objection to handling
dairy products in the kitchen, which is often the living
room of the house, is caused by the danger of spreading
pathogenic organisms, in case any member of the
family has a contagious disease. It is therefore prefer-
able to have the separator in a separate room or
building, even if it is necessary to take the moveable
parts to the kitchen for cleaning.

A separate milkhouse, or dairy building, is recom- .
mended in cases where the dairy herds are larger than
the average, which is probably less than ten cows if
cream is separated on the farm; in cases where cream
oi a special grade is being produced; in cases where
conditions in the house-are too crowded; or in cases
where it is desirable to’use a power-driven separator.
Examples of neat and simple buildings are shown in
Figs. 92 and 93. The dairy house in Fig. 92 is a plain
building with unfinished interior. It is twelve feet
by sixteen feet in size, and the cost of construction,
according to the owner’s statement, was about $65.
The drainage is through a trap into a drain leading to
a gravel bed. This building houses a complete outfit for

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making butter on the farm, including a cream separator.
The building in Fig. 93 is a little more expensive and
is better finished than the building just described. The
view of it in Fig. 94 shows a brick veneer that makes
cleaning a little easier than when the interior of the
building is left unfinished. The size of this building
is ten feet and six inches by fourteen feet.

SUGGESTIONS IN REGARD TO THE PLACING AND
THE OPERATING OF A CREAM SEPARATOR.

1. The placing of the separator.—A _ centrifugal
separator is a very delicate piece of machinery. It
should be carefully placed in a level position on a solid
and sanitary base. It should be held in place firmly
but not rigidly. It is therefore advisable not to screw
the lag screws down tight unless it is- so directed by
the manufacturers in the printed instructions that
accompany each machine.

2. The adjustment of the parts of the bowl.—The bow] -
devices of a separator must be placed in the bowl in
proper position so that the bowl will run with perfect
poise. Many separators are turned with difficulty
because the bowls are not properly balanced, and a
separator cannot do efficient work when the bowl is
not in proper working order. The rubber ring that is
used to seal the bowl must be sufficiently soft in order
to make the joint milk-tight. If the rubber ring is
hard, it should be held in warm water until it is sottened.

3. The oiling of the separator.—Constant care of a
separator is necessary in order to supply the proper
kind and amount of oil. Manufacturers of separators
give directions concerning this subject.

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4. The temperature of the whole milk.—Mik that is
to be separated should be of a proper temperature.
This is essential to the efficient operation of the separator,
and this fact is brought out in Figs. 86 and 87.

5. The place for the milk when the separator is started.—
The supply tank should be be filled with whole milk
before the separator is started.

6. The cream container and the skimmed milk container.
—A pail and a milk can may be used as receptacles
under the skimmed milk spout and the cream spout,
respectively.

7. The rate of speed.—The rate of speed at which the
separator is operated is important, as shown in Figs.
88 and 89. The subject is discussed in connection
with these figures.

8. The inflow.—When a separator is running at the
proper rate of speed, the gate of the supply tank should
be opened wide so that the proper amount of milk will
flow into the bowl. If this is not done, the separator .
is not likely to separate at its rated capacity. The
float, if working properly, will maintain a uniform flow
of milk into the bowl.

9. The flushing of the bowl.—The bow] should be flushed
with enough skimmed milk or water to force the cream
out of it. Usually skimmed milk should be used for
this purpose because no additional micro-organisms can
get into the cream and the skimmed milk through its
use ; whereas, if water is used, there might be some
bacteria present that would cause the cream and the
skimmed milk to become tainted with undesirable flavours,
even though the water is good for drinking purposes.
Usually two quarts of skimmed milk run through the bow]

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while it is revolving at the full rate of speed is sufficient
for flushing, but the amount depends more or less on the
size of the separator bowl, the percentage of milk-fat
in the cream, and the temperature of the whole milk.
If the cream is rich in milk-fat and the temperature of
the whole milk is low, some warm water, having a tem-
perature of about 120° F., should be run through the
bowl in order to carry out the milk-fat. This should
be done after the bowl has been flushed with skimmed
milk. Care should be exercised not to use so much
water that the cream will be greatly diluted.

10. The setting of the cream screw or the skimmed
milk screw.—In case the percentage of fat in the separated
cream has not been regulated, it is a good plan to run
water through the separator bow] while it is revolving
at the proper speed. The screws should be set so that
about one eighth or one tenth of the water should
flow from the cream spout, if the cream is to be used
for churning purposes. A more complete discussion
of this subject is given on page 8.

SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE CLEANING OF
A SEPARATOR.

1. Rinsing the parts of a_ separator.—The interior
parts of the separator that have come in contact with
the milk should be rinsed with lukewarm or cold water.
If hot water is used, the casein of the milk is likely to be
precipitated on the utensils, and it is rather difficult
to remove after it has hardened because it adheres very
closely.

2. Cleaning the parts of a separator with washing solution.
—Water alone is not sufficient to use for cleaning a
separator. A very good washing solution may be

28

made by dissolving about a level tablespoonful of
washing powder or a sufficient amount of soap in a
gallon of water that is as hot as the hands can bear.
The solution should be strong enough to remove all grease
from the parts of the separator ; and a brush, not a cloth,
should be used in washing them, for the use of the brush
is a more sanitary practice.

3. Thorough scalding of the parts of the separator.—All
removable parts of the separator should either be
plunged in water that is near the boiling point and kept
there for at least a minute, or be thoroughly steamed.
If hot water is used, it will kill most of the bacteria on the
parts of the separator, will rinse off the washing solution,
and will give sufficient heat to dry the parts. Do not
use a cloth for drying these parts, for the bacteria on
it are likely to be smeared on the clean surfaces. The
hot-water receptacle should be large enough to hold a
pail while it is being scalded, and it should be suitable for
placing on the stove or overasteam jet. If the dairyman
does not have such a receptacle, boiling water may be
poured over the parts of the separator ; however, this
is not so effective as plunging the utensils beneath the
surface of the boiling water. After the parts are dry,
they should be placed where dust and flies cannot reach
them.

The directions given for cleaning a separator should be
followed in cleaning all of the utensils that are used in
the care and handling of milk. Cleanliness concerning
these utensils cannot be over-emphasized.

LOCATION OF THE BUTTER ROOM.

It is often difficult to determine the proper location
of a room for making butter on the farm, because of the
expense involved in construction. Probably the average

29

herd, on farms where butter is made, does not exceed ten
cows. In New York State the average cow whose
product goes into farm butter produces not over
150 pounds of butter-fat each year—at least less than
one half pound daily. This would mean a churning of
only ten pounds every alternate day. For this small
amount of butter, or for even three or four times as much,
only a small outlay for equipment can be made.

In Figs. 95, 96, 97, and 98 are shown different views
of a small room which was provided in the cellar of the
house on Elm Place, Fredonia, New York. Usually,
the cellar is not considered to be the best place for a dairy
room. It has certain advantages, however, if it is
properly drained, is free from the usual odours of the
cellar, andis well ventilated. First, itis near the kitchen
where hot water may be obtained; secondly, the tem-
peratures of a cellar are more easily regulated during
the various seasons of the year.

It will be noticed that modern equipment has been
obtained for use in this dairy of about twelve cows.
The small-top milk pail and the Babcock test aid in the
production of a high-class product and in the execution
of business methods. The frame on which the cream and ~
the butter sit may be dropped into the cooling pit.
When the trapdoor is closed, fairly satisfactory tem-
peratures are secured. The water is heated by gas.
On farms where there is no gas, hot water can be con-
ducted from the kitchen boiler.

CREAM-RIPENING.

It is difficult to advise the farmer regarding the souring,
or ripening, of cream because of varying conditions. It
is a question whether or not the average farm butter-
maker can afford to use starter, which is a culture of

30

lactic-acid-producing organisms that should be used in
creameries ; for,in the first place, few farmers are trained
to handle the propagation of these bacteria properly, and,
in the second place, the amount of starter that he would
use is so small that he could probably obtain better
results by spending his time in being more careful
in the care of the milk and the cream. For information
on the propagation of starter, see Circular No. 13 of the
Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station.

Under ordinary conditions the cream should be cooled
to 50° F., or to a still lower temperature, as soon as it is
separated. On the second day it should be ripened
by raising the temperature to 70° or 80° F. and main-
taining that temperature until a mild acid flavour is
developed. The cream may be held for several days if
the flavour remains good ; if it is likely to become strcng
it should be churned before reaching this stage.

Sometimes a bitter flavour develops. In order to
prevent it, the cream should be ripened as quickly as
possible after separation. In this case the ripening
process might be conducted as follows: Set the freshly
separated cream at about 70° F. When the next sepa-
ration is made, put the warm cream into the can with
the first separation, which is partly soured, and stir
thoroughly. Continue this process for two or three days.
Care must be exercised in controlling the temperature
so that the cream will not be over-ripened. On the second
and third days, perhaps, the ripening temperature will
have to be dropped to 60° or 65° F.

Another method would be to add a small amount of
buttermilk to the first batch of cream, which would
serve as a starter. The reason why this method should
be used in case a bitter flavour develops is that the
bitter flavour is produced by bacteria which grow in

31

milk and cream at temperatures of 50° F. or below;
the bacteria will not grow even at these favourable
temperatures if the cream is sour.

CHURNING.

Nearly all churns are made of wood, for wood is a good
non-conductor of heat. Metal churns are more sanitary
than wooden churns, but are impracticable, for the fat
adheres to them; and it is more difficult to control
temperatures in metal churns.

Important factors in the churning quality of cream.

Temperature.—Temperature is the most important
factor influencing the churning process. The butter-fat
globules should be sufficiently warm to cohere, but on
the other hand the temperature should not be so high
as to cause greasy butter. increased loss of butter-fat
in the buttermilk, or the incorporation of too much butter-
milk in the butter. In the hand churn, with well-
ripened cream testing 30 to 40 per cent. butter fat,
the temperature should be 56° to 62° F. After the ripening
process and several hours before the cream is placed in -
the churn, the temperature should be lowered to the
proper degree for churning. The reason for this care in
cooling the cream is that it requires some time for the
fat to recrystallize, or harden.

The butter-maker should regulate the temperature,
the richness of the cream, and all other factors, in order
that the butter will not have a broken grain and be
greasy, but will be firm and waxy. He must remember
that the proper churning temperature is that at which
the churning process will require 30 to 45 minutes when
all of the other factors are normal.

32

Richness of cream.—\t is easy to understand that rich
cream, in which there is a comparatively small amount
of serum, will churn more readily than cream containing
a greater amount of serum, which interferes with the
concussion of the fat globules. For easy churning the
cream should contain 30 to 40 per cent. of butter-fat.
Thin cream is often the cause of difficult churning.
Sometimes it is necessary to churn cream with a low
percentage of butter-fat, but this is done at the expense
of time or the quality of the butter, and often of both.
If the cream is too rich in butter-fat, it will adhere to the
sides of the churn. This may also cause difficult churning.

Ripeness of cream.—Ripe, or sour, cream is less viscous
than sweet cream, and it therefore churns more easily.

Condition of butter-fat.—The kind of feed given the
cows has a marked effect on the condition of the butter-
tat. In winter, when the cows are on dry feed, usually
the fat is harder than in summer. The condition of
the butter-fat is also affected by the breed of the cow,
her individuality, the stage of her lactation period, and
perhaps a few other factors. Hard fat requires a few
degrees higher temperature in churning than soft fat
requires.

Size of butter-fat globules.—The size of the butter-fat
globules has a marked effect on the churning quality of
cream. The large fat globules come in contact with
each other much more readily than the small ones do.
The size of these small divisions of fatin milk and cream
are probably affected by the same factors that contro] the
condition of the butter-fat. Very often a “stripper’s”’
cream is difficult to churn because the fat is hard and the
globules are small.

35

Amount of cream in churn.—The churn should be one
third to one half full. There must be enough cream to
fall nicely, and yet not so much that concussion does not
take place.

Speed of churn.—The greatest possible agitation is
desirable. Therefore, the churn must be speeded care-
fully, not too slow nor too fast. Just before the cream
breaks, it is very thick and it adheres to the walls of the
churn. At this stage of the churning process the speed
should be lessened.

Abnormal micro-organisms.—Certain micro-organisms,
such as ropy milk bacteria and yeasts, prevent the co-
hesion of the fat globules. Difficult churning is the
result.

Steps in the manufacture of butter.

1. Have the temperature of the cream right.

2. Place in hot water all the woodenware (ladles, printer,
and the like) that may come in contact with the butter.

3. Have the churn clean and so set that it will not turn
over.

4. Pour the cream into the churn through a wire, hair,
or perforated tin strainer. This operation should not be
overlooked, especially if the cream is lumpy.

5. Add the colour to the cream in the churn. Usually
one to two ounces of colour per 100 pounds of butter-fat
is sufficient. This may vary with different brands of
colour and market requirements. If the butter-maker
forgets to put the colour in the cream, it may be mixed
in the dry salt and worked into the butter. Probably it
will be necessary in this case to overwork the butter
somewhat in order to distribute the colour and the salt
properly.

o4

6. After securely fastening the cover, give the churn
eight or ten revolutions and then pull out the plug in
order to let the gas escape. It is usually well to hold the
hand over the hole in such a way as to prevent the cream
from blowing over the room. MJReturn the plug, and
revolve the churn fifteen or twenty times more, and again
let out the gas. If the churn is not too full, usually two
or three stops for this purpose are sufficient.

7. The churning process is nearing completion when the
glass becomes clear. The particles of butter should be
about the size of a pea or a kernel of corn, for the butter-
milk drains off more readily when the granules are of this
size than when they are very small. If churned too long,
too much buttermilk is incorporated.

8. Drain off the buttermilk through a strainer.

9. In washing the butter, pour in just enough water
to aidin draining off the buttermilk. Addabout as much
water as there was buttermilk drained off. The tempe-
rature should be about 54° or 58° F. If it is too high,
the butter will be greasy. If it is too low, the butter
will be too hard to work in the salt nicely. If the
butter is hard, extra working is required and it is likely
to be tallowy.

10. After washing, place the butter on the worker or in
the bow] that has been thoroughly cooled and distribute
the salt over it. If the salt is hard and dry, or cold, and
dissolves slowly, it is well to place it in a vessel and just
cover it with water at the same temperature as the wash
water, or perhaps two or three degrees higher. After
standing a few hours the salt will be softened and warmed
and will dissolve in the butter much more quickly than
when very dry or cold. The amount of salt will depend

35

on the market. The average is one to one and one-half
ounces per pound of butter-fat.

11. The purpose of working butter is mainly to dis-
tribute the salt. and secondarily to compact the butter.
Do not give the ladles a sliding motion over the butter
as this will make it greasy. The working process may
be done in a bowl. in the churn, or on a worker. Some-
times it is well to let the butter stand for the salt to dis-
solve before the working process is completed. If the
butter has not been worked sufficiently, mottles may
be found in it after it has been in cold storage for a day.

12. As soon as it is worked, the butter is ready to be
packed. The packages should be clean and cool, and the
butter should be packed firmly. If paper or wooden
packages are used, particular precaution must be taken
against mould. The kind of package must suit the market.

13. Butter absorbs taints very readily. It should not
be kept in therefrigerator or cellar with vegetables, meats,
and the like, unless in an air-tight package. In the
majority of places where butter is stored, a sufficiently
low temperature is not maintained. A refrigerator with
plenty of ice is the most satisfactory method of cooling,
and, at the present prices of butter, it is the most
desirable means of maintaining low temperatures.

MARKETING BUTTER AND ITS BY-PRODOUCTS.

The kind of market, the distance from market, the
size ot the herd, dairy equipment, and the like, must
be considered by all dairymen in determining an outlet
for their dairy products. If one is to make butter, how
shall one obtain the very best trade ?

Above everything else the product must be uniformly
good and it must have a neat appearance. If a special
price is desired, the butter should be placed in one of the

36

best stores and be kept in an ice box away from the
flavours of groceries. Sometimes butter can be sold on
a milk route, the milkman receiving a commission for
selling it. Often, a dairyman with a herd of medium
size is too far from market to retail whole milk daily.
In such a case he might make and sell butter, buttermilk
and cottage cheese, and deliver such products only two
or three times a week. He would then have the skimmed
milk, and perhaps surplus buttermilk, for the stock.

For convenience not only to the consumer, but to
the route man, packages of a uniform size should be used.
One-pound prints are the best. (Some markets can be
trained to take any good and convenient package.)
The pound prints should be wrapped in parchment
paper (8 by llinches). This parchment can be obtained
for about $1 per 1,000 sheets. The use of a paraffined
paper box or carton, just the right size for the print, is |
desirable, for it protects the butter from heat and dirt.
Cartons and parchment can be purchased of paper or
_ dairy supply concerns. The cartons cost about $3.50
for a single 1,000.. The package consisting of the parch-
ment wrapper and carton in small quantities would cost
about .45 of a cent. per pound of butter. In larger
quantities the cost would be less. __

Buttermilk sells at 10 to 20 cents per gallon. It can
be delivered on the route in two-quart glass bottles.
Cottage cheese in cubes of one quarter of a pound each,
nicely wrapped in parchment, will sell for five cents.

. In catering to a first-class trade, it is desirable that the
route man be dressed neatly and that he shall not carry
barn odours. It would be well for him to have a clean,
washable suit to be worn only on the route. In winter
he can wear an overcoat of the washable material over a
heavy Overcoat, or a jumper suit over his regular suit.

o7

~l
"

10.

QUESTIONS.

CREAM SEPARATION.

Why is the question of cream separation so important
to the farmer ?

Name and define the two forces which are made use
of in separating cream.

Give the four methods of separation and compare
them as to their value to the farmer.

Why do manufacturers put skimming devices in
separator bowls ?

How is the percentage of fat in cream regulated ?
Explain your answer.

Give the factors that affect the percentage of fat in
cream and skim-milk from the separator.

What are the advantages of the separator method
over other methods ?

In buying a separator what factors would you keep
in mind ?

Where would you place the separator, and why ?
Describe the placing, care, and operation of a
separator.

38

1]

12.
13.
14.
15.

16.

id.

18.

19.

20.

ButTTER-MAKING.

. What is meant by saying that “the making of
butter commences as soon as the milk leaves the
cow’s udder ”’ ?

Define lactic-acid culture, cream-ripening.
Tell how you would ripen cream for butter-making.
What is the churning temperature ?

Name and describe eight factors affecting th®
churning quality of cream,

Name the steps in the manufacture of butter from
the ripened cream.

What are the essentials of good marketing practice
in butter and its by-products ?

Why is it that the man who sells butter as his chief
farm produce has usually a fertile soil on his
farm ?

In the circumstances under which you purpose
settling, will it be good policy for you to engage
in butter-making or dairy-farming for creamery

business ? Give reasons for your answer.

Describe the care and operation of the churn.

39

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