1
: Hieo Pas 1 - y 7
* . ‘ - wi 15 > a t Py . i i , ’ ee ial ie | pee 6 set | : Ty) rut gh ae ; ~ Pr f se ’
el
at 48 SA LIF
¥
ah as be
iy! ae a fi "
Pep
?
is a 1 tee ve MN Gag
i war
(sinc Quarterly Journal, of The Florida Academy of Sciences
A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research |
H. K. Watziace, Editor
VOLUME Il - /&.
Published by
THe Froripa ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Tallahassee, Florida 1949
Dates of Publication
Number 1 — March 22, 1949 Number 2-3 — September 28, 1949 Number 4 — January 31, 1950
CONTENTS OF VOLUME Il
NuMBER lL
Probable Fundamental Causes of Red Tide off the West Coast feeeremea. By F.C. Walton Smith.
A Preliminary Report on the Young Striped Mullet (Mugil Cephalus Linnaeus) in Two Gulf Coastal Areas of Florida. ene an Gz) fajita tore Ne OE eee ee
A Preliminary List of the Endemic Flowering Plants of Florida. RCnORROTES EE TUT ICT. se
Relationship of Recently Isolated Human Fecal Strains of Poliomyelitis to the Lansing Murine Strain. By Beatrice F. Howitt and Rachel H. Gorrie
News and Comments
Research Notes
NuMBER 2-3
An Ecological Reconnaissance of the Biota of Some Ponds and Ditches in Northern Florida. By J. C. Dickinson, Jr
The Organizational Structure of Industrial and Independent Labor Groups in the Petroleum Industry. By T. Stanton _ i037 = eee ere estos Metre? teat ak.
A Preliminary List of the Endemic F lowering Plants of Florida. Part Il. By Roland M. Harper
The Peep Order in Peepers; A Swamp Water Serenade. By Coleman J. Goin
Check List of the Algae of Northern Florida. C. S. Nielsen and Grace C. Madsen
News and Comments
Research Notes
NUMBER 4 Taxes are Everybody's Business. By Kurt A. Sepmeier
The Plight of Korea. By Annie M. Popper
The Flowers of Wolffiella floridana (J. D. SM.) Thompson. By Herman Kurz and Dorothy Crowson
An Annotated List of the Fishes of Homosassa Springs, Florida. By Earl S. Herald and Roy R. Strickland
Preliminary Check List of the Algae of the Tallahassee Area. By C. S. Nielsen and Grace C. Madsen
Determination of the Physical Condition of Fish I. Some Blood Analyses of the Southern Channel Catfish. By A. Curtis Higginbotham and Dallas K. Meyer
An Abandoned Valley Near High Springs, Florida. By Richard A. Edwards
News and Comments
Membership Drive
Quarterly” Journal
of the
Florida Academy of Sciences
Vol. il March 1948 (1949) No. I
Contents
SmMItTH—PROBABLE FUNDAMENTAL Causes oF RED Tipe Orr THE re E GCE QRIDA < o)52o8 os)a 3 oo bw oc eiweiven be ceca ]
Kitpy—A Pretiminary Report oN YouNG StrRiIpED MULLET (MUGIL CEPHALUS Linnzus) In Two Gutr Coastat AREAS OF FLORIDA.. “gs aE MT ES RTT PR ERA Ea ght ROIS
Harper—A Prentiminary List oF THE ENDEMIC FLOWERING fmm ProrimnaA. PART 1.2...) conde vo ok cc ce cccccccecen 25
Howitt AND GorRIE—RELATIONSHIP OF RuEcENTLY ISOLATED Human Fecazt Strains oF PoLIOMYELITIS TO THE LANSING PTE SEL TEE: STE Lai 22 2 RSS ee aS
News AND CoMMENTS.... 2 'C.1e 26.6 8 ee oe Se g © S See GS TUL 6: 8.6 @.8 € 6. eo 6 49
Vol. 11 MARCH 1948 (1949) No. 1
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida
Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to Frank N. Young, Editor, or Irving J. Cantrall, Asséstant Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Talla- hassee, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Subscription price, Three Dollars a year
Mailed March 22, 1949
THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 MARCH 1948 (1949) No. 1
PROBABLE FUNDAMENTAL CAUSES OF RED TIDE OFF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA!
F, G. Watton Smira Marine Laboratory, University of Miamz
The recent outbreak of Red Tide and the consequent death of very _ large numbers of fishes on the west coast of Florida were subjects of investigation by the scientific staff of the Marine Laboratory during the first half of the year 1947. The results of these investigations are published in detail elsewhere (Gunter, Davis, Williams, and Smith 1948). These results together with the observations of a number of other observers have also been summarized by Galtsoff (2948).
As a result of the above investigations it has been established that the immediate cause of the Red Tide was an enormous and rapid but intermittent increase in numbers of a dinoflagellate which has been described in detail by Davis (4948) and named by him Gymnodinium brevis.
It was further established that a toxic material associated with the swarims of this organism was responsible for the death of fish in the area. The underlying cause of the dinoflagelate bloom has not been established, however. It may therefore be of value to discuss the fac- tors which could reasonably account for this phenomenon, in the light of the conditions actually known to be present.
The enormous growth in numbers of planktonic organisms was not limited to Gymnodinium brevis, but, immediately after the loss of red colour due to the death of this species, large numbers of various other species were found. In all the samples of sea water examined at the .
1 Contribution No. 24 from the Marine Laboratory, University of Miami.
WAR 2s iSabe
2 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
time of, or shortly after, the outburst, the wet volume of plankton was very considerably in excess of samples taken on the west coast of Florida by members of this Laboratory on occasions previous to ap- pearance of the phenomenon. Unpublished studies of waters in the Florida Keys over a period of several years which have been made by R. H. Williams indicate a low plankton content combined with a low content of inorganic phosphorus as the normal condition in these wat- ers, at all times of the year. Wherever the presence of sewage has gteatly increased the inorganic phosphorus content, the volume of plankton has also been found greatly to increase, although not to the extent characteristic of the Red Tide. It is therefore reasonable to as- sume that inorganic phosphorus is the principle factor limiting growth of plankton in these waters at all times. This is in agreement with the general body of observations on tropical or sub-tropical waters. The great growth of organisms during the Red Tide must consequently be associated with a considerable increase in the nutrient phosphorus available. The fact that the inorganic phosphorus content as determ- ined at the time was too low to be detectable is of no consequence, since this element was probably by then completely used up by the plankton growth. Ketchum’s observations here are particularly valu- able since they show that the rorat phosphorus, dissolved organic, inorganic, and particulate was very considerably greater than that ever found previously under normal conditions in ocean water (Ketch- um 1948). It is also interesting to note that R. H. Williams has de- tected phosphate phosphorus in a range of concentration of from 4 to 12 pg-atoms /liter in the Tampa Bay area, away from sources of human contamination during June 1946 (personal communication). The prob- lem remains to account for the presence of this excess. (See Table I.) Ketchum has suggested that the organisms may utilize the phos- phorus over the entire water column and, by subsequent migration to the surface, concentrate the phosphorus there. Unfortunately, no plank- ton and chemical analyses were made of water at different depths, so that no direct evidence is available to support or refute this suggestion. There are several observations that may have an indirect bearing on the problem, however. As Ketchum has pointed out, unless the organ- isms have a facility for developing with far greater nitrogen deficiencies than ever measured previously or a remarkable ability to utilize at- mospheric nitrogen, there must have been present in the water not only greatly increased quantities of torat phosphorus but also of total nitrogen. The swarming theory would satisfactorily account for
FUNDAMENTAL CAUSES OF RED TIDE 5)
simultaneous concentration of both. The intermittent appearance and disappearance characteristic of the Red Tide would be readily ex- plained under these conditions by the effect of winds, current, tem- perature changes and other factors promoting turbulence, which would quickly restore the phosphorus and nitrogen to the entire water column and thus bring conditions back to normal. In resolving the problem of the source of phosphorus this theory, unfortunately, presents a new difficulty. It now becomes necessary to explain why the swarming oc- curs at infrequent intervals separated by thirty years or more, and to explain what condition may stimulate or make possible swarming during Red Tide years alone. Without further knowledge of the life history, behavior, and physiology of Gymnodinium brevis this may be impossible to answer.
Phenomena such as upwelling of nutrient-rich deep water would satisfactorily explain an increase of nitrogen coincident with the phosphorus increase, but as Ketchum has pointed out the amount actually present was far in excess of what is normally present in deep water.
The measured amount of phosphorus present was so far above normal as to dispose of a previous suggestion by the present author (Gunter et al. 1948) to the effect that dissolved organic phosphorus might under certain conditions become more readily available.
A further possibility depends upon the presence of nutrient salts in bottom muds. The experience of Raymont (1947) and many other workers in adding fertilizer to bodies of water has been that a large proportion of the phosphorus added disappears from solution in an amount greatly in excess of the amount utilized by plankton growth -and must necessarily have become incorporated with the bottom de- posits. Unpublished observations of the present author have shown bacteria present in the calcareous muds of sponge grounds to the number of several million per cubic centimeter. Thus, while direct evidence is lacking, there is good reason to believe that both phos- phorus and nitrogen may be present in the bottom deposits in quan- tities more than sufficient to account for Red Tide phenomena. Once more, however, a further problem arises of establishing the condi- tions or events which might release the nutrient salts from bottom deposits at infrequent intervals. Certainly no unusually heavy weather was associated with the Red Tide years (Gunter et a/.). Furthermore, in normal years the waters in question, close to shore, contain con- siderable quantities of sediment originating from the bottom.
4 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A possibility which cannot be ruled out completely is that the excess nutrient has its origin in mineral deposits. Florida is a major soutce of rock phosphate and it is not inconceivable that river drain- age has brought increased concentrations of this into the ocean. The difficulty in this explanation lies in the fact that the Red Tide phe- nomena were observed near Key West and Cape Sable, which are at considerable distances from rivers which drain areas where phosphate deposits are known to exist. The prevailing drift of ocean water even at a distance of thirty miles from the west coast of Florida appears to be to the north (Smith, F. G. Walton 1941, and Marine-Laboratory, | University of Miami, 1948). It would be difficult therefore to explain how phosphates emptying into the ocean from rivers between Naples and Tarpon Springs could later appear near Key West. On the other hand, our knowledge of the surface wind drifts and alongshore circu- lation in this area is very inadequate and this possibility cannot be precluded.
The transport of phosphates to a wide area of ocean would be more teadily explained on the basis of submarine deposits of the mineral which might become exposed periodically as a result of shifts in the bottom currents, which are known to be quite strong (Marine Labo- ratory, University of Miami, 1948). Virgil Sleight of the University of Miami Geology Department informs me that there is nothing in the literature which would rele out the presence of such deposits.
Other theories advanced previously have been so at variance with the facts that no useful purpose would be served in quoting them. It is also evident that theories of mineral origin suffer from their failure to account for nitrogen excess as well as phosphorus excess. The pos- sibility of an ability on the part of Gymnodinium brevis to fix atmos- pheric nitrogen or to grow under conditions of extreme nitrogen defi- ciency has not been disproved, however. These theories, along with those previously mentioned cannot therefore be discarded before a careful study has been made. This should include not only observations on the physiology, behavior, ecology and life history of Gymnodinium brevis carried out under controlled laboratory conditions, but also an oceanographical chemical and biological survey of the Gulf waters near the west coast of Florida, and an examination of the bottom deposits in the area. The bottom deposits are particularly worthy of study in view of Nelson’s recent findings (Nelson 1948).
Studies of the streams reaching the Gulf on the northern part of Florida’s west coast are, it is understood, already in progress. In order
FUNDAMENTAL CAUSES OF RED TIDE 5
that the part played by mineral deposits may be thoroughly exam- ined it is hoped that these may be extended to the ocean and that the necessary experimental work outlined above will also be under- taken by competent investigators.
TasLE I—PnHospHATE PHospHoRUS DETERMINATIONS
Location Date uw gram-atoms Liter
North side of Big Bird Key, Terra Ceia Bay, R. H. 0 UAUES 2 June 3, 1946 4.80
Middle of Terra Ceia Bay, R. H. Williams......... June 3, 1946 3.60
East side of Green Key, Hillsborough Bay, R. H. LETTS. ~ s5 ee June 4, 1946 12.0
One mile west of Green Key, Hillsborough Bay, Oo. Be EATS ee June 4, 1946 8.4
Neighborhood of Sarasota, B. H. Ketchum........ July, 1947 4.5 to 7.4
LITERATURE CITED DAVIS, C.. C. 1948. Gymnodinium brevis sp. nov., a cause of discoloured water and animal mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Botanical Gazette, 109, No. 3: 358-360.
GUNTER, G., WILLIAMS, R. H., DAVIS, C. C., and SMITH, F. G. WALTON 1948. Catastrophic mass mortality of marine animals and coincident phytoplankton bloom on the West Coast of Florida, November 1946 to August 1947. Ecology Cin press). GALTSOFF, PAUL S. 1948. Red Tide. A report on the investigations of the cause of the mortality along the West Coast of Florida conducted by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and cooperating organizations. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Special Scientific Report No. 46.
KETCHUM, BOSTWICK H., and KEEN, JEAN 1948. Unusual phosphorous concentrations in the Florida ‘‘red tide’’ sea water. Journ. Marine Research, 7, No. 1. MARINE LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI 1948. Report on a survey of the sponge grounds north of Anclote Light. Florida . State Board of Conservation, January 1948. Mimeographed.
6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
NELSON, THURLOE C. 1947- Some contributions from the land in determining conditions of life in the sea. Ecological Monographs, 17 :337-346. RAYMONI, J. E.G. 1947. A fish farming experiment in‘Scottish sea lochs. Journ. Marine Research, 6, No. 3. SMITH, F. G. WALTON
1941. Sponge disease in British Honduras and its transmission by water currents. Ecology, 22., No. 4.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(2) 1948(1949).
- A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE YOUNG STRIPED MULLET (MUGIL CEPHALUS Linnaeus) IN TWO GULF COASTAL AREAS OF FLORIDA!
Joun D. Kirpy University of Florida
~The common striped mullet of commerce in Florida forms the base for a multimillion dollar fishing industry. Anderson and Power (1948: 165) fix the value of the 1940 catch at $1,188,185.00. This sum repre- sents more than one-third of the value of all Florida fish taken during that year. The next most important species listed is the red snapper, which had a value of less than one-third that of the mullet. Besides supplying thousands of tons of food for man and being a favorite bait fish, the mullet is also an important food for many of the game and commercial fishes of the state. Jordan and Everman (1908: 253) pre- sent an interesting account of the economic importance of the mullet to Florida.
In view of its commercial value and the universally admitted de- sirability of its conservation and perpetuation as a natural resource of the state, it might be assumed that the life history of the mullet is well known. Such an assumption, however, would be in error, be- cause little has been published on the young, and specimens less than 16 mm. in standard length are apparently unknown. A detailed study by Gunter (1945) on the behavior of mullet along the Texas coast sum- marizes the observations of Hildebrand and Schroeder (1928), Hig- gins (1927), and Breder (1940). Jacot (1920) reports on the growth and characters, particularly scale development, of M. cephalus and M. curema collected in North Carolina. Gunter (op. cit.: 51-2) states that:
Young first appeared in the minnow seine catches in December, 1941, on the Gulf beach and in lower Aransas Bay. In 1942 they were first taken on the Gulf beach in No- vember. They were 24 to 25 mm. long.* In January, 1941, they appeared in huge numbers and had by that time spread into Copano Bay. These small mullet continued in minnow seine catches in large numbers until March. They grew rapidly. A few were caught in April. Some of the small fish, especially in the later months, may have been Mugél curema
- 1} Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. * Length expressed as the distance from tip of snout to tip of longest caudal ray. A 25 mm. specimen on this basis has a standard length of approximately 20 mm.
8 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
for the young of the two species are difficult to separate in the field.3 In June, 1941, the largest of the young were 33 to 103 mm. long. In November, the small mullet, in all likelihood the same group, ranged from 103 to 148 mm. long. They were then about one year old.
In summary, the large mullet go to the Gulf in the fall and congregate near the passes on the outside beaches. Spawning takes place there and extends from late October to early January, with the peak probably falling in late November and early December. Young mullet first appear on the Gulf beach and the lower bay in November and December and soon spread all over the shallow areas of the bays. They were taken most abundantly in January. After spawning the large mullet scatter out again and large numbers of them return to the bays. :
This rather simple picture of mullet spawning and movements of the old and young - observed here is essentially the same as that reported in Florida by Captain J. L. Sweat (Hildebrand and Schroeder, 1928). It also corresponds with observations of Higgins (192.7) and scattered observations of other workers throughout the years. Schroeder (see Hilde- brand and Schroeder, op. cit.) says mullet spawn in Florida in November and December. Hildebrand and Schroeder (op. cét.) said that the mullet did not spawn in Chesapeake Bay, but that spawning could not have been far away, for small fry came into the bay in April. Breder (1940) observed mullet spawning in inside waters in Florida in Febru- ary. He did not mention the salinity, but in all probability it was quite high.
_ This summary indicates the small amount of available specific in- formation on which to base a sound, long term program of conserva- tion for Florida mullet. The principal measures in practice at present consist of a closed season between December 1oth of one year and January 20th of the next, and regulations governing the gear used in fishing operations.
During the period from June, 1947, through December, 1948, the writer made a series of fish collections in the Gulf coastal marshes along the northern third of the Florida peninsula in the vicinities of Cedar Key and Bayport. These localities are some 100 miles and 50 miles north of Tampa Bay, respectively. Approximately one hundred and eighty collections were made and, of these, sixty contained mullet. The 2,024 specimens of young mullet from the Cedar Key area and the 210 from the Bayport area range in size from 16 mm. to 103 mm. stand- ard length measurement. This material and the data assembled on the habits and habitats of the mullet afford information which may be of interest to both the fisheries conservationist and the ichthyologist.
The collections resulting in the mullet catches are part of a study primarily designed to discover which fishes, and to what extent these fishes, occur in the Gulf coastal marshes as represented by the Cedar
’ Some of the specimens in the present study may have been young of Mugil curema
but, if so, preserved Florida specimens of the two species are extremely similar—more, perhaps, than Jacot (op. cét.) describes for North Carolina representatives.
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 9
Key and Bayport areas. A secondary aim is to investigate the role which salinity plays in the distribution of these marsh fishes. It is planned to report on these studies at a later date. The present paper is concerned with a limited amount of the data assembled on the mullet.
AREAS STUDIED
Collections were made in, and adjacent to, the zone commonly re- ferred to as salt or coastal marshes bordering the Gulf of Mexico. In addition, exploratory, but not intensive, collecting was done in the shallower waters of the open bays and in fresh water close to the margins of the marshes.
The Cedar Key and Bayport marshes are fairly representative of many thousands of square miles of coastal marsh occurring on both the Atlantic and Gulf shores of Florida. Such areas are particularly exten- sive neat estuaries and in the vicinities of the larger bays and sounds. They constitute a very definite zone separating the open waters from the lands above high tide matk. Along the Gulf Coast, marshes are absent in some localities where the beach is adjacent to high land, but in most areas they are present and may reach a width of several miles. : Typically, the marshes are dissected by watercourses which empty into the bays and sounds. Between these watercourses are, usually, some areas of open water which frequently have soft, muddy bottoms. Some of the smaller open areas were found to contain young mullet; these situations are described in detail later.
The dominant, emergent vegetation of the marshes at Cedar Key and Bayport is Juncus romerianus and Spartina alterniflora, with the latter pioneering almost to extreme low tide level and occupying, in general, the areas barely covered by water at normal low tides. Juncus romerianus tends to favor slightly higher situations which are in- undated only at high tide. Mangrove islands are not uncommon and usually are established along shorelines and on the more elevated oyster bars.
The maze of watercourses interconnects all parts of the marshes. Flooding of the entire marsh at high tide covers the whole area with one vast sheet of water. At such times fish may pass freely through the stands of emergent plants which are only partially covered by the water at normal high tide. Field observations indicate that the fishes inhabiting the marshes penetrate the vegetated areas at all times that water covers them. As the water recedes the fish are consequently re-
10 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
stricted more and more, and on extremely low tides are confined ‘to the deeper holes in the bayous, along the shores of the bays, and especially in the small tide pools of the marshes themselves. It is at such times of concentration that effective seining is possible. During periods of high tides the fishes readilv escape the net by taking refuge in vegetated areas where it is impossible to catch them in numbers. Consequently, most of the collecting of the present study was ‘ac- ee at low tide.
MertTHops
The most frequently used net was a minnow seine of one-quarter inch mesh, ten feet long, four feet deep, and equipped with a four foot bag in the center. A similar net twenty-five feet long was used in bodies of water too large to be spanned by the shorter net. Supple- menting these two seines were tea strainers, D-type dip nets with fine mesh, and ‘‘Common Sense’’ seines of approximately one-eighth inch mesh.
Whenever possible, the seine hauls were planned so that the body of water being worked was covered by the net from shore to shore, and seine hauls were repeated until it was believed that all, or at least nearly all, species of fish present were represented in the collec- tion. Care was exercised to keep the lead line either on or below the bottom and the cork line floating or even raised above the surface of the water. The seining through the soft, bottom mud netted many fish which would otherwise have escaped due to the habit of a number of species of burying themselves in the mud when disturbed. Mullet, for example, were caught by hand in crab holes approximately e1 SEs inches below the mud surface.
Preservation of specimens was accomplished by placing the catch in ten percent formalin. All specimens caught were preserved except when the haul netted very large numbers of individuals. Then from one to six quatts of the fish were preserved by simply scooping them into the pteservative with no attempt to select specimens on the basis of size or species. A card bearing the identifying name‘ of the station and a field catalogue number was placed in the container with the speci- mens. The same number was then entered on a field catalogue card on which was recorded data principally as follows: location and descrip- tion of station; water conditions including depth, temperature, density,
4 Names for stations were employed in the field. Later each station was designated by a number and this simplified the handling of data, cf. Figs. 1 and-2. A
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 11
turbidity, and color; tide conditions; time of day; and collecting methods. Salinities were calculated in the laboratory from data collected in the field. A sample of the water of the station was taken within three or four inches of the surface as a consistent practice, because so often it was necessary to take the sample there due to the shallowness of the water at many of the stations. Within minutes of taking the water sample, its temperature was recorded from a centigrade thermometer and the density determined by the use of a sea-water hydrometer grad- uated in thousandths. The temperature and hydrometer readings were taken simultaneously and used to establish the salinity of the sample substantially in accordance with the specific gravity method employed by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and described by Schureman
Yo (1941: 81-5). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
~The field and laboratory work, as well as the organization and writing of this report on a part of it, has been made a pleasure by the unreserved assistance rendered the writer by nearly every member of the Department of Biology at the University of Florida. Staff members and students have been of material assistance by their contributions in seining operations, planning and organizing the field work, and the accumulation and interpretation of data and criticism of the manu- script. The list is too long to allow the specific listing of these aids by individuals. However, at this limited opportunity, particular thanks are extended to the members of the writer's Graduate Committee for their assistances which extended far beyond the call of duty; to Miss Esther Coogle whose skill was painstakingly employed in the produc- tion of the plate and text figures; to the Board of Conservation and to the Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission of Florida for necessary collecting permits; and to Dr. Adrian C. Coogler and family who made the work at Bayport possible by generously furnishing quarters, boats, and motors for use there.
HasiraTs
The young mullet were obtained almost exclusively from two rather distinct habitats. Small specimens (246 mm.—27 mm., but chiefly 17 mm.— I9 mm.) were caught within feet, and usually within inches, of the water line of the open Gulf beaches having either sand or mud bottoms. These beach mullet were in definite groups of from five to about fifty
12 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
individuals, and showed well developed schooling behavior. On one occasion during low tide (November 8, 1947), a dozen schools were watched over a period of several hours.. All the schools kept close inshore and none could be found in nearby deeper water, although much searching was done for them. When undisturbed the fish ap- peared to be following the shore, and since they kept so close to the water's edge it appeared almost certain that the next high tide would lead them into the marshes beyond.
Small (17 mm.), as well as larger specimens (up to 103 mm.), were found in mud-bottomed, shallow tide pools of the marshes themselves. The proximity of the pool to the open Gulf varied from a few yards to several miles. The pools which produced maximum catches were in- vatiably small pockets from approximately six feet wide to about thirty-five feet wide. All of these pools had ooze-mud bottoms into which a seiner would sink from slightly less than a foot to as much as three feet in some softer spots. At low tide the depth of the water in those pools having a direct outlet to bayous or other marsh water- courses would be reduced to as little as three inches in the deeper parts; other pools with no direct connection to lower levels would retain up to two feet of water even during extremely low tides. Around the edges of the pools dense growths of Spartina alterniflora, and oc-. casionally some Juncus romerianus, wete present and, when partially inundated by high tide, provided a well protected refuge and, quite possibly, feeding area for the pool fishes.
Temperatures and salinities of the marsh waters fluctuate widely and vary from pool to pool. This is to be expected in such shallow waters where the effects of tidal action, precipitation, evaporation, radiation, and other factors would soon be noticeable. The extent of these changes is indicated by data recorded as each collection was concluded.
Thus, as expected, the salinities vary widely from station to station and from month to month. Fig. 1 shows graphically the salinities of stations at which mullet were taken. The lowest reading is 1.1 °/oo (part per thousand) taken in a marsh pool (station 3) in the Bayport area or! March 20, 1948. This same pool showed a salinity of 24.7 oo on May 22 of the same year. The difference between these extremes was equaled at a beach station (Cedar Key No. 3) where the salinity ranged from 6.2 /oo in November, 1947, to 29.8 °/oo in December, 1948. A reading of 35.6 oo on May 16, 1948, at Cedar Key constituted the highest recorded during the study at a time mullet were found to be
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 13
present. This record was made at station 7, a small, shallow pool near the mainland edge of the marsh.
Temperatures show a similar fluctuation as is indicated by Fig. 2, but here seasonal changes are more in evidence. The low recorded for a time and place that mullet were taken was 13°C. at Cedar Key (sta- tion 5) on November 29, 1947. The high, also at Cedar Key, was 34.5°C. recorded at two stations, Nos. 1 and 5, on June 27, 1948, and at station No. z on October 20, 1947. The greatest range of temperature for a station containing mullet (Cedar Key No. 5) extends from the low of 13°C. in November, 1947, to the high of 34.5°C. in June, 1948. This pool is approximately six feet in diameter at normal low tide and re- ceives ebb tide water from approximately one-half acre of open or sparsely vegetated mud flat nearby, where water depths are measurable only in inches at normal high tide and do not exist at low tide. The relatively few readings made (59 each for temperature and salinity) certainly donot represent the true extremes of either factor in the area;
Oct'47|Nov hall Jan'48 Feb'48 |Mar'48 Apr.'48 May’
a a
ol oO
Ss = oS o s ° = Ti _— @® Qa 7) — Py So a = 2, = 15 10 2 = ': 7) ) na e 12 = tO ; o 2 . ‘ (op) -4 rq i 3 6 H 5 1S cay Gi 3 12 % 13 +3] Lo: 3 (@)
Fig. 1. Salinities for stations at Cedar Key (solid lines) and Bayport (broken lines). Points on the bars show salinities recorded; numbers opposite the points identify the stations. Only data for stations having mullet at the times indicated are included.
14 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
however, they do indicate that a wide range of both are tolerated by young mullet. :
CoMPARISON OF HaBiTATs AT Capar Key anp Bayport
The habitats of the young mullet are very similar in the two areas studied, but some observable differences exist among the stations most frequently seined. The marshes of the Cedar Key area border, in gen- eral, a much ramified, shallow, mud-bottomed bay abounding in oyster bars. The shallower parts of the bay-are exposed at normal low tide, and, on those occasions when winds combine with lunar - effects to drive the tide level to extreme low, little open water exists except in the deeper channels and a limited number of pools. No sizeable streams empty into the bay, although the mouths of several small creeks are to be found.
The Bayport marshes are much less extensive than those of Cedar Key, and receive the output of two rivers, the Mud and the Weeki-
Oct.'47, Nov.47, Dec’ 47, Jan'48 Feb: 48 Mar 48 Apr 48,May 48 Jun'48|Jul'48,Aug 48Sep.48, |Dec'4e 35) PS Rs) 14 2 5
ed “12,7 a ie
2 13 bo +3 L3 a
om 30 73 7 Le
= 8 8,9
o : 6 ae
oO, ! 12 "2
oe ; eo “4 Lo i 15 10 las 3 3 i @- 4
lO 2 le i} 12 oo is) jo 20 | e k2 ! ] = ic 3 r$ ese D iQ Ly 6 ta 5
[6 7s :
it
|
is 3
| |
ee ea
10
Fig. 2. Water temperatures (CC.) for stations at Cedar Key (solid lines) and Bayport (broken lines). Points on the bars indicate the temperatures recorded; numbers oppos-
*° ité the points identify the stations. O
times indicated are included.
nly the data for stations having mullet at the
PRELIMINARY REPORT.ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET O15
watchee. Both streams are of spring origin and receive some contribu- tion from runoff along their courses. The faintly brackish water from both rivers tends to reduce salinities in the marshes of the bay and also, because of the relatively constant temperature of the springs, partially stabilizes the temperature of the diluted water.
In addition, the collection stations at Bayport producing the bulk of the mullet caught there were slightly deeper than those of the Cedar Key area. Natural obstructions formed by the banks of the pools at Bayport prevented serious loss of water during extremely low tides. Thus the tairly constant water levels, plus the moderated temperatures of high tide water flowing into the pools, probably tended to reduce the range of the temperatures recorded. These temperature differences are shown graphically in Fig. 2.
DEscRIPTION OF YOUNG
Plate 1 illustrates, at about life size, specimens in formalin of young mullet of standard lengths @) 17 mm., (@) 39 mm., (¢) 63 mm., and (4) 82 mm. The drawing of the largest specimen shows detail; the other three show only the general body shape and the ‘pigmentation pattern visible in preserved specimens. The eye is drawn more as it appears in life for the sake of clarity.
Living individuals are of a brilliant silver ventrally and laterally and show no pattern on the sides. Dorsolaterally the silver becomes progressively duller until the color reaches a dusky tan on the dorsal surfaces of the head and body. All surfaces are irridescent and show flashes of pale, whitish blue as the light strikes the-fish from different angles. A conspicuous irridescent spot is usually present between the eyes of individuals of about 40 mm. or less in length.
Atop the head on the mid-dorsal line at a point between the posterior margins of the eyes, a conspicuous orange-red spot is present in indi- viduals up to about 35 mm. in length. In larger specimens the spot tends to become whitish, and in the largest specimens it is not dis- cernible. -
The golden pigmentation of the iris and the blue spot at the base of the pectorals described for Texas specimens by Gunter (1945: 52) are not evident in the specimens from either Cedar Key or Bayport. These differences warrant further study.
The pupil is jet black and is surrounded by a silver-white iris. Ad- jacent tissues are silver and mask the remaining eye tissues except on ‘very small specimens, which are sufficiently translucent to permit the
16 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Plate x. Fig. a, b, c, d. Mugil cephalus showing general body shape and development. Standard lengths: (2) 17 mm., (4) 40 mm., (c) 63 mm., (d) 82 mm. First three figures show pigmentation of preserved specimens—scales have been omitted. Fig. d shows both scales and pigmentation of preserved specimen.
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 17
outline of the whole eye to be seen. The adipose eyelid develops as descrited by Jacot (1920: 205-6).
In formalin the silvery coloration rapidly fades, and in a few days the fish are dull and dusky. Heaviest pigmentation is on the dorsal surface as illustrated by the drawings in Plate 1. Specimens less than about 40 mm. standard length rarely show even a hint of the striped condition of the adult, but as the size increases from 40 mm. the stripes become more evident. Specimens of 60 mm. are well striped as indicated by the two larger specimens represented on Plate 1.
The scales are in full evidence and appear well developed on the smallest (46 mm.) specimens examined. Their development is described and illustrated by Jacot (op. cit.).
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG MULLET
Figs. 3 and 4 show, by months,the range in the standard lengths of young mullet collected at Cedar Key and at Bayport respectively dur- ing the period May 11, 1947-December 19, 1948. The range of the lengths of the specimens is indicated by dark, radial lines placed at the approximate dates of the collections made during the year October, 1947, to October, 1948; the hollow bars represent all other collections. Table 1 lists all young mullet collected at both areas by standard lengths and dates of collection.
Cepar Key: The largest specimens (Table 1 and Figure 3) in the October and November collections from Cedar Key probably repre- sent individuals of the 1946-47 spawning and are presumably eight months to a year old. Very small specimens are apparently present from late October to the middle of May and indicate an extended breeding season of about that duration, but starting as much earlier as it takes a fertilized egg to develop into a 16 mm. fish. The season is probably from early October to early May if this year is at all typical of the normal situation.
Although regular collections were conducted at Cedar Key stations which had contained mullet in the preceding months, none was found during July, August, and September of 1948. Apparently the young mullet had sought deeper water, possibly of the bays, and this move- ment was anticipated by what appeared in the data as an abnormal reduction in the expected number of fish more than 70 mm. in length. ~ It is thought that as the fish teach sizes from about 60 mm. to 100 mm. they move to deeper water, and that during July all fish remaining
18 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA “ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ..~
in the marsh pools move to the bays regardless of their size. Relatively high water temperatures may constitute the principal cause of the July exodus from the marshes. If this is the case, the critical point may be between 30°C.-35°C. The range of temperatures for the period under consideration is graphically represented in Fig. 2. i
ft
WO UILY ae)
Ak. x
Fig. 3. Number and size range of young mullet collected from the Cedar Key area October, 1947-September, 1948, represented by dark, radial bars (hollow bars are shown for May, 1947,-and December, 1948, collections). Numbers at ends of bars show sizes of samples. . D ete:
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 19
Bayport: Fig. 4 and Table 1 show that at Bayport young mullet were collected during all months of the year except October. ‘The large specimen of 83 mm. taken in November, 1947, probably represents a stray individual from the 1946-47 spawning. The presence of specimens 21 mm. or less in length in only the month of October may indicate a shorter spawning season than the one at Cedar Key where such specimens were collected over a period of eight months beginning in October, 1947. However, the number of specimens collected at Bay- port is insufficient to be conclusive.
The presence of specimens in July, August, and September collec- tions at Bayport constitutes another point of interest when compared with Cedar Key collections and lends support to the assumption that temperature may determine, in part at least, the length of stay of young mullet in marsh pools. As previously mentioned under the dis- cussion of temperature, Bayport mullet were taken in pools which did not show as high temperatures as those at Cedar Key (Fig. 2.)
GrowtH Rate: Allowing for the differences in the size of samples and the actual dates of collection in a given month, the growth rate of young mullet appears to be approximately equal for the Bayport _ and Cedar Key areas. Assuming that the larger specimens collected in succeeding months represent the larger specimens of preceding months, it appeats that a given specitnen of 18 mm. 1n October may reach ap- proximately 27 mm. by late November, 35 mm. by the latter half of January, 54 mm. by mid-March, and 6; mm. by mid-April. Data for larger specimens is even less sufficient, and therefore does not warrant further projection of the growth rate. However, comparison with the monthly size ranges given by Gunter (op. cit.: 51) suggests a close similarity between growth of Florida and Texas specimens.
CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS
Although the data here clearly indicate the need for additional study of the mullet in Florida waters, two facts seem sufficiently well established to be useful in conservation practices or research pro- grams:
i Lhe very young mullet make extensive use of the small, mud- bottomed pools in the Gulf coastal marshes. Continued reduction in the number of these habitats by the constructions of man may have a marked effect on the survival’ of the young mullet. On the other hand, an increase in the number of such pools by artificial means may
20° JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
offset the loss so evident in and around many of Florida’s coastal towns and Cities.
Pools similar to those which contained the majority of the speci- mens collected during the present ‘study should be relatively easy to create in suitable marsh areas. It is believed that explosives could be used to advantage in approximately the same manner presently em- ployed in blasting ditches through marsh areas. A few sticks of dyna- mite placed at a depth of about two feet in the soft mud of the marsh,
s
JUNE ‘48 JULY ‘48
a | f ——— ee ; —~ a
'?
APR.' 48
FEB.'48
JAN.'48
Fig. 4. Number and size range of young mullet collected from the Bay port area Cctober, 1947-September, 1948, represented by dark, radial bars (the hollow bar represents a June, 1947, collection). Numbers at ends of bars show sizes of samples.
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 21
arranged to form a pattern over an area of about ten teet in diameter, and detonated simultaneously, should accomplish the desired effect. The dynamite can be planted with a dibble in a matter of minutes, and proper spacing of the sticks can be determined for a given marsh after a few trials. In the event blasting is used, it is suggested that it be done during the late summer when the mullet are normally in deeper water.
It is believed that the new pools should meet thé following require- ments:
a. The depth should not be less than twelve inches nor greater than three feet at normal low tide. Complete drainage of a pool at low tide would force the fish concentrated there to seek other waters.
6. The width should not exceed 35 feet. Larger pools may be as useful, but the data collected to date, at least, indicate a greater use of the small ones by the young fish. (In the event the blasting method is employed, it will be difficult to create pools larger than from ten to fifteen feet in diameter, but these should be adequate.)
c. The bottom should be of soft mud. This will be accomplished automatically if the pools are constructed in those portions of the marshes where the ground is basically mud rather than shell, sand, or some other component.
d. The marsh adjacent to the pool should be covered fairly regu- larly by high tide to a depth of at least several inches. It is not necessary that channels connect the marsh pools to permanent watercourses of the marsh.
2. In addition, the rather long breeding season noted for mullet at Cedar Key and the possibly shorter one for those at Bayport is sug- gestive. The present closed season (December 10-January 20) designed to coincide with the spawning period may not actually be of sufficient duration for a given locality, yet may be too long, or at the incorrect time, for others. Much useful data concerning this problem could be obtained by determining the roe development in fish caught for market.
Further study is clearly indicated for all major mullet producing areas.
SUMMARY
A total of 2,234 specimens of young striped mullet were collected in or immediately adjacent to the coastal marshes near the towns of © Bayport and Cedar Key, Florida, over a period extending from May 11,
22 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1947, through December 19, 1948. Specimens ranged from 16 to —_ mm. in standard length.
The primary habitat in the maps consisted “ats ceaaiie itor pools having soft mud bottoms. Exclusive of an cccasional individual , the young fish were not found in the marsh streams or in other waters where a noticeable current was present nor in the larger bodies = water of the marshes.
Salinities, determined by the specific gravity method, at times bie places where the mullet were collected, showed a range of from 1.1 /oo to 35.6 “Joo. There was little evidence that the salinity changes, which - appeared to be fairly rapid at times, had any effect on the mullet’s choice of habitat in the marshes. Fresh waters adjacent to the marshes into which the young mullet could have penetrated, and which often contained adult mullet, never were observed to contain the young.
Water temperatures in the marsh pools containing young mullet showed a range of between 13°C. and 34.5°C. Water temperatures re- corded showed a greater fluctuation at Cedar Key stations than did those in the Bayport area. The stabilizing effect of a rather significant volume of spring water flowing into the Bayport area coupled with the mullet’s occurrence in deeper pools there are considered the main factors contributing to this difference.
Mullet at Cedar Key of 21 mm. or less in standard length feeeatcd in collections over the period October, 1947, to May, 1948, and indi- cated an extended breeding season for that area. At Bayport, collec- tions during the same period netted mullet of the 2z mm. (or less) size only in December and suggest that a much shorter season May exist there than at Cedar Key.
Growth of the young mullet appears to be comparable in 7 ese areas studied. A 17 mm. specimen in October apparently may reach a size of slightly more than 60 mm. by the following April. Present data‘on larger specimens are too scattered to watrant further projection of the growth rate. 7 :
During months when mullet of the 60-65 mm. size zand greater were expected to be numerous, relatively few of these larger fry. were pres- ent. It is assumed that the individuals reaching about 60 mm. move out of the marshes into deeper waters. Further, in July, August, and September, 1948, repeated seining in the marshes of the Cedar Key area failed to result in the finding of mullet of any size. Possibly ‘their absence was associated with the relatively high temperatures of the marsh pool waters. Bayport pools, on the other hand, had water
5 AND Bayport.
}
Totals
ar Key ? 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69} 70| 71 | 72 | 73 | 74
Total Cedar Key; 2024
Total Bay port
71, 79mm.
TABLE I.—Numper oF YOUNG MULLET IN EACH SIZE GROUP SHOWN BY DATES OF COLLECTION ror Cepar Key AND Bayport
Date STANDARD LENGTH IN MILLIMETERS
Totals = 16|17| 18} 19) 20} 21} 22 | 23) 24| 25 | 26| 27} 28] 29) 30] 31| 32] 33| 34| 35 | 36 | 37| 38 39| 40| 41] 42] 43 44] 45 | 46] 47| 48| 49] 50) 51|52| 53] 54|55| 56] 57/58
59 60} 61 | 62 | 63} 64 | 65} 66] 67| 68| 69] 70) 71 | 72| 73 | 74
i —| i
ete |e 99)118}115} 88} 58 7 42) 43] 15) 2) 2 eee 23) 12) 19} 33} 37) 42) 23) 17) 4 1 9 2) 1 1
ie} a wn ~) =)
Dieta | erste | ed | 16) 35} 22) 14
@e2ouu EN wWouUneHe: E eae aS
Total Cedar Key| 2024
Unne:
1 A ed ata dR Sv ee dl Ie I SL eet aI le ST SD bade dbedoed hs Welk. pedbeall athedbeche-[s. lee at Toral Bayport 210 Totals include: 1 1, 80mm.; 1, 89mm 21,102mm. #1,103mm. 41, 86mm 51, 80mm €], 82mm.; 1, 88mm. 71, 79mm.
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 23
temperatures lower than those at Cedar Key and contained young mullet up to the latter part of November.
Color and pattern descriptions of the young mullet are given, and four specimens of 17 mm., 39 mm., 63 mm., and 82 mm., respectively, are illustrated to show pertinent features.
Accurate determination of the duration of the spawning season at various localities, and the expecimental construction of pools similar to those in which young mullet have been found, are recommended as important fields for conservation research.
LITERATURE CITED BREDER, C. M., JR. . 1940. The spawning of Mugé/ cephalus on the Florida west coast. Copeia 1940(2): 138-139 GUNTER, GORDON 1945. Studies on marine fishes of Texas. Pub. Inst. Marine Science, Vol. 1,(2): 1-190, 11 figs., 75 tables. HIGGINS, ELMER 1927. Progress in biological inquiries in 1926. App. VII, Dept. U.S. Comm. Fisheries, 1927. Bur. Fish. Doc. 1929: 517-681. HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F., and SCHROEDER, WM. C. 1928. The fishes of Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 43 (Part 1): 1-366, 211 figs. JACOT, ARTHUR PAUL 1920. Age, growth and scale characters, Mugél cephalus and Mugil curema. Trans. Am. Micro. Soc. 39: 199-229, 7 figs., 7 plates. JORDAN, DAVID STARR, and EVERMANN, BARTON WARREN 1902. American food and game fishes..1-+- 572. Doubleday Page and Co., New York. SCHUREMAN, PAUL (Prepared by) 1941. Manual of tide observations. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Coast and Geod. Surv. Special Pub. No. 196, Rev. (1941) Ed. iv + 92, 30 figs.
>
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(1) 1948(1949).
alee. ty via.
iit:
q ste , Parsi: t'r'é é. o eC x TEEER) F f gy) ¢ ‘ pkyi , ORR eth tt Heinys a [Piaf : ‘ ried 2 ul . x +. ' ae + F is - 4 » { 2 uw ¢ ad “/ , 6 aay §
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE ENDEMIC FLOWERING PLANTS OF FLORIDA
Rotanp M. Harper University, Alabama
Part I—INTRODUCTION AND History oF ExpLORATION
Florida probably has more species of endemic plants than any other atea of similar size and shape in the United States, and more than any other state except Texas and California, which are much larger and mote diversified. According to recent estimates Georgia and Ala- bama, which are about the same size as Florida, each have only ap- proximately 25 endemic species of flowering plants. The present study has been confined to the flowering plants, largely because it is primarily based on a book that includes only the Spermatophytes, and also because our present knowledge of the cryptogams is too limited to warrant definite statements about their distribution.
There are three principal reasons for the many endemics in Florida. First, most of the state is a peninsula, relatively isolated from other land masses. Second, it projects southward from the continent, and there is no land near with climates similar to those of the southern part, if we except the Bahamas, which are relatively small, and differ greatly in soil from most of Florida. If the Florida peninsula extended eastward instead of southward its flora might be much like that of southern Georgia. Third, Florida has more sandy soils than any other
state, and considerable areas of limestone in the central and southern portions. If the red hills of Georgia extended all the way down the peninsula and across the width of it, the numerous local species that characterize the dry sand areas could not exist. There are, however, a number of endemics in northern Florida, not so easily accounted for.
No final or complete list of Florida endemics will ever be possible. If we make our list as complete as possible this year, it may be changed next year, as has often happened in the past, by the discovery in other states and countries of plants now known only from Florida, by the discovery of new species within the state, or by the dividing of pre- viously described species into two or more forms. It has happened several times that the Florida representatives of what was supposed to be a fairly widely distributed species have been found to differ decidedly
26 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
from those in other states or in tropical America. Some of the latter cases will be specially mentioned tarther on.
A Brier History OF THE Discovery, oF Froripa ENDEMICS
As the number of known Florida endemics has increased greatly since the early days, it would be of considerable interest to ascertain just where, when, and by whom each species was discovered and described. Tt would also be of interest to discuss the known distribution of each endemic species, and point out just how it is supposed to differ from its nearest relatives; but with so many species involved that would make quite a book. A complete history of botanical exploration in Florida would be rather voluminous, even without mention of particular species or bibliography, but the present study would be incomplete without some account of the men who discovered most of our en- demic species. 3
The principal botanists who have contributed to the list of ddebn: plants of Florida are mentioned in the next few pages, together with notes on their travels and writings. Much of the information about them has been obtained trom an article entitled “Some American Botanists of Early Days,’’ by Dr. John Hendley Barnhart (Journal New York Botanical Garden, August 1909), and from numerous biographical footnotes by him in various narratives by Dr. John K. Small, in later volumes of the same journal. Several other publications on Florida plants, not cited here because no new species ate described in them, ate cited in the bibliographies in the 3rd, 6th, and 18th Annual Reports of the Florida Geological Survey, the last of which brings the record down to about twenty years ago.
Mark Catesby (1679-1749), an English naturalist, published a large work with colored plates, in instalments from 1730 to 1748. His work, entitled Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, is often referred to by later workers. The title would seem to imply that he visited Florida, but if he did he missed a splendid opportunity for discovering many plants no other botanist had ever seen. As far as I know, there is no specific reference to Florida in his work, nor even a description or figure of any plant now known only from Florida. Lin- naus used Catesby’s work, but apparently had no specimens or records from Florida.
John Bartram (1699-1777), of Philadelphia, said to have been ie first native American botanist, made a tour of exploration through the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in 1765-1766, collecting seeds and
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 27
plants to send to botanical gardens in England. In Florida he worked in the vicinity of St. Augustine, and the St. Johns River as far south as Lake Harney. He is said to have been a man of limited education, and did not consider his work of enough importance to publish a formal account of his-discoveries; but various fragments of his journal, taken from letters, etc., were published soon after his death by some of his English friends. A more complete manuscript of his was un- earthed in Philadelphia a few years ago, edited by my brother, Francis Harper, and published by the American Philosophical Society in December, 1942. Bartram is credited by Small (Journ. N.Y. Bot. Gard., 22:127. July, 1921) with being the discoverer of Zamia integrifolia, the first species on our endemic list.
William Bartram (1739-1823), the son of John Bartram, accom- panied his father on his Florida journey and remained in Florida about two years, but at that time was chiefly interested in farming. He visited Florida and other southern colonies again in 1773 and later, with the primary purpose of botanical exploration, although he also made interesting and valuable observations on animals, Indians, etc. He published an interesting account of his work in his well-known volume of Travels, first printed in Philadelphia in 1791, and later reprinted in London and elsewhere and translated into other lang- uages. He seems to have gotten no farther south in Florida than his father did, but covered more ground, and got as far west as the Suwan- nee River, and later to Pensacola by way of Mobile. He discovered among other things the types of our endemic genera Salpingostylis and Pycnothymus, and one ot mote species of Pityothamnus, although these genera were not described until long after his death. An unpublished journal of William Bartram’s, giving numerous details not in his Travels, was edited by Francis Harper and published by the American philosophical Society in November, 1943.
Andre Michaux (1746-1802), a Frenchman, traveled widely in the eastern United States a few years after the Revolution, and got into Florida far enough to discover a few new species, which were described in his Flora Boreali—Americana, published in Paris in 1803, after his death. The well-known genus Lespedeza is said to have been named by him-(by a misprint) in honor of Vicente Manuel de Cespedes, Spanish governor of Florida at the time of his visit. (See P. L. Ricker, Rhodora 36:130-132, April, 1934).
Dr. William Baldwin (4779-1819), a navy surgeon, native of Pennsylvania, visited northeastern Florida in the spring of 1817,
28 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and is credited with the discovery of Zamia umbrosa, one of our endemics, among other things. (See article by Small cited above under John Bartram.)
Thomas Nuttall (1786-1859), an Englishman, lived in the United States from 1808 to 1841, with his headquarters in Philadelphia or Cambridge for most of that time. He traveled widely, often on foot- but the records of his travels in the southeastern states are very scat, tered. Dr. Francis W. Pennell pieced them together in Bartonia, De- cember, 1936, and found that he passed through West Florida in the spring of 1830, and then northeastward across Georgia. He also de- scribed before and after that a few species of plants collected in Florida by others.
Nathaniel A. Ware (17802-1854), probably a native of Massachu- setts, made a.collection of plants, probably the most complete Florida collection up to that time, in East Florida in the fall of 1821. Ware’s specimens came into the hands of Nuttall; who published a report on themin the American Journal of Science in 1822, in which was included descriptions of six of the species now known only from Florida. The genus Warea, with four known species—three confined to Florida and tlie other a little more widely distributed—was named for Mr. Ware. (Only one of the species of Warea appeared in Nuttall’s 1822 list, and that under a different generic name.) Nuttall described a few more new species from Florida in the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy of Na- tural Sciences in 1834, and described the genus Warea in the same paper.
Hardy B. Croom (1797-1837), of New Bern, North Carolina, owned plantations near Aspalaga, and later one near Tallahassee, and spent his winters in Florida from about 1832 to 1836. He discovered the tree now called Tumion taxifolium near Aspalaga (a now extinct settlement on the Apalachicola River in Gadsden County), but took it for a Taxus and thought that it did not differ much from the English yew. (See Amer. Journ. Sci., 26:314, 1834; 28:165, 1835.) He also discovered Bap- tisia simplicifolia near Quincy. One of his most interesting finds at or near Aspalaga was the type of the genus Croomia, but that is now known also from several places in Georgia and Alabama, and one or two other species of the genus have been found in Japan. He published some inter- esting articles about his observations in Florida and elsewhere in the American Journal of Science, and Dr. Chapman (mentioned below) pub- lished some reminiscences of him in the Botanical Gazette for April, 1885.
Lieut. B. R. Alden (1811-1870), of the United States Army, who was stationed at Fort Brooke (near Tampa) and Fort King (near Ocala) in
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 29
1832-33, during the Seminole wars, sent botanical specimens to Dr. John Torrey of New York (mentioned below). Apparently Lieut. Alden was not the discoverer of any of our endemics, but the genus Aldenella was named for him.
M. C. Leavenworth (1796-1862) and G. W. Hulse (1807-1883) were both army surgeons in Florida in 1838, and they sent plams to Dr. Torrey. One species named for Dr. Leavenworth appears in our list, and he discovered a few other species in Florida and other states, de- scribing some of them himself. Dr. Hulse is believed to have been the discoverer of one of our species of Zamia.
Dr. J. L. Blodgett (1809-1853), a druggist from Massachusetts, lived in Key West about the last 15 years of his life, and was practically the first botanical explorer of the Florida Keys. He discovered a consider- able number of new species there, several of which were named for him. Some of these appear in the following list, while others were later found also in the West Indies, and are therefore excluded from the list of Florida endemics.
Drs. John Torrey of New York and Asa Gray of Cambridge, who at that time had never been near Florida, began the publication of a flora of North America, about 1838. In the next three years enough parts had been published to make two volumes, about halt of the projected total, but that was as far as it got. They had access to collections made by all or nearly all the Florida botanists already mentioned, and also some from Dr. A. W. Chapman, who had then been in Florida only a few yeats. One of our endemic genera, hee was first described in their Flora.
Ferdinand Rugel (1806-1878) traveled widely in on southern states in the early 1840's and discovered several new plants in Florida and elsewhere. Most of these were named by R. J. Shuttleworth, an English- man living in Switzerland. About eight of Rugel’s discoveries appear in the following list.
Prof. John Darby (1804-1877), about whom little is known except that he taught at Macon, Georgia, in the ’4o’s and at Auburn, Ala- bama, in the ‘50's, published a Botany of the Southern States in 1841, te- vised it in 1855, and reprinted it in 1860. This work is notable chiefly for being the first flora of the southeastern states as such. In the 1855 edition only about a dozen of our Florida endemics can be recognized. A genus of shrubs was named for Prof. Darby by Asa Gray.
Dr. A. W. Chapman (1809-1899), a native of Massachusetts, was a physician interested in botany. He came to Florida about 1835 and prac-
30 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA’ ACADEMY OF SCIENCES -
tised medicine for awhile in Quincy and Marianna, and finally for most
of his long life in Apalachicola. In 1860, evidently encouraged and
assisted by Dr. Gray, he published his book, entitled Flora of the Southern United States, but covering only the states east of the Mississippi River
from North Carolina and Tennessee southward. é
Although at that time about’ 95% of the area of Florida was virgin country, teeming with rare and interesting plants, most of Dr. Chap- man’s tite was naturally taken up by his professional duties; and his facilities for exploration were very limited. Neither Quincy, Marianna, not Apalachicola had a railroad at the time he lived in those places, and when Dr. Gray visited him in 1875 Apalachicola was connected with the rest of the United States by a river steamboat once a week and by occasional coastwise vessels. (See reminiscences of Chapman by Miss Winifred Kimball, an Apalachicola neighbor, in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, January, 1921.) :
Despite all these difficulties, however, Dr. Chapman made good use of his limited opportunities. Besides his own collections in West and Middle Florida, he had access to specimens collected in other parts of ' the state by the men mentioned above, or at least had information about them from Dr. Gray. In his book he did not undertake to give the distribution of any native plant outside of the United States, so that many species also known from the West Indies were credited by him to Florida only.
So Chapman’s Flora by itself is of little use in counting the number of Florida endemics known to him, but we can pick them out of Small’s southern floras, published in the present century, and then trace them back through the various editions of Chapman’s work. Even then, however, there is some uncertainty, because some of the species de- scribed by Chapman can not be identified in Small’s works, which do not give enough synonyms. Very likely most such plants were not good species, but all of them should not be dismissed without investigation.
Making the best possible allowance for these uncertainties, it would . seem that 62 species of flowering plants now known only in Florida were known to Dr. Chapman in 1860, although some of them were treated by him as varieties, and a few he did not even consider worth naming. Without making a special count, I would-guess that about half of these 62 were Dr. Chapman’s own discoveries.
Botanical activity in Florida Le during the Civil War, but was resumed in the ’7o’s.
Allen H. Curtiss (1845-1907), a Virginian, came to Flonida in n 3875,
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 31
and in the next 25 years traveled extensively over the state, collecting many sets of plants, which were distributed to the leading herbaria of the world. Several of the species were new, and named for him, and some of these appear in the following list. After 1900 he extended his explorations to other southern states, and to the West Indies, but continued to make occasional discoveries in Florida. He did not de- scribe any new species himself, but published several interesting articles about his travels, and notes on particular species or groups of plants.
Dr. A. P. Garber (1838-1881), a Pennsylvanian, visited Florida for his health in 1876 and later, and discovered several new plants. He seems to have worked mostly in the northeastern quarter of the state, but got as far south as Miami at least once. The genus Garberia and several species bear his name.
Dr. William T. Feay (18032-1879), of Savannah, seems to have visited Florida in the late ’70’s, but not much is known of his itiner- aty. He was the discovered of Asclepiodella Feayi, Palafoxia Feayi, and Lobelia Feayana, and a few other species that are more widely dis- tributed.
Dr. Chapman published descriptions of several new species col- lected by himself and others, in the Botanical Gazette in 1878, and in 1883 a second edition of his Flora. Most of that was identical with the first edition, but it contained a 71-page supplement with separate index, describing many additional species. That brought the total of known Florida endemics up to 100, if I have counted correctly. In 1892 he published another edition, with a small second supplement; but that work is quite rare, and I have not had access to it in pre- paring this study.
Around 1890 Joseph H. Simpson (1841-1918), who in his younger days was a coal miner in his native state of Illinois, explored some little-known parts of South Florida, particularly around Manatee and on the Keys, and discovered a few new species, some of which bear his name in the following list. Several of his specimens, distributed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, were cited in Hitchcock’s list Gmentioned below). He settled near Bradenton, and at one time, when land was cheap, owned considerable property there; but he was tricked out of it, and when I called on him, in the spring of 1909, he was living in poverty and ill health. At that time he did not even have a copy of Small’s Flora.
In the middle and late ’g0’s several enthusiastic young botanists from the North, born since the publication of the first edition of
32 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Chapman’s Flora, took advantage of recently constructed railroads and growing towns, especially in the central parts of the state, to make some more important discoveries. Among these were George V. Nash (1864-1921), A. S. Hitchcogk (1865-1935), P. H. Rolfs (1865- 1944), Herbert J. Webber (1865-1946), and W. T. Swingle (still liv- ing). Mr. Nash, connected with the New York Botanical Garden during most of his professional life, soon attracted considerable atten- tion for his discoveries around Eustis, and later for his work on grasses; and he wrote the chapter on grasses for = first and second editions of Small’s Flora.
About the same time a few other men of about the same age, or a little younger, who had not yet visited Florida, studied specimens from. various parts of the state in northern herbaria, and found some previously unsuspected novelties among them. Some of the new species discovered in the ’90’s were very distinct, but had been over- looked before because they did not grow near the older routes of travel. Dr. Chapman seemed to be very skeptical about the work of these ‘“‘young upstarts,’’ and admitted only three or four of their ‘species to his last book, but intimated that others, if found valid, would be treated in future editions.
The fourth and last Cmiscalled third) edition of Chapman’s Flora, completely revised, was published in 1897. Although he made little use of the work of the younger botanists just mentioned, additional discoveries by himselt, Curtiss, Simpson, and others since 1883 brought the total of Florida endemics then recognized to 121.
Professor Hitchcock, then connected with the Kansas Agricultural College, later a grass specialist in Washington, made a few visits to Florida in the ’90’s. In the summer of 1898 he walked, mostly along railroads, from Monticello to Live Oak, Dunnellon, Brooksville and Bayport, trundling his plant press and other baggage on a wheel- barrow-like contrivance with a bicycle wheel, designed by him for that purpose. He published a brief account of that trip, with a pic- tute of his vehicle, in his college paper, the Industrialist, for Novem- ber, 1898. From that we learn that he walked 242 miles in 24 days, camped out every night. cooked his own meals, and his expenses aver- aged about 30 cents a day. (That may seem incredibly low to persons born since then, but at that time commodity prices were just about the lowest in the whole history of the United States, and steak could be bought for about ten cents a pound.)
The plants collected on that trip and two earlier ones, and by sev-
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 33
eral other botanists with whom he exchanged specimens, made the basis of his List of Plants in My Florida Herbarium, published by the Kansas Academy of Science in two instalments, 1899 and 1901. This list enumerated about 1750 species of spermatophytes (of which 96 species are now believed to be confined to Florida) and 32 pterido- phytes, with localities. It did not claim to be a complete flora of the state, but is useful for giving fairly definite localities, though often nothing more than the county, and with little or no indication of habitats (which mean little to the average taxonomist).
Protessor Hitchcock wrote up the grasses for Small’s Manual, 1933. His last work, Manual of the Grasses of the United States, a 1040-page book published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1935, con- tains descriptions of all the endemic grasses in the following list, and a few others not included because they were published after Small’s Manual.
Professor S. M. Tracy (4847-1920), native of Vermont but long a tesident of Mississippi, traveled extensively in Florida in the early yeats of the present century, primarily to study forage plants for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, but also collecting as many other plants as possible, a considerable number of which proved to be un- described. His name is commemorated by Pityopsis Tracyi in the fol- lowing list, as well as by several species not confined to Florida. Some of his Florida plants were still being described after the publication of Small’s Manual (and are therefore not listed here), for example, Eragrostis Tracyi, known only from Sanibel Island, described by Hitch- cock in 1934.
About the turn of the century a new and brilliant star was rising, so to speak, in the person of Dr. John Kunkel Small (1869-1938), of New York. He began exploring the southern states about 1893, and made his first trip to Florida, with Mr. Nash, in the fall of 1901. On that trip he stuck pretty closely to the east coast most of the time, but got as far south as the Upper Keys, and the unfinished grade ot the Florida East Coast Railway on the mainland below Miami. After that he visited Florida practically every year, and sometimes two or three times a year. He wrote narratives of each trip, and various other observations on Florida plants, for the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, and described many new species in other magazines.
At the New York Botanical Garden he had access to the most com- plete collection of sovthern plants in the world, and he made good use of it in his 1362-page Flora of the Southeastern United States (North
34 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Carolina to Texas), published in the summer of 1903. This work listed about 400 species of flowering plants apparently confined to Florida; but he and his enthusiastic associates and contemporaries had evidently carried species-splitcing too far in some groups, especi- ally Paspalum, Panicum, Sisyrinchium and Crategus, and many of these were dropped trom his later works. At the same time he was less diligent then than later in ascertaining the distribution of his species outside of the United States, so that quite a number now known also in the West Indies were attributed to Florida only, as they had been by Chapman. The total number of Florida endemics in Dr. Smail’s first book which stood his later tests was 227, if I have counted cor- rectly; but even that was nearly twice as many as Dr. Chapman had included six years before.
Dr. Small published a second edition of his Flora in 1913. Most of this edition was identical with the first, but several pages scattered through the book were revised to include more species—the descrip- tions being shortened for that purpose—and a 53-page supplement was added. This brought the total of supposed Florida endemics up ‘to 259. In the same year he published four small books on Florida plants, namely, Florida Trees, Shrubs of Florida, Flora of Miami, and Flora of the Florida Keys. All of these of course contained descriptions of some of our endemic species, but none additional to those in his large book of the same date.
About that time some of the thinly settled parts of the state, especi- ally in the southern half, were being made more accessible by new railroads and highways, and Dr. Small made good use of these, and sometimes of trucks and boats furnished by wealthy patrons who owned winter homes in South Florida and assisted his researches in the last twenty years of his life. (Some of his Florida narratives of that period were written in rather exuberant language, as if to enter- tain the men who helped him, who were flower-lovers of a sort, but not profound students of botany.) Some of the Florida endemics described by him were named for these men, as can be seen in the following list.
With these added facilities for travel Dr. Small accumulated new material so fast that twenty years elapsed between his 1913 book and his last one, Manual of the Southeastern Flora (North Carolina to eastern Louisiana). In the meanwhile many of his discoveries were published in Magazines; but quite a number made their first appearance in his Manual, which, unlike his two previous Floras, was restricted to
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 35
flowering plants. If I have counted correctly, it lists 427 Florida en- demics (including a few near-endemics, discussed farther on), besides about a dozen species attributed to Florida only which have been as- certained from other sources to occur in tropical America.
A few younger botanists have made significant contributions to our knowledge of the Florida flora during the present century, but their work can perhaps be appraised better after it has been completed. In order, however, to make clear my own connection with the work, for the benefit of those who may have come into the state since 1931, I may say that my first records of Florida plants were made in August, 1903. At that time I visited River Junction, as Dr. Gray had done about 28 years before, to see the Torreya |Tumion| in its native haunts, and I tried to trace it up into Georgia, where I was then work- ing. Cin that I was unsuccessful at the time, but I had better luck 15 years later.)
In the fall of 1908 I began working for the Florida Geological Sur- vey, continuing intermittently until 1931. During that time I visited every county, and made the acquaintance of about fifty of the endemic species listed below. In the 6th, 13th and 18th Axnual Reports of the survey, all published between Small’s second and third books, I classi- fied the commoner plants of northern, central, and southern Florida by regions or habitats, or both, and a few of the endemic species were included in these lists. In the last report I gave some statistics on the endemics of South Florida, by regions.
It was my good fortune to discover two of the endemic shrubs, Prunus geniculata in Lake County in 1909, and Grossularia Echinella in Jefferson County in 1924. (See Torreya, March, 1911, and June, 1925.) But the former turned out to have been collected long betore but not recognized, and Dr. Herman Kurz shared in the discovery of the latter by taking me to the place on the day of discovery, February 29, 1924. I collected some specimens of the monotypic endemic genus Litrisa near Fort Pierce in August, 1923, about a year before Dr. Small described it, and soon sent some of them to him.
It may also be worth putting on record here that I knew all the bot- amists mentioned in the foregoing narrative, beginning with J. H. Simpson, and read manuscript, or proof, or both, of Dr. Small’s three large books.
(To be Continued)
\
iy’
" As « : i. i a be vor. ‘ A is ; : ew ey . tj § Fah j . ei a oe i \ be ca L. é r +k i “ 4 i a, y al Me ~ 4 <f Ve ‘ 4 ww 4 ‘ i }, “ s M6 aade cd - ts +] H rt rs 2 ¥ ms ? ~.8 De He OF ne. “ T ] i 4 é gee Se Le ’ PP . i Bes a > , ‘ iis We ee ; * ! ca . i \ by ( ' a 7 - Ps ‘ oye ee h 4 ‘
eg.
, Sas nial Coop £52
CHG iit
1. hy ape
. wt 44 i Pa ‘ rat + “ : ALth ry vt ; €% “s ra (ss Aa « 34 h if . . : ” A i, , t i ‘ “4 a) F P . Bhs Ca ‘ h - 4 (
a Pe Wid 2. is Ma’ ¢
iui
A,’ i
cry lasiu
: eater ss oh :
& r He Ciatrity
RELATIONSHIP OF RECENTLY ISOLATED HUMAN FECAL STRAINS: OF POLIOMYELITIS TO THE LANSING MURINE STRAIN’
Beatrice F. Howrrt gud Racnet H. Gorrie?
During the summer of 1946 fecal specimens and blood sera were obtained by the epidemiological division of our Public Health station in Montgomery from human cases of poliomyelitis at Florence, Ala- bama. The fecal specimens were inoculated into monkeys and several strains of poliomyelitis virus were isolated. These strains fulfilled the ctiteria proposed for the identification of the poliomyelitis virus; namely, (1) the monkeys became ill within the required incubation period, showing fever, irritability, tremor and flaccid paralysis of one or more limbs and occasionally complete prostration, (2) histopatho- logical sections of the cord showed the typical lesions of acute anterior poliomyelitis, and (3) the virus could be transmitted to other monkeys by the intracerebral route but not to mice or guinea pigs.
In 1939 Armstrong (1939) had adapted the Lansing strain of polio- myelitis to cotton rats. In 1940 Haas and Armstrong (1940) determ- ined that neutralizing antibodies to the Lansing mouse adapted polio- myelitis virus could be demonstrated in many human sera. Early and late bleedings were not tested, however. Turner and Young (1943) showed that antibodies to the Lansing virus were. present in 45 per- cent of the sera of the poliomyelitis patients studied but since they wete found both early and late in the course of the disease, no par- ticular significance could be attached to their presence. They decided that the test was of no value as a diagnostic aid. Recently, in 1947, Brown and Francis (1947) determined the antibody titers during the acute and convalescent stages in the sera from several groups of polio- myelitis cases obtained from outbreaks in various parts of the country. In only 5 out of 35 cases were the sera negative in the acute stage and positive after recovery. Likewise Hammon, Mack, and Reeves (1947) found that 84 out of 102 sera from poliomyelitis cases had a high titer at onset of the disease.
Because the blood samples had been obtained from the Florence
1 Contribution from the United States Public Health Service, Communicable Disease
Center, Laboratory Division, Montgomery, Alabama. 2 Bacteriologists, United States Public Health Service.
38 - JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
cases, some of them in pairs of early and convalescent bleedings, it was thought of interest to test these sera for neutralizing antibodies against the Lansing murine virus, and also to determine any relation- ship between these recently isolated strains of poliomyelitis and the murine adapted type after experimental studies in monkeys. Since very little has been done in determining the development of antibodies for the Lansing virus in monkeys that have recovered from a polio- myelitis acquired by the inoculation of human feces nor on the determ- ination of the amount of cross immunity that might be found between these strains in monkeys, the results of a few neutralization and ex- perimental tests are being presented.
MetHops
Virus Strains: Several strains of poliomyelitis virus were used in the following experiments. These included three human strains re- cently isolated from fecal material; the old MV or monkey .passage strain kindly sent by Dr. H. Howe of Johns Hopkins; the Lansing mouse adapted strain also sent from the same laboratory and origin- ally isolated by Dr. C. Armstrong, and the Y-SK murine adapted polio- myelitis virus kindly sent by Dr. J. L. Melnick of Yale Medical School. Each of these strains was made into a 10 per cent brain suspension and kept frozen in ampules at —60°C until needed. They were then thawed, removed from the ampules and used either for intracerebral inoculation of the monkeys to be tested for immunity or for the neutralization tests in mice with the sera to be tested for antibodies. In testing for immunity, the MV virus was usually administered in 0.5 ml. and the Lansing and Y-SK viruses in 1.0 ml. amounts into the brain tissue of the monkeys through a small opening made in the skull under light ether anesthesia. Daily temperatures were taken on the animals and they were exercised regularly for the appearance of symptoms. They were kept under observation for from two to three weeks.
Neutralization Tests: All neutralization tests on either animal or human sera were performed with the Lansing mouse adapted polio- myelitis strain and with a few modifications were based on the work of both Young and Merrell (1943) and Morgan (1947) who have carefully evaluated the most reliable methods for this test with the Lansing virus. The so-called ‘‘screen test,’ using one dilution of virus against the undiluted serum was employed initially in order to
HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN 39
roughly determine which sera contained neutralizing antibodies. If a more quantitative estimate was desired, the positive sera were either diluted out and used against one dilution of virus or the nutralization index was determined by using the undiluted serum against several dilutions of virus. :
Equal quantities of the appropriate dilution of serum or virus were mixed and held overnight in the coldrcom at 6 to 8°C. They were then inoculated intracerebrally into 4 weeks old mice, allowing 8 mice for each dilution. A known positive as well as a known negative serum was included with each series of tests. Daily observations were made for three weeks. All fatalities within this period were recorded and the degree of neutralization determined. A serum was considered negative if of the 8 mice 2 or less survived and as positive if 2 or less died. The test was called 1+ or weakly positive if between 3 and 4 of the 8 mice died.
NEUTRALIZATION JEsSTs ON. HUMAN SERA
Neutralization tests against the Lansing murine virus were per- formed on the sera of 38 of the poliomyelitis patients from Florence, Alabama. The virus of poliomyelitis had been isolated from the fecal specimens of 6 of these cases, so that there was no doubt that the virus Was present in the community. Early and late sera were tested from 13 of the 38 patients. In only 2 instances (15.3%) was there a definite rise in antibody formation between the first and second bleedings, although 3 of the 13 sera (23%) were negative at the first bleeding and showed very weak antibodies after the second. A total of nine of the 38 patients showed strong neutralizing antibodies, while 12 (31.5 %) wete only weakly positive. The latter are included with the sera taken in the acute and convalescent stages. The remaining 17 sera did not show the presence of antibodies. The poliomyelitis virus had been isolated from the feces of 3 of these cases. Only one patient with a positive virus isolation had definite antibodies for the Lansing strain.
Neutralization screen tests were likewise made on the sera of seven of the laboratory personnel, one of whom had a history of poliomyelitis in early childhood and was left with residual paralysis. All except one serum showed neutralizing antibodies for the Lansing virus. Two, however, were only weakly positive. The older ages of this group as compared with those of the recently recovered poliomyelitis patients may have accounted for the larger percentage of positive results.
40 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ExPERIMENTAL DATA
Monkeys that recovered after having developed poliomyelitis from inocu- lation of fecal specimens: Six morkeys were on hand that had been inoculated with the strains of poliomyelitis from the feces of six dif- ferent human cases. Two of them G/3 and #37) had received the feces directly by the intranasal and intraabdominal routes and showed definite paralysis. The other four animals had been inoculated intra- cerebrally with cord suspensions from monkeys that became paralyzed after receiving the fecal material from four different human cases. One of these four monkeys developed slight symptoms but the others all remained well. |
About a month after recovery M#3 (Allen) was given an intracere- bral injection of the MV virus. No symptoms of poliomyelitis were noticed. On January 31, 1947, all six of the animals were tested intra- cerebrally with a 10 per cent mouse brain suspension of the Lansing virus. These injections were done three months after the last inocula- tion for M#3 and about two months after the initial dose for the other monkeys. M#3 withstood the inoculation of the MV monkey passage virus but succumbed to the Lansing strain. All except one of the others developed paralysis and two died G56 and #57) after receiving the latter virus. The control animals in each instance showed com- plete paralysis. About two and one-half months later the surviving monkeys #37, #42, and #49 were reinoculated intracerebrally with a Io pet cent mouse brain suspension of the Y-SK murine virus. All remained well. |
Blood was drawn from all of these animals at different time inter- vals. The sera were tested for neutralizing antibodies against the Lansing strain. All of the tests were negative until after the inocula- tion of the Lansing virus into the animals, when antibodies developed in the blood of two of the three survivors.
From these observations it was found that neutralizing antibodies for the Lansing virus wefe not developed in monkeys after either a partial paralysis due to inoculation of fecal human strains of polio- myelitis virus or after attempts at a second passage of freshly isolated ‘strains. The four monkeys that had been given the second passage ma- terial either died or were paralyzed after intracerebral injection of the Lansing virus, indicating that even though they may have had a subclinical infection after the human strain, no immunity was de- veloped for the Lansing virus. Protection was develpoed for the
HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN 41
Jatter, however, in one monkey (#37) that was a post paralytic after the fecal inoculations. The reverse was true with M73 which sur- vived the fecal and MV injections but became completely paralyzed after the intracerebral inoculation of the Lansing virus.
Experiment 1: Eight Rhesus monkeys were inoculated with fecal specimens from two human cases of poliomyelitis, using four animals for each specimen and two different methods of inoculation. The fecal specimens had previously given positive results in monkeys when introduced intranasally and intra-abdominally, although the strains of virus were not highly active after isolation. In this experiment the same fecal materials were again used both by the older method of Paul and Trask used previously (1941) and by another method recently developed by Bodian (1947). By the former a portion of a fecal sus- pension was left untreated to be instilled intranasally over a five to six day period and the remainder was treated with 15 % ether and left overnight in the cold to inhibit bacterial growth. After centrifugation the supernatant fluid was then inoculated intra-abdominally in 10- 15 ml. amounts for several days or until about 30 ml. were given. By the Bodian method 0.5 ml. of a fairly thick fecal suspension was placed in each nostril and delivered onto the cribriform plate while the ani- mal was held with head down and under ether anesthesia. Material from two different patients was used.
Only two animals showed symptoms of poliomyelitis and these wete inoculated by the first method. Blood was drawn from all the animals both before injection and at different intervals later as shown in Table 1. Neutralization screen tests were performed against the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus using these sera. The results were all negative.
The monkeys were then inoculated intracerebrally with 0.5 ml. of a 10 ! dilution of the Lansing virus. Five of the 8 animals as well as the control monkey, became completely paralyzed and were sacrificed. This included M#75 which had shown muscular weakness after the fecal inoculations. M#72 and #78 which had not developed any previous symptoms of poliomyelitis remained well but M#76 showed definite paralysis even though it was the only animal that had manifested marked symptoms after the fecal inoculations. Blood was removed from the survivors about two months later. The neutralization tests against the Lansing virus were positive for monkey #72 but negative for the others.
42 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
According to this experiment no neutralizing antibodies against the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus were developed after inoculation of eight monkeys with fecal specimens from two human cases of poliomyelitis. Two animals, however, withstood an intracerebral injection of the virus even though they had not previously shown any sumptoms to the human virus.
Experiment 2: Six Cynomolgus monkeys were inoculated with one of the newly isolated strains of poliomyelitis GGonce). Two animals (#82 and #83) were given intracerebral injections of second passage brain suspensions, while the other four were inoculated with the original fecal material from the same patient. Two of the latter mon- keys were given the feces intranasally and intra-abdominally by the Paul and Trask method while the remaining two received the un- treated feces by way of the cribriform plate according to the Bodian method.
All animals developed typical poliomyelitis (Table 2) but differed in the degree of severity. Two showed slight muscular weakness, one of the left arm and the other of the left leg. Both recovered. The other monkeys were sacrificed. Blood was removed from the surviving two animals at different intervals up to five weeks after recovery.
All neutralization tests on the sera were negative for the Lansing poliomyelitis virus even those from convalescent monkeys. The re- sults were in accord with the other tests performed.
Discuss1oNn
The need tor some simple method of determining immunity to polio- myelitis among the human population has long been realized. Serum neutralization tests had previously been made by inoculation of monkeys with mixtures of human serum and a monkey passage strain of virus or viruses recovered from human cord taken at autopsy. Be- cause of the scarcity and high cost of monkeys this method was of necessity greatly restricted. It was also statistically unsound because of the small numbers of animals employed for each serum. When it was found that a particular strain of virus isolated from a human case of poliomyelitis could be adapted to small animals such as the cotton rat and white mouse, there was hope that the determination of neu- tralizing antibodies for this virus in human sera might be ot diagnostic value. Such antibodies were found not only in the serum of recovered poliomyelitis patients but in large numbers of the normal population as well. However, this wide distribution of neutralizing antibodies had
HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN 43
likewise been observed when using the older monkey inoculation method. Because tests with this Lansing mouse adapted virus were more readily performed, reports have been made by several workers.
Although Hammon and Izumi (1942) in 1942 observed a rise in antibody titer during convalescence in 9 out of 23 (9.1%) sera from poliomyelitis cases, the more detailed studies by Turner and Young (1943), Turner, Young and Maxwell (1945) and Brown and Francis (1947) have failed to observe any consistent difference in antibody formation between acute and convalescent sera. Antibodies were rarely found in the sefa of healthy young children and the number of positive tests increased with age. Turner, Young and Maxwell (1945) in study- ing the sera of healthy children demonstrated an increase of antibodies for the Lansing virus from 15% in the 6 to 11 months period to 86% in the 10 to 14 year group. Brown and Francis (1947) furthermore found a lower percentage of positive tests in 234 sera of acute cases between the ages of 1 and 15 years than in Turner’s group ot healthy children.
One of the main outcomes of this interest in the mouse adapted Lansing poliomyelitis strain has been the realization that the human clinical disease is probably not confined to one type of virus and that not only in different localities but in the same area, the same clinical manifestations may be elicited by closely related though antigenically dissimilar neurotropic viruses. This idea was well demonstrated in 1943, when Schlesinger, Morgan and Olitsky (1943) were able to isolate two serologically unrelated poliomyelitis viruses from one epidemic occurring among the Middle East Forces of the British Army. One of these could be transferred to cotton rats and mice and was sero- logically related to the Lansing strain, while the other could be transmitted to monkeys and failed to produce antibodies for the Lansing virus.
Although antibodies to the murine strains of poliomyelitic virus seem to be generally present, largely among the adult population, and are probably indicative of some contact with this variety, yet the disease clinically recognized as poliomyelitis is mainly caused by another strain which is not adaptable to the rodents. For this reason large scale neutralization tests on human sera against the Lansing virus would not have much epidemiological significane as tar as the usual variety of the disease is concerned. Development of antibodies to the Lansing strain after inoculation of chimpanzees with the human virus has been reported in the literature (Melnick and Horstmann, 1947) but without satisfactory explanation.
44 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
In the present study no antibody formation to the Lansing strain was observed after inoculation of monkeys with the human fecal specimens from this one epidemic of poliomyelitis, although clinical symptoms of poliomyelitis were produced. These human fecal strains were not adaptable to mice. Since neutralizing antibodies for the Lan- sing strain were present during the early stages of the disease as well as later, in the majority of acute and convalescent human sera tested, one can conclude that this epidemic of poliomyelitis was not pri- marily due to the strains easily adapted to small rodents, and that the presence of these neutralizing antibodies was not an indication of the immunity to poliomyelitis in this region.
SUMMARY
1. Neutralization tests against the Lansing mouse adapted polio- myelitis virus were done on the sera otf 38 poliomyelitis patients and on those of 7 normal adults among the laboratory personnel. One of the latter had the disease in childhood.
2. Nine (23.6%) of the 38 recovered patients had strongly positive neutralizing antibodies for the Lansing virus while 12 (g1.5%) were only weakly positive and 17 or 44.9% were negative. Ot the 13 pairs of early and late sera, only 2 (15.3%) showed a definite rise in anti- body formation while 3 of the 13 sera (23%) were weakly positive on the second bleeding.
3. All except one of the 7 sera of the laboratory personnel showed some degree of neutralizing antibodies for the Lansing poliomyelitis virus. )
4. Neutralizing antibodies for the Lansing virus were not developed in any monkeys recovered from the poliomyelitis produced by inocu- lation of human feces. They were found only in monkey sera after a definite attack of the disease due to the Lansing strain or after hyper- immunization with the later virus. This observation may be inter- preted as indicating an antigenic difference between the Lansing strain of virus and that responsible for the human disease.
5. Four out of 5 monkeys that recovered from an attack of polio- myelitis of human origin showed symptoms of poliomyelitis after an intracerebral inoculation of the Lansing virus. The fifth animal sur- vived. |
6. From the results of these neutralization and tissue immunity tests, further evidence is presented to corroborate the work of others that the neutralization test against the Lansing murine strain of polio-
45
HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN
Ayjesvursaui—'o°y . Ayyesuoarsedes301—"d"t 1A ON
SLSHUL NOILVZITVULOAN
“t LNAWI Yad xX] *SNOLLVTONOONT AGANOJY LO LTOSAY—'"? aqdv 7
eee... ——— OOOO ee Ce rr ey (0) es i, i i i icy Le-OI-¢ PTET ae at 48 pozAyesed wae aysry 5 So] 2u0 Jo ssauyva 29U0D JO $209,F siskjvsud ay sits Klein Ww CW bleh [ aeidle BAS law ae « 0 preventer bievatal elieiteret [learn al u(ralralehaieu 0 Lb-@I-€ PE “d°l pue “u'r Ly-p—-€ $8 stskyvavd JvordAy, 32904) JO $9997 03 Lb-97-T yvom WIE T Sr (oD OG OC FSC ar ean ea ene EN (Co OT em SG ie cl a1 Adquoyy Lp-St-% 78 siskjvavd o39;du105 ' a8ussegq puodsg JO prog Lb-L-b Lb-81-€ Lp-TI-€ Lb-OI-€ lapis ANG Pld eq po29aluy $2[Ns2y poyioy pur [roar 21%q ‘ON
Ayyesvuvijul—'u'r Aj[vsuostsodvsyur—d"t : LON ceeeeecereefoeercueevee i, = = i SEIN | GGuiODIDOID (CICnICDIDINIO? Dini ini IOICnn nic CIO ICC TCICniCnIT nT icici i icnr ign inn icin icc mm nr ra nD jo1u05 IZ PTE -P2z4 [ese oc aemeep arora = oy |e || 0 0 0 0 siskivaed ON uy m PI[PN—pezAyvieg m: Fs uOIsoOg Jo s999,J FLERE =a ai STEW ea mg mace Oee |. oes litt : 9 sisXjvavd [viivg sisfjvied aaruyoq Ivjnosnu IY SITS uoIsOog JO s200,7 raidinle oareieial |e RoowsDoEel oe | ae aes | ea 0 Se a ee ee ee ee Ree a per ea PATI -pozApesrg UIT[V JO $299.7 + + sisdjvaed ON oe 0 0 0 (0) ve ee oe tL eee i ee an ay Ly-1-¢ Lb-@-+ 0 0 0 we ewww wwe stskjvard ON “dr pur ‘u'r Lp-SI-T OL PAEA—pezdyesed D2ITV JO $299 01 Lb-11-@ LY=Ul-9) || LY=V IE’ Lb-L-b Ly-L-t Cyc eveO let SNITA Pld 37d $3[Ns9y dursuv'y pod 93° Ss] nsoy poyIow poqo2iuy ‘ON Le poe [eroawyp 23vq SLSAL DOpwe[NIOUT SLSH.L NOILVZITVULOAN NOILVZITVULNAN -- sae! LNAWTYAIX “SNOLLV'TNSONT AAANOYPYT £0 LTASAY—' T aTav T
a — — — — es == = - on = = — — ~ _ —— ——————— Ha ae
46 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
myelitis virus is not of diagnostic significance in an outbreak of polio- myelitis.
7. Moreover, because antibodies are so prevalent in the sera of the general population without evidence of disease, one would have to test both acute and convalescent blood of a suspected case, and quan- titatively determine any rise in titer before making any decision as to its significance. One must likewise bear in mind the probable occur- rence of a multiplicity of virus strains that may be responsible for the same clinical disease in man.
LITERATURE CITED ARMSTRONG, C.
1939. Successful Transfer of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus from the Cotton Rat to the White Mouse. Public Health Reports, 54, 2302-2305.
BODIAN, D. 1947. Personal Communication.
BROWN, G. C., and FRANCIS, T., JR. 1947. The Neutralization of the Mouse-Adapted Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus by the Serum of Patients and Contacts. Journal of Immunology, 57, 1-10.
HAAS, V. H., and ARMSTRONG, C. 1940. Immunity to the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis as Revealed by the Protec- tion Test in White Mice. Public Health Reports, 55, 1061-1068.
HAMMON, W. McD., and IZUMI, E. M. 1942. Poliomyelitis Mouse Neutralization Test, Applied to Acute and Convalescent Sera. Proceedings of the Socéety for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 49, 242-245
HAMMON, W. McD., MACK, W. N., and REEVES, W. C. 1947. The Significance of Protection Tests with the Serum of Man and Other Ani- mals Against the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus. Journal of Immunology, 57, 285-299. MELNICK, J. L., and HORSTMANN, D. M. 1947. Active Immunity to Poliomyelitis in Chimpanzees Following Subclinical In-. fection. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 85, 2.87-303.
MORGAN, I. M. 1947. The Role of Antibody in Experimental Poliomyelitis. I. Reproducibility of Endpoint in a Mouse Neutralization Test with Lansing Poliomyelitis Virus. American Journal of Hygiene, 45, 372-378. PAUL, J. R., and TRASK, J. D. 1941. The Virus of Poliomyelitis in Stcols and Sewage. Journal of the American Med- ical Assn., 116, 493-497. SCHLESINGER, R. W., MORGAN, I. M., and OLITSKY, P. K.
1943. Transmission to Rodents of Lansing Type Poliomyelitis Virus Originating in the Middle East. Scéence, 98, 452-454.
HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN 47
TURNER, T. B., and YOUNG, L. E. 1943. The Mouse Adapted Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus, I. A Study of Neutralizing Antibodies in Acute and Convalescent Serum of Poliomyelitis Patients. American Journal of Hygiene, 37, 67-79.
TURNER, T. B., YOUNG, L. E., and MAXWELL, E. S. 1945. The Mouse Adapted Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus. IV. Neutralizing Antibodies in the Serum of Healthy Children. American Journal of Hygiene, 42, 119-127. YOUNG, L. E., and MERRELL, M. 1943. The Mouse Adapted Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus. II. A Quantitative Study of Certain Factors Affecting the Reliability of the Neutralization Test. American Journal of Hygiene, 37, 80-92.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11(1) 1948(1949).
f c poe hi Spe ¥ , { | (ie AS 6 7 “A Leo 4A * ‘ wae ; ‘ ‘ ey ey ? ; “4 at-t ¥ ~ \ E i , ‘ np (rd i % ; [ a ‘ = ' t ‘ i U i / ¢ I i Mh ae ca aes . “ fete i = . q : si ~ g £ i 1
a
J
ry y .
’ 4 rhs By var Fai at
eet! \ F
NEWS AND COMMENTS
The 1948 Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy was held at the University of Miami in Coral Gables on November 19 and 20 as an- nounced in the last issue of the Journal. More than fifty papers were presented in the sectional meetings and in the general sessions. The local committee and the University of Miami are to be commended on the fine arrangements for the meetings and the excellent field trips and other entertainment provided for the members of the Academy and their guests. The fine organization and excellent program of the Junior Academy arranged by Dr. J. D. Corrington, is especially to be commended.
The Council of the Academy voted to accept the invitation to hold the 1949 Annual Meeting at John B. Stetson University, DeLand, Florida.
OFFICERS OF THE FLorripA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1948 1949 President: George F. Weber President: J. E. Hawkins University of Florida University of Florida Vice President: Garald G. Parker Vice President: J. D. Corrington U.S. Geological Survey University of Miami
Secretary-Treasurer: Chester S. Nielsen Florida State University
Chairmen of Sections
Soctal; Rev. C. W. Burke, O.P, Soctal: Paul F. Finner Barry College Florida State University Biological: John H. Davis, Jr. Biological: A. M. Winchester University of Florida John B. Stetson University Physical: A. A. Bless Physical: H. H. Sheldon University of Florida University of Miami
Member of the Council for 1948-1949: E. M. Miller, University of Miami Member of the Council for 1949-1950. George F. Weber, University of Florida Historian: George F. Weber, University of Florida
Librarian: Coleman J. Goin, University of Florida
Publicity Agent: Raymond F. Bellamy, Florida State University
Editor: Frank N. Young, Jr., University of Florida
Assistant Editor: Irving J. Cantrall, University of Florida
50 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Dr. Marcus W. Collins of John B. Stetson University was awarded the Florida Academy of Sciences Achievement Medal for 1947 for his paper entitled “‘Race, Caste, and Motbility—A Study of the Negro in the Santee-Cooper Project Area of South Carolina.’’ His paper was published in shortened form in the Quarterly Journal under the title “Life, Labor, and Sorrow—A Study of the Caste System in the Santee- Cooper Project Area of South Carolina.”’
We regret to announce the death of Dr. Winslow S. Anderson, President of Whitman College, Walla Walla, Washington, and former Dean of Rollins College. Dr. Anderson died in Rochester, Minne- sota, on November 13, 1948, following a major operation.
ResEarcH Notes
RANGE EXTENSIONS OF TWO BATS IN FLORIDA—To the growing knowledge of the distribution of bats in Florida (@éde H. B. Sherman, 1936, Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 1:106-109, and 1945, op. cét., 7:193-197 and 201), it is desired to contribute the following records which extend known ranges of two-species.
Corynorhinus macrotis, big-eared bat. A.E. Glatfelter captured two individuals of this species in the basement of his house on the campus of the Hampden-DuBose Academy at Zell- wood, Orange County, Florida, in June, 1946. He preserved one of them, a female, which, after two years in alcohol, measures 99-41-11-29 and forearm 46 mm. This constitutes the fourth locality record for the big-eared bat in Florida, and extends its range 60 miles south from the nearest previously reported locality, Satsuma, Putnam County (the writer, in press).
Dasypterus floridanus, Florida yellow bat. James I. Moore of Miami, Dade County, Florida, was given a female bat of this species by a friend who had captured it in that city when it fell from a palm tree with a dead frond blown down by the hurricane on September 17, 1947. This specimen measures 115-55—10-10 and forearm 51 mm. Since the Florida yellow bat has been previously known only from as far south as Punta Gorda, Charlotte County (O. E. Frye, Jr., 1948, Journ. Mammalogy 29:182), this information extends its known range 140 miles southeast.
These two specimens have been placed in the mammal collection of the Department of Biology of the University of Florida (catalog numbers 267 and 268, respectively ).— JOSEPH CURTIS MOORE, Department of Biology, University of Florida.
x ’ 7
INsTITUTIONAL MEMBERS
FroripA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Florida Southern College Lakeland, Florida
Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida
University of Florida Gainesville, Florida
Jacksonville Junior College Jacksonville, Florida
University of Tampa Tampa, Florida
John B. Stetson University DeLand Florida
St. Petersburg Junior College
St. Petersburg, Florida
Rollins College Winter Park, Florida
University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida
Peninsular Telephone Company Tampa, Florida
Wakulla Springs Wakulla, Florida
Glidden-Naval Stores Jacksonville, Florida
Orkin Exterminating Company Atlanta, Georgia
Marineland St. Augustine, Florida
Rose Printing Company Tallahassee, Florida
Quarterly Journal
of the
Florida Academy of Sciences
Vol. ll June-September 1948 (1949) Nos. 2-3
Gontents
DickINSON—AN EcoLtoGicaAL RECONNAISSANCE OF THE BIOTA OF Some Ponps AND DitcHEes IN NorTHERN FLORIDA......... I
DietrRicH—THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRIAL AND INDEPENDENT Lasor Groups IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. 29
HarperR—A Pretiminary List or THE ENpDEMIC FLOWERING Seeremseee REORIDA, PART ID... 2s cence cee been ee ee 39
Goin—Tue Peep Orper IN Peepers; A Swamp WaTER SERENADE 59
NEILSEN AND Mapsen—CuHeck List or THE ALG# or NortTH- fe ME ORDELY AEE Rie on fa? 2c sania onc 2 aati s clctre S ctle Gates 63
Vou. 11 JUNE-SEPTEMBER 1948 (1949) Nos. 2-3
~QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida
Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. All ex- changes and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Subscription price, Three Dollars a year
Mailed September 28, 1949
ime QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE BeORIOA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vaz. 11 JUNE-SEPTEMBER 1948 (1949) Nos. 2-3
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF THE BIOTA OF SOME PONDS AND DITCHES IN NORTHERN FLORIDA?
J. C. Dickinson, Jr.
University of Florida
The present paper is concerned with a biological reconnaissance of a group of ponds and more or less permanently inundated ditches in the region of Gainesville, Florida. This part of Northern Penin- sular Florida presents a very fertile field for limnological investiga- tion. Situated between latitudes 29° North and 80° North, it is approximately 600 miles south of those regions in North America where aquatic life has been intensively studied. Here the greater penetration of insolation through the water's surface not only pro- vides more solar energy for metabolism but there is an average growing season of approximately 300 days, and the periods of freezing temperature are so short and relatively mild as to permit active existence on the part of a large proportion of the aquatic biota throughout the year.
A certain amount of work has already been done on the limnology of Florida. Carr (1940), Trogdon (1934), Townsend (1935), Pierce (1947), Harkness and Pierce (1940), have made more or less de- tailed studies of various lakes, rivers and ponds; H. H. Hobbs (1936, 1942), L. Berner (1949), C. F. Byers (1930), F. N. Young (1940, 1942), and others have dealt with various groups of aquatic arthro- pods; Goin (1943) published the results of his research on the cold-blooded vertebrate fauna found in association with water
1 Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida.
OCT 4 - 1948
pu JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
hyacinths. However, these works, as a part of a general reconnais- sance of Northern Florida’s fresh-water habitats and biota, have omitted or only incidentally been concerned with the very char- acteristic semi-permanent small ponds and ditches that border nearly every roadside and are widely distributed throughout most of the extensive “flatwoods”. Barbour (1944), has remarked upon the importance of these habitats in the maintenance and distribu- tion of many of Florida’s characteristic animals and plants.
Incidental observations and the field work of classes in limnology at the University of Florida have shown that these small and often temporary situations have a surprisingly rich fauna. When one con- siders in detail the abundance and variation of the biota, it is quite evident that these environments provide an important fraction of Florida’s aquatic life.
Since this paper was accepted for publication Roman Kenk (1949) has published the results of his studies of very similar sit- uations in southern Michigan. A comparison of the faunal lists in the two papers reveals some interesting parallels and diversities. Some of the differences are no doubt due to the fact that we did not have the same facilities for identification available. In both localities Coleoptera are the most numerous in species represented, the may flies are represented by the same two genera, and there is great similarity in the lists of Hemiptera in the two localities. Chemically the Florida stations present a greater diversity than those in Michigan, while physically the reverse is true.
METHODS
Since, at the time the study of these ponds and ditches was first planned, it was not possible to determine which would be most suitable for study or which would provide a typical range of con- ditions, it was decided to select a large number and then as their various characters became evident, to concentrate on a few selected examples that appeared to be representative. For practical reasons, it was desirable that the selected series of stations should be so located that regular field trips would be practicable. With this in mind, two roads south of Gainesville were selected. (Map 1).
Twenty-two stations, ranging from an open pond of several acres to pools of a few square yards extent, and from unquestionably
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 3
permanent to clearly ephemeral situations were reconnoitered and mapped along the twenty-two miles of this circuit.
Observations were begun in early June, 1940, and continued into March of 1942, except for the months of July and August of 1940. Work was finally concentrated on Stations 1, 4a, 7, 12 and 16. Data available on the remainder of the stations are included.
An effort was made to visit all of the stations weekly throughout the study. However, vagaries of weather and other conditions oc- casionally disrupted this schedule.
Records of all field work on the diminishing series of stations were kept in the form of a Journal in which the following data were recorded: Direction and velocity of air movement, depth of water, turbidity and color of water. Hydrogen ion concentration was taken in the field with the Beckman Laboratory Model pH Meter. Free carbon dioxide was determined according to the method outlined in the manual of the American Public Health As- sociation (1936). Dissolved oxygen determinations were made in the laboratory with samples previously treated with potassium permanganate in the field according to the Rideal-Stewart modifica- tion of the Winkler method as outlined in this same manual. Tem- perature was recorded with centigrade mercury thermometers.
Semi-circular dip nets with %#” mesh scrim were used with great success in most of the ponds for collecting the larger animals. They proved to be the best tool for taking crayfish, tadpoles, the larger Odonata and some of! the fish. Very productive collections were made by “scooping” through detritis and algal mats, dumping the contents of the net into a large white enameled pan, and searching through this materia] in the field. When this was not practical, I found it possible and productive to dump the contents of the net into a one gallon jar, bring the jar into the laboratory and examine the contents there at my convenience. The latter method also brings to light many of the smaller forms that are usually missed in the field examination. Seines, 4’ mesh, were used in those ponds in which the rooted aquatic vegetation did not prevent their proper functioning. Material taken in the seines was handled by the same technique as noted above for the dip nets. A standard Birge Plankton Net was used to obtain the smaller plankton organisms as well as the non planktonic micro-crustaceans that rest on sub- merged vegetation. The Birge Cone that forms the distal end of
4. JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the plankton net was used with some degree of success in those ponds in which it was not possible to use the tow net because of excessive vegetation. Small plankton dip-nets, constructed of $16 bolting silk, were found to be more practical than the Birge Cone because they were more easily handled in small open areas and because they did not become clogged so rapidly with filamentous algae. Strainers, about 4” in diameter, made of 16 to 20 mesh . screen wire were used in the areas where it was impractical to use a net of greater size. With these strainers, one can be very selective in the micro habitat collected. The Goin Dredge, (Goin loc. cit.) was used on several occasions. This is undoubtedly the best ap- paratus now available to use in areas that are overgrown with water hyacinths.
THE Ponp AS A HABITAT
Some of the ponds are natural solution depressions—others are essentially “borrow pits’—shallow, usually rectangular depressions from which road building material has been excavated down to an impervious hardpan. Many of the ditches are actually elongate borrow pits; others were constructed to drain a road-bed or to prevent inundation from bordering flatwoods and sloughs during the prolonged rainy seasons.
As aquatic habitats, these’ situations show all degrees of per- manence. Many become dry with each normal dry season, others persist through the usual dry seasons and become dry only after very prolonged drouths, still others persist as aquatic habitats throughout even abnormally dry years. Any clear-cut classification, on the basis of permanence, is difficult because of the vagaries of Florida climate and drainage. Although more or less definite rainy and dry seasons may be recognized in northern Florida, the dry season is very variable in both duration and intensity, and the rate at which rainfall is lost into the soil is greatly influenced by con- siderable local fluctuations in the water table. Moreover, it is not always possible to determine by an inspection of the fauna and flora whether or not a pond is permanent or temporary. Even though a pond or ditch may include fish and Paleomonetes, typical inhabitants of permanent bodies of water, it may have been dry a few days previously and then refilled and restocked instanter by
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 5
the rise and spread of water from a flooded stream bed that lies several hundred yards away.
One of the prime causes for the existence of the habitat is the geology of the region; flat or gently rolling lands provide for slow drainage of surface waters. The variableness of underlying soils results in differing degrees of permanence of the ponds and ditches. Low spots in sandy soil, underlain with strata which permit rapid absorption of water result in ponds which persist for short periods; the same situation when occuring in clay soil or with sub-strata of impervious formations may exist as an aquatic habitat for quite long periods, without refilling rains. The Gainesville region has in addition to these soil conditions numerous “sink-hole” ponds. In most of this area a hard formation, Hawthorne, lies over a soluble formation, Ocala Limestone. In many cases, owing to solution pro- cesses, there has been a collapse of the undermined hard roof or erosion has occurred along a fissure in the Hawthorne in such a way as to result in the formation of a nearly circular, fairly deep “sink-hole” pond. If the plugging of the drainage outlet into the Ocala formation is complete, the cavity will probably exist as a permanent pond. If this plugging is incomplete or temporary, a pond may exist only during wet seasons when runoff exceeds the drainage capacity of the hole. Further, the hole may become dry at unpredictable intervals whenever the plugging material is washed out and/or dissolved away, or when a new drainage channel is formed, Scott (1910). 3
The average rainfall of the region, though not excessive by standards set for truly tropical regions, is high. An annual mean of about fifty inches of rain is distributed over the twelve month period. If the rainfall was actually evenly distributed, many of the ponds that now become dry in the prolonged rainless periods would exist as permanent habitats in spite of the variability of the soils. Even distribution is not the case, however, and temporary ponds are more abundant as the result. A further cause for great varia- bility is the spotty distribution of local rainstorms. Ponds a few hundred yards apart often do not receive the same amount of rainfall. Records of the Agricultural Experiment Station on the campus of the University of Florida illustrate the great variability of precipitation in this region. During May, 1941, rainfall totalled 1.77 in.; in June, 10.57 in. In 1940, during these same months the
6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
record was 3.34 inches and 5.77 inches respectively. In October, 1940, .09 inches of rain fell. However, during the same month in 1941, 15.78 inches was recorded; of this total, 9.93 inches fell in a single 24 hour period on October 21st. Variation of this sort can be found in most months, although extremes have been indicated for purposes of illustration. Not uncommon downpours of 4-9 inches provide for prompt and complete refilling of dry pond basins and, by flooding streams and ditches, sometimes provide a means of adding to or completely renewing the fauna. Still another factor which affects the conditions of aquatic habitats is the frequent excessively prolonged dry periods. Although comparable figures are not readily available for the Gainesville region, the records for Jacksonville, Florida are indicative of the conditions found in Gainesville. Dry periods of 22-30 days per month for the months of October through May are not at all uncommon. Truly, most of these prolonged dry periods occur during the winter months, but they are not exceptional in the early spring as well.
The effect of these variables on the overall biota of the region is obviously great. Those animals that can survive dessication (as eggs, larvae or adults) are best fitted for survival; those that find it possible to move to other localities as the water disappears are also well adapted for life in temporary habitats. In recently filled ponds, populations of some forms rapidly developed as blooms which lasted until other, more slowly developing animals took their place in the food chains. The fairy shrimps, Phylopoda, insofar as I was able to determine, owe their very existence to the temporary nature of some of the ponds. They were recorded only from those ponds and ditches that had previously been dry. The drying of the ponds permits the essential dessication of the eggs.
In the small temporary pond, Station 1, it was noticed that clado- cerans and copepods flourished in greatest numbers very soon after refilling and just prior to complete drying of the basin. This, I believe, is partially the result of the absence of the animals that utilize them for food. The fact that they are able to mature and lay eggs before their number is depleted by the arrival of predatory forms is assured by the high biotic potential of the species, pro- ducing an abundant population in the early stages of development of the newly filled pond. In the last stages of drying, many preda-
tors, such as the aquatic Hemiptera depart, seeking a new pond.
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 7
The volume of water is decreased constantly and as a result per- fectly amazing concentrations of these less vagil forms are found.
In 1940, the fall months received well below the average amount of rainfall and consequently nine of the stations studied were dry on November 18th. The water table of the entire region was lowered considerably and many deep wells in the area went dry for the first time in many years. Several light rains fell during the remain- ing days in November and in early December, but none was large enough to cause water to stand in any of these ponds. On December 19th, rain began to fall and continued almost steadily from this date to December 25th. Investigations on December 25th revealed such tremendous populations of copepods, cladocerans and volvox that the water was colored. On January 7, 1941, fairy shrimp were discovered in five of the stations. In four of these, Streptocephalus sealii, Eubranchippus sp., Limnetis sp., and Eulimnadea sp. were present in large numbers. In the fifth only a few shrimp, S. sealii, were present. This difference may be explained, I believe, by the presence of numerous individuals of several species of carnivorous fish which had entered the pond by way of a connecting ditch and flooded stream. Gambusia affinis holbrookii and Chaenobryttus coronarius were the most abundant forms present. On January 7th, copepods in all stages of development from nauplii to adult females with eggs were present. At Station 1, a small depression well out in the surrounding pasture that had not previously contained water was swarming with copepods, cladocerans and volvox. It is un- fortunate that it was not possible to make quantitative studies of these populations, but I am certain that the numbers far exceeded any that I have ever seen in permanent bodies of water. In addi- tion to the animals, many of the lower plant forms, especially the desmids and filamentous algae, became reestablished with great rapidity. The latter seemingly keeping pace with the micro- crustaceans.
In some cases, for example the crayfish and salamanders, it is probable that some individuals burrowed down into the soil of the pond bed and remained there until the pond refilled; both of these forms were found soon after refilling. Frogs seem to locate the ponds with surprising rapidity, for on January 7, 1941, the larval forms of two species, Rana grylio and Acris gryllus were present in Station 1. On this date, mayflies, damselflies and dragonflies had
8 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
laid eggs and the nymphal stages of these forms were found in all of the formerly dry ponds. I noted “a large beetle larvae seen swimming with a Conchostracan in its mandibles”—balances were becoming established.
Having decided that the ponds owe ° their origin and existence to a variety of circumstances, it is of interest to consider the great variety of faunal associations that are present in the various situa- tions. Aquatic habitats which seem to be much alike in origin and appearance may have very different assemblages of animals. The faunal list which follows bears out the known fact that many species are limited to specific habitats and it is reasonable to assume that there is some cause for this delimitation. Amount of shade, depth, hydrogen-ion concentration, dissolved oxygen, free carbon dioxide, temperature, type of bottom, type of plant associations present in and near the pond, types and numbers of predators, amount of food, turbidity, degree of permanence, percentage of open to closed water, amount of silt, silica content, and iron concentration are only a few of the many factors that may vary with season, with type of pond, and within certain specific localities within the pond. Most of the factors mentioned have long been recognized as having some effect on the existence of various animals and plants. It would, of course, be desirable to follow the rhythmic variation of many of these factors in the environment, but this would require a con- siderable staff of trained field workers and technicians.
SOME CHEMICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In Station 1, over the period covered by this study, the tempera- ture varied from 11° C. on January 15, 1941, to 32° C. on May 2nd of the same year. pH varied from 5.9 in January, 1941, to 8.87 in June. Dissolved oxygen varied from 1.1 ppm. to 9.9, while carbon dioxide concentration varied from 2.0 to 12.0 ppm.
It is interesting to note that the extreme figures obtained in regard to carbon dioxide and dissolved oxygen content were obtained on May 2, 1941. On this occasion, samples were taken at the surface and on the bottom. The surface sample revealed a concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide of 9.9 and 2.0 ppm. respectively, whereas the sample taken near the bottom showed concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide of 1.1 and 12.0 respectively. At this time, the surface temperature was 32° C., while the sample on the bottom
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 9
was 22° C. This definite stratification in a body of water less than 2 feet deep is surprising, and it is probable that it existed for only a few days. This also points to the fact that it is vitally important, in a study of this kind, that the samples must be taken in the same area on each occasion; surface and bottom samples in this case giving entirely different pictures of the physical conditions existing in the pond. Even with the precaution observed, the samples in- dicate the condition of these environmental factors only in respect to a given place at a particular time.
It is also interesting to note the changes that take place in these factors immediately before the pond becomes dry. If it is assumed that water level in the pond was normal or average in February, 1941, when the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations were 5.2 and 8.0 ppm. respectively, it will be seen that immediately prior to drying the oxygen concentration dropped sharply and the car- bon dioxide concentration increased. Sample taken on June lI, 1941, when Station 1 was almost dry, indicated a concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide of 2.0 and 18.1 respectively.
The records of chemical change for Station 4a reveal that the temperature varied from a low of 11° C. on January 7, 1941, to a high of 23° C. on June Ist of the same year. pH varied from 5.9 in Jannuary to 7.0 in February and March. Dissolved oxygen reached its lowest level of 4.0 ppm. on October 28, 1940, when the pond was almost dry. On December 27, following the heavy rains, the oxygen content had reached 6.0 ppm., the highest re- corded. Free carbon dioxide in the same station varied from a low of 5.0 ppm. on October 28th to a high of 12.0 ppm. on February 25th. The water in this station remained clear throughout the course of the study.
Station 7 appears to have the physical and chemical character- istics of a small lake, these factors in this station showing little variation throughout the year, the temperature varying from 17 to 25° C.; pH showing a variation of 5.9 to 7.5; dissolved oxygen varied from 8.7 to 9.0, while carbon dioxide showed a variation from 1.5 to 2.1 ppm.
In stations 10 and 12, dissolved oxygen determinations seemed to bear out the fact that organisms demanded less oxygen during periods of low temperature. In both cases, as temperature decreased, dissolved oxygen content decreased. Other factors remained fairly
10 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
constant throughout the study. Station 12 showed a temperature variation from 11° C. to 30° C., a pH variation from 6.0 to 7.69, dissolved oxygen from 8.7 to 9.8, carbon dioxide from 5.9 to 7.0. The water in Station 12 was cloudy throughout the course of the study. |
With the possible exception of the low hydrogen-ion concentra- tion in Station 16, it is not felt that any chemical or physical factor has been demonstrated as controlling the presence of any organism. In Station 16, temperatue varied from 15° C. to 24° C. , pH from 4.2 to 5.65, oxygen from 8.7 to 10.2 and carbon dagen from 7.9 to 8.1. The water in Station 16 was uniformly clear.
The data obtained on chemical factors, indicate that these may vary greatly from time to time and place to place within a pond. The extremes of variation of these factors is as great within a given pond as from pond to pond. The organisms present, therefore, must be plastic enough to withstand this range in order to survive.
Physical factors are, on the other hand, clearly demonstrated as being the controlling factor for many species. Station 1, with silty water that covered the basin with a thin layer of mud, did not contain sponges. Permanent ponds did not contain fairy shrimp. Fish were present only in permanent ponds, with the exception of stations 4a and 4b, where the fish populations come in with the floods. The neuston was much richer in species and individuals in stations’ such as 1, 4a and 10, where the marginal growth offers protection and food. Goin (1943), has shown that the water hya- cinths have a fauna associated with the physical aspect of the hyacinths, as cover, resting place and food.
In general, it appears that temporary ponds show much greater variability in regard to chemical change than do ponds of permanent character.
DESCRIPTION OF STATIONS STUDIED
Station 1: (Plate I, Upper and Lower).—A small pond located about ten yards from the west side of the Old Ocala Road, 0.3 miles from McDonald’s Corners? and in a pasture that is often heavily
2 This is the local designation for point where the Old Ocala Road branched south from the old Gainesville-Archer road, just east of the point where the latter made its second crossing of the Seaboard Railroad, some 3.4 miles southwest of Gainesville. This will be used as the reference point for locating all ponds and ditches that are included in this paper. (See Map 1.)
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 11
PTT ne A sanesviere | Z :
Q
"Z
DAYSVILLE i Do Bofoan a At : N
<2 (a5 a
ier ratte ln _ a iees We
7 a
o i 2
scole in miles
————
LE NO LED, (ee
Map 1: Map showing the locations of the stations studied, num- bers in circles. Mileages in the text are from the intersection of roads near Daysville on State Road 24.
“id ah
wh Ri <i aye Ne hits noe Ayu th Nine ‘
os oF
i We os a ee SN
ee ee
i ona
AT rain
Es Dae i ei? ANY, ica fe ie
‘(9
Lp ‘S)
sein aN a CN aie tt ie
we Hen ot = == sn
ah — a
ae Me be
sell free
; ol
v
UW
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 13
stocked with cattle and horses. The pond is roughly circular in out- line and has the broad shallow contours of a watch glass. The surface of its east quadrat was hidden in summer during the period from June, 1940, to March, 1942, beneath a dense mat of a nearly pure stand of the spiny aquatic perennial, Nama quadrivalve. By 1945, however, most of this growth had been replaced by Persicaria sp. A few scattered clumps of two species of Juncus are found in this emergent growth as well as along the margins. The remainder of the pond is practically devoid of any permanent vegetation except for small patches of Persicaria sp. along the north and south margins. The water is usually muddy (Sechi disc disappeared at less than one foot on several occasions), due, no doubt in large measure, to the fact that the bottom is composed of soft clay that is repeatedly stirred by the horses and cattle as they use it as a water hole. On one occasion, nearly forty horses were observed in the pond at one time. These animals doubtless contribute greatly to the fertility of the pond. The pond was completely dry on two occasions during the twenty months covered in the study, once for a period of some weeks during November and December, 1940, and once for two days in June, 1941. This pond is permanent throughout most “normal” years.
Station 2: <A pond of definitely artificial origin that was located between the forks of the Old Ocala Road and the Rocky Point Road. It is believed that it was formed by excavations for road material not later than 1922, and had certainly assumed an appearance of permanence in June of 1940. By September of 1940, however, when I resumed field work on the ponds, it was dry and had large fissures over most of what was formerly its bottom. These cracks were from two to four inches deep and broke the mud into large polygonal
Plate I: Upper; Station 1, June 21, 1940, looking south south-east. Wading horses and cattle were a continued factor in the economy of the pond. Compare the marginal clumps of Juncus with those shown in lower figure of this plate.
Lower; Station 1, June 1, 1941, looking south south-east. Note the browsed clumps of Juncus around the “normal” margin. The residual pool was choked with living Notonecta, Buenoa, Plea and various Corixidae. Volvox was sufficiently abundant to give a green cast to the water and the copepods and cladocerans were tre- mendously concentrated. A few days later the pond was dry.
14 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
blocks. In December it was again full of water, but in January it was destroyed by being filled with waste limerock in the course of further road construction, and so had to be dropped from my series of ponds. Its vegetation prior to its destruction, comprised a good growth of Cephalanthus occidentalis, with various species of Potomageton, Spyrogyra and Persicaria.
Station 8: A small temporary pond, known locally as “Pony Puddle”, in a natural depression on the west side of the Old Ocala Road, 2.1 miles from McDonald’s Corners. It is completely choked with Sagittaria and Pontederia. Since it was completely dry early in September of 1940, and because of the almost impossible collect- ing conditions produced by the plant growth, its active study was abandoned early in October of the same year but it was kept under observation until March, 1942.
Station 4a: A small pond located on the west side of the Old Ocala Road, 3.2 miles from McDonald’s Corners. I am in some doubt as to the origin of this pond. It may have well existed before the ‘construction of the present road, from which it is separated by a roadside ditch and shoulder. It -has a natural-looking shrub and tree-grown margin and the well-developed submerged and emergent flora could hardly have been developed in a pond of recent origin. It is probable that the pond was formerly a part of Payne’s Prairie, which borders the road on the east, the construction of the road simply isolating it as a separate pond. In fact, Station 4a and Station 4b on the east side of the road appear to be remnants of a single pond near the outer edge of the fluctuation zone of Payne's Prairie, artificially separated by the construction of the road fill. The two ponds are now not at all similar, but the period of time that has elapsed since the road was built might well account for the differ- ences between them. It was thought at the beginning of this study that a comparison of the biota of these two situations would be of interest, but the subsequent drying of the east pond made any comparison impractical.
This pond is approximately ninety feet long and thirty feet wide, with a maximum depth of four feet at normal water level. The banks on the east side are fairly steep with the roots of willow and buttonbush festooning into the water below. The banks on the west side shelve gradually into the water and here the marginal flora, though nearly the same in species, is much more dense. A few medium sized loblolly pines, P. taeda, occur on the west bank. The
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 15
margins are spotted with clumps of Pontederia and Sagittaria inter- mingled with maiden-cane and a few scattered individuals of water hyacinth. Submerged aquatic plants, chiefly Potomageton and Cabomba are very abundant, at times almost filling the pond. The growth along the shore is sufficiently dense to provide most of the pond with partial shade and parts, particularly near the west bank, are continuously shaded. The water is free of sediment, but coffee- colored from organic infusions. Even during low water periods and just prior to drying, the water remained un-muddied and well areated. The pond was completely dry on only one occasion during the whole period of my studies, then for a period of some five weeks during November and December, 1940. Its refilling was very differ- ent from that of any of the other temporary ponds in this series for it almost immediately had a fairly normal fish population. This was because only a low divide separates the pond from a nearby roadside ditch which connects in turn with a small stream about one hundred yards to the south.
Station 4b: The temporary body of water that lies on the east side of the Old Ocala Road directly opposite pond 4a. It is about 60 feet in diameter, and has a maximum depth of about eighteen inches. The entire surface is covered by a compact mat of water hyacinths that in June, 1940, seemed to be well on its way to com- pleting the extinction of the pond. Later events proved this not to be the case. As indicated in the discussion of Station 4a, this pond was formerly the end of an outlying arm of Payne's Prairie. It is now isolated from the latter by the construction of a railroad spur. During the exceptionally dry season that occurred throughout the latter half of 1940, the pond was dry a large part of the time, but the hyacinth mat was not markedly dessicated during the dry periods. Like Station 4a, this pond’s connections with the other, more permanent bodies of water, via roadside ditches and culverts, provide for a prompt repopulation by a fauna characteristic of permanent waters as soon as it is flooded. Intensive study of this pond was discontinued during the first year of the survey and only incidental notes concerning it were kept thereafter.
Station 5: A typical button-bush pond on the east side of the Old Ocala Road, 4.2 miles from McDonald’s Corners. Study of this pond was discontinued soon after the beginning of these studies because its owner cleared it of all major vegetation.
16 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Station 6: A small, almost Square temporary pond that appears to be of artificial origin. It is located on the west side of the Old Ocala Road, 4.6 miles from McDonald’s Corners. The pond is ap- proximately 40 feet wide on each side, with very shallow water above a deep layer of very fine black muck. The water and muck were sc completely choked with water hyacinths during all of 1940 that it waz impossible to do any effective collecting and regular collecting was discontinued after January, 1941.
Station 7: A pond located in a pasture on the west side of the Old Ocala Road, 4.9 miles from McDonald’s Corners. It is one of the two largest bodies of water included in the present study, and ap- pears to be permanent. Almost circular in outline, and about 250 feet in diameter, it reaches a maximum depth of 8 to 9 feet near its center. Although this pond has apparently been enlarged through the damming of its former overflow by the present road, there is considerable evidence that a small sink-hole pond was in existence before the construction of the road in 1922. This is indicated by the bottom contours of the pond, by the presence of two nearby sink- hole ponds, and by the presence of several other old lime-sink de- pressions in the vicinity. In other words, it is very probable that this is an old sink-hole pond that has been enlarged by subsequent damming. The margins are very sparsely grown with button-bushes, rushes and maiden-cane, while the open water is filled with a lux- uriant growth of Ceratophyllum. About a dozen old stumps project — above the water line near the shore and possibly date from the lower water level that existed before the present road was built. The banks have a good sod of carpet-grass which extends unbroken into the surrounding pasture and aids appreciably in preventing washing following rains. The runoff from approximately six acres drains into the pond.
Station 8: A large pond on the east side of the road 5.3 miles from McDonald’s Corners. It is located near the edge of Paynes Prairie and when the latter was a lake, this pond was a local de- pression in the lake bottom. The draining of the lake established Station 8 as a separate pond, but in excessively wet periods, it again joins with the flooded prairie. The surface of the pond is covered with water hyacinths. It receives the run-off from a large pasture and the banks of the north side are bare of woody plants. On the west and south side, the banks are covered with button-bush and willows.
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 17
Station 9: A hammock pond about 100 yards in diameter lying in a natural solution depression on the east side of the road 6.1 miles from McDonald’s Corners. It is circular in shape and the entire central portion is grown up with large willows and button- bushes. The pond is in almost complete shade throughout the day, due to the typical hammock trees that line the shores on all sides. The water is clear and coffee colored despite the mud bottom. In some areas there is a covering mat of duck-weed and the water under the trees in the center of the pond is covered with water hyacinths. a
Station 10: (Plate II, Upper). A series of roadside ditch pools that lies between the road and the “T. and J.” railway embankment. The ponds probably owe their origin to the construction of the latter. These pools are located 7.3 miles from McDonald’s Corners. It was decided to treat them all as a single station in that they are close together and at times are joined by the rise that follows a heavy rain. The series varies from pools that remain wet in periods of extreme drought, to pools that regularly become dry in normal dry periods. This variety of permanence is due, I believe, to the difference in structure of the underlying soils, the ditches which dry up regularly lying in sandy soil, and the one retaining moisture underlain by a local clay bed. Vegetation in the series of pools varies considerably, from sections that are covered with water hya- cinths and thickly grown with Sagittaria to others that are prac- tically barren. Cattle and hogs have access to this series of pools and their depredations alter the floral conditions almost overnight on some occasions.
Station 11: A fairly large permanent pond on the south side of the road 10.0 miles from McDonald’s Corners. It lies between the road and Ledwith Prairie and its origin is probably similar to sta- tions 4, 4b and 8. The pond is about 300 feet in diameter and al- though its central portions were never explored, I do not think depth exceeds more than six or eight feet. Almost the entire central . portion is grown with button bush and willows. All of the surface is covered with water hyacinths and duckweeds.
Station 12: (Plate Il, Lower).A small pond that is apdagell in origin. It is a typical borrow pit, about 60 feet long and 40 feet wide. The surface soil has been removed down to the hardpan, providing a firm bottom that has a thin covering of silt. It is located on the south side of the road 10.2 miles from McDonald’s Corners.
Ys
De SSeS x)
os S
aa
: ) F lie HE RY I agate *y Je Bok
5, ANN PAL
n OWN Ag al ‘ H
py ae
=
\|
Ab RAVAN)
a= “Te, .
CG. & Tees aes ee siete S LEE é NB Ae Nf fovkeoMire al te yi ae.
a ae Bi s8
Ma
Gt
AA TAA Ay lel i rx t
SAG dq ae it 7 fi i Waly relly
I ‘yl ° Ay hi Wie it Ht ae iva NAN NAM eke EE 1 \ {i Wn \ (igs 1H \ 4 He = i Test N NN CSUN MA IA ‘ Mi Ni Sst
Wer aed ii te ecenlts Nv
i Wil
eo as ai r 1 (ny ‘eile NI Ss
he =a int Dit ‘| " ay wat nthe N i i |
oats AN RAL TA He AMF Ty tll WA. -\t in | j?: ; . - .to ire JZ A Ny sce i ° 4 WW, aN PAI j | ay ilk i \ Ir. i d : ! rn = hg \M y ; RES pyar Nhe PA CUS Mead af Sz. bhi Nie Fr
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 19
The vegetation is composed mainly of Typha, which covers almost half of the east end of the pond. The water level remains fairly constant during all seasons and maintains a depth of about four feet in the central portions. The water is discolored by the silt present and at times a bloom added to the turbidity and the color of the water. The north bank shelves gently into the center of the pond, but the south bank is precipitous with deep water extending to the shoreline.
Station 13: A small hammock pond on the south side of the road 10.6 miles from McDonald’s Corners. No collections were made at this station, although a casual record was kept in regards its fluctuations in water level throughout the study.
Station 14: A small temporary roadside ditch on the east side of the Old Ocala Road, 14.4 miles from McDonald’s Corners.
Station 15: A small button-bush pond on the south side of the road that circles Lake Wauburg, 15.1 miles from McDonald’s Corners.
Station 16: <A pond located on the east side of the road that circles Lake Wauburg. The pond in reality is a sphagnum-choked slough that once formed an arm of Lake Wauburg, and that in recent years has been effectively isolated from the lake by the con- struction of a graded road. There is no culvert under the road at this point and the water considered in this study is no longer directly connected with Lake Wauburg. Station 16 is approximately half circular in shape with the road forming a comparatively steep bank along its west side. The area is approximately 400 feet wide in its greatest west-east dimension and 600 feet wide in its north- south. The depth of the water ranges from 0 to about 5-6 feet in the central portions. This deeper area is readily recognizable by the lack of emergent vegetation. The bottom is covered by an excep- tionally thick layer of detritis, ranging from a few inches to 3-4 feet in depth. In some parts of the pond, this soft chocolate-brown layer reaches almost to the surface of the water where it is covered
Plate II; Upper; Station 10, June 21, 1940. This ditch pond did not become dry any time during the study. It apparently lies in a on bed and has a flora that is numerous in species.
Lower; Station 12, June 21, 1940. The water in this station re- mained cloudy throughout the study. The principal vegetation, Typha, appears in the fore-and-background.
20 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
by a living layer of sphagnum moss. Marsh gas is liberated in great quantities when it is even slightly disturbed. It is evident that this layer is very largely almost dead and decaying sphagnum on the way to peat formation. The pH of ‘the water has been constantly low, ranging from 3.9 to 4.2. This is the lowest pH record that I have obtained in the whole series of ponds. Dissolved oxygen was consistently rather high, ranging from 6.7 to 10.1 ppm. Carbon dioxide was also consistently high, usually around 8.0 ppm.
The flora of this pond is not extensive. The huge mass of sub- merged and partially emergent sphagnum is varied by clumps and individuals of Castalia, Decadon, Hydrocotyle, and an unidentified aquatic grass. Castalia is limited to the deeper regions. Decadon occurs randomly scattered over most of the area. Sphagnum is found in those areas in which other rooted aquatics afford protec- tion and support. It is so thick in most parts of the pond that it floats to the surface during the day when oxygen production is at its maximum, and then sinks during the night. The sphagnum is so abundant that it must be a decidedly restricting factor for other submerged aquatics for it very effectively shades a major portion of the suitable area and the submerged plants are absent in this region. Hydrocotyle sp. is found sparingly along the edges of the shallow water.
Station 17: A series of sphagnum filled ditches on the west side of the road, 16.2 miles from McDonald’s Corners.
Station 18: A small shrubby ditch on the west side of the road, 16.6 miles from McDonald’s Corners.
Station 19: A cat-tail filled pond on the north and south sides of the road, 16.8 miles from McDonald’s Corners. This is a few hundred yards west of the railroad station at Ascot, Florida.
Station 20: A large prairie on the south side of the road 17.4 miles from McDonald’s Corners.
Station 21: A duckweed covered sink hole on the north side of the road, 17.5 miles from McDonald’s Corners. The pond is about thirty yards in diameter and the surface is completely covered with duck-weeds of various types, providing almost complete shade for the entire pond.
Station 22: A small ditch-pond on the south side of the road, 18.0 miles from McDonald’s Corners.
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 21
ANNOTATED LIST
In the list which follows, the various forms recorded are divided into large groups, usually families or orders, and the species in each group listed. In order following the species name are the numbers of the stations in which it was taken and the months in which it was present. This information is followed by comments on abundance, habitat, preference, etc.
The list does not purport to be a complete list of the organisms present in the stations studied. Many groups were omitted for vari- ous reasons, such as difficulty of collection, preservation, and iden- tification. A quantity of unidentified material has been deposited in the collections of the Department of Biology at the University of Florida and at some future date these records may be appended to this report.
CHLOROPHYCEAE
The following forms were taken in Station 4a in April, 1941: Encapsis sp., Staurastrum sp., Ankistrodesmus sp., Tetraedron sp., Ulothrix sp., Tribonema sp., Scenedesmus sp., Pediastrum sp., Golenkinia sp., Oedigonium sp., Cheto- phora sp., Bulbochaete sp. and Zygnema sp.
Chara sp.: A bed of this algae extended out into the center of the pond
from the west side and was present during all months. The refilling of the pond was followed shortly by its appearance.
BACILLARIACEAE
Closterium sp., 1, 4a, 12, 16, January-October; Micrasterias sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, all months; Spyrogyra sp., 1, 2, 8, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; Ankistrodesmus sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, all months.
SARCODINA
Arcella vulgaris, 1, 4a, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; this form becomes apparent soon after refilling of a dry pond or ditch; Centropyxis sp., 1, 4a, one collection made in April, 1941; Difflugia sp., 1, 4a, 12 (1 and 4a in April and in 12 in a June collection).
MASTIGOPHORA AND INFUSORIA
Euglena sp., 1, 10, 12, 16, March-July and September. The abundance of this form, probably several species, on some occasions resulted in a reddish discoloration of the water. The animals were apparently confined, at least in large numbers, to the upper 8-4 inches of the water and in some cases seemed to form a film.
Mallamonas sp., 1, recorded from this station once in April.
Eudorina sp., 9, 10, 12, all months. This form along with Pleodorina and Volvox was present in all months their numbers at times approaching a “bloom” condition. This followed a few weeks after the stations were filled with water. Undoubtedly their presence contributed much to the great abun- dance of planktonic crustacea at such times.
22 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Pleodorina sp., 1, 12, (See Eudorina); Volvox sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 12, 16, (See Eudorina); Ceratium sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, taken in plankton towings in all months of the year; Vorticella sp., (All stations; recorded in all months from detritis along the margins and on the stalks of marginal vege- tation); Stentor sp., 4a, 12, 16, taken in March-August. The species in Station 16 is a large blue-green one; Episiylis sp., 1, 12, taken in August and Sep- tember.
PORIFERA
Meyenia crateriformis, 12, recorded in April but probably present in all months; Heteromeyenia ryderi, 4a, recorded in April but probably present in all months; Heteromeyenia repens, 4a, April, probably present throughout the year.
HYDROZOA
Hydra sp., 4a, 9, 10, 16 (the genus, probably represented by more than a
single species was found in these stations during the months April-November).
TURBELLARIA Flatworms were recorded in all stations, found principally in the marginal detritis they must make an important contribution to the life of the pond or ditch. It is unfortunate that the Turbellarian fauna of Florida has been so little studied. Only one form was partially identified. Planaria sp., 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 12, 16, April to October.
ROTATORIA The following forms found in plankton samples are another group that have had little attention in Florida and for this reason, the identification given is tentative, made on the basis of keys and figures in Ward and Whipple (1918). Furcularia forficula, 1, 2, all months; Rattulus sp., 4a, 7, 16, all months; Notholca sp., 4a, 7, 12, 16, all months; Conochilus sp., 1, 12, 16, all months.
GASTROTRICHA Chaetonotus sp., 4a, taken in detritus in April.
OLIGOCHAETA
Nuis sp., 10, found in great numbers on the mud margin in all months;
Dero sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, an inhabitant of the marginal detritis in all months; Bdellodrillus sp., 4a, 16, June.
HIRUDINEA Hirudinid and Glossyphonid forms were taken in all stations in all months.
PHYLLOPODA Eubranchipus sp., 1, 3, 4a, January through March; Streptocephalus sealii, 1, 3, 4a, January through March; Eulimnadea sp., 1, 3, 4a, January through March; Limnetis sp., 1, 8, 4a, January through March. Insofar as I am able to determine confined to temporary ponds. Collections in other ponds in the Gainesville area indicate that they may occur at any season.
CLADOCERA Daphnia sp., all stations (recorded in plankton samples in all months.) Apparently more than one species is found in these situations but unfortunately, identification could be carried no further than genus.
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 23
Simocephalus sp., all stations (recorded for all months.) This form, larger and heavier bodied was more or less confined to the shallows and marginal vegetation.
Bosmina sp., 8, 4a, 12, 16, an inhabitant of the plankton this micro-crustacean was found throughout the year.
COPEPODA
The copepods along with cladocerans and phyllopods were the principal forms involved in the rapid repopulation of the temporary stations. Apparently, the eggs of all forms recorded, except Argulus, are able to withstand consider- able dessication and their abundance in temporary ponds within a few days of refilling is really phenomenal.
Diaptomus mississippiensis, 1, 38, 4a, 4b, 10, 12, 16, taken in plankton samples and along the margins in vegetation in all months; Diaptomus dorsalis, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 12, all months in the same areas as D. mississippiensis; Cyclops ater, 8, 4a, 10, 12, 16, all months; Cyclops albidus, 4a, 4b, 10, 12, April-July and October-November; Cyclops phaleratus, 3, common from April to July; Cyclops serrulatus, 1, very abundant in this temporary pond; Argulus sp., 4a, 7, 16, all months in those stations with larger fish.
OSTRACODA
Cypris sp. A, 1, 4a, 10, designated as Species A, this form was not eae SO common as the succeeding one. Taken in March-July.
Cypris sp. B, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months.
MALACOSTRACA
Procambarus paeninsulanus, all stations, common in all months and with P. fallax, capable of withstanding prolonged periods of drought; P. fallax, all stations (see P. paeninsulanus); Hyalella sp., 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, found in all months. This crustacean is associated with duck-weed and water-hyacinth asso- ciations, but is not limited to them. Found pommcnly in marginal vegetation and detritis.
Paleomonetes palludosa, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, found in all months in those ponds of permanent character or dip to connection with permanent bodies of water.
HYDRACARINA
I feel reasonably sure that at least two species of hydrachnids were taken in
stations 1, 8, 4a, 4b and 16. One of these was also taken in station 10.
EPHEMEROPTERA
Caenis diminuta. all stations, taken in all months. Common in marginal detritis.
Callibaetis floridanus, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 12, 16, common in all months in marginal vegetation principally.
ODONATA
Gomphus pallidus, 1, 4a, 9, 10, 12, March to August; Gomphus minutus. 1, 9, 10, March to August; Coyphaeschna ingens, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, taken in all months—by far the most conspicuous dragonfly in these stations; Anax junius, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 7, 9. 10, 12, 16, all months; Anax longipes, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, June and September; Celithemis eponina, 4a, 12, 16, April, June
24 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and September; Libellula auripennis, 4a. 7, 12, 16, April, July and September; Libellula lydia, 1, 8, 7, 10, March; Erythrodiplax minuscula, 4a, 7, 10, March; Pantala flavescens, 4a, 7, 10, 16, April and July; Pachydiplax longipennis, 1. 4a, 7, 9, 10, 12, all months; Lestes forctpatus, 1, 8, 7, 10, March through August; Lestes vidua. 1, 4a, 4b, 10, 16, March, April and July; Nehallenia sp., 7, 10, 16, February; Ischnura credula, 1, 8, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; Ischnura posita, 1, 3, 4a. 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; Enallagma traviatum, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, all months; Enallagma sp., 1, 10, a single record in March. HEMIPTERA
Ranatra australis, 1, 4a, 7, 10, 12, May through July, and August; R. drakei, 1, 4a, 4b, 10, 16, May through July; Belostoma lutarium, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, January through March and May through July; Benacus griseus. 1, 4a, 10, 12, April through August; Hydrometra myrae, 1, 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 12, 16, February through November; Hesperocorixa interrupta, 1, 4a, 10, 12, all months; H. nitida, 1, 4a, 10, 12, all months; Hesperocorixa sp., 1, March; Sigara hubbelli, 1, April; Notonecta indica, 1, 8, 10, 12, February through October; Buenoa margaritacea, 1, 10, 12, April through September; Gerris canaliculatus, 1, 4a, March through August; Plea sp., 1, 4a, 10, 12. all months; Pelocoris sp., 1, 3, 4a, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, all months; Velia sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 16, all months; Mesovelia sp., 1, 4a, 10, all months; Microvelia sp.. 4a, 9, 10, March through October; Rhagovelia sp., 4a, 9, 10, 16, March through October.
TRICHOPTERA
All of the stations contained caddis-flies; however, it was not possible to have identifications made. They were confined insofar as was determined to the littoral regions, constructing their cases of detritis.
COLEOPTERA
The stations investigated in this work proved to be exceedingly rich in aquatic beetles. The number of species listed is rather lengthy, partially due to the completeness of identification and collecting, certainly reflecting the im- portance of these small bodies of water in relation to the water beetles. Station 1, was by far the most outstanding one in regards the number of species and concentration of individuals found.
Suphisellus gibbulus, 1, 7, 10, 12, 16. January, April and August; S. puncti- collis, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, March and August; S. floridanus, 4a, March and August; Hydrocanthus n. sp.,3 1. 16, March; H. oblongus, 1, 4a, 16, January, March and August; Agabus punctatus, 1, 4a, 10, 12, 16, March, June and July; Bidessonotus pulicarius, 4a, 4b, 10, 16, March through September; B. longo- valis, 1, 4a, 16. January, March and July; Bidessus affinis, 7, 10, January, March and July; B. floridanus, 1, 7, 12, March through June; B. granarius, 16, March through June; Anodochilus exiguus, 1, 16, January, March and July; Coptotomus i. obscurus, 1, March; Hydrovatus compressus, 4b, 7, January, March and June; Desmopachria granum, 4a, 16, March through October; D. mutchleri, 1, Jan- uary, March and August; Graphoderus liberus, 1, 12, 16, March through June;
3 Being described by Frank N. Young.
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 25
Hydroporus falli, 1, 4a, 10, 16, March through June; H. lynceus, 1, 4a, 12, 16, March through July; H. hebes, 4a, March through July; Laccophilus fasciatus, 1, 7, March through June; L. gentilis, 1, 4a, 16, January, March and July; L. proximus, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, January, March and July; Rantua calidus, 1, March through June; Thermonectes basilaris, 1, 3, 4a, 7, 10, March through June; Copelatus chevrolati, 1, March through June; Dineutus carolinus, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, February through November; Gyrinus elevatus, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 16, February through December; G. pachysomus, 1, 4a, 4b, 10, 12, 16, February through October; G. rockinghamensis, 4a, 4b, February through December; Peltodytes floridensis, 1, 4a, February through December; Berosus infuscatus, 1, 4a, 16, January, March and May; Paracymus nanus, 4a, 16, Jan- uary, March and May; P. despectus, 1, January; Eonchrus ochraceus, 4a, 16. April and June; E. cinctus, 16, April and June; E. nebulosus, 4a, April and June; E. consors, 1, 4a, 16, April and June; Enochrus sp., 1, 7, 12, April and June; Helochares maculicollis, 1, 16, April through July; Haliplus annulatus, 1, January; Hydrochus simplex, 1, 16, January through March; H. scabratus- rugosus, 4a, 16, April through July; H. foveatus, 1, 4a, April through June; Tropisternus glaber, 1, 4a, 7, 10, 16, April, June and September; T. striolatus, 1, 4a, 7, March; T. lateralis, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, January through March; T. blatchleyi, 1, 4a, 16, March; Helodes sp., (larvae), 16, March; Pelonomus obscurus gracilipes, 1, 7, 12, March; Ega sallei, 1, 12, March; Stenus sp., 1, 8, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, January, March through October; Osorius sp., 4a, March.
DIPTERA
Limonia (D.) distans, 1, 4a, 16, an inhabitant of the neuston, this form was taken from June through November; L. (D.) divisia, 1, 4a, 16, found in the same areas as above, recorded from June through November; L. (G.) rostrata, 1, 4a, another of the forms recorded from the neuston during June through November; Polymera georgiae, 1, 16, October and November; Piloria arguta, 1, 4a, 16, March; Erioptera (M.) caloptera, 1, July; Gonomyia pleuralis, 4a, March; G. (G.) sulphurella, 10, 12, July; Dolichopeza (O.) subalipes, 4a, June; Megistocera longipes, 4a, June through October in the neuston; Psychoda sp., 4a, 16, neuston in June; Chironomus lobiferous, 1, 4a, 4b, 10, 12, 16, February through September; Orthocladius sp., 4a, June; Pentaneura sp., 4a, June; Tanytarsus sp., 1, September; Palpomya sp., 1, in the algae film in September.
BRYOZOA
Plumatella sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months attached to stems of submerged vegetation and on detritus.
MOLLUSCA Lymnaea sp., 4a, 4b, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; Planorbis sp., 4a. 7, 9,
10, 12, 16, all months; ee sp., 5, 7, 10, 12, all months; Pomacea sp.. 5, 12, 16, all months; Sphaerium sp., 1, 4a, 10, all months.
PISCES Note: All the forms recorded below were taken during all months.
Lepisosteus osseus, 9, 16; Amia calva, 7, 9, 16; Erimyzon s. sucetta. 7. 9. 16: Notemigonus chrysoleucus bosci, 16; Schilbeodes mollis, 4a, 7, 12, 16: Esox
26 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
niger, 16; Chriopeops goodei, 16; Fundulus crysotus, 16; Jordanella floridae, 4a, 4b, 7, 12, 16; Heterandria formosa, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 16; Gambusia a. holbrookii, 8, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16; Enneacanthus gloriosus, 10, 16; Chaenobrytus coro- narius, 7, 9, 12, 16; Lepomis m. microlophus, 16; Lepomis macrochirus pur- purescens, 16; Huro salmoides, 4b, 7, 16; Elassoma evergladei, 4a, 7, 9, 16; Hololepis bavratti, 9, 16.
AMPHIBIA
Triturus v. louisianensis, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, February through Sep- tember; Acris gryllus dorsalis, all ponds during all months; Hyla c. cinerea, 4a, 7, 9, 12, 16, all months; Hyla crucifer bartramiana, 4a, 9, April, May and June; Rana catesbeiana, 1, 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 12, 16, the larval form of this species was taken during all months; Rana grylio, in and around all Hae during all months; Rana clamitans, 9, June; Rana pipiens sphenocephala, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months. |
: REPTILIA
Alligator mississippiensis, 16, apparently present throughout the year; Sterno- therus odoratus, 1, 4a, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; Pseudemys nelsoni, 9, 10, 16, all months; Dirochelys reticularia, 4a, 9, 10, 16, all months; Natrix sipedon pictiventris, 4b, 9, 12, taken in August but probably present year-round; Semi- natrix pygea, 4b, April and June; Liodytes alleni, 4b, April; Agkistridon p. piscivorous, 7, November.
AVES
The forms recorded below include only those which are felt to be of some importance in the over-all economy of the pond habitat.
Podilymbus p. podiceps, 7, 16, January through June, and August through December; Phalacrocorax auritus floridanus, 7, all months; Anhinga anhinga, 7, a single bird noted in April; Ardea herodias wardii, 7, 16, April and August, probably an irregular visitor during all months; Casmerodius albus egretta, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 16, March through September; Egretta t. thula, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 16, March through September; Hydrassna tricolor ruficollis, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; Florida c. caerulea, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 16, all months; Butorides v. virescens, 4a, 16, April through August; Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli, 9, all months; Nyctanassa v. violacea, 9, a single bird recorded in June; Ixobrychus e. exilis, 16, several birds seen in May; Guara alba, 4b, several birds seen feeding in April; Anas f. fulvigula, 7, April; Ionornis martimca, 16, March through July; Gallinula chloropus cachinnans, 16, all months; Fulica a. americana, 16, De- cember.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted especially to Dr. J. Speed Rogers, Director of the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, formerly head of the Department of Biology at the University of Florida, under whose direction this study was carried out. In addition, he kindly furnished identifications of the aquatic Diptera.
I am grateful to the following persons for determination of the indicated organisms: C. F. Byers (Odonata), F. N. Young (Cole-
AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 27
optera), T. H. Hubbell (various Arthropoda), M. A. Brannon (Algae), A. M. Laessle (Flowering Plants), S. K. Eshleman, III (Pemtera), H. H. Hobbs, ‘Jr. (Crayfish), A. F. Carr, Jr. (Pisces, Reptilia, Amphibia ), Lewis Berner (Ephemeroptera ), R. W. Dexter (Phyllopods ).
Credit is also due Staff Artist Esther Coogle for turning some very average photographs into Plates I and II.
A great number of my fellow students and colleagues have aided in ways too numerous to tabulate—I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to them.
SUMMARY
This study was undertaken as an ecological reconnaissance of a series of ponds and ditches in the region of Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida. Details of methods of procedure in carrying out the study are given. Such ponds and ditches show all degrees of permanence as aquatic habitats, are very charactertistic of Northern Florida, and are one of the chief sources of the rich aquatic fauna of the area. A description of the stations studied is given followed by a list of species present, with notes on such correlations of seasons and habitat preferences as seemed particularly striking.
LITERATURE CITED
AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION. 1936. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage, Eighth Edition. Amer. Pub. Health Assoc., N. Y.: 1-309.
BARBOUR, T. 1944, That Vanishing Eden, a Naturalists Florida. Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1939, 1-237.
BERNER, L. 1949. The Mayflies of Florida, University of Florida Press (In Press)
BYERS, C. F. 1930. A Contribution to the Knowledge of Florida Odonata. University of Florida Bio. Sci. Ser. 8 (1): 1-310. CARR, A. F., JR. 1940. is Contribution to the ees of Florida. Univ. Fla. Bio. Ser. 8(1): 1-118. GOIN, C. J. 1948. The Lower Vertebrate Fauna of the Water Hyacinth Community of Northern Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 6(3-4): 148-154.
28 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
HARKNESS, W. J. K. and E. L. PIERCE 1940. The Limnology of Lake Mize, Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 5: 96-116.
HOBBS, H. H., JR. 1936. The Crayfishes of the Gainesville Region—With Special Reference to Their Life Histories and Ecological Distribution. (Unpubl. Master’s Thesis, Univ. of Fla. Library, 1936: 1-74). 1942. The Crayfishes of Florida. Univ. Fla. Bio. Ser., 8(2): 1-179.
KENK, ROMAN | 1949. The Animal Life of Temporary and Permanent Ponds in Southern Michigan. Univ. Mich., Mus. Zool., Misc. Publ., No. 71: 1-66.
PIERCE, E. L. 1947. An Annual Cycle of the Plankton and Chemistry of Four Aquatic Habitats in Northen Florida. Univ. Fla. Studies, Biol. Sci. Ser. 4: No. 3, 1-67.
SCOTT, WILL 1910. The Fauna of a Solution Pond. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 26: 395-442.
TROGDON, R. P. 1934. A study of the Seasonal and Ecological Distribution of the Macro- scopic Invertebrate Fauna of Wauberg Lake. (Unpubl. Master’s Thesis, Univ. Fla. Library, 1934: 1-22.)
TOWNSEND, H. T. 1935. The Biota and Environmental Conditions of a Northern Florida Sink-Hole Pond: (Unpubl. Master’s Thesis, Univ. Fla. Library, 1985; 1-32.)
WARD, H. B. and G. C. WHIPPLE 1918. Fresh-Water Biology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1918: j-1111.
YOUNG, F. N. 1940. The Dytiscidae of Alachua County, Florida—A Taxonomic Study with Reference to the Distribution and Habitat Preferences of the Species. (Unpubl. Master’s Thesis, Univ. Fla. Library, 1940: 1-178.) 1942. The Water Beetles of Florida: A Taxonomic and Ecological Study. (Unpubl. Doctoral Dissertation, Univ. Fla. Library, 1942: 1-663).
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949)
THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRIAL AND INDEPENDENT LABOR GReurs IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
T. STANTON DIETRICH Florida State University
Essential to the structure of any labor organization are its com- mon objectives and purposes. In a large measure, these determine the collective action directed toward satisfying labor's group needs and desires. The manner in which the labor group is formally organized, and the procedures established for the process of collec- tive bargaining are fundamental to the organization and character of industrial relations. Industrial relations are dynamic and are construed here to be that system of social relationships arising from the interaction in the bargaining process between representatives of management and labor.+
The historical development of industrial relations throughout American industry, and the increasing consideration being given to labor as a human factor and not simply as an economic factor of production have been due “to the pressure of trade-union activ- ity, either in the form of organization drives or strikes in the trade or vinicity."* This has also been true of the program of industrial relations in the petroleum industry. The latter has had for its his- torical background one of the bitterest and most merciless conflicts in the history of American labor: the so-called “Ludlow Massacre” of 1913-1914. This tragic incident took place on the property of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, a company in which John D.
1 There is still some disagreement among various sociologists whether in- dustrial relations can be concerned only with management-labor relations. Cf. Herbert Blumer, “Sociological Theory in Industrial Relations”, American Soci- ological Review, XII (June 1947), 276; Wilbert E. Moore, “Current Issues in Industrial Sociology”, American Sociological Review, XII (December 1947),
651; also Moore’s Industrial Relations and the Social Order (New York: Mac- millan Company, 1947), p. 6.
2 Florence Peterson and Joseph J. Senturia, “Characteristics of Company Unions”, Monthly Labor Review. XLVI (April 1988), 822.
30 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Rockefeller, Jr., was the principal stockholder. Coming as the strike and violence did at a time when public opinion was still aroused and incensed over the monopolistic practices of his father’s Standard Oil Trust, young Rockefellér hurriedly called upon Mac- kenzie King, then Minister of Labor in Canada, who suggested an employee-representation plan, one of the major features of which were the joint committees composed of representatives from both management and labor. This plan later served as the model for. the employee-representation plan subsequently adopted by the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and its subsidaries.* It is noteworthy that the management of the Jersey Company was dom- inated by the same Rockefeller interests involved in the disastrous experience in the Colorado coal mines. Yet, a few years later, de- spite this experience, the management of the Jersey Company steadfastly refused to bargain with its petroleum workers. The re- sult was again violence and bloodshed during the riotous strikes of refinery workers at Bayonne, New Jersey during 1915-1916.°
As a result of this era of labor unrest, an employee-representation plan closely patterned after the one instituted at the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company was submitted to, and approved by, the board of directors of the Jersey Company. This plan, drawn up and ap- proved in 1918 without any consultation with the workers, was hailed by the Jersey Company as “a kind of Magna Charta for Jersey's employees, foremen and top management. ® It was ap- proved despite the antagonistic attitude of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. toward any form of labor organization: “My ideas about them (trade unions) are not those held by some others. But my son will see; others will see; things change very little. It is hard to under-
3 Report on the Colorado Coal Strike (vols. I, Il), Hearings before a sub- committee on Mines and Mining, House of Representatives, 63rd Congress (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1916).
4 See Clarence J. Hicks, My Life in Industrial Relations (New York: Harper Bros., 1941), pp. 44-51. Note: Following the practice of the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), reference to this corporation henceforth will be. shortened to “Jersey Company” or “Jersey Standard”.
5 Stuart Chase, Generation of Industrial Peace (New York: Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), 1946).
6 Frank W. Pierce, employee relations director of Jersey Same “Talking Things Over in An Organization”, an address before the Summer Institute on Community Leadership (Syracuse University, July 1946), p. 8.
AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 31
stand why men will organize to destroy the very firms or companies that are giving them the chance to live and thrive; but they do it. .. . Soon the real object of their organizing shows itself—to do as little as possible for the greatest amount of pay.””
Organization of labor in the petroleum industry on a fairly ex- tensive scale by outside unions is a development only of the past ten or fifteen years, and generally speaking, widespread unionization is found only among the larger petroleum corporations.’ Along with the growth of the large vertically integrated petroleum corporation that depends so heavily upon mass production techniques and huge financial investments, the organization of labor in the industry has also undergone considerable change and has become a very complex social group.
Of the three major types of union organizations (craft, industrial and independent), the largest group throughout the industry from the standpoint of the number of workers covered by collective agreements is the Oil Workers International Union, a C. I. O. in- dustrial organization with collective agreements covering approxi- mately sixty per cent of all union members. Independent organiza- tions include about thirty-five per cent of the workers, while the various A. F. of L. unions cover the remaining five per cent. Pres- ently, therefore, labor of the petroleum industry is characterized by its organization into two large and opposing labor groups: the industrial union and the independent association.®
Basic differences between the respective constitutions of the in- dustrial union and the independent association will have a signifi- cant effect upon the industrial relations in the company or the plant where one or the other of these labor groups is recognized as the bargaining agency. Consequently, these constitutional differences tend to be reflected in the kind of agreements negotiated between management and labor. In this connection it is important to keep in mind the distinction between constitutions and collective agree-
7 Alan Nevins, John D. Rockefeller: The Heroic Age of American Enterprise (New York: Charles Scribners’ Sons, 1940), Vol. II, p. 675.
8 Cf. Joe E. Brown and C. Wilson Randle, Earnings in Southwestern Petroleum Industry, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944), p. 20.
® Philomena Marquardt, Union Agreements in the Petroleum Refining In-. dustry in Effect in 1944, Bulletin No. 828, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1945), p. 2.
32 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ments. The constitution embodies the rules and regulations that provide the formal structure under which the labor union operates. The collective agreement, on the other hand, is a contract between management and labor whose conditions have been determined and agreed upon only after a process of negotiation.
Unfortunately it is not possible within the limited scope of this discussion to consider in detail the important and dynamic process of collective bargaining. The following discussion must necessarily be limited; hence the emphasis will be upon an analysis of the constitutional provisions with respect to the structure and function of the industrial union and the independent association. The pro- cedure will be to contrast the Oil Workers International Union, the largest single industrial union in the petroleum industry, with one of the typical independent associations of the Jersey Standard. In 1940, the Jersey Company had agreements with fifty-five separate independent associations covering 35,884 (or ninety-eight percent ) of its 36,722 workers who were eligible for union membership.*® These agreements, with minor variations such as the name of the independent association, are indentical in many respects. There- fore, in the following discussion, unless otherwise noted, evidence for the differences between the industrial union and the independ- ent association will be taken from two sources: the Constitution and By-laws of the Oil Workers International Union (C.1.0), 1947-1948 (hereafter referred to as OWIU), and the Constitution and By-laws of the Independent Industrial Workers Association, 1947 (hereafter referred to as IIWA). The latter association is the labor organization for the Esso-Standard Refinery (a fully-owned subsidiary of Jersey Standard ) at Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
As a consequence of structural changes in the original employee- representation plan, or company union, of the Jersey Company (largely the result of federal legislation and court decisions ),'1 the independent association appears in many respects to approximate the characteristics of the industrial union. This is especially true if its external structure is observed only casually or superficially. It is obvious, however, upon a more careful scrutiny that the two types of labor organizations are fundamentally quite varied, es-
tO Chase, Of “cit, pat 11 Chase. on. cit., pp. 14-17
AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 33
pecially with regard to the structure and functioning of their in- ternal operations.
One of the basic differences between the formal organization of the two labor groups is the manner in which their respective ob- jectives are stated. The industrial union “believing it to be the natural right of those who toil, that they shall enjoy to the fullest extent the wealth created by their labor, and realizing that it is impossible to obtain the full reward of labor, except by united action and through organization founded upon sound principles along economic, cooperative lines ...” has been organized “into a Union for the purpose of collective bargaining and other mutual benefits; it shall be the object of this organization to work for the reduction of hours of toil, the establishment of equitable conditions, and to adjust and establish a high standard of conditions and com- mensurate wage, thereby assuring to all workers in the industry just compensation and time to share in the benefits flowing from the organization. (OWIU, Art. I, Sec. 3, pp. 3-4). Compared with these objectives, those of the independent association seem to be less vigorous and forthright: “To act as a bargaining agency be- tween employees and the management . . .; to promote cooperation between employees and the management; to give employees advice in matters of mutual interest, including wages, hours of work, safety, sanitation and working conditions; to provide an orderly and ex- peditious procedure for the prevention and adjustment of differ- ences; and to accord a means through which employees may be furnished information of mutual interest by management; and to promote and advance its welfare; to bring into closer association the members of this association and to negotiate and sign agree- ments with the management. .. .” (IIWA, Art. II, Sec. 1, pp. 1-2). It would appear, from the respective objectives of these two labor organizations, that the independent association still contains much of the phraseology and philosophy so often expressed in the con- stitutions of earlier company unions.'?
The two labor groups are likewise in sharp contrast with respect to the limitations placed upon their respective memberships. The industrial union invites all persons engaged in any branch of the petroleum industry, or allied industries associated with the oil in- dustry, who are below the rank of supervisory employees to become
12 Peterson and Senturia, op. cit.
34 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
members: “no person shall be refused membership because of race, color, creed or sex” with the exception that anyone “accepting mem- bership in the Communist or Fascist organizations shall be expelled.” (OWIU, Art. f, Sec. 1, p. 3).. The independent labor group under consideration in this discussion confines its membership to the work- ers below supervisory rank who are employed only in certain de- partments of the manufacturing division of a local refinery. Further- more, the employees eligible for membership in the independent association are segregated into White and Negro sections “with each section electing its own officers and committees.” (ITIWA, Art. ly Seewd spa).
As a result of limiting its membership to a single department or plant, the independent association has little opportunity for contacts with other organized groups. Thus the lack of knowledge or in- formation concerning the activities of organizations similar to its own (even within the same corporation), or about the prevailing conditions in other companies and plants doing essentially the same kind of work, may very easily prevent the independent association from performing one of its most important functions: that of bar- gaining for the adoption of improved standards that may be in force elsewhere in the industry or locality. While segregation of membership into racial groups may be the result of conforming to the culture pattern in the region, such a practice, nevertheless, may be fraught with the inherent danger that management is in the position of being able to play off one group against the other.
Closely related to membership eligibility is the matter of financial dues and assessments as provided for in the respective constitutions of the two labor organizations. Other things being equal, differences in initiation fees and dues may be an important factor enhancing competition between rival labor organizations and may very well be the determining factor in the choice of the worker as to which group he will join. The industrial union, for example, has initiation fees ranging from $2.00 to $25.00, and monthly dues of $2.50 to $3.00. (OWIU, Art. X, Secs. 8, 6, pp. 28-30). On the other hand, the independent association charges its members no initiation fee, and its dues “shall be no more than fifty cents per month.” (IIWA, Art. XIV, Sec. 2, p. 15). Not only are its per capita dues small and its assessments limited, but the treasury of the independent is fur- ther restricted by terms of its constitution which states: “when the
AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 35
membership per capita fund of ten dollars shall have been ac- cumulated in the treasury, such dues shall be suspended, and no greater amount will be allowed to accumulate.” (IIWA, Art. XIV, sec. Ep. 15).
While primarily the function of the labor union is to obtain ben- efits for its group through peaceful means of collective bargaining, the fact remains that the principal and most powerful weapon of the labor organization is the withholding of its services; namely through the medium of the strike. If financial means for supporting a strike are unavailable, the bargaining power of the labor group is seriously weakened; it can wield nothing more effective than a rather impotent threat of a strike. This is the position that obtains in the case of the independent association. Without adequate funds to support a strike of any considerable proportion or duration, the independent association generally is forced either to capitulate or to accept a compromise more favorable to management in its collec- tive bargaining on a controversial issue. It is forced into a position of having to wait until management is willing to concede the gains won elsewhere by the industrial union. On the other hand, if the independent should carry out its threat to strike, it would almost certainly result in failure. It would have no allied group upon which it could call for assistance, nor would it have sufficient resources with which to combat the full resources of such a giant corporation as Jersey Standard.
In addition to its important function as a bargaining agency for collective security, another and equally important function of the labor organization is to serve as a social group by means of which the membership may satisfy the fundamental human needs of group association and the opportunity for self-expression. One measure of the social effectiveness of a labor organization, since activities are normally carried on under leadership of its officers, is the degree to which the rank and file members have the opportunity to make known their ideas, wishes and opinions on matters concerning the welfare of the group. The value of the labor organization to its members is considerably enhanced if the group meets regularly and the membership is afforded the democratic privilege of choosing its officers and representatives in a free election by secret ballot following ample opportunity for full debate.
Of the two types of labor organizations under seeties fea, the
36 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
importance and recognition of the need for the members to meet frequently for a free and full discussion of its problems is better realized by the industrial union. The latter is very specific in its insistence that a local union hold regularly scheduled meetings not less than once a month upon the penalty of forfeiting its charter. (OWIQU, Local Art. I, Sec. 4, p. 57). The only provisions in the constitution and by-laws of the independent association for meet- ings of the full membership are those providing for “an annual meeting prior to the annual election’, and the special meetings called by the president of the council “when requested by the council or in written request of not less than 100 members of the Association.” (ITWA, Art. XI, Sec. 1, pp. 11-12). In the independent association being discussed here, there had been no regular meeting called of the full membership for several years. (One member of the Independent Industrial Workers’ Association who has been a representative for five years stated there had been no general meet- ing of the association during the time he held office. )
There are also notable differences between the industrial local union and the independent association with regard to the organiza- tion of their governing bodies. The industrial local, of course, is subject to the rules and regulations of the international union to which it belongs. Officers of the international are nominated at a convention where each delegate is entitled to vote an equal pro- portion of his local’s membership. Nominations are reduced by secret ballot until there are only two candidates for each office. These nominations are then submitted to the individual members of all locals; thus each member of the union eventually participates directly in the election of the international officers. (OWIU, Art. I.) See...) pri),
The independent association has no such provision for a direct election of its officers by the entire membership. Its procedure is for the membership to elect representatives annually on the basis of one representative for every one hundrd employes of a voting division. Nominations for representatives are obtained in two ways: either a candidate may nominate himself by signing a written notice of his candidacy thirty days prior to the election, or the name of a candidate may be placed on the ballot of his voting division pro- vided twenty-five per cent of that division makes such a request in the form of a signed petition. (IIWA, Art. IV, Secs. 2-4, pp. 4-5).
AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 37
Curiously enough elections of the independent association for the past several years have been conducted by mail with a limitation of fifteen days in which to return the ballot.1? The administrative body of the independent association is the Council composed of the elected representatives which operates almost independently of the Association. Its actions are not subject to the approval or disapproval of the full membership of the association, for the constitution pro- vides that “the action of the Council shall be final in all matters.” (IIWA, Art. XII, Sec. 6, p. 13). The constitution likewise implies that the proceedings of the council are not published nor made known to the full membership since a council member may be “charged” for disclosing confidential information “to others outside the Council.” (ITWA, Art. XII, Sec. 7, p. 13). It is also worth noting that in the meetings of the council “members of the Council shall speak no more than twice on any subject in debate and shall be limited to five minutes unless given special privilege which shall require a request to the chair and a majority vote of the Council.” (IIWA, Art. XII, Sec. 4, p. 13).
In summary then, labor in the petroleum industry is found to be represented by two widely divergent types of organizations; the industrial local, affiliated with the Oil Workers International Union and the independent association whose membership is confined to the eligible employees of a single company, plant, or department.
Presumably the primary function of a labor union is to bring together individual workers in order to increase the relative eco- nomic position of the workers through the process of collective bar- gaining. The objective of collective security presupposes, at least theoretically, a labor organization entirely independent of manage- ment. However, in the case of the Jersey Company its policy has been to deal individually with a number of autonomous inde- pendent associations. This practice not only has enabled the com- pany to resist every effort on the part of outside labor groups to organize its workers, but has also enabled it to to exercise consid- erable influence over the functioning of the independent associa- tions. As Pierce points out concerning the early employee- representation plan of the Jersey Company, “its spirit still broods
13 Cf. Morning Advocate, Baton Rouge, Louisiana newspaper, May 19, 1948, . p. 6A. The fifteen day limitation apparently is a Council ruling for the con- stitution has no such provision.
38 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
over the contracts negotiated in 1946. The basic provisions appear and reappear throughout thirty years of peace.”7*
The above comparison of the two labor groups remeale that the independent association, because .of its structural organization, tends to be under much greater handicaps in its negotiations with management.
First of all, the independent association still suffers from the con- stitutional limitations inherent in the earlier company union or employee-representation plans from which .it evolved. Originally the company union or the employee-representation plan was con- | ceived, developed, and financed for many years by management and it is not surprising that present day independent associations, as implied from its constitutional provisions, are not yet entirely free from at least indirect control or supervision by management. It is also significant that the subsequent development of the inde- pendent association has not been the result of spontaneous employee action or initiative, but rather its present form has been a direct consequence of legislation and judicial decisions that have com- pelled the company to abandon its direct control over former com- pany unions.
Limited to a single company, plant or department, and having no contact with other labor organizations, the independent asso- ciation is unable to acquire adequate knowledge of existing condi- tions or comparative wage scales. The independent association is further handicapped by its practices whereby each department executes its own agreement with management, and its membership is segregated into separate White and Colored sections. Such prac- tices tend to make it very difficult to obtain one hundred percent cooperation on controversial issues except in such cases where all, or the majority, of the several sub-divisions of the association are directly involved. These handicaps, together with the limitations imposed upon the size of its treasury, seriously curtail the effective- ness of the independent association as an agency whose principal function is to bargain and negotiate with management for the collective security of its members.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949).
14 Chase, op. cit., p. 1
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE ENDEMIC FLOWERING PLANTS OF FLORIDA
RoLAnp M. Harper University, Alabama
Part I]—List oF SPEcIEs
The endemic species of Florida plants recognized by Small in the 1933 edition of his “Manual of the Southeastern Flora” are listed in the following table in the same order as they appear in the “Manual,” and with the same names, though I do not necessarily agree with all his splitting of genera and species. Some forms which he called distinct species might be regarded by more conservative botanists as only subspecies or varieties; but Small recognized very few varieties, and apparently never described a new one’ himself. The names of endemic genera are printed in small capitals.
The following tables have seven columns of letter symbols ta show which of the species are represented in Chapman’s three works, Hitchcock’s list, and Small’s three floras. The letters indicate the status of the species at different times:
N—indicates that it had the same name that Small used in 1933.
R—means that it was known to the author in question, but referred by him to a more widely distributed species. In a few cases the symbol (R) is used to indicate that Small in 19083 or 1918 or both attributed to the same species a range extending out- side Florida.
S—means that the present specific name was used, but under a different genus; a natural consequence of the more or less justified splitting of genera as knowledge of them increased, or of nomenclatorial discoveries and changes of rules.
V—means that the plant was treated as a variety, usually, but not always, with the same name now used for the species. In a few cases, mostly in Chapman’s first edition, the author recognized the plant as a variety, but did not feel sure of it enough to give it a name. (V) indicates a few cases where a plant was regarded as doubtfully distinct, not even a variety.
40 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
X—means that the plant had a different specific name, sometimes in the same genus and sometimes in another; such changes are usually brought about by changes in the rules of nomenclature, or by the author unwittingly using a name that had been used before. |
?—indicates doubt as to whether an earlier author had the same species. .
...-indicates that the plant was not known or not distinguished at the time.
The cases marked “S” or “V” should be self evident, or nearly so, to anyone possessing the books named; but most of the “R” and “X” cases are explained in the notes following, which are numbered to correspond with the indices in the table.
A few species of exceptional interest are included, although their range extends slightly outside Florida. It is not very scientiiic to attach too much importance to a political boundary, and a species should not be completely disbarred, as it were, for slightly over- stepping the boundary. It would have been very interesting to indi- cate the known distribution and habitat of each species, but that would have made the table too long, and might well be the subject of future studies.
Two important 19th century botanical explorers of Florida were overlooked when the first instalment of this was published, in March.
Prof. Alphonso Wood (1810-1881), of West Farms, N. Y., pub- lished several editions of descriptive manuals of the flora of the eastern United States (at first only the northern portion), which were serious competitors of Grays manuals for the northeastern states, and later of Chapman’s Flora for the southeastern states. (At the University of Georgia in the 90’s the students seemed to use Wood's books for identifying plants as much as if not more than Chapman’s.) He was not the equal of Gray in scientific ability or accuracy, but’ he wrote clear descriptions, which made his books easy to use, and he had plenty of energy and ambition. He traveled pretty widely, and was assisted by many correspondents.
Although he is not known to have discovered any new species in Florida, there are some interesting notes on his work in the state in his “Class Book of Botany” (1861 and later editions), which probably few modern readers have noticed. In the preface he says:
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS Al
“Dr. A. W. Chapman of Apalachicola, Fla., presented us with many of the more rare plants of Florida, on the occasion of our recent visit to his own familiar walks. ....
“The southern peninsula of Florida is neglected in consequence of the author's inability to visit that region hitherto. During his extended tour southward in 1857, the Seminole war rendered the route to the Everglades unsafe, or at least undesirable. The species omitted are generally unknown northward of Key West.....
“Mr. William Wright of Bainbridge and Prof. N. H. Stuart of Quincy, Florida (since deceased), also contributed to the consum- mation of our work by many facilities afforded us in our laborious researches in their respective precincts, and by the shelter of their hospitable mansions.”
On page 626 of the book Wood tells of finding a single specimen, not typical, of Euphorbia mercurialina, “a very obscure and long- lost species” (now known chiefly from Tennessee and Alabama), ten miles south of Tallahassee (habitat not indicated) in 1857.
We have no way of knowing what Dr. Chapman may have told Prof. Wood about his forthcoming southern Flora, when they met in Apalachicola in 1857, but he evidently did not tell him every- thing he knew about Florida plants. Most of Wood's edition of 1861 must have been written before Chapman's Flora, dated 1860, was available, for apparently the only one of Chapman’s Florida species mentioned by him is Carex Baltzellii, on page 757. Of the 62 species of flowering plants which we now know only from Florida, and were known to Chapman in 1860, Wood apparently knew only 17, and a few of those were attributed by him also to Georgia, or some other state. And several rare species from other states, known to Chapman in 1860, were not listed by Wood in 1861.
However, he may have confined his descriptions mainly to plants he had seen himself, for, as noted in his preface, he left out a number of subtropical species on account of his inability to visit South Florida. Some of them, especially those discovered by Dr. Blodgett, had already been described by Torrey and Gray, whose work seems to have been one of Wood's principal sources of | information.
An edition of Wood’s Class Book published shortly before his
42 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
death, in 1881, contains a supplement of about ten pages, listing many additional species. For that of course he did not have the benefit of Chapman's supplement of 1883, and he apparently over- looked several species from F lorida and elsewhere published by . Chapman and by Gray in the late 70’s. That supplement adds three ferns from Florida (all now known from the West Indies, but they are not considered in the present study anyway), and apparently only two flowering plants (Castalia flava and Lobelia Feayana) to the list of Florida endemics, as compared with 38 added by Chapman in 1883.
S(amuel) Hart Wright (1825-1905), of Penn Yan, N. Y., seems to have spent several winters in Florida, around 1880. (His son Berlin Hart Wright, who was more interested in astronomy and conchology than in botany, was living in Lakeland about 25 years ago.) I do not have much information about his work in the state at present, but he is chiefly noted for the discovery of Hartwrightia, a monotypic endemic genus of Carduaceae, described by Gray in 1888. It seems to be quite rare. I have never found it, but his son showed me a specimen of it, from Volusia County I believe, in 1926, and Prof. Hitchcock cited one from Macclenny, collected by Curtiss.
Mr. Wright also discovered a monotypic genus of Cyperaceae, and described it in 1887, as Websteria. It was thought for a time to be confined to Florida, but later it was found to be the same as a species previously described from Cuba and referred to Scirpus. So it does not appear in my list of endemics, though the genus Websteria seems to be still valid, and represented by a single spe- cies. It too seems to be rare, and I have never found it.
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS
List OF FLORIDA
ENDEMICS
43
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.)
EEE CYCADACE
Zamia integrifolia Ait. (1) “ silvicola Small umbrosa Small
OF. COG Wea Gio t OFOEd Geo 10h Clute lwaeteplaiat (0) (=) +)fel s).s, 1c) ais ©) e466 slic «
“6
= coc 6 CROCE a) Go Ol ORMOND yO tonOrc rOmumre dy
PINACEZ Pinus clausa (Chapm.) Vasey (2)
TAXACEA Tumion taxifolium (Arn.) Greene (3) Taxus Floridana Nutt
Pr OC ie OPO ONG
ZANNICHELLIACEA Potomogeton Floridanus Small $ Curtissii Morong
~ NAIADACE Naias gracilis (Morong) Small
Sima eons ile \s (wile Ja: e, 6: sia. .0) he
ALISMACE Sagittaria Kurziana Gluck (4)
ELODEACEA HaJophila Baillonis Aschers <4 Engelmanni Aschers
erzrerseer rete eee ze ese se
POACE Tripsacum Floridanum Porter (5) Manisuris tuberculosa Nash Andropogon longiberbis Hack.............. m brachystachyus Chapm
COO CO CrICh-OF Cie CO
CnC ORO ie OOO te ONG oll fos
eee es 2 ee ew wt elie
oh @abanisnwHack.. . 55... ete.
45 FING BARTS 01002 | 0100 ee eee
ce loridanus ScmOn.. 2... 5.2.2.5. +6: Syntherisma pauciflorum Hitch............... . a Hlordanwm Hitech, . 2... 42)... . gracillimum Scribr. (Nash)....... Eamcum flabriiohum Nash................-.
7 malacon Nash
Chapman 1860 | 1883 | 1897 Nee Nee IN
VN VE S| tS os ING INGTON
2 2 t serene ne N Serena: N
N|N eons) eae N Visi NN WeN
©) moze liiepel el eiiie) ailente
Hitchcock
1899-1901
wo ep =) ee
s}]e ¢ © 2 2 » e[[e 2 © a] oe 2 o ©
ee se ee eo
a3 /o.Neol le) feMey is,
Sid ses eget int ei aric! s\\s/ 6.1 e Le) ieiiia: ei io /« \iiel,a; | «fe (eel stews! tele Na) (wire
1903
1913 | 1933
N
N
XN N|NIN N/|NIN NIN|N N|NIN N|NIN N|NIN Fee ok (OH) eal N N|ININ (R)| (R)| N N|NIN NININ N|NIN (R)| (R)| N N|NIN N|NIN elas N ee N N|N|N N|N|N a ee N sok eee N a ee N
a4 JOURNAL OF F LORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
List oF FLorma ENDEMics—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. )
f Chapman Hitchcock | | 1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 || 1903 | 1913 193°
Anstida patula ‘Chapm, (6).0. 72315 aeons ee eee N-; N | N
of £<CenuispicawiGcli. yaf sh) Vek ee cee Heaven] s ae [ete Sef eae Loud
Calamovilfa Curtissii (Vasey) Scribn.......... » eal ge aes N| NIN
Spartina Bakeri Merrill (7).................. (ery meer coca) Ca N
Stipa avenaceoides Nash..................... coil ee 2 eee N{|N{|N
Campulosus Floridanus Hitch................| oe eale ds aes. are h Ceaete N
Chloris neglecta Nash............... eerie? wens] sk N i:N | N.
Gymnopogon Chapmanianus Hitch.........:..||...:|. -a.}ee |r N
Eracrostis-acuta, Blit¢he: 2.8... ho-4 eae ere |. 2+. :la. cele Lo = N
CYPERACEA Sayi'ce
Cyperus Careys Britton... . d.4.-b Ae ae less eee el N|N|N
‘{ itoreus (Clarke) Britton. ............1)...\)))25)ieeee ‘DRL ass N ‘* < Winkleri Britton & Small............i)....|: : 0/22. S] een N * Nashii Britton...) 0.30. «65.2.5. 7.| 2. «[2 ee N N
Eleocharis uncialis Chapm. (8).......... POMPE AER bie 5 - Be cet ae N
Dichromena Floridensis Britton ..........<....||....|/e.0). Joe N ON.
EWR ECU Careyana Fernald.............]]....|. SE EEE RR ieee 2 ING
Rappiana Smiall...|....55...0. 4). 0.15 eee ge | ae N
« intermedia (Chapm.) Britton..../ V | V | V pate. No WN
eg Curtissi: Britton. 22) 8, 244 alles cel. ie ee Ni NIN
m pinetorum Britton & Small... .I..:.|...-) ee N
i Edisoniana Britton. ../......../....|... 1) 3 rn N
" decurrens Chapm.............. N ||. IN. oN eae N{NiIN
Scleria Curtissii Britton .’-. 0). .4)..6. 2.5.5. .<5lle «2s iw | N“| N
Girex Balt: ellii Chapm: (9)t.). 2. 9 ee N iN See N | N /(R)
“*) .Chapmanii Steud. (9)... i..5.4.....2 09. ool ee er ee ee N
**; -magmifolia Mackenzie: .... 6:5 .00.0.06 Hii, Oe rrr NON
ARECACEZ ee ah nae de
Sabal ‘Etonia Swingle (10)........: 000.05... : J DOME? | ee Mt ed
‘t; Jamesiana Small({11).0.0.00.25..000..0. 2.4). 2: se er wet N ERIOCAULACE/ ,
Lachnocaulon Floridanum Small.............. | rs ethel lle) tei N|N 2D a digynum Koern. (12)........... ess tte (R)} (R)| N ee eciliatum Small. /: 6... | £01) 2 ee Ni} NIN
COMMELINACEE |
@uthbertia ornata Sarglls : 3. )- 225 se) ae, | eit je OR JE sof | epee N
TRADESCANTELLA Floridana (Wats.) Small..... fee fp StS aes N. | N.|.N
@ommelina Gigas Small. ..2...:...0..55.5-.. ee lies a ee nee Bes ee aE
| |
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS A5
List oF FLoripa ENpDEMics—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. )
Chapman Hitchcock Small
1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 || 1903 | 1913 | 1933
BROMELIACE Remeber IAM ASIAN eee ee ole oe Beg Le te es late AG epal N ee RPomIces NLT ae ewes oc. IIb and Mga Salli wie yaya MOMS aes N
E See SHAE een Nala. foi. ofa all's = ealeueacaliays dele ec lle Bae etetss N
MELANTHACEA Veratrum intermedium Chapm. (13).......... IN ING A IN Slee etic N
DRACENACEE Bene ratpacanps Bartlett)... ..).. 2.2.0.5 eel. odafe es. [e cele. oe. cle ee: Setseuranigne Nash. 4... ek ce cee ws ile seeds n cole oe ARMITEAD N
LEUCOJACEA
(Ep 1 SLSR TES) 2 ea | Cece (ee | N N © STEVE) [SLETI SC eee on | re ea | a N | N Atamosco Simpsoni (Chapm.) Greene.........|)....}.... N) NS) N N rf Treatie (Wats.) Greene............ KO th AS Pata REY N N Hymenocallis Keyensis Small (14)............|).... Re tak R R | N ; ee Ser NSM 4h ees Mess AREY DI ee eee oe Pallettap ws lles Sel) aN N
N
N
N
Bi MGinmsaliveenomiall bos ao ie alloc in Clits ola ec BEM re Me raralll cows og | toe ta tridentata Small...............]).. ss (ey A a epee aCe Lod eb es Br CDT) (Scr | AM et MPR eiaieeal erie | aaerr || arenas fea A a IE axel PERIENCE oo. 0! Re oa soe Steele ca st NG DB ND Taha N
EXTACE
Benen eomiloridana omall (15)... 0c... 2. 2.|). eden. [|e ) deleteardbalens He aulsN SALFINGOSTYLIs ccelestina (Bartr.) Small...... te aR Stag lp econ (R) Sisyrinchium xerophyllum Greene........... 0.2 ...[... 0/002 0H. Soe. N “f Miondaniumebickwell 02... occ t ce le eat lbakeeh wa N
UP MEMEMCOPAITIS SMM yl kgs es alga Sates los dale belle gen calle oodles cas N Sumereramacmnesmially os. fh es eda eee lens los. Glan ea alleeorlk So N bia aTeratiyea invalid. ke le ce ean alleee a Wate Ves PEM Ee cect ical ast ec ae ee N
ORCHIDACEZ Fepnarigiottis, Chapmanii Small...............]....)...-)2. awa N Metidor pinetorum small... .. 62.0.6. 64.2. an. e| coe eters aan os selicf: Encyclia Tampensis (Lindl.) Small (16)....... VRS Meee tS S S
nA Zz Zz
PIPERACEA Micropiper leptostachyon (Nutt.) Small.......].... Si ye S S Rhynchophorum Floridanum Small (17).......|.... Ee aielx R R
hd ™| ZZ,
46 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
List oF FLoripaA ENDEMics—(Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.)
Chapman Hitchcock Small 1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 || 1908 | 1913 1933
JUGLANDACEA Hicoria .austrina Small... . io... eee | 2 N ‘«. --Hloridana (Sarg.) Small... 2202.2... 0 all eal N SALICACEA Salixcamphibianomall’(c4. ) ee ota = eee eee ee ar | Sabet ennai Se N FAGACEA Quercus Rolfsii Small... ...........4...0.0.-]/) 09 3 NIN: URTICACEA Parietaria nummularia Small........4:....... i. 22). 25 alae ee N Boehmeria decurrens Small... 2.2.2... 4.2.2... 2.2.50 ee Ni NIN ULMACEA Trema Floridana Britton (18)........... tate fe Roi N{i| NIN POLYGONACE: ; Eriogonum Floridanum Small (19)............ R|;R:| RB N|N/IN Rumex fascicularis Small. ..................:|v...|: 23) N{|N{IN Polygonella macrophylla Small......... PM |e tes ollssoesis.0 2, « N|N/|N i brachystachya Meisn............. N | No)" Gi see N;i|N|N DENTOCERAS myriophylla Small. ;...32....:. I. ..4). 23/92 ee N Delopyrum ciliatum (Meisn.) Small........... S | Ss) Ss) eee Se | N basiramea Small... 0.2.0.0... 00000.1)... 0)... be Bee IN Thysanella robusta Small................-.- |} ol oe ae, ee ea N|N AMARANTHACE/ Acnida Floridana Wats......................(). 03. NN ee N|I|N|N CORRIGIOLACEA Nyacuta pulvinata Small.....:......255. 56. clo. s|. oo e|ee Se te IN’ Odontonychia interior Small. ...............sil.-. =|. 22. \h- | eee Sie N PISONIACEA . Torrubia globosa Small... 0. 20)... ae pe oe ee eee N ~ Florndana Britton: ... 02.5%. 8.00. 8 Oe Se Sec N RANUNCULACEA: Clematis micrantha Small. ..........4.2..00]/ 2107 212) a ee N° Viorna Baldwinii T.&G. Small.............-. Shee fh yp as Ne eN UN
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 47
List oF FLoriA ENDEMiIcs—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.)
Chapman Hitchcock Small 1860 | 1883 | 1897 ||1899-1901 |] 1903 | 1913 | 1933 ANNONACEA Pityothamnus reticulatus (Shuttl.) Small (20)../....) S | S Sei aN ch pyzm-ceus (Bartr:) Small....... <I... .)2..- vat S| N ceiramernis omall. 3... ke Hot ote ne es Certs Meee || ae 7 | eee N SS abovatus CWilld:) Small: ......./) 5...) 02: ea S|N DEERINGOTHAMNUs pulchellus Small........../]....].... ee A earn co cl ee N iy Rugelii (Robinson) Small. .|/....}.... Saath ee ee S| N MAGNOLIACEA mncunmeparvitiorum Mx, (21). .............+. Nis N GND iS aie xe N|N NYMPHAACEA Nymphea ulvacea Miller & Standley (22)...../....]....}..../ Rood... de... N- ‘= maaeEOMyMaTOMAM. . sf ts eae cp bonle ses les N|N Castalia flava (Leitner) Greene............... EN esl ael | wht) N|N PAPAVERACEA Argemone Jeicarpa Greene................... JR || Bs N|N BRASSICACE Cardamme curvisiliqua Shuttl]................ Sele NG aN N|N Sete ATHEEMOMIA I Ce oc) k lk ee cee cw ws les eM. COD. Item es... N|N | Semeecsiinolia Nash. 2). 6.2.0. eo ee ee eles se ckebalh Oe N|N paeeamplexaona Nutt. (23).............3.. ING ey Ni ING PARNASSIACEA Parnassia Floridana Rydb. (24).............. URRY OR Med dariacl lteter N|R GROSSULARIACEA esse eeninelia Coville... o2.. 2.2... Wee be ws | Oe Slee N MALACEA DR UEREES TEEN OT aS (SE ye || WE | || N ¢ freirletitea Sales <0 oes se heen Se cccallee of | Be Ph oe lll Shri te N|N ry eremmaniesta SMA 8s hs ous cone elie ae | Saas cast [gamers oo N|N AMYGDALACEA emma eLTIVIGRMAUNGUS OMIA 3) 02 $n. tas he alec dlfleas [os ape flee teas. oa N “LDR GEG irae sy 02) a ee | a (PP mn Tere pana N|N MIMOSACE/ See AB CHINSU LUIS SING Was. 42.4. Aire as os alle oa tes oS ENCE See of. oo N SES ARIS OMIA Eon ce cites ee ee alee niaia slew weds aay see ion be N
48 -- JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
List oF FLoripaA ENpDEMics—( Continued )
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. )
Chapman Hitchcock
1860 | 1883 | 1897 ||1899-1901 Leptoglottis Floridana (Chapm.) Small (25). -2 "27.3 s S Fe angustililiqua Britt. & Rose.......))...-|....]..-.
CASSIACE As Chamecrista Keyensis Pennell..............- v7 Deeringiana Smal] & Pennell.....
FABACE
= (@ ie mice) "*, @) 7
so) ee we fe ee
Baptisia simplicifoha Croom (26)............. elliptica, Smalli(26)22 2 0) ay. ¢ 2/22 ain en eee ae caer calycosa Canby............ tit, Soc kull a hirsuta: Small (26)... 00... 6. ics ee ill Sie ee
ef
ce
¢¢
ZAAz”
Crotalaria Linaria Small... .....0.....9.4... 02 N. v2. Sl as pated ey dvsdl Lupinus cumulicola Sriva ll ig oc4 cece cag fens ell ee eee Jtisth alge 8
f Weatianus’Small.. .. 62... 2. ees alle. alle siya Amorpha Dewinkeleri Small............ ee crenulata Rydb..................6.. fe Floridana Rydby.).fo2 M4. os eed a Bushey db mene. be oe eine Parosela Floridana Rydb..................-.- Kuhnistera truncata Small............. uh a :
we adenopoda (Rob.) Rydb...........\|....|..+:|0.- 3], Hee .
Indigofera Keyensis Small (27)............-.-}.--- Cracca‘latidens Small ..0.¢..04. 2.00.5. sole fl Mohit Radb; oo ..025.. 01.5025 ee). lle a] ee een ‘ - Rugelit (Shutt!.) Heller....-......--.:1,.- |. (ae ae ee rf Chapmanii (Vail) Small (28).......... i gracillima (Rob.) Heller..... Peas, corallicola Smalls iat eee oe ae ie Curtiss Smally@s)ie o. 2) aceon ee ee angustissima (Shuttl.) Kuntze......... Rhynchosia Michauxii Vail (29)............--. - cinereaNASh soo eck cen eoeee ies “Lewtonii (Vail) Small............ Erythrina arborea (Chapm.) Small (BO) eee ee Galactia brachypoda T. & G..............-.- a iprostrata Small... . 0.00.05 00.5 004i): oe, | minetorummcmall yo ae eee > het alle See i fas cleMlatal Natl okt che eee phan ya cuca | a ee nlite: N
if parvifolia A. Rich. (81)............../(VW)| R | R Bradburya arenicola Small.................-. RPO rman Me. ay Floridana Britton........... Peal aie oo see
Martiusia fragrans Small..........--.-..--- | ely i
ce
Cece yeu it) ech are
Cs
We! cergetire, oa Ze} fo
+ © © ef e ee 2
Arrisiblbs “wutie: 6! 8. 16
s © eo eto eo oe
Za
poco) elm hs ie) ee
ZAZnz2
eee ele eo
ech Vine iV eG
ABZRnN
ol im feo Hite ye ow, fe
AAAAACAAZAAAAAARBZAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAYAAY
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS
List oF FLoripa ENpdEmMics—( Continued )
49
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. )
Chapman | Hitchcock Small 1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901|| 1903 | 1913 | 1933 Pmascoius smilacifolius Pollard... 2.02.2: 0:2 .h as i/o atoe. N Ni NIN micenymomene pratensis Small.........: 2.225 ccHccules PEE ee Woe. INN Stylosanthes calcicola Small..................]. 0.0)... ial hee ge ae se | N CHAPMANNIA Floridana T. & G. (82).......... N;{|N|N N Nis HN ne NG VSO G BITE re | N|N N NININ LINACEA Sensrionnium arenicola Small. ......: 22:22. :flece. be. ei eH 2. N joNee A WSEEerU OMAN oe. ede es fh ge eS RAD ey NIN RUTACEA Prelea baldwin T.& Goo. eo ING» (PING) INGE sores No PN teN POLYGALACE Peemem leioues (Blake) Small... 0.5.0.0... ess llee ooh inte Oe. OO N = CP CTEREE RDN SVT RU ee | oe ne eae | SO | N Ren Neer SMAI ke ee pec el oes eee N ib Memiromiiemallc ke te ee Wee dees lees idee no N|N|N- “ EIMEN DEI TIT) (CUNO EN FS ARS | ere a ee | |, N I EE JOS OTL, as Oe eee ae a ne pe Ue oe Aa a Rae N|N Pepolaniawemicainiomall a)... lees eee the ee a SiN Bareia(Shuttl.) Small... .. 2.5... .|)ese. S |S S S|SIN EUPHORBIACEA PiyuentaunGeroer Small; .. 0... 0.0... cafe. de ee ee NaN |_N Seg pibylepic small...) se a Pee ef | A Pee N|N (DT SPE TRS CIT TS) 003) | es | ee a | (R)|(R)| N Seeeenonfel ams MereUSsOM ci. kk ee lee ate ce hac walle atee oe ING? | OND aN “a mearenicola pmall... 72.6... oe eee hele lator SATEEN ae NIN Mian Glousettii(Lorr.) Pax (3)............/ S | S 1.8 j....... NININ “EEDA GEIL) TS) ae | eR en Ire | Ls NN | N linea anpustifolia (Terr.).Wats:... 2. ode ee dencde ee clh os bo. NiININ sg ARE TS SETGSHI. oo oP ERIS RRR Saar tere ag ets setae (| eee | ee Ie N eaameesece-cumulicola Small... of. ec Pee OPE N i‘ @inegenes Smallieinsd) 2 fel Serb ale Pale 2 INF ENTE IRENE a irs hana bits. oo sg so sttecrstora tls ae Si eC Bae Ni NIN “ Betecrggpcaasoiiels } ates a MER AD BAO 0 LR NiININ i Masierioimalle ss 08 be oa ws ans [eo a ae ye ER aeons alto ee |e N hg Garberi (Engelm.) Small..........]....| S | § S N|INI|N “6 Benpyliam pma lla gs te Pie orale: cleo see Rk LY N ‘ aobeerens omally arg ke te oe odes s HOU ROT) CUE Bek Pn aL N
50 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
List oF FLoria ENDEMics—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. )
Chapman Hitchcock Small
1860 | 1883 | 1897 ||1899-1901 || 1903 |.1913 | 1933 eee deltoidea (Engelm.)Small........./|.... Seles) NIN Porteriana Smiall....5 0.0 0... 2 3 3. oe NosiGN scoparia Smalh.... 2... -.+s-s2+ ile. ss]. . > lane eee adicioides Small. 4.1.4)... 005. yale a ease N Keyensis Small. ........05..0.54,- 05 1. o) al al rrr pinetorum Small... . 2.5... 2. Me. 2. | ee e Mathewsil Small..... 20.00.0600...) ca): of Jee o conferta, Small (84); .. 0.6.25... .4... 9). (Shee ee R 3 adenoptera (Bertol.) SmalJ......../).... Sis N Tithymalopsis polyphylla (Engelm.) Small.........|.... S N exserta Small. ... 3... 0...5 0 5.lls. alle a alee N N N) S S
Z
Z
ra discoidalis (Chapm.) Small...... Galarhceus inundatus (Torr.) Small........... ie telephioides (Chapm.) Smal].......
66,
we) oe) aWiwy an
DRRRN RM
austrinus Small
@% © 0 © 0 le ee 8 6 ee ee 8 8 ew He ee wih) ns) (ml ie ie! ie Celt lieth We ene et nT
ZAAAAAAAANYAAAAAAY
RNNDAAAAA
CYRILIACE Cynilla arida Small
Z
CeCe ee a ee eC ee eS! | Ce eC MCE WI Ao Odi kL a llaug Bog
AQUIFOLIACE Ilex Curtissii (Fernald) Small é : Buswelli Small; 0. 6052 Yo chee s+ «(les + [al gervelie ot cee eeieee ts | a N cumulicola Small... 00. 33..0. 0.46.05 2- ll. oe N
ce
DODON AACE Dodonza microcarya Small... ......5....... ll... 21. 22 Jee N
VITACE® Vitis Simpsonu Munson... .:.. 6.00..82 <2065- 4) ele ee N NININ
TILIACEA Tilia porracea Ashe
MALVACEA® Sida rubromarginata, Nash... 52... 2265.) cee ele ee N N Hibiscus semilobatus Chapm. (35) ae 2a teat tame eee Xo) ON Kosteletzkya smilacifolia (Shuttl.) Gray.......
Pe ZAM Z Z
HYPERICACEA® Ascyrum Hdisonianum Smaill.................\\c- 2}. 2 Slee N SANDIOPHYLLUM cumulicola Small
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS
List oF FLoripA ENDEMIcs—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. )
Chapman 1860 | 1883 | 1897 TURNERACEA Piriqueta glabrescens Small.................. 1B || dey |) by 4 SCRANTON DL eas eo cy ca tani Sn 3p Se) Bucnrsoaite ee leved sh callats, Seal MERE CISTACEA Crocanthemum Nashii (Britton) Barnhart.....]....|....).... “ tyrsoideumiparnharts «2... scile. |. 22 clon - Lechea prismatica rina ras see Rice ence eeameral hue can le 2 a SMC MSETEAV OMIT. ne Se cd cere see aslo a eller ee eof oe Pe woe CEASA Ds) Ais a tc yi ated coon oe ea cffeed osdasatela cl SememiyMopnyiia Small. 7... 0.0.00. bees VIOLACEZ: Naola Plomdana Brainerd... 2... 0.0.00...) 40-03 ere ae TRIES, SITET Re nf se | | OPUNTIACEZ ee AMCCHARSTINAN iy gs Wa See ndre Saks alle aeuot SS PR PIscHORMMs Small, 7.28 6 5 ss oe ee sole oP IE memecourmepma small: 4.2... 6 cee celle. he ememcchrocent’a SINAall:......e.c ssc tee eles echoes peerettrocapensis small)... cc. ds ee ce elle ele oe Pee G Lanias PSramey Oe eo RII ies eriareate a vere nr aeras | ae en | ame RMRETIECNAAV OMAN Gs acc cules s cad evee ctloe clea asleen mepOheatpayomaliien, f.. 6... tee eee el a el esos SMMEEMIGCTISHOINA aly cn ac gels walle oe wl es nade ces SMEAIIGETAM AT OMAN 6000 es ee kee ell ela ae choos. SemciInaUicola Small... c 26.0. se cee elle nels as ole ese eeinmaophita Small s8 ob... ese te ee cle ae ee. SEBECONCNSIS STIGtOM. «5.0.4 6k ds oe elec alleediole Bethetee. i PTL ORAS INA ee A tele ie dae oh a < tele ss elles che aaa em VCMT CAG OMA lar ay eps ils ei iaie ha cle Gree bdlies gece or amne I ZO CANA OTA eng PAREN ies cee So ao eal ee cil ae clea.’ Soucalcarcorallicola omall a... foe ce ee ee ey eee Acanthocereus Floridanus Small.............-])....)..../.... Peace NWOnIP INI Smalls oc.c.. oe. wes eles cle ann l eee. SEND SOMi STEN oo. i acs ee ee ae Mou. A REACTANT SE OT eM et. ats tone rs coal eer alte 2 alee s: 914 @ephalocereus Deeringii Small................))....). 2024) 04 is Keyensis Britton & Rose.......|)....{....]....
Hitchcock
1899-1901
O40. G80) 0.00100
ee} ts;itentel elite O oo to) ONG O00 O00 cg d.4
Cod oO CF O10 Osc nclod don jo 2 'O aiatralve=lelieite OOO 6 O8O.6 Cc Oo loulo oro
O aro to oO Goollin co 6.5} o 6-06
51 Small
1903 | 1913 | 1933 N;|; NIN ING NG EN Se Sae en iS fe iS |] oN N
N
N
N
So AW cheers | N Ne sail -N
N
N.
RAE os N N
N
NEL eae Glee N Jeet N eS eee N
N | NN. Pen aad ee N 0 2 ae | N CEE Nahas N N
N
=e Ht aa N Pearle te: N ee NE Oa N Se nat © N Fa Hieec OE N CEA ee N SEEDS EG N N|N
52
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
List oF FLorma ENpDEmics—( Continued )
(Names according to Small, 1933.
LAURACE/ Tamala littorahs Small ‘* humilis (Nash) Small
MELASTOMACE: Rhexiatparvitiers Chapm yy 20 gc... e 7 eee LYTHRACE Lythrum flagellare Shuttl. (36) Parsonisa lythroides Small (87)............... MYRTACE Eugenia anthera Small Anamomis Simpsonii Small F dicrana (Berg.) Britton
COI OMI Chay wou Cet) bund ciety crete cer ac Cy Ce) Oat Oe ren Pacers eid) Omer
OV Oy es Lele) ship) sige! @niele®)
EPILOBIACEA Isnardia intermedia Small & Alex............. 3 spathulata (T. & G.) Small Ludwigia Curtissii Chapm “* spathulifolia Small ‘* Simpson Chapm Gaura simulans Small ‘* Eatonii Small
NYSSACE Nyssa ursina Small
AMMIACE/ Eryngium cuneifolium Small a Floridanum C. & R Sium Floridanum Small
MONOTROPACEA Monotropsis Reynoldsiz (Gray) Heller. . .
ERIACEA
ARMERIACE/® Limonium obtusilobum Blake
Symbols explained in text. )
Chapman
1860 | 1883 | 1897
es ie ee COCR a ite urn Se Ls | ih dee a ae Nn ay Are Pe Be
Oa ace, ae
e.8 ee fe ee oie cee, ellie = = (9 inlet i ute eee enter
Me PCC MECH PO min et
De Ca Ceca CO s| oy iS
oe @ ele le eles a: ial il ce gi ellie eal eemante Tn iua ie
rr ie el aCe Oe eve ee) Comey i) yh =
(V) |
Se wo ee Oe elie ea ee ee
PRELIMINARY. LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA’ PLANTS 53
List OF FLoripA ENDEMICS—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. )
EBENACE
Misspyres wiosieri Small... 0... ee Phe
~SAPOTACEA Bumelia rufotomentosa Smal]
se
OLEACE:
Forestiera porulosa (Mx.) Poir (38)
66
pinetorum Sri ee Slomlamsyomalles sau. 2 ee a
Ginengntnus pygmea Small................. | ee | eee | 7 | | | Osmanthus Floridana Chapm. (89)............]....[....
Amarolea megacarpa Small
Sth Cet By OO" Oo ig tC) Ash so 10s Hil ao
SPIGELIACE Ceelostylis loganioides T. & G..... Did Ferner Spigelia gentianoides (Ci) 00 Oa eee eee
GENTIANACEA Sabbatia grandiflora (Gray) Small....... AEM
Dasystephana tenuifolia (Raf.) Pennell (40)... .|
- APOCYNACE Urechites pmetorum Small................... Rhabdadenia corallicola Small................ ASCLEPIADACE/ Asclepias viridula Chapm
OR OF O89 Fa Oo ea sy ala ado
OxypTeRyx Curtissii (Gray) Small............1.... ASCLEPIODELLA Feayi (Chapm.) Small ........||....|.... Odontostephana Floridana (Vail) Alex......... aa
CONVOLVULACE/
Bonamia grandiflora (Gray) Heller............|)....
Stylisma villosa (Nash) House Evolvulus macilentus Smal]..............00... Jacquemontia Curtissii Peter Convolvulus Nashii House
Ory CoD Bou ee CO CHO “Chichi
Peat CIC. CMC OP CeO ONO
Sipes Si ianiestsl el lel /alssi.a: .s) sv leis. (f (¥ip6
SMEPAPOCEA OMA 2.75 6. es ess eee eee | eee _DECINID, (SUNG 10 ge 2 aes Se i ea ee Hh
| Chapman Hitchcock Small
1860 | 1883 | 1897
1899-1901 || 1903
a >)
|
1913 | 1933
ZZ ZZ
ZAZAZz7
ZAZAAZAAz”
54 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
List oF Fioria ENpEmics—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. )
Chapman Hitchcock Small
1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 |] 1903 | 1913 | 1933 SOLANACE® Pliysalis; Mloridana Eoydb. 7... -s-yae es sees arenicola Kearney... ss) .2. 55... 428 ‘- ginuata veya tvien, ee who ap ere eg Solanum Floridanum Shuttl. (41).............
Zw2Z
HELIOTROPIACE Heliotropium phyllostachyum Torr............ oe Leavenworthii Torr............. as horirvontale Small...............
ZAAZz Z
VERBENACE/ Glandularia maritima Small.................. ie. | P@ampensis; (Nash) Smalley 45542 Lantana depressa Small.....................
ZDMDM Z
LAMIACEA
Trichostema suffrutescens Kearney........... Scutellaria arenicola Small................... tg glabriuscula Fernald............. At 4 Hlorndana Chapmi: 2.5.00) 2..4.% , Macbridea alba Chapm...................... Dracocephalum leptophyllum Small........... Stachys lythroides Small..................... ie MidioniGanadOubilac. <8 ati. i ote ee Salvia Blodgettii Chapm..................... STACHYDEOMA graveolens (Chapm.) Small..... Sey ate Conradina grandiflora Small. ..............-.\|)...|.;. sl eel a puleruUla Smaart, Ae 3 weeny es . PYcNoTHyMUs rigidus (Batr.) Small........... hae
Clinopodium macrocalyx Small (42). . cc dentatum (Chapm.) urine (43). 4 Ashei (Weatherby) Small........ Ag ie & & Sate ye 43
ZAAZAZANAAAAAY”
AZAAAz” AZAZAAZAAAZA!AANAAANANANAYN
RHINANTHACEA Ilysanthes grandiflora (Nutt.) Benth. (44)..... Hemianthus glomeratus (Chapm.) Pennell...../....|....) V |.......]....].... Agalinis Keyensis Pennell.................... ‘* .” stenophylla Pennell... .. 22.5.2 ......|).. 0 cle . ee |
AZAws
ACANTHACE Tubiflora angustifolia (Fernald) Small......... Dyschoriste angusta (Gray) Small (45)........
na ZZ
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS
List oF FLorma EnpEemics—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.)
Ruellia succulenta Small “LS LOT GLENS) Sa 00g) 0 Salar nes ea Gerardia Floridana (Gray) Small (46) dusticir crassitolia Chapm:........... 0.52... ‘« ~ angusta (Chapm.) Small (47)
PINGUICULACE: Calpidisca Standleyz Barnhart. .
LORANTHACEA# - Phoradendron Fatoni Trelease............... ae macrotomum: Trel.....5......-%
RUBIACEA Houstonia pulvinata Small................... Borreria terminalis SmaJl (48)................ Spermacoce Keyensis Small (49)..............
CAPRIFOLIACEZ: Sambucus Simpsonii Rehder .....
Viburnum densiflorum Chapm. (50) - ; ; 3 | | } 7 | ; ) ene a
“o IWashimomalls oe. 5s oboe bse
ASARACE Hexastylis eallifolia Small..........0...025 0.5.
CUCURBITACE Melothria crassifolia Small................... Pepo Okeechobeensis Small..................
CAMPANULACEA
Rotantua Floridana (Wats.) Small........... ce
Robinsiz Small (51). ¢@............
LOBELIACEA:
Wobeliabeayana Gray....... 0.5.00... ce cee eee
CARDUACE
Meronia concinna Gleason... ....6..2824cc.cleceslevis lente
a Blodgettii Small HarRTWRIGHTIA Floridana Gray............... Averatum littorale Gray..................033
ono oo o oO Olio OG
N
oroOsorcHl oO Cg Ci
59
eee © we ollie os ew of ew 8
COND G OF ON old oO
AZAZAZAA7
AZAAZAAZAz7”
56 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
List oF Fiona ENpEemics—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. )
Chapman Hitchcock Small
1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 || 1903 | 1913 | 1933 Osmia frustrata (Robinson) Small (52)......../).... R Eupatorium mikanioides Chapm.............. N i anomalum Nash: $7.00: don Jie ae Nl be ccc Saal tN
o Chapman Small... 4.920%... [a]. ale oer N :) jucundum Greene... ov... 6.62. «ll. Oe ee alle Kuhnia Mosieri Small... 2.00.0 do A 2a Larrisa carnosa Small... 0.0. oe ce se all cl oe a Laciniaria chlorolepis Small (53)............../|....|. - 94) eteall eee en a Garberi (Gray) Kuntze..........s.||...; N Ammopursus Ohlingere (Blake) Smail (54)... ./)....)....]... 4.0... .0][e...1.... GARRERIA fruitcosa (Nutt.) Gray (55)......... Chrysopsis subulata Small. .........3...)..- 3). |] fag eee + opis eget Sala a SS sigantea, Small (56) i. 5.00. 4.004 5 all. . 2 alle Sele er (R) 7) Janucinoss, omialli...qs4. 4. CP I Foca eee Floridana Small: ... 0... .0.0. 0.0553 s\n adele a N Ete latisquama. ‘Pollard’: .2.%...... TAs al. 0. a N | WN Pityopsis flexuosa (Nash)Small... 2.5... 5: .))).- See § S|. NS) N
N
<> STraeyi- Small... oo) 244 nade cv acemelle fa, oe ae Ss Solidago flavovirens Chapm.................. N | NoNG eee N
a Edisoniana Mackenvie.............. 451)... .|. >. o/eetedl ee rr
ef THita phism LEA SA Roe cea |}. +. e's <rei|a tall age Aster lineuiformis Burgess »......2..2.......-||;. 5). 5. 7 |e Nei oN “ fontinalis Alexander’. ...-)..0. 0....-2560ssil. 52]. 25/2.) ieee Simaulatus, omallign . 8) 7.0. a adhe tele 3) al ene ee a Ate, ce oe pluMass OMIA. bes she hee 2 aly ee oe al el -» Sillors? vee Goal ete aeiapaS Simmondsit Smalls." 3). oo a aR ele ee woe ih oe 2 re spatelliformis Burgess...........5......0l)....|.3. 4 N/|N pinifolius Alexander................5.0:l. 2. J]... 21) 7B ne “< . gracilipes (Wieg.) Alexander............||.....]..- 4]; Sell ene] eee brachypholis Smalls. 30 2.2 - “salle ee] Gus lee Alene Spinulosus Cha pmiivecch es sei pe ssl cate N|N N ei@hapmaani: Ded Ge. pads eae Be er Nahe Nei N. aN N N Ploches longifolia, Nash) 26/42 2.6... os lp ae eee N N Silphium Simpson Greenes. 2.2... fas. js sees 2 als oe el eee N N-
N
N
Berlanciera, mumilismomially oe eb ces /e oa. eal ee eel eee . SESS i subsacaulis Niutie peek ees. she N | NEN N Melanthera, parvirolia; Smalls. . jew yao cles eal ae “Oe ES PAG Ata nM ek ek, a eae! ea ee .. Se ae lioolata Smiadlir te. op sets dee 6 Seal ere ene eee . telly Oh agnallipee ¥ Rudbeckia heterophylla T. & G............... Nii No | Ned ieee N z pinnatiloba (T. & G.) Beadle.......] V | V Helianthus agrestis Pollard. ................ MN. . <0]... <1. 40,1 PS vestitus E. Ei Watson: 6.00000. ..00. I ae i
2 A AE NN A A A NSM AO NA A A AN A MeN
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 57
List oF FLORIDA Enpemics—( Continued ) (Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.)
Chapman Hitchcock Small
1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901); 1903 | 1913 | 1933
RPeMIEOMSTEATMNOSUS SMA... ci. el Wee ee cae tee awe ok INE NeW aN 3 RSUNTOSTISS OMA Se 8 | MAS: RU LAI, Se NOR os woe Soe ol N|N {IN PH@BANTHUS grandiflora (T. & G.) Blake (57).| S | S | S S Saeeom lien . tenuifolia (T. & G.) Blake......./ S | S | S N) Sap Seen Pterophyton heterophyllum (Chapm.) Alex.....]....; S | S S Ste Nl * pauciflorum (Nutt.) Alex. (58)..../ S | S | X ]....... S| 8S | N LUD ETI SIS LLG THO TES 00¥2 8 1 |AIRIAI Rare aD a eR | Ae PD | NON EN Palstamabedyi Gray... 56.6. oe i oe elle dee NIN N NiININ Hroveriaiatiolia (Johnston) Rydb............o...].. 2. dealin. calle os a fee ee N a Miawdamaioreiks JOMNStOM. 0% 5.0 2 SG Ailltmen ato Moet soe icd[ahe dong lied a |ieleces N Mesadenia Floridana (Gray) Greene..........||..../.... S NS) Nene eN mercmnmiitatiaaromalll:: (60 sr rebate ko eased vie alk rs) | NT CICHORIACE iieracumrarcyreum small: . 2... few lew cele elle ke es N|N {IN
(To be concluded)
Quait. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(2-3), 1948 (1949)
‘ ; wee | Cas + * 1 t e * dias + tig fe ie ve P ‘ - ty ‘ j ad ep) “i ‘ ‘
& ie. pb * Z i a ’
7
Ne " H 7 ¥ aT as 7
) % ) \ 4
» ’
i
ARS VASE
a Longs Bass
yee
ee rR a a on oa
x oor iri net i » f : { ; > i ry Dd 7 7 bi fs A ig iz ie 7 ors Nee y ; < aa mot » i ‘ 4 H a a rl n ; , ", ae by ae i i P : f f ’ 1" ty on 4 t , - i , ors By s\ “: < EL = { ah 4 ‘ it a ag ‘ | PP : by tie ie aah ‘yt 4 : Lb b } ‘ } i t { = * c ¥ ° att : ir +5 fi. i ie 7 4 . io e , Mont , ; i 3 7 Ly. nad. me can a = ’ - Lrugha ite 4 ‘ 5 * i! i s Me ‘ } yi My 4 + V ‘ g > wn \ Ne x r I , Nae ‘ aye ogee Ny ig
\ FS wy)
Ne:
eT
DOME Mee of a
CHUA einen
THE PEEP ORDER IN PEEPERS; A SWAMP WATER SERENADE
CoLEMAN J. GOIN University of Florida
Anyone who has ever heard spring peepers calling knows that the chorus has a characteristic structure which makes it recognizable as far as it can be heard. It has further been recorded that the call is approximately two octaves above middle C, that there is variation from frog to frog, and that an occasional trill is heard in every chorus. (See Pope, C. H., Amphibians and Reptiles of the Chicago Area, 1944, 98. )
For the past three seasons, individuals of the southern spring peeper, Hyla crucifer bartramiana, have bred in a pool in my yard near Gainesville, Florida. This has enabled me to listen to choruses as they developed and I have found not only that there is a definite composition to the chorus which gives it a characteristic quality, but also that the chorus develops each time in the same manner.
Typically three frogs sing as a group and a large chorus seems to be nothing more than a number of these trios calling from the same breeding site. Furthermore, each of these trios develops in the same manner. The call is initiated by a single individual sound- ing the note of A for a varying number of times. After a brief rest, if he does not have an answer, he gives a trill. This trill apparently acts as a stimulus since it usually results in another individual starting to call on the note of G ¢. When this happens the two individuals continue giving their respective notes — A, G ¢; A, G tt; etc. — for an indefinite number of times. If a third individual does not start calling, they stop their alternating calls, rest, and one of them — usually (and perhaps invariably) the one that is calling G + — gives the trill. At the sound of the trill, the third individual of the trio starts giving his call which is a B. Thereafter, the three continue to call, each giving its respective note in the order indicated, A, G +, B, for an indefinite number of times.
The trill mentioned above is apparently given only as an appeal to another individual to start calling since when a frog that is sounding the A note comes to a pause and gives his trill, if a second
60 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
individual does not answer him, he repeats the performance over and over until he does have a reply. Furthermore, when two indi- viduals (A and G ¢) are calling, and one of them gives the trill, if the call from the third is not soon férthcoming, they repeat their duet ending with a rest and a trill until the third individual takes part to form the trio. Once the trio is established the trill is no longer given.
The notes sounded by the individual frogs seem to be fairly constant. The most variation has been heard when a single frog begins calling the note of A. In this case the note may drop as much as a quarter tone and thus approach G ¢, but it is neverthe- less best illustrated musically by the note A. After the trio has developed the note seems to be rather constant at A.
Apparently it is these trios which give the chorus of the spring peeper its characteristic quality. When a small chorus is first start- ing, it is easy to ascertain that the frogs invariably sing in threes and after a little practice it is possible to recognize that even a large chorus is composed simply of a number of trios. Occasionally the individual trios sing more or less in unison and this, I believe, is what has been referred to in the literature as the rhythm some- times discernible in a chorus of the spring peeper.
I have not been able to determine whether or not there is any correlation between the development of the individual trios of a chorus. On some occasions I have heard one trio completely estab- lished before another starts and I have likewise heard two trios starting off at about the same time in neighboring portions of the pond. When there are just a few frogs calling I have seen indi- viduals as much as fifteen feet apart enter into the same trio. I presume that any frog is capable of taking any part in the trio but I have not yet been able to demonstrate this point.
When an aggregation of frogs resumes full chorus after having been interrupted the procedure outlined above is much shortened. Here again it is the A of each trio which is sounded first but often the G ¢ and B are heard by the time the A has been repeated just a few times. In such cases the trill is of course omitted.
A frog singing the note A can be heard quite distinctly in part I of Voices of the Night (Albert R. Brand Bird Song Foundation at Cornell University. Comstock Publishing Co., 1948). In this case apparently the recording did not continue long enough to include
THE PEEP ORDER IN PEEPERS 61 the trill which usually follows. It is of interest that the notes of the
northern race, H. c. crucifer, as recorded in this album, seem to be identical with those of the southern subspecies.
Sl a ae | eae AS A a Se Se ae [Se Ra ew Se, Se ae
The score indicates the origin of an individual trio with the trills
indicated in the appropriate places. I am indebteded to Mrs. H. K. Wallace for the musical interpretation.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949). Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949).
ra]
, i ON
Meee EIST OF THE AEGAE OF NORTHERN
FEORIDAG
C. S. NIELSEN AND GRACE C. MADSEN Florida State University
The first check list of algae of the northern area of the state of Florida listed 102 species (1). The collections for the present report were made from July 1, 1948 to December 15, 1948. These speci- _ mens are in the cryptogamic herbaria of the Florida State University and the Chicago Natural History Museum.
The following stations with exact locations are only briefly desig- nated in the check list:
I,
2.
6.
7.
Club Spring is one-half mile north of Phillips picnic grounds at Newport, Wakulla County.
The following stations are located in Saint Marks Wildlife Refuge, Wakulla County: (a) Salt Marsh near lighthouse; (b) Spillway Dam at Phillips Pool, and (c) Mounds Pool.
The Saint Marks River at Little Natural Bridge, one-half mile west of Natural Bridge.
The Woodville area, Leon County (a) Woodville Swamp, one mile north of Woodville on Highway U. S. 819 and (b) Natural Well, a limestone cave, one mile northeast of Woodville.
Six Mile Pond, Apalachicola National Forest on U. S. Highway 319, Leon County.
Heart Leaf Pond, Highway Florida 10, 16 miles northwest of Talla- hassee, Leon County.
Florida Caverns State Park at Marianna, Jackson County.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to Dr. Francis Drouet, of the Chicago Natural History Museum, for the determinations of all spe- cies listed, and for his helpful suggestions and criticisms.
CHROOCOCCACEAE
Coccochloris stagnina {. rupestris (Lynbg.) Dr. & Daily Natural Well, (590).
STIGONEMATACEAE
Stigonema hormoides Born & Flah. Judge Andru’s Magnolia Forest at Lake Iamonia, (887).
1C. S. Nielsen and Grace C. Madsden, Preliminary Check List of the Algae of the Tallahassee Area, Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences,
1949.
64 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
NOSTOCACEAE Anabaena sphaerica Born. & Flah.
Little Natural Bridge, (554). Nostoc ellipsosporum Born. & Flah.
Natural Bridge, (577).
SCYTONEMATACEAE Scytonema figuratum Born. & Flah. Natural Well, (590). Scytonema guyanense Born. & Flah. Natural Well, (588); Florida Caverns State Park, (327,328); Apalachicola River flood plain at Bristol, (480). Tolypothrix lanata Born. & Flah. Six Mile Pond, (604, 607, 609); Crane Lake, (629).
OSCILLATORICEAE Lyngbya contorta Lemm. Lake Eagle, Winter Haven, (154). Microcoleus vaginatus Gom. Oven’s Woods, Magnolia Hts., Tallahassee, (417). Oscillatoria amphibia Gom. Clearwater, Old Tidwell Place, (463). Oscillatoria proboscidea Gom. Apalachicola River flood plain at Bristol, (431). Bellair, (466). Oscillatoria tenuis var. natans Gom. Highway Florida 71, two miles south of Marianna, (338- 341); Apalachi- cola River at Ciateaipeckes: (281); Ochlockonee River-Lake Iamonia - Channel on Meridian Road, (366); Apalachicola River flood plain at Bristol, (438). | Phormidium autumnale Gom. Highway U. S. 90, Wayside Park, Marianna, (310); Highway Florida 71, five miles south of Marianna, (345); Experiment Station Greenhouse, Lake Alfred, (452). Plectonema terebrans Gom. Natural Bridge, (574, 575). Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gom. Apalachicola River flood plain. at Bristol (433). Apalachicola River at Chattahoochee, (293). Schizothrix Friesii Gom. Highway Florida 81, five miles north of Red Bay, (448). Schizothrix purpurascens Gom. Highway U. S. 90, Chipley, (444).
VOLVOCACEAE Eudorina sp. Wakulla Road at Woodville Swamp, (90).
CHECK LIST OF THE ALGAE 65
ULOTRICHACEAE
Stichococcus flaccidus (Kutz.) Gay Highway U. S. 90, ten miles west of Sneads, (296).
CHAETOPHORACEAE Pseudendoclonium submarinum Wille Club Spring, (215). TRENTEPOHLIACEAE
Trentepohlia aurea (L.) Martius Judge Andru’s magnolia forest at Lake Iamonia, (392); Florida Caverns State Park, Marianna, (329, 333); Natural Well, (591).
CLADOPHORACEAE
Rhizoclonium riparium (Roth) Harv. Clearwater, Old Tidwell Place, (462).
ULVACEAE Ulva Lactuca L. St. Petersburg, (265). HYDRODICTY ACEAE Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenb.) Ralfs. Mounds Pool, (488). OOCYSTACEAE
Dictyosphaerium pulchellum Wood.
Lake Eagle, Winter Haven, (153). Tetraedron minimum (A.Br.) Hansg.
Mounds Pool, (489). VAUCHERIACEAE
Vaucheria sessilis (Vauch.) DC. | Florida Caverns State Park, Marianna, (325). MESOTAENIACEAE Mesotaenium macrococcum (Kutz.) Roy Little Natural Bridge, (550). Spirotaenia sp. Ochlockonee River-Lake Iamonia Channel, Meridian Road, (643).
DESMIDIACEAE
Closterium sp. Lake Bradford Road, (61); Meridian Road, sixteen miles north of Talla- hassee, (859).
Cosmarium sp. Old Quincy Highway, six miles west of Tallahassee, (98); Six Mile Pond, (608).
Desmidium Aptogonium Breb. Highway U. S. 90, seven miles east of Marianna, (299, 301-303); High- way U. S. 90, ten miles west of Sneads, (297, 298).
66 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Gymnozyga moniliformis Ehrenb.
Highway U. S. 90, five miles west of Sneads, (295). Micrasterias sp.
Spillway Dam, (120). 5 Staurastrum sp.
Old Quincy Highway, six miles west of Tallahassee, (97). Tetmemorus sp. |
Highway U. S. 90, seven miles east of Marianna,‘ (807). Triploceras gracile Bailey
Thomasville Hunting Club, Lake Iamonia, (404)..
OPHIOCYTIACEAE Ophiocytium sp. Pond on Meridian Road, five miles north of Tallahassee, (5).
. TRIBONEMATACEAE Tribonema minus (Wille) Hay. Little Natural Bridge, (553).
BOTRYDIACEAE Botrydium granulatum (L.) Grev. Apalachicola River at Chattahoochee, (276).
EUGLENACEAE Euglena sp. Heart Leaf Pond, (208, 209); Judge Andru’s at Lake Iamonia, (401); Natural Bridge, (580). Trachelomonas sp. Wakulla Road at Woodville steer, (90).
ERYTHROTRICHIACEAE
Compsopogon coeruleus (Balbis) Mont. Natural Bridge, (571).
SPHAEROCOCCACEAE Gracilaria confervoides (L.) Grev. Salt marsh, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (52). Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949).
NEWS AND COMMENTS
With this issue the editors of the past two and one-half years fold their tents and depart. We are very sorry that we have not pleased everyone, nor published every paper submitted for publication. Some of this failure has been our fault; some of it has been due to lack of funds. The Florida Academy needs more members to give the Journal a larger operating budget. Dr. E. Ruffin Jones, re- cently appointed chairman of the membership drive committee, of the Biology Department, University of Florida, would appreciate your cooperation in this regard. If you have any prospects for new members send in their names.
We wou!d like to introduce your new Editor, Dr. Howard Keefer Wallace, who is usually addressed as “H. K.” Dr. Wallace has taken an interest in the activities of the Academy for many years, and we are sure that you will find in him an outstanding editor. We know from personal experience that he combines those quali- ties of scholarship, attention to detail, and perseverance which should make his editorship highly successful.
Dr. Irving J. Cantrall, who recently resigned as Assistant Editor of the Journal will leave Gainesville July 1 for Ann Arbor, Michigan, where he will assume the position of Assistant Professor of Zoology and Curator of the E. S. George Reserve of the University of Michigan. Dr. Frank N. Young, Jr., who terminates with this issue his editorship of the Journal, will leave about September 1 for Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, where he will be As- sistant Professor of Zoology.
RESEARCH NOTES
EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE SHEEPSHEAD KILLIFISH, CYPRINODON HUBBSI CARR—The small cyprinodont minnow, Cyprinodon hubbsi, was described by Dr. A. F. Carr, 1936 (Copeia, 3:160-163) from specimens collected in Lake Eustis, Lake County, Florida. In the same paper (p. 160) Dr. Carr states, “Although extensive seining has been done in similar situations in several neighboring lakes, including Lake Harris, C. hubbsi has not been taken outside of Lake Eustis.”
I observed this form in Lake Weir, Marion County, Florida, in April, 1946, although none was collected at that time. In September, 1946, I returned to Lake Weir and collected and preserved many specimens.
68 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Lake Weir is located approximately eighteen miles northwest of Lake Eustis. It is connected with the Oklawaha River by a recently constructed drainage canal three miles long. The Oklawaha River drains Lake Eustis and joins the St. Johns River. The canal contains spillways which probably prevent the movement of fishes between the river and Lake Weir.
The situation in which C. hubbsi was collected is about fifty yards southeast of the recreation pier at Barnes’ Beach, Oklawaha, Florida. Ecologically, this locality seems to be quite similar to Lake Eustis in that moderate wave action has retarded an extensive growth of vegetation and has created a long, gently sloping beach zone. A few cypress stumps and sparse growths of maiden cane, Panicum hemitomum, comprise the conspicuous plant forms. Associated fishes consist mainly of Fundulus seminolis Girard, Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens Cope, Menidia beryllina atrimentis Kendall, and young Micropterus salmoides floridanus (LeSueur ).
in Lake Weir, C. hubbsi is usually found at the very edge of the water where it washes onto the beach. Upon being disturbed, the fish scatter and scurry to deeper water where their light sandy dorsal coloration causes them to be practically indiscernable.
The presence of C. hubbsi and Menidia beryllina atrimentis in Lake Weir would seem to attest to the thesis that this lake, like Lake Eustis, is a remnant depression from an ancient sea floor, since both the aforementioned species have close affinities with marine forms Carr, 1936 (Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci., 1:78). —GEORGE kK. REID, JR., Department of Biology, University of Florida.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949).
INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS
FLormwA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Florida Southern College Rollins College
Lakeland, Florida Winter Park, Florida
Florida State University University of Miami Tallahassee, Florida Coral Gables, Florida University of Florida Peninsular Telephone Company Gainesville, Florida Tampa, Florida
Jacksonville Junior College Wakulla Springs
Jacksonville, Florida Wakulla, Florida
University of Tampa Glidden-Naval Stores
Tampa, Florida Jacksonville, Florida
John B. Stetson University Orkin Exterminating Company DeLand, Florida Atlanta, Georgia
St. Petersburg Junior College Marineland St. Petersburg, Florida St. Augustine, Florida
Rose Printing Company Tallahassee, Florida
aay
FEB 1 4 1950
Ne y a LLONALPRUSEUS
Ts cc RR mgm ae
Ouarterly Journal
of the
Florida Academy of Sciences
Vol. lil December 1948 (1949) No. 4 Contents SEPMEIER—l1Axrs ARE Everysopy’s BUSINESS...............00- 69 eeeee CE LIGHT OF KOREA : . .. | 6 cee dee scce eased ne weas D
Kurz AND CrowsoN—THE Flowers or WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA PRI LTIOMPSON 0.) oh wos Saisie Ge Se wc sce eee 87
HERALD AND STRICKLAND—AN ANNOTATED LisT OF THE FISHES BEMENSMOSASSA OPRINGS, PLORIDA.....+.0000000eseeecs0ee8 99
NIELSEN AND MapsEN—PRELIMINARY CuHeEckK List oF THE ALGAE SoM WRMETATRASSEE, AREA5 5. 6c iacces oderecQ vetesiedecean 111
HiIGGINBOTHAM AND MryYER—DETERMINATION OF THE PHYSICAL ConbDiITION oF Fiso. I. Some BLoop ANALYSES OF THE SOUTH- ERN CHANNEL CATFISH..... {Sct Ait Rae oe Ream ARM LR a 119
Epwarps—AN ABANDONED V ALLEY NEAR Hicu Sprinocs, Froripa 125
ir merericey CEG NER TER EES oe ok oo os SS lo le os Sila w lo date eek 133
Vor, 11 DECEMBER 1948 (1949) No. 4
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Published by the F lorida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida
Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed. to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. All ex- changes and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida
Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Subscription price, Three Dollars a year
Mailed January 31, 1950
Bre: QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 11 DECEMBER 1948 (1949) No. 4
TAXES ARE EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS
Kurt A. SEPMEIER Florida State University
Each year taxes are cutting into our ability to satisfy our increas- ing wants for more and better things for the American home. Who would not rather spend some of his tax money for payments on a new home, a new car, or a television set? But there appears the tax collector whose claims must be satisfied.
Each year the head of the family is laboring diligently over the final draft of his income tax report to make sure that he will not pay one cent more than he is legally required to pay. Everybody would rather pay less and let the other fellow pay more. In 1948, when the law permitted a person to deduct, without specification, five hundred dollars from income for charitable purposes, he de- ducted five hundred dollars. But how many have actually contrib- uted that amount to charity? The president of the Goiden Rule Foundation of New York City reported recently that, while the nation had its highest income in 1948, it gave less to charity than ever before in its history. In 1948, only one per cent of the nation’s income went to charity. Even in the worst years of the depression, charity received about five per cent.
This attitude is understandable. It is human nature to designate charity as some one else’s business. Taxes, however, are everybody's business. The number of our various taxes is staggering indeed. But not everybody pays an income tax. Aside from those who are legally exempt, there are the tax dodgers. Tax dodging has de- veloped into a game of vast proportions. It costs the Government approximately one billion dollars a year. According to reports from Washington, the House Appropriations Committee voted to add several thousand investigators in the Internal Revenue Bureau dur-
FEB6 1950
70 TOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ing the Government's 1950 fiscal year. Officials of the Treasury have indicated that, so far, five billion dollars in evaded taxes are outstanding. If that is correct, the question might be raised whether the President's request for additional revenue for the expanding needs of our Government could not be shelved by our legislators, provided that we could collect what is owed already, and if tax dodging could be reduced or outlawed as the anti-democratic act that it is.
Taxes are high. But so are our objectives for which taxes have to be raised. If taxes are everybody's business, our objectives should be everybody's business. One reason why individuals ponder over high taxes might be that not enough people are sufficiently ac- quainted with our national objectives. These require daily observa- tion and study. They are very involved and interdependent. Usually, they are not found in our comic magazines, or in Esquire, the Woman's Home Companion, Life, Look, or Seventeen. All such magazines have and deserve their markets. They delight us with stories and pictures. For the consumer of these magazines every day has its curves. But there are more angular things called charts which acquaint us with economic and social trends and objectives. They can be found mainly in business magazines, business journals, metropolitan papers and economic reviews. Some of them make dull reading. But they are important. Their study might make our occupation with tax problems less onerous, because they do help us to better understand our objectives and, as a result, our obliga- tions as taxpayers.
The study of our objectives is fundamental. Most of us would rather skate along on the thin ice of our civilization without bother- ing with fundamentals.
Let us consider briefly the broader implications of our objectives and money. Taxes are figured in dollars and cents, but they are not merely matters of dollars and cents. Tax expenditures are closely interwoven in our whole fabric of ideals and values that express our way of life. It may be startling to realize that nearly three- fourths of the Federal budget, or approximately 32 billion dollars —76 cents out of every revenue dollar—are required for costs of past wars and for the preparation of wars to come, while only some 10 billions are earmarked for all the other purposes of gov- ernment. In our society, government has grown into the biggest
TAXES ARE EVERYBODY’S BUSINESS
~)
—
business of our economy. Most government officials did not want it that way, but we have voted it that way. Government workers appointed to their tasks on the basis of impartial Civil Service examinations want to do their job as efficiently as possible. Dis- honesty and feather bedding are the exception rather than the rule. Honest workers everywhere are personally interested in the elimina- tion of waste and inefficiency. But the government worker starts his work with one strike against him. Too often he is called a bureau- crat regardless of what he may try to accomplish. Actually, a certain amount of bureaucracy is a part of every big business organization.
Today, government operations are big because most of us want ‘amore and better services from Government. If the majority of our people wants what has become known as the “Welfare State,” if most of us want more aid to agriculture, more social security, more old-age pensions, more and better education, more aid to less for- tunate people here as well as abroad, then we must understand that such combined objectives will require many public servants and money, more money.
Now, an individual can easily see his own interest or that of his particular group and fight for it; but how many dare or are able to look understandingly at the complexity of our interdependence? How many of us really grasp the long range implications of our interdependent objectives? Most of us like to talk about our sus- taining and expanding economy, our dynamic society, our going forward together; but too often we mean only individual progress, individual success, in terms of higher personal income and lower operating costs. Some are wondering whether, in the forthcoming tax program, the middle income should start at $6,000 per year so that all those earning more should be asked to pay more for aiding the new p2ace-time spending program of our Government. President Roosevelt is remembered by his remark that, in his opinion, a twenty-five thousand dollar income .a year was enough for any man, thus implying that anything above that amount could be subjected to stiffer taxation. But does all this really matter? Is not all this somewhat beside the point? Again we are haggling about figures and money, very likely some one else’s money, with- out evaluating the objective for which tax money has to be raised. These objectives are broader than figures and money can express. They have become world-wide and are far fetched. Whether we care to admit it or not, we have made commitments for their realiza-
72 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tion in the past. Basically, they involve the preservation of peace and the continuity of all operations of our economy.
Our individual security depends on the uninterrupted flow of goods and services on the basis of an expanding economy of mass production and mass consumption. Peace is essential because it means progress for each one of us. History tells us that progress is rapid wherever property is reasonably secure, government re- sponsible and stable, customs and manners sufficiently flexible to adjust to changing local or regional conditions. The realization of peace is expensive. But war, disruption, waste are more costly. Labor strife at home is wasteful and expensive. Modern war on a world- wide scale spells catastrophe for all. Is every one aware of this every day? It seems doubtful. The understanding of our national objective requires a much better public relations job on the part of our policy makers, and far more general education on the part of the public than we have achieved thus far.
A better understanding is important because it will convince more people of their obligations, while they share the privileges of our-progressive society. Many have contributed and are contributing today to the preservation and expansion of our mixed-free enter- prise economy which is here to stay. However, individual initiative is often not enough to make our system work more effectively. It will take more and better cooperation, more peaceful settlements of our various grievances, a willingness to cooperate more fully with all those whom we have elected to represent us and our objectives in Government.
Another reason why we, as individuals, fret a lot about the high cost of government is that we do know more about our individual business operations than we know about our economic interdepend- ence. We are more concerned with individual operating costs, with the high prices of the things we buy, the unsatisfactory prices of the things we sell, than with the relations of the services we want of government and the costs involved. The fact is that most of us know more about matters of business administration than about economics. Business administration deals with the multitude of methods and operating procedures so dear to us in the operations - of our own individual business. On the other hand, economics is more involved, less clear in its effects upon individual interests, harder to grasp in its overall ramifications and in its long-range consequences. Fundamentally, our national objectives are matters
TAXES ARE EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS 78
of economics rather than business administration. The knowledge of even the most progressive operating methods of individual busi- ness enterprise is no guarantee of a successful solution of highly interdependent economic problems.
It is not generally realized that the study of economics is a time consuming process. Slow progress is to be expected, for the com- plications are many. Too often individual interests are clouding the overall picture. Thinking in terms of economics requires from each individual, patience to grow up slowly with the whole thinking pattern.
Training in economics implies the assembling and study of many facts, an analysis of their cause and effect relationships under vari- cus conditions, and the evaluation of many factors which must be brought into the analysis from fields other than economics because they are important. Actually, the study of our modern interde- pendent economic problems requires longer individual training, more patience, a greater maturity of judgment and objectivity than many are willing to permit themselves.
Our schools offer various training opportunities in the fields of economics and business administration. Many take courses in funda- mentals in both fields. But too many who begin with a consideration ot fundamentals in economics are attracted, too often and too early, by business administration subjects, because they seem to offer a better guarantee for individual business success than more training in economics. Too many tend to lose sight of the real significance of economics, sociology, and government in their training for ef- fective citizenship. No wonder that a lack of sufficient understand- ing of the interdependence of economics, sociology, and government is at the bottom of a lack to grasp the interdependence and the long-range implications of our national! objectives. If that be true, we could benefit from a better balanced training program which would lead to a better comprehension of our objectives and our obligations. The study of economics would broaden our under- standing, not of the short-run but of the long-run effects of eco- nomic and social forces in our home community, our nation, and in the community of nations. A better understanding of economics may not make us happier about prospects of paying high taxes for a long time to come. But it may offer reasonable explanations why high taxes are our lot. A better understanding of our objectives will help us to consider more intelligently whether our objectives should
74 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
remain what they are today. If our objectives are everybody's business, it wouid seem that a more patient and more thorough study of economics is everybody's business. It might help us to decide whether we shculd continue to vote for high taxes in the future in support of existing objectives, or whether we should cast our vote in favor of a change in objectives which might mean lower taxes, but also less service to be expected on the part of- our Government.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci, 11(4) 1948(1949)
THE PLIGHT OF KOREA?
ANNIE M. POPPER Florida State University
Korea is a peninsula approximately 100 to 150 miles wide and 400 miles long. It extends southward from Manchuria into the Sea uf Japan. Writers have often referred to Korea as a dagger hanging over Japan. Korea's natural resources and strategic position have roused the covetousness of Greater Powers again and again. No wonder that China, since the early days of our Christian era, per- haps even longer, has tried to extend her rule over Korea, not without at least partial success. Similarly, we hear of early attempts of japan to get control of Korea or at least of part of it.
From the thirteenth century to the Sino-Japanese War of 1894, Korea was claimed by China as her vassal state though at times Korea paid tribute also to Japan.
After Korea’s narrow escape from becoming Japan's vassal in the sixteenth century, in the days of the famous Japanese military hero Hideyoshi, Korea closed her ports to all foreign intercourse, except with her Chinese (Manchu) suzerain. It was not until 1876 that Japanese military threats and Chinese diplomatic pressure moved Korea to abandon her policy of seclusion.
Almost from the start the leading Powers, both oriental and occi- dental, rivaled in asserting their respective interests in Korea with- out regard to those of the natives themselves. The detrimental re- sults of the international play of power politics were aggravated by the fact that, as in ancient Athens and Sparta, domestic factions would ally themselves now with ene power, then with the other, thus enabling the enemies of their country to weaken its resistance by playing one faction against another.
Renewed Sino-Japanese competition in Korea became evident in the 1870’s. The Chinese government, anxious to escape international responsibilities, allowed some of her claimed dependencies, includ- ing Korea, at times to slip from under her control and then began maneuvering to reverse the situation. In 1873, the Chinese minister told the Japanese envoy, who inquired about the political status of
1 Russian sources on the Korean question are still rather scarce and were not available to the author of this paper.
76 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Korea, that she was China’s vassal but had a free hand to make war or peace. Japan took advantage of this rather strange assertion and inserted the following statement in her first commercial treaty with Korea, 1876: “Korea, being an independent state, enjoys the same sovereign rights as Japan.” Strange to say, no protest was raised by China at the time, but in 1889, we find her assisting in the negotiations for an American-Korean commercial treaty. Why? In order “to kill poison with poison” and with the vain hope of obtaining the inclusion of a clause recognizing China’s suzerainty over Korea.
The Sino-Japanese contest for Korea went on for decades. It caused several crises, notably the ones of 1882 and 1884-85, and finally led to the Sino-Japanese War of 1896, ending with Japan’s victory, the importance of the results of which can hardly be overrated.
Korea was declared independent but again found herself the victim of power politics. Great Britain, Russia, the United States, and others entered the stage. In 1904 a new crisis reached its climax with the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, at the eve of which President Theodore Roosevelt practically told Japan that he would not object to a Japanese protectorate over Korea. He supported this statement indirectly by warning Germany and France against steps to check Japan as they had taken in 1895. Under these circumstances, and with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 in her pocket, Japan could well afford to take definite measures towards the establishment of a protectorate even before her final victory. Symptoms of Korean aspirations towards independence only hastened her annexation by Japan in 1910.
There followed nearly thirty-five years of Japan’s rule over Korea. It would, of course, be an exaggeration to say that everything the Japanese did was harmful to the Koreans, but they suffered greatly under a regime that suppressed their national aspirations and was calculated to benefit economically the foreign ruler almost exclusively.
So far we have been concerned with Korea’s plight in the past. Let us now turn to her fate during World War II and since. The unfortunate conditions today in Korea, as well as in some other parts of the world, are due greatly to the elasticity permitted in the formulation and hence in the interpretation of commitments made among the powers under the pressure of events during the war
THE PLIGHT OF KOREA Far
against Hitler and later. The following declaration regarding Korea made by the United States, Great Britain, and China at the Cairo Conference, December 1, 1943, bears out my point: “in due course Korea shall become free and independent.” What does “in due course’ mean?
About a year and a half later, July 26, 1945, this pledge was con- firmed by the so-called Potsdam Declaration and acceded to by Russia when she joined the struggle against Japan in conformity to the rather unfortunate Yalta Agreement of February of the same year.”
A military decision made in the fall of 1945 designated Russia and the United States to receive the surrender of Japan in Korea north and south respectively of the thirty-eighth parallel. The American Assistant Secretary of State, John A. Hilldring, has re- ferred to this agreement as having been “in no sense more than a military expedient between two friendly powers.”? But Russia has interpreted it as authorizing her to make the thirty-eighth parallel an insurmountabie wall betweeen a Russian and an American zone of occupation, and she has acted upon that assumption from the start.
Russia had the advantage of being close at hand when Japan's resistance collapsed in August 1945. The Japanese regime was liquidated in its entirety and Korean committees of law and order were permitted to remain part of the new puppet Korean govern- ment established in accordance with the Russian patterns as “The Executive Committee of the Korean People’—two weeks before the American troops had even landed!
In the meantime, in the southern zone, patriots proclaimed a “Korean People’s Republic,” and a so-called National Congress of representatives from local committees chose the Korean leader Lynh Woon Hyung as its head. But when the American forces finally arrived the Korean People’s Republic was declared to be “in no sense a government. The Military Government is the only government in the South.” What the Korean people understood least and resented most was that their “liberators” allowed the Japanese administration to continue to function for several months
2 The Yalta Agreement was the high price paid by the Allies for Russia’s promise to join eventually the fight against Japan. It amounted to a be- » trayal of their Chinese ally and has started already to bear its bitter fruits.
3 Department of State Bulletin, March 28, 1947, p. 545.
78 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
before the American Military Government displaced it entirely. We are perhaps not far from the right track if we seek a clue to these initial tactics in a regrettable lack of preparedness as to suitable personnel and definite policies for the solution of difficult problems that had to be found at a much earlier date than had been anticipated. :
However, plans that were soon formulated for the American oc- cupation called explicitly for practical training of Koreans in ad- ministrative responsibilities. One of the results of this directive was the establishment in June 1946 of a Korean Interim Legislative Assembly (KILA), which did not meet until December 1946. Forty- five of the ninety members were elected (indirectly) and repre- sented all provinces of South Korea, while the other forty-five were appointed by the Commanding General. His choices, allegedly a “fair cross-section of Korean political thought in the best repre- sentative democratic tradition,’ gave rise to much dissatisfaction and apparently justified public criticism.
The Kila existed about a year and a half. During this time it was given such tasks as passing on appropriate measures of taxation, collecting grain, and elections of anew assembly, of course, subject to approval by the Military Government. Because of its obvious incompetence and failure of being truly representative in its mem- bership, the Kila enjoyed little public prestige. It might be well to add here that while in theory operation of all government de- partments had been passed on to the Koreans themselves* by February 1947, actually their respective American advisors were not restricted to purely advisory functions but retained a consider- able amount of control in certain key positions. Thus, for all prac- tical purposes, the Interim Government in South Korea too was not much more than a puppet one.
If the fulfillment of the promise by the Powers of freedom and independence to Korea was not to be postponed to a remote future, cooperation between the American and Russian commands, at least in other than strictly military affairs, seemed imperative. The iron wall which Russia had established at the thirty-eighth parallel soon began to show disastrous results, most keenly felt in the economic field at the early part of the period under consideration. The thirty-
4 This transaction was started by instructions of General Hodge to the
Military Governor, August 8, 1946. Foreign Policy Reports, October 15, 1947, XXIII, 189.
THE PLIGHT OF KOREA 79
eighth parallel separates two-thirds of the total population of 30,000,000 in the South from their brethren in the North. Eco- nomically the South is predominantly agricultural, the North pri- marily industrial. The South does have numerous small scale industries, but even for these it is dependent on the North, not only for raw materials but even for electrical power. Any success towards economic rehabilitation seems well nigh impossible so long as Korea remains divided; in fact the additional strain upon her economic life after nearly forty years of Japanese domination and exploitation mignt lead to a catastrophe of far reaching conse- quences.
Since our Department of State, as has been pointed out before, never had intended the thirty-eighth parallel to become a barrier in any sense of the word, the initiative towards trying to bring about cooperation was taken by the American Commander.
After several vain attempts of persuading the Russian Commander to. help restore Korea to a normal life by consenting to a removal of the restrictions enforced by him at the thirty-eighth parallel, the American Commander requested that the matter be considered by higher authorities.
This led to the Conference of the Foreign Ministers of the United States, Great Britain, and Soviet Russia at Moscow, December 27, 1945, at which decisions were made that have defied complete realization to this day. The principal objectives agreed upon were: Reestablishment of Korea as an independent state, creation of conditions for the development of Korea as an independent state, creation of conditions for the development of Korea on democratic principles (meaning not defined! ), and earliest possible liquidation of the unsatisfactory results of the Japanese domination of Korea.
To implement these objectives a rather involved machinery was devised. Because of the important role it has played in the Korean question it is necessary to point out a few of the details: A Provi- sional Korean Democratic Government was to be established with the help of a Joint Commission to be composed of the United States Command of South Korea and the Russian Command of North Korea. In working out recommendations, the Joint Commission was to consult with the Korean democratic parties and social organ- izations. Here we have again one of those ambiguous phrases that was to cause endless trouble. Where is the line between democratic and undemocratic? Would the interpretation of the meaning of
80 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
“democratic” by an American necessarily be identical with that by a Russian?
Any recommendations were to be submitted for consideration to the four powers concerned (United States, Great Britain, Russia, and China ); final decisions, however, were to remain with the two governments represented on the Joint Commission. |
Furthermore, under similar stipulations, a four power trusteeship for Korea was to be worked out for a period up to five years to promote her economic, political, and social progress and to help her develop democratic self-government and independence.
Finally, a conference of the representatives of the Soviet and American commands in Korea. was to be convened within two weeks for consideration of urgent problems affecting both zones and for the elaboration of measures permitting coordination in ad- ministrative and economic matters between the two military commands.
Due to the last stipulation a joint conference was held from January 16, to February 5, 1946. Results, however, were very disappointing.
The Joint Commission fared no better. A deadlock was reached through the unyielding stand taken by both the Russian delegation and the American. The Russians insisted that parties and organiza- tions that had voiced disapproval of the Moscow provision for the four power trusteeship should not be consulted, even if they should be ready to make a written declaration of their willingness “to up- hold the aims of tae Moscow decision and to abide by the decisions of the Joint Comrnission for the formation of a provisional Korean government.” Nor should any party be represented by an individual who had opposed the trusteeship. In practice this meant that elec- tions would be very much restricted since there were not many groups in South Korea who had not voiced disapproval of the trusteeship. The United States representative maintained acceptance of the Russian standpoint would involve violation of the principle of freedom of speech.
A long correspondence (May °46-February *47) opened by the American Commander with the Russian, in the hope of finding a common basis for a resumption of conferences of the Joint Com- mission, ended without having accomplished its purpose.
Finally, through the intervention of the American Secretary of State, Marshall, and the Soviet Foreign Minister, Molotov, the
THE PLIGHT OF KOREA 81
impasse was overcome. As a result the joint meetings were resumed in May 1947. But the old controversy over the issue of broad con- sultation with Korean political parties and social organizations flared up anew. The members of the Joint Russo-American Commission could not even reach an agreement on a joint report on the status reached in their deliberations so far.
Under these circumstances the urgently needed fulfillment of the Moscow Agreements seemed beyond the realm of possibilities through bilateral Russo-American action. On August 26, 1947, there- fore, the United States Government, through Mr. Lovett, Acting Secretary of State, took the initiative in presenting to Russia and the other two powers concerned an outline of proposals designed to accomplish the establishment of an independent Korean Gov- ernment and to be considered at a conference of the four powers concerned in Washington, D. C., beginning September 8, 1947.° When this move was approved by Great Britain and China but re- jected by Russia, Lovett notified Russia® and the other powers of his government’s intention to refer the problem of Korean inde- pendence to the General Assembly of the United Nations (Sep- tember 17, 1947).
The very same day (!) Marshall addressed the General Assembly of the United Nations, calling its attention to two matters that con- cern us here:
1. The desirability of creating a subsidiary organ of the General assembly.*
2. The motives for his government's intention to refer the prob- lem of Korean independence with certain proposals for a possible solution of existing difficulties to the consideration of the General Assembly.
The General Assembly referred both items for deliberation to its First Committee which adopted two resolutions. These were placed before the General Assembly on November 13. Mr. Andrei Gro- myko and Mr. John Foster Dulles took the floor and defended their mutually conflicting points of view. In spite of the strong disapproval on the part of Gromyko and his backers among the
5U. S. Dept. of State, Korea, 1945-1948, Washington, U. S. Govt. Print. Off., 1948, p. 48 ff. 6 Lovett to Molotov, Sept. 17, 1947. Korea’s Independence, p. 59f. 7It was from this embryo that the Interim Committee of the General . Assembly, also called the “Little Assembly”, was born, Nov. 14, 1947.
82 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
smaller states, the decisive resolutions adopted by the General As- sembly on the following day, were closely patterned, except for a few modifications, after the draft resolutions submitted by the United States. a ,
Outstanding features of these resolutions (adopted by a vote of 43 to 0 with six abstentions) were: Absence of provisions for the restrictive qualifications for voters, so stubbornly insisted upon by Russia for many months. 2. Reasonable assurance of free elections of members for a Korean National Assembly designated to organize an independent democratic government. 3. Establishment of a Nine- United-Nations-Temporary Commission on Korea with consultative and supervising functions and- freedom to move all over Korea. 4, Authorization of this United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea® to consult the Interim Committee of the General Assembly of the United Nations (if such should have been created), a most helpful and foresighted provision. 5. Recommendation of with- drawal of the occupation forces at as early a date as practicable (if possible after 90 days) upon agreement between the military commanders and the independent Korean Government.
If some optimistic Koreans had expected that the intervention of the United Nations would work toward the immediate fulfillment of the long standing promise of independence, they were doomed to bitter disappointment. The appeal of the General Assembly to the nations occupying Korea to do everything in their power to facilitate the smooth and effective functioning of the United Nations Temporary Commission was entirely disregarded by Russia. Ignor- ing likewise pleadings from the UN Temporary Commission on Korea itself,2 Russia rendered, what must be termed more than passive resistance to the implementation of the resolutions of the General Assembly to which she had never given her approval. Restrictions, imposed upon communication and transportation ser- vices at the thirty-eighth parallel were not lifted, elections under the observation of the UN Temporary Commission on Korea were prevented in North Korea, and even a call on the Russian Com-
8 One representative each from Australia, Canada, China, El Salvadore, France, India, The Phillipines, Syria, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The latter's place remained vacant because its representatives, like Gro- myko, had not voted on the creation of this Commission and therefore refused to serve on it.
9 Korea 1945 to 1948, page 68 f.
THE PLIGHT OF KOREA 83
mander, suggested by the Chairman of the UN Temporary Com- mission on Korea, did not receive the slightest encouragement.
Under these conditions the UN Temporary Commission on Korea decided to avail itself of its right, to which I have already drawn your attention, to consult the Interim Committee of the General Assembly of the United Nations.?° Briefly stated, the Interim Com- mittee held that under the terms of the General Assembly Resolu- tion IT of November 14, 1947,11 and in the light of developments
. in the Korean situation since . . . it was incumbent upon the UN Temporary Commission on Korea to implement the original adopted program .. . “in such parts of Korea as are accessible to the Commission.”
Consequently ithe United Nations Temporary Commission an- nounced that it would observe elections in all parts of Korea ac- cessible to it, not later than May 10, on the basis of adult suffrage and by secret ballot in “the free atmosphere wherein democratic rights of freedom of speech, press, and assembly would be recog- nized and respected.”
A more formal announcement of the pending observation of elections was later made by the Commanding General of the American zone.
When elections were held, May 10, it was reported that only in two or three districts in the South, on the island of Cheju-Do, were they disturbed by Communists to such a degree that they were not considered valid. The UN Temporary Commission on Korea went on record (June 25) that the results of the ballot of May, 1948, were a valid expression of the free will of the electorate in those parts of Korea which were accessible to the Commission and where the inhabitants constitute approximately two-thirds of the entire population of Korea.1? Thus the way was cleared for a Korean National Assembly which met on May 381, 1948. The members pledged themselves to establish a National Government, to prepare a Constitution,!* and to unite South and North Korea.
The first two pledges have been carried out since. Mr. Syngman Rhee, an ardent champion of Korean independence of long stand-
10 Ibid, p. 71. —
11 Korea, 1945-1948, pp. 66-67.
12 Tbid. p. 78.
13 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Korea, enacted July 12, 1948: Ibid., pp. 78-95.
84 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ing, became chairman of the National Assembly and later first President of the Republic of Korea (July 24, 1948). A Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Korea was enacted July 12, 1948.14 But how long will it take for the fulfillment of the recent vows of the members of the National Assembly and the first Congress of Korea to create a united, independent, democratic republic? Po- litically, socially, and economically Korea is in a rather desperate plight. Though some steps to mitigate the sufferings of the pop- ulation were taken by the occupying powers,. according to Soviet pattern in the North and along capitalistic lines in the South, those measures were but a drop in the ocean, they have not solved Korea’s fundamental problems. ,
Largely as a result of the military occupation Korea is being torn between opposite poles: American and Russian influences, capital- ism and communism, right parties and left parties, and rival claims by the Seoul and Pyongyong governments of representing the whole of the country.?°
In the meantime (i.e. since this report was given orally), both occupation powers have “officially” withdrawn their troops’® with consequences that had been feared in many quarters; growing helplessness of the “National” Korean government which is faced with the increasing aggressiveness of Communists from both sides of the thirty-eighth parallel. The situation is threatening to develop into a civil war chiefly between Communists and anti-Communists, each faction being supported, in one way or another, by its Western patrons.
Only quick economic recovery, if anything, can save the new Republic in her struggle for survival. Since, for obvious reasons, we are much interested in the future of Korea, President Truman recently asked Congress for $150,000,000 as an extension of our aid for Korea’s economic reconstruction. Acting Secretary of State, James E. Webb, told the House Committee on Foreign Affairs that three years of such aid might make Korea self-sufficient. Even if we assume that this extremely optimistic estimate will be realized,
14 Korea, 1945-1948, pp. 78-95.
15 Seoul is the capital of the government of the Republic of Korea cre- ated under the supervision of the United Nations Commission. Pyongyong is the capital of the People’s Republic of Korea, sponsored by Russia.
16 Both Russia and the United States have left military advisors and equipment behind.
THE PLIGHT OF KOREA 85
is Korea likely to become a real bulwark of peace in the Far East? This is the avowed objective of both Russia and the United States according to the following statements by the Russian General Shlikow and the American Assistant Secretary of State, Hilldring, respectively:
The Soviet Union has a keen interest in Korea being a true democratic and independent country, friendly to the Soviet Union, so that in the future it will not become a base for an attack on the Soviet Union.17
Today a weak Korea, unable to sustain its own independence, would be fertile ground for some new disturbance by openly inviting rivalry for her control and later domination by some strong outside power. If we are io _ prevent Korea’s becoming a danger spot again, a cause of war and an aid to aggression, we must make certain the establishment of a free, democratic, and sovereign country which will become an active factor in maintaining stability in the Orient.18
Will Korea, as a small nation not be apt to pass under a more or less veiled protectorate of one greater power or another? Why has the Korean question defied solution so long? Mainly because of the strained relationship between Russia and the United States in other regions of the globe: Berlin, Eastern Europe, the Near East, etc. in other words, at the bottom, the Korean question is part and parcel of the larger issues that divide the Nations at the present time, the conflicting interests of their power politics and ideologies, and—in the last analysis—of their search for security.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1949(1949)
17 Shtikov, General T. F. The Voice of Korea (Washington, D. C.), April 6, 1946, quoted in Foreign Policy Review, October 15, 1948, p. 186. 18 “Korea—House Divided,’ Department of State Bulletin, March 23, 1947, p. 544, quoted in Foreign Policy Report, October 15, 1948, p. 186.
Raretide
| Weta
very Lets sty dea
(7 i warner hint yew eles bird leu? ry 1 yn me re “taal oie ah Se pikes rua yee Matoww ee
v.45 Hla Ce ae egpieabnes in W bevy adem an, BV, eee ‘bets B
% : > i soap bee yee a 3 ae Ok wid ode 4 1 Ae aS kia sp ua : fy eG A se Ry ea? 1S pas) We Ge | j - ¢ re =, Be ant f Lt. pee a Tee Let ’ i By yeti tea eh “1 . _— ? 4 } + ne Oy Ne Sf Perey £9 cist aah we | “ak at ; 4 a § 2 ‘ \ a ar zen ‘ yy: “ 4 < i. june L : ve ue a dual ( arco e. | te ve ae 2 ‘ 7 ‘ hy aa 714 * - i Sees meagre EL 9 be \ s. 2 tf PRIN e: ‘ f of hx ¥ \ 7 4 ‘s ra a ¢ i = h 7 ayy i 4 a 7 5 z Fi t bes Tera = PA sy i Avery os tet fi 7 R , Bipaei as PUGH L0R) Pee
=
THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA (J. D. SM.) THOMPSON
HERMAN Kurz AND DorotHy Crowson! Florida State University
The smallest and simplest known flowering plants are the duck- weeks of the family Lemnaceae. These free floating aquatics rang- ing from 0.5 mm. to 10 mm. in size are represented by four genera —Spirodela Schleiden, Lemna L., Wolffia Horkel, and Wolffiella Hegelmaier. Saeger (1929) recognizes about 26 species in the family. Most of them flower rarely. As late as 1929 Saeger reported for the first time flowers in Wolffia papulifera Thompson. In re- viewing the records of flowering in species of Lemnaceae he found that at that time flowers of six species were still unknown: Wolffia microscopica Griif., W. cylindracea Welw., and the four species of Wolffiella. In fact, referring to the genus Wolffiella, Saeger wrote:
Tt would be of interest to know whether the sexual method of reproduction has been entirely replaced by the vegetative method, or whether fertile flowers might still be produced under appropriate conditions.
And Hicks (1932) commented:
The ability to produce flowers apparently has been so completely lost that they are never produced by planis in nature. In Wolffiella floridana, (J. D. Sm.) Thompson,? at least, it is doubtful as to whether the flowering potentiality could be made to find expression as the result of favorable physiological conditions.
FLOweERs oF W. OBLONGA AND W. LINGULATA
Strangely enough, hard on the heels of these expressions, Giardelli (1935) described the flowers of Wolffiella oblonga (Phil.) Hegelm. which she discovered January 1935 in a small Lagoon near Dolores, Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Next, Mason (1938) described flowers of W. lingulata Hegelm. which he discovered in June of 1937 and 1938. These plants were found in a slough of the marshes of Roberts Island in the deita of the San Joaquin River near Holt, California.
1 Contribution from the Department of Botany, Florida State University. 2 Authority will be cited only the first time the scientific name is pre- sented.
88 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
FLOWERS OF W. FLORIDANA
On April 8, 1940, I discovered numerous W. floridana plants — flowering in the Zull sunlight of a swamp near Tallahassee, Leon County, Florida. This swamp lies at the west end of the old Dale Mabry Airport and just north of the railroad overpass on the Jackson Bluff Highway 5 miles a little south of west of the Tallahassee Post Office. So within a short span of five years three of the four species had been discovering flowering. I reported this discovery at the annual meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences at Gainesville, Florida, in November of 1948.
In April of 1941 I again observed Wolffiella floridana flowering abundantly at the Dale Mabry Airport swamp. The same spring I found them flowering in a swamp about a mile northwest of the original airport locality. This second locality, dominated by Tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica L.), I shall designate as Little Dismal Swamp. It lies 4.6 miles west of the Tallahassee Post Office on the Quincy Road, Federal Highway 90. In the interior under the large Tupelo trees aquatic vegetation was sparse, but around the better lighted margins Wolffiella grew in profusion, associated with Lemna minor L., Wolffia punctata Griseb., Ricciocarpus natans L., Riccia fluitans _L., and Azolla caroliniana Willd. For 1942 I have no records. Search- ing for Wolffiella again in 1948, I found the plants had all disap- peared from the original station of the swamp at the west end of the Dale Mabry Airport (by this time designated as Dale Mabry Air Base) as well as from the Little Dismal Swamp. Drainage, filling operations, and pollution had apparently rendered the hab- itats untenable for W. floridana and the associates referred to above.
In the hope of finding the plant flowering elsewhere, I made several futile trips the same year to a small lake locally known as Crane Island Lake on the west side of the Meridian Road nine miles north of the Tallahassee Post Office. However, in July 1944, after a prolonged search, I did find a few old flowering plants floating free and isolated from tangled vegetative colonies in water shaded by Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis L.).
March and April of 1946 I again explored Little Dismal Swamp. The water was high during this time and showed little pollution; Riccia, Lemna, and Wolffiella had come back. Nevertheless, it took several trips for me to locate flowering plants of the latter. And these, strange to note, I found in a very shady situation of Tupelo gum saplings.
THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA 89
In the winter of 1946 I collected water, bottom mud, and plants to set up as a culture in the greenhouse. By neglect the water had evaporated to a critically low level. To my surprise one day in late March or early April i noted the culture teeming with plants in flower. At least two conditions attended this blooming: (1) low water and (2) early spring, the time the plants had been caught in flower previously. Up to now this suggestive accident has not been followed with controlled conditions.
On May 20, 1949 my attention was called to flowering Wolffiella which Miss Helen Harris, student in botany, had reportedly col- lected under a stand of Cypress (Taxodium ascendens Brongn.) at Lake Bradford. Encouraged by this find, I made three trips to Lake bradford and its connecting smaller lakes and ponds, but I was not successful in locating the species—flowering or vegetating. I im- mediately followed up by exploring six other localities where Wolffiella floridana abounded. In all these explorations I noted only two or three plants in flower; and these came from Little Dismal Swamp, one of the original sites of flowering Wolffiella floridana where the water was very low in late May and where plants were stranded everywhere.
At Crane Island Lake, one of the six localities mentioned pre- viously where some Wolffiella had been found fruiting in 1944, the water was extraordinarily high and had been so for a year or more. Here the plants were growing in extravagant masses, but all very attenuated. I found no flowers in this high water. In the fore- going the reader will have noted that flowering plants had always been observed to bloom in March or April, but in a variety of environmental factors. Hicks (op. cit.) has endeavored to force blooming in species representing all four genera of Lemnaceae. Ultra-violet light, photoperiods, mineral starvation, nutrient solu- tions in varying combinations and concentrations, addition of various chemical substances were all tried with no success. It seems idle, therefore, to speculate which environment factor or factors are the critical ones that favor incipiency of sexual reproduction in Wolf-
fiella floridana.
VEGETATIVE PLANTS AND PROPAGATION
In the vegetative state Wolffiella floridana grows in very charac- teristic colonies. Goebel (1921) has worked out Wolffiella gladiata Hegelm., a close relative of W. floridana, and described in great
90 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
detail the manner in which daughter plants are formed from the © parents and the pattern that results by the coherence of successive generations one to the other. Mason (op. cit.) has shown vegetative propagation for W. lingulata. Yet the delineations of Wolffiella floridana in the manuals do not even suggest the real nature of the maneuvers of successive vegetative offspring and the unique colonial patterns that follow. For that reason: the manner of vegetative multiplication is illustrated in Plate I.
FLOWERING PLANTS AND PROPAGATION
The vegetating plants are not buoyant enough to rise above the surface tension film of water but in flowering they become light enough to break through. Individually the plants appear as small straps or scythes 4 to 8 mm. long. In general the flowering plants are slightly shorter, but wider and thicker at the base than the vegetative individuals. Mason (op. cit.) finds W. lingulata flowering plants somewhat smaller than vegetative ones. At flower- ing time individuals are disengaged from the colonies. The devel- opment of greater internal air spaces in the flowering area enables this part to break up through the surface tension film of the water so that stigma, anther, and adjacent area of the plant are exposed to the air, while the sterile tip and the extreme base remain dipped under. Correlated with this exposure to air, stomata are developed on the emergent portion. The average number of stomata for 25 fertile plants was 9, but extremes ran from none in four cases to 19 per plant. No stomata were found on the submerged parts of flowering plants or on purely vegetative plants.
Accustomed to large, tangled, and submersed masses that the vegetative plants present, the observers eye is arrested by the polywog-like detached flowering singles with their expansive flow- ering basal ends riding the surface and their sterile attenuated tips dipping under. Closer observations reveal that the “singles” are really linear pairs arranged base to base, for in all cases examined flowering singles revealed a young shoot within the asexual pouch or ntorndaie from it. Indeed some flowering individuals produce two or even three daughter cells.
Giardelli (op. cit.) found no spathe in W. oblonga; Mason (op. cit.) found none in W. lingulata; I saw none in W. floridana. In agreement with the results of Giardelli and with those of Mason, I found all flowers examined to be protogynous. The pistil and
THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA 91
stamen appear in the floral chamber, the pistil being nearest the base. The stamen is posterior to the pistil, that is, on the side of the pistil which is nearest to the tip of the plant; really the pistil and stamen appear to originate from a common primordium. For that reason I consider the pistil and stamen as components of a single flower. The two components of this single flower are situated to one side of but parallel with the median axis of the plant. When the plants were all oriented in one direction, examined, and scanned from base to tip the flowers appeared to the right of the median in most cases while the vegetative pouch with its daughter plants was a little to the left. The actual count was 68 out of 68; in five the flowers were to the left.
STRUCTURE OF PISTIL
The pistil consists of a funnel-shaped stigma, style, ovary, and a stipe narrowing down to a mere width of one cell. With such a _ weak stipe the ovary settles down on its side resting on the floor of the floral cavity like a toppled flask with the neck curving up- ward. The side of the ovary thus lying on the floor could easily be mistaken for the broad base of the pistil; but microscopic sec- tions reveal that the two-cell thick ovary wall, though contiguous to the floor, is not a part of the latter, and that the sides of the wall as disclosed in a median section really taper down to a narrow stipe which parallels the floor of the floral cavity and which is finally only one cell thick at the place of origin. If the path of at- tention is now reversed from the end of the stipe toward the ovary it will be noted that this one cell is followed by two cells at its end; these two each by two more; the lower pair becoming the lower ovary wall. The interior cell of the upper pair is the basal cell of the funiculus of the ovule and the upper forms the two layers of the upper ovary wall. The figures of Giardelli (op. cit.) and of Mason (op cit.), omitting cellular detail, indicate a similar but less extreme curvature of the pistil.
At the region where the ovary wall curves upward and away from the floor of the floral cavity some of the cells of the ovary wall rejuvenate to form daughter cells. The outer layer of the ovary wall thus becoming longer breaks away from the inner layer. The free ends of the cells newly formed now connect with the floor or sides of the cavity. In section they appear as pillars, braces, or ir- regular masses or groups. A transverse section reveals the ovary
92 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
wall connecting with the side or floor of the floral cavity. How important, if at all, these connections are in stabilizing or keeping the ovary from tipping I do not know. In any event these connec- tions might be functional in transferring materials to the developing ovary and ovule. These outer ovary wall cells together with the reclining ovary lying in a plane parallel to the floor of the floral cavity give the false impression that the morphological base of the ovary is broad. Really it is the side of the ovary that appears and functions as a broad base.
THE SEED
The one-loculed ovary contains one orthotropous ovule, the axis of which is parallel to that of the leaning ovary. An outstanding character is the very definitely developed internal operculum de- veloped from the inner integument. Mason (op cit.) found that in W. lingulata the operculum lies in a cavity at the end of the seed. Obviously this operculum is also formed from the inner integument. Giardelli (op cit.) makes no reference to an operculum in W. oblonga. Hegelmaier (1868) delineates opercula formed from the inner intergument in Wolffia hyalina (Delile) Hegelm. and Wolffia repanda Hegelm. Besides he illustrates opercula of four species of Lemna including L. minor L. Goebel (1921—after Rostowzew) de- lineates an operculum formed from the inner intergument of L. minor. On the other hand Caldwell (1899) shows figures of young seeds of Lemna minor developing an operculum from the tips of the two integuments, the outer one contributing much more. In Gray's Manual (1908) the operculum of the seed of the several species of Lemna is given as important taxonomic character.
THE STAMEN
The stamen while still within the floral chamber with its sturdy filament and chunky anther is a structure of impressive beauty in line and form. The thick filament appears to have a broad base. But like the base of the pistil it too can be traced to one cell thick at the base. This one cell seems to spring from the same cell as the stipe of the ovary (mechanical break of section on slide prevents an absolute statement to this effect). From this one small cell others develop to form the broad base of the filament. Thus the chunky stamen rests on the floral cushion by means of this squared
THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA 98
off broad basal end of the filament. The latter is structurally con- nected with the {floral cushion by a short isthmus of a mere cell or two. At the connection with the anther the filament is again narrow and here, too, the filament squares off laterally to form wide’ shoulders upon which the anther rests. About the time of dehiscence the filament elongates somewhat to hoist the anther through and above the opening of the floral cavity and the stigma. The cells of the filament are now so elongate, the filament so slender, and the anther so shrunken that the old stamen appears much longer than it really is. The anther is two-celled and the line of dehiscence is marked by prominent pigmented cells. The exine of the pollen grains is marked by prickly projections.
PAPILLATE CELLS
A notable feature of the floral parts, and the plant in general to a lesser extent, is the papillate modifications that occur on exterior cell walls. The papillate projections tend to contact other cells nearby. They can be found in almost all situations where a rela- tively small space separates cells, but they are especially prominent in connection with the ovary, style, stigma, ovule, filament, and anther. The obvious conclusion would be that they are special devices reaching out for food supplies since they are especially evident in actively growing regions of floral parts and even of young vegetative shoots. Such adaptations seem a natural response on the part of a plant that has no vascular tissues—no xylem and
phloem.
SUMMARY
In 1935 Giardelli discovered flowers of Wolffiella oblonga in Argentina; in 1938 Mason found the flower of W. lingulata in Cal- ifornia; and on April 8, 1940, I discovered Wolffiella floridana blooming near Tallahassee, Florida. The peculiarly upward bent pistil resting on the side of its ovary and the curved, sturdy stamen present mechanical features and structural beauty entirely unlooked for in such small apetalous flowers. The flowers of Wolffiella flori- dana have proved to be similar enough to those of W. oblonga and W. lingulata to substantiate the conclusions of taxonomists who long ago placed these three species in the genus Wolffiella purely on vegetative characters.
94 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to Miss Betty Linthicum, Department of Botany, Florida State University, for preparation of microslides and to Miss Dorothy Crowson, graduate student, Department of Botany, Florida State University, tor the delineations of the figures.
LITERATURE CITED CALDWELL, O. W. 1899. On the Life-History of Lemna minor. Bot. Gaz. 27: 37-66, 59 fig. GIARDELLI, M. L. 1935. Las Flores de Wolffiella oblonga. Revista Argentine de Agronomia. 2:17-20, 14 figs. GOEBEL, K. 1921. Zur Organographie de Lemnaceen. Flora 114: 278-805, 12 plates. HEGELMAIER, F. 1868. Die Lemnaceen eine Monographische Untersuchung. 1-169, 16 plates. Leipzig. HICKS, L. E. 1932. Flower Production in the Lemnaceae. Ohio Journal of Science 82: 117, 2 plates. MASON, H. L. 1938. The Flowering of Wolffiella lingulata (Hegelm.) Hegelm. Madrono, 241-251, 18 figs. ROBINSON, B. L. and FERNALD, M. L. 1908. Gray’s New Manual of Botany, 7th edition. American Book Com- pany. 1-926. SAEGER, A. 1929. The Flowering of Lemnaceae. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 351-858, 8 plates. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1948(1949)
THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA 95
Inflorescence
Pistil
Seed
Stamen
Anther
Filament
Pollen
Frond
Sterile
Fertile
Stomata
TABLE JI.—DESCRIPTIONS AND DIMENSIONS
One bisexual flower per plant. In- florescence without spathe in dor- sal side near base of frond. Pistil nearest base of frond and stamen posterior to pistil. Protogynous.
One pistil, ovary one-loculed and more or less horizontal with floor cavity. Style ascending with flaring stigma and funnel-like stigmatic opening. One orthotropous ovule, parallel with the axis of the nearly horizontal ovary.
Seed dorsally and laterally oblong or elliptic, marked by a multi- seriate reticulated seed coat which is divided by a straight smooth ridge on the ventral side—side by which it rests on the supporting inner ventral wall of the ovary.
One stamen, anther two-celled, two-lobed, elongate, stout filament. Connected to filament by a short narrow isthmus. Pigmented along line of dehiscence. Filament ab- ruptly squared off to a short isth- mus at the top and at the bottom elongate and narrow at the time of dehiscence.
Pollen spherical or nearly so, beset with spine-like projections.
In areas approximately .40 x 40 mm.surrounding floral cavities.
Pistil: 43-44mm. Length from stipe to stigma
.20-.22mm. Width at functional base
18mm. Diameter of stigma Seed:
.30-.40mm. Long
.18-.25mm. Wide
Stamen: 44-45mm. High just before dehiscence .50-.60mm. High after dehiscence
Filament: .12-.25mm. High just before dehiscence
Anther:
.29mm. Long
.23-26mm. Wide Pollen:
15-20 microns in di- ameter
.25-.50mm. Wide 3.5-8.0mm. Long
.60-.80mm. Wide 2.50-6.50mm. Long
4-18 on fertile fronds only
96
Figure
Figure Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure Figure Figure
Figure Figure
Figure
Figure
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I
1-4. Habits to show origin, coherence, and positional relationships of
successive vegetative offspring to parent plants. Each plant is held to its parent by means of a stipe, and upon emergence turns an approximate right angle thus forming a colony of more or less symmetrical pattern. The letters indicate the sequence of develop- ment. x 12.
Surface view to show position of flowers. x 12.
Schematic internal view of flowering individual, floral cavity with pistil and stamen, and air spaces by means of which the floriferous part of the plant is raised above the water film. x 12.
Outline to show form, attachment, and basal support of young pistil and stamen; the former resting on one side of the ovary and the latter on the inverted shoulders formed by the abruptly squared off filament. x 80.
Outline to show greatly attenuated filament after dehiscence. x 80.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE II
Longitudinal section of pistil: a, outer ovary wall turning away from ovary to connect with floor of cavity; sp, space; s, stipe; pa, papillate cell of outer integument; p, pigment cell. x 350. Transverse section of ovary: a, cells connecting ovary with cavity; pa, papillate cells; sp, spaces; pas, papillate cells from anther reaching toward ovary. x 350.
Section of partly matured ovule: pe, operculum formed from tip of inner integument; ii, inner integument; oi, outer integument; pm, pigmented cells of micropyle. x 165.
Seed. Note multiseriate reticulated outer seed coat and (r) longi- tudinal smooth ridge. x 37.
Outer integument of seed removed to reveal the operculum (0) underneath. x 80.
Longitudinal section of stamen: pa, papillate cell; ui, upper isth- mus connecting anther to filament; li, lower isthmus joining fila- ment to floral cushion; p. pigmented cells at line of dehiscence. x 850.
Pollen grain with spiny projections. x 750.
THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA a7
PLATE I
98 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PLATE II
AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS, FLORIDA
Ear. S. HERALD Steinhart Aquarium, San Francisco, California
AND
Roy R. StrRiIcKLAND
District Fisheries Biologist, Washington State Department of Fish and Game
Homosassa Springs has long been known as an ichthyological paradise, for in the famous Fish Bowl of these springs are to be found both fresh water and salt water species of fishes living together in apparent harmony. The fishes vary in abundance from season to season and from year to year. Some species are found in vast numbers at all times, for example the northern sea catfish, whereas others, as the redfish or channel bass, are more common during the colder months of the year.
Homosassa is one of four large artesian springs along the west- central Florida coast. Each of these four springs has its origin within a few miles of the coast, and each flows as a large river westwardly to the Gulf. They are, in order from north to south, Crystal River, Homosassa, Chassahowitska, and Weekiwachee.
These four springs present an interesting study because of the differential upstream migration of certain marine fishes. Some spe- cies, for example the striped mullet, are present in the headwaters of all the springs, whereas others, as the Sheephead, are common only at Homosassa Springs and are absent in the headwaters of Weekiwachee and Chassahowitska.
Homosassa Springs is located one mile west of U. S. Highway 19 in Citrus County, Florida, roughly 55 air miles north of Tampa, or 75 miles by highway. The springs, of which there are more than 12, are the source of the Homosassa River which flows west for approximately 9 miles and empties into the Gulf. The springs are owned by the Homosassa River Corporation which is developing the area as a leading tourist attraction. Previous to the purchase of the property by this group in 1945, the springs were owned by the Homosassa Springs Corporation who held them for a period of 5 years.
100 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The largest of the 12 springs mentioned above is called the Fish Bowl. Since a detailed report on the physical and chemical features of the springs has previously been published (Ferguson e¢ al., 1947, 57-59) we shall only summarize some of their findings as follows:
Maximum, depth! ( Fish, Bowl).2 7) a2) ee 43.8 ft. Temperature one foot below surface (Apr. 3, 1946)... 75° F Mean flow (cubic feet per second) =. ___ 7. 7 aaa 185 pH 2-5 ee ee TA Chloride (parts per million) 20.0". 5 os eee 570 Total hardness asGaCOsie. WS 310
For all practical purposes this water may be considered fresh. | Sea water has approximately 39,000 parts chloride per million. (However, the above 570 parts is not sufficiently low so that the water may be used in U. S. Navy boilers where the maximum chloride allowed is 500 ppm.)
The ichthyology of the springs is very interesting, especially in that certain fresh water and marine species seem to live in associa- tion, and each to have adapted itself to the waters of the springs. A species present in one spring may be conspicuously absent in another spring only a few hundred yards distant. Although a num- ber of ichthyologists have visited the springs, the only published records specifically concerning them are to be found in a paper by Dr. Gordon Gunter (1942). In this paper he records Dr. A. F. Carr’s observations at the springs.
In previous years the great numbers of fishes which live in the Fish Bowl have been the cause of commercial fishing efforts. On one occasion dynamite was used quite effectively; however other methods were not so productive. Gill nets were found to be of little use, and even such drastic procedures as pouring burning oil on the surface of the water yielded few fishes.
The following provisional list of the 34 fishes representing 21 families to be found in the springs area is the result of a series of visits to that locality by the writers. The principal collecting trips were made on 17 February, 30 March and 4 May, 1946. All speci- mens collected are deposited in the Division of Fishes of the U. S. National Museum under catalogue numbers 133318 through 133341. Grateful acknowledgment is made of the active cooperation of the personnel of the Homosassa River Corporation. Without the aid of Mr. David Newell, Mr. Jack Dunham and Mr. Elmo Reed, the data recorded in this paper could not have been collected. 7
LIST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 101
SELACHII GEN. ET. SP. INCOGNITA Shark
An unidentified shark was observed in the Fish Bowl by Mr.
David Newell. (?) Dasyatis sapinus (LE SUEUR) Sting Ray
A ray, probably this species, has been observed in the Fish Bowl by Mr. David Newell. Dr. Bigelow writes that the possibilities are good that it was D. sabinus, which in the Mississippi drainage is known to occur 200 miles upstream from the sea and in Florida is well distributed throughout the St. Johns River system.
ACIPENSER BREVIROSTRUM LE SUEUR Short-nosed Sturgeon
One large specimen several feet in length is mounted on the wall of the Old Mill tavern at Old Homosassa Springs. It was said to have been taken in the river about 10 years ago. If valid, this record is probably the southernmost for the species along the west coast of Florida. Fowler (1945) has recorded the species from the Suwannee River.
LEPISOSTEUS OSSEUS ( LINNAEUS) Long-nosed Gar
This species is quite common down the river, and there are usually several individuals present at various times of the day in the Fish Bowl. The long-nosed gar is reported to be in spawning condition in the springs only during the spring months of February, March, and April; during these months the sheepshead have been observed to bite at the gravid female gars thus causing them to extrude their ova which are readily snapped up by the sheepshead (verbal communication from Mr. Elmo Reed). Gars have been observed only in the Fish Bowl, and in none of the other springs. The short-nosed or spotted gar (Lepisosteus platyrhynchus) has not been observed in any of the springs, although it should be in the river. |
TARPON ATLANTICUS (CUVIER AND VALENCIENNES ) Tarpon An individual of this species was observed near the boat dock by Mr. David Newell. Apparently this tarpon is attracted to spring
102 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
waters, for during May 1946 the senior author observed a small school of some 15 individuals (about 18” long) in Sulphur Springs near Tampa, Florida. These tarpon were in the lower swimming pool of the springs and were not readily observed as they constantly swam into the boil ‘of water caused by the overflow of the main spring which is also used as a swimming pool.
ERIMYZON SUCETTA SUCETTA (LACEPEDE ) Eastern Lake Chub-sucker
Although this species has not been observed in the F Tish Bowl by either of the writers, we are assured that it is present through- out most of the year. Erimyzon does not appear to be uncommon in the North Spring adjacent to the Fish Bowl and in the springs on the south arm of the river. The spotted sucker, Minytrema mel- anops (Rafinesque), was not observed, and although this latter species is common in the Suwannee drainage, it apparently does not occur this far south.
ERIMYSTAX HARPERI (FOWLER) Harpers: Minnow
This attractive minnow, which is separated from all other Florida minnows by the small barbel at the juncture of the upper and lower jaw, is very common around the edge of the Fish Bowl where it lives in the weedy areas in association with Chriopeops goodei and Lucania parva. E. harperi was originally described from Man- atee Springs which empties into the Suwannee River. Because of a discrepancy in the original description of E. harperi, topotypes of the species from Manatee Springs were collected and these com- pared with Homosassa material, which was found to be the same. On the 30th of March trip, gravid females were found. Counts of the numbers of eggs were made of 12 selected individuals and are recorded as follows:
Standard Length in mm No. of Eggs Contained in Ovaries
30.6 126 30.0 99 28.7 110 233198 118
28.1 91
LIST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 108
27.7 104 27.8 98 27.1 65 26.6 | 84 26.6 107 26.4 74. 25.2 care
NOTEMIGONUS CRYSOLEUCAS BOSCIL (VALENCIENNES ) Florida Golden Shiner
This species has not been observed or collected in the Fish Bowl, although it has been observed in the North Spring, and in the Main Spring of the south arm of the river.
BacreE MaRINUS (MITCHELL ) Northern Sea Catfish This is the only species collected in the spring by the writers; however, it should be pointed out that an adequate sample was not obtained, and whether the tremendous school of catfishes in the Fish Bowl is composed entirely of this species or partly of the next species listed remains to be determined.
GALEICHTHYS FELIS (LINNAEUS) Gaff-topsail Catfish No specimens of this species were collected by the writers, nor were any observed with facemask which could definitely be at- tributed to this species. This record is based upon Dr. A. F. Carr’s notes recorded by Gunter (1942: 314).
AMEIURUS NATALIS EREBENNUS (JORDAN) Yellow-bellied Catfish
Just behind the coffee shop at the Springs is a small rock-walled spring (6 feet in diameter) with no outlet. This small spring con- tains a number of 6 to 9 inch individuals of the yellow-bellied catfish, but the species is not found in any of the adjacent spring waters. No one has been able to state definitely that these fish were not planted in this small spring, and the fact that they have not been found in the surrounding waters rather strongly suggests _ that they may have been introduced.
104 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
STRONGYLURA MARINA (WALBAUM) Northern Needlefish
This species was observed in the Fish Bowl on March 80, 1946, and is usually present in the vicinity of the boat dock. It is not so common in the Bowl as in adjacent river areas, and it has not been observed in any of the other springs.
LUCANIA PARVA (BarIRD AND GIRARD) Rainwater Killifish
This species lives in association with Erimystax harperi and ~ Chriopeops goodei in the weed masses on the sides of the Fish Bowl. Lucania is about as common as Erimystax, whereas Chri- opeops is the least common of the three. The broad indistinct dark bands present on some Lucania from other Florida springs (Rock Springs and Weekiva Springs, especially the latter) do not seem to be so apparent on these specimens. They were not taken in springs other than the Fish Bowl.
CHRIOPEOPS GOODEI (JORDAN) Red-finned Killifish This form was common in weeds together with Lucania and Erimystax. It was taken only in the Fish Bowl.
CYPRINODON VARIEGATUS VARIEGATUS (LACEPEDE ) Southern Sheepshead Killifish
One specimen of this species was observed at the Pump Spring at the edge of the cement ledge on 3 May 1946. Unfortunately it could not be caught. It was not observed in any of the other springs.
HETERANDRIA FORMOSA (AGASSIZ ) Least Killifish
This very small species has been taken at the Fish Bowl where, because of its small size and ability to slip through the normal % inch mesh seine, it is probably much more common than sus- pected. It has also been collected at the Pump Spring and at the North Spring next to the Fish Bowl. At times it is found in asso- ciation with Erimystax, Lucania and Chriopeops in the weedy areas.
LiST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 105
MOLLIENISIA LATIPINNA LE SUEUR Sailfin Although this species has been collected in the North Spring and in the Pump Spring, it has not been found in the Fish Bowl, and such is also true of the next species, Gambusia affinis holbrookii. The absence of these two species from the Bowl is one of the un- explained mysteries of the ichthyology of the Springs. One specimen of Mollienisia, a melanistic individual, was collected in a small
pond immediately behind the Springs Headquarters.
GAMBUSIA AFFINIS HOLBROOKII (GIRARD ) Eastern Mosquito-fish
This species has been collected in the North Spring and in the Pump Spring, but has not been taken in the Fish Bowl, although it does occur just outside of the Bowl along the north side of Fish Bow! Run. Gambusia does not appear to be as common in the Springs as at other localities in Florida.
CENTROPOMUS UNDECIMALIS ( BLOCH) Northern Robalo or Snook
Large specimens of this species, up to several feet in length, are quite common in the Fish Bowl, and on March 30, 1946, a single individual was observed in the bottom of the North Spring adja- cent to the Fish Bowl. The snook presents a curious problem, for although one is quickly impressed with the numbers of snook present in the Fish Bowl, nevertheless, the species is not taken in the river nor at the river mouth. Neither is it observed enroute up or down the river although other marine species appearing in the Fish Bowl are observed or caught in the river.
LUTIANUS GRISEUS ( LINNAEUS ) Mangrove or Gray Snapper
The gray snapper is fairly common in the area of the springs, and although it is very abundant in the spring run below the Bowl], it nevertheless does not come into the Bowl in any great numbers. This is especially true in summer, but the numbers are said to be greater in the colder months. Exactly the reverse is true of Lagodon rhomboides. The mangrove snapper has also been observed in some of the springs on the south arm of the river. :
106 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
LUTIANUS APODUS (WALBAUM ) Schoolmaster
Although ail specimens collected in the springs area were of the former species, L. apodus is recorded from ¢he springs in Carr’s notes (Gunter, 1942: 314). A few snappers which had a line be- neath the eye were observed in the-run below the Bowl and it is possible that they might have been this species. Mr. Jack Dunham states that he has not observed any fish which he believes could be definitely assigned to this species.
LAGODON RHOMBOIDES ( LINNAEUs ) Pinfish It is possible that another species may be confused with this one. Only one specimen was collected, and its characters were somewhat at variance with those given for L. rhomboides. It was
observed and collected only in the Fish Bowl. It is also recorded by Carr in Gunter (1942: 315).
ARCHOSARGUS PROBATOCEPHALUS (WALBAUM ) Sheepshead
This species is very common in the Fish Bowl, but has not been observed in other of the springs nor in the run from the Bowl. The snapping by Archosargus at gravid females of Lepisosteus has been described under that form. It is also recorded by Carr (Gunter, 1942: 315). ,
EUCINOSTOMOUS ARGENTEUS BAIRD AND GIRARD Spotfin Mojarra | This striking silver-colored fish is found only on the sandy bottom areas of the south arm of the springs. As one poles a boat upstream from the bridge, many individuals may be seen darting ahead of the boat. With face mask, they may be observed feeding on the mushy rubble surrounding a small spring just above the bridge. This mojarra was found to be very hard to net, but finally a single specimen was speared. This, together with another speci- men from Crystal River Spring (USNM 133340 and 133341), was examined by Dr. Leonard P. Schultz of the United States National Museum, and upon dissection both were found to be of this species. This is a new addition to the known fauna of the Florida» ae waters.
LIST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 107
SCIAENOPS OCELLATUS (LINNAEUS ) Channel Bass
One or two individuals of this species were in the Fish Bowl each time that face mask observations were made. Often they would not be visible from the surface as they seemed to habituate the rocky crevice area on the far side of the Bowl, and often, in the same manner as the Sea Trout, they would sound as the investigator came into the water. Usually during the colder months they are reportedly more abundant in the Bowl than at other times. They have not been observed in the other springs.
CYNOSCION NEBULOSUS (CUVIER AND VALENCIENNES ) Sea Trout Several individuals of the sea trout were usually in the Bowl each time that observations were made. As previously stated, they sound as soon as the biologist enters the water. This species is also said to be more common during the winter months.
CHAENOBRYTTUS CORONARIUS (BARTRAM ) Warmouth Bass Although said to be not uncommon in the river in the vicinity of the Springs, only one specimen was taken in any of the springs, and that one was collected from the Pump Spring on May 3, 1948. None was observed by use of face masks.
LEPOMIS MACROCHIRUS PURPURESCENS COPE Eastern Bluegill
This species is very common in the springs area, and has been observed in all of the springs. Characteristically, individuals in this area show the typical artesian spring coloration, i.e., heavy vertical banding with light ground color. It should be noted that none of the bluegills in the Springs have the dark overall coloration which often appears in large individuals living in lakes.
LEPOMIS PUNCTATUS PUNCTATUS: (CUVIER AND VALENCIENNES ) Stumpknocker
In the central Florida springs this is one of the commonest of sunfishes. It is fairly abundant at Homosassa Springs where it has been collected in the Fish Bowl and observed in the other springs.
108 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
LEPOMIS MICROLOPHIS MICROLOPHIS (Gunther ) Eastern Shellcracker This well-marked species, distinguished by its orange ear spot, is present in limited numbers in the Fish Bowl and the North
Spring. It has not been observed nor collected in the springs on the south arm of the river.
MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES FLORIDANUS (LE SEUER) Largemouth Bass
Although the largemouth seems to be of normal abundance in the Homosassa Springs other than the Fish Bowl, a satisfactory reason yet remains to be advanced as to why it is so uncommon in the Fish Bowl. With the face mask it was often possible to distinguish one or more specimens in the Bowl, but the maximum observed at one period of observation was five, and the number was usually one or two or none. It has been suggested that physico-chemical factors may be involved in this matter, but such yet-remains to be determined. The largemouth has been observed in all of the springs.
MUGIL CEPHALUS LINNAEUS Striped Mullet
The striped mullet is one of the commoner and more obvious fishes in the Fish Bowl where several individuals will usually be found feeding at any time of the day. The striped mullet is said to be most common in the Bowl during the months of October, November, and December, during which period the females are said to be gravid. Often this species tends to school in the Fish Bowl, and especially is this true late in the evening. It seems to be fairly well distributed in the area, and has been observed in the North Spring and in the Main Spring of the south arm of the river.
Mucit cuREMA CuvIER AND VALENCIENNES White or Silver Mullet This species is not so common as the previous form, and although one or more individuals are often observed in the Bowl it has not been recorded in the other springs in the area. |
LIST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 109
CaRANX HIPPOS ( LINNAEUS ) Common Jack or Crevally
One or more individuals of this species were observed on various occasions swimming slowly about the Fish Bowl; the species has not been observed in the other springs.
ECHENEIS NAUCRATES LINNAEUS Shark Remora
This species is recorded by Gunter (1942: 315) from the notes of A. F. Carr, Jr. It is not known by other than this record, exact details of which are not available. Mr. Jack Dunham informs us that he observed three or four specimens during 1946 which were possibly of this species. They were attached to mullet, snook, and jack crevally.
LITERATURE CITED
FERGUSON, G. E., C. W. LINGHAM, S. K. LOVE, and R. O. VERNON 1947. Springs of Florida. Florida Geological Survey, Geological Bulletin No. 81, xii 196, 37 figs, map. FOWLER, H. W. 1945. A study of the fishes of the southern piedmont and coastal plain. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Mongr. 7, 1-408, 318 figs. GUNTER, GORDON 1942. A list of the fishes of the mainland of north and middle America recorded from both freshwater and seawater. Amer. Mid. Nat., 28, no. 2: 305-326. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1949 (1949)
LI
By ere,
ee { nn oo ee vs
~ : 3 fd ae wad + . ose sae % 3 " rc aay, 3 ¢ M
fi +3
ae AA hia, * 4
f ar) ¢ + of 4 & ee
: ait ! '
. o 4
‘ a . fag aa
/ y
bi toa hes BANE ioe ‘esha meiner | = ud Hy we re arin hey”
—.
SAA dui Le etn : ates i & ( { e evs onyAx esate
tipi a Aspaie. ox : ae be Rene he ) Piha a bab ts : arte : \ vce ee) > & Wie Seve.
oath Gy - ea aoe ye te isha ae r yi o ‘ | seu ;
Pe,
; es ~ MET ADD ji alapee Sar ' : *0 & ' i Td eA 3 Vee . & =~ + Pipa a es 3 yee pA ABS ¥ ' nae P Vi Fy tela: ¢ \4 . ie f tApEe RL € ”
é Se: ¢y a ¥(919 - . a » Sa nF Kai 3 i ie ts 2 fy Mi n ie, ; a 2. j Bo & j be Ue: ogni he pit ¥ : U rf eI me Sy ‘ eae cat neigh Ge 2 , ty a ff ts 4 oars al
PRELIMINARY CHECK LIST OF THE ALGAE OF THE TALLAHASSEE AREA
C. S. NIELSEN AND GRACE C. MApsEN Florida State University
As far as is known to the authors, no systematic survey of the algal flora of the Tallahassee area has been made up to the present time. Two hundred and thirty-seven collections were made from February 1, 1948, to July 1, 1948, in Leon and three adjacent coun- ties. It is our purpose to continue collecting more extensively and to include other counties in the northern part of the state.
The following stations are referred to:
1. Phillips Picnic grounds is the site of four sulphur springs, within a radius of one half mile of Newport, Wakulla County. These are designated as (a) Picnic Spring; (b) Little Spring, (c) Club Spring, and (d) Log Spring.
2. The following stations are located in Saint Marks Wildlife Refuge, Wakulla County (a) Salt Marsh near lighthouse, (b) Lighthouse Pool, (c) Spillway Dam at Phillips Pool, (d) T Pond at Phillips Pool, (e) Mounds Pool, (£) A shallow stream 3.0 miles S. E. of Newport on the Main road.
3. The Saint Marks River at Natural Bridge, and the Saint Marks River at Little Natural Bridge, one-half mile west of Natural Bridge.
4. The Woodville area, Leon County (a) Woodville, on Highway U. S. 319, (b) Woodville Swamp, one mile north of Woodville on 319, (c) Natural Well, a limestone cave, one mile northeast of Woodville.
5. Six Mile Pond, Apalachicola National Forest on U. S. Highway 319, Leon County.
6. Highway U. S. 19, twenty miles southeast of Tallahassee, Jefferson County.
7. Heart Leaf Pond, Highway Florida 10, 16 miles northwest of Tallahassee, Leon County.
1 This paper was received first and should have been printed before the checklist by the same authors that appears in Vol. II, Nos. 2-3, p. 63.— [Editor]
112 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
8. Crane Lake at Meridian Road, nine miles north of Tallahassee, Leon County.
9. Ochlockonee River on Highway U. S. 90, Leon County.
10. Lake Jackson Schoolhouse, Old Quincey Highway, six miles northwest of Tallahassee, Leon County. ~
11. Little Blue Sink (limestone) Crawfordville Road 8.5 miles southwest: of Tallahassee.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to Dr. Francis Drouet, of
the Chicago Natural History Museum, for the determinations of
all species listed—(with the one exception noted), and for his .
helpful suggestions and criticisms.
CHROOCOCCACEAE
Gloeocapsa alpicola (Lyngb.) Born.
Natural Well, (121); Log Spring, (249, 252). Gloeocapsa dimidiata (Kutz.) Drouet and Daily
Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (59). Merismopedia thermalis Kutz.
Shallow stream in St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (48).
CHAMAESIPHONACEAE
- Entophysalis Brebissonii (Menegh.) Drouet and Daily Leon County, (180); Little Natural Bridge, (184, 186, 187); Little Springs, (184).
Entophysalis rivularis (Kutz.) Drouet Log Spring, (251).
STIGONEMATACEAE
Fischerella ambigua (Born. and Flah.) Gom.
Mounds Pool, (38); Club Spring, (216).
Hapalosiphon pumilus Born and Flah. Lake Bradford, (783-75); Six Mile Pond, (79, 162; Woodville, (83); Highway U. S. 19, (87); Heart Leaf Pond, (207).
Stigonema minutum Born. and Flah.
Crane Lake, (202). NOSTOCACEAE
Anabaena flos-aquae (Born. and Flah.) Breb.
Crane Lake, (9).
Anabaena oscillarioides Gom. T-Pond, (82).
Cylindrospermum licheniforme Born. and Flah. Ochlockonee River, (104).
Hydrocoryne spongiosa Born. and Flah.
Meridian Rd. 5 mi. N. of Tallahassee, (25).
Nostoc carneum Born. and Flah.
CHECK LIST OF ALGAE OF TALLAHASSEE AREA 113
Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (56). Nostoc Linckia Born. and Flah. Woodville, (15). Nostoc muscorum Born. and Flah. Picnic Spring, (177). RIVULARIACEAE
Amphithrix janthina Born. and Flah.
Picnic Spring, (199). Calothrix parietina Born. and Flah.
Picnic Spring, (174-177); Log Spring, (251). Calothrix stellaris Born. and Flah.
Mounds Pool, (39); Picnic Spring, (160).
SCYTONEMATACEAE
Fremyella diplosiphon (Born. and Flah.) Drouet Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (200). Hassallia byssoidea Born. and Flah. Crane Lake, (201). Scytonema Hoffmannii Born. and Flah. Natural Well, (111-114, 121); Little Natural Bridge (144-147, 159); Natural Bridge, (149-151); Crane Lake, (202); Club Spring, (227); Log Spring, (248-250). Scytonema ocellatum Born. and Flah. Picnic Spring, (191). Scytonema tolypotrichoides Born. and Flah. Highway U. S. 319, 5 mi. S. of Tallahassee, (82); Spillway Dam, (119). Tolypothrix tenuis Born. and Flah. Mounds Pool, (122, 123, 126). —
OSCILLATORIACEAE Lyngbya aestuarii Gom. Mounds Pool, (124, 125). Lyngbya Diguettii Gom. T-Pond, (32); Shallow stream in St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (83); Wakulla Springs, (91); Mounds Pool, (125); Little Spring, (184). Lyngbya ochracea Gom. Crane Lake, (23). Lyngbya Patrickiana Drouet Mounds Pool, (36); Picnic Spring, (37, 165, 168); Botany Dept. green- house, Tallahassee, (101). Lyngbya putealis Gom. Mounds Pool, (39); Ochlockonee River, (102). Lyngbya semiplana Gom. 3 Lighthouse Pool, (69). Lyngbya versicolor Gom. Picnic Spring, (165). Microcoleus acutissimus Gardn.
114 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Picnic Spring, (197). Microcoleus lacustris Gom. . Shallow stream in St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (44); Picnic Spring, (192). Microcoleus paludosus Gom. Little Natural Bridge, (145); Log Spring, (244). Microcoleus rupicola (Tild.) Drouet Little Natural Bridge, (147). Oscillatoria chalyba Gom. Little Natural Bridge, (142); Little Spring, (183); Picnic Spring, (185). Oscillatoria chlorina Gom. Picnic Spring, (35). Oscillatoria curviceps Gom. Crane Lake, (2, 10). Oscillatoria formosa Gom. University Campus, Tallahassee, (127). Oscillatoria limosa. Gom. Little Natural Bridge, (140). Oscillatoria princeps Gom. T-Pond, (117, 118). Oscillatoria splendida Gom. Log Spring, (243); Little Spring, (258, 259). Oscillatoria tenuis Gom. Crane Lake, (23); Heart Leaf Pond, (207, 211); Club Spring, (212, 230). ) | Oscillatoria tenuis var. tergestina Gom. Natural Bridge, (148). Phormidium favosum Gom. Club Spring, (219, 228, 225, 285, 240). Phormidium inundatum Gom. Natural Bridge, (80). Phormidium purpurascens Gom. Little Spring, (254). | Phormidium Retzii Gom. Natural Bridge, (80); Ochlockonee River, (103). Phormidium tenue Gom. Picnic Spring, (180, 190); Little Spring, (182); Log Spring, (246). Phormidium uncinatum Gom. Club Spring, (178); Picnic Spring, (180). Plectonema Nostocorum Gom. University Greenhouse, Tallahassee, (57); Lighthouse Pool, (68); Old Quincy Highway, 6 miles N. W. of Tallahassee, (97). Schizothrix calcicola Gom. Picnic Spring, (178). Spirulina Major Gom. ae at Mounds Pool, (124, 125); Picnic Spring, (190); Log Spring, 243 ). .
CHECK LIST OF ALGAE OF TALLAHASSEE AREA 115
Spirulina subtilissima Gom. Little Spring, (256, 257). Symploca Muscorum Gom. Natural Bridge, (150); Little Natural Bridge, (157); Log Spring, (245); Lake Ella, Leon County, (262). Symploca muralis Gom. Log Spring, 242). CHLAMYDOMONADACEAE
Chlamydomonas sp. Ehrenb. Crane Lake, (24); Alligator Point, (267).
VOLVOCACEAE Volvox aureus Ehrenb. _ Lake Jackson schoolhouse, (161).
PALMELLACEAE
Gloeocystis Grevellei (Burk.) Drouet and Daily Natural Well, (115, 116); Little Spring, (261).
TETRASPORACEAE
Tetraspora gelatinosa (Vauch.) Desyv. ‘Woodville, (21); Lake Bradford Creek, (60).
ULOTRICHACEAE
Stichococcus bacillaris Nageli
Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (58). Stichococcus subtilis (Kutz.) Klerck.
University West Campus Creek, Tallahassee, (92). Ulothrix oscillarina Kutz.
University West Campus Creek, Tallahassee, (92).
MICROSPORACEAE Microspora stagnorum (Kutz.) Lagerh. Meridian Rd..5 mi. N. of Tallahassee, (6); Picnic Spring, (85, 40); Shallow stream of St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (41); Lake Bradford, (72, 74). TRENTEPOHLIACEAE Gongrosira Debaryana Rabenh. Club Spring, (226). Trentepohlia Wainoi Har. Little Blue Sink, (109); Picnic Spring, (196).
CHAETOPHORACEAE Chaetophora incrassata (Huds.) Hazen Meridian Rd., 5 mi. N. of Tallahassee, (204). Entocladia polymorpha (G. S. West) G. M. Smith Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (58).
116 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Pringsheimiella scutata (Reinke) Schm. and Petr.
Leon County, (180). Stigeoclonium lubricum (Dillw.) Kutz.
T-Pond, (27-30); Crane Lake, (12); Mounds Pool, (19, 34). Stigeoclonium tenue (Ag.) Kutz.
Crane Lake, (8); Club Spring, (179, 218, 218); Picnic Spring, (199).
PROTOCOCCACEAE Protococcus viridis Ag. Spillway Dam, (128). CLADOPHORACEAE Chaetomorpha sp. Kutz. Alligator Point, (206). Cladophora crispata (Roth) Kutz. Shallow stream of St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (48); Wakulla Springs, (88, 91); Little Natural Bridge, (188, 136, 187). Cladophora pulverulenta (Mert.) Phinn. Salt Marsh, (46, 53). Pithophora Oedogonia (Mont.) Wittr. Picnic Spring, (181); Little Spring, (184); Club Spring, (241). Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kutz. - Panacea Springs, (93); Little Blue Sink, (110); Picnic Spring, (195 ); Club Spring, (239); Log Spring, (244, 247); Little Spring, (260).
OEDOGONIACEAE Bulbochaete sp. Ag. Mounds Pool, (39); Lighthouse Pool, (67, 70). Oedogonium occidentale (Hirn) Tiffany 1 Crane Lake, (1). ULVACEAE
Enteromorpha intestinalis (L.) Link
Salt Marsh, (46, 54).
CHARACIACEAE
Characium sp. A. Braun
Woodville, (83).
HYDRODICTYACEAE
Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L.) Lagerh.
Wakulla Springs, (88). Pediastrum duplex Meyen
Crane Lake, (13); Mounds Pool, (18).
OOCYSTACEAE Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs Old Quincy Highway, 6 mi. N. W. of Tallahassee, (99). Quadrigula Chodatii (Tanner-Fullman) G. M. Smith Shallow stream of St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (45).
1 Determined by Dr. L. H. Tiffany, Northwestern University.
CHECK LIST OF ALGAE OF TALLAHASSEE AREA
Zoochlorella parasitica Brandt Crane Lake, (203). SCENEDESMACEAE
Scenedesmus acuminatus (Lagerh.) Chod. T-Pond, (155). Tetrallantos Lagerheimii Teiling T-Pond, (155). VAUCHERIACEAE Vaucheria sp. DC. Little Natural Bridge, (134, 138).
ZYGNEMATACEAE Mougeotia sp. Ag.
T-Pond, (28-80); Spillway Dam, (120); Heart Leaf Pond, (209).
Spirogyra decima (Mull.) Kutz. Lake Bradford Creek, (62). Spirogyra flavescens (Hass.) Kutz.
Ly
Meridian Rd., 5 mi. N. of Tallahassee, (6); Woodville, (14, 16, 17, 20);
Crane Lake, (51); Lake Bradford, (75). Zygnema crusciatum (Vauch.) Ag. Woodville, (20). Zygogonium ericetorum Kutz. Log Spring, (253). DESMIDIACEAE
Desmidium Baileyi (Ralfs) Nordsb. Crane Lake, (11).
Desmidium Grevillii (Kutz.) De Bary Crane Lake, (11).
Desmidium Swartzii Ag. T-Pond, (42); Club Spring, (212).
Gymnozyga sp. Ehr. ' Six-Mile Pond, (163).
Hyalotheca dissiliens (Smith) Breb. Club Spring, (212)
TRIBONEMATACEAE
Tribonema bomycinum (Ag.) Derb, and Sol.
Crane Lake, (4, 13); Mounds Pool, (18); Lake Bradford Creek, (61).
BATRACHOSPERMACEAE Batrachospermum australe Coll. T-Pond, (26). CHANTRANSIACEAE
Chantransia violacea Kutz. Club Spring, (217). Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1948(1949)
+ eh
} * ; “4 s i” S. bahia ite ) tia ‘ (Qe T! BOY oleae 4) S04Rs dedfn? 1 i eri Cae Drolet : | - ; sie ain} jel - : f
ee Ve A ORLOTMBIE Be 5 pe cites Sp agen Mya debs
; no | Me deal
of were ie aa eee, ce ATA OCT
| Pe oo ee \ ‘ iad abiciaval. ae
| doe Mae et a DART + | Ne r ¥ 7 ee lls fi
i tee enn hee | aOR NTA
1) ie : ig "a : eo Wi aa
DETERMINATION OF THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF FISH
I. SOME BLOOD ANALYSES OF THE SOUTHERN CHANNEL CATFISH
A. Curtis HicGINBOTHAM Florida State University
AND
Dauuas K. MEYER University of Missouri
The abatement of pollution has been a major problem in con- servation of fish and other aquatic organisms. Consequently, a great deal of effort has been expended on establishing standards for the physical and chemical qualities of fresh water favorable to fish life and to the study of the effects of many pollutants on fish. The published data on fish blood, however, are insufficient for use in determining the physical condition of fish by blood analyses. In pollution studies such data are highly desirable for many of the important native food fish such as the trout, crappie, black bass, sunfish and catfish.
All effects of pollutants on fish may not be detected by a study of the blood alone. Ellis (1937) demonstrated that some substances are injurious to the gills and other external structures of the fish without any marked absorption beyond the gills, with death re- sulting from anoxemia and interference with the excretory func- tions of the gills. Other substances cause death by specific toxic action after absorption through the gills and other external struc- tures, and the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. In many of these cases, especially when the respiratory and circulatory functions are impaired, the illness or poor physical condition of the fish may be expected to be reflected in the condition of the blood.
In many instances the low concentration of pollutants may make streams and lakes unfavorable to fish without killing them at once in noticeable numbers. Nevertheless, the fish in these polluted lakes and streams may be harmed in various ways. The polluting sub- stance may reduce the available dissolved oxygen in the water below the level required by a thriving fish fauna. Toxic substances may accumulate within the fish thereby lowering their natural
120 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
resistance to disease and adverse conditions. -The number and quality of food organisms may be reduced to such a low level that the fish are not properly nourished. These unfavorable conditions may go unnoticed until high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen concentrations of the water during the hot summer months kill large numbers of fish which otherwise would have lived in un- polluted water.
The present report is an attempt to establish the mean values of the haemoglobin concentration, number of erythrocytes, per cent cell volume and specific gravity of the blood of a small population of the southern channel catfish, Ictalurus .lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque ). These values may be of assistance in differentiating individuals of this species in good physical condition from those in poor physical condition. The southern channel catfish was selected for this work because of its importance as a food fish throughout
Table 1. The means, standard deviations, and probable error of the means for the specific gravity, number of erythrocytes, per cent cell volume, and concentration of hemoglobin for the blood of a small population of the southern channel catfish, Ictalurus lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque ) |
Standard Mean Deviation | P.E. Mean Specific Gravity......:....... 035 1.0365 0.0040 +0.00036 Erythrocytes per cu.mm.......... 2,175,000 371,000 +37, 300. Cell Volume per cent............. 32.3 53 +0.68 Hemoglobin gm./100 ml........... Toles 1,13 +0.15
EE Ee the Gulf and Mississippi Valley regions where it is common in streams and lakes. A further advantage in using this species is that is has been used extensively in physiological assay work in connection with a variety of pollution problems in the laboratory,
thus providing considerable supplementary information for refer- ence. |
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The channel catfish were used either the same day collected or saved for later use by holding in a large concrete raceway filled
DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL CONDITION OF FISH 121
with flowing water to a depth of three to five feet. Chopped spleens and hearts of cattle and swine were fed to the captive fish on an average of once every ten days.
When blood was desired, a fish was taken from the water, pithed, and slit open in the mid-ventral line at the level of the pectoral girdle to expose the heart. The required amount of blood for the analyses was withdrawn from the conus arteriosus into a small _ paraffin-lined dish and used immediately without the addition. of an anti-coagulant. Seventy-six individuals were used. In some instances two or three different analyses were made from the same sample of blood while in others only one kind of analysis was made. The standard length of the test animals ranged from 125 to 580 cm. and the wet weight from 37 to 3,060 grams.
The data collected for each of blood characteristics studied were treated statistically. In order to demonstrate the relationship be- tween the apparent physical condition of the fish and the values for hemoglobin, specific gravity, and cell volume, the data for twenty fish was assembled in tabular form.
The concentration of hemoglobin was determined photoelec- trically, using the method described by Hoffman (1941) for mam- malian blood, in which 0.1 ml. of freshly drawn blood is laked and thoroughly aerated by shaking in 20 ml. of 0.1 per cent sodium carbonate solution and read in a Cenco-Sheard-Sanford Photelo- meter equipped with a green filter. Each reading thus obtained was translated into grams of hemoglobin per 100 ml. of blood by reference to a calibration curve, which had been standardized by the Wong iron method.
The specific gravity of the blood was obtained by following the method of Barbour and Hamilton (1926), in which the falling- time of a measured drop of blood through a 80 cm. column of a bromobenzene-zylene mixture is compared with that of an equiva- lent (equal volume) drop of a solution of potassium sulfate of * known specific gravity.
The per cent cell volume was secured by centrifuging a small quantity of whole blood in an hematocrit for 80 minutes at 2100 revolutions per minute. Both red and white cells are included in the values given. Determinations on unoxalated blood and blood in isotonic oxalate solutions were not significantly different.
A Spencer “Bright-line” Haemocytometer was used to make the erythrocyte counts, using Toison’s solution as the diluent.
122 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
O°OT-T°6 0°6-T°S O°L-T°9 O°9-T°S O°S-T*¥
O°C#— T° Th ia
O° T#-1° gE
O°ge-T°S¢e
O°Se-T° ee
O°ce-T° 62
O°62-T°92
0°9g-T° Sa
O°£2-T°0%
# 0°000E-T°00¢8z = 0°0082-1°0092
| 0°0092-T° 0042
0°00#2-T°00ez
0°00zz2-T°0002 0°0002-T°008T 0°OO8T-T* O09T
O°O09T-T*°O00HT |
OSt70° T-TE70°T
O£70°T-TTO°T
Oo ee) aall we HEMOGLOBIN
Gm./100 ml.
CELL VOLUME
Per cent
ERYTHROCYTES
Thousands/cu. mm.
Tocnort=ttHOt | B oscort-ucot | 3
06c0°T-TLZ0°T | 0L20° T-TSZ0°T
¢
auth hid (O10 Gin UIA Ons aad caacadei STVNGIAIGNI JO WHaHON
DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL CONDITION OF FISH 123
In addition to the foregoing procedures, the apparent physical condition as ascertained by superficial external examination, sex, wet weight and standard length were noted in most cases for each fish.
RESULTS
The data for the specific gravity, number of erythrocytes, per cent cell volume and concentration of hemoglobin are graphically represented in figure 1, in which the graphs show the range and frequency of the values obtained for each of these blood charac- teristics. The range of values was appreciable in each case; specific gravity ranged from 1.0259 to 1.0448, concentration of hemoglobin from 4.8 to 9.3 grams per 100 ml., number of erthrocytes from 1,456,000 to 2,928,000 per cu mm., and cell volume from 21 to 41 per cent. Statistical analyses of the data (table 2) indicate that the
Table 2. Concentration of hemoglobin, per cent cell volume and specific gravity of the blood of the southern channel catfish, Ictalurus lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque), with respect to sex, wet weight, standard length and apparent physical condition.
Hemoglobin | Cell Volume | Specific |} Physical
Sex gm. /100 ml. per cent Gravity | Condition Male....... 8.7 1.040 | Good Female..... 4.8 PALS 1.027 | Poor Male... 6.8 33. 1.035 | Fair Female..... 9.3 38. 1.044 Good Male....... 6.5 31. 1.037 do. Male... 4... @@ 35. 1.042 do. Mitle cn... «<: 7.3 34. 1.039 do. Female..... 7.9 38. 1.040 do. Male....... 5.7 28. 1.032 | Poor Male....... 7.5 36. 1.038 | Good Male 5.7 25. 1.032 Fair Male... 4... 6.3 33. 1.035 do. Female..... 6.3 Sls 1.035 do. Female..... 7.0 ole 1.037 Good Male’ ...... 8.3 1.041 do. Female..... 5.9 1.033 Poor Male. 8.0 1.040 Good Female..... 1.3 1.037 | Fair. RISES yics . 7a 1.040 Good Malle,2......... 6.7 1.038-| do... <
124‘: JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
chances are very good (at least 20 to 1) that the true mean specific gravity-for any similar group of channel catfish will be 1.0865 0.0011:(3X P.E. mean). Similarly, the mean number of erythro- cytes per cu. mm., per cent cell volume and grams of hemoglobin per 100 ml. will fe 2,175,000 112,000, 32+ 2.0 and 7.1 0.45 respectively. - :
The elationshih between she apparent chair ‘cede and the hemoglobin concentration, per cent cell volume and the specific gravity for twenty fish is shown in table 2. In general the varia- tions of values for these characteristics were in the same direction when correlated with the physical condition of the fish. The lowest values obtained were associated with fish in obviously poor physical condition and the higher ones with those in better condition.
SUMMARY
In view of the insufficiency of published shanties data for determination of the physical condition of certain important fresh- water food fish, an attempt is made to establish the mean values for the specific gravity, number of erthrocytes, per cent cell volume and concentration of hemoglobin for the blood of the southern _ channel catfish, Ictalurus lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque). Data obtained from the study of seventy-six individuals gave the mean value for ie gravity as 1.0365 0.0011, for the number of erythrocrytes as 2,175,000 112,000 per millimeter, for cell volume as 32+ 2.0 per cent and for hemoglobin, 7.1 +0.45 grams per 100 milliliters. The lowest values obtained were associated with fish in
obviously poor physical condition and the higher ones eae fish in apparently good physical condition. |
LITERATURE CITED BARBOUR, H. G., and W. F. HAMILTON 1926. The falling drop method for determining specific gravity. Jour. Biol. Chem., 69: 625-640. ELLIS, M: M. 1937. Detection and measurement of stream pollution. Bull. No. 22, U.S. Bur. Fish., 48: 865-437. HOFFMAN, W. S. 1941. Photelometric Clinical. Chemistry. William Morrow and Company, "New York. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1948(1949) LEGEND Figure 1. Range and frequency of the values for specific gravity, eeaees of erythrocytes, per cent cell volume and hemoglobin concentration of a small population of the southern channel catfish, Ictalurus lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque )
AN ABANDONED VALLEY NEAR HIGH SPRINGS, FLORIDA
RicHarD A. EDWARDS University of Florida
In the vicinity of High Springs, Florida, the presence of lime- stone close to the surface has permitted the development of topo- graphic features produced by the solution of limestone formations. One of these features is an abandoned valley which heads in a small sink hole and whose course in a general southwesterly direc- tion brings it to the Santa Fe River about four miles west of High Springs.
The upland surface northwest of High Springs is between 65 and 75 feet (Kidd, 1937; 170, 185) above sea level with a rolling topography and a maximum relief of nearly 45 feet. This upland surface is at the right elevation to be included in the topographic features which Cooke (1939; 46-48) recognizes as the Wicomico and Penholoway Terrace levels. A generalized topographic map compiled by the War Department? shows the surface sloping from between 70-80 feet down to the southwest toward the Santa Fe River. _
The surface material is an unconsolidated sand which occurs as a veneer on the surface of the eroded limestone. Exposures of the limestone are found in the road cuts near the head and along the sides of the valley. An occasional bluff and weathered cherty boulders along the slopes are the only indications of the limestone in the lower portion of the valley.
This valley which is no doubt one of those mentioned by Stubbs (1941; 165) has its head located about 4.4 miles northwest of the Post Office in High Springs along the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and Florida Highway No. 20. On the aerial photograph? (Plate I, fig. 1) the valley is shown by the darker colored, heavily forested hammock area. Its general trend is in a southwesterly direction from the bend in the road and railroad near the northern edge of the figure. These last two features are represented on the photo by the straight white band extending in a northwesterly direction
1 War Dept., Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District issues 3 sheets for
Peninsular Florida. Scale 1:250,000, contour interval 10 ft. 2 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Photo by Edgar Tobin Aerial Surveys.
126 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
across the photograph. The dark sinuous line extending across the photo is the Sante Fe River.
A detailed study of this area reveals that there is a distinct, , recognizable valley which connects the spring head with the Santa Fe River. For purposes of description, it is best to break the valley up into three segments, the upper section extending from the east-west woods road to the head of the valley, the middie section from this road south to the narrowest part of the valley and the lower portion from the narrow part.of the valley to the Santa Fe. In the upper part of the valley, the floor consists of a series of flat-bottomed basins which are separated by very low divides. The east-west woods road crosses the valley on one of these divides. To the southwest of the road, the basins become less numerous. Just south of the narrowest part of the valley, there is a basin the lower rim of which is now intrenched by the surface drainage which uses this part of the channel. From here to the junction of the Santa Fe, the basin-like character is lacking, being replaced by a flat-bottomed, gently sloping valley floor.
The character of the walls and sides of the valley is quite variable. Beginning at the head of the valley, the walls, etched by ‘differential weathering, are nearly vertical bluffs, which in places stand 15 to 20 feet above the flat-floored valley. In other places, weathering and solution have penetrated along a series of joints to produce breaks in the valley walls. Along the west side, just below the head of the valley, are several angular blocks of lime- stone as yet unreduced by weathering and erosion (Plate 2, fig. 2). The striking feature, however, is the lack of residual blocks along the bluffs. As might be expected, farther down valley, the steep- ness of the valley walls diminishes, but occasionally the limestone is exposed in low bluffs, thus making it possible to recognize the limits of the valley in the dense underbrush.
From the aerial photograph it appears that the channel occupies all of the dark area, but this is not the case. On each side of the main channel there are numerous sinks and solution pits some of them elongated with the long axis conforming to the axis of the main channel. This produces a very rough terrain on which a thicket of vegetation different from the surrounding more open woods has developed.
In the middle section south of the east-west sand road, the
AN ABANDONED VALLEY NEAR HIGH SPRINGS 127
es \S
SS
PLATE I-
Fig. 1 (upper) Aerial photograph showing valley. Village is part of High Springs, Florida. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Photo by Edgar Tobin Aerial Surveys.
Fig. 2 (lower) Wall at head of valley, spring head in foreground under fallen tree.
128 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
valley is more open. Except for the rather steep sides of the sink south of the road, the valley sides rise gradually from the flat- bottomed floor. A similar situation exists just below the narrowest portion of the valley where an obscure weods road crosses the valley on a low sand ridge. From here to the junction with the Santa Fe, the slope of the sides is gentle and the course of the valley can best be recognized by following the edge of the swampy area of the valley bottom.
Even though at the present time this valley is not occupied by a continuous surface stream, there is a slight downward slope from its head to its mouth. The elevation of the flat-bottomed basin at the head of the valley is a little above 36 feet. [Elevation estab- lished by handleveling from Bench mark BF 117 (Kidd 19387; 170) ]. In October of 1947, the surface of the Santa Fe River at the gage on Florida Highway No. 20, was about 32 feet in elevation. At this time the mouth of the tributary valley was under 2 to 3 feet of water. As this tributary valley enters the Santa Fe about two miles below the gage, the elevation at the mouth is something less than 32 feet.
In the head of the valley is an open sink hole about 2 to 3 feet across (Plate 1, fig. 2). From here there is a distinct channel, bordered by nearly vertical limestone walls continuing down to the flat valley floor mentioned above. About 5 feet above the present floor at an elevation of approximately 42 feet is a bench 1 to 3 feet wide eroded in the limestone wall (Plate 2, fig. 3). The bench is well preserved on both sides of the valley where it is cut in the limestone, but is obscure where the walls give way to the sandy slopes.
To the north and east of the head of the valley is an elongate sink nearly 450 feet long with the elevation of the floor about 36 feet. It is separated from the head of the valley by a limestone wall which is covered in part by fill for both the railroad and the highway. In general the walls of this sink are not as steep nor is as much country rock exposed as is found along the sides of the valley to the southwest.
The formation of the valley can best be explained by the head- ward sapping of tributary springs. As these springs, fed either from a confined aquifer or from seepage at the level of the water table, dissolved the limestone and removed the eroded material, they
PLATE II
Fig. 3 (upper) Hammer rests on the surface of the bench eroded in limestone valley wall.
Fig. 4 (lower) View looking down the flat-bottomed valley a short distance below the head of the valley, rock wall with notch at lower right, weathered boulders in foreground.
129
130 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
have gradually worked their way headward. Thus the extension of the valley was accomplished until it has reached its present length and shape. The drainage from the sink across the road no doubt flows through solution channels into the lower valley. In time the intervening wall will be removed and the sink will become a part of the main valley. A glance at the aerial photo will reveal a marked parallelism of the trend of this valley and the Santa Fe River. Such a degree of conformance probably reflects the control that jointing has had on development of the drainage pattern.
In October of 1947, the shallow basins contained water about a foot deep, while the lower part of the valley was flooded by the | backwater of the Santa Fe. Quite a bit of water was flowing into the upper basin from springs just above the present floor. Water stood in the sink at the head of the valley at an elevation of 36 feet and a rise of about 6 feet would have permitted it to overflow the rim of debris about the spring head. At dry times of the year, no water is visible in the sink hole at the head of the valley. and the basins are nearly dry.
The presence of the bench at an elevation of 42 feet indicates _ that at some time in the past the flow from the spring was sufficient to maintain the surface of the water in a pool in the upper section of the valley at this height. At this time solution along the edge of the pool, and possibly erosion by running water, cut the notch in the limestone. Since that time the water level has dropped and only at times of heavy precipitation has water accumulated in the bottom of the valley.
In considering a valley of this nature, there are certain questions which present themselves. First, when did the valley form and, second, by what sequence of events did it develop into its present state? An answer to these requires some inquiries into the physio- graphic history of this region. Cooke (1939; 33-58) has recognized here in Florida several shorelines and terraces associated with fluc- tuations in sea level during the Pleistocene. Although in Peninsular Florida these features are more readily observed on the east coast, they have left some traces of their existence on the west coast. Those terraces to be considered in the High Springs area are: Wicomico (100-70 feet), Penholoway (70-42 feet), Talbot (42-25 feet), Pam- lico (25-0 feet). The first three are correlated with the Sangamon interglacial stage, while the last one is associated with a retreat of the ice during the Wisconsin glaciation.
AN ABANDONED VALLEY NEAR HIGH SPRINGS 131
Table showing correlation of the terraces with events in the Pleistocene (modified from Parker and Cooke 1944; 20).
Age Terraces Present Elevation (in feet)
Wisconsin Pamlico 258 Talbot 49
Sangamon Penholoway 70 Wicomico 100
Illinoian
Yarmouth Sunderland 170 Coharie 215
Kansan
Aftonian Brandywine 270
Nebraskan
Since this valley is eroded in the surface of the Wicomico and Penholoway terraces, it must have been formed since the with- drawal of the Penholoway Sea and the subsequent exposure of this area to erosion. As this valley is a tributary to the Santa Fe, its history should reflect that of the main drainage as it responded to fluctuations in sea level.
When the ocean level dropped from the Penholoway level and established itself at the Talbot level, the shore line extended up the Suwannee Valley and probably some distance up the Santa Fe (Cooke 19389; 38, 49). At this time erosion could have begun to excavate the lower portion of the valley. With the formation of the Early Wisconsin ice sheet, sea level dropped to some elevation below its present surface. This, no doubt, caused a seaward ex-. tension of the surface drainage and possibly a speeding up of erosion in the lower reaches of the main streams. It is unlikely that the Santa Fe eroded much below its present valley in this area, as it would have been some distance to the mouth of the valley. There is, however, the possibility that it could have flowed under- ground in some portions of its course.
The rise of the oceans with the return of the water during a retreat of the ice in Wisconsin time brought the level of the sea up to the Pamlico Terrace at 25 feet. An associated rise in the water table could have caused the flowage of the springs and the de- velopment of the narrow bench at about 42 feet at the head of the
132 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
valley. As the last glaciation took place, sea level dropped causing a lowering of the hydrostatic head so that the spring ceased to flow. With the retreat of the ice sheet the ocean level has risen to its present position. The water table, as yet, has not risen suf- ficiently high to cause flowage from the spring for even in high water the spring at the head of the valley does not overflow. The foregoing history is a possible sequence of events which has taken place since the exposure of this area to erosion in the late portion of Sangamon Interglacial time. It gives at least the earliest date for the beginning of erosion and an explanation for the abandonment of the valley by surface drainage. The processes of valley excavation are still going on. In time the limestone wall separating the head of the valley and the sink hole across the railroad and road will be reduced and another extension of the valley will have been accomplished. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4), 1948( 1949)
LITERATURE CITED COOKE, C. WYTHE pe 1939. Scenery of Florida. Fla. Geol. Sur. Bull. No. 17. 118 pp. KIDD, R. G., JR., EDITOR 1937. Florida Triangulation Traverse and Leveling. Vol. 2, Florida Mapping Project. 510 pp. PARKER, GAROLD-. G. and C. WYTHE COOKE 1944, Late Cenozoic Geology of Southern Florida with a discussion of the Ground Water. Fla. Geol. Sur. Bull. No. 27. 119 pp. STUBBS, SIDNEY A. 1941. Solution a dominant factor in the Geomorphology of Peninsular Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. of Sci., Vol. 5, pp. 148-167.
NEWS AND COMMENTS
The editor considers this section of the Journal a very important means of disseminating information of interest to the membership of the Academy. It is hoped that all members will keep this section in mind and send in grist for the mill at regular intervals. When- ever you come across an item of interest don't wait, write it on a penny postal or in a letter at once, and drop it in the mail.
The Council had a very pleasant and profitable meeting in DeLand on October 1. President Edmunds of Stetson entertained the group in his private dining room with a superb steak dinner. After dinner the Council got down to work and completed the business at hand by 1:00 A. M. Mr. P. W. Frazer (Forestry, U. of F.) was appointed Academy Representative on the Board of the Florida Park Service. Several matters having to do with the current membership drive were approved for presentation to the membership at the annual meeting. The appointment of an Ad- vertising Manager for the Journal was recommended and approved. The usual committee reports were made and the Secretary-Treas- urer gave a financial report that indicated the need of additional funds for the treasury. The President gave a detailed account of the difficulties encountered in the valiant attempt to get the State Legislature to appropriate funds for the support of the Academy. He indicated, further, that hope for action in the future has not been abandoned. Dr. Nielsen reported that Dr. Bellamy could not be present due to ill health. The Council missed his good humor _ and wide acquaintance with Academy affairs. Dr. Winchester (Biology, Stetson), Chairman of the Local Arrangements Com- mittee, outlined plans for the 1949 meetings in DeLand. They compared favorably with the steak dinner.
Dr. T. Stanton Dietrich (Sociology, F. S. U.) has been appointed Advertising Manager for the Journal. If you know of any good prospects for advertisers in the Journal please get in touch with Dr. Dietrich.
Dr. George F. Weber (Plant Pathology, U. of F.) will represent the Academy at the A. A. A. S. meetings in New York during December.
Dr. H. H. Hume retired as Dean of the College of Agriculture. at the University of Florida on July 1 and we are informed that he is having a wonderful time working on his camelias. Miss
134 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Esther Coogle, staff artist for the Department of Biology and the College of Agriculture, made a number of drawings for his book on camelias, now in press. Miss Coogle is also engaged on a long term project on the shrubs, woody vines,-and flowering plants of the region for Mr. Erdman West, coauthor of “The Trees of Florida”. ) |
Dr. John E. Hawkins (Chemistry, U. of F.), our president, is a busy man these days what with Council meetings, traveling to Chicago to present a paper before the Electrochemical Society, and performing the duties as president of the local chapter of | A. A. U. P.
Dr. A. P. Black (Chemistry, U. of F.) has just returned to the campus from a five weeks trip during which, as President of the American Waterworks Association, he visited all the sections of the Association, traveling from coast to coast.
Dr. A. H. Gropp (Chemistry, U. of F.) recently attended con- ferences on corrosion in Washington, D. C., at the National Bureau of Standards and the Office of Naval Research.
Dr. E. G. Rietz (Chemistry, U. of F.) gave a paper before the . southeastern regional meeting of the American Chemical Society at Oak Ridge in June.
We are pleased to announce the return of a former Academician to the fold. Dr. A. F. Carr, Jr. and wife, Margie, have returned to Gainesville after an absence of four and a half years in Honduras. “Archie” taught biology and agricultural chemistry at the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Tegucigalpa and both he and Margie collected and studied the fauna of the region. Their most note- worthy accomplishment, however, was the fine family of one gir] and three boys with which they returned.
Mr. Wilfred T. Neill, Herpetologist, formerly with the Augusta Junior College, has assumed the duties of Director of Research at Ross Allen’s Reptile Institute, Silver Springs. We hear that he and Ross have recently returned from a successful collecting trip
in Cuba.
Dr. John Henry Davis (Botany, U. of F.) is planning to take his family to New Zealand for a year to teach and botanize under the auspices of the Fullbright Act. The latest bulletin has brother Davis all up in the air on account of the devaluation of the English
pound.
NEWS AND COMMENTS 135
As the membership grows there will arise, undoubtedly, the need for new sections of the Academy. Anyone who feels that a new section is needed should get in touch with Dr. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. (Biology, U. of F.) so that steps can be taken to supply the need.
The publication of this number leaves the Journal still one year behind in publication. Without additional sources of income we cannot hope to correct this situation. The officers of the Academy have been wrestling with the problem and have come up with several possible solutions, outlined elsewhere in this section of the Tournal. One additional possibility is the several new classes of membership to be considered by the Academy at the 1949 meetings. in the absence of support from the state only the concerted and generous action of the entire membership is going to correct the present financial situation.
The editor apologizes for the lack of “news and comments’ on members from Tallahassee, Miami, DeLand, Lakeland, Winter Park, Tampa, Jacksonville, etc. This is partly due to the fact that ihis section was written as a “last minute job”. However, somebody in those respective localities is going to have to supply the editor with the necessary material in the future, if any improvement is to be made.
MEMBERSHIP DRIVE
The long delayed membership drive is finally under way and some new members have been added already. The Membership Drive Committee consists of one member from each of the insti- tutions of higher learning in the state and several members at large. All members of the Academy are urged, repeat urged, to participate in this drive. If each member will make it a point to secure at least one new member the additional income from dues will make it possible to bring the Journal, now one year behind in publication, up to date.
A small folder containing information about the Academy, with a new application blank insert, has been prepared to be handed to prospective new members. These may be obtained from the Secretary or from the Chairman of the Membership Committee, Dr. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. (Biology, U. of F.). The Membership Drive Committee has set a goal of 250 new members to be secured by the © time of the 1949 meetings and a membership of 1,000 by the 1950
136 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
meetings. Let us all lend a hand in the realization of these ob- jectives.
A Committee on Institutional Memberships has also been ap- pointed to try to secure additional institutional members. The Chairman of this committee is Dr. P. B. Reinsch (Mathematics, Florida Southern). Any member of the Academy who knows of an institution, company, or other organization that might be willing to help promote the cause of science in the state with an institu- tional membership is urged to send the information to Dr. Reinsch. Doubling the present number of institutional members would pay — for the publication of one number of the Journal annually.
INDEX TO VOLUME 11
[New names are printed in bold-face type. Due to the fact that numbers 1 and 2-3 have duplicate pagination, in this index the number is given in bold-face type. ]
ANNELIDA Chatonotus sp., 2-3, 22 Algz (see PLANTS) AMPHIBIA Acris gryllus dorsalis, 2-3, 26 Hyla c. cinerea, 2-3, 26 —crucifer bartramiana, 2=3, 26, 59 —c. crucifer, 2-3, 61 Rana catesbeiana, 2=3, 26 —clamitans, 2-3, 26 —grylio, 2-3, 26 —pipiens sphenocephala, 2-3, 26 Triturus v. louisianensis, 2-3, 26
AVES (see BIRDS)
BACTERIOLOGY Polyiomyelitis virus, 1, 37
Bats (see MAMMALS)
BIRDS Anas f. fulvigula, 2-3, 26 Anhinga anhinga, 2-3, 26 Ardea herodias wardii, 2-3, 26 Butorides v. virescens, 2-3, 26 Casmerodius albus egretta, 2=3, 26 Egretta t. thula, 2-3, 26 Florida c. carulea, 2-3, 26 Fulica a. americana, 2-3, 26 Gallinula chloropus cachinnans, 2=3, 26 Guara alba, 2-3, 26 Hydrassna tricolor ruficollis, 2-3, 26 lonornis martinica, 2-3, 26 Ixobrychus e. exilis, 2-3, 26 Nyctanassa v. violacea, 2=3, 26 Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli, 2-3, 26
Phalacrocorax auritus floridanus, 2-3, 26 —
Podilymbus p. podiceps, 2-3, 26 Blood Analyses
Catfish, 4, 119 BRYOZOA
Plumatella sp., 2-3, 25
CCELENTERATES Hydra sp., 2-3, 22 COLEOPTERA Agabus punctatus, 2=3, 24 Anodochilus exiguus, 2-3, 24 Berosus infuscatus, 2-3, 25 B. longovalis, Z=3, 24 Bidessonotus pulicarius, 2-3, 24 Bidessus affinis, 2-3, 24 —floridanus, 2-3, 24 —sgranarius, 2-3, 24 Copelatus chevrolati, 2-3, 25
COLEOPTER A—continued Coptotomus 2. obscurus, 2-3, 24 Desmopachria granum, 2=3, 24
—mutchleri, 2-3, 24 Dineutus carolinus, 2-3, 25 Ega sallei, 2=3, 25 Eonchrus cinctus, 2-3, 25
—consors, 2°35 25
—nebulosus, 2-3, 25
—ochraceus, 2=3, 25 Enochrus sp., 2=3, 25 Graphoderus liberus, 2-3, 24 Gyrinus elevatus, 2-3, 25
—pachysomus, 2-3, 25
—rockinghamensis, 2-3, 25 Haliplus annulatus, 2=3, 25 Helochares maculicollis, 2=3, 25 Helodes sp., 2-3, 25 Hydrocanthus n.sp., 2-3, 24
—oblongus, 2=3, 24 Hydrochus foveatus, 2-3, 25
—scabratus rugosus, 2-3, 25
—simplex, 2=3, 25 Hydroporus falli, 2=3, 25
—hebes, 223, 25
—lynceus, 2-3, 25 Hydrovatus compressus, 2-3, 24 Laccophilus fasciatus, 2=3, 25
—sgentilis, 2-3, 25
—proximus, 2=3, 25 Paracymus despectus, 2-3, 25
—nanus, 2=3, 25 Pelonomus obscurus gracilipes, 2-3, 25 Peltodytes floridensis, 2-3, 25 Ranatra calidus, 223, 25 Stenus sp., 2-3, 25 Suphisellus floridanus, 2-3, 24
—sibbulus, 2=3, 24
—puncticollis, 2-3, 24 Thermonectes, Basilaris, 2-3, 25 Tropisternus blatchleyi, 2=3, 25
—slaber, 2-3, 25
—Lateralis, 2=3, 25
—striolatus, 2=3, 25
Common names of fishes, 4, 99
CRUSTACEA Argulus sp., 2-3, 23 Bosmina sp., 2=3, 23 Cyclops albidus, 2=3, 23
—ater, 2-3, 23
—phaleratus, 2=3, 23
—serrulatus, 2=3, 23 Cypris sp., 223, 23 Daphnia sp., 2-3, 22 Diaptomus dorsalis, 2=3, 23
138
CRUSTACEA—continued —wmississippiensis, 2-3, 23 Eubranchipus sp., 2-35 22 Eulimnadea sp., 2-3, 22 Hyalella sp., 2-3, 23 Limnetis sp., 2-3, 22 Paleomonetes palludosa, 2-3, 23 Procambarus fallax, 2-35 23 —paninsulanus, 2=3, 23 Simocephalus sp., 2=3, 23 Stroptocephalus sealiz, 2-3, 22
Dickinson, J. C., Jr., An Ecological Reconnais- sance of the Biota of Some Ponds and Ditches in Northern Florida, 2=3, 1-28
Dietrich, T. Stanton, The Organizational Structure of Industrial and Independent Labor Groups in the Petroleum Industry, 2=3, 29-38
DIPTERA Chironomus lobiferous, 2-3, 25 Dolichopeza (O.) subslipes, 2-3, 25 Erioptera (M.) caloptera, 2=3, 25 Gonomyia pleuralis, 2-3, 25
—sulphurella, 2-3, 25 Limonia (D.) distans, 2=3, 25
—divisia, 2-3, 25 ' —(G.) rostrata, 2-3, 25 Megistocera longipes, 2-3, 25 Orthocladius sp., 2-3, 25 Palpomya sp., 2=3, 25 Pentaneura sp., 2-3, 25 Piloria arguta, 2-3, 25 Polymera georgia, 2-3, 25 Psychoda sp., 2-3, 25 Tanytarsus sp., 2-3, 25
ECOLOGY Biota of ponds and ditches, northern Florida, 2-3, 1 Fishes in springs, 4, 99 Red Tide studies, 1, 1 ECONOMICS Taxes, 4, 69 Edwards, Richard A., An Abandoned Valley near High Springs, Florida, & 125-132 ENDEMISM Flowering plants of Florida, 1, 25-35; 2-3, 39-57 EPHEMEROPTERA Canis diminuta, 2-3, 23 Callibatis floridanus, 2=3, 23
FISH Acipenser brevirostrum 4, 101 Ameturus natalis erebennus, &, 103
Archosargus probatocephalus, 4, 106
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
FISH—continued Bagre marinus, 4, 103 Caranx hippos, 4 109 Catfish, Southern channel, blood anal- yses, 4, 119 Centropomus undecimalis, 4, 105 Chanobryttis coronarius, 2-3, 26; 4, 107 Chriopeops goodei, 2=3, 26; 4, 104 Fish, common names of, 4, 107 - Cynoscion nebulosus, 4, 107 Cyprinodon hubbsi, 2-3, 67 —variegatus variegatus, 4, 104 (?) Dasyatis sabinus, 4, 101 Echeneis naucrates, 4, 109 Elassoma evergladet, 2-3, 26 Enneacanthus gloriosus, 2-3, 26 Erimystax harperi, 4, 102 Erimyzon s. sucetta, 2-3, 25; 4, 102 Esox niger, 2-3, 26 Eucinostomous argenteus, 44 106 Fundulus crysotus, 2-3, 26 Fundulus seminolis, 2=3, 68 Galeichthys felis, 4, 103 Gambusia affinis holbrookit, 2-3, 26; 4, 105 Heterandria formosa, 2=3, 26; 4, 104 Hololepis bavratti, 2-3, 26 Huro salmoides, 2-3, 26 Ictalurus lacustris punctatus, 4, 120 Jordanella florida, 2=3, 26 Lagodon rhomboides, 4, 106 Lepisosteus osseus, 2=3, 25; 4, 101 Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens, 2-3, 26, 68: 4, 107 Lepomis microlophis microlophis, 2-3, 26; 4, 108 Lepomis punctatus punctatus, 4, 107 Lucania parva, 4, 104 Lutianus apodus, 4, 106 —griseus, &, 105 Menidia beryllina atrimentis, 2-3, 68 Micropterus salmoides floridanus, 2-3, 68; 4, 108 Mollienisia latipinna, 4, 105 Mugil cephalus, 1, 7-23; 4, 108 Mugil curema, &, 108 Notemigonus chrysoleucus bosct, 2-3, 25; 4,103 Schilbeodes mollis, 2-3, 25 Scéanops ocellatus, & 107 Strong ylura marina, &, 104 Tarpon atlanticus, 4, 101 Young of striped mullet (Mugil cephalus iby i. Ws, FLATWORMS Planaria sp., 2-3, 22 FLORIDA Algz of north Florida, 2=3, 63 Bats, extension range, 1, 50 Early naturalists, 1, 25-35 Ecology of ponds and ditches, 2-3, 1
INDEX TO VOLUME 11 139
FLORIDA—continued Endemic plants, 1, 25-35 Fishes of Homosassa Springs, 4, 99 Fish, range extension of, 2=3, 67 Geomorphology, 4, 125 Mullet, striped, young of, 1, 7-23 Red Tide, causes of, 1, 1-6 Flowers in Wolffiella floridana, 4, 87 Frog songs, 2=3, 59
GASTROTRICHA Bdellodrillus sp., 2-3, 22 Dero sp., 2-35 22 Nais sp., 2=3,, 22 Goin, Coleman J., The Peep Order in Peepers; A Swamp Water Serenade, 2-35 59-61 Ground water, 4, 125 Gymnodinium brevis Davis, 1,1
Harper, Roland M., A Preliminary List of the Endemic Flowering Plants of Florida, 1, 25-35; 2-3, 39-57
HEMIPTERA Belostoma lutarium, 2-3, 24 Benacus griseus, 2=3, 24 Buenoa margaritacea, 2-3, 24 Gerris canaliculatus, 2=3, 24 Hesperscorixa sp., 2°35 24 Hesperocorixa interrupta, 2-3, 24
—unitida, 2-3, 24 Hydrometra myra, 2-3, 24 Mesovelia sp., 2-3, 24 Macrovelia sp., 2-3, 24 Notonecta indica, 2-3, 24 Pelocorés sp., 2=3, 24 Plea sp., 223, 24 Ranatra australis, 2-3,, 24
—draket, 2-3, 24 Rhagovelia sp., 2-3, 24 Sigara hubbelli, 2-3, 24 Velia sp., 2-3, 24
Herald, Earl S:, and Roy R. Strickland, An Annotated List of the Fishes of Homosassa Springs, Florida, 4 99-109
Higginbotham, A. Curtis, and Dallas K. Meyer, Determination of the Physical Condi- tion of Fish. I. Some Blood Analyses of the Southern Channel Catfish, 4, 119-124
HISTORY Florida, early naturalists, 1, 25-35 Homosassa Springs, Fishes of, 4, 99
Howitt, Beatrice F., and Rachel H. Gorrie, Relationship of Recently Isolated Human Fecal Strains of Poliomyelitis to the Lansing Murine Strain, 1, 37-47
HYDROZOA (see CELENTERATES)
Kilby, John D., A Preliminary Report on the Young Striped Mullet (Mugil cephalus Lin- fee) in Two Gulf Coastal Areas of Florida,
9 Ts
Korea, The plight of, 4, 75
Kurz, Herman, and Dorothy Crowson, The Flowers of Wolffiella floridana (J.D.Sim.) Thompson, 4, 87-98
Labor groups, 2=3,, 29 Life History of Mugzl cephalus, 1, 7-23
MAMMALS
Bats, in Florida, 1, 50
Corynorhinus macrotis, 1, 50
Dasypterus flortidanus, 1, 50 MARINE BIOLOGY
Red Tide studies, 1, 1
Young of mullet, 1, 7-23 MEDICINE
Poliomyelitis, 1, 37 Membership Drive, 4, 135 MOLLUSCA
Lymnaa sp., 2-3, 25
Physa sp., 2-3, 25
Planorbes sp., 2-3, 25
Pomacea sp., 2-3, 25
Spharium sp., 2=3, 25 Moore, Joseph Curtis, Range Extension of
Two Bats in Florida, 1, 50
NATURALISTS Alden, Lieut BSRe 1528 Baldwin, William, 1, 27 Barnhart, John Hendley, 1, 26 Bartram, William, 1, 27 Bartram, John, 1, 26 Blodgett, J. L., 1, 29; 2=3, 41 Gatesby, Mark, 1, 26 Chapman, A. W., 1, 29 Croom, Hardy B., 1, 28 Curtiss, Allen H., 1, 30 Darby, John, 1, 29 Feay, William T., 1, 31 Garber, A. P., 1, 31 Gray, Asa, 1, 29 Harper, Francis, 1, 27 Hitchcock, A. S., 1, 32 Hulse, G. W., 1, 29 Leavenworth, M. C., 1, 29 Michaux, Andre, 1, 27 Nash, George V., 1, 32 Nuttall, Thomas, 1, 28 Rolphs, P. H., 1, 32 Rugel, Ferdinand, 1, 29 Simpson, Joseph H., 1, 31 Small, John K., 1, 26, 33
140 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
NATURALISTS—continued Stuart, N. H., 2=3, 41 Swingle, W. T., 1, 32 Torrey, John, 1, 29; 2-3, 41 Tracy, S. M., 1; 33 Ware, Nathaniel A., 1, 28 Webber, Herbert J., 1, 32 Wood, Prof. Alphonso (1810-1881), 2=3, 40 ' Wright, Samuel Hart, 2-3, 42 Wright, William, 2-3, 41 News and Comments, 4, 133-135 Nielsen, G. S., and Grace C. Madsen, Check List of the Alga of Northern Florida 1, 2=8, 63-66
ODONATA
Anax junius, 2-3, 23 —longipes, 2-3, 23
Celithemis eponina; 2-3, 23
Coyphaschna ingens, 2-3, 23
Enallagma sp., 2-3, 24 —traviatum, 2-3, 24
Erythrodiplax minuscula, 2-3, 24
Gomphus minutus, 2-3, 23 —pallidus, 2-3, 23
Ischnura credula, 2-3, 24 —posita, 2-3, 24
Lestes forcipatus, 2=3, 24 —vidua, 2-3, 24
Libellula auripennis, 2-3, 24 —lydia, 2-3, 24
Nehallenia sp., 2=3, 24
Pachydiplax longipennis, 2-3, 24
Pantala flavescens, 2-3, 24
Papillate Cells, in Wolffiella, 4, 93 Petroleum Industry, labor groups, 2=3, 29 Physiography, Florida, 4, 125 PHYSIOLOGY
Blood analyses, catfish, 4, 119 PISCES (see FISH) Pistil, structure of, in Wolffiella, 4, 91 PLANKTON CGsee Dickinson, 2=3, 1)
Gymnodinium brevis Davis, 1,1 Plant anatomy, flower parts, 4, 91 PLANTS
Acanthocereus Floridanus, 2-3, 51
Acnida Floridana, 2=3, 46
FEschynomene pratensis, 2-3, 49
Agave decipiens, 2-3, 45
—neglecta, 2-3, 45 Agalinsis Keyensis, 2=3,5 54 —stenophylla, 2=3, 54
Ageratum littorale, 2=3, 55
Amarolea megacarpa, 2-3, 53 Ammopursus Oblingeram, 2-3, 56
Amor pha Dewinkeleri, 2-3, 48
PLANTS—continued —crenulata, 2-3, 48 —Floridana, 2-3, 48 —Bushii, 2-3, 48
Amphithrix janthina, 4 113
Anabana flgs-aqua, 4, 112 —oscillarioides, 4, 112 —spharica, 2-3, 64
Anamomis Simpsonii, 2-3, 52 —dicrana, 2-3, 52
- Andropogon longiberbis, 2=3, 43 —brachystachyus, 2-3, 43. —Cabanisit, 2-3, 43 —arctatus, 2-3, 43 —Floridanus, 2-3, 43 Ankistrodesmus falcatus, 4, 116 —sp., 2-3, 21
Argemone leicarpa, 2=3,5 47 Aristida patula, 2=3, 44 —tenuispica, 2=3, 44 Asclepias vividula, 2=3, 53 Asclepiodella Feayi, 1, 31; 2=3, 53 Ascyrum Edisonianum, 2-3, 50 Asemeia leiodes, 2-3, 49 —cumulicola 2-3, 49 Aster linguiformis, 2-3, 56 —fontinalis, 2=3, 56 —simulatus, 2-3, 56 —plumosus, 2°34 56 —Simmondsii, 2-3, 56 —spatelliformis, 2=3, 56 —pinifolius, 2-3, 56 —gracilipes, 2-3, 56 —brachypholis, 2-35 56 —spinulosus, 2-3, 56 —Chapmanii, 2-3, 56 Atamosco Simpsonit, 2=3, 45 —Treatia, 2-3, 45 Azalea austrina, 2=3, 52 Azolla caroliniana, &, 88 Baptisia elliptica, 2=3, 48 —calycosa, 2=3, 48 —hirsuta, 2-3, 48 —simplicifolia, 1, 28; 2=3, 48 Batrachospermum australe, 4, 117 Berlandiera humilis, 2-3, 56 —subacaulis, 2-3, 56 Blephariglottis Chapmanii, 2=3, 45 Behmeria decurrens, 2-3, 46 Bonamia grandiflora, 2-8, 53 Borrevia terminalis, 2=3, 55 Botrydium granulatum, 2=3, 66 Bradburya arenicola, 2=3, 48 —Floridana, 2-3, 48 Bulbochate sp., 2-3, 21; 4, 116 Bumelia rufotomentosa, 2°35 53 —megacocca, a3, 53 —lacuum, 2=3, 53 Calamovilfa Curtissii, 2-3, 44
INDEX TO VOLUME 11
PLANTS—continued
Calothrix parietina, 4, 113 —stellaris, 4, 113 Calpidisca Standleya, 2-3, 55 Campulosus Floridanus, 2-3, 44 Cardamine curvisiliqua, 2=3, 47 Carex baltzelliz, 2-3, 41, 44 —Chapmanii, 2-3, 44 —magnifolia, 2-3, 44 Castalia flava, 2=3, 42, 47 Cathariolinum arenicola, 2-3, 49 Cephalanthus occidentalis, 4, 88 Cephalocereus Deeringii, 2=3, 51 —Keyensis, 2-3, 51 Cirsium vittatum, 2-3, 57 Chatomorpha sp., 4, 116 —incrassata, 4,115 Chamacrista Keyensis, 2-3, 48 —Deeringiana, 2-3, 48 Chamasyce adenoptera, 2=3, 50 —adhearens, 2=3, 59 —adicisides, 2=3, 50 —brachypoda, 2-3, 49 —Chiogenes, 2-3, 49 —conferta, 2-3, 49 —cumulicola, 2-3, 49 —deltoidea, 2=3, 49 —Garberi, 2-3, 49 —Keyensis, 2=3, 50 Chamasyce Matthewsti, 2=3, 50 —Mosieri, 2-3, 49 —Nashii, 2=3, 49 —pinetorum, 2=3, 50 —Porteriana, 2=3, 50 —Serpyllum, 2-3, 49 —scoparia, 2-3, 50 Chantransia violacea, 4, 117 Chapmannia Floridana, 2=3, 49 Chara sp., 2-3, 21 Characium sp., 45 116 Chetophora sp., 2-3, 21 Chionanthus pygmaa, 2-3, 53 Chlamydomonas sp., 45 115 Chloris neglecta, 2-3, 44 Chrysopsis Floridana, 2=3, 56 — gigantea, 2-3, 56 —lanuginosa, 2-3, 56 ~ —latisquama, 2-3, 56 —subulata, Z=3,, 56 Cladophora crispata, 4, 116 —pulverulenta, &, 116 Clematis micrantha, 2=3, 46 Clinopodium Ashet, 2-3, 54 —dentatum, 2-3, 54 —macrocalyx, 2-3, 54 Closterium sp., 2=3, 21, 65 Coccochloris stagnina f. rupestris, 2-3, 63 Cosmarium sp., 2-3, 65 Celostylis loganioides, 2=3, 53 Commelina Gigas, 2-3, 44
PLANTS—continued Compsopogon ceruleus, 2=3, 66 Conradina grandiflora, 2-3, 54 —puberula, 2=3, 54 Consolea corallicola, 2-3, 51 Convolvulus Nashiz, 2-3, 53 Coreopsis Lewtonti, 2-3, 57 Cracca angustissima, 2-3, 48 —Chapmanii, 2=3, 48 —Curtissii, 2-3, 48 —corallicola, 2=3, 48 —sgracillima, 2-3, 48 —Ilatidens, 2=3, 48 —Mohriz, 2=3, 48 —Rugeliz, 2=3, 48 Cratagus lacrimata, 2=3, 47 —Luculenta, 2-3, 47 —maloides, 2=3, 47 Crocanthemum Nashiz, 2=3, 51 —thyrsoideum, 2=3, 51 Crotalaria Linaria, 2-3, 48 Croton arenicola, 2=3, 49 —Fergusonii, 2=3, 49 —Floridanus, 2-3, 49 Cuthbertia ornata, 2=3, 44 Cylindrospermum licheniforme, 4, 112 Cyperus Careyi, 2=3, 44 —litoreus, 2-3, 44 —Nashii, 2-3, 44 —Winkleri, 2-3, 44 Cyrilla arida, 2-3, 50 Dasystephana tenutfolia, 2-3, 53 Deeringothamnus pulchellus, 2-3, 47 —Rugelii, 2=3, 47 Delopyrum ciliatum, 2-3, 46 —bhasiramea, 2=3, 46 Dentocerus myriophylla, 2-3, 46 Desmidium Aptogonium, 2=3, 65 —Baileyi, 4 117 —Grevilliz, 4,117 —Swartzitz, 4,117 Dichromena Floridensis, 2=3, 44 Dictyospharium pulchellum, 2-3, 65 Diospyros Mosier, 2-3, 53 Ditaxis Blodgettit, 2=3, 49 Dodonaea microcarya, 2=3, 50 Dracocephalum leptophyllum, 2=3, 54 Dyschoriste angusta, 2=3, 54 Echinochloa paludigena, 2-3, 43 Eleocharis uncialis, 2=3, 44 Encapsis sp., 2-3, 21 Encyclia Tampensis, 2=3, 45 Enteromor pha intestinalis, 4, 116 Entocladia polymorpha, 4, 115 Entophysalis Brebissoniz, 4, 112 Entophysalis rivularis, 4, 112 Eragrostis acuta, 2=3, 44 —Tracyz, 1, 33
Eriogonum Floridanum, 2=3, 46
141
142
PLANTS—continued
Eryngium cunetfolium, 2=3,5 52 —Floridanum, 2=3, 52 Erythrina arborea, 2-3, 48 Eudorina sp., 2-3, 64 Eugenta anthera, 2-3, 52 Euglena sp., 2-3, 66 Eupatorium anomalum, 2-3, 56 Chapmanii, 2-3, 56 —jucundum, 2-3, 56 —mikanioides, 2-3, 56 Euphorbia mercurialina, 2=3, 41 Evolvulus macilentus, 2-3, 53 Fischerella ambigua, 4, 112 Flaveria latifolta, 2-3, 57 —Floridana, 2-3, 57 Forestiera porulosa (Mx.), 2=3, 53 —pinetorum, 2-3, 53 —globulavis, 2-3, 53 Fremyella diplosiphon, 4, 113 Galactia brachypoda, 2=3, 48 —prostrata, 2=3, 48 —fasciculata, 2-3, 48 —parvifolia, 2=3, 48 —pinetorum, 2-3, 48 Galarheus inundatus, 2-3, 50 —austrinus, 2=3, 50 .—telephioides, 2-3, 50 Garberia fruitcosa, 2-35 56 Gaura Eatoniz, 2=3, 52 —simulans, 2-3, 52 Geobalanus pallidus, 2-3, 47 Gerardia Floridana, 2=3, 55 Glandularia maritima, 2-3, 54 —Tampensis, 2=3, 54 Gleocapsa alpicola, 4, 112 Gleocapsa dimidiata, 4, 112 Gleocystis Grevellet, 45 115 Golenkiniz sp., 2-8, 21 Gongrosira Debaryana, 4, 115 Gracilaria confervoides, 2-3, 66
Grossulavria Echinella, 1, 35; 2=3, 47 Gymnopogon Chapmanianus, 2-3, 44
Gymnozyga montliformis, 2=3, 66 Gymnozyga sp., 45 117 Halophila Baillonis, 2-3, 43 —Engelmanni, 2-3, 43 Hapalostphon pumilus, 4 112 Harrisia Aboriginum, 2=3, 51 —fragrans, 2-3, 51 —Simpsonitz, 2=3, 51 Hartwrightia Floridana, 2-3, 55 Hassallia byssoidea, 4 113 Helianthus agrestis, 2-3, 56 —carnosus, 2°35 57 —yvesinosus, 2°35 57 —vestitus, 2°35 56
Heliotropium phyllostachyum, 2-3, 54
—horizontale, 2-3, 54 —Leavenworthii, 2-3, 54
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PLANTS—continued
Hemianthus glomeratus, 2-3, 54 Hexastylis callifolia, 2=3, 55 Hibiscus semilobates, 2-3, 50 Hicoria austrina, 2=3, 46 —Floridawa, 2-3, 46 Hieracium argyraum, 2-34 57 Houstonia pulvinata, 2-3, 55 Hyalotheca dissiliens, 45 117 Hydrocoryne spongiosa, 4, 112 Hydrodictyon reticulatum, 4, 116 Hymenocallis Keyensis, 2=3, 45 —Collieri, 2-3, 45 —Kimballia, 2-3, 45 —laciniata, 2=3, 45 —Palmeri, 2=3, 45 —tridentata, 2-3, 45 Ilex Buswelliz, 2=3, 50 —cumulicola, 2-3, 50 —Curtissit, 2=3, 50 Illicium parviflorum, 2-3, 47 Hysanthes grandiflora, 2-35 54 Indigofera Keyensis, 2=3, 48 Tris Albispiritus, 2=3, 45 —Kimballia, 2-3, 45 —savannarum, 2-3, 45 Isnardia intermedia, 2-3, 52 —spathulata, 2-3, 52 Jacquemontia Curtisstt, 2=3, 53 Justicia angusta, 2-3, 55 —crassifolia, 2-3, 55 Kosteletzkya smilacifolia, 2-3, 50 Kuhnia Mosieri, 2-3, 56 Kuhnistera adenopoda, 2-3, 48 —truncata, 2=3, 48 Lachnocaulon dig ynum, 2=3, 44 —eciliatum, 2-3, 44 —Floridanum, 2=3, 44 Laciniaria chlorolepis, 2=3, 56 —Garberi, 2=3, 56 Lantana depressa, 2=3, 54 Lechea cernua, 2=8, 51 —exserta, 235 51 —myriophylla, 2-3, 51 —prismatica, 2=3, 51 Lemna minor, 4, 88 Leptoglottis Floridana, 2=3, 48 —angustiliqua, 2=3, 48 Limodorum pinetorum, 2-3, 45 Limonium obtusilebum, 2-3, 52 Litrisa carnosa, 2=3, 56
Lobelia Feayana, 1, 31; 2=3, 42, 55
Ludwigia Curtissiz, 2-3, 52 —Simpsonti, 2=3, 52 —spathulifolia, 2=3, 52
Lupinus cumulicola, 2-3, 48 —Westianus, 2-3, 48
Lynghya aestuarii, 4, 113 —contorta, 2=3, 64 —Diguettiz, 4, 113
INDEX TO VOLUME.11
PLANTS—continued
—ochracea, 4, 113 —Patrickiana, 4, 113 —putealis, 4, 113 —semiplana, 4, 113 —versicolor, 4, 113 Lythrum flagellare, 2-3, 52 Macbridea alba, 2-3, 54 Manisuris tuberculosa, 2-3, 43 Martiusia fragrans, 2-3, 48 Melanthera ligulata, 2-3, 56 —parvifolia, 2-3, 56 —radiata, 2-3, 56 Melothria crassifolia, 2-35 55 Merismopedia thermalis, 4, 112 Mesadenia Floridana, 2-3, 57 Mesotanium macrococcum, 2-3, 65 Micrasterias sp., 2-3, 21, 66 Microcoleus acutisstmus, 4, 113 Miacrocoleus lacustris, &, 114 —paludosus, 4, 114 —rupicola, 4, 114 —vaginatus, 2=3, 64 Micropzper leptostachyon, 2=3, 45 Microspora stagnorum, 4, 115 Monotropsis Reynoldsia, 2-3, 52 Mougeotia sp., 4, 117 Naias gracilis, 2=3, 43 Nemastylis Floridana, 2-3, 45 Nolina atropocarpa, 2-3, 45 —Brittoniana, 2=3, 45 Nostoc carneum, 4, 112 —ellipsosporum, 2=3, 64 —Linckia, 4, 113 —muscorum, 4, 113 Nyachia pulvinata, 2-3, 46 Nymphaea ulvacea, 2=3, 47 —macrophylla, 2-3, 47 Nyssa aquatica, 4, 88 Nyssa ursina, 2=3, 52 Odontonychia interior, 2=3, 46 Odontostephana Floridana, 2-3, 53 (Edigonium sp., 2=3, 21 —uoccidentale, 4, 116 Ophiocytium sp., 2-3, 66 Opuntia abjecta, 2-3, 51 —ammophila, 2-3, 51 —atrocapensis, 2-3, 51 —austrina, 2-3, 51 —cumulicola, 2=3, 51 —eburnispina, 2=3, 51 —Keyensis, 2-3, 51 —lata, 2-3, 51 —magnifica, 2-35 51 —nitens, 2-3, 51 —ochrocentra, 2=3, 51 —pictformis, 2-3, 51 —polycarpa, 2-3, 51 —tenutflora, 2-3, 51 —turgida, 2-3, 51
PLANTS—continued
—zebrina, 2=3, 51 Oscillatoria amphibia, 2-3, 64 —chalyba, 4, 114 —chlorina, 4, 114 —curviceps, 4, 114 —formosa, &, 114 —limosa, 4, 114 —princeps, 4, 114 —splendida, 2-3, 64 —proboscidea, 2-3, 64 —tenuis, 4, 114 —tenuis var natans, 2-3, 64 —tenuts var. tergestina, 4, 114 Osmia frustrata, 2-3, 56 Osmanthus Floridana, 2=3, 53 Oxypteryx Curtissiz, 2=3, 53 Palafoxia Feayi, 1, 31; 2=3, 57 Panicum breve, 2=3, 43 —glabrifolium 2=3, 43 —hemitomum, 2=3, 68 —malacon, 2-3, 43 Parietaria nummularia, 2-3, 46 Parnassia Floridana, 2-3, 47 Parosela Floridana, 2-3, 48 Parsonisa lythroides, 2=3,5 52 Pediastrum sp., 2-3, 21 Pediastrum duplex, 4, 116 —tetras, 2-3, 65 Pepo Okeechobeensis, 2-35 55 Phaseolus smilactfolius, 2=3, 49 Phebanthus grandiflora, 2=3, 57 —tenuifolia, 2-35 57 Phoradendron Eatoni, 2=3, 55 —macrotomum, 2°35 55 Phormidium autumnale, 2=3, 64 —favosum, &, 114 —inundatum, 4, 114 — purpurascens, &, 114 Eee et eile —tenue, 4, 114 —uncinatum, 4, 114 Phyllanthus Garberi, 2-3, 49 —platylepis, 2-3, 49 Physalis Floridana, 2-3, 54 —arenicola, 2=3, 54 —sinuata, 2-3, 54 Pilostaxis arenicola, 2=3, 49 —Rugelii, 2-3, 49 Pinus clausa, 2-3, 43 Piriqueta glabrescens, 2-3, 51 —viridis, 2-3, 51 pethophoraCEdogonia, 4, 116 Pityopsis flexuosa (Nash), 2-3, 56 Pityopsis Tracyz, 1, 33; 2-3, 56 Pityothamnus reticulatus, 2-3, 47 —obovatus, 2-3, 47 —pygmaus, 2-3, 47 —tetramerus, 2-3, 47
143
144 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PLANTS—continued Plectonema Nostocorum, 4, 114 —terebrans, 2-3, 64 Pluchea longifolia, 2-3, 56 Polygala aboriginum, 2=3, 49 —flagellaris, 2-3, 49 —Lewtoniz, 2-3, 49 —pratervisa, 2-3, 49 Polygonella brachystachya, 2-3, 46 macrophylla, 2-3, 46 Porphyrosiphon Notarisiz, 2-3, 64 Potomogeton Curtissiz, 2-3, 43 —Floridaius, 2=3, 43 Pringsheimiella scutata, 4, 116 Protococcus viridis, &, 116 Prunus geniculata, 1, 35; 2-3, 47
Pseudendocloniune submarinum, 2-8, 65
Prelea Baldwiniiz, 2=3., 47
Prerophyton heterophyllum, 2°35 57 —pauctflorum, 2-35 57
Pycnothymus vigidus, 2-35 54
Quadvigula Chodatii, &, 116
Quercus Rolfszz, 2-3, 46
Rhabdadenia corallicola, 2=3, 53
Rhexia parviflora, 2-8, 52
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum, &, 116
Rhizoclonium riparium, 2-3, 65
Rhododendron Chapmanii, 2=3, 52
Rhynachophorum Floridanum, 2=3, 45
Rhynchosia Michauxii, 2=8, 48 —cinerea, 23, 48 —ILewtonii, 2=3, 48
Rhynchospora Careyana, 2>3.44 —Curtissiz, 2=3, 44 —decurrens, 2=3, 44 —FEdisoniana, 2-3, 44 —intermedia, 273» 44 —pinetorum, 2-3, 44 —Rappiana, 2=3, 44
Riccia fluitans, 4, 88
Ricciocarpus natans, 4, 88
Rotantha Floridana, 2735 55 —Robinsia, 2-3, 55
Rudbeckia heterophylla, 2-3, 56 —pinnatiloba, 2-3, 56
Ruella succulentz, 2-3, 55 —hybrida, 2-3, 55
Rumex fascicularis, 2=3, 46
Sabal Etonia, 2-3, 44 —Jamesiana, 2-3, 44
Sabbatia grandiflora, 2-3, 53
Sagittaria Kurziana, 2-3, 43
Salfingostylis celestina, 2-3, 45
Salix amphibia, 2=3, 46
Salvia Blodgettiz, 2-3, 54
Sambucus Simpsonit Rehder, 2=3, 55
Sandiophyllum cumulicola, 2-3, 50
Scenedesmus acuminatus, 4, 117 —sp., 2-3, 21
Schzzothrix calicola, &, 114 —Frieszi, 2=3, 64 —purpurascens, 2-3, 64
PLANTS—continued Scleria Curtissiz, 2-3, 44 Scutellaria avenicola, 2-3, 54 —Floridana, 2-8, 54 —slabriuscula, 2-3, 54 Scytonema figuratuin, 2-3, 64 —guyanense, 235 64 —Hoffmannii, 4, 113 —ocellatum, 4, 113 —tolypotrichoides, &, 113 Sida rubromerginata, 2-3, 50 Silphium Simpsonit, 2=3, 56 Sisyrinchium xerophyllum, 2=3, 45 —Floridanum, 2-3, 45 Sum Flovridanum, 2-3, 52 Solanum Floridanum, 2=8, 54 Solidago flavovirens, 2-3, 56 —Edisoniana, 2-3, 56 —mirabilis, 2=3, 56 Spartina Bakeri, 2=3, 44 Spermacoce Keyensts, 2-3, 55 Spigelia gentianotdes, 2-3, 53 Spirogyra dectma, 4, 117 Spirogyra flavescens, 44 117 Spirotania sp., 2=3, 65 Spirulina Major, 4, 114 —subtilissima, &, 115 Spyrogyra sp., 2-3, 21 Stachydeoma graveolens, 2-3, 54 Stachys lythroides, 2-3, 54 —Floridana, 2-3, 54 : Staurastrum sp., 2-3, 66, 21 Stichococcus bacillaris, 4 115 —flaccidus, 2-3, 65 —subtilis, &, 115 s Stigeoclonium lubricum, 4, 116 —tenue, 4, 116 Stigonema hormoides, 2-3, 63 —minutum, &, 112 Stillingia angustifolia, 2-3, 49 —tenius, 2=3, 49 Stipa avenaceoides, 2=3, 44 Stylisma villosa, 2-3, 53 Stylosanthes calcicola, 2=3, 49 Symploca muralis, &, 115 —Muscorum, 4, 115 Syntherisma pauciflorum, 23, 43 —Floridanum, 2-3, 43 —zracillimum, 2-3, 43 Tamala littoralis, 2-3, 52 —humilis, 2-3, 52 Taxodium ascendens, 4, 89 Taxus Floridana, 2-3, 43 Tetmemorus sp., 2=35 66 Tetradron minimum, 2-3, 65 —sp., 2-3, 21 Tetrallantos Lagerheimit, &, 117 Tetraspora gelatinosa, &, 115 Thysanella robusta, 2-3, 46 Tilia porracea, 2-3, 50 Tillandsia hystricina, 2=3, 45 —myriophylla, 2°35 45
INDEX TO VOLUME 11 145
PLANTS—continued —simulata, 2=3, 45 Tithymalopsis discoidalis, 2-3, 50 —exserta, 2°3, 50 —polyphylla, 2-3, 50 Tolypothrix lanata, 2-3, 64 —tenuis, 4, 113 Torrubia globosa, 2-3, 46 —Floridana, 2=3, 46 Trachelomonas sp., 2=3, 66 Tradescantella Flovidana, 2-3, 44 Tragia saxicola, 2-3, 49 Trema Flovidana, 2=3, 46 Trentepohlia aurea, 2-3, 65 —Wainoi, 4, 115 Tribonema sp., 2-3, 21 —bomycinum, 4,117 —minus, 2-3, 66 Trichostema suffrutescens, 2-3, 54 Triploceras gracile, 2=3, 66 Tripsacum Floridanum, 2=3, 43 Tubiflora angustifolia, 2=3, 54
Tumton taxifolium, 1, 28; 2=3, 43
Ulothrix sp., 2-3, 21 —oscillavina, 4, 115
Ulva Lactuca, 2=3, 65
Urechites pinetorum, 2-8, 53
Vachellia penninsulavis, 2-3, 47 —insularis, 2-3, 47
Vaucheria sp., 4, 117 —sessilis, 2-3, 65
Veratrum intermedium, 2-3, 45
Vernonia concinna, 2=3, 55 —Blodgettiz, 2-3, 55
Viburnum densiflorum, 2-3, 55 —Nashiz, 273, 55
Vicia Floridana, 2=3, 49
Viola Floridana 2=3, 51 —rugosa, 2-3, 51
Viorna Baldwinii, 2=3, 46
Vitis Simpsonii, 2-3, 50
Volvox aureus, 4, 115
Warea Carteri, 2-3, 47 —amplexifolia, 2-3, 47 —sesstlifolia, 2=3, 47
Wolffia cylindracea, 4, 87 —wmicroscopica, 4, 87 —papulifera, 4, 87 —punctata, 4, 88
Wolffiella floridana, flowers of, 4, 87
— sladiata, 4, 89 —lingulata, &, 87 —oblonga, 4, 87
Zamia integrifolia, 1, 27; 2=3, 43
—silvicola, 2=3, 43 —umbrosa, 1, 27; 2-3, 43 Loochlorella parasitica, 4, 117 Lygnema sp., 2-3, 21 —crusciatum, 4, 117 Zygogonium ericetorum, 4, 117 Political Science, Korea, 4, 75 Political Science, Taxes, 4, 69
Pollution, stream, affecting fish, 4, 119 Popper, Annie M., The Plight of Korea, 4,
75-85 PORIFERA
Heteromeyenia repens, 2=3, 22
—rydert, 23, 22
Meyenia crateriformis, 2=3, 22 PROTOZOA
Arcella vulgaris, 2-3, 21
Centropyxis sp., ad, 21
Ceratium sp., 2=3, 22
Difflugia sp., 2-3, 21
Epistylis sp., 2-3, 22
Eudorina sp., @=3,5 21
Euglena sp., 2-3, 21
Mallamonas sp., 2-3, 21
Pleodorina sp., (see Eudorina), 2-3, 21, 22
Stentor sp., 2=B, 22
Volvox sp., 2-3, 21, 22
Vorticella sp., 2-3, 22
Red Tide, causes of, 1, 1-6 Reid, George K., Jr., Extenston of the Range of the Sheepshead Killifish, Cyprinodon hubbsi Carr., 2=3, 67 Reproduction in Plants (Wolffiella, 4, 87) RE Pao EA Agkéstridon p. piscévorous, 2-3, 26 Alligator mississeppiensis, 2-35 26 Dirochelys veticularia, 2-3, 26 Liodytes alleni, 2=3, 26 Natrix sipedon pictiventris, 2-3, 26 Pseudemys nelsoni, 2-3, 26 Seminatrix pygea, 2-3, 26 Sternotherus odoratus, 2-3, 26 ROTATORIA Conochilus sp., 2-3» 22 Furculavia forficula, 2-3, 22 Notholca sp., 23, 22 Rattulus sp., 2-3, 22
Sea level, Pleistocene fluctuations, 4, 125
Seed, in Wolffiella, 4, 92
Sepmeier, Kurt A., Taxes Ave Everybody's Business, 4&4 69-74
Smith, F. G. Walton, Probable Fundamental Causes of Red Tide Off the West Coast of Florida, 1, 1-6
Solution, topographical effect of, 4, 125
Stamen, in Wolffiella, 4, 92
Strikes, 2-3, 29
Taxes, 4, 69 The Great Powers in Korea, 4, 75 TURBELLARIA (see FLATWORMS)
Union organizations, 2-3, 29
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Contributions to the Journal may be in any of the fields of the sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings will be © published only with the financial cooperation of the author. Manuscrupts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or other competent critics.
MANUSCRIPT FORM.——(1) typewrite material, using one side of paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal margins; (3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight (avoid onion skin); (4) do not submit carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) footnotes should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short; (8) for bibliographic style, note closely the practices employed in Vol. 11, No. 4 and later issues; (9) a factual summary is recommended for longer papers.
ILLUSTRATIONS.——Photographs should be glossy prints of good contrast. Make line drawings with India ink; plan linework and lettering for at least one-half reduction. Do not use typewritten
labels on the face of the drawings; provide typed legends on sep- arate sheets.
pROOF.——Proof should be corrected immediately upon receipt and returned at once, with manuscript, to the editor. Ordinarily page proof will not be sent to the author. Manuscripts and plates will not be returned to authors unless requested. Abstracts and orders for reprints should be sent to the editor along with corrected
galley proof.
REPRINTS.——Should be ordered when galley proof is returned. A blank form, with reprint prices, accompanies proof for this purpose. No reprints are furnished free to authors. Payment for reprints will be made by authors directly to the printer. ’
ain ms oa rs my : P\
—-
me
a q r iy ee a) Or fT TS nA, } vas Bt Oe OP Naa Na ne P| aR Dy RE AF Pal Wii ty Se Paiute 2 thE ks i eat i ey eat 9 Ti: 1% if i % ¥ \ 4h. v A! ny ; } TM. ay ti es: bm, N i 19 Anh ‘ ty ; hie hy si ry “i 1) 5 \ } beh 4
INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Florida Southern College Lakeland, Florida
Florida State University ‘tallahassee, Florida
University of Florida Gainesville, Florida
Jacksonville Junior College Jacksonville, Florida University of Tampa Tampa, Florida
John B. Stetson University DeLand, Florida
St. Petersburg Junior College St. Petersburg, Florida
Rollins College Winter Park, Florida
University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida
Peninsular Telephone Company Tampa, Florida
Wakulla Springs Wakulla, Florida
Glidden-Naval Stores Jacksonville, Florida
Orkin Exterminating Company Atlanta, Georgia
Marine Studios, Inc. Marineland, Florida
Rose Printing Company Tallahassee, Florida
Teg oan iF } yh | i { iB ye i ye
Wi heat TO
The Quarterly Journal of The Florida Academy of Sciences
A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
H. K. Watuace, Editor
J. C. Dicxtnson, JR., Associate Editor
VOLUME 12
Published by
Tue FLorma ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Tallahassee, Florida 1950
Dates of Publication Number 1 May 15, 1950 Number 2 July 17, 1950 Number 3 September 28, 1950 Number 4 May 3, 1951
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 12 NUMBER lL
A Preliminary List of the Endemic Flowering Plants of fen by Roland M. Harper... 00.2 ..6.5c5. 58 ee ces A Field Survey of Florida’s Pebble Phosphate Striplands. By Wilbur B. De Vall and Claude L. DeVane.......... A Key to Florida’s Fresh-Water Sponges, with Descriptive Mates. bys. Kendrick: Eshlemanjdll 20. ic ce The Carotid Sinus Syndrome. By Elwyn Evans, M. D....... ls Gor TCS Lege 10 een oan en enn MRIEn Oe A Mente A 5 Anatomy and Secondary Growth in the Axis of Litchi Gracias son. By Frank. D. Venninge so) 2. 20.308" A New Florida Violet. By William A. Murrill.............. Bee ram Onnnents. SY oo Tea. me ee ee eli SE REIRECS is 3 ASA os 5 ks opie) s Oe ok. POI LE
NUMBER 2
Observations of Plankton taken in Marine Waters of
Florida in 1947 and 1948. By Charles C. Davis........ Antibiotic Action of Streptomyces albus against Mold
Decay Organisms of Citrus Fruits. By Seton
Mieeitdson. Geo. D: Thornton and F. Bo Smith......... 2. A Preliminary Report of the Plankton of the West Coast
mapiaee DY JOSCPNAE. KING: 6... ose we we be ee ss Acute Benign Nonspecific Pericarditis in a Sub-
tropical Climate. By Elwyn Evans, M. D.............. DIE EES RS 2 5 Se Re re eee eee
NUMBER 3
A Study of the Natural History of the Spotted Trout, Cynoscion nebulosus, in the Cedar Key, Florida mecomebuaviliamn Dean Moody. sis. .o22025 2545222
The Fishes of Orange Lake, Florida. By George K. Reid, Jr. . .
Vitamin ‘P’ Protection against Radiation. By Boris Sokoloff, James B. Redd and Raymond Dutcher........ Nutritive Value of Mangrove Leaves (Rhizophora mangle L.). By Boris Sokolof, James B. Redd, and Raymond Dutcher. .
Notes on the Food of the Largemouth Black Bass, Micropterus salmoides floridanus (Le Sueur), in
a Florida Lake. By William M. McLane.............. 195 Notes on an Apparent “Rain” of Organic Matter in Florida. By William M. McLane and Gideon E. Nelson.......... 203 NUMBER 4
The Evolution of the Ophioglossaceae of the Eastern
United States. «By Edward. POSt. Johnsay2. santa teen. 207 Officers. for 1951]. 2.342 case canes cose eee 219 A Key to the Genus Scleria Berg in South Florida.
By Curtis. R.. Jacksotinse.) ..\. Ase d. a. 220 Membership Categoriesi.\/. .£. «cai! Se ee eee 999, Biochemical Aspects of the Cancer Problem.
By . Francis EF... Ray... .... + ~-s9.05-55955 223 Institutional Members: ... . <-e-.-s 5/2 Oe Sects: 234
A Preliminary Investigation of the Growth Response of Aspergillus niger to Various Levels of Copper as a Biological Method of Determining Available
Copper in Soils. By S. N. Edson and F. B. Smith....... 235 The Number of Feathers in Some Birds. By Pierce Brodkorb.. 241 Particle Size by X-Ray Scattering. By K. L. Yudowitch...... 246 News and Comments. ... 0.22.6 oso +: oe 4) rr 251
Research Notes....... 200.0000 sey euces 1 er B53)
Quarterly Journal
of the Florida Academy of Sciences
Vol. 12 March 1949 (1950) No. I
Contents
HarRPER—A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE ENDEMIC FLOWERING _ PLANTS OF FLoRipA. Part IIJ.—NotTes AnD SUMMARY_______ 1
De VALL AND DEVANE—A FIELD SURVEY OF FLORIDA’S PEBBLE SEEDS EHIPEANDS: 21
EsHLEMAN—A Key To Fioripa’s FRESH-WATER SPONGES, WITH |
See MaRS ae be i i 35 Eyvans—lTHe Carotm Sinus SYNDROME ___:- | 45 OSD REE DELS 2 2S 50 :.
VENNING—ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN THE AXIS OF
MOI PESIIUEINGIS A GGNN, 0 Sit Murritt—A New FL ioripa i. aS 61 News AND COMMENTS _________ Peete ee
MAY 1 6 61960 _
Vou. 12 | Marcu 1949 (1950) No. 1
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida
Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. All ex- changes and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Subscription price, Three Dollars a year Mailed May 15, 1950
Tie QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE meri A ACADEMY, OF. SCIENCES
VoL. 12 Marca 1949 (1950) No. 1
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE ENDEMIC FLOWERING PLANTS OF FLORIDA
ROLAND M. HARPER University, Alabama
Part IJI—NoTes AND SUMMARY
1. The history of Zamia in Florida is rather complicated. Dr. Small discussed the matter in the light of his knowledge at that time in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for July, 1921, but added other details later. It seems that our first one, Z. integrifolia, was also the first Florida endemic to be discovered, having been found somewhere in the vicinity of Lake George in 1765-6 by John Bartram, who sent plants or seeds to England, where it was described by Aiton in 1789. (But there seems to be no recognizable mention of it in Bartram’s journal, edited and pub- lished in 1942.)
Dr. G. W. Hulse found near Tampa in 1837 what Dr. Small later described as another species, Z. Floridana. Chapman knew only Z. integrifolia, but Small in 1903 decided that that was a tropical species, represented in Florida by Z. Floridana and Z. pumila (the latter occurring also in the West Indies, though he did not say so at the time ). In his 1921 paper he described Z. umbrosa, discovered by Dr. William Baldwin in Volusia County in 1817. In his Manual, 1933, he dropped Z. Floridana and restored Z. integrifolia, and added Z. umbrosa and Z. silvicola (these three attributed to Florida only), and Z. angustifolia, common to Florida and the West Indies.
1 The numbers correspond with those in the plant list in the preceding
instalment. MAY 1
4OE ih Lad
Cr
2 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
2. Pinus clausa is doubtless the most abundant and conspicuous plant in our endemic list, but it was unaccountably overlooked by botanists until after the Civil War. It is not quite confined to Florida, being found also along the coast of Baldwin County, Alabama (but never in Mobile County, across the bay), but it is retained here, disregarding political boundaries temporarily, on account of its exceptional interest. No such tree was known to Dr. Chapman in 1860, perhaps because it does not grow anywhere near Quincy and Marianna, or very close to Apalachicola. It was described by Dr. George Engelmann, of St. Louis, as P. inops, var. clausa Chapm., in 1878, and soon raised to a species by Dr. George Vasey, of Washington. It is separated from P. inops (now known as P. Vir- giniana) by about 2% degrees of latitude, and has a very different habitat, being confined to the most sterile sands. It grows along old dunes along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, but is commonest in the scrub of the lake region, a fact unknown to Prof. Sargent when he described its range in the 9th volume of the Tenth U. S. Census, . published in 1884.
This species was discussed by Dr. Charles Mohr, of Mobile, in Garden and Forest for Aug. 20, 1890, but he was rather hazy about its distribution, and did not even mention its occurrence in Alabama, though he did observe that some plants of the northern Gulf coast seem to be limited in their westward distribution by certain rivers. I had a note on its habitat preferences in the Popular Science Monthly for October, 1914 (pp. 358-361), with two half-tone illus- trations of it from Citrus and Lake Counties. There is another view ‘of it, in Santa Rosa County, in the 6th Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey (p. 803), published about three months later (late December, 1914).
3. Tumion (formerly Torreya) taxifolium was for many years known only along the bluffs on the east side of the Apalachicola River in Gadsden and Liberty Counties, where it was discovered about 1833 by Mr. Croom (who took it for a Taxus, but apparently knew nothing then about Taxus Floridana, which was discovered later, a few miles away.) But I found it a few yards over the line in Georgia in 1918 (see Torreya, 19:119-122, June, 1919), and Dr. Herman Kurz has since found it west of the river in Jackson County.
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 3
Figure 50 in the 6th Annual Report of the Florida Geological Sur- vey shows it in its natural habitat.
4. Sagittaria Kurziana was described in 1927 (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 54:257-261) by Dr. Hugo Gliick, a visiting German botanist who, accompanied by Dr. Kurz and myself, collected it in the Wakulla and St. Mark's Rivers in the spring of 1926. But it is not yet certain that it differs significantly from Chapman's S. natans var. lorata, described in 1860, from “brackish water, along the west coast of Florida,” except in the extreme elongation of its leaves and scapes, which in deep water may be as much as eight feet long. Dr. Small was not inclined to give it full recognition.
5. Tripsacum Floridanum, described by Vasey in 1896, was said by Small in 1903 to range to Texas. But it was restricted to Florida by him in 1933, and by Hitchcock in his Manual of the Grasses of the United States in 1985.
6. Aristida patula Chapm., an unpublished name taken up by Nash in 1896, was known to Dr. Chapman in 1883 and 1897, but referred in his books to A. scabra Kunth, a tropical species.
7. Spartina Bakeri, like Pinus clausa, is only about 99% confined to Florida, but there are some interesting facts about it that deserve special mention here. Although it is common and conspicuous in central Florida, it seems to have been entirely unknown to all the 19th century botanists. It was described in 1902, but overlooked by Small in 1903 and 1913. In 1904 I found it near Brunswick, Georgia (see Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 82-458. 1905; 33:231. 1906), which was the first report of it outside of Florida. Hitchcock, in his Manual of Grasses (p. 492), attributed it to “Sandy soil, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida,” but gave no specific localities. As he was primarily a taxonomist, habitats meant little to him, and “sandy soil” is a very poor description of its habitats. It grows principally on lake shores and in shallow marshes and peat prairies, always in or near fresh water, unlike most other species of the genus, which prefer salt or brackish water. Its distribution as known to me in 1910 is given in the 3d Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey, page 349. It is related to S. spartinae (formerly called S. junciformis ), which grows along the Gulf coast from Middle Florida to Mexico; and it may have been overlooked by many botanists because it is usually not in bloom.
4 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
8. Eleocharis uncialis is an unpublished name of Chapman’s, taken up by Small in 1933. Dr. H. K. Svenson in his monograph of Eleocharis (Rhodora, 39:219. June, 1937) treated it as synonymous with Chapman's E. bicolor. But Small’s description indicates some differences between these species, and it may as well be retained in the list until we know more about it.
9. Carex Baltzellii is said by Small to be a well-marked. species, which has not been collected for many: years. Dr. Chapman knew it only from Middle Florida, but Small credits it also to southwest Georgia, which deserves investigation. |
There is some confusion about Carex Chapmanii. In Small’s Man- ual it appears as C. Chapmanii Steud., from “hammocks and wood- lands, Fla.,” and C. fusiformis Chapm. is given as a synonym. But in Small’s Floras of 1903 and 1918 there is a C. Chapmanii Sartw.., treated as synonymous with C. tenax Chapm., which is in a differ- ent section of the genus from Steudel’s plant. (In the Manual of 1933 this appears as C. validior Mackenzie, with no mention of C. tenax. )
Carex fusiformis, a name taken from one of Dr. Chapman’s let- ters, was published by Rev. Chester Dewey (at that time a recog- nized authority on Carex) in the American Journal of Science, 06:244. 1848. Dewey called it a distinct species, but did not com- pare it with anything else, and it would be difficult to identify it from his description. The only locality he gave for it was “Floridas.” Dr. Chapman either did not consider it a good species, or forgot about it, for it does not seem to be mentioned in any of his works. It was resuscitated by Dr. K. M. Wiegand in 1922 (Rhodora 24:- 200), and made a variety of C. styloflexa Buckl., with no reference to C. Chapmanii. Its habitat was there given as “Hammocks, Flor- ida,” but no specimens were cited. Small’s (or rather Mackenzie's ) description of 1933, however, seems to indicate a plant quite differ- ent from C. styloflexa. Probably it has not been collected often. I have not found any entry in Hitchcock's list of 1899-1901 that seems to represent it.
10. Sabal Etonia seems to have been discovered by Dr. A. P. Garber near Miami about 1878, and it was described by Dr. Chap- man in 1883 as a variety of S. Adansonii (now known as S. minor), the common swamp palmetto. In the 90’s it was found in the scrub
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 5
of the lake region by W. T. Swingle, who recognized it as a dwart relative of the cabbage palmetto. It was described for him as a new species by Nash in 1895. Chapman’s varietal name, megacarpa, was used for a specific name by Small in 1903 and 1913, but a change of rules restored Swingle’s name in 1933. There is a pretty full account of it by Dr. Small in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for July, 1925.
ll. Sabal Jamesiana is a little-known species from Dade County, described by Dr. Small in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for August, 1927.
It may be appropriate to mention here that the common saw- palmetto, the only species of Serenoa, is not listed here because it ranges from southern South Carolina to eastern Louisiana, but (like Pinus clausa and Spartina Bakeri) it is far more abundant in Florida than in all other states combined, and it does not extend to the West Indies as so many other Florida plants do.
12. Lachnocaulon digynum, though described in 1854, was un- known to Chapman. Small in 1903 and 1913, like the original de- scriber, credited it only to Alabama (without specific locality) and in 1933 only to Florida. It evidently needs investigation.
13. Veratrum intermedium, described by Chapman in 1860 from “Rich shady hummocks [meaning hammocks], Middle Florida,” (without specific locality), apparently was not collected again until Robert F. Thorne found it in Clay County, Georgia, in 1947. This excludes it from the list of Florida endemics, but it is retained here to call attention to it, and also because this list is as of 1983.
14. Hymenocallis Keyensis was known to Chapman in 1883, but referred by him, and apparently every one else in the next five decades, to H. (or Pancratium) Caribaea, a West Indian species. Two other species, H. humilis and H. Palmeri, were described and figured in Garden and Forest for May 2 and 16, 1888, but Small treated them as one.
15. The story of Nemastylis and Salpingostylis, and how they were misinterpreted, or confused with more widely ranging species, for over 100 years, is one of the most interesting short chapters in the history of American botany; as explained by Dr. Small in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for July and November, ~ 1931, and January, 1932. It seems that the flowers of Salpingostylis
6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
open only in early morning and in early summer, and those of Nemastylis only in late afternoon and late summer, and both plants are inconspicuous at other times, and therefore easily overlooked, though said to be abundant where they grew.
16. Encyclia Tampensis was referred by Chapman in 1860 and 1883 to Epidendrum venosum, a tropical species. It is not rare in southern Florida.
17. Micropiper and Rhynchophorum, before 1933, were referred to the large tropical genus Peperomia, and our endemic species of the latter was referred to a tropical species, P. magnoliaefolia, or. obtusifolia. A rather detailed account of these two species, and the three other species of Piperaceae in Florida, with photographic il- lustrations of all five in their native haunts, by Dr. Small, appeared in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for September, 1931. He then put them all in Peperomia, and gave the first one a new name, P. cumulicola, for no apparent reason.
18. Trema Floridana, a common weedy small tree in parts of South Florida where frost is rare, was known to Dr. Chapman in 1883, but referred by him, and every one else in the next two decades, to T. micrantha, a tropical species. It was described as new by Dr. Britton in the first edition of Small’s Flora, 1903, but with no intimation of how it might differ from its tropical relative. In Prof. C. S. Sargent’s “Manual of the Trees of North America,” 1922, it was referred to T. mollis ( Willd.) Blume, another tropical species; and I used that name in my report on the vegetation, etc., of South Florida, in the 18th Annual Report of the Florida Geologi- cal Survey (published early in 1928).
19. Eriogonum Floridanum, which grows in dry sand in the lake region, was known to Dr. Chapman in 1860, but referred by him, and every one else in the next forty years, to E longifolium, a quite different species known only in rocky places west of the Mississippi River. (A possible connecting link is E. Harperi, from northwestern Alabama, discovered in 1942 and described by Goodman in 1947; but that resembles E. longifolium more than it does the Florida plant, which prefers a very different soil and climate.) E. F lorida- num was described by Small in 1903, but without contrasting it with E. longifolium. It blooms in early summer, and the Alabama plant (and probably E. longifolium too) in late summer.
20. Pityothamus. There has been some confusion in this little
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS i
genus of shrubs, which was segregated from Asimina by Small in 1933, and is chiefly confined to Florida. What Chapman called A. pygmaec is said to be P. angustifolius, which ranges into southern Georgia and Alabama; and what he called A. cuneata in 1897 is said to be the same as A. reticulata, recognized by him in 1883. Hitchcock listed Asimina angustifolia, cuneata, pygmaea and three others in Florida in 1899.
21. Illicium parviflorum has long been supposed to grow also in Georgia, but I have never seen it credited to any specific locality in that state, and prefer to regard it as a Florida endemic until evidence to the contrary turns up. It is so rare that I have not found it even in Florida, and Prof. Hitchcock did not have it either.
22. Nymphaea ulvacea was not described until 1912 (appar- ently too late to get into the second edition of Small’s Flora). But Hitchcock cited Curtiss’ no. 104, from Santa Rosa County, as N. sagittifolia, with which this species was formerly confused. It seems to be confined to a few streams in West Florida; and I have seen it in Holmes Creek near Vernon, as well as in Santa Rosa County, (see Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 37: 598, and 3rd Ann. Rep. Florida Geol. Surv., pp. 240,335; both dated 1910 but published January, 1911.)
23. Warea amplexifolia. There is a mix-up in the name of this species, which might be interpreted differently by different rules of nomeclature. One of the new plants collected by N. A. Ware in “East Florida” in 1821 was described by Nuttall in 1822 as Stanleya (?) amplexifolia (Stanleya being a Cruciferous genus, described by Nuttall himself in 1818, and chiefly confined to the Rocky Mountains). When Nuttall described the genus Warea in 1834, he included in it a plant found in “West Florida” by Mr. Ware, presumed to be the same as his earlier Stanleya amplexifolia, and he re-named it Warea amplexifolia. (Nuttall seems to have confused East and West Florida more than once.) In 1895 Mr. Nash found on the sandhills at Belair, Leon County, a Warea that seemed to be undescribed, and he named it in 1896 W. sessili- folia. Later in the same year Dr. Small (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 23:408-410) discussed the three species of Warea then known, and asserted that Nuttall’s W. amplexifolia was the same as Nash’s plant, and different from the East Florida plant, originally referred doubtfully to Stanleya, which he then re-christened W. amplexi-
8 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
folia (Nutt.) Small; a somewhat questionable proceeding. But he » did not explain how or when Mr. Ware might have visited Belair, and found another Warea there after finding one in East Florida. Incidentally, W. sessilifolia must be quite rare, for it is not in- cluded in my list of the plants of the Belair (or Bellair) sand re- gion, in the 6th Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey, pp. 280-288. (1914). Prof. Hitchcock had one of Nash’s original specimens in his herbarium, and also W. amplexifolia from Haines City, Polk County, and the commoner W. cuneifolia from three localities along the east coast. |
24. The story of Parnassia Floridana is somewhat complex, and the whole is not known yet. Chapman in 1860 recognized two species of Parnassia, P. Caroliniana, in “Damp soil, Florida and northward,” and P. asarifolia, which is chiefly confined to the moun- tains and need not concern us further at present. His treatment of the genus in 1897 was essentially the same. Hitchcock in 1899 cited no specimens of Parnassia from Florida.
Dr. Charles Mohr, in his Plant Life of Alabama, 1901, knew no Parnassia in the state except P. asarifolia (one station, in the mountains), but observed that P. grandifolia was not infrequent near Poplarville, Miss., and P. Caroliniana in southeastern Mis- sissippi, and both should be looked for in southwestern Alabama. (But I have not yet found them in the state, and I have visited every county more than once. )
Small in 1908 listed only P. grandifolia, from Virginia to Missouri, Florida and Louisiana, and P. asarifolia from the mountains, dis- regarding P. Caroliniana, which must certainly have come from one of the Carolinas (and Elliott had reported it from near Colum- bia, S. C., long before). In his second book, 1918, on page 499 (which was one of the pages revised to allow the insertion of more species), four species of Parnassia are recognized, namely, P. grandifolia (range as in first edition), P. Floridana (described by Rydberg in 1905) “In damp grounds, Apalachicola, Florida,’ P. Caroliniana, “N.B. to Man., Va., the Carolinas (?) and South Dakota,” and P. asarifolia.
In his Manual (1983) P. Floridana is dropped, and the range of P. Caroliniana given as “Swamps and flat woods, Coastal Plain, Fla. to N. C.” This apparently includes P. Floridana. Dr. E. T. Wherry, in Bartonia, April, 1936, treated these species similarly, and called the northern plant P. glauca Raf.
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 9
It would seem from all this that Dr. Chapman long ago collected a Parnassia somewhere around Apalachicola, which he took for P. Caroliniana, and assumed that its range was continuous from there to New England (where he must have seen what passed for that species in his college days). Dr. Rydberg evidently thought the Florida plant was a distinct species, which would not be sur- prising, in view of its isolation, for there is no record of any Parnassia in Georgia or Alabama except P. asarifolia, and P. Caro- liniana does not seem to be definitely known even from the Caro- linas now. But Dr. Small, who at first accepted Rydberg’s judgment, later became skeptical, and merged the Florida plant with P. Caro- liniana. Just how much it differs from that, and from the two species reported from Mississippi by Mohr, is not clear, but as far as known it is separated from the two last mentioned by the whole width of Alabama. It may not have been collected for many years; but it seems desirable to keep it on the list of Florida endemics to call attention to it. As these plants bloom only in the fall, they might have been overlooked by many botanists who may have walked right over them in summer.
25. Leptoglottis Floridana was called Schrankia Floridana by Chapman in 1897, and Morongia uncinata by Small in 1903 and 1913. (If I have ever seen more than one species of this genus | have not noticed any difference between them. )
26. Baptisia simplicifolia, a very distinct species, seems to be chiefly confined to Gadsden and Wakulla Counties. It was first de- scribed from near Quincy, without flowers, by Croom in 1833 (Am. Jour. Sci. 25:74), more briefly by Nuttall the following year (Jour. Acad. Sci. Phila. 7:96), and the description of the flowers was supplied by Croom in 1835 (Am. Jour. Sci. 28:167). It is not hard to find if one goes to the right places, but Prof. Hitchcock had no specimen of it. I listed it as one of the characteristic plants of the “Panacea country’ in the 6th Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey, 1914. Dr. Small found it in Gadsden County several years later, and so reported it in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for January, 1923.
Baptisia elliptica is attributed only to Florida by Small, but Miss Maxine Larisey, in her monograph of that genus (Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 27:119-244. 1940) cites a few specimens of it, and of a new variety, from southern Alabama, some of them collected by Dr. Mohr, who did not distinguish it from B. lanceolata.
10 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Baptisia hirsuta was first described by W. M. Canby in 1887 (Bot. Gaz. 12:39) from a specimen collected by A. H. Curtiss at or near DeFuniak Springs, treating it as a variety of B. calycosa, which he had previously described from near St. Augustine. But the varietal name he used had already been applied to a quite different species in the genus, and Small re-named it B. hirsuta in 1903. It seems to be confined to dry sand in West Florida, and it is quite common in Okaloosa County. B. calycosa must be quite rare, and I have never found it. The only specimens of it cited by Hitchcock are from Walton County, and one of those is the type of Canby’s variety, now called B. hirsuta.
A striking characteristic of B. hirsuta, never mentioned in de- scriptions based on pressed specimens, is that its leaves stand in vertical planes, and are much alike on both sides.
On the basis of known specimens, Baptisia megacarpa Chapm. (1860) would be another Florida endemic. All the specimens cited by Miss Larisey are from Middle Florida (not “central Florida,” as she put it), though Dr. Chapman when he described it thought it grew also near Albany, Ga. No one seems to have found it there since, but I thought I found it near Americus, Ga., in 1897, and so reported it in 1900 (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 27:429). But my specimens were evidently B. leucantha or some closely related species. Dr. Mohr, in his Plant Life of Alabama (1901) reported B. megacarpa from the Piedmont region, still farther inland, but he was probably misled, as I was, by the fact that the 19th cen- tury descriptions of B. leucantha did not indicate that its pods are drooping, as those of B. megacarpa are. And Dr. Small was not deceived by Mohr’s report.
27. Indigofera Keyensis, beginning with Chapman in 1883, was referred to I. subulata, a tropical species, until Small separated it in 1988.
28. Cracca Chapmanii is probably what Chapman referred to in 1897 as an unnamed variety of Tephrosia chrysophylla. Small gave it a wider range in 1903 and 1918. C. Curtissii may be what Chapman called T. leptostachya in 1897.
29. Rhynchosia Michauxii is what Chapman and Hitchcock called R. menispermoidea, a tropical species. R. Lewtonii was referred by Chapman in 1897 to R. reticulata, presumably a tropi- cal species. During the first quarter of the present century this genus was commonly combined with Dolicholus.
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 11
30. Erythrina arborea. Chapman in 1883 noted the presence in South Florida of an arborescent Erythrina, which he said was much like E. herbacea, and might be simply that species growing in a more favorable climate. But in 1897 he grew bolder and made it a variety, noting that the racemes were few-flowered and the flowers smaller than in E. herbacea. Small, as was his wont, raised it to a species at the first opportunity; but there might still be differences of opinion about that. It is indeed a plant of striking appearance, a small crooked tree, near the semi-arid west coast of South Florida, where several plants of Mexican affinities, un- known on the humid east coast, are found. It would be interesting to transfer seeds of each species to the habitat of the other, and watch developments.
31. Galactia parvifolia was called an unnamed variety of G. spiciformis by Chapman in 1860, and G. filiformis by him in 1883, according to Small. It may be a tropical species.
32. Chapmannia (also spelled Chapmania, which seems more logical) seems to be a very distinct monotypic genus, and it was so recognized by Torrey and Gay in 1838. A. H. Curtiss published some interesting observations on this and Garberia in the Botanical Gazette for September, 1881.
33. Ditaxis Blodgettii, from the Keys, was originally described by Torrey under Aphora, and that name was used by Chapman in 1860, but he switched it to Argyrothamnia in 1897, and Small to Ditaxis in 1903; in both cases without synonyms to connect it definitely with names previously used. But the same specific name was used each time.
34. Chamaesyce conferta, described by Small in 1903, was thought by him at that time to extend to the tropics.
35. Hibiscus semilobatus was described by Chapman in 1883 as H. coccineus var. integrifolius, but in 1897 he re-christened it H. semilobatus, which was contrary to the rules then in force, as Small soon pointed out (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 25:135. March, 1898). It appears as H. integrifolius in Small’s first two books, but after that the rules were changed, restoring H. semilobatus.
36. Lythrum flagellare was distinguished as such by Chapman and Hitchcock, but Small in 1903 and 1918 referred it to a tropical species, L. Vulneraria.
37. Parsonsia lythroides, which seems to be known only near
12 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Apalachicola (I have seen it a few miles northwest of there), was described by Chapman in 1860 as Cuphea aspera. But the specific name turned out to be a homonym, and the generic name was found to be antedated by Parsonsia,. necessitating a complete change.
38. Forestiera porulosa was called Adelia segregata by Small in 1903 and 1918, but changes of rules restored the original name by 1938. |
39. Osmanthus Floridana was described by Chapman in 1897, and cited by Hitchcock in 1901 (in his supplementary list), and accepted by Small at first. But in 1933 he was skeptical about its being a good species, and mentioned it only incidentally. It is congeneric with the next species on my list, but to put them in the same genus would necessitate questioning Dr. Small’s judg- ment and changing one of the names, which is hardly warranted at this time.
40. Dasystephana tenuifolia, with white flowers, was long re- ferred to Gentiana angustifolia (later called G. Porphyrio, and D. Porphyrio), a blue-flowered species, now known only from New Jersey to South Carolina. It blooms normally in late fall, and Croom recorded it (as “Gentiana alba, white flowered gentian” ) as still blooming the first week in January, 1833, in wet pine woods in Middle Florida. (Am. Jour. Sci., 25:60. 1833.) Gray, in his Synoptical Flora of North America (2:124. 1886), noted that there was a white-flowered variety of G. angustifolia from Florida, which had been called G. frigida var. Drummondii. I have never met with it, though it is supposed to occur in the southwestern part of Leon County.
Al. Solanum Floridanum was treated by Chapman in 1860 and 1883 as a variety of the common weedy S. Carolinense, but in 1897 he did not mention it at all. Gray, in his Synoptical Flora (2:227. 1886), mentioned it briefly, saying that it was collected by Rugel at St. Marks, Fla., and is probably a waif of ballast ground, and cannot be a variety of S. Carolinense, as Chapman supposed. I collected it near Newport about 1930, and it was only a roadside weed there. It could hardly have been there before white settlers came, and may be either an introduction from some unknown foreign source, or a mutation from S. Carolinense.
42. Clinopodium macrocalyx is based on A. H. Curtiss’s no.
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 13
2012, from somewhere along the Indian River. It was not known to Chapman, but Hitchcock cited that number in 1899, as his only Florida specimen of Calamintha coccinea, which is what Curtis believed it to be. At the New York Botanical Garden, probably about 1902, I came across a specimen of it, and suggested to Dr. Small that it looked like a different species. And he accepted my suggestion, and described it in 1903. I am not at present informed if any other collections of it are known.
43. It may be worth mentioning that Clinopodium (formerly Calamintha) dentatum, though known only from a very limited area in Gadsden and Liberty counties, is so common in the streets of Bristol (or was twenty years ago) as to appear like a weed there. But it is an unquestioned native, and its natural habitat is dry sand.
44, Ilysanthes grandiflora was attributed by Nuttall, when he described it in 1818, to Georgia only, and Chapman knew nothing to the contrary in 1860. Nearly every one who wrote about it after that, down to and including Small in 1933, thought it grew in both Georgia and Florida. But Dr. Pennell pointed out in 1935 (Monog. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1:159) that there is no evidence of its oc- curring outside of Florida, where it ranges across the state, from about the Ocklawaha River on the north to the Caloosahatchee on the south. (Nuttall, though a very reputable botanist, as well as geologist and ornithologist, seems to have made several geographi- cal mistakes, of which this seems to be one, perhaps by depending too much on his memory.)
45. Dyschoriste angusta has been described under various names, first as Dipteracanthus linearis, then Calophanes oblongifolia var. angusta, and Calophanes angusta.
46. Gerardia Floridana has also been called Stenandrium dulce, and its variety Floridanum.
47. Justicia angusta was placed in Dianthera in all the books cited except the last, and treated by Chapman in all three editions as a variety of D. ovata, but with a question.
48. Borreria terminalis was called by Chapman in 1860 B. podocephala var. pumila, and in 1897 Spermacoce podocephala, as did also Hitchcock in 1899. Small in 1903 referred it to B. podo- cephala, which is a wide-ranging species.
49. Spermacoce Keyensis, from 1897 to 1913, was referred to S. Portoricensis, a West Indian species.
14 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
50. Viburnum densiflorum first appeared in Chapman’s books in 1883, from “Wooded hillsides, West Florida.” And it was treated the same by him in 1897, though Gray in his Synoptical Flora, 1886, had expressed doubt as to its distinctness from V. acerifolium, and mentioned a similar but smoother plant from Taylor County, Geor- gia. Small in 1903 thought it grew also in Alabama, but in 1933 he was doubtful about that. (No such plant was reported from Alabama by Mohr.) I saw it in Holmes Valley, Washington County, in 1914 (see 6th Ann. Rep. Fla. Geol. Surv., 1914, pp. 220, 224), but did not take specimens, and had no opportunity to compare it closely with V. acerifolium. I am leaving it in the list to call attention to it.
ol. Rotantha Robinsiae was described by Small in 1933 from Chinsegut Hill, near Brooksville, on top of which a friend of his had a winter home. It would be very strange if a genuine native plant was confined to a single hill which was already considerably modified by civilization; and this deserves further investigation.
52. Osmia frustrata was referred by Chapman in 1883 and 1897, and by Hitchcock in 1899, to Eupatorium heteroclinum, a tropical species, and was called Osmia heteroclina by Small in his first two books. Following a study by Robinson (which I have not seen), he pronounced it in 1933 an endemic species, abundant in the southwestern part of the peninsula.
53. In 1933 Small announced that his Laciniaria chlorolepis, from near Tampa, was the same that he had previously called L. Garberi, and that the true L. Garberi (a few inches farther down the page) was what he had called L. Nashii. But Miss L. O. Gaiser, in her monograph of this genus (Rhodora, 48:236-237, Sept. 1946), treated L. chlorolepis and L. Garberi as practically synonymous, notwith- standing the fact that Small had sandwiched four other species between them. But whether one species or two, it is not known outside of Florida.
54. Ammopursus, described by Small in 1924 as a new mono- typic genus (Ammopyrsus would have been more correct etymolo- gically) is thrown back into Liatris (Laciniaria) by Miss Gaiser, which is not surprising in view of the very conservative treatment of genera by nearly every one who writes for Rhodora.
59. Garberia is a very distinct monotypic genus, and it is re- markable that it should have been first referred to Liatris, for it
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 15
is a widely branching evergreen shrub, very different from the usually simple-stemmed herbaceous species of Liatris (Laciniaria). It is fairly common in the scrub of central Florida. (See the paper by Curtiss cited under Chapmanania. )
56. Chrysopsis gigantea was thought by Small in 1903, but not in 1933, to grow also in Alabama. But evidence seems to be lacking. It may not be a very distinct species anyway.
57. Phoebanthus, with two species, known only from Florida, was until recently included in Helianthella, a chiefly western genus, which does not appear otherwise in our southern floras.
58. Pterophyton pauciflorum has been described under various names in the works cited, such as Actinomeris pauciflora and Ver- besina Warei.
SUMMARY
The 427 species in my list belong to 90 families and 231 genera, as interpreted by Small. No doubt some good authorities would not recognize so many genera, and there might be con- siderable skepticism about the validity of many of the species. But at the present time, without access to a good herbarium, I cannot undertake to pass on them, and can only take them at face value, leaving more critical studies to future investigators, who may have more time and better facilities.
It may be that there are still a few species in the list whose oc- currence in the tropics was overlooked by Dr. Small. But if there are any such they may be balanced by the number of true endemic species that I overlooked in going through his books. And species that have been found outside of Florida since the publication of Small’s Manual, or may be so found hereafter, may be more than balanced by new species discovered since 1933.
It may be of some significance that after working in Florida at intervals from 1908 to 1931, every day in the year, and visiting every county, I have found only about fifty of these endemics, or less than one-eighth of the total. And Prof. Hitchcock and all the other botanists whose specimens he saw, in the 90’s, turned up only 96 of them. But of course many perfectly good species and even a few genera have been discovered in Florida since his time, and some very good species discovered before that are evidently so rare that few botanists have found them. However, those that - are so similar to well-known species that the average botanist
16 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
might pass them without noticing them are probably still more numerous.
Some of the endemics are so common within their ranges that almost every botanist who spends any length of time in Florida, and travels around a little, is likely to meet them; and several of them are easily identified even from a moving train or automobile. Among these locally common species are Pinus clausa, Spartina Bakeri, Trema, Baptisia hirsuta, Pilostaxis Rugelii, Pycnothymus, Ilysanthes grandiflora, Garberia, Eupatorium mikanioides, Ber- landiera subacaulis, and Mesadenia Floridana. More restricted in distribution, but still common enough so that they are easily found — when one goes to the right places, are Tumion, Grossularia Echi- nella, Baptisia simplicifolia, and Pityopsis flexuosa. These last four are confined to Middle Florida, and are in more danger from log- ging or agricultural developments than from extermination by botanists.
It is very interesting to note that among our 400-odd endemic species there are 17 genera confined to Florida, three of them with two species each. This is according to Small’s interpretation. More _ conservative botanists might not recognize more than a dozen endemic genera; but even that is a pretty high figure, probably not surpassed in any equal area elsewhere in the United States. These genera have been indicated by capitals in the foregoing list, but it seems worth while to list them here in approximate order of discovery, based on the date of discovery of the species, rather than on the recognition of the genus as distinct. (At present I do not have the necessary information for giving the exact date for each one. )
Salpingostylis, Garberia, Chapmannia, and Phoebanthus, or at least the species now included in them, were known to Chapman in 1860; Pycnothymus, Stachydeoma, Tradescantella, Rotantha and Oxypteryx in 1883 (though our species of Pycnothymus seems to have been discovered by Bartram in the 18th century ); Asclepiodella and Hartwrightia in 1897; and one species of Deeringothamnus was known to Small in 1903; while Dentoceras, Nyachia, Sanidophyllum, Litrisa, and Ammopursus did not appear in the books until 1933.
The following little table sums up the species list by larger groups of flowering plants, with the same seven columns as before, and two additional ones at the beginning to show the number of fami-
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 17
lies and genera represented in the 1933 count, and one at the end to show the total number of species in each group in Small’s Manual. At the bottom there is a line for the totals and one for the percent of monocotyledons among the angiosperms in each column.
1933 Chapman Small
— | Hitchcock |——,——_—__| Total
Fams.| Gen. | 1860)1883)1897} 1899-1901 |1903/1913)1933] 1933
Gymnosperms...... 3} 4| 3| 4] 4 4 4-| 41 6 33 Monocotyledons....| 15 | 42 | 8 | 15 | 20 13 44 | 48 | 81 | 1477 Lt ROME TSH.) otal 7 4 UT |) TS Se Polypetalac........| 35 | 80 | 20 | 34 | 40 33 77 | 92 |177 | 1840 Gamopetale....... 27 | 87 | 28 | 40 | 50 42 91 |102 |141 | 1859 ba cere 5584 = <3 90 |231 | 62 |100 |121 96 227 |259 |427 | 5557
% Monocotyledons |....|.... TSr ood lie 14.2 19.7|18.8)19.3} 26.8
The ratio of monocotyledons to all angiosperms is given here be- cause I have used it. elsewhere! as a rough statistical measure of floristic age. It naturally varies from column to column with the progress of discovery, and variations in conception of species, and it here reaches a peak in 1903, perhaps because of many species of Paspalum, Panicum and Sisyrinchium recognized by Dr. Small (or rather his collaborators) then and not in 1933. But it is decidedely less among our endemics than in the whole southeastern flora. And if we had a flora of Florida alone the monocotyledon percentage would probably be even higher than that in the last column, on account of the many aquatic habitats in the state, which are favor- able sites for monocotyledons. (In Hitchcock's Florida list of 1899- 1901 the monocotyledon percentage is 28.6; and in a list for Lee County only, published by the same author in 1902, it is 34.9.)
It is interesting, and probably significant, that among the 81 spe- cies of monocotyledons in our list there are only two endemic genera, while in the Carduaceae, one of the supposedly highest families, represented here by 59 species, there are five endemic genera, one of them with two species.
1 Torreya, 5:207-210. (Jan. 1906.)
18 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
All this would seem to indicate that monocotyledons, which are supposed to be more primitive than dicotyledons, tend to be more widely distributed, and thus less likely to be endemic. (The same may be true in still greater measure of the pteridophytes, bryo- phytes, etc., but those have not been specially studied with this point in view.) But it would not be safe to assert this as a general principle, until similar studies are made in other parts of the world. In a count of species credited only to Texas in Small’s Flora, 1903, I found 368 (all angiosperms), of which 67, or 18.2%, were monocotyledons. But the monocotyledon percentage in the whole flora of Texas might not be greater than that, on account of the comparative scarcity of aquatic habitats there.
The total number of species of flowering plants in Florida does not seem to have been counted recently, if at all. There are about 1750 in Hitchcock's list of 1899-1901, and the total now known may be as much as 2500. Accepting that figure provisionally, just about one-sixth of them would be endemic. But if we could count indi- vidual plants, the endemics would probably constitute less than oné percent of the total bulk of native vegetation in the state, for -most of them are quite rare, as previously stated.
Classified by size and structure, about 24 of these plants are trees (mostly small trees), 49 shrubs in the ordinary sense, 5 cycads and palms, 23 cacti, one a woody vine, and about 325 ordinary herbs, including herbaceous vines.
A mere list of endemics would not mean much without some generalizations about the families most largely represented, and those that are scarce or absent. Taking Small’s interpretations of families and species literally, the families most largely represented are the Carduaceae, with 59 species, Fabaceae, with 40, Euphor- biaceae 32, Poaceae 24, Opuntiaceae 23, Cyperaceae 17, Lamiaceae 16, and Leucojaceae 10. But most of these are pretty large families anyway; so it is more significant to note those which have the largest number of Florida endemics in proportion to the total num- ber of species in Small’s Manual. On the face of the returns, the Opuntiaceae (cacti) lead, with 23 out of 44. But there might be some skepticism about the 16 species of Opuntia attributed by Small to Florida only (the great majority described since 1913), to say nothing of the 15 others of that genus in his Manual.
So we may pass on to the Annonaceae, with 6 Florida endemics
PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS IS,
out of a total of 12. Other families ranking pretty high (not count- ing those represented by less than 10 species in the book) are Leucojaceae, with 10 out of 35, Euphorbiaceae, 32 out of 127 (but this perhaps inflated by many recently described species of Cha- maesyce ), Cistaceae and Oleaceae, both 6 out of 26, Polygalaceae, 8 out of 37, Myrtaceae 3 out of 13, and Sapotaceae 3 out of 15.
Families and genera that are fairly large in the Southeast but represented by few or no Florida endemics are Paspalum (12 in 1903, none in 1933), Panicum (19 in 1903, 3 in 1933), Carex 3, Juncaceae none, Liliaceae none, Orchidaceae 3, Salicaceae 1, Faga- ceae 1, Ranunculaceae 2, Brassicaceae 4, Saxifragaceae none, Rosa- ceae none, Malaceae 3, Vitaceae 1, Malvaceae 8, Hypericaceae 3, Ericaceae 2, Vacciniaceae none, Cichoriaceae 1.
The largest genera in the list, according to Small’s interpretation in 1933, are Chamaesyce, with 17 species, Opuntia 16, Cracca 8, and Rhynchospora and Hymenocallis 6 each.
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950).
rt) at Binet wa ing a Nerint arnt uc OR i od ?
sciktsles ia yee che
pick til j — 5 he ita phism Mb ee
ey : | vane MiLinny 3 Ook sere) 2s sail bee ae 4 Phi g t; mi whey ne tie : : i he ea wale : ee f i = | ne iy a ( of a ‘1 4) 1 C i ‘ ; r;
A FIELD SURVEY OF FLORIDA'S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS
Witsur B. DE VALL formerly of the Lake City Branch, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
and
CLAUDE L. DEVANE Florida Forest Service
The open-pit pebble phosphate mining industry began in Florida between the years 1885 and 1891 after phosphate pebbles were first discovered along Florida’s Peace River. This discovery led to the formation of several small companies destined to exploit the phosphate deposits. The companies grew in number to about fifty, according to reports of local residents. In 1905, after approximately fifteen years of varied mining activities, the small companies were gradually absorbed by the larger ones with greater operating capital and improved mining equipment. At present there are eight in Florida actively engaged in mining pebble phosphate rock.
The Mining Area Prospecting for pebble phosphate still con- tinues on newly acquired land and has been the basis for defining the limits of rock deposits. Taylor (1941) states that 60 percent of the deposits lie in the west half of Polk County and 30 percent in the east half of Hillsborough County. The remaining 10 percent lie in the northern part of Manatee and Hardee Counties (Figure 1) but are not rich enough to mine with present mining equipment.
According to Taylor the phosphate deposits in Florida cover a gross area of about 500,000 acres, of which only 20 percent con- tains minable phosphate. Improvements in mining methods as well as increased demands for raw and derived products may enlarge the net acreage.
Survey Objectives A field survey of the open-pit, pebble phos- phate mining industry in Florida was mutually authorized by the Florida Forest Service and the Southern Forest Experiment Sta- tion, to evaluate the spoil bank problem. Field work was done by the authors on April 16-18, 1946.
The survey was made (1) to ascertain the amount of land in the mined-out area that could be used for tree or plant production,
22 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(2) to find out the present land-utilization practices on the spoil areas, and (3) to determine whether or not the mined-out lands represent a problem warranting formal investigations in the field of revegetation and land use.
THE PEBBLE PHOSPHATE MINING REGION OF FLORIDA
(ans | Boundary Mining Area —- ; \-—.Mine Headquarters A | Scale of Miles 5 10
L6G)
Pl g TAMPA City) # y) ©
N
Fig. 1—-Approximate location of the phosphate striplands and distribution of operating companies.
Spor. BANKS
The term “spoil bank” as used here, applies to the excavated overburden, in situ, removed by the strip mining process regardless of the form in which it is deposited. This term has come into common usage since 1928.
Types of Banks Spoil banks in the Florida phosphate region are of three types. Each is associated with a major progressive change in the mining process.
The first type of bank, referred to here as the “ramp” bank, was produced during the early years of mining when the overburden was removed by hand labor and hauled away with wheelbarrows and mule carts. A ramp-like incline was produced as the over- burden was moved away from the pit. Debris was dumped over the sides as the ramp was extended and widened. This type of bank is of very limited occurrence and does not come within the practical limits of this paper.
FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 23
The second type of bank is the “hydraulic-deposited” bank. The overburden was removed and pumped over an earth retainer wall. The sludge was permitted to flood out in a fan-shaped pattern over unmined or unminable land. The bank varies from ten to thirty feet in height at the margin of the old pit or along roads to a thin layer at the extreme perimeter of the wash. The area covered also varies from a few to more than forty acres. The slope away from the retainer bank is not in excess of 5 percent. Basically, the hy- draulic method produced an overburden “dump” or “wash” rather than a bank. One can climb the steep bank adjacent to a road or pit and upon reaching the top, find a broad plateau-like surface gently sloping away to a stream or swamp. This type of deposit is the only one offering a plane surface readily accessible and per- mitting easy utilization of timber or forage crops that might be grown thereon.
The third type of bank, and the one with which the public is most familiar, may be referred to as the “dragline-deposited” spoil bank. These banks resemble those associated with strip mining of coal and have been produced since draglines were introduced to the industry in 1929. In panoramic view (Figure 2) they resemble the “bad lands” of the Dakotas. The overburden is piled up on previously mined-out land as strip after strip is exploited for its rock. The individual mound-like piles merge with one another, producing miniature mountain chains. Banks thus formed are either aligned in a general north-south or east-west direction or diverge enough to follow the rock bed. Freshly excavated piles of over- burden rise to a normal height of twenty or thirty feet upon a base as wide as fifty feet. The peak is acute and the sides steep. Weathering changes the conformation of the banks to an obtuse peak and a widened base. A stabilized bank is shown in profile view in figure 3.
The three mining methods have produced banks of different form but similar composition. All types contain a mixture of surface debris, sand, clay, scattered phosphate pebbles, and frag- ments of limerock. Regardless of the mixture resulting from trans- location of the overburden, the banks are uniform in texture. This fact is significant in the establishment of vegetation upon the banks. The uniformity of texture is in sharp contrast with the heterogeneous character of coal striplands in the Central States.
24 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Area of Banks Data supplied by the eight mining companies in 1947 indicated that phosphate spoil banks covered an area of about 30,610 acres. This acreage represented 17 percent of all land owned by the companies, and 1.6 percent of the gross area of Polk and Hillsborough Counties.
New banks are being deposited at an increasing rate. Current mining rates range from 60 to 150 acres per year per company, and the total annual addition to the spoil areas is about 800 acres.
RECLAMATION — THE ECOLOGICAL APPROACH
The forces of nature play an important part in reclaiming spoil banks caused by strip mining. Nature follows a slow process of successional development in revegetating these areas, but man is inclined to attempt to hasten the process by omitting certain stages in order that he may obtain his objective in a shorter period of time. Attempts to reclaim such lands should be fitted ito a definite plan of land utilization. Some of the basic ecological relationships which apply to spoil areas were established by Croxton (1928) in studies of the coal striplands of Illinois.
The information here presented is based upon short-time field observations only, and does not constitute a formal ecological treatise of spoil banks in Florida’s pebble phosphate region.
Exposure and Moisture In dragline operations the overburden which is removed down to the matrix is piled up in long parallel rows as strip after strip is mined. The freshly excavated material creates a raw, porous “soil” condition. The material is relatively plastic and compacts uniformly in about two to five years. Settling and a slight degree of sheet and gulley erosion are factors in this process. Gradual drying-out occurs at the peak and on the upper portions of the slopes. Moisture conditions near the base of the bank are more stable. A permanent supply of surface water borders many of the banks, while in other areas sub-surface capillary mois- ture is always available. Surface drying near the top of the banks is rarely excessive except in drought periods. It does affect minor vegetation such as grasses and herbs but is not serious to woody plants, which after establishment are rooted deeper in the bank. The structure of the bank is favorable to the establishment of all volunteer forms of vegetation. Roots easily penetrate the over-
FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 25
Fig. 2—-General view of dragline-deposited spoil banks ten years old; as seen from the top of a roadside bank. Axis of banks is approximately north- south but curves slightly to follow rock deposits. Slopes essentially barren except for patches of vegetation.
Fig. 83-End view showing conformation of a stabilized east-west dragline- deposited band. Invasion and spread of volunteer vegetation is shown in contrast on the north and south slopes. Water-filled pits are ap- proaching complete invasion by aquatic plants.
26 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fig. 4—View along the north slope of a 15-year-old east-west dragline-deposited bank showing invasion by volunteer grasses and shrubs. A south slope nearly barren from the water's edge to the top is contrasted at the left.
Fig. 5—A seven-year-old planting of slash pine on the north slope of a road- side bank. Trees were planted in rows following contours of the bank and have made rapid growth.
FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 27
burden because there are no large mechanical obstructions and the bank is still compartively porous. Available moisture is prob- ably the major factor governing the depth of root penetration.
Natural Revegetation The prevailing wind direction and dis- tance from seed source largely determine establishment of woody plants and heavy-seeded species, whereas exposure limits establish- ment of grasses and herbs. This point is illustrated in figures 3 and 4. It will be noted in figure 3 that the north slope of this east- west bank supports a well-established cover of grasses and herbs with a higher, encroaching layer of shrubs. The north slope of the bank shown at the extreme left is completely blanketed with shrubs, while the south slope of the bank shown at the extreme right resembles the corresponding slope of the bank shown in end view. The stand of slash pine, (Pinus caribaea)' in the distant right background has provided the seed for the pine reproduction on the exposed banks.
Seed-source plantings have been used to reforest barren slopes in other states. Such plantings must be located in strategic spots in order to take advantage of elevation and wind direction. Seed dis- semination from seed-source plantings on phosphate spoils would be relatively ineffective because there are no high vantage points on which to plant trees and much of the area upon which seed would fall would be water.
The blanket of aquatic vegetation on the surface of the water is waterhyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), with scattered strands and patches of cattail (Typha sp.) intermingled. Figure 4 shows an- other series of banks with separating pit of exposed water. These banks run in an east-west direction. The north slope of the bank shown on the right has a well-established border of coastal-plain willow (Salix longipes) at the water's edge and scattered clumps of southern waxmyrtle (Myrica cerifera). A permanent supply of mois- ture contributes to the luxuriant growth of shrubs once they become established. A uniform grass cover composed mainly of natal-grass ( Tricholaene repens) and bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) blank- ets the upper slope. The banks at the left are of the same age and essentially barren. This is again a southern exposure.
A definite contrast can be made by comparing figures 2 and 3.
1 Plant nomenclature according to “Standardized Plant Names,” by H. P. | Kelsey & W. A. Dayton, 2nd ed., 1942.
28 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The generally north-south banks in figure 2, although slightly younger, have little cover on either the east or west exposures. This condition is attributed largely to surface drying during the critical periods of establishment.
When native pines become sge neared on the banks, their growth is appreciably more rapid than on adjacent wild lands. Table 1 summarizes growth measurement of trees on a bank in Polk County and of other trees in the undisturbed open flatwoods nearby. This particular sample indicates an average superiority of 55 percent in growth rate on the spoil banks.
Annual Average | Average Trees in rings diameter annual Species Habitat sample at breast | at breast | diameter height height growth Number | Number Inches Inches Slash pine....| Spoil bank...... 15 14.9 11.6 0.78 Open flatwoods. 15 25.5 11.3 0.44 Longleaf pine | Spoil bank...... 15 22.2 13 c8 0.59 Open flatwoods.. 15 24.8 10.8 0.44
Table 1.—Growth of Slash and Longleaf Pines on Spoil Bank and in Sur- rounding Flatwoods.
Strip-mined phosphate lands in Florida have not been forested on a large scale. The state Forest Service, in cooperation with one of the larger mines, established a few experimental plantings of slash pine. One of the plantings on the north slope of a bank facing a highway is shown in figure 5. These trees are now seven years old. They were planted, as nine-months-old seedlings, in rows following contours of the banks. The character of the bank and its average reported pH of 7.0 suggests that southern redcedar, (Juni- perus silicicola) would do well on this site. De Vall (1943) has shown that this species occurs naturally on soils ranging in pH from 5.7 to 7.9. It is suggested for experimental trial plantings with ulti- mate utilization either for Christmas trees or fence posts.
The major problems that developed in Illinois with regard to forest plantings on spoil banks were the newly created soil condi-
FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 29
tions, soil moisture variations, selection of tree species, rabbit dam- age, planting methods and costs. It appears that planting problems on Florida’s banks would largely be confined to soil moisture vari- ations on the upper slopes of the banks and high planting costs. Planting costs might be about 50 percent higher on the spoil banks than on flat land. This assumption is based on the facts that work- ing conditions are difficult on these steep banks and that some of the banks are practically inaccessible except by boat.
Several hardwood shrubs and trees have been introduced at the Florida Forest Service nursery at Lakeland that could be tried experimentally on accessible banks facing the main highways. Tourist travel is so heavy in this section that roadside beautification projects should be given serious consideration.
UTILIZATION OF Spor. AREAS
The lands now included in mined-out acreage were formerly large- ly forested. Merchantable’ stands of timber were sold in advance of mining operations. Scattered trees left from previous logging invariably are now bulldozed out of the way in preparation for opening a mine. This procedure has drawn some unfavorable comment from conservation-minded citizens.
Any planned utilization program for the spoil areas of the pebble phosphate region must first be sanctioned by the mining companies, where company lands are involved, and by individuals, on mined-out lands now in other ownership. Since no organized work has been done in Florida, it is difficult to set forth any speci- fic reclamation plan. With this in mind the authors sought to de- termine the attitude of the industry toward any form of land utili- zation that might be proposed for the mined-out acreage. This approach brought to light certain limitations to a planned, coop- erative land utilization program.
Mined-out lands may be classified according to three major utilization classes; (1) spoil bank areas required in connection with current mining operations, (2) spoil bank areas reserved by the companies for possible future development but subject to lease, and (8) spoil bank areas abandoned by the companies and subject either to lease or sale to outside interests.
The policy of the mining industry with regard to the three fore- going classes of spoil bank areas is used as a guide to the evaluation ~ of the land-use problems. The mining companies are interested,
30 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
first of all, in their own requirements. Each mine in active opera- tion now uses its pits for settling sludge in the wash water as well as for circulating the water for re-use. This means that the pits and banks adjacent to an operating mine are not available for other use for a period of ten to twenty years, or the opeuane life of the mine.
The industry is inclined to reserve areas which include settling pits, anticipating that in future years reclamation processes may be developed whereby the sludge, now considered waste, may be reprocessed for the lost phosphate fraction. This policy is sup- ported by the fact that present-day processes permit remining of — the old hydraulic settling areas where only 30 percent of the phos- phate yield was obtained. In the future it may be possible to de- velop new processes that will reclaim the lost fraction in present mining operations. The spoil bank areas being reserved are, how- ever being leased to cattlemen for pasture purposes.
Only the spoil banks that have been permanently abandoned by the mines are being disposed of. Much of this land is being sold to cattlemen because of the added impetus given their indus- try during the war. Sales of such lands to outside interests further reduce the spoil bank acreage that is not being utilized. These lands are now selling at a rate comparable to that paid for wild range lands.
Leasing or selling to cattlemen restores the utilization value on each surface acre. This does not mean that each acre is totally productive of pasturage. The water-filled pits are necessary as a source of permanent drinking water and do supply some pasturage in the form of aquatic vegetation but are otherwise void. The upper slopes of the spoil banks are considered less productive of pas- turage because cattle seldom graze to this height, and further because of lower succulence of the forage compared with that nearer the base. According to preliminary estimates, not over 90 percent of the surface area of average mined-out lands can be considered directly productive of forage. A plan for multiple utili- zation could increase the revenue-yielding capacity of such lands by bringing the remaining 10 percent into production.
All abandoned spoil areas can be sold to cattlemen provided they lie contiguous to other cattle ownership and are of sufficient size to justify fencing. This means that such lands will have a con- tinuous utilization value although transferred to a different industry.
FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 31
The question is often raised, “Why doesn't the mining industry level off the spoil banks?” Miners and conservationists hold widely divergent opinions on this point. A physical difficulty is that the normal high water table common in the flat lands of Florida would possibly inundate the lowered land surface produced by leveling. Certainly the fact that matrix has been removed leaves a deficit in material available to put back in the pits. It is fairly well estab- lished that flattening the tops of the banks with bulldozers or dyna- mite is expensive. One mining company operating on somewhat higher than normal land has expressed its intention to experiment with leveling. In this case, the overburden would be spread out as mining progresses instead of being piled in the form of banks. The results should prove most interesting.
Harvesting of merchantable timber products on dragline de- posits would be a major problem on Florida’s phosphate spoils if forestation were carried out on a large scale. There are no existing roads among the banks, and deep pits filled with water would further complicate harvesting methods. If a significant value can be placed on reclamation alone without considering utilization, such as is sometimes the case in erosion control, planting of spoil banks may be considered economically feasible.
Florida contains thousands of acres of cutover timber lands which could be handled more economically, from planting to har- vest, than the limited area of dragline deposits in the state.
The hydraulic dumps or washes previously described should be considered in any plan of spoils utilization. The hydraulic-deposited bank has a workable surface area without further effort or in- vestment and lends itself readily to utilization in several forms. Some of the older banks are now planted to agricultural truck crops—a high form of utilization in this region. Other banks have been included in pasture acreage. A limited number of banks are still not fully productive and are not included in any land utiliza- tion plan. This condition exists because of the fact that the bank is isolated, or at least set apart from other lands on which planned utilization is already in effect. The limited size of some of the banks precludes their use for grazing. These smaller banks, as well as isolated ones, could well form the nucleus for forestation work if such were initiated. All such areas are, or could be made: accessible for final wood harvesting.
32 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Minor Uses A few minor uses have developed and others are anticipated. Limited acreage containing pits has been sold to citrus grove owners as a source of irrigation water. The ultimate effect of this water upon the grove and the soil will determine whether or not other acreage will be sold. This use is limited to spoil areas immediately adjacent to groves. :
The recreational values of spoils have been advocated. This idea may grow in the vicinity of urban populations. One chamber of commerce has expressed its intention to develop a small area of spoils as a park and recreation area. Construction of foot trails, landscaping of banks, and charting of boat passages would have a — place in the development of such a recreation area. The water- filled pits produce game fish of such size as to be of interest to sportsmen.
CONCLUSIONS
The area of spoil banks now available for reforestation is too small to be more than a local problem. The fact that slash pine has been grown successfully on the banks also indicates that re- search on reforestation of the banks is of fairly low priority. The rough topography and inaccessibility of most of the banks will limit commercial tree planting to a relatively few thousand acres. On these areas tree planting and moderate grazing could probably be combined until the trees formed a closed stand.
There is a good opportunity to make test plantings of various plant materials on the banks which are not subject to further use by the minining companies. Revegetation for grazing, erosion con- trol, roadside beautification, or recreational development could make use of a wide variety of forage plants, vines, shrubs, or trees. Test plantings of such materials should be made where there are prospects that public or private groups will be interested in such development. Special attention should be given to establishment of cover on the more exposed locations where natural revegetation is slow.
SUMMARY
A brief field survey was made of the problems connected with land-use of phosphate striplands in Polk and Hillsborough coun- ties in central Florida. The pertinent findings of the survey were as follows:
1. The industry has mined out approximately 30,000 acres of
FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 33
land. Most of this is in the form of debris dumps, overburden dumps and washes, and open pits. Mined-out acreage is expected to accumulate at the current rate of 800 acres per year, or faster if mining methods improve.
2. Merchantable timber, when present, is harvested in advance of mining. This is followed by removal of the phosphate rock and reversion of the mined-out land to agriculture, usually for grazing purposes.
3. The three types of spoil banks, classified according to the mining method which produced them are, the ramp type, the hydraulic-deposited and the dragline-deposited types.
4. Mined-out acreages can be placed in one of three utilization classifications: those required in the mining process, those reserved for possible future remining but subject to lease, and those. for sale to other outside interests. It is estimated that up to 90 percent of lands in these classes is now productive of forage.
5. Establishment of minor vegetation on the spoils is retarded by surface drying. This condition is present on the upper east, west and south slopes of the banks.
6. Natural forestation of the spoils from nearby stands is very slow, and the value of seed-source plantings is questionable.
7. Slash pines planted on the banks have grown appreciably faster there than on adjoining flatwoods sites. This species and possibly others may be suitable if costs of planting and a feasible method of harvesting are not considered major hinderances. The hydraulic-deposited spoils are most suitable for forestation work because of their more level surface.
8. Leveling the banks is too expensive for the economic returns normally expected from them.
9. Formal investigation of commercial reforestation problems on phosphate spoils is not deemed necessary in view of the limited area that is suitable for forestry. However, test plantings of various plant materials would be desirable where public or private groups are interested in establishing cover for erosion control, roadside beautification, recreational development, or grazing.
LITERATURE CITED ANONYMOUS 1944. Conservation Experts Discover Strip Mining Releases Land Wealth. Timber Topics, Allis-Chalmers Tractor Co., May-June:9.
34 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
CHAPMAN, A. G. 1944. Forest Planting on Strip-Mined Coal Lands with Special Reference to Ohio. Central States Forest Exp. Sta. Tech. Paper, No. 104. Mimeographed, 25 pp.
CROXTON, W. C. * 1928. Revegetation of Illinois Coal eben ans Lands. Eccl. 9(2): 155- 75; (April).
DE VALL, W. B. . 1943. The Correlation of Soil pH with Distribution of Woody Plants in the Gainesville Area. Fla. Acad. Sci. Proc. Sean (March). TAYLOR, W. H. _ 1941. The Land Pebble Phosphate Deposits a Florida. Typewritten _ Manuscript.
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950).
A KEY TO FLORIDA’S FRESH-WATER SPONGES, WITH DESCRIPTIVE NOTES!
S. KENDRICK EsHLEMAN, III University of Florida
At the twelfth annual meeting of the Florida Academy of Sci- ences, the writer presented a paper entitled Fresh-Water Sponges New to Florida. The sponges new to Florida are the following: Spongilla aspinosa, Heteromeyenia repens, Heteromeyenia argy- rosperma, Dosilia palmeri and Trochospongilla horrida. In addi- tion, new Florida county records were reported for Heteromey- enia ryderi, Trochospongilla pennsylvanica, Spongilla ingloviformis, Spongilla lacustris, Spongilla fragilis, Meyenia crateriformis, Mey- enia millsii, Meyenia fluviatilis and Meyenia subdivisa.
For a period of nearly four years, the writer has been studying fresh-water sponges, particularly those from Northern Florida. Over a thousand specimens have been examined, representing col- lections from nearly three hundred different localities. Many sponges have been found whose taxonomic affiliations are, as yet, uncer- tain, but the majority of fresh-water sponges found in this state can easily be assigned to their correct genera with the aid of the simple key presented below.
All known fresh-water sponges belong to one family, Spongillidae. About fifteen genera and one hundred and sixty species are known. Nearly one quarter of these have already been found in the United States. These animals live in many kinds of water, and grow on all sorts of supports. Floating and submerged logs are excellent places on which to look for them. In rapid currents they can often be found growing on posts or rocks, usually on the under or downstream sides. In Florida, the optimum habitats seem to be in slow moving and still waters. Lakes, ponds, sink-holes, roadside ditches, swamps and most streams support a great variety of sponge life. Depending on the environment, sponges assume almost any color, from almost clear or white, in clear water, to black or dark brown in water full of decomposing vegetation. Often they are green, this color imparted by certain algae growing between the sponge cells. Colony morphology also varies with the environment. Sponges may have long projections growing from
1 Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida.
36 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
them, or grow in the form of mats or very thin encrustations. Usual- ly they are found in patches an inch or two across, but they range in size from extremely small patches (size of a pin head) to large masses covering an area exceeding a square foot. The sponge colonies are easily cut off their support with a knife, but in doing so it is important to remove the base of the sponge, usually con- taining gemmules, and unless the entire colony is taken, gem- mules may be missed. Gemmules are small, spheroidal or concave, asexual reproductive bodies. Identification of most fresh-water sponges cannot be made without gemmules. After collection, speci- mens are allowed to dry, and then can be kept in small paper envelopes, boxes or jars and preserved indefinitely.
Identification of sponges is based almost entirely on spicule morphology and arrangement. Spicules must be prepared for microscopic observation before final identification of a sponge is possible. The microscopic, needle-like, siliceous spicules are held together by spongin. This must be removed by heating the sponge in concentrated nitric acid until the organic tissues have entirely disintegrated. The spicules, in the test tube with the dissolved sponge, are washed with water, shaken and allowed to settle, or settled by centrifuging. Washing is continued until the water is relatively clear. Ethyl alcohol is finally added and some of the alcoholic spicule suspension is transferred by a pipette to a cover slip and ignited. After all the alcohol has been burned off, the cover slip is mounted with clarite, balsam, or Damar on a glass slide. Gemmules are treated with nitric acid until they become nearly clear. They are washed, dehydrated by passing up an alcohol series, cleared in carbol-xylol and mounted. A slide of a thin cross section of the sponge is often desirable for observing the structure of the sponge and the exact location of the gemmules.
In studying sponges, it must always be remembered that they are exceedingly variable, even the spicules. Nevertheless, all spicules can be grouped among several categories. Spicules are either megas- cleres or microscleres. The megascleres are relatively large, needle- like spicules that are supportive in function. Microscleres are of two types: those associated with the gemmule’s crust (gemmule spicules) and those found throughout the sponge tissue or often concentrated in the dermal film. In Spongillidae, the skeletal spicules (megascleres) are long, with both ends alike. They grow in both
FRESH WATER SPONGES OF FLORIDA 37
directions from a central point and are called diactines. They are either smooth or spiny, sharply pointed at each end (oxeas) or rounded (strongyles). Gemmule spicules are generally diactines or birotulates (amphidisks). A birotulate spicule is spool-like, con- sisting of two terminal disks (rotules) connected by a central shaft. Dermal (flesh) spicules are usually diactines, often similar to skeletal spicules except very much smaller, and usually spiny.
Kry To GENERA OF FLORIDA SPONGILLIDAE (Based on gemmule and spicule characters. )
1. Gemmules without long filamentous projections. 2. Spicules all diactines (spiny or smooth). (I) Spongilla 2.’ Birotulate spicules present, as well as diactines. 3. Edges of terminal disks (rotules) of birotulates serrated. 4, Only one type of birotulate. p. Dermal’ spicules’ lacking: 20) os © (II) Meyenia 5.’ Dermal spicules stellate, or imperfectly so... (IIL) Dosilia 4.’ Two distinct classes of birotulate spicules. 6. Dermal spicules, if present, diactinal and spiny. ake (IV) Heteromeyenia 6.’ Dermal spicules stellate, always present. Shafts of long birotulates nearly smooth, straight, slen- Ger, xs. (V) Asteromeyenia 3.’ Edges of terminal disks smooth ___ (V1) Trochospongilla 1.’ Gemmules with long filamentous projections _.. (VIL) Carterius
(I) Spongilla LaMMaRCK.
Spicules all diactinal.? Skeletal spicules long, with pointed or
rounded ends. Minute diactinal dermal spicules often present. DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES
Spongilla lacustris (Linnaeus)—Plate 1, Fig. 1. Skeletal spicules smooth and long. Minute spiny dermal spicules. Gemmules surrounded by spiny, curved diactines. Living sponge often green. Common in moderately clear lakes, ponds and streams. Florida county records: Alachua, Bradford, Gilchrist, Jackson, Levy, Putnam, Volusia.
Spongilla wagneri Potts. Like S. lacustris, except dermal spicules longer, and skeletal spicules sometimes microspined. Probably this species is merely a phase of S. lacustris. Florida records: only in type locality, in Lostman’s
2 Minute dermal birotulates are found in S.novae-terrae, known only from Newfoundland.
38 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
River, southwest Florida. Collected in brackish water.
Spongilla aspinosa. Potts. All spicules entirely smooth. Small dermals present, as well as small amorphous spicules. Living sponge usually green. Gemmules sparse. Found in cypress swamps with moderately clear, standing water. Florida county records: Alachua, Columbia; Gilchrist, Volusia.
Spongilla fragilis. Leidy. Skeletal spicules smooth. Gemmule spicules are diactines, generally slightly curved, and always entirely spined; usually strongyles, but sometimes oxeas appear. Spines often more numerous at ends. Variations common. Dermal spicules absent. Gemmules formed in compact groups, often in one or more basal layers. Common in swamps, swamp streams and sink-holes. Florida county records: Alachua, Clay, Columbia, Dixie, Levy, Marion, Taylor.
Spongilla ingloviformis Potts.—Plate I, Fig. 2. Skeletal spicules slender with coarse spines; spines especially concentrated near the end; like gemmule spicules but not as heavily spined and longer. Gemmule spicules heavily and coarsely spined diactines; nearly as long as skeletal spicules. Dermals absent. Color variable; colonies thin, forming flat, wide spreading patches. Gemmules formed in compact groups of six to twelve or fifteen, surrounded by parenchyma containing numerous gemmule spicules. Prefers acid swamps and roadside ditches connecting swamps. Florida county records: Alachua, Columbia, Dixie, Gilchrist, Levy, Marion, Pasco, Taylor, Volusia.
(Il) Meyenia Carter
The more common name of this genus, Ephydatia, has been re- placed (de Laubenfels A Discussion of the Sponge Fauna of the Dry Tortugas, Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 467, 1936, pg. 37) by the original name, Meyenia.
Gemmule spicules are all birotulates that are more-or-less uni- form in length but not of two different classes. Rotules have serrate edges, deeply or finely cut. No dermal spicules.
DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES
Meyenia fluviatilis fluviatilis_Carter. Skeletal spicules robust diactines, nearly always entirely smooth. Gemmule spicules birotulates; rotules coarsely and irregularly dentate; shafts variable in length, but longer than rotule diameter. Shafts of birotulates smooth or with several coarse spines. Colonies usually large, forming circular patches; color variable. Usually found in large flatwoods swamps, or in swamp pools bordering large streams. Florida county records: Alachua, Lake, Levy, Putnam, Sarasota.
Plate I
Fig. 1. Spongilla lacustris.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicule; c, dermal spicule.
Fig. 2. Spongilla ingloviformis.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule (or paren- chymal) spicule.
Fig. 8. Meyenia crateriformis.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicule.
Fig. 4. Meyenia millsii._a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicules, side and top views.
FRESH WATER SPONGES OF FLORIDA 39
Fig | Fig 2
0.10 mm
AL eau Fig. 4 PLATE I
40 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Meyenia fluviatilis gracilis Carter. Skeletal spicules slender delicate diac- tines, most of them curved. Gemmule spicules birotulates with extremely slender, long, smooth, .curved shafts; rotules very small and flat and serrated. Living sponge is often thin, small, delicate and nearly transparent, usually greyish-white with white gemmules. Lives in clear standing water. Florida county records: Alachua, Marion, Volusia.
Meyenia subdivisa Potts. Skeletal spicules are smooth (sometimes slightly microspined) and sharply pointed. Gemmule spicules are robust birotulates with shafts about as long as diameter of rotule; shafts smooth or possessing several long, usually medial, spines. Rotules are divided into long serrated rays. Sponge often forms large, firm, circular patches. Florida county records: Alachua, Lake, Putnam, Sarasota.
Meyenia crateriformis Potts—Plate I, Fig. 3. Skeletal spicules slender, microspined. Gemmule spicules modified birotulates with long cylindrical shafts. Shafts particularly spiny at ends, sometimes sparsely so near middle; rotules very small, often convex, bearing several short, recurved hooks. The specimen shown in figure 8 is atypical yet others like it are relatively common in Florida. The more typical gemmule spicules have fewer spines on their shafts, and slightly larger rotules. The living sponge is very thin, encrusting, fiat, spreading; usually grey, nearly transparent. White gemmules often very numerous. Occupies a number of different habitats, but is the only species likely to be found in very stagnant or turbid water. Florida county records: Alachua, Columbia, Lake, Levy, Marion, Taylor.
Meyenia subtilis (Weltner). Skeletal spicules slender, microspined. Gem- mule spicules delicate birotulates; slender with smooth, long shafts. Rotules deeply dentate, with rounded rays. Known only from type locality in Kis- simmee Lake, Osceola County, Florida.
Meyenia millsii Potts—Plate I, Fig 4. Skeletal spicules slender, microspined. Gemmule spicules are birotulates; rotules finely serrate with flat surfaces, often microspined. Shafts smooth or possessing several small spines. Shaft length usually longer than diameter of rotule, but variable in this respect. Fairly common in cypress, pine and gum swamps. Florida county records: Alachua, Bradford, Columbia, Gilchrist, Levy, Volusia.
(IIl) Dosilia palmeri (Ports) Plate II, Fig. 5
This is the only known member of the genus Dosilia in North America. My specimen of this sponge is the only one known from Florida, and is identical with Potts’ Meyenia plumosa var. palmeri, in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Annandale, 1911, considered Potts’ specimen as a species distinct from Dosila plumosa (Carter) 1849, collected in Bombay, India. I am accepting Annandale’s distinction as a valid one, and am considering the North American Dosilia as species palmeri.
FRESH WATER SPONGES OF FLORIDA 4]
D. palmeri is characterized by microspined, robust, skeletal spi- cules, and birotulate gemmule spicules with very spiny shafts, and with outwardly convex, laciniated rotules, possessing some re- curved hooks. Dermal spicules fairly abundant; substellate or acerate with long divergent branches. Amorphous, irregularly rayed spicules can sometimes be found. Living sponges form large, spreading, green colonies. Gemmules large, white, abundant. In Florida, known only from a large waterfilled sink-hole one mile southeast of Willis- ton, Levy County.
(IV) Heteromeyenia Ports.
Gemmules possessing birotulate spicules of two distinct classes: long and short. Margins of rotules always incised or dentate. The short birotulates are most numerous. Long birotulates have re- curved hooks or spines on their rotules.
DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES.
Heteromeyenia ryderi Potts—Plate HI, Fig. 6. Skeletal spicules long, pointed at ends; usually sparsely but sometimes very densely spined, except near ends. Gemmule spicules of two types or classes:
1) Short birotulates—shafts smooth or with several coarse spines near middle; margins of rotules finely serrate; diameter of rotule usually nearly equal to length of shaft.
2) Long birotulates—shafts coarsely spined; rotules small, consisting of short, recurved hooks or spines.
Dermal spicules absent. Living sponge is usually moderately large, forming irregular, conspicuous colonies, sometimes nearly an inch thick; colonies often hemispherical; usually light grey or brown in color. This appears to be the most common sponge in Florida, and grows in almost all fresh-water environments; but reaches maximum development, in number and size, in cypress swamps and adjoining ditches. Florida county records: Alachua, Citrus, Clay, Columbia, Dixie, Gilchrist, Jackson. Jefferson, Lake, Levy, Marion, Osceola, Pasco, Putnam, St. Johns, Taylor, Volusia.
Heteromeyenia repens Potts. Skeletal spicules slender, microspined, taper- ing at ends. Gemmule birotulates of two classes:
1) Short—numerous; sometimes almost as long as those of long class; shafts usually smooth; rotules bearing rays, though less prominent than those on long birotulates.
2) Long—less numerous than shorter ones; shafts smooth or with sev- eral coarse spines. Rotules with incurved, hook-like rays.
Dermal spicules usually straight and spined, with longest spines at center. Sponge flat, spreading, usually green, with a few large white, basilar gem- mules. Florida county records: Alachua, Marion, Taylor. This sponge probably has a wider distribution in Florida, since I have found immature sponges resembling this species as well as scattered gemmule spicules in other spicule slides.
42 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Heteromeyenia argyrosperma Potts—Plate II, Fig. 7. Skeletal spicules usually slender and sparsely spined. Gemmule spicules birotulates of two classes: ‘
1) Short—smaller than long birotulates and shafts densely spined. Rays of rotules similar in both classes. 2) Long—shafts with several coarse spines. Rotules composed of three or four (seldom more) recurved, stout rays. | No dermal spicules. Living sponges usually small, soft, greenish, with several large, scattered, white or light yellow gemmules. Found in several small ponds and sink-holes in Alachua County.
(V) Asteromeyenia ANNANDALE.
Birotulate gemmule spicules of two distinct classes; demal spi- cules in form of asters. DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES. Asteromeyenia plumosa (Weltner). Skeletal spicules long, smooth, taper- ing to sharp ends. Gemmule spicules birotulates of two classes: 1) Short—densely and irregularly spined, robust shafts; rotules flat or somewhat convex, with coarsely, irregularly dentate, margins. 2) Long—slender shafts, usually smooth, variable in length; rotules with margins divided into slightly recurved rays, not all of equal length. Dermal spicules small, devoid of spines, stellate, consisting of several pro- jections of unequal lengths radiating from a central nodule. In Florida, known only from the Everglades, exact locality uncertain. 3
(VI) Trochospongilla VEDovsKy
Rotules of birotulates with smooth margins. One rotule may be very much larger than the other.
DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES.
Trochospongilla pennsylvanica (Potts)—Plate II, Fig. 8. Skeletal spicules short, entirely and abundantly spined. Gemmule spicules small birotulates with very unequal rotules, one usually reduced to a mere enlargement on the distal end of the shaft. Rim of the large rotule smooth; shaft slender. Gem- mule spicules look like small collar buttons. Sponge usually forms thin, en- crusting, elongate, white, grey or green colonies; often glistens when dry.
Plate II
Fig. 5. Dosilia palmeri.—a, skeletal spicule with axial canal; b, gemmule spicules, side and top views; c, substellate dermal spicule.
Fig. 6. Heteromeyenia ryderi.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicules of shorter class, side and top views; b,’ gemmule spicule of longer class.
Fig. 7. Heteromeyenia argyrosperma.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicule of shorter class; b,’ gemmule spicule, of longer class.
Fig. 8. Trochospongilla pennsylvanica.—a, skeletal spicule with axial canal; b, gemmule spicules, side and top views.
FRESH WATER SPONGES OF FLORIDA 43
Eig 7 Fig 8
PLATE Ii
at JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Gemmules usually numerous; yellow or brown in color, with a concavity sur- rounding foramen. Florida county records: Alachua, Bradford, Clay, Columbia, Dixie, Gilchrist, Jackson, Jefferson, Levy, Marion, Pasco, St. Johns, Sumter, Taylor, Volusia.
Trochospongilla leidyi (Bowerbank). Skeletal spicules thick, short, smooth; ends nearly rounded. Gemmule spicules birotulate of one class; shafts short, thick, entirely and always smooth; rotules with smooth margins, sometimes with undulating surfaces. Both rotules equal in size. Living sponge is com- pact and encrusting. Florida county records: Alachua, Marion. Also known from Everglades. : |
Trochospongilla horrida (Weltner). Skeletal spicules heavily spined. Gem- mule spicules like those of T. leidyi: short, smooth, stout shafts; entirely smooth margined, equal rotules. Living sponge is small, white, thin, encrust- ing. Only specimen from Florida collected in Sante Fe River, above Poe Springs, Alachua County.
(VII) Carterius Potts
Gemmules possess a long foraminal tuble which carries long fila- ments. Skeletal spicules usually microspined. Dermal spicules slen- der, long, entirely spined. Gemmule spicules birotulates of one class; usually spiny.
Only one sponge probably belonging to this genus is known from Florida. An immature specimen resembling C. tubisperma Mills was collected in 1945 in Alachua County, by M. C. Johnson.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am grateful to Miss Esther Coogle, Artist-Research Assistant in Biology at the University of Florida, for the plates accompany- ing this paper. The drawings were made, in each case, directly from the spicules represented.
LITERATURE CITED JOHNSON, MARGARET CRILE 1945. The Freshwater Sponges of Alachua County, with a Summary of the Known Florida Forms. Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Florida. OLD, MARCUS CALVIN 1935. The Spongillidae. In Pratt, Henry Sherring, Manual of the Common Invertebrate Animals. Philadelphia. POTTS, EDWARD 1887. Contributions Towards a Synopsis of the American Forms of Fresh Water Sponges with Descriptions of those Named by Other Authors from all Parts of the World. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 39:157- 279. POTTS, EDWARD 1918. The Sponges. In Ward, H. B. and Whipple, G. C., Fresh-Water Biology. New York, John Wiley & Sons. Pgs. 301-315. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949( 1950).
THE CAROTID SINUS SYNDROME
Etwyn Evans, M.D. Orlando, Florida
The carotid sinus is a term applied to the slight enlargement of the common carotid artery where it bifurcates into the internal and external carotids just below the angle of the jaw. The exter- nal carotid artery supplies the outside of the head with blood; the internal carotid supplies the inside of the head with blood. The dilation usually involves the commencement of the internal carotid artery as well and may be confined to this region.
The carotid sinus was shown by Hering in 1823 to play an im- portant role in the regulation of the cardiac rate and arterial blood pressure. Compression so as to raise the pressure within the sinus causes slowing of the heart rate, vasodilatation and a fall in blood pressure. Electrical stimulation will produce similar effects. The sinus is also sensitive to chemical changes.
For some unknown reason the carotid sinus becomes hypersen- sitive in some people. Weiss and Baker in 1933 described this hypersensitivity as a cause for attacks of dizziness, fainting or some times convulsions in man. This is the carotid sinus syndrome. Syndrome means a set of symptoms which occur together. They described three mechanisms: (1) The vagal type in which stimu- lation of the sinus is followed by a slowing of the pulse or asystole. (2) The vaso-depressor type in which stimulation is followed by a marked drop in blood pressure without much change in pulse rate. (3) The cerebral type where symptoms occur without ap- preciable slowing of the pulse or drop in blood prssure.
Despite numerous publications the carotid sinus syndrome is still a perplexing problem.
Of ten patients in our series with probable carotid sinus syn- drome, all had spontaneous spells of unconsciousness as well as vertigo, lightheadedness or staggering. Similar attacks could be produced in each by carotid sinus pressure and no other cause for the spells could be found.
Unconsciousness was not repeatedly produced in these patients by carotid sinus pressure because untoward reactions, although rare, have occurred. One physician, after carotid sinus pressure in about 2,000 cases, saw no ill effects; however, about 12 cases of
46 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
hemiplegia’ following carotid sinus stimulation have been reported in the literature. Despite the remote possibility of an untoward reaction, attacks must be reproduced before a diagnosis can be made. It is also necessary to determine the type for therapeutic purposes.
One patient in our series had two temporary spontaneous spells of paralysis of his left arm and leg. It is possible that these were the result of spontaneous carotid sinus overactivity.
Nine of the ten patients were males. Ages ranged from 43 to 77 years, averaging 57.5 years.
All had vagal or cardioinhibitory response during induced at- tacks. One of these showed vagal response on one occasion, appar- ently the cerebral form two years later, and vagal response three years later. Mixed forms have been described by others.
All appeared to have some carotid sinus dilation—the right more than the left. Of five patients in whom the sensitivity of both sinuses was checked, the right was the more sentitive in each case. Eight showed some sclerosis or hardening of the sinus. Eight had - cardiovascular signs of symptoms otherwise. Four of these had definite coronary heart disease.
In the one patient who had bothersome irregularity of the heart and was allergic to belladonna, quinidine sulphate appeared to reduce the number of attacks as well as the cardiac irregularity.
No important gastro-intestinal pathology was found in any pa- tient. However, one patient had nervous indigestion off and on for years and three had evidence of spastic colons.
The neurovascular syndrome complicated the picture in one case. This syndrome was first described by Wright in 1945 when he found tingling and numbness to gangrene of the fingers in patients whose radial pulses were obliterated by hyperabduction of the arm and who slept with their arms above their heads. Our patient had tingling, numbness and weakness of his right arm and hand as well as spells of unconsciousness or lightheadedness. He slept with his arms above his head. To complicate the picture further he gave a history of being knocked unconscious three years pre- viously and having been told that he had a brain tumor. Abduc- tion of the arm obliterated the radial pulse and exaggerated the
1 Hemiplegia means paralysis of the arm and leg on one side of the body.
THE CAROTID SINUS SYNDROME AT
symptoms. The arm and hand symptoms disappeared in two weeks when his wife broke him of the habit of sleeping with his arms abducted. She sat up nights and every time he raised his arms she pulled them down.
Emotional states have been stressed in the cerebral form but not in the vagal type. In this series, syncope was most likely to occur in all patients during periods of fatigue, anxiety or hurry. One physician stated “hurry and worry are the twins that bother me.” He also stated that he became unconscious during a cocktail party his wife was giving and which he detested. He declared that he had not had an alcoholic drink himself.
One patient who had had many spells of lightheadedness became unconscious on two occasions while hurrying to airplane accidents when in the marines. Another patient who had had no spells for nearly three years began to have them again after the belongings of a son killed in action were sent to him. He was working long hours under strain at the time. Three were definitely made worse by previous serious diagnoses.
More than one attack of syncope or fainting in one day was not common in this series; however, the one female had three spells the day her only daughter became engaged and the day her hus- band was reported critically ill following surgery. One patient had several attacks the day his son was reported missing in action. Another patient who had so many seizures at times that he ap- peared to be in status epilepticus will be referred to later.
In recent years there has been a growing interest in the rela- tionship of blood cholesterol, thyroid activity and vascular disease. Of seven in whom the blood cholesterol was checked, it was ele- vated in six. The one without an elevation was the oldest patient. Morrison found a somewhat similar correlation in patients with coronary heart disease. He found hypercholesterolemia or an increase blood cholesterol level in 68 percent of patients with coronary disease under 60 years of age and 48 percent of those over 60.
There was no positive correlation between carotid sinus sensi- tivity and the basal metabolism.
The proverbial tight collar appeared three times. One retired army physician tended to pass out every time he tried to park his car, especially when he wore his army shirt—he had gained weight
48 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
after discharge from the service. He also became unconscious during two of three attacks of coronary thrombosis. It is possible that these spells of unconsciousness were primarily caused by carotid sinus overactivity rather than coronary thrombosis, per se. In fact, one investigator reported testing carotid sinus sensitivity as a means of determining latent coronary disease.
All but one of our patients responded well to medical manage- ment. It is possible that Méniére’s! disease was a complication in this patient. A brain operation elsewhere. severing the vestibular potrion of the eighth cranial nerve stopped the severe vertigo this patient had, but the impression that a hypersensitive carotid sinus was at fault was soon confirmed. Lightheadedness followed by fatigue soon recurred and within two months spells of uncon- sciousness associated for the first time with convulsive seizures appeared. At times he went from one attack into another. Uncon- sciousness and convulsive seizures were reproduced by right and left carotid sinus pressure. This had to be done to convince the family of the correct diagnosis because he had not responded satis- factorily to any form of treatment including a previous brain oper- ation and it was obvious that he would have to be operated upon again. In fact, two more operations were necessary. Denervation of the right carotid sinus reduced the attacks but denervation of the left was necessary to prevent them. This case was unusual in that the necessity for bilateral denervation is extremely rare.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The carotid sinus syndrome is primarily a disease of males in the upper age brackets.
2. Fatigue and emotional states are important in the vagal as well as the cerebral type and may account, at least in part, for spontaneous variations in carotid sinus sensitivity.
3. Psychotherapy is an important part of management.
4. Other cardiovascular disease is usually present.
5. It is probable that pathological changes in the wall of the sinus itself play an important part in the picture.
6. Associated abnormalities, such as Méniére’s disease and the
1 Méniére’s disease is a disease caused by a disturbance of the inner ear in which the predominant symptoms are vertigo, ringing in the ears, impairment of hearing and nausea or vomiting.
THE CAROTID SINUS SYNDROME 49
neurovascular syndrome in this series, may make the diagnosis appear more difficult or appear more serious.
7. Quinidine may reduce the number of seizures when ectopic beats are bothersome.
8. More than one type of carotid sinus syncope may not only co-exist but one form may predominate at one time and another at another time.
LITERATURE CITED HERING, H. E. 1922. Der Kerotisdruckversuch, Munchen. Med. Wnchschr 70:1287. WEISS, S., and J. P. BAKER. 1933. The Carotid Sinus Reflex in Health and Disease: Its Role in the Causation of Fainting and Convulsions. Medicine, 12:297. WRIGHT, I. S. 1945. The Neurovascular Syndrome Produced by Hyperabduction of the Arms. Am. Heart J., 29:1. MORRISON, L. M.; L. HALL; and A. L. CHANEY. 1948. Cholesterol Metabolism and Its Relationship to Arteriosclerosis. Coro- nary Artery Disease and Arteriosclerosis. Amer. J. Med. Sci., 4:616. NATHANSON, M. H. 1946. Hyperactive Cardio-inhibitory Carotid Sinus Reflex. Arch. Int. Med. 77:491.
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950).
50 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ne
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICERS FOR 1950
President ac) 22) eas ed: oe OE de ee H. H. Sheldon (Physics) | University of Miami, Coral Gables
Vice: President 20) 3a s 5 eee A. M. Winchester (Biology) - john B. Stetson University, DeLand
Secretary-Treasurer_.___--.-------------- Bie tie) Iie eg eae C. S. Nielsen (Botany ) Florida State University, Tallahassee
Editor: se whom chk: od besitbn Ts nee ae H. K. ‘Wallace (Biology ) | - University of Florida, Gainesville
Advertising Manager| EE T. Stanton Dietrich, (Sociology ) Florida State University, Tallahassee Chairman, Physical Sciences Section_____________________ Earl D. Smith (Chemistry ) | Florida Southern College, Lakeland Chairman, Biological Sciences Section... Clyde Reed ( Biology )
University of Tampa, Tampa
Chairman, Social Sciences Section_______._________-- T. Stanton Dietrich (Sociology ) Florida State University, Tallahassee
J. D. Corrington (Zoology )
University of Miami, Coral Gables
Council Members-at-Large William Melcher (Economics ) Rollins College, Winter Park
Chairman,. Local. Arrangements... B. P. Reinsch (Mathematics-Physics ) Committee Florida Southern College, Lakeland PastPresident (O40 ey Wa NS Ae J. E. Hawkins (Chemistry ) University of Florida, Gainesville
Past President 1948 2.tu.0. bn Ga George F. Weber (Plant Pathology )
University of Florida, Gainesville
ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN THE AXIS OF LITCHI CHINENSIS SONN.
FRANK D. VENNING University of Miami
Considerable interest has been evidenced in the last 10 years in establishing Litchi as a new commercial crop in central and south Florida, and to this end at least one large-scale planting has been started. Propagation of choice varieties by grafting has proven difficult and expensive because of the low percentage of success- ful unions between stocks and scions. Recently, a system of approach-grafting seedlings has been developed by Cobin (1948) which should increase considerably the speed of propagating good clones. No successful grafts between Litchi and other close Sapin- daceous relatives have been made; yet other stocks more com- patable to soils of high calcium content would increase the range over which Litchi could be grown in Florida. Because of the difh- culties reported in budding and grafting Litchi, this investigation of the stem tissues was made, in the hope that a better knowledge of the anatomy and secondary growth would be useful to those interested in Litchi propagation.
Although a review of the anatomical literature showed the axis of several members of the Sapindaceae to have been studied in great detail because of anomalous growth, none of the works avail- able discussed the specific anatomy of Litchi, nor were any refer- ences to such studies disclosed. In general, the distinguishing ana- tomical features of the Sapindaceous axis are as follows:
The most outstanding feature is the continuous ring of scleren- chyma in the pericycle, at first composed solely of fibers, but later on interspersed with sclerides between the fiber groups. The ves- sels contain simple perforations in all walls, even when they lie adjoining parenchyma. The bulk of the wood is wood prosenchyma, with simple pits. In all cases the wood is compact, and occasionally of great hardness. Wood parenchyma is sparingly developed. The cells of the pith are especially thickened, even the end walls are sclerotic. A cork cambium forms immediately under the epidermis or in the next cell layer. (Sachs, 1882; Radlkofer, 1896; Strasburger, 1898; Solereder, 1908; Haberlandt, 1928).
52 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The fall and early part of the winter were extremely mild in south Florida, with intermittent rain, so that Litchi continued active vegetative growth over those months. Fresh branches from which new growth was emerging were obtained in November, 1948, through the courtesy of Mr. A. H. Jordhan from trees growing at Col. Robert H. Montgomery's Estate, and also from trees grow- ing at the U. S. Department of Agriculture’s Plant Introduction Garden at Chapman Field, Fla., through the collaboration of Dr. Walter T. Swingle. The branches varied in diameter from 1 mm. at the tip to 2 cm. at the base. Free-hand cross and longitudinal sections were made every few centimeters along the branches from tip to base, which gave a series of sections that clearly re- vealed the primary and secondary development of the axis. The sections were variously stained for specific structures with Phloro- glucin—Hydrochloric Acid, Delafield’s Haematoxylon, Ruthenium Red, Potassium Iodide, and Sudan IV. After staining, the sections were mounted in either water or glycerin.
OBSERVATIONS
Anatomy of the primary axis: Very small twigs (1 mm) show all primary tissues. The center of the stem contains vacuolate iso- diametric pith with thin cellulose walls. The protoxylem points are numerous (10-15), and the first xylem elements differentiated are vessels, with simple pitting. No annular, scalariform, or spiral ves- sels are produced. Small areas of phloem elements, with some differ- entiation of sieve tubes and companion cells, lie dorsally adjacent to the primary xylem. A vascular cambium between xylem and phloem is quickly differentiated around the entire stem. Lignifi- cation of fiber groups in the pericycle begins at the same time as lignification of the protoxylem. The fiber masses at first have large lumena and relatively thin lignified walls. They form a continuous
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE
Fig. 1: Detail of the wood anatomy of Litchi chinensis in cross-section. The large clear cells are pitted vessels; the small cells with thickened walls are wood prosenchyma, which abound in stored starch. Rela- tively numerous thin-walled wood rays extend across the stele from pith to cortex. The relative size and abundance of pits are shown only in the walls of adjoining vessels to avoid confusion in the figure, but they are present in all walls of both the vessels and the wood prosenchyma. X 292 diameters.
ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN LICHTI 53
ae:
aexy OX
FIGURE 1
54 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
circle of fibers around the stele, with the exception of a few ray- cells which are continuous across both xylem and phloem, and which extend into the pericycle as well. The cortex is composed of vacuolate isodiametric parenchyma with thin walls, comparable in size to the cells in the pith. Both pith and cortex cells elongate slightly as the stem elongates.
Anatomy of the secondary tissues: Secondary growth is accom- plished by divisions of the vascular cambium, and by radial di- visions of the wood rays. Cells cut off internally from the cambium, and from the wood rays, are very quickly differentiated into either vessels or wood prosenchyma. There is usually no more than one to three parenchyma cells between the vascular cambium and the xylem. The vessels tend to be developed radially outward from the protoxylem points, but they are interspersed amid the wood prosenchyma between protoxylem points on occasion. The vessels in cross-section are approximately as wide as they are broad; the average measurements of 80 vessels taken at random from the secondary wood show the radial diameter to be 43 microns, and the tangential diameter to be 45 microns. Wall thickness of the ves- sels average 5.5 microns. The walls are thickened with a mixture of cellulose and lignin, but the lignin is present in relatively large amounts, and a positive deep red color is evidenced by treating the tissue with phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid. Numerous sim- ple pits are present in all walls of the vessels.
The bulk of internal tissue produced by the vascular cambium is wood prosenchyma. These cells are elongated, have the general appearance of tracheids in cross-section, and have much thickened side walls. The thickening is proportionately greater than the walls of the vessels. Measurements of cross-sections of 30 wood prosen- chyma cells show the average radial diameter to be 14 microns, and the average tangential diameter 16 microns. The average radial walls have a thickness of 4.5 microns, almost as great as that of the vessels. The end walls are only slightly thickened, or not thick- ened at all, and are usually at right angles to the side walls. The thickenings of the walls in this case were also a mixture of lignin and cellulose, in varying proportion, depending apparently on the age of the prosenchyma, or the particular period of growth during which it was formed. Some prosenchyma gave as bright a stain for lignin as the vessel walls; other prosenchyma cells in the same
ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN LICHTI 55
section stained only slightly, or, in a few instances where the cells were close to the active cambium, not at all. Apparently the wall is first thickened with cellulose, and then various amounts of lignin are subsequently intercalated into the wall between the cellulose strands. The walls of these cells all have numerous simple pits.
The prosenchyma cells contain cytoplasm, a nucleus, and are of course alive. In all the branches examined in the course of this study this tissue was always packed with starch plastids, which stained dark blue or black when treated with potassium iodide and iodine, and the tissue evidently functions as starch storage as well as for mechanical support. It is interesting to note that the translocation of solutes across the stems and branches of Litchi, other than in a vertical direction, can only be accomplished through living parenchyma, and is therefore necessarily slow (Fig. 1).
The cylinder of pith cells immediately inside the protoxylem points, which form the medullary sheath, are more elongated than those more centrally placed, and often develop thick lignified walls resembling the pericyclic fibers. The majority of the pith cells have thickened pitted walls which are partly lignified, but do not develop into typical sclerides. A considerable quantity of starch is stored in the pith.
As the girth of the stem increases, the parenchymatous ray cells between the bundles of pericyclic fibers divide radially, and the bundles of fibers, which are close together in the young stem, move farther and farther apart. The parenchymatous cells between the bundles are quickly specialized into sclerides (Fig. 2), so the rays remain only one cell wide, and a continuous cylinder of scleren- chyma surrounds the stele. Scattered cortical parenchyma cells develop into sclerides as well, and some phloem fibers differentiate to the inside of the sclerenchymatous ring of pericycle at the same time.
By the time the stem is 5 mm. in diameter a cork cambium, or phellogen, is established immediately underneath the epidermis. Divisions of the phellogen produce cells on the outer face only, which usually become suberinized. Some of the bark cells pro- duced by the phellogen develop into sclerides with lignified walls.
Behavior of the cambium: During the earliest phases of secondary growth, the entire cambium is active at one time, but the rate of cambial activity varies from place to place around the stem, which
56 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
results in the production of an irregular cylinder of wood. During the second and third periods of growth, the entire cambium is still activated, but the rates of division continue to vary. By the time the twig is 4 or 5 mm. in diameter, only about half of the cambium is active during any particular growth period. When the branches have reached a diameter of 1 cm. about a third of the cambium is active during a particular period of growth. During a period of cambial activity, a more or less crescent shaped wedge of wood is produced on one side of the xylem cylinder. When growth is re- sumed, another portion of the cambium becomes active. The length of activity of any one portion of the cambium is so governed that > a fairly regular wood cylinder is produced. Cells from the active portions of the cambium appear as regular hexagonal prisms, and the wood prosenchyma nearest these areas is only slightly lignified. Inactive portions of the cambium lie immediately adjacent to wood prosenchyma, and swell to an irregular outline resembling phloem parenchyma. Cross-sections of the wood show the wedge-shaped growth lines from each period of cambial activity (Fig. 3).
DISCUSSION
Several features of this anatomical study reveal obstacles to successful grafting of Litchi. Grafting of very young twigs or approach grafting seedlings of a diameter less than 4 mm. would be rendered extremely difficult because of the irregularity of the young vascular cylinder. It would be almost impossible to secure adequate contact between the cambial surfaces of stock and scion for a successful union. In addition, there is little persistant un- specialized parenchyma in the stems even when they are very young. Such parenchyma, when present in softer, more herbaceous stems, can differentiate into connective vascular and cambial ele- ments to bridge the gap between stock and scion, should the cambiums not be in exact juxtaposition. As pointed out previously, seecondary differentiation of the pericycle into fibers begins at the same time as: lignification of the protoxylem points, and almost all primary tissues have become specialized when the young grow- ing twig is only 1 mm. in diameter.
By the time the twig has attained usual araranl size (1 to 2 cm. ), the vascular cylinder is much more regular in outline, but only a portion of the cambium is active, even though the stem be in vigorous vegetative growth. Thus it would appear that only by
ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN LICHTI 57
FIGURE 2
Detail of a portion of the sclerenchymatous pericycle, as seen in cross-section, from a branch 1 cm. in diameter. Pericyclic and phloem arenchyma are to the left, cortex to the right. The fiber groups have very thick walls and small lumena; and at this stage sclerides have been intercalated between the fiber groups. In addition, scattered sclerides have been differentiated from cortical parenchyma cells. X 253 diameters.
58 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
chance would the active cambial face of a bud or scion be placed against a similar surface in the stock. Presumably the inactive cambial surfaces would be much more likely to deteriorate or be injured before they resumed growth and established a firm graft union. Unfortunately the external surface of the branch offers no clue as to which areas of the cambium are active. Methods of stimu- lating the entire cambium to simultaneous activity, or of supply- ing the scion or bud with adequate water until the areas of cam- bium to be grafted become activated, would doubtless greatly increase the percentage of successful grafts: of Litchi.
SUMMARY
The wood of the axis of Litchi ene is composed of three kinds of elements: 1. Large vessels which have lignified walls with numerous simple pits. These function as vertical water-conducting tissue. 2. Small wood-prosenchyma cells with thick walls bearing simple pits, the walls less highly lignified but nearly as thick as those of the vessels. This tissue is living and serves as starch stor- age tissue. 3. Frequent medullary rays, usually not over one cell wide.
Except when the twig is very young, the Saeed cambium is only active over approximately one-third of its circumference at any one time. During a particular period of growth a crescent of tissue is formed on one side of the stele. When growth is resumed, another portion of the cambium becomes active. The length of the activity of any one portion of the cambium seems to be so regulated that a fairly symmetrical woody cylinder is produced.
Successful grafting probably results from placing active areas of the cambium adjacent to one another. rE |
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. Walter T. Swingle, and was sponsored by the Science Research Council of the University of Miami.
LITERATURE CITED COBIN, M. 1948. A method of grafting the lychee. Paper read at the 6lst meeting of the Fla. State Hort. Soc. Oct. 27, West Palm Beach.
ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN LICHTI
FIGURE 3
Outline drawing of the axis of a Litchi branch 5 mm. in diameter, showing the irregular growth rings which result from the erratic activity of the vascular cambium. Note that in this stem the first two periods of growth involved the entire cambium, but that the amount of wood produced along given radii varies considerably. The third period of growth involved almost all of the cambium, but during subsequent periods of growth only a portion of the cambium was active at any one time. The irregular black masses encircling the stem half-way between the xylem and the epidermis are the scleride and fiber groups in the pericycle.
59
60 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
HABERLANDT, G. 1928. Physiological Plant Anatomy (Transl. 4th German ed.). Macmillan Co. London. RADLKOFER, L. 1896. Sapindaceae. In Engler and Prantl, Die Nattirlichen Pflanzenfamilien III-5:277-366. Leipzig. SACHS, J. von 1882. Text-book of Botany, morphological and physiological. (Transl. S. H. Vines ). Oxford. SOLEREDER, H. 1908. Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, (Eng. transl. Boodle & Fritsch) 1:226-286. STRASBURGER, E. 1898. Text-book of Botany (Eng. Transl. H. C. Porter) Macmillan and Co. London. .
3 Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950).
A NEW FLORIDA VIOLET
WiLLiaAM A. MuRRILL University of Florida
The violet here described was discovered at Gainesville, Fla. It belongs to the Palmatae group and grows in dry woods in com- pany with V. triloba Schw. and V. villosa Walt. The deltoid leaves are glabrous and uncut, the petals lavender-violet and exceptionally narrow, and the capsules pale-green, on ascending stalks. Specimens may be seen at the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, the New York Botanical Garden, and elsewhere.
Viola alachuana sp. nov. Foliis nonlobata, cordatis ad deltoideis, crenato- serratis, glabris, 4-8 cm. latis; floribus 2.5 cm. latis, violaceis, in medio albidis, barbatis, striatis; fructibus trigonis, glaucis, 2 cm. longis; seminibus obovoideis, nigro-castaneis, 1.5 mm. longis.
A stemless plant with moderately stout, scaly, acrid rootstock. Leaf-blades all uncut, cordate, acute, crenate-serrate, green, glabrous, about 4 X 4 cm.; after vernal flowering becoming deltoid with truncate or truncate-decurrent base, about 5-6 cm. long and 7-8 cm. wide; petiole nearly erect, glabrous, green or partly purplish, narrowly winged, reaching at times 25 cm. in length. Petaliferous flowers lavender-violet with conspicuous whitish center, about 2.5 em. broad; sepals lanceolate with narrow, white, entire edges, about 1 cm. long, the auricles appressed, notched, glabrous, 2-2.5 mm. long; upper petals about 11 X 7 mm., pale-greenish-white at the base on both sides, lateral petals about 11 X 5 mm., colored like the upper but heavily bearded with capillary hairs, lower petals similarly colored, about 10 X 6 mm., only slightly short-beaded, with about 9 dark-violet lines which slightly anastomose; peduncle erect, glabrous, more or less purple, reaching at times 12 cm. in length. Cleistogamous flowers subulate, their stalks ascending or erect, short, glabrous, purplish. Capsule oblong-ovoid, about 2 cm. long and 7 mm. wide; calyx-lobes 8-9 X 1.5 mm.; auricles glabrous, notched, 3-4 mm. long; stalk 7-8 cm. long, strictly erect at maturity. Seeds obovoid, pointed at base, smooth, shining, blackish-chestnut, 1.5 X 1 mm.
This plant was discovered by the author on April 30, 1940, growing in dry, bare soil near bracken fern in thin mixed woods of loblolly pine, red oak, hickory, etc. Although similar habitats have been explored it has not yet been found elsewhere. In the autumn of 1942 two plants were moved to a cool glasshouse and kept under observation for about a year. Early in April, 1948, five days after the petaliferous flowers had faded without producing fruits, the cleistogamous flowers began to appear and mature seeds were obtained four weeks later.
62 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
That the plant naturally breeds true is evidenced by the fact that several young colonies have sprung up near older plants in the type locality and no important variations have been observed. Hybridity is out of the question, since the only violets anywhere near are V. triloba Schw., V. villosa Walt., V. floridana Brainerd and V. Walteri House. No violet in Brainerd’s list of American species resembles it closely. The petals are colored somewhat like those of V. affinis Leconte and the closed flowers and capsules resemble those of V. cucullata Ait. but other characters are widely different.
Penn SERVES the Photographer
wis is the age of specialization in every field. PENN
CAMERA’S specialty is photography .. . in all its facets. And we're working at it constantly. PENN CAMERA is one of the world’s largest photographic stores, serving amateur, professional, industrial, scientific and medical photographic requirements. And because we do business on a nation-wide basis, we are equipped to handle any order . . . from a single camera to a complete photographic laboratory . . . at lowest competitive prices. PENN CAMERA’S prompt and accurate service, and GUARANTEE of satisfaction on ALL purchases add up to Buyer Confidence and Seller dePENNdability.
Write Today for Full Details of PENN SERVICE and PENN VALUES! We Buy * We Sell * We Trade
PENN CAMERA New YORK 1, N.Y.
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950).
NEWS AND COMMENTS
In the last number of the Journal the editor called for contri- butions for this section. None has been forthcoming. We repeat the call and promise to do better by contributions than we did for one received for Vol. 11, No. 4, but which was omitted through an oversight. We believe the information in that notice will still be of interest to many Academy members and have included it below: |
“A Sigma Xi Club was installed at Florida State University November 10, 1949. The Club was organized with 45 members and associate members and five affiliates. Dr. Melvin A. Brannon, president of the University of Florida Chapter, served as the in- stalling officer. Newly elected officers are
President: Dr. Ezda Deviney, Head of the Department of Zoology
Vice President: Dr. Karl Dittmer, Head of the Department of Chemistry
Secretary: Dr. Ruth Schornherst Breen, Associate Professor of Botany
Treasurer: Dr. Harold C. Trimble, Associate Professor of Mathematics.”
“The Mayflies of Florida” by Lewis Berner, University of Florida Studies, Biological Science Series, Volume IV, Number 4, is just off the press. Dr. Berner is a member of the Department of Biology and C-6 at the University of Florida.
Dr. W. C. Allee, of the Division of the Biological Sciences, Uni- versity of Chicago, was a guest of the University of Florida during the week of February 20. While on the campus Dr. Allee made a survey of the biological sciences at the University.
February was an important milestone in the career of Academi- cian John D. Kilby, Instructor in the Department of Biology, U. of F. Mr. Kilby reecived his PhD. at the Commencement Exercises February 4 and 6 days later Mrs. John D. presented him with a fine young son, John Adrian.
At the Council meeting on December 1, 1949, in DeLand, the Council voted unanimously to grant the Editor permission to pub- lish papers other than in the routine procedure when the costs of publication of such papers are borne by the author or other inter- ested parties.
At the 14th annual banquet of the Academy on December 2,
64 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1949, at DeLand, Dr. B. P. Reinsch, Chairman of the Annual Awards Committee, announced the following awards:
(1) Dr. L. R. Rivas, Assistant Professor of Zoology, University of Miami, was awarded the Academy medal for the best paper submitted in 1948. Title: “The Origin, Evolution, Dispersal, and Geographic Distribution of Girardinini, A Tribe of Poeciliid Fishes from Cuba,” |
(2) Miss Dorothy Crowson, Florida State University, was awarded the A. A. A. S. grant-in-aid for 1947 to continue her study of the algae of northern Florida,
(3) Dr. L. R. Rivas, University of Miami, was awarded the A. - A. A. S. grant-in-aid for 1948 to help finance his next ichthyological exploration of Grand Cayman Island in the Caribbean south of Cuba.
The Council met in Lakeland on March 11, 1950 in the Faculty Lounge of Florida Southern College. Members of the Council were guests of the College for dinner. Items of possible interest to the membership at large, taken from notes made by the Editor at the meeting, are as follows:
“Dr. Nielsen reported the membership list, as of 10 March, in- cluded 547 names. He also estimated our 1950 income to be sufh- cient to cover the costs of four small numbers of the Quarterly Journal.
Receipt of the 1949 A. A. A. S. grant-in-aid was announced. Any- one desiring to apply ne this grant, which amounts to $73.50, should write to Dr. B. P. Reinsch, Florida Southern College, Lakeland.
The Council approved a change in the By-Laws to make the Junior Academy an official part of the Academy organization, under the direction of a Junior Academy Committee.
The Council approved the appointment of T. Stanton Dietrich (Sociology), F. S. U., as Advertising Manager for 1950, and author- ized him to select his own co-managers. It also approved the pub- lication in the Journal of reviews of books or articles by members, or by non-members on Florida subjects, at the discretion of the Editor.
Florida State University is planning to publish, within several months, a group of papers presented at the DeLand meetings by Academy members, as the first volume in a projected F. S. U. series. The University offered the Academy the opportunity of buying
NEWS AND COMMENTS 65
copies at cost which could be provided with an appropriate cover and issued as a volume of the Quarterly Journal. This proposal was accepted by the Council and the publication will become Volume 18 of the Quarterly Journal. With the publication of Volume 13 the Journal will come up to date.
The next annual meeting will be held at Florida Southern Col- lege, Lakeland. Dr. B. P. Reinsch is Chairman of the Local Arrange- ments Committee.”
The Florida Academy lost a loyal member and staunch supporter by the recent death of Dr. Melvin A. Brannon, who passed away in Gainesville on the 26th of March. Dr. Brannon had been a prominent figure in the field of hicher education, having served as President of the University of Idaho from 1914 to 1917, the Beloit College from 1917 to 1923, and as Chancellor of the University of Montana from 1923 to 1933. Of recent years Dr. Brannon had been enjoying a fruitful retirement in Gainesville where he entered into civic and educational affairs with enthusiasm and at the same time continued his researches in botany.
RESEARCH NOTES
Cirsium Smallii Britton. If one sees only herbarium specimens of Cirsium Smallii Britton he is liable to confuse them with slender plants of C. horridulum Michx. but in the field the two species are strikingly distinct. The writer has studied the plants in their natural habitats and has also grown them from seed. His conclusions are very briefly stated in the following paragraphs.
On April 2, 1943, a colony of C. horridulum on an open roadside near Gainesville, Fla., was studied. There were about 1,000 plants, half of them in flower and the rest seedlings. The number of heads per plant was mostly 5 to 10 but some plants in richer soil bore 20 to 30. In the entire colony only 25 plants were white-flowered, the remainder being purple-flowered (Elliottii). On Apr. 11 a small colony to the south of the above was studied. Of the 100 plants 90 were white-flowered, 1 deep-purple and 9 pale-purple. No yellow flowers were seen. The same day a visit was made to typical flatwoods east of Gainesville, where C. horridulum was found scattered in moist ground, sometimes partly shaded. Here the plants grew tall, with long branches, and some bore as many as 50 heads, mostly purple-flowered. On Apr. 27 a plant of this species kept under observation had matured its seeds and was abso- lutely dead, root and branch; while near it were 6 small plants that were expected to flower the following spring. On May 2 all mature plants of C. horridulum, no matter what their habitat, were found to be dead or rapidly dying, with their seeds mostly mature. Plants cut back early formed buds at the base.
For the study of C. Smallii I selected an unusually large colony of some 250 plants growing in thin longleaf pine woods in Gainesville. On Apr. 8, 1943, the stalks on the most advanced plants were about an inch high. The first
66 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
flowers appeared Apr. 13 and the first mature seed were gathered Apr. 22. The flowers were purple; as were all seen by the author in the Gainesville area. In the first 180 plants of this colony to bloom 5 bore 1 head, 29 had 2 heads, there were 63 with 8 heads, 22 with 4 heads, 5 with 5 heads, 3 with 6 heads, 2 with 7 heads and 1 with 9 heads. On May 1 about 25 young rosettes did not yet show the beginning of a stalk.
Seeds taken from this colony in the summer of 1942 were grown in a glasshouse and the plants kept under close observation until maturity. All the flowers were purple. The first flowers appeared Apr. 8 and the first mature seed were taken Apr. 27. Stalks were mostly 1 to 2 ft. high but a few reached 3 ft. One plant had only 2 heads, 8 bore 8 heads each, there were 4 with 4 heads, 1 with 6, 1 with 7 and 1 with 28. Three of the largest rosettes were transplanted in midwinter to open, rich, moist ground, where they developed into large, attractive plants bearing 15 to 80 heeads of purple flowers, the first of which opened May 15.
Some of the differences between C. Smallii and C. ee may be summarized as follows: The stalk of the former is usually much slenderer and much shorter, while the number of heads is far less on the average. C. horridulum blooms about Gainesville from January to March, matures its seeds in April and usually dies by the end of that month. The peak of flowering is about two months later in C. Smallii, which is at its best after the larger species is dead. The habitats of the two plants are usually very distinct. The smaller plant is found in dry pine woods and sand-dunes, the larger one in low grounds, swamps and rich pastures. C. Smallii occurs in the West Indies and northward to South Carolina; it is frequent or rare about Gaines- ville. C. horridulum ranges from Florida to Texas and Maine; it is common about Gainesville and may easily become a nuisance. Finally, the larger plant requires two years to flower and the smaller one less than a year. Other dif- ferences have been observed in the seeds, seedlings, spines, bracts, corollas and stamens.
In the small space at my disposal only the difference in seedlings will be considered. These were grown together under glass and also observed in the field. In the big thistle the first leaves lie horizontal like those of a gourd, while succeeding pairs are ascending to erect. In C. Smallii all the early leaves, in several pairs, are horizontal. In the early leaves of the big thistle the teeth are farther apart and more deeply cut, the margin crinkled, the prickles larger and longer, and the midrib more or less purple; while in C. Smallii the teeth are shallow, close and small, the margin not crinkled and the midrib green. Seedlings of C. horridulum are also much more hairy than those of C. Smallii.
Since the purple-flowered form of C. horridulum has received a name ( Elliottii), I am here assigning a similar subvarietal name to the color-form of C. Smallii found about Gainesville. It is Cirsium Smallii Britton, forma purpureum Murrill. The distinguishing character translated into Latin is “floribus purpureis”.
I am indebted to Dr. W. B. Tisdale for helping me with the seedlings of C. Smallii and to Dr. H. A. Gleason for suggestions as to naming its purple- flowered form.——WILLIAM A. MURRILL, University of Florida.
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Contributions to the Journal may be in any of the fields of the sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings will be published only with the financial cooperation of the author. Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or other competent critics.
MANUSCRIPT FORM.——(1) typewrite material, using one side of paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal margins; (3) use 82 x 11 inch paper of standard weight (avoid onion skin); (4) do not submit carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) footnotes should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short; (8) for bibliographic style, note closely the practices employed in Vol. 11, No. 4 and later issues; (9) a factual summary is recommended for longer papers.
ILLUSTRATIONS.——Photographs should be glossy prints of good contrast. Make line drawings with India ink; plan linework and lettering for at least one-half reduction. Do not use typewritten labels on the face of the drawings; provide typed legends on sepa- rate sheets.
PROOF.——Proof should be corrected immediately upon receipt and returned at once, with manuscript, to the editor. Ordinarily page proof will not be sent to the author. Manuscripts and plates will not be returned to authors unless requested. Abstracts and orders for reprints should be sent to the editor along with corrected galley proof.
REPRINTS.——Should be ordered when galley proof is returned. A blank form, with reprint prices, accompanies proof for this purpose. No reprints are furnished free to authors. Payment for reprints will be made by authors directly to the printer.
INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Florida Southern College John B. Stetson University Lakeland, Florida DeLand, Florida
Florida State University St. Petersburg Junior College Tallahassee, Florida St. Petersburg, Florida - University of Florida Rollins College
Gainesville, Florida Winter Park, Florida Jacksonville Junior College University of Miami Jacksonville, Florida Coral Gables, Florida University of Tampa Glidden-Naval Stores Tampa, Florida Jacksonville, Florida
Rose Printing Company Tallahassee, Florida
Quarterly Journal
of the
Fiorida Academy of Sciences
Vol. 12 June 1949 (1950) No. 2
Contents —
Davis—OBSERVATIONS OF PLANKTON TAKEN IN MARINE WATERS mmr IN 194; AND 1945 67
Epson, THORNTON, AND SMITH—ANTIBIOTIC ACTION OF STREP TOMYCES ALBUS acatinst MoLpD DECAY ORGANISMS OF CITRUS
Kinc—A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PLANKTON OF THE WEST LA STE OTE UE TSo TTY, ae ne 109
EvaANs—AcUTE BENIGN NONSPECIFIC PERICARDITIS IN A SUB-
TROPICAL CLIMATE EP CWT hoe ok Wee heb tracts 139 Se UBSTIT Fa Mes iP ee Z ~ 4 2. & Book REVIEWS ’ (aN sD oh SEER, 8, EE 145 Z JUL ZA ieims 3
2 : 3 a> ba \ a, Batt > - be a A. a 5
Wor. 2) June 1949 (1950) No. 2
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida
Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. All ex- changes and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida
Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Subscription price, Three Dollars a year
Mailed July 17, 1950
PAE “QUARTERLY: JOURNAL OF: THE BEORIDA ACADEMY, OF SCIENCES
Vou. 12 June 1949 (1950) No. 2
OBSERVATIONS OF PLANKTON TAKEN IN MARINE WATERS OF FLORIDA IN 1947 AND 1948!
Cares C. Davis Western Reserve University
There is a notable lack of published plankton observations in marine tropical and semi-tropical areas, especially for inshore locations. This lack is reflected in Florida waters. Previously the only published studies primarily devoted to the general plankton in the Florida area were those of Riley (1938) and Davis (1948b). Riley approached his problem from the point of view of the amounts of plankton, and the quantity of phytoplankton pigments, and therefore did not list the species occurring in his samples, while Davis described the plankters occurring in a single sample obtained from one of the brackish water lakes at the southern tip of the Florida peninsula. Gordon (1942), Woodmansee (1949) and Davis and Williams (1950) have made unpublished studies of Florida marine plankton.
Aside from these papers dealing with the plankton or the zoo- plankton as a whole, Davis (1947, 1948a, 1949) has published three papers in which new species of Florida plankters were described, while Gunter e¢ al (1947, 1948) and Galtsoff (1948) have dealt to a greater or lesser extent with the plankton that caused and was associated with the disastrous “red tide” that occurred on the lower west coast of Florida in 1946-1947. Mayer (1910) described certain medusae from the Florida Current, and Smith et al (1950) reported,
1Contribution No. 48, Marine Laboratory, University of Miami. Car- ‘ried out as part of a fisheries oe investigation for the Florida State Board of Conservation.
JUL 25 1950
68 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
among other things, on the marine plankton in the vicinity of Miami. The great expeditions that studied plankton in the Atiantic and Caribbean usually remained far at sea away from the coasts of Florida.
In the following pages the work published by Davis and the plankton study discussed in Gunter et ai (1948) will be reported as pertaining to the subject at hand. Gunter et al (op.cit.) dis- cussed only selected data, of interest to the particular problem of these authors, and the data will be enlarged upon here.
The plankton data to be reported were obtained through the analysis of samples taken at widely scattered locations and at various times of the year, and is for the most part of an explora- tory nature. Samples usually were obtained at places and times that were convenient, rather than on the basis of a rigidly pre- conceived plan. Such exploratory studies are needed, in regions which previously have remained largely unstudied, in order to obtain a preliminary concept of the identity of the common spe- cies, and of their distribution in time and space. Without prelimi- nary studies of this nature, plans for the study of more advanced problems of an ecological or economic nature would have to be laid blindly, and costly mistakes might be made.
The present paper constitutes mainly a preliminary and incom- plete taxonomic report on the plankton of the region investigated, along with certain general ecological observations. Most of the groups that are represented need much more study, and it is hoped that the very incompleteness of this report will be a stimu- lus to others to continue, on a more thorough basis, the study of the taxonomy and the distribution of Florida marine plankters. Because most of the samples examined were obtained by the use of standard plankton nets, practically nothing is known of the nannoplankton. Yet, the gaining of any adequate picture of the ‘ecological role of the plankton in local waters (e.g., the inter- relationship between the zooplankton and the phytoplankton, etc. ) requires a considerable study of this important ecological group.
In spite of their fragmentary nature, it seems advisable to the author to make his accumulated data available at this time to those others who may find it possible and desirable to tackle some of the extremely interesting problems that beg for solution, inasmuch as it is unlikely that he will have the opportunity to
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 69
continue the study of the marine plankton of Florida in the | near future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A number of the samples reported upon herein were collected by Mr. Jay N. Darling, of Captiva Island and by Mr. Charles Daw- son, Mr. Craig Gathman, Dr. Gordon Gunter, Mrs. Harding Owre, Mr. Louis Rivas, Dr. F. G. Walton Smith, Mr. James Q. Tierney, Dr. Robert H. Williams and Mr. Robert A. Woodmansee, all of the University of Miami. Their efforts have contributed materially to the value of this report. The author feels a great indebtedness to Dr. Smith and other members of the staff of the Marine Labora- tory for their consistent encouragement and aid in the analyses. Dr. E. Morton Miller also greatly encouraged the work and gen- erously supplied microscopes and materials from the Department of Zoology of the University of Miami.
List oF SAMPLES
Samples are listed by the regions in which they were obtained. Numbers have been assigned as follows:
NUMBERS REGION between 1 and 99 inland waters along the west coast between 100 and 199 Gulf of Mexico between 200 and 299 inland waters along the east coast between 300 and 399 outside waters along the east coast, ex-
clusive of the Florida Current between 400 and 499 Florida Current between 500 and 599 Florida Bay and its tributaries ~ between 600 and 699 Enclosed ponds on Windley Key (Theater of the Sea)
Sample numbers preceded by an asterisk (*) designate samples that have been partially reported upon in Gunter et al (1948) and Davis (1948a), while those with two asterisks (**) were partially reported upon in Davis (1947, 1949), and those with the three asterisks (***) were reported upon in Davis (1948b). “Unconc.* in the column under “net mesh” signifies that the sample was not concentrated by use of a net, but was simply a preserved sample
of seawater.
70 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
FLORIDA CURRENT.
= 3ot t
ATLANTIC | OCEAN
UJ PINE !SLAND SOUND-\- CAPTIVA ISLAND
Figure 1. Map to show the area investigated.
SAMPLE
No.
“at
ao oi *4, *5.
76: ti. eo
a: pad) *100. S101 *102. ULZ1OS. *104. =i%105.
*106. AUT.
2108.
*109. 110.
ote 9 a. *113. *114. SISLI5. 116.
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON
DatE Time LOCATION
1-18-47
1-18-47 1-19-47 1-24-47 1-24-47
1-24-47
1-25-47
1-28-47
1-28-47 6-25-47 1-18-47 1-18-47 1-19-47 1-19-47 1-24-47 1-24-47
1-25-47 1-25-47
1-25-47
1-28-47 4-11-47
4-12-47 4-12-47 4-12-47 4-12-47
4-12-47 14:00 6-25-47
7
PG) OF GCa ib) U5 &)
ie 11:00
12:00 12:00 12:00 14:00
P
71
NET MrsH Matanzas Pass, N.W. of Ft.
Miperspbede ln) nee a es unconc. sma, Nose ey AE BOT eT At t20 Gordon Pass near Naples _.._....._..... t20 Clam Bay, near Ft. Myers t20 Dock, Roosevelt Pass, near Ft.
Miyerst, vey er AMIS ee es t20 Upper end of Roosevelt Pass,
near Ft. Miyers DE nT hO8h be #20 % mi. E. of Captiva Pass, in Pine
island-Sounds.: Si) eh ptt unconc. 1 mi. S. of Useppa Island, Pine
IslandeSounde _{eoO) Tel it ae t20 SametaspNosOe!l..... 5. RAC! Oe £20 Estero Bay, W. of Mound Key __._.... #20 300 yds. off Ft. Myers Beach -....... #20 z mi. off Ft. Myers Beach — ¢20 Kamitcofiv¥Naples, iri Thiel 2k #20 sanigone Naples... 21 VieaArel 2% #20
Mouth of Blind Pass near Ft. Myers.. £20 300 yds. offshore from Captiva
islandiawesnly . eho Tht unconc. Same/asHiNosilOS sell The. unconc. 2 mi. W. of Redfish Pass, —
Gaptiva disland unconc. 5 mi. W. of Captiva Pass,
Captiva island 5 sh.0).2 __ unconc. Mouth of Boca Grande Pass #20 West end of Knight Key, off
thefscawalles 5 TERE #20 32m, jo Content iKeys 211-2 0! #12 Same gasriNe mild #20 SamecassiNorsaeil 28): Telok unconc. 2 mi. off Barracuda Key __ #20 SamevaseNosi4 (81) TE unconc. % mi. S. of Redfish Pass,
Captivavisiand unconc. -
72
SAMPLE No.
a bg
*118. eS 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. afi. 128. 28). yal ke! Sel CSB - 182. — 183. | 134. 200. 201. 202. 203.
**204.
**205. **206. VERIO.
**208.
**209. St U210;
211. 212.
213.
214.
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
DATE
6-25-47
7-23-47 7-23-47 12-7-47 12-8-47 12-9-47 12-9-47 12-9-47 12-9-47
12-10-47
12-16-47
12-16-47
12-16-47
12-16-47
12-16-47
12-16-47
12-16-47
12-16-47 8-15-47 8-15-47 3-15-47 8-15-47 5-25-47
4-12-47 4-12-47 4-12-47 4-12-47 4-12-47 8-16-47
8-16-47 9-13-47 9-13-47 9-15-47
TIME
10:20
09:15 11:00 11:50 14:30 09:00 13:30 13:30 13:30 09:30
10:30
10:30
WD = =v
13:00 13:00 16:00 16:00 16:45 16:45 12:00
SOs OCs Os US G)
10:30
16:00 11:00 11:00 10:00
~ seawall -
NET LOcATION MESH % mi. off Big Hickory Pass,
Bonita: Beach (=. 2. eee ¢20 Off.. Siesta. Key./__2 52) sees t20 Off Venicesyie) 2 5 22 ee -unconce. 8 mi. N.W. of Anclote Light ? 30 mi. W. by N. of Anclote Light... ? 5o..mi... Wevell Anclote” Uight asses iy
60 mi. W. of Anclote Light (bottom) ? Same as no 128 (surface) Same as No. 123 28° 21’ N. Lat. 84° 06’ W. Long. .... #10
10 mi. S. S. W. of Rock Island ___- $20 SamevasbNestl27 2. aaa +10 18 mi. S. of Rock Island (surface) _ $10 Same as No. 129 (bottom) 2 #10 Same as No. 129 (surface) +20 Same as No. 129 (bottom) —~ #20
16 mi. W. of Classahowitxka Point ... #20
Same AstNoicl33 _>_S Vee eee +10 Barnes Sound, off Jewfish Creek ___._ #20 Same jas No; 200 =. 7 epee Blackwater Sound, off Jewfish Creek.. #20 Same “as::Nor:202 5. Tea #10 Belle Isle, Miami Beach, off | the seawall 2... eee #20 Off Shoal Point, Biscayne Bay —_- #20 Same as Nos200.__... 2) eee t20 Same as: No.<205 __S. “2 ee #20
Off Chicken Key, Biscayne Bay ____. 20
Samewas:2zNoli 208 |... 8 20 1% mi. off Coconut Grove, 3 Biseayne “Bay: __DU.4) Ye-Siee Se #12 Biscayne Bay, off Soldier Key ._. #20 ‘Miami Beach, near Boat Slips —... #20 Same as2:Novr292 O0-bT TES ey #12
Belle Isle, Miami Beach, off the
SAMPLE No.
215. 216.
217. 218.
219. 220. 221.
222. 223. #2224. 300.
301. 302. 303. 304. 305.
306. 307.
308.
309. 310.
400. 401. 402. 403. 404,
405.
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON
DATE
9-24-47 10-25-47
11-10-47
11-12-47
11-17-47 11-15-47 12-13-47
1-1-48 1-15-48 3-10-48 3-15-47
3-15-47 3-22-47 6-22-47 6-22-47 6-28-47
7-6-47 8-16-47
9-]-47
9-6-47,
10-9-47
1-18-47 2-28-47 3-15-47 6-27-47 7-19-47
7-19-47
TIME
17:00
NET
LocaTION MEsH Government Cut, Miami Beach _____. +20 2 mi. W. of Ragged Keys, Biscayne
Bayyr th BBG seid Shel CAN #12 Matheson Hammock Beach
Biscayne bay ie) sect uh #20 Culvert under road near Tahiti
Beach,*Dade County —.-___._—.... #12 Belle Isle, Miami Beach —-- #20
Inlet at Chapman Field, Dade County #12 Biscayne Channel (inside),
Biscayne Bay Largo Sound, Key Largo t20 Off Johnson’s Neck, Lanceford Creek #20
Off Coconut Grove, Biscayne Bay _.. #20 Off end of Rodriquez Key, near
ING ye aC et gets #12 SalneuaAs NON GUUIin eer tee wha, 5549 t20 E.. of Elliot Key, near Bache Shoal _.. #12 N. of jetty, S. end of Miami Beach .. #12 Same as) NOs SOayes toot ict os )2 #20 South Beach, Miami Beach, just
beyeondosush) of ener hetrona 3A #12 Same)as” Nospo0bd 24) = iid os #12 Biscayne Channel, S.E. of
Biscayne Vkeyfur eres wiarlie ot #12 Baker's Haulover, Dade County, 3
juste beyond:surk)lovst. j= cess od #20
E. of Elliot Key, near Bache Shoal _.. #20 Baker’s Haulover, channel from
bridge” Se 0) eaitr\dito shi st #12 Oil Canes Mipriday 6a el eet ? Of, Cape Mloridag. a2. a. esto) ? Off Cape Movida, 2s tents. 15.2... ? Off, Cape Mlorida sco yy ost x Off Cape Florida (about 30
fathoms,.jo,,thejsurface )... 22.2... t20
Same as No. 404
74 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF. SCIENCES
SAMPLE : NET No. DaTE ‘TIME LOCATION MEeEsH 406. 9-24-47 15:00 Off Miami Beach _ #12 407. 10-18-47 ? 2, mi; E.jof Cape Floridays = a) am #12 408. 10-18-47 P Same as No,407 "ee #20 409. 3-13-48 14:00 2 mi. off Triumph Reef _.__.. #12
***500. 6-29-47 09:00 Westlake, Everglades National Park.. #12 ***501. 6-29-47 10:00 Long Lake, Everglades National
Ratk ji.38t ee t12 502. 6-29-47 13:00 Florida Bay, off Shark Point
(Garfield,..Bight)) 22 =) 3) es t12 503. 6-29-47 13:30 Garfield Bight, Florida Bay #12 600. 7-4-47 18:30 Moray Pend?” ae +20 601. 7-4-47,,18:49-,.Porpoise? Pond, |__ O05 3a eae #20 602::.") 7-4-47, 16:00)... Rorpoise- Pond (3__ 21-8) Berle unconc. 603... °7-4-47..14:15, Color. Pond 223... ¢ > Sree #20
604. 7-4-47 14:30 Sawfish Pond _W #20
NOTES ON THE PLANKTERS ENCOUNTERED
The difficulties inherent in any attempt to identify the marine plankters belonging to all taxonomic groups encountered are greatly magnified in regions, such as the one dealt with here, that have not previously adequately been explored. In the an- alyses reported upon in the following pages a special effort was made to identify the important and basic Copepoda to species in all cases where the available supply of literature made this pos- sible. In other groups, wherever feasible, identifications were made to species or genus. However, in certain groups, and especially in the case of developmental stages, identification could not be carried this far for obvious reasons. On the other hand, there is much of interest to be gleaned even from such relatively inade- quate identifications.
The analysis procedure followed in most cases involved counting the first two or three hundred plankters encountered, to gain an idea of the relative abundance of the most numerous types present. The results were expressed as per cent of the total organisms. After the count had been completed the whole of the sample was then examined carefully under a binocular dissecting microscope to find less common types, which were then reported as pres-
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 75
ent. (+). A few samples of unconcentrated seawater were ob- tained for more precise quantitative counts, with results then being expressed in terms of organisms per liter.
A total of 197 categories were distinguished. Many of the categories, of course, included more than one species.
COCCOLITHOPHORES
Coccolithophores are nannoplankters, and hence would not regularly be captured by nets, even though present in large numbers. Unidentified species were encountered in samples 127, 131 and 221, all taken in December, 1947. There is great need for a detailed study of the nannoplankton in Florida waters, using centrifuge techniques.
STILICOFLAGELLATES
Silicoflagellates were found, in small numbers only, in samples 2, 104, 125, 131, 132 and 221, mostly in the winter months. They were most abundant in sample 132, where they amounted to one per cent of the total organisms. As in the case of the coccolithophores, many silicoflagellates are nannoplankters | and hence escape capture by nets.
BLUEGREEN ALGAE
By far the most commonly encountered bluegreen alga was Skujaella (Trichodesmium) Thiebauti,2, which dominated samples 126 (74 per cent of the total organisms), 220, 303, 309, 310, 405 (86 per cent of the total organisms ), 406, 407 and 600. The species was also encountered, and often common, in samples, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 109, 112, 118, 123, 124, 125, 204, 210, 219, 304, 305, 308, 402, 408, 502, 601, 603 and 604. There were no marked seasonal or habitat preferences.
Unidentified species of bluegreen algae were obtained in samples 12i, 123 and 220.
DIATOMS
It is commonly thought that in tropical waters the diatoms occupy a subordinate position in the marine plankton to the dinoflagellates. This may be true of the waters of the high seas, but the data obtained by the analysis of the samples considered here does not bear it out for inshore waters. Aside from some of the samples collected in connection with the study of the disastrous “red tide” on the lower west coast of Florida in 1947 (see Gunter et al, 1948) the dinoflagellates dominated in very few cases. On the contrary, the diatoms were almost always more abundant than the dinoflagellates, and often they were extremely abundant. The diatoms were proportionately most numerous in December and January. Of the samples taken in these two months by nets of number 20 mesh bolting silk, and where percentages were determined, over 95 per cent showed the diatoms constituting greater than
2Kindly identified by Dr. Francis Drouet of the Chicago Natural History Museum at the request of Mr. W. A. Daily of Butler University.
76 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
half of the total organisms. They averaged 82 per cent of the total organisms in these samples. On the other hand, during July, August and September, the: samples obtained by the use of similar nets contained relatively smaller pro- portions of diatoms. Only about 48 per cent showed them constituting greater than half the total organisms, and the highest percentage estimated was 65. : per cent. The average was 38 per cent.
The small size of most of the diatom specimens, and the lack of adequate literature, made it inadvisable to attempt the recognition of species in all but a few of the cases. For the most part, however, genera were easily recognizable Table I shows the accumulated data on the diatoms.
DINOFLAGELLATES
Dinoflagellates dominated the plankton during the period of the “red tide” in samples 1, 8, 9, 104, 105, 118 and 119. In addition, they dominated in unaffected areas in samples 217, 310 and 406. Seasonal preferences are not clearly indicated by the data at hand, but fewer samples lacked dinoflagellates. during October, November, December and January than at other times of the year. Table II shows the accumulated data on the dinoflagellates.
OTHER MASTIGOPHORA
Sample 116 was obtained from a patch of yellow water. Upon analysis it was found to contain a tiny unidentified mastigophoran with several chromato- phores and four flagella. It was estimated that the species occurred to the extent of 10,100,000 cells per liter, or 98.85 per cent of the total organisms. Identity of the flagellate, which is shown in figure 1, is uncertain.
Figure 2. Unidentified: flagellate dominating sample 116. Actual size of cell is 11 microns.
77
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON
2 2 FORUSSS AGG ST iGusclsG lass ol
judy urjuep fo sojdures 049 ‘TZL ‘OST ‘LTT “601 -UNQ®’ 4SBET ‘SOIZI[BOOT B[QBAIOoUOD ]jB UT | Jo Aqofeur oy} UT | ‘TOL ‘OT 8 Ul % Gz < | ‘(Soweds |B) sovaoozH%YD Sig reco REPROD LRREER IM REM Td 3 ee Per, POE “E22
‘1% ‘SIZ ‘11% ‘00Z “SST ‘SST ‘TST ‘82 Eb Colm Onles cE ‘601 ‘201 ‘901 ‘FOT
‘TOT ‘OOT ‘OL ‘6 (% G6) 121 TOJUIM Ul UdyB} ApIBpNFer sop, | ‘8 ‘2 ‘9 ‘GPE ‘ST [oc Z0Z ~ (4% eT) LIT | °° ds wnayspnrwapn0g FOL ‘ZOT ‘TOT Arenuer ul udyB} ATSOP ‘OOT ‘OL ‘c ‘-F ‘oe ‘7 oo HoOnCoooDvan ogo o|lOno bob COn oD Oy oUoo oo 6 Oo Oo OOF ‘ds DILDWIDG ‘608 “808 “FOE “12z (% GF) ‘1ST ‘ZI PTT ‘GOT S0P (% c’9) ZZ Stoo 00 60,60 Od OO Oho oo oo ‘ds 719U01.10)8 SUAVNGYY ecole UOulutO, ) pUBUTLOCT salomag
GUUALNOOONY AUTH AA SaTaNVG
po1oyuNOoUT SUIOYVICT UO BYBO—] AIAV],
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
78
Ce ZS CHa)! eye) wise) (ewe) cvs enw eee ‘ellie. far vice) (excel tele) 6) (a ‘sel 6 fe ep Wi ies ie norte ds nidumponay iG Ce NORCO SO RCATIIG €2Z TMM M OMA CeGh chaise, seemsTe ela lte lc cendte vaue st otis e/ieste se ne "s+ dg uaposoufiong
808 ‘FOS ‘Ee ‘1Zz% ‘LIZ ‘SIZ ‘TTS ‘ZOZ% ‘002 ‘PET ‘TST “621 ‘GSI ‘PSL ‘SST ‘TZI ‘SIT ‘ZIT ‘POT ‘SOT s1oqem | ‘ZOT ‘TOT ‘OOT ‘OT puvut ul poa1mm900 srequinu qsoB1e'T 6 ‘9 wv) ‘g ‘c ‘5 mi COU ooo oor Ole mo Uo Hd rae OU o mo Aldo o 0 OG ds snasypoursse,/)
GIS ‘SL ‘SZT ‘SIT.
“201 ‘OOT ‘COT ye pees oe Fe ee oe (% ane [P20 00000 GNC CSCO OSOh God 40 | OO GG. oo 0 Gx ds U0LYIIL0) oer Y 1ZZ ‘Z0Z% ‘002 ‘TOIL ‘OT ‘6 ‘9 ; 7 | eC (% G'PL)OZI aoe. TheIi(¢ cael ox (el cope. vei vatceh (ot a) aemed linn elueturenteltente, 76) emma t svuliprp 79) Zee 1SI- Gol Son sae (% G°6Z) FI @ tev.d.d)<o) @) enw wi é, oi lees 6 122 Al ‘eZI ‘eal ‘OSI : ‘(% CCP)IZI Onin Wem aR! oO OO suardiap Ho) 19}UTM ul udyvy ILV ey) 6) (W1L0) cetienie. te aA ‘eal % Chee ete Menian a (eid) en ieiuwsiey\6i 8 (0) 6 ,16Ml a) 16. (elie) 6) oe, ; 8) 6; re) of ehelife) wiidi lel lief e. ac iehien emaliel osiettclin ad s11qgap 70) SUUVNAY sueserT UOUTULO;) FEUIOLOG salodag
GHUALNAOONY TUAH\\ Sa Td Wvo ——— eEeeeeaae=aBaeBaaaEoaaaaaaoaEaoaoaEaoaooaoaoaoaoaoaoaoooooooaaaaaaooaeaaeaeaoaaooaaaaoooooooooooooooooemomomomomomomooeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeelelEleleleleleEleNOETTTTTeelelelele
(ponuyuoD) [ Wav],
79
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON
Jagyuvjdouutu y
Su1oy AUT} OF ][euIs APSO
o1svpodoyo4 J,
oldvpodoyod J,
orsepadoyod J,
Arenuepe pue Jaquraooqy Ul Udy,
SHUVNAY
Scie sp
eae {0 S0mc< fy 9 ‘POT ‘ZOL ‘TUT ‘OOT
‘6 ‘9 Ke) St ‘p ‘7 Tl oO 4 0-0 G80 (9 PSLZIT Fondo ooo dono D ono wOIhoo oo Oo OGo nuussibuo) INE CC ee ATA] O00 0 4 ‘(OPrensti
-ndor Apurey woyey, [FOL ‘GE “bh UL%MOS< | (HESL)PIL | Wengsapsopo pryoseqe NT a es os sojdures oy}
jo Aqwofeur oy} uy FOL ‘9 ‘b °z, ul % 0c< Gonpo0GnudnDdoODDODOoOoOllDo GoGo oho { SPIO[NOIABN,, ‘ees COE “BEI “EST
Al ‘IZI ‘STI ‘SOT Ce P ISGOGOUOGHKOGDO0DDUH OOo oon Ob DOL 0 ds 4180) JT eee ee ee woe GCOF ‘TOP
sie? ‘b0Z ‘eoT ‘OLT CS er OS QO ds pLoydowavy eee DOT. so zop
‘608 ‘12S ‘202 ‘F0Z SuUoodUdvoOongGdoOooooooloOboO oOo oO Doo oOUoO DOOD Oooo on oo ooo ooo ds DUULYIS | CC ee er et re) Tel ‘ezT
‘60T QUT ‘OOT op OO Uae Gt (YS PLZT FUdGoGGUOnDOMN Gono oD oOoo oO oD oO ds srynoiUua FT Ce ee CZL ‘PZT eS Or nee ah pervnnsan PIC SE ODL OUL TIE) quosolg WOUTUIOD qUBUTULOCT saTomag i
GaUALNOOON WUAH A SUTdNVG
(ponuyuog) J @1av J,
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
80
EOL ‘ZOL Ul seseqzueo10d YsIYy Jo QOUBOYIUBIS IOJ (SFGI) “70 72 JayUN Vag
Pees £0 ‘611 ‘ZIT ‘LOL ‘901 ‘2 “F ‘T
€Zo ‘IST ‘OST ‘221 ‘OSI ‘SZ ‘TST “60T
Swiss te emomatenrn =e LIZ ‘Eel ‘SEL ‘TST ‘O&T ‘9ZT GSI“ PEL Gol Tol “601 ‘OOT ‘OT ‘6 ‘8
talatat ie! GOP ‘60€ ‘FOE Poe liga wie Sle Lic -IPUI UOIZNQIISIP [BUOSBIS PoyIVUL ON
Ieaf JO SoUIT}
II[@ 38 SerqI[Boo] Jo sod4q [[B uOIy USB], |** punoy APJUONberT
Py es Peery eee FOE (en ‘OSI ‘6IT “LIT ‘ZIT ‘901 ‘FOL ‘8 ‘S ‘T
quosolg
reaXk sy} JO SYPUOUI JSOUL Ul UIYBY,
SHUVNAY
‘OIZ ‘ESI ‘OOL ‘2
saab 608 ‘EST ‘SIT (% G16) £01
net, Ore renege) 80¢ AG, G'66)ZOT ‘21% ‘OZI “LIT ‘601 Glee vee iWC lee rey eel) Be Cee OOT TOL 10L-6 6.9 Gi OL ec Ol yoc< | gviabyas “yy @: Suds a @) 68) cep ce et et a Ae Ween MOL atte (elivinidé_ 6 is) Ye; 1h, eo PIL ‘SII i GOL OT Peat ye (% 0'9) EST
‘(%, C’OL)0ZI Soy ee eo Te One Oy he: cA are te oe chen 070) piuajosozly yy 6g OR! DO oa Gaed 022 ‘OIT Payee n ees sds Oma vopgnyar
PO UO Get COON Oe os, ONO O1} ho dt ono O Geo ay cond o ceo OC lPolo oo oo e ‘ds pubisoina)
jin (% G°L9)80F OZ ‘SII ‘601 ‘TOT ‘(% 0'S8) 61% ‘OOT ‘OT ‘6 ‘8 ‘SG ‘F NZGG GLGUGA = ck oa a DIDS * NT Cr queurUlod SaIOMdG
daUaLNOOONY TUAHM Sad VG
(penutjuoD) | w1avy,
81
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON
GOP ‘POS ‘12% ‘9IZ ‘G1Z “EST ‘2ST “SZ THAW NASR YALA ‘601 ‘FOL ‘OOT ‘OT
souo1ojoid [BUOSsveS JO UOTVROIpUT ON | “6 ‘8 ‘2 ‘9G F'E'Z
ee aes LZ1 ‘OTT “LOL ‘TOT OOT ‘2.9 ‘8 ‘T
‘61Z ‘LIZ ‘ESt ‘OST ‘6ZI ‘PZ SSI ‘OSI ‘60L ‘FOL ‘6 ‘8 “9
quosol gy
SMUVWOY
Keitir Peis *"(OF GB) EGS ey ee RCT CUITET ote tent) ve seers ss 'ppnoroseqin a Seep (%0'°6) 821 LULYJOUSSD)DY, |, WB) LG) fe: fe" (boy ra(ey SO) (Bi DAU Te UR TLO> (WrLey OUI bGe Le) ecg ws wore) le aL aus (Wy 6) Wim) tap Whig Ml iret b) Nay mene: (ei ck ceupubie ds DIALS! SOMO 4d. Ol fe ON ONCA ee Dacelear Miah], ‘eceredlk: embl. pint CAp) pcaiceliel ptcwh fi us lee poredl ebibiser in mre ds svxfidounyday aR pier Rica ck (% O61) ESS OCW Dw Huet leds oe o}q yt "(GHOST ‘TO Ohe Gas Paolo ae oe (%O0'SE)GOT | "WwenID{SOD DULAUOZO}0yC Sb eae tees ZEL ‘TEL ‘2Z1 SA ITEC RGR Pe Hees ano fuaqnops “yy WUOUIUIOL) UBUTULOCT SHIOMdg a
CUUTLNOOONY WUAH AA SoTdWVS
(penutjuoy) | aTav
82
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SHUVNAY
‘90F ‘SOF ‘ZOF “608
‘808 ‘FOE ‘TOE “E2z
‘61% ‘21% ‘SIZ “E&I
‘SST ‘IST ‘OST ‘9ZT
‘GZ “S@RZST ‘TSI
‘OSI ‘SIT ‘ZIT “60I .
‘COT ‘COI ‘OOT ‘6 ej eyCepraly ep), ae (% Ge) PSI eh oy fey (Uy (ab uber 0 pep eg eM ehEep-omtebtchtebr =
acti 608 ‘TOS ‘Z0Z ‘002 ‘PST ‘TEST ‘OST El 96h Scr cl ‘OSI ‘SIT ‘ZIT ‘ZIT
‘60T “LOT ‘POT “EOI | °°” 80F ‘TSS “LTZ ‘Ol OS OMe Lecok 10l COh yo s * LIZ ay ab loy Kaaun) (eh sh(elaen ce, 10S ‘Q0PF
‘808 ‘108 ‘EZz “61Z
‘GIZ ‘ZET ‘821 “SZT
Taleea igh OG
‘SIT ‘LIL “601 ‘FOL | 12% ‘21% ‘SIZ “11%
‘OOT ‘6 *Q ‘9 ‘c ‘TP é ‘70% ‘002 ‘eel ‘OL Os KUED UO oO Oto oo ODO 5 Od
2 ee
=) (ete) le) (6) 10) ei (e) ce) 16/7 e) 0 ¢0) 10) re) (4) (e! jeli|ile. »)/e! (0) <8) -@) ej ef \p. oe) (ele <0) | e) /s) (eve
quosolg UOWLULOD queUululog GaUALNOOONY GYAHM Sad NVG
poleyuNooUy sozE]Jeseyoutq uo eyeq—]] AIAV
0600.00 0 008 S0.290LIDUL */)
ee ete ROO UE SO)
UWNLQDIAPUDI WNYD1I)
SHIOGdg
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON
"SUISTURSIO [¥}0} 94} JO JUD Jod GG'96G JO “Iay] I0Ed sT[29 YOO‘O0O ~“Q9 o10M aI0Yy} GIT e[dures uy ‘sustueZI0 [e}0} 94} Jo JUID I0d ZQ'PG JO “Top Jod sT[20 QOO‘OF9'S 210M oL0y} GOT e[dues UT “SUISIURSIO [v}0} 94} JO UID Jad 1Z'GG IO ‘19x Jod ST[90 YOO‘OOG' SI 0} PeyNoure siaalq “4 “T s[dures pozerjU9OUOOUN UT,
eA Give) Sil (SF6I OUT Cie altel ee (% 0°SZ) FOL P61) ‘70 72 199UN pus (SF6T) HOSHey ‘601 ‘201 ‘901 ‘TOT | (%0°C4)6 ‘(LP61) SIABQ 99G ‘J9}yUR[douUUeU YW | UE OLE OO) Qi? (Bg me ea (%G°9P)8 | °° *Staa1g wniurpouwlip Sser Ser. mek. SOF ‘LOE ‘21% ‘221 ‘921 uouIUIODUN Ajsuisurdins SABMIV ‘EZ ‘e7T Sele int Be es CR Oe GG solo cick ouch PoMoeoecie “Gab Daa, Out Doath oreo A einwren's --dds sishydouq Joyyuejdouueu V do 080 OOD 00.0 CZI ‘eo Od. Ono O80 OOO 0 0-0 0 G0 0 0 Ol} o=0q"0 39 65-6 O O-0°0 6 OO Ocd0 oO Do aD ODI oo 0 DOOD COGS “4 Ja} ue;|douuevu V a) [s} -sGlathe islcel as ahen (6 S0F ‘COP oO oOo Ono oo 4b 6 5.000 DO Ol Aho: 6 O6K6,.0 0 6-0 O00 1 9 Nn OSD 0.0 “SnprsLoy Sh.10900)0119) Oth nO. OOO 0. 0 S0F GZ, ‘ZI ‘L131 ‘eZI ‘QTL Bd ODD Ole G Oe oo Oo bb0 ooo A al) bono de 0 fd como a o:O-0 GB oalan)o 0 0 do oO dds wUnyo1ay 80F ‘ZOF ‘FOE ‘E2z ‘OST ‘821 ‘221 ‘SZI ‘FZL ‘ESI ‘SST ‘SIT ‘SIL ‘601 ‘POT “SOT Arenuer pues Jaquisseq, ul uayB} A}}SOWW ‘ZOOL ‘OOL ‘6 ‘Q ‘Z BOO OO ONL OLOnO OO 6Z1 5) COT EC), Aire CRESS “ORCI th] HO MCRCNICECT CRC eCnCnT cin cl ‘ sodt.u} 2) SUUVNAYY puosold WOUTUIOY) puBUlUOd saloadg
GCHYaLNOOONY Waa SHIdNVS
(ponuyyu0D) [] wavy,
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
84
‘OPGI ‘6G Arenuef{ uo Avg vIoD eIIay, ‘Aay pilg IeoU poyzooTjoo ajdures v ul suistueSi0 [e}0} 942 Jo Yue Jed G‘¢ 0} pozUNOUIL sofoeds oY} ‘snyy, *}se0o JIND oy} JfO JURpunge sJoy}yer1 oq uvo sotoeds sty} Sout} 3e JY} SozeoIpUT ‘sUIeTTTIAA “H “YW Ad Aq pezeTjoo sofdures jo sisAjeue oy} Aq pourezqo ‘ezep peystjqnduy;
""""" “806 ‘LOF ‘GOF ‘80 ‘908 ‘coe ‘FOE ‘CIZ ‘FOZ ‘CZI SSI ele pin) ces Oder rua wap Pel yae tay ‘a, 10) LAtEE ey eH Ary oe, dy (nl weve vel cei" 90% ‘ole RURateuLtbatetuatree ulatecys p9N71j;90U i of oie gees 2 80F ‘OOF
‘SOF ‘OTE ‘908 ‘EOE AJOAI} ROL ‘douUrUTO2DUN IdYyey ‘C1zZ ‘OZ ‘eZT ‘E21 dary rmeaiccn iy (Uh eC erieUiaeh rh ater een.| (us, Ali ee Chetiatrecs rueiar Lorber aprearieon retin |Lcec. 0 svmsofisnf syshroih J
Jo} yuejdouueu y ‘00Z ‘ECT ‘COT 7 Ate GeO nt Op ch te riacetettmni ce DED [ora al EO ate Wr Ger Oto creche: lleiererck o.53 co ds wniqua001o. ipead 80F ‘SOF ‘608 ‘FOE ‘LOE ‘EZ% ‘ZS "61 ‘GIS ‘11% ‘ZEIT ‘TST ‘O&T ‘621 ‘LZ1
‘CZI ‘FEI al ‘OZT OO GoOOb OO md OO ZI
LIT ‘FOL ‘OL ‘e “(% 0°9) 9Z1 OA BueinNe twotelere) tole eT fot rele tel ty metre! [ent emtat | tole tel Net e Mel eit dds WNP J
Bi. cee Manet 2 PEEL [ene toes suemmagunos wonqyao Nl SMUVWAY ONT BEETLE) Jue UrUOGg saIoddg
CQHYHLNOOONY WHHHAA SAIdNVS
(ponulzuoy) JJ A1avy,
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 85
SARCODINA
The only Sarcodina recognized were the Foraminifera and the Radiolaria. The Foraminifera were most common in samples 132 and 305, where they constituted respectively 12.0 and 19.5 per cent of the total organisms. Most Foraminifera encountered were tychopelagic, and hence little effort was made to identify the various forms, except the pelagic genus Globigerina, species of which were found in small numbers in samples 124, 126, 405 and 406.
Among the Radiolaria, Acanthometron sp. was common in samples 112, 128 and 406, and was also found in samples 118, 129, 180, 131 and 304. Sticho- lonche sp. was common in sample 408 and occurred also in sample 127. Other, unidentified, Radiolaria were encountered in samples 102, 109, 222, 305 and 309.
INFUSORIA
The only recognizable Infusoria were the tintinnids. Table III shows the accumulated data on the tintinnids.
COELENTERATA and CTENOPHORA
Sampling methods precluded adequate sampling of macroplankters. For this reason only Obelia medusae, small siphonophores and ctenophores will be discussed here. Other forms, including Gonionemus, Linuche, Aurelia and Physalia were observed, but not captured in the samples.
Obelia medusae were common in sample 210, but also occurred in samples 100, 117, 128, 204, 205, 206, 207, 217, 219, 304, 305, 308 and 310. Detached portions of small unidentified siphonophores were present in samples 112, 120, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 1381, 302, 303, 304, 306, 308, 309, 310, 402, 405, 406, 407 and 408. Davis (1948b) reported unidentified ctenophores as dominating in sample 500 and as also present in sample 501. Subsequent observations suggest that the species found in these two samples belonged to the genus Mnemiopsis. This genus has been encountered in samples 122, 127, 128, 129, 131, and 408. Unpublished data in the author’s possession shows it to be present in large numbers in inland waters as well.
Planula larvae were found in small numbers in samples 9, 204, 219 and 308.
PLATYHELMINTHES
Miiller’s larvae were encountered in samples 202 and 409. The material in the samples did not allow for a clear distinction between acoels, rhabdocoels and immature polyclads. For this reason, these three categories are lumped together here as “small flatworms.” Such forms were fairly common in sample 222 and were also found in small numbers in samples 10, 125, 204, 206, 212, 217, 219, 221, 304, 306, 308, 309 and 402.
NEMERTEA
Pilidium larvae were encountered in sample 128.
NEMATHELMINTHES
Nematodes were common only in sample 220. Specimens were also en- countered in samples 6, 122, 134, 204, 205, 221, 222, 306, 402, 502 and 503. Most nematodes found in the plankton are tychopelagic.
ROTIFERA In general, the rotifers are not considered to be common in the sea. How-
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
86
: Jequred -9qT puB ‘IaquUIDAON, ‘19Q0}0Q) UI USyBT,
SHUVWAY
ZOF ‘608 ‘SOE ‘SIZ ‘T1% ‘SIT ‘ZIT ‘60T ‘S01 ‘Or 9 ‘F ‘E
SOF ‘802 ‘FOS ‘TOS AGe Glo Sho-Its ‘602 ‘802 ‘F02 ‘FET ‘LIT ‘OIT ‘60T ‘S ‘F
quosolg
ee e© © © ©
CC OT eC i ey
amis, 0) (es owe? © ale 0d) ede. 6) =» elle 16 6 «ile 8.6
qUBULULOG
CHYaLNOOONY FHA MA SATIdNVS
fe) io vel nehie) evsetismieiatie: is ueahs I0L ae Sa SS aa ea dda saunas “SEG; lea Selm| a @oFTy108 °° S dds sasdowuajua 7, ai vet te/ Me deige) del delhe ie .6) iesebie Kw te) tWOer | oMae! Sv, kv oc iw fei, 16Mie) seitebtel dante %s Maite [|e (0. 40) “ovte, fenteve ds Dyjawmasouary BOM OMG. Dai tO Cg 5o< Sceos tent Onto. permet, EOD Oat YEU MODE C EOL <DCRONED: |) rmCRCIer EEO. cy: itil ag pyabuidjoy (Waite) (e) 10) (ollie iiss elite) .e Mek oMomce! oMig'll is Md) (c) oe) “si ule: eM) (crMal (ofellte) tenia od| Un) 0) (ells. ‘lfoWelie/a ds 079799)d0.1q MOO v.0 0-6 0 oo dou OZT Chan (o) Uoe! (oP Pairs: Tomi el uel (e) fentel vente: rel "ss sds 1779UL0}8001)9 FT ZL “(% 0°6)Z1Z ‘OL SELh) 0 e> ercaman leh vetitel else’ leiMe) reMe? rails ie: coll si ve: fe™ ’e! (elie diel. folie) ds D)]200 ape OM Ch OGD On. UFO'D GeuhOmono 0 CIPD UO Oo G-0lolD On G-O 0-0°0.6 O]bo Go Oigs0rD Gan Oo ds )/10}D.L,)
ds sisdoyjauopo)
SaIoqag
ds nyjauoydu py
poloyuNooU VpuUIULy, sy} UO B}VqQ—]TI] ATAV,
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 87
ever, at times and locally in marine waters they may become very common, Rotifers of the genus Brachionus dominated the plankton in sample 601 (esti- mated at 6000 individuals per liter)5 and were common in samples 603 and 604.
Unidentified rotifers were common in samples 6, 8 and 604, and were encountered in smaller numbers in samples 8, 4, 5, 9, 10, 104, 109, 117, 120, Pesto ott, 212. 219 and 223.
CHAETOGNATHA
Four genera of chaetognaths were encountered. However, as elsewhere, SagittaS was the most common. Table IV shows the accumulated data on the chaetognaths.
BRYOZOA
Cyphonautes larvae were common in samples 134 and 406, and they were present in samples 120, 128, 133, 219, 301, 310, and 402. From this distribu-
5The ponds investigated on Windley Key were located on the property of the Theater of the Sea. Originally the ponds had been very clear, and they were formed by water seeping into rock quarry pits from the ocean and Florida Bay through the porous coral rock of the Key. Subsequently, fish, turtles and porpoises were placed in the ponds for display to tourists. In the course of time there was a rather sudden development of cloudy waters and of fish mortality. Examination of the ponds by Dr. R. H. Williams, Mr. Craig Gathman and the author made it rather clear that the trouble was caused by the feeding of numerous animals within the con- fines of the uncirculated water of the ponds. Decayed food and excrement had raised the plant nutrient content of the waters, allowing a rich phytoplankton to develop, which was followed by a rich development of zooplankters, such as Brachionus. The rich plankton caused the cloudiness of the waters. Simultaneously, the decaying materials in the lower layers of the water had resulted in the formation of H,S, which had caused the actual mortality. ,
6Jmmature specimens of Sagitta were sometimes obtained in places where one would never find adults of this decidedly pelagic phylum. Thus, sample 218 was taken by holding a collecting net in the water flowing through a narrow culvert which drained an area of shallow mangrove swamp. The water was relatively far from any open areas and connected with Biscayne Bay only through a devious, narrow and shallow channel. Sample 220 was obtained from a somewhat more open position, but in equally shallow water equally far from Biscayne Bay. Samples 502 and 503 were taken in Garfield Bight, a very shallow, though wide, arm of the likewise shallow Florida Bay. It seems probable that chaetognath eggs had been carried from regions of more open water and higher salinity to the less favorable regions. Here they hatch and the young are either killed in time, or they are retarded in their development and remain juveniles. This problem has been discussed at greater length by Davis (1950).
88
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
£09 ‘Z0S ‘SOF ‘90¥ ‘cor ‘Os ‘608 ‘808 ‘L08 ‘FOS ‘TOE ‘12% ‘02% ‘81% ‘91Z ‘S1z ‘S1Z ‘SIS ‘LIZ ‘F0Z ‘802 ‘20% “T0Z ‘00Z
“PEL*BSL BeL. 6Z1..| "2 Gos ‘g0g ‘Z0E (4) vp0a)Bau “gy ‘LEI ‘9ZL ‘GZI ‘PSL | ‘%2S “61S ‘LIS ‘O1Z Ay}SOUL Ajqeqoud ‘suoultoods OINJCULULT ‘eT ‘OSI ‘IZI “OZI ‘10% ‘90% ‘c0Z ‘OSI geal (6b) ope, Wee emu in Wee anh te eset 0 inn Oats eae e'-8, «Gus: ‘dds fe “bes LOF ‘SOE ‘208 suow10eds INRIA ‘602 ‘80Z ‘OZI ‘PZI @jabe; (no 6) OMe OMe) Cam apume @Pbl cw iting) ‘a iWa¥ 9. ie.) oh Rue! ome) eo, 8t a OTR: 6 Ril Verma eo) mole eps ieeneis Wika: ie eke ‘dds rl ere: ix We » 909
‘908 ‘22% ‘1ZS ‘61% 3 ‘L1Z ‘91% ‘OLS ‘T&T suoutoeds o1N} BIN ‘871 ‘LEI ‘OZI ‘bol DS EUELN, Gite: Co Me@ ONT e KWIMD (a: oP 9) wl ie, [Maybe ela “enon: 8 Reans o:ubhs 10. 00) bp }Ueaetle. omic. (olen 6. 6 (é) pyaj bau g
80F ‘20F ‘90F ‘08 “61S ‘TST “621 ‘SZT
suounoods omnqeurum pu omyeyy | “Fer ‘eet ‘eet IzZl | pot ccc sss mm fua oybog SHUVWAY qUCseIG * WOUTUIOL) puBUTULOd oy SaIOWdg
GUUALNOOONG GUHA SATdWVS
poeleyunoouy ByyeusojyeyO UO VyVq—AT WIV,
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 89
tion, it would appear that the numerous Bryozoa of inshore waters of the region investigated are species which do not pass through a cyphonautes stage, while the species that do pass through such a stage live as adults in open waters, perhaps along the outer reefs.
BRACHIOPODA
Larval stages of Lingula sp. were found commonly in samples 112 and 114, and small numbers were found in samples 104, 111 and 310. Workers at the University of Miami Marine Laboratory have not encountered adult Brachi- opoda in the vicinity of any of the regions where larval stages were found, though obviously they occur there and could be collected upon adequate search in proper habitats.
PHORONIDEA
Adult Phoronidea have never been found in southern Florida waters by any workers at the University of Miami Laboratory. Nevertheless, actinotroch larvae were encountered in samples 128, 215 and 3808, two of which were taken in the immediate vicinity a the city of Miami.
ANNELIDA
Tiny adult Pisaacies each carrying a small group of eggs in a loop formed by the ventral surface of the body were found in small numbers in samples 207, 208 and 209.
Various larval stages of polychaetes were, as would be expected, found in the majority of the samples. In samples 128, 204, 217, 219 and 222 they were fairly common. Little is known even of the adult polychaetes of southern Florida, and nothing is known of the larval stages of local species.
Postlarval polychaetes were dominant in samples 8 and 9. Percentages of the polychaetes compared to the total organisms were small, due to the vast blooming of the tiny Gymnodinium brevis, but it was obvious that the former constituted the vast bulk of the 0D Se polychaetes were also very common in sample 128. ,
CLADOCERA
Cladocera were not very common in the samples that were examined. Evadne sp. occurred in samples 2, 8, 9, 118 and 120. Podon sp. was found in sample 407. Other, unidentified, daphnoid Cladocera were found in samples 122, 123, 127, 128 and 308.
. CIRRIPEDIA
No attempt was made to identify the various types of barnacle nauplii and cyprids. Nauplii dominated in sample 402, and they were common in samples 128, 210, 215 and 217. They were also found in samples 5, 8, 9, 103, 109, 118, 127, 133, 200,-205, 206, 207, 212, 218, 219, 221, 222, 301, 306, 308, 310 and 503. Cyprids were found in samples 5, 120, 184, 204, 210, 212, 218, 216, 217, 219, 221, 222, 304, 308, 310, 402, 406 and 408:
OSTRACODA
No attempt was made to identify the ostracods. They occurred in samples 123, 125, 220, 309, 407, 409 and 502.
90 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
COPEPODA 7, 8
1. Copepod nauplii. Nauplii and metanauplii were not separated in the analyses. A Longipedia-type nauplius dominated in samples 110, 134, 222 and 801, while they were common in samples 124, 211, 212, 8308 and 809. They were present in samples 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 133, 205, 206, 207, 218, 215, 217, 219, 221 and 228.
Nauplii of the genus Labidocera were never common, but occurred in samples 5, 10, 100, 102, 108, 118, 205, 206, 207, 208 and 209. .
Other copepod nauplii dominated in samples 110, 200, 208, 209, 212, 222 and 301, and they were very common in samples 128 and 219. They seldom were lacking from samples obtained with fine nets.
2. Copepoda Calanoida. On the average the calanoid copepods were, as is true in other localities, the most important of the zooplankters. For this. reason a special effort was made to distinguish species, insofar as this was feasible. Table V shows the accumulated data on the calanoid copepods.
3. Copepoda Cyclopoida. Compared to the calanoids, there were few species of cyclopoids. Several unidentified species of Corycaeus were encountered. The genus was common in samples 124, 126, 128, 129, 184, 216, 301, 303, 305, 308 and 310. They were present in samples 114, 120, 121, 122, 128, 125, 127, 131, 182, 183, 204, 208, 209, 215, 219, 304, 3809, 400, 402, 403, 405, 406, 407, 408 and 409.
Cyclops panamensis tannica was found only in sample 501, where, however, it dominated the sample (See Davis, 1948b. ) .
Oithona plumifera was common in sample 122, and also was found in samples 121, 123, 125, 308 and 408. .
O. spp. were encountered in small numbers in samples 303 and 405. .
Oithonina nana was among the most common of the copepods encountered. It dominated in samples 112, 184 (36.5 per cent of the total organisms), 208, 209, 222 and 308. It was common in samples 114, 128, 133, 200, 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 211, 212, 215, 217, 219, 221, 801 and 408, and was present in samples 10, 110, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 129, 130, 131, 182, 213, 216, 304, 309 and 310.
Oncaea spp. were common in samples 123, 124 and 126, and they were also found in samples 121, 122, 125, 219, 301, 302, 304, 305, Bee) 310, 402, 405, 406, 407 and 408.
4. Copepoda Harpacticoida. Table VI shows the accumulated data on the harpacticoid copepods.
7Clear distinction between A. spinata and A. tonsa requires high power examination and dissection. There may have been some confusion between the species, though several specimens in each sample were examined adequately. The two species overlapped in distribution in a few samples, as in number 215. However, in general they did not.
8In samples 219 and 310 single immature specimens of this genus were encountered; and were presumed to be E. marina.
91
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON
80F ‘90% ‘FOF ‘OOF ‘ore ‘sog ‘Foe ‘e0e
Ce ee 0 cc (cc ce) oand SnNUD]DIO{D)
OCW OsOLd LOF ‘OOF ‘FOP ‘TOF ‘208 ‘ZOE
GolGnoon oo C oH on mood Oloon bh oddoood Oooo OO|loOnanodOn Loum snunjog
90F ‘208 “808 ‘222 ‘91% ‘O1Z ‘20% “90% ‘GOS ‘6Z1 ‘821 “9ZT “GSI ‘PSI ‘ZSL “FIT
as (-anf)gog ‘cog Ol0) Oh este ie: octal fe (anf) Ze
eee ee oe oe ow ee wo ow te ol ° DUDILLIUWD vidounp,)
COFD0O0G0FOHOKC GONG OOODOIDOoOoOnDdGDon oOo nab oOobO $1U.L0916U0} SNUD)090.19 Y
epodadoy oy} ][][@ JO UoUUIOD 4sour OUT,
(OS6T “Q8P61) SIAeq a8
SUUVWAY
‘ESS ‘BSS ‘02S ‘91Z ‘G1% ‘F0% ‘80% ‘00Z ‘SST ‘OZT ‘ZIT ‘ZIT ‘SOL ‘TOT ‘OT “6 ‘8
i eace 80F ‘20F ‘907 ‘ore ‘e08 ‘ZOE ‘“61Z
quosoig
Cinactabiece Care vORO e0¢ ‘7.0¢ MNGOsOlG STG uZIG ‘81% ‘60% ‘80Z ‘L0Z “90% “G0Z ‘Z0Z ‘10% ‘821 ‘ZZ1 ‘ZOT ‘9 ‘%
UWOUIUIOD)
ses (% Te)808 “*"""(% G'09)S0E Bape es (% IL)S1Z 7 ee ae (26 88)01Z Ce Sale > (%9'8) P81 aes "(%e'O1)001 GOO O00 Go OO G6 (%F)E eee eS OSUOy EZ AW au sne) sine steve) calle iel pie! ehietiel ell sile (sie) (a) 6) e event pyourds ‘Vy DINO} cds st farce aia ettete Wrebicntiehetltex-ar ets) 8 76 puvpr.0if DUy.vIy quUBUTULOT Saloddg
dauGLNOOONY GTUAHM SaldWvg
pereyunoouy spodedoy prousleg uo eyeq—A WAV],
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
‘sprodad Jo Aqisueds oy} souay ‘sasATeue 4SOUL SULINP peztusooVIUN SBM 4] ‘SN
-u09 ayy jo soroeds quez10dult qSOUL ouL ica) OMe iel gaa, olsen veiita wivatdalle dey ieBtaNl Ne) cai cv alan, ve” (e-Je) ee Tel Meee te 1ZZ hie) ecke ae se) te vais piteuea Le ALte Ou M el oc aN iieetouke? wk Tana aofet yaa "1098 T Aaa nee SZ1 ‘III ‘01 TS BROT a OR Ba ee tA " "pause DLaI0p1qnry LOF ‘90% ‘SOF ‘FOF ‘l0F ‘OIg ‘61% ‘DEI ae aarurhat mata) Gar imal - 0) OS eL GREW (ul cet aiiise alee: fai co isl iiwicp) EppMel tal bal lst elunt asleilie; ia) deus) fel p g DULDUL DIBYIN GT Cureitcy ac WER CGR. 5 S0F ‘TOP ‘POS ‘TET ‘221 ‘9ST CCT ‘Fon Scho Gar. 20P GEL Sab ankh | 0° os PIT ‘ZIT | °° snssosoqns “Wy AD cal teens <ap LOP ‘FOF ‘LOF a ae TE i | OID AND SLD Up ian aio S sO. cay jee id, wel ey oleh eh cons 10e a ag ae aa All e. (af we tes eo) Lorca eure ames cet ah le Maliiat ey 6 ‘snyooinf snunjpI0snn},)
ee 108 ‘TST ‘SZ “LOL ‘OSI ‘GSI ‘EZT
Gol ok Sik gil a GCL Ll. SO Zor PIL ‘ZIT | snqwounf sabodo.yuay
adie Gis OOS, Se
‘LOP ‘OOF ‘FOF ‘TOP Whee amen cet ceainy (uae, enlace mates MUR UNaLA De (be) (aMared (| Ketine: cel Rete eaven in’ 8% bul elebiie) se: tealiee pjhyapphyood DIvpUv,/) SHUVNGAY peas pene ete) OG SHINAI
GaUaLNOOONY AUAHA\ SATaWVvG
(ponutyuo)) A WIV],
93
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON
(Q8P61) SIAC] 908 10¢ ‘308 ‘OZZ ‘61% ie, WOOL: leew L¥h opteninyt sl cer iar LIZ & ORD 20.0 0D tan pet 0 Oonedc. odbon eto -0 oo fo OOO iO SNJOU0L09 SNUOADIPO PNAS J OOF ‘OOF ‘Cant) gze] oo > OS Oe one teu ooo allt G8 oto fo ooo oOo m0 Cd oo 0 0-0 DIYUDID DIJQ}UOT Goo oto Od oo ba 6 90F 900006 ‘coe "GEG Mie
OLS ‘FOE ‘91% ‘SIZ | ‘61% ‘21% ‘OLS ‘202 ‘E1Z ‘60% ‘80% ‘PEST | “90% “S0Z ‘F0% ‘TET CO OSE-FSl-TSL-|- 621 8Z1-2Zo-“961
spodedoo uourur0d sour oy} JO9UQ | ‘OST “FOT.“ZOT, “OT |. ‘S2I ‘ZT ‘PTT “GOI. | 257°? B08 "ZIT | 05s enadod cq = es woraa|TOo”, fl Shee top O1e BOS: Ii es cs a R08 2 ul posstut u0qzjo Ayquqord wn1oy Auy SIG | DA) COGELICEVOG Sa = Be eis ae SLUSOLISSDAI * J
‘FOP ‘608 ‘208 ‘908 ‘cos ‘Fos “soe ‘10 ‘12S ‘61% ‘91% ‘T1Z ‘O1Z ‘602 ‘80Z ‘20Z |
YjOIs “7 A]JSOJN ‘LZ1 ‘OZ1 ‘PII TIT Goo ooo oo Oo Og ‘ZOE G ne Go NVO Doon Mla o 6 Go Oho tom 0 on Oo Tap Ooo oe ‘dds "T = SMUVINE YT =, B PUSH wourul0,*) pUBUrULOd Salomdg
CUUALNNOONY WUAH AA SaTdWVG
(penuryuoy)) A ATAV J,
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
94
“SBINPUOT] YSIPLIG JO 4SBOd 94} YO uowUI0D s2pbjna *f SMOYS UOISSes
-sod s,10yjne 94} Ul Byep poysTTqnduy
$1U.L0916U0}) * J, YON
SUUVWAYY
90% ‘ZOF ‘TOF ‘80E
‘coe ‘e0g ‘708 ‘CZI afenieite) “onl LOF ‘S0P ‘OOF Se Denney cree iC serge avon i Subseries || taeere ser sisobyna pynuipu sl) ZOG “0ZZ ‘602 ‘SET CC 0S ee a ° --ds a: ny al ceileifie) eltmiie) ste 807 ‘L0P
“90F ‘OTE ‘808 ‘1ZZ “61Z ‘PST ‘TST ‘OST
‘FoI ‘eal ‘eZ1 ‘IZI 6Z1 ‘ZI ‘LSI ‘CZI ei tetiehie i osceureliia) inside piohsmetietiisiial stlEpini ce cslientsiielleliams DIOUIgQUNY Hf PRUE ag, eles SOF
‘L0¥ “90F ‘SOF “FOF
‘E0F ‘IOF ‘OTE ‘80E
‘cos ‘ZOE ‘TOE “621
‘OZI ‘E71 ‘OSI ‘TIl BO On SeO NED Oo Deo Oat nm Glos coer EO Oso eb nN ht non odo is Oh Oeo.oeD ouiafyhiys DLOWA, J, 55 CAS Alo Ae ALO LOF ‘OOF SOMIEOS *s ra aae Terres eres ese c es ste ces" PUDD LLLYI1I99} 009 if Bee oa Pa | LOR [ocr ttetfee creer ee ence eee sls sgnemantoo srumppounysy
qUuesalg UOUIUIOL) JUBULULOCG, Saloadg
GHYALNNOONY GUHA SAIMWVS
(penuyucD) A wavy,
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 95
5. Copepoda Monstrilloida. Four species of these interesting copepods were encountered (see Davis, 1947, 1949).
A specimen of Thaumaleus quadridens was obtained from sample 209, while Monstrilla floridana was obtained from sample 224, M. reticulata from sample 204, and M. rugosa from sample 207. Of these, M. reticulata appears to be the most common.
6. Copepoda Caligoida. Caligoids are only temporary members of the plankton, normally being parasitic on fish. Unidentified specimens were found in samples 502 and 508.
AMPHIPODA, ISOPODA AND CUMACEA ..
Amphipods (hyperiids) amounted to 2 per cent of the total organisms in sample 3038, and they were also found in samples 123, 125, 126, 128, 302, 804, 406, 407 and 408.
Leptochelia savignyi® was the only species of isopod identified. It was found in sample 222. In other samples, the most common isopod was the microniscus stage of the Epicaridea, frequently found parasitic on the plank- tonic Copepoda. Because these forms are not true planksters, they will not be discussed here.
Unidentified cumaceans were encountered in samples 134, 305 and 807.
MALACOSTRACA
1. Decapoda. The only adult decapods encountered were an unidentified species of the genus Lucifer. This species was one of the dominant forms in samples 111, 112 and 114, and it was common in samples 128 and 129. In addition, it was present in samples 120(juv.), 121(juv.), 127, 131, 182, 221, 310, 402, 403, 407 and 408.
Larval stages of Sergestes were obtained from samples 122 and 303. A single specimen of the phyllosoma larva of one of the Palinuridae was found in sample 804. The lack of more of these larvae is surprising, considering the large numbers of Panulirus argus living in the waters investigated. Other larvae and postlarvae of the Macrura were frequently seen. There has been very little investigation into the life histories of local macrurans, and identifi- cations, although attempted, were impossible. Macruran larvae were common in samples 201, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 303, 305, 307 and 407, but they were regular in their appearance in other samples as well.
Zoea larvae of the Paguridae dominated in sample 203, while they were common in samples 201, 208 and 209, and they occurred in smaller numbers in samples 125, 200, 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 210, 212, 218, 217, 219, 221 and 809. A glaucotho¢ larva was obtained from sample 407. A zoea of one of the Hippidae also was taken in sample 407. Zoea larvae of the Porcel- lanidae were very common in samples 212 and 213, and also were found in samples 114, 117, 204, 219, 303, 304, 307, 407 and 408.
Brachyuran prezoeae were found in samples 129, 131, 216 and 221. Their presence indicates the hatching of brachyuran eggs in the immediate vicinity. The species of Brachyuran zoeae could not be determined. They were widely
*Kindly identified by Mr. Robert A. Woodmansee.
$6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
encountered, but appeared to be more abundant in April, June and , August than in other months. They dominated in sample 803 (28 per cent of the total organisms), and they were common in samples 205, 206, 207, 210, 305, 3807 and 508. Brachyuran megalops were encountered only in samples 128, 203, 305, 306, 310 and 407.
2. Stomatopoda. Stomatopod antizoeae amounted to 4 per cent of the total organisms in sample 303, and they were also found in samples 221, 304 and 407. Pseudozoeae occurred in samples 114, 207, 210, 212, 213, 303, 305, 307, 308, 404, 407 and 408. Of the three or four stomatopod species known. to live in the area, the life history of only one is known.
INSECTA AND ARACHNOIDEA
A single specimen of the larva of Corethra was found in sample 219, taken at Belle Isle, Miami Beach. Corethra larvae are characteristic freshwater . plankters and occur in large numbers in Florida fresh-water lakes. It seems unlikely that the specimen could have washed into the marine situation from the nearby shore, for in all of Miami Beach, there are no bodies of fresh water larger or wilder than swimming pools and fish ponds. The sample was obtained in the daytime, and Corethra is especially noteworthy for its nocturnal habits. Possibly it exists in the salt waters of the area in large numbers, but has been missed through lack of nocturnal collections.
The only arachnoids encountered were a very few water mites, found in samples 222, 306 and 307. /
MOLLUSCA_
Among the Mollusca, atlantids were found in sample 126. Pteropods, mostly immature, were found in sample 126, and they were also found in samples 121, 128, 124, 125, 203, 308, 304, 310, 405, 406 and 407.
Small pelagic gastropod eggs were found in large numbers in samples 204 and 214. The eggs were single, and each had a hyaline, umbrella-shaped hood, provided with rather simple ornamentation. Some were obtained alive, and kept. until after they hatched as typical gastropod veligers.
Gastropod veligers could not readily be distinguished from each other: They were common in samples 5, 6, 100, 124, 126, 184, 202, 204, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 215, 221, 222, 301 (16 per cent of the total organisms ), 308, 309 and 408. Echinospira larvae were common in sample 111, and were also found in samples 301 and 309.
Oyster veliger larvae were seen in sample 120. Other, Sine teases types of pelecypod veligers dominated in samples 211 (13.3 per cent of the total organisms), 215 (22.5 per cent), 222 (15 per cent) and 801 (13 per cent). In addition, they were common in samples 4, 5, 100, 118, 128, 200, (202, 204, 212, 221, 304, 308 and 604.
Cos oseds were represented only by a single very small immature speci- men of Tremoctopus, in sample 407.
ECHINODERMATA
“Among the larvae of the Asteroidea, bipinnarian larvae amounted to 2.3 per cent of the total organisms in sample 310, and they also were found in samples 6, 9, 109, 215 and 408:: Brachiolarian; larvae were also’ relatively
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON
S0F ‘LOF ‘LOF ‘ZOE
‘palindd0 71 0.18 M SoyTdurvs 10y}0 UIB}190 UL pepxoder you ‘AjoVeUNZALOJU)
80F ‘SOF ‘OTE ‘608 ‘808 ‘FOS ‘TOE “9ZT GZ POL eal ol
G0¢ “608 ‘208 ‘Zz MEE OZc ESTs: LIS ‘L0Z ‘90% ‘G0% ‘FOZ
6 Gm on 6 o-0 Og vail
(8s pus Jouruins ‘Surids sump uayvBy AT}SOP]
Boer ny Ca ape SOF ‘COP ‘POF ‘ZOF ‘OOF ‘OTS ‘LOS “61% ‘9ST ‘PZT
‘LOS ‘1ZS ‘61S ‘SIS ‘T1Z ‘EI ‘TST ‘OST ‘6ZI ‘LZL ‘TZI ‘OZ
sprooroediey ay} suowe setoeds uouIUIOD 4SOU OUT,
LOF ‘SOF ‘FOF ‘TOF
ST kee §) 0s EM ae FOF TZ1
quosa.g
SHUVNAY
CYUaLNOQOONS, Waa A
nou Kono oO Do Hoot oOllon ono noo oOo A oO
“OO No non Oo mn oO Oooo
O70 Decl ey 0 WOO 6 nab Woo
Opo0 TF On peo no Oo DO Wo oO
OOO C00 oon Go 0 Oo Geb Db 6 Oo
GOO GO OOO 0 ou OT GG 1G Ooo 0 Oe Oooo DIO nh reo 8 4
Hon Geb DO 0 Go A pet Gon oO G
Oo 0) ON Obey 0 wer OF 6 O75
Lo CI FOP eT Ce lr et Oo Ge OM os Ga Geo ce
ee) oP Ce we ee ee eel eh) © Bs g 0 oe 8 Oe ers 68) 8
UOUTUIOZ) queBurUod
SHIA NWS
poeyunooug spodedoy proorqoedieyy uo vyVBq—JA AIAV]
SRR ds vuinyddvog
Petes ved $aj8abDIDWD
"7" "99804 0719}9S0.191 JA
OD ped) oot Oo de Trego ‘ds 8149
ie ae Sete DyDINAI0 * Ay
"87710016 1))07980.190 JWT
apy es suoifynan aduaqnig
aes syrqnuru Dydd) “" pp.uysos DUsaUUMaghiyD :
SaIOadg
98 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
common in sample 310, and occurred in samples 118, 405 and 406.
Ophiopluteus larvae were found in samples 102, 121, 205, 206, 207, 217, 219, 221, 304 and 310. Tiny postlarval ophiuroids were found in samples 208, 215, 808 and 406.
Echinopluteus larvae were the most abundant representatives of the phylum. They were common in samples 128, 205, 206, 207, 210 (7 per cent of the total organisms), 215 (17.4 per cent) and 304. In addition, they occurred in samples 2, 103, 109, 118, 121, 126, 127, 212, 216, 406, 407 and 408. A post- larval echinoid was. found in sample 407.
CHORDATA
A single large and beautiful tornaria larva, similar or identical to that described by Morgan (1891) from the Bahama Islands, was found in sample 406.
Appendicularians were common in samples 5, 10, 100, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 128, 129, 202, 302, 3038, 305 and 808. They were found in smaller. numbers in samples 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 101, 103, 104, 109, 111, 112, 117, 118, 128, 125, . 127, 181, 200; -210, 211) 212. Q4S0s 215 eee aoe 301, 304, 306, 309, 310, 402, 405, 406 and 408. Thaliacea were found, in small numbers only, in samples 123, 124, 125, 126, 304, 307, 310 and 408. Larval stages of tunicates were surprisingly uncommon. Apparently the larvae of local tunicates exist as plankters only for a short time, or else many of them ~ have no planktonic larval stages at all. Larvae were encountered in samples 117, 121, 129, 204, 212, 220, 301, 308 and 304. ,
Larval Cephalochorda (Amphioxides pelagicus) were obtained in samples 125 and 126. To the best of my knowledge, adult amphioxi have not been reported from Florida waters. None have been collected by members of the staff of the University of Miami Marine Laboratory.
Pelagic fish eggs of various types were found in many of the samples. One oval egg was very similar to that of the anchovy, but the eggs of the local fishes are so poorly known that this is uncertain. The oval eggs were common in sample 201, and were also found in samples 202, 203, 210, 212, 218, 215, 219, 310 and 406. Other types of fish eggs were common in samples 201, 203, 302, 303, 307, 500 and 503, and were also found in many other samples from all sorts of localities. Larval stages of fish, which are also very - poorly known in local waters, were common only in sample 308, but they were found in samples from all possible types of water.
DISCUSSION:
The waters of the Florida Current differ markedly from the other waters investigated. This is obvious, even without the examination of plankton samples, for the water is notably clear and_trans- parent, due to the sparsity of plankters. According to the kinds of plankters present, the water of the Florida Current is most nearly like that of the open Gulf of Mexico, especially far from shore, but nine of the plankton categories encountered in the
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 99
present study were confined to the Ficrida Current. Of these, the most important were Cerratocorys horridus, Candacia pachydactyla, Eucalanus attenuatus, Scolecithrix danae and Copilia mirabilis.
Towards the southern tip of the peninsula, the cpen water lying between the shore and the Florida Current is bounded on its outer side by a series of reefs, consisting of living corals south of Fowey Rock and of dead corals to the north. However, farther to the north there is no clearly defined outer reef. The water in question is in- fluenced here and there by local influences, the most marked of which are land drainage and the indirect influence of city sewage, as in the vicinity of Miami. This is often indicated by an increased richness of plankton growth in the very transparent water. Six of the plankton categories discussed above were common to the open water under consideration and the Florida Current, but were not encountered elsewhere to any degree. By far the most im- portant of these was Acartia spinata. Other important organisms with a similar distribution were Calanus minor, Calocalanus pavo, Lucicutia sp. and Sapphirina spp.
The most important partially enclosed waters along the east coast are St. John’s River, Mosquito Lagoon, Indian River, Banana River, Lake Worth, Biscayne Bay, Card Sound and Barnes Sound. The northern waters were investigated very little. There were, however, many samples obtained from southern regions. The waters are in general very shallow, and vary a good deal in salinity from place to place and from time to time. There is fre- quently a great deal of turbidity due to the stirring up of the bottom during wind storms. The plankton, except at times in the vicinity of cities, is relatively sparse. Sewage in the vicinity of Miami, for example, makes for a much richer plankton. As would be expected, the number of plankton species is reduced in the inland waters. Six of the plankton categories were found only in east coast inland waters. However, none was sufficiently common that it could be certain that they were confined to these waters. The most common species encountered in these waters, such as Acariia tonsa and Paracalanus parvus, were also common at other localities.
The waters of Florida Bay proper, and of adjacent inland waters were rather similar to those of the inland waters of the east coast, described above. In the present study, only two samples were examined from Florida Bay, two from Blackwater Sound,
100 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
one from West Lake and one from Long Lake. A study of the plankton from the two lakes was published by Davis (1948b), and showed two species of copepods that have not been encoun- tered elsewhere in the present study, namely Acartia floridana and Cyclops panamensis tannica. Further studies of these and other waters are reported by Davis (1950).
It has long been known that the marine fauna and flora of the west coast of the Florida peninsula differs considerably from that of the east coast. Thus, the shells are richer in variety and numbers along the beaches of the Gulf coast than on the Atlantic coast, with many important species being restricted to one coast. or the other. This relationship seems to hold also for the plankton. The plankton appears to be richer on the west coast, and a num- ber of important species were confined to west coast waters. Thus, Baccilaria sp., Cerataulina sp., Hemiaulus sp., Gymnodinium brevis, Noctiluca scintillans and Evadne sp. were found only on the west coast, both inland and open. In addition, Stenosemella sp. was found only in inland waters on the west coast, and, among others, Striatella sp., Cerratocorys sp., Amphorella sp., Craterella sp., Heli- costomella sp., Proplectella sp., pilidium larvae, Eukrohnia sub- tilis, Acrocalanus longicornis, Labidocera aestiva, Paracalanus acu- leatus and Amphioxides pelagicus were encountered only in the open waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Beyond these species, Centro- pages furcatus was extremely important in the waters of the Gulf coast and was encountered only once on the east coast. Much the same general differences exist between the open and inland waters as was the case on the east coast. Thus, there were fewer species in the inland waters, and in general the samples were not as rich as those from open water.
A number of species were confined, or nearly so, to open waters on both coasts. These along with the open water forms already listed above from either the east or the west coast, are valuable indicators of the admixture of open waters with inland waters. The most important species of this nature encountered on both coasts were Ceratium candelabrum, Pyrocystis fusiformis, P. noc- tiluca, Globigerina sp. Acanthometron sp., Sticholonche sp., Codo- nellopsis sp., unidentified small siphonophores, Sagitta enflata, cyphonautes larvae, Lingula larvae, actinotroch larvae, Cladocera
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 101
other than Evadne and Podon, Clausocalanus furcatus, Eucalanus subcrassus, Euchaeta marina, Pontella atlantica, Temora stylifera, Corycaeus spp., Oithona plumifera, Clytemnestra rostrata, Macro- setella gracilis, M. oculata, Microsetella rosea, Oncaea spp., cuma- ceans, Lucifer sp., and larvae of Sergestes.
Occasionally, indicating mixture with open water, certain of the open water species were obtained from decidedly inland lo- cations. The most notable of the inland samples containing open water species was sample 219, taken in the cut between Belle Isle and Miami Beach. Though the location was strictly inland, it was not more than three miles from open water, with which it is connected through Government Cut. The sample was taken at 13:00 o'clock on a day when high slack tide was at 12:17. Among the animal species encountered in this sample there was a most peculiar mixture. The most common animals were Oithonina nana (23 per cent of the total animals), and Acartia tonsa (16.5 per cent). On the east coast both these species are more characteristic of inland waters. Other species encountered in the sample that were considered to be typical of inland waters were Gonyaulax spinifera (?), Obelia sp., rotifers, barnacle nauplii, Pseudodiap- tomus coronatus, Temora turbinata, pagurid larvae and oval fish eggs. A single larva of Corethra, characteristic of fresh water plankton, was found. On the other hand, the same sample con- tained such open water species as Acartia spinata, Salpingella, sp., Sagitta enflata, a Euchaeta (marina? ) juvenile, Lucicutia sp., Cory- caeus sp., Oncaea sp., and Macrosetella gracilis. Some of these were found in no other inland sample than number 219.
SUMMARY:
1. A series of 100 samples of plankton was obtained from a number of marine localities, mostly along the southern east coast of Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico and its adjacent inland wa- ters. These were analyzed and the proportional numbers of various plankton categories was estimated.
2. 197 plankton categories were encountered. An attempt was made wherever possible to identify the forms to species, but this was not always possible because of unavailability of literature, or because of total lack of information, especially as regards larval stages of various organisms.
102 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
3. Each category is discussed separately, and the seasonal and local distribution is discussed insofar as the data will allow.
4. The various species characteristic of the various environ- mental portions of the area investigated are listed, and many of them are thought to be of value as indicators of waters of different origin. Conversely, the differing plankton populations found in the different regions are thought to be of significance as an indi- cation of varying, but as yet undetermined, nutritional and other environmental influences.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DAVIS, CHARLES C. .
1947. Two monstrilloids from Biscayne Bay, Florida. Trans. Amer. Micr.
Soc. 66(4): 390-895. DAVIS, CHARLES C.
1948a. Gymnodinium brevis sp. nov., a cause of discolored water and animal mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Bot. Gazette, 109(8); 358- 860.
DAVIS, CHARLES C.
1948b. Notes on the plankton of te Lake, Dade County, Florida, with descriptions of two new Sei Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 10( 2-3): 79-88.
DAVIS, CHARLES C.
1949. A preliminary revision of the Monstrilloida, with descriptions of two
new species. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 68(8): 245-255. DAVIS, CHARLES C., and ROBERT H. WILLIAMS
1950. Brackish water plankton of mangrove areas in southern Florida
(manuscript). GALTSOFF, PAUL S.
1948. Red tide. Progress report on the investigation of the cause of the mortality of fish along the west coast of Florida conducted by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and cooperating organizations. Fish & Wildlife Service Spec. Sci. Rept. No. 46.
GORDON, DONALD P.
1942. Plankton at Miami Beach, Florida. A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Duke University (un- published ).
GUNTER, G., F. G. W. SMITH & R. H. WILLIAMS _ 1947. Mass mortality of marine animals on the lower west coast of F lorid, : November 1946 to January 1947. Science. 105( 2723): 256-257. GUNTER, G., R. H. WILLIAMS, C. C. DAVIS & F. G. W. SMITH
1948. Catastrophic mass mortality of marine animals and coincident phyto- plankton bloom on the west coast of Florida, November 1946 = August 1947. Ecol. Monographs. 18(3): 809-824. .
OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 103
MAYER, ALFRED G.
1910. Medusae of the world. Publ. No. 109, Carnegie Inst. Wash. 3 Vols. MORGAN, T. H.
1891. Growth and metamorphosis of Tornaria. Jour. Morph. 5:407-458. RILEY, GORDON A.
1938. Plankton studies. I. A preliminary investigation of the plankton of the Tortugas region. Sears J. Mar. Res. 1(4): 335-352.
SMITH, F. G. W., R. H. WILLIAMS and C. C. DAVIS
1950. An ecological survey of the subtropical inshore waters adjacent to
Miami. Ecology, 31(1): 119-146. WOODMANSEE, ROBERT A.
1949. The zooplankton off Chicken Key in Biscayne Bay, Florida. A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of the University of Miami (unpublished).
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(2), 1949 (1950)
605 2 PRES AAPA OQ SORT
a vi ot Bent saat seiuiterss OY "Sean ea a
BER TOR A aR Tie . tical es pitied ‘¢ ERC rated ire 5
ny nthe” dubtiegleaived Waliete r a (Fe -BR2 :ic+}] shea ‘\roniem ao
™ ry 4
f ‘ ~' io
jexqettdyse ant, * 4D et 1 i- ee uti
f ie t @ A «GFR url) fo ig ‘ yn isioe tt do Teh die i }
23 Wott “wh i) edt at, egoeied: Jo ; pecah eqgen Vine OW ae
x aA ; Date C Ant, ™ . a VC
" < oy iS a | Yipee pA tip re - TAM 2 .
tf > > 2 on i
ANTIBIOTIC ACTION OF STREPTOMYCES ALBUS AGAINST MOLD DECAY ORGANISMS OF CITRUS FRUITS?
SETON N. Epson, Geo. D. THornTON and F. B. SmitTH University of Florida
It has been pointed out by Hopkins and Loucks (1946, 1947, 1948) that any practical means of reducing mold decay of citrus fruits is of immediate concern. These workers also state that up to 45 percent of a certain shipment of oranges was lost to mold decay within two weeks. This example is sufficient to illustrate the vast economic loss suffered by Florida growers from such common molds as Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum.
Some of the early studies in this field by Stahl and Camp (1936, 1936a) reveal that the effects of temperature change, fruit wrap- ping, and length of time in storage contribute materially in one way or another to the loss. Consequently a foundation is laid for future study. More recently Hopkins and Loucks (1947) have made a number of intensive studies in an effort to find some eco- nomical chemical treatment that may be safely used while at the same time come within the regulations established by the Food and Drug laws. Many compounds were tried but the outcome has not been too successful. This may be attributed largely to the cost of the chemicals used and the limitations placed on them by the Food and Drug laws. It was found that ethylene gas, com- monly used to color citrus fruit, stimulated the growth of P. citri and Diplodia natalensis. These organisms have been recognized as the causative molds of stemend rot. Later, when the coloring process is discontinued or reduced, there is a sharp drop in stem- end rot and a marked increase in storage mold infection, rising to a maximum during February and March.
The molds causing storage decay were easily isolated from the surface of five week old citrus fruit. P. digitatuwm seemed to be by far the more common of the two. Its dark green spores covered ihe surface as a result of its very rapid growth. The blue-green spores of P. italicum could be detected later on older fruit, and if left for any period of time this mold asennad to take over when P. digitatum ceased to grow.
1Published with the approval of the Director.
106 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Since a number of forms of treatment have been tried with varying success, it was thought that a local application of a spe- cific antibiotic extract might prove successful. The purpose of this note is to report the results of a preliminary experiment along this line.
A soil Streptomyces was isolated which, when studied morpho- logically and physiologically on several media, was identified as S. albus. Stock cultures were grown on yeast-extract agar and ee on hand for future use. The same procedure was followed for
P. italicum and P. digitatum.
Since it is the mixed culture of the two molds that largely com- | pose the causative agents of mold decay of citrus fruits it was deemed desirable to use a mixed culture for this test. Many fac- tors influence the vigor of the antibiotic activity of a microorganism. This is pointed out by Davis, Parke and Daily (1949), where they have shown conclusively that the degree of antibiosis of a given organism is determined by the composition of the medium
used and upon pH:
The optimum reaction for S. albus is above pH 7 but falls well below this figure for the molds and because of this it was necessary to have a medium with a hydrogen ion concentration compatible for all organisms. It was found that both Penicillia and Strepto- myces produced satisfactory growth in a yeast-extract agar medium with pH 6. Petri dishes with this medium were inoculated with Streptomyces albus and then seeded with a mixed culture of P. italicum and P. digitatum. After one week of growth on the yeast- extract agar there appeared a relatively large clear zone around ihe soil organism, measuring up to 15 mm. indicating clearly that ihere was substantial antibiotic substance being liberated.
In another test a medium of yeast-extract agar, pH 8, was inocluated with S. albus and incubated for eight days at room temperature to produce a pure, viable culture which was used in iurn to inoculate a broth culture for filter paper disc studies. Yeast-extract agar was streaked with a mixed culture of the molds on which was placed two sterile paper discs, the one dipped in a broth culture of the S. albus and the other used as a control. Only after allowing the soil organism to actually grow on the dipped paper disc did any inhibition occur. This may have been due in part to the length of time necessary for antibiotic production.
ANTIBIOTIC ACTION OF STREPTOMYCES 107
A similar procedure was followed in testing an ether extraction of S. albus, on yeast-extract agar. The medium and growth were extracted with ethyl ether, the ether evaporated and the small residue taken up with a few drops of alcohol and made up to 20 cc. with sterile water. Dilutions of 1/1, 1/10, and 1/100 were measured and tested against the molds. Definite inhibition oc- curred for the 1/1 and 1/10 dilutions, although the clear zone around the paper disc was less than half as great as around the actual growth of Streptomyces. This reduced effectiveness of the antibiotic may be due in part to heat labile properties, volatile substances, or solvent characteristics.
The fact that these molds are inhibited by a common soil Streptomyces indicates that decay of citrus may be controlled by antibiotics and warrants a thorough and careful study of the problem. Considering the loss from decay sustained by Florida growers each season, even by use of the latest methods of curing (Hopkins and Loucks, 1947), these results appear to be of large economic importance.
LITERATURE CITED
DAVIS, W. W., T. V. PARKE, and W. W. DAILY 1949. A linear diffusion method suitable for large scale microbiological antibiotic assay. Science, 109:545, May 27, 1949. HOPKINS, E. F., and K. W. LOUCKS 1946. Some factors influencing citrus fruit decay experiments. Citrus Industry, 27(10), October, 1946. 1947. Use of diphenyl in the control of stem-end rot and mold in citrus fruit. Citrus Industry, 28(10), October, 1947. 1948. Relation of packinghouse practices to incidence of fruit decay. Citrus Industry, (1), January, 1948. 1948a. A curing procedure for the reduction of mold decay in citrus fruits. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., No. 450. STAHL, A. L., and A. F. CAMP 1936. Cold storage studies of citrus. I. Effect of wrappers. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., No. 303. 1936a. Cold storage studies of citrus. II. Effect of temperature changes. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., No. 304.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(2), 1949 (1950)
SPOTTERS nO HOR 33
PAY eh efitins ae veo thah easty . ree sy) Bara’ ctrfids shy yi fs Shai tole ay! 14 ESR beset atv acl ty Ostet ene Lai fie toldote Ferseadhs ypebalign ae CNT Ye es oe Tow Miltiootetintt + eblos.. oct danger ieee olny acto! htyendeltiocn Boroidalaly Ofad Trenithy yl npry id eee ere als danse peodk Aa owl ag
Hoo hs beasebs aittlsat Sonne a - sip: reese oF rg tis pes: ody
an Py
ghevdks = f oe) -. 21 % Bt) x i By es ; . .
eas iss - ee = ti 1 yaa ‘sex k
a é ‘ : r , - ih na SLR BE RAT TH:
a t ' ' . cote abt dot Bais et are is $ : ex): 2 wrraey Teh ae $ LF ! ~ ig A352 —- ik eet tT .Liets ; me) OCR 2 ere ar, ¥ if ’ F ” ¢ ee AD UO, ‘ ion, fe et es SE: ha rad ei aa ‘it re naieur ae: a h ae 4a Pe ow 5 > ee, Ps rt jPatcs r. t Gj at Sie te ‘2 é * Vo (: Skene ~ rit 7% ‘ $x ¥ ¥4 J ; wba be a « ’ ees 5 Lea: Aa eas: be td = eh ai ‘ ; diet : § la : 5 - l Be | ie ay eee Fe egeees | AMO Yo { % . th hE =)
A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA
JosEpH E. Kinc?
INTRODUCTION
At intervals from November, 1946 to September, 1947, the Gulf coastal waters of Southwest Florida were discolored by the tre- mendous abundance of a. dinoflagellate which was described (Davis, 1948a) as Gymnodinium brevis, a species new to science. This condition of red water, or “red tide’, as it was called, was accompanied by heavy mortality of fish and invertebrates (Gunter et al, 1947, 1948: Florida State Board of Conservation, 1948; Galtsoff, 1948, 1949). Previous to this, irregularly occurring out- bursts of red water have been recorded for the Florida West Coast since 1840. Somewhat similar outbreaks of red water have appeared in many parts of the world.
To investigate the causes of this plankton phenomenon, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service has established a labora- tory at Sarasota, Florida. The program of research includes an ecological study of the biological, chemical and physical nature of Gulf coastal water with the object of determining what peculiar condition or combination of conditions may result in an over- production of dinoflagellates. Another phase of the work being carried out at this laboratory by personnel of the University of Miami, is a study of methods for growing red water-producing organisms under controlled, laboratory conditions to determine their nutritional requirements (G. S. King, 1949).
The purpose of this paper is to describe, in general, the plank- ton forms characteristic of the coastal waters of this area, more specifically the dinoflagellates and—that interesting class of zoo- plankton—the copepods. The work to be described was conducted over a period of about ten months (January to October, 1949). No attempt has been made to work out cycles of abundance or sequences of plankton associations from data collected in so lim- ited a time. One chief objective is to show what might be termed
1Fishery Research Biologist, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, formerly _ with Gulf Investigations, Sarasota, Florida.
110 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the normal or typical plankton pele pe during: this
period. METHODS
At the initiation of the “red tide” investigation it was decided to establish a series of stations at points representing estuary, bay, coastal, and offshore environments, which were to be visited at regular intervals over an extended period. As shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1, the stations are located adjacent to-the Boca Grande area—an area which has been associated with the origin of the recent red tides. At each occupation of a station, numerous chemi- cal and physical measurements are made and a plankton col- lection is obtained. In addition to visits to the established stations, trips have been made to other parts of the coast, and plankton collections taken whenever opportunity permitted. The locations of these additional collection points are also shown in Fig. 1 and Table 2
The collections were, for the greater part, made by towing from a motor vessel of the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Pompano. At New Pass, Sarasota, however, the samples were taken from a bridge during a change of tide when there was sufficient current to distend the net. At Stations 1 and 2, which could not be easily reached with the vessel, the current was never strong enough to support the net; so here it was necessary to walk along the bridges pulling the net by hand.
For making quantitative tows the Clarke-Bumpus Plankton Sampler was used (Clarke and Bumpus, 1940). This instrument appears to be the most satisfactory closing-net type of quantitative plankton sampler that has been produced. It consists mainly of a brass tube, 5 inches in diameter, to one end of which is at- tached the cone-shaped net. Within the tube is mounted a pro- peller which is geared to a counter that registers the number of revolutions and consequently the volume of water passing through the tube and the net. A disk-shaped messenger-controlled shutter is mounted on the front end of the tube thereby permitting the operator to open and close the sampler at any desired water level.
Figure 1. Map of peninsular Florida showing the locations of Stations 1 to 8 and other localities A to L where plankton collections were taken.
JOS
292
282
22
W
\ 26°
. : : % a. ‘ e Y i wa Ae
BEO 25°
es
7
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
112
I a
‘epllOp,] “eJOsVAVG ‘BdIAIOS SFIPTIAA PuUe YS “°S *Q ‘suoT
-VS1}SOAUT FIND “YsturoyH ‘uostuy "WW ‘[ pue ‘1oydersouvs09 AjIour10j ‘uosiopuy ‘GO ‘q Aq poeyddns o1om vyep AjUITeS Oso],
% E'S 4 GEE %F9'9E 4 LIES % L6°SE 4 HOPE % OL'SE 04 SE'TE % 06'SE 04 EB°SZ
~ry © OO
L % 60°LE 94 00ST L % 0Z'6Z °F + 0°0 L %96'6S 4 +00 (6P6I “19qG0}00 0} Av) | ,AqTUTTeG SoBjING POvISTA jo oduvy SOUILT, JO LaquUINNy
SUIOUIETOO ft ae Fo. Aong 89g spuBId BIO JSAM SOTIUI OTT 8 SIUOMMENOi: kes we es eb ae Aong 89g spuvIyHy BOG 4S SOTIUL OS Z SLUOUREIN( a Si= ak er es Aong og spuery Boog 4SeM SoTIUl 2e 9 SULOUTEI Oe ike: cee at es Aong 89g spuBItH BOO, 4SOM SOTIU ZT c SUIOY} BJ c Sie eletet (cMRey eice) (enineey fepei in (oj (efile) le) (e) +) (IMs) (+) injusn ehioMre) cele! ie) cehisyite) (misiece) (ele) a) (bine song Bog opuBILy BOO, epIsul Aon JoyIwU [OUUBYD YSALT i suOuyeIZ |” ee as eee IOQIVTT 94, 0,18YO ‘Keq IOMO'T e SUOUIe] Z | °° epoxy BUN 38 JOATY VOveg ‘JouUBY-pIfy Ve, SULOUIES xT | SIOAT WO 9B JOATY IYO} BVYBsSOOTeD ‘joeuUBYI-pl|Y I 1078 MM Taquin Ny jo yydeq NOILVOO'T UO0I}BIG
‘apuBIy) BOOT JO ISOM S1OZVMA JIN o10YSYO puv
[BISBoOD pue “IoqIeTT 99} 0[IVYD “IOATY soveg “IOATY oIYO}VYVSOo/eD OY} UI SUOTYBIG poYsI[geIsyY oY} 0} SUIUIeYIEg B}VqQ—] ATVI,
113
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA
6P6L ‘GT Arenuee SUOURB Ie Zar: Eaemay Sot abe Sie eee eae AVY oquioooyeyy Yo ysnl ‘Avg vpiopy T 6FGI ‘] Arenuee SULOYR] Z RAE CUCL Ce Ce Tig STORE ORTHO CEES amy TG Cee MUO oe coat nck Fwo IOATYT yreys jo y Noy VW 6F6I ‘eT Arenuey SULOY}E] ri ie RR Bas cag NE Sa al SCY cD URS OO quay joqrug yo qasne c 6F6I ‘TZ [ludy SWOT} VI CZ OHS TORO Dee. Ce CeCe Ch Ob uC Tt OMIT. OD nOe COME 2 Ceo) Ce0- OF Gn HCO ROMO OID - Oech ac BLOSB.IBG rive) I GPOL ‘Zz Tudy SUOUNCZ QT rr eet tener eee eee, BOSLAB YC Hl 6P6I ‘nsany of Arenuee
‘soul? snolounu poydureg SULOUAGT Compa ae OE Gk ee Ek a pa aaron ak eas VAOSVIBD ‘SSVG MON 9) 6FGI al raquioydoag SULOYY RI Ae [eae career! erp NR a eR tea yar] § ULL] 40 ION ni 6F6I re roquio}ydog SULOY}V] Z Chie de ONOMMEITG. Ch CETO. 0 wetto 0-0 ULORO NEA Oia. oun nen go eo shoyy S ULPAB Py 49 "MS ny 6P6L ‘ET toquieydog SULOU VOC Ae 9 EMI, Cece ee ie ak ey oa eae '* LOATY VOYOPCVYUTIO}S "MA's ad 6F6I Ail loqureydoeg SULOY YB] z CMTS CUES Oo st) WI COM iy Cehye Un a OM Yered Toit mt eoeiGery i narte qulog YVvoO OAIT “MA ) 6F61 6 Jaquieydag SULOYYR] Z ODS Die oe ONOMGR LY DEO OD OLO8n Oded Ommed 5 Oe Dor oitedenenn bod puvys] yooy "MS a 6FGI Tt laquieydag SUIOY} BJ Z Rh cg wR AL PED. cen Maier ui (a. ena sl tema ieey. cae qYy Sr] SAVIN ‘40 “9 SoyTur GC V
JISIA JO 93Rq I9}'BM NOILVOO'T qulog
jo yydoq UOTPOOT[OD
POHSIA S9}BC puB ‘T ond UO UMOYG 8B “T 0} YW ‘SZUIOg BuTpeT[OD Jo uOTyRwooT—zZ aIAV J,
114 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Before using a sampler for quantitative work it is necessary that the instrument be calibrated in terms of liters of water filtered per revolution of the propeller. Lacking the proper equipment for this calibration, a method was devised of towing the sampler, minus the net, at a standard towing speed over a measured distance between two channel markers. Presumably, for practical pur- poses, all the water in a column with a length equal to the measured distance and a diameter of 5 inches, passed through the sampler. When our two samplers were first acquired, they were each calibrated at 4.5 liters per revolution of the propeller. After three months of use they were recalibrated at 4.5 liters for one sampler and 4.6 liters for the other.
The samplers are towed from the vessel by a % inch stainless steel cable. To the end of the cable is attached a 100 pound streamlined lead weight, and the sampler mounted about 18 to 24 inches above the weight. With this type of weight there is never any twisting of the line or fouling of the net, and the pound- age is sufficient to reduce the wire-angle, or “angle-of-stray’, to a negligible amount. It is essential that this angle be less than 5° if the messenger is to make proper contact with the shutter- tripping mechanism of the sampler. The manufacturer of the sampler has supplied us with a trigger extension which partially corrects this situation and permits operation of the sampler with a wire-angle of 15° to 20°.
Since the Sarasota laboratory is without adequate personnel and facilities for examining large volumes of plankton material, plank- ton sampling has been limited to one 20 to 30 minute oblique tow at each station. Such a tow gives a complete plankton picture at any one point but of course does not provide material for studies of plankton stratification or vertical migrations.
Since an important purpose of this study concerned dinoflagel- lates, which are representative of the smallest forms of aquatic life, it was initially planned to use very fine nets of No. 25 mesh (200 meshes per linear inch). After some experience it was found that in cases of high phytoplankton density the meshes of these fine nets were soon clogged and backwash from the filled net appeared to turn the propeller in reverse so that at the end of a tow the counter reading would be less than at the start. This problem was seldom encountered with a No. 20 (173 meshes to the linear
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 115
inch) mesh net which is now used in areas with abundant phyto- plankton, such as the bay and coastal waters. The No. 25 mesh nets are reserved for the offshore waters where phytoplankton is relatively scarce.
It is known that many of the very minute plankton organisms (the nannoplankton) are lost with even the finest-meshed nets. This loss has been variously computed by different observers as being from 2% to 50%. For the purpose of determining the true abundance of this nannoplankton, unconcentrated water samples taken from the reversing water bottle are placed in glass-stop- pered bottles. As soon as possible after returning to the laboratory, these samples are concentrated by centrifuging and the solids examined microscopically. An attempt is made to identify the organisms present and estimate their relative abundance.
Both the net and the water-bottle samples are preserved in formalin. At the laboratory the net collections are concentrated by centrifuging in graduated, narrow-tipped tubes and the displace- ment volume of the plankton solids measured and recorded. Much of the supernatant liquid is then pipetted-off, the total volume of the concentrate being reduced to 50 to 300 ml. depending upon the volume of the solids present. All samples are centrifuged for 5 minutes at 2000 RPM.
Before making the count, portions of the concentrate are ex- amined in a watch glass and on a glass slide under a coverglass and the organisms identified to the best of the investigator's ability. Copepods or other forms requiring dissection for accurate identification, are transferred to a drop of glycerine on a slide. The viscous and non-volatile nature of glycerine makes it a good medium for the dissection and for storage of the organisms for later reference. The author has found that this preliminary ex- amination always yields a much longer list of species than does the differential plankton count which follows.
In making the plankton count, 1 ml. of the thoroughly mixed concentrate is transferred to a standard 20 X 50 mm., Sedgewick- Rafter type, counting cell and sealed with a cover glass. A differ- ential count of all organisms in ten ocular fields, chosen at random, is made using a compound, binocular microscope equipped with a mechanical stage and a Whipple type micrometer eyepiece.
A “survey” count is also made. In this count the large plankters,
116 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
such as copepods, Appendicularia, shrimp larvae, etc., are counted in 1/10, or 1/2 of the cell, or the entire cell. These large plankters
generally occur in such sparse numbers that a much larger volume.
of concentrate than ten ocular fields must be examined in order to secure an adequate measure of their abundance.
From the results so recorded, the number of plankters per liter of water may be computed by use of the following formula (from Welch, 1948):
wc 1000c) . Ni 2 (a1000c) 1 1] in which w — number of large plankters enumerated in survey count of entire cell. c = volume of concentrate in milliliters. 1 — volume of water strained in liters. a == average number of plankters per cu. mm. of count- ing cell.
Tabulation of the count may be facilitated by using mimeo- graphed sheets bearing the names of commonly appearing forms each followed by ten spaces for recording the results of the ten ocular counts and an additional space for the survey count.
COMPOSITION OF THE PLANKTON
PoytuM THALLOPHYTA
Class Cyanophyceae. Of the blue-green algae only Trichodes- mium erythraeum and Microcoleus sp. (tenerrimus?) were com- mon to abundant in the brackish-water of Stations 1 and 2. T. erythraeum was the only form commonly occurring in the bay, coastal and offshore areas. From the middle of February to the middle of August, dense blooms of T. erythraeum appeared spo- radically along the coast between Sarasota and Boca Grande. At the height of a bloom the alga appeared as a yellowish, flocculent material, concentrated in the upper meter of water and commonly aligned in windblown streaks on the surface. As the peak of the growth is passed the plant masses become reddish-brown and a chlorine-like odor is strongly evident throughout the area. Although the alga was present in almost all collections taken, it was observed in a “bloom” abundance only within 85 miles of the shore and
i i
a
ee a ee a ee
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 117
most commonly just off the beaches. The plant has been well termed “sea sawdust” by sailors.
Class Bacillariophyceae. Diatoms occur abundantly in both fresh and salt water, appearing in great diversity of form and size. They are considered the most important group of plants in the sea as they are the true “producers” and are the chief food of the zoo- plankton and the higher plankton-feeding animals such as the sardine fishes. In the inside waters the most abundant forms are species of Coscinodiscus, Skeletonema, Navicula, Nitzschia and Surirella. With the exception of Surirella, these genera are also represented in the coastal waters together with Rhizosolenia and Chaetoceros. In the offshore waters of the open Gulf we have found all forms of phytoplankton to be very scarce. Several diatom genera are represented, the most common being Chaetoceros, Rhizosolenia, and Thalassiothrix, but none occurring in any abun- dance. An interesting diatom of the offshore areas is Chaetoceros coarctatus which was never encountered without its attached ag- gregation of Vorticella, a ciliate protozoan.
Class Chlorophyceae. The green algae are characteristic of fresh water but sparsely represented in the sea. At the fresh to brackish water Stations 1 and 2, the commonly appearing forms were Pedia- strum, Micrasterias, Scenedesmus, and Staurastrum. No planktonic green algae were found at Stations 3 to 8.
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
Class Mastigophora. The class is best represented in brackish and salt water by the dinoflagellates. On July 29, 1949, a reddish- brown film was noticed occurring in scattered patches and streaks over the surface of Sarasota Bay. Schools of mullet were following the reddish streaks and appeared to be actively feeding on the surface film. A sample of the water examined under the micro- scope, was found to be swarming with a species of Gonyaulax. In the same locality on August 16, 1949, there was a reoccurrence of the “red water”. Again the mullet seemed to be taking advan- tage of this supply of concentrated food. On this occasion the surface water contained Gonyaulax triacantha, Gonyaulax sp., Polykrikos sp. ( schwartziP), Cochlodinium sp. (virescens? ), Gym- nodinium sp. (nelsoni?), Ceratium furca, and Dinophysis sp. Al- though there had been considerable rainfall during the preceding _ two or three days, the salinity of the bay water was 26.8 °/oo.
118 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A plankton sample taken July 17, 1949, at Station 1 was very rich with Gonyaulax sp. Except for these three occasions dino- flagellates were never found in abundance in the plankton samples, although Gymnodinium sp., Peridinium sp., and two or three species of Ceratium were usually present. Water samples from the river, bay and coastal areas, out to Station 5, usually yielded large numbers of Gymnodinium simplex when cultured in the laboratory. Class Sarcodina. The skeletal structures of Foraminifera and Radiolaria are important elements in the composition of marine bottom sediments. Representatives of these orders were never taken in abundance, but were present in small numbers in the. majority of the collections, particularly those from the more saline areas.
Class Ciliata. Samples of river, bay and coastal water, when cultured in the laboratory, usually produced an abundance of the ciliate Plagiocampa marina (Order Holotricha) which has been previously reported for the Florida Coast (Noland, 1936-37). Tin- tinnids (Order Spirotricha) of a variety of species, were repeatedly present in collections ranging from brackish river water to the off- shore waters of the Gulf. At certain times, particularly in the bay and coastal water, they occurred in sufficient numbers to be an important element in the composition of the plankton. The genus Euplotes (Order Spirotricha) was represented in a few collec- tions from scattered points ranging from the river stations to the 100 fathom station.
PHYLUM COELENTERATA.
Some of the most remarkable specializations of this phylum occur in the Siphonophora; the best known of these are the Portuguese Man-of-War (Physalia pelagica) and Velella, which were observed on almost every trip made to the 100 fathom line. The varieties of Siphonophora most frequently taken in the plankton net are without floats and depend entirely on “swimming-bells” to keep their colonies near the surface. One of the most commonly oc- curring species closely resembles Diphyes bipartita.
Medusae were found in almost all the plankton collections but never in abundance.
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 119
PHyLuM CTENOPHORAE
“Comb-jellies” were seen on numerous occasions in the coastal waters but were not taken in the plankton tows.
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
Although most of the Turbellaria are bottom-dwelling, a small free-swimming form frequently appeared in the plankton.
PuytumM ROTATORIA
Several species of Rotifera. were present in practically every sample from the brackish waters of Stations 1 and 2, but none were encountered in the more saline areas.
PHYLUM CHAETOGNATHA
The “arrow-worms’ are a common element of the plankton and were taken in all areas sampled. Species of Sagitta, resembling elegans and bipunctata, were found at all Stations 1 to 8. A form identified as S enflata was common at Stations 5 to 8.
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
The pluteus larva of the sea urchin and the bipinnaria larva of the starfish were characteristic elements in the plankton of the open Gulf, but were not taken in the inside waters.
PHyLUM ANNELIDA
Although the segmented worms are mostly bottom-living in habit, their larval stages are prominent in the plankton of coastal waters. On one occasion a sample taken at New Pass, Sarasota, was ac- tually swarming with Chaetopterus larvae. Our records show few plankton tows that failed to yield numerous annelid larvae.
PHytuM ARTHROPODA
Order Cladocera. Although prominent in fresh water plankton, only a few genera of Cladocera are reported to occur in the sea. The common genera, Bosmina, Chydorus and Camptocercus were found in collections from Station 1 when the estuary was prac- tically fresh. In the more saline areas the salt water genus, Evadne, was well represented and on a few occasions, Podon was taken. Another cladoceran found consistently in the brackish and salt water collections was identified as a species of Diaphanosoma which according to the available literature is considered a fresh water inhabitant.
120 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Subclass Ostracoda. Ostracods were found in the fresh to brackish. water of the inside stations and in the saline water of the Gulf from 10 to 100 fathoms. For some reason, however, none was taken in the intermediate environment of the lower bay and coastal areas. This group always made up a relatively small proportion of the plankton.
Subclass Cirripedia. Barnacle larvae were found at the inside stations and in the Gulf out to 10 fathoms. They were consistently present within these limits but never in any abundance.
Subclass Copepoda. The copepods are the most abundant of all crustaceans and are the dominant zooplankton form in our col- lections. As there are but few published reports dealing specific- ally with copepod collections from the Gulf area (Herrick, 1887; Foster, 1904; Marsh, 1926; Davis, 1947, 1948; Penn, 1947; M. S. Wilson, 1949) the author made a particular effort to identify this group as completely as was possible with the available time and literature. Since Jan. 1, 1949, 67 species and seven additional genera have been identified with fair certainty. Of these only 11 species are mentioned in the references cited above. A few speci- mens do not agree completely with the species descriptions, but the shortage of time and lack of local library facilities have not made it possible for the author to completely review the wealth of literature dealing with the Copepoda, which would be neces- sary for the accurate separation of certain species or for the recog- nition of new species.
In the identification of this group the writer has found most helpful the excellent keys and descriptions of C. B. Wilson (1932) and the masterly monograph of Giesbrecht (1892). Monographs and papers by a number of other specialists have been consulted; these include: G. S. Brady, C. Claus, C. O. Esterly, G. P. Farran, R. Gurney, F. Kiefer, C. Dwight Marsh, G. O. Sars, R. B. S. Sewell, R. W. Sharpe, W. M. Wheeler, A. Willey.
In reviewing Table 3, one sees that there are certain species such as Paracalanus paruus, Oithonina nana, Corycaeus venustus, and Temora turbinata, that were found in almost all the different environments sampled. In contrast, there are species, such as Clyclops prasinus, which were taken only in fresh to brackish water, and Calanus minor, Rhincalanus cornutus, Mecynocera clausi, and Heterorhabdus spinifrons which occurred only in the
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 121
open Gulf. Of the species listed in Table 3, ten were first reported from American Shores in the fairly recent (1932) publication of C. B. Wilson.
Order Amphipoda. The amphipods were poorly represented in the plankton, but on a few occasions, showed up in fair numbers in the coastal areas.
Order Stomatopoda. Larval stomatopods were very scarce in the collections and were taken only at the 10 and 20 fathom stations. Order Decapoda. Sergestid shrimp (Lucifer sp.) were common in numbers in the collections from bay and coastal waters but not taken offshore.
Shrimp and crab larvae in various stages of growth appeared in almost all plankton tows. These forms are important constituents of the plankton and are, no doubt, of significance in the diet of plankton feeding animals.
Puytum MOo.LLusca
Class Gastropoda. A great variety of gastropod larvae was taken, with some examples in almost every tow. Pteropoda were found only in the more offshore areas at Stations 5 to 8.
Class Pelecypoda. Pelecypod larvae appeared in collections from all the areas sampled but were by far the most numerous in inside and coastal waters.
Class Cephalopoda. Very young squid were taken in a few of the tows made in coastal water.
PHyLuM CHORDATA
Subphylum Tunicata. Members of this group, identified as Ap- pendicularia, were present in fair numbers in almost every sample examined, ranging from the brackish estuary to the edge of the continental shelf.
A few Salpa were found in collections from the 10 and 40 fathom stations. Subphylum Vertebrata. Fish eggs and larvae were found in most plankton samples but always as a minor constituent.
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
122
Cy Wa eta). ee | See cacy ises sage ites eae eee Tore vs 9 had ope ake: s+ UBULION D7SNGo1—
a oT ‘F xixixilxixtix dn oyreses0g TH ayjofiay10js— aS [me ok sihunas = | Set | Age [ai bar we uty een pans tar alee» 9 ahe + ee "AQT DINJDIYap DIUapOSOZYIT xilxixi x decd x fectd x lec tt nee ee ds u0.1j9.L0/ SPR oka MCE CHE WO CURR OO CRON RB Cac ieCaD s1oqueryy poipunjhsou viduyj0.1ajs y I 7 bn ‘a ‘ ty xilxixixi xl x | x] x fe tne nen ee ds snasypour9s0) So Te SH caine ohcetos oisad 8 alas azo Me awmoit |i cir n)\0) = To) fespagie) cliels ei (eMm 1g zeus =) (sgieniel eiue! elke! «) ofzi (0) elie) te eee ‘ds DLSOISSD)DY TJ, a 9) asa xilxixixl x | xl x | x foc te nce nes ds DUlaUuojarayo 5 a fib a ccd cs en (Ce ds sixidounydajg 9) xX x xX x X x x Sig [pO e006 0) GOO 00 080951076. 0 .O6oleS O90! 00.0 OG: OCD ADE Mcn DEO ONC OG dg 0.1180]9 J WAOAHAOIUV TILOV G xX eee Sie] OF CYL O O50 ))0' 40 t 0 O1}) 0: eG.) 0 00.619 G10 007086 O00 O00 OND OO D=O "ONG 0 O20". 9 OCG O10" ds DUIYIVT 5 aie a eC - + + -ds 90380 ,\7 x | x ler tee eee (é SNUt1.1.10U9)) “dg $naj000.190 JT Tl Onl 5 a nc ba a cc PC CC (CC {UOUIOX 2297n0GQa14)— gS per S| Socal ie. | eS a> cal > ca lo fb | PC oe oa sJoquolyy wnelyjhsa WNIWUsSapoOYyordt J, xX SK TF Q oO po ODDO ODOR GOD Go OOD DODO D Oo OUD gon OD ds LOSOL UAE PS) ele eefoeve xX 5 OOS o Ce OOOO FO OOO ooo too oon OO 00 OO tg ds vipadows11a WAOLHAONVAYD VIAHdOTIVAL
SMUT BIO EPGMEL) aoa ee NOILVLG
°Z pue [ Se1qB, pUw | SINS Ul USATS o1e TJ 0} V SOI}I[BOOT pue g 0} [ SUOT}RIG Jo SUOT}BIOT OTT, ‘GFET ‘19G03009 0} Arenuer polleg oY} JULING SUOT}eO0T poyeoIpUT ey} Ye ope, SUOT}OAT[OD UI SuTIveddy “ysvo_D 4SoM VPlIO[,] oY} Jo uojVyUR[G—e wav],
123
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA
SOI}PI[BOO'T 19490
rely |x Pa ds nioydoyoumo.sy
xixil xl xl x deel x feet ne ne tne ds pyjaqnung
xi xi xt xd x declines ‘ds snynoumay x foccteee xi xi xd x doch ee yoy oO onn Did rene eedg
nolo uvole Golloaaliaaullo salle tolloc alc dono ncGaocdoDovogcou0dn + Kopreg sasuayaqou™mrydinppry
xX X x Srl fe nr Ge ec A: U1 NG Orsi O OCIS IE CaS OSD ORO OCF Ui CISCO OF OT OL OMG ZOE OND NC CaS OAL MIO O8001970.0 ds 0ayjojd au
x xlxlix Wald ¢Ou0 Guna boo Ono aodobiNuD Goo lg O ow Ua oN ds wnpoonumay
se oleeelse x PPAF OSE" ON oh op GG edb 6 aso oes SOG eb DOOR OEY Ney ray Priyiilton) luolilneD nog) xilxilxixl xd xl x | x lett nnn ence ne dgte= Poo ooo on Self calf oreeal ry|femea | Oke one tees eo tacere tea ronn ce ceva roses aon ain Wa 2G Of
xix lx |x lol detect cect ees JapNey] snjnj0L009 $0.1290}2Y,)
x X X xX 4 5 Fu {ie C aa POs SDs Op ONE OD OROF CO: ORG FORDEOM OPO! Day Ov GeO! OSOi Ane Ca. COU 0 oo ee ‘ds WIN.ABSHLLA}IO J xixixix | xt xt xd x lec encase ‘dg — x xix lode cleo eee eee oMqysug 07oj7o— s+ly ly P| ios ORGACEDRCRON A FeO Or ci -Cerace LabseoCe nkD ‘-azaTNYog “JAI 82ap 4109;00—
Bale Za Oe ecalsvalscaleoal ar
NOILVLG
(penuryuoD) ¢ AIav],
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
124
SOI} I[BOO'T 1049
tester elerel y ly
7 i" xX
eeusflens x | x
siisyiel] wes 6 ‘ly |x
xX.| X
. ole . x
: lice Pach ti, ruse! lew tae x |x x
ve eet «| oman x | x
eiiede elec ells re x |x
. ‘x lx
>: Ge ea, Sec e.g
> SN eae Sal teen teas Genes tes Sian lina, Ga | a, Ga eg
ah ae >, SIR (ina: Ser iia, Ga ee. Graal lee xX ; re a OE eae eK
D.Ga| es. Sea. al (re, a ie, Sam ioe, Sl. GI >.<
ae | le PO | Cl a 5 pC | | KS
NOILV.LO
ere aye Ce er iO ie rece Tee Tha eh (em Pye me Cer tt Cer te cea) fl ce ti year
PEE rrirepphresirryrs rh) seams snepusureyy
CH Ca ar ie eae Oat ar tS ee at at er eee my Ce) eer CUM ech Th Cieth CP eet et Ue hr eh PCH)
CeCe OT Tr w) fa) je) je: ce) ne, ew) (ue) ee ie io cee) ee me 8 ee ee ce ee 6 le ee Uaiel We eMahie dae OSes Bie! Fel eiWiel ven C0 bi ciel sept8i) wi xeuelte (py 6) Vy eens lela iauah ie” b)ce-ile) -vieh-eNis) & COO OO OU G mr OOOmoOn ooo Ooo Oo Ope Ooo no
CeO COU Or DU Or CeO ee i ete tt ONO Go UUs U Oe to 0 Ot
oy Te] 8) ah oe) 00) ie) 0) 0) 6) 6 oe G6) eee) anit) elya) fe) 6) eure sa imi wihiqnme. sy eumesusikel eh etue
OOD OG. OF Gs OF OO Oe Cm Or CeO mcr Couch th Orn (rth te ce rh Oe Une Oo CCS GO, OCEE COC ON CUOMO Oh th ti te) 1) ON Oth th Coe te Ord Gnu co Sis. (6) <a) (a) wi ie) ed; Wu'e ie 0) iw (@ <0) (0) (w; a) mite (0 (6 ie) 0) fe) 6; ee! ecet se ie
Cee OPO aC On Ch a es GUNN Omer) Os 0" Chath Chthete Criiumcnte tt! cea ci, et)
op [OSvTJOo IIS
VUOHAODILSV J VOZOLOYd
‘ds x0ajo 4
‘ds nu1opn ig
‘ds wnuspipagq "ds snwsapauaag
pegrueprmy) ‘ds puhiboudg
ds wnepryjun x ‘ds wniinuso)
‘ds wnusoniy
ds sptsajspuoi py "ds wnuyspiunnjg ds 11199807)
WAOXHAOUOTHD "ds nyjauung ‘ds p1yoszz1 Ny ds nwbrsoshiy
‘ds nubisounayg
‘ds yna1an NT
soe ve eee OOO O# OSE LIEO POROP OL On XE CEC. O80 AATIO vouodol 07}0U02.19)8 Y
eee a ee (ponutyu0)) ¢ aTavy,
125
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA
Hill x a fecal ail oat loo lf mao Sa RC BB er re arise ROSITA Tic ic Ge BAOJTUTLUBIO VNIGOOUVG Avg B}OSBIBG one xX x X xX x x Gm | > PB G50 08060: COROT 0150. ONO OO OTA ODO Gi GtO Oa ny GsnKo OOOO: OG 0 OO ds es Aeg eyosvieg |" "|* °° sl ee: (ape rRpagt aere NSS One gee 210 6 UssuddIOL DYZWHIDLL XOJNDAUOL) Self 2 -o Shiga o X é igen | PaO BOOS O 06S OO ORO O00, O08 Ue Qe Ost deo Gele Nale0iQ..0% 0-0. 0 :0.0-9 ds pee a TT ‘q ve) ‘YW xX x Xx Xx x x x SIME ODER ROAD OD Poon bon OOO An (S19quomys) 80.1090Y91L— Llc x | x dx dx foc feccdeedee cree cere (S1oquoaryy) sova00s00U— H ‘9D ‘a ‘O'V Xx x x x x Sid [Peo Gl) Sig OG G0 CHO TOO oo OO Omen ane QOTININ, “WE sodeuy~— H v@) ‘Vv se X xX Xx X Xx X OmollnoonoGodonobnvoanbGo4D Podacndn owns o . (daequoryn) snsn{— Sell sels otal cagrello See oemtlltac ae leetume | totaraes ater Gholi nether we Garaidans A (qorammexy) wnsuajze— ARS PINOT TST © (ELIT ics BRIG Yau il ee at itp <0 <li> rc al Nog toes" 27 J cs || Ogun REC Ose GCG a Saree (S1eqouly A) Dounf unyosag Avg BJ OSBIBG A ‘Vv X x X X X XK X ST (POR ets OS Oss UO cB Opp Oh 0) D8 Ria OLD BNL 1 te 6. ORG fri 1G JG eK 3 ‘ds WnWUWIpIsad Avg BJOSBIBG ‘ry xX X XK xX X x 600 B12 11K08 OO 09 ORO CLO OS ORO. OORT A 00-2 D EONS NSU FeO ea a RANA 0. A AO OynG ds ee. 5 pe aller s Hers Shane a Eid o|er || con eo o/s olbiotsey quem Omi mteceth sn ota quay vyopnno sishydourg Keg BYOsBIBG Coo Oo HOD GFOODDGOODNOD DO DG OOO (4 12,.40NYIS) ‘ds soyrsyhjoy keg BLOSOTE S| bes piesa alse ly ahaha bl aa aa fests oa sree sata iae aries Sey $U9089.1U0) ‘ds wniurporyI0) Avg BLOSBIBG ve) xX x x x X XK x Xx Ooo UOMO TD ero oD Oooo ooo ON on oon On ‘ds tat Avg BYLOSBIBG Todo colo o olla o olla ag HOGI O A oOWO Ooo oOooGoOn Gobo oo Do oo on ono oO Oa ON OF (é 1uosjau) ‘ds ps ret gy dec efecefe cede cede e ees POODUHOH HOH OG Homo dw HA yNYyoR saproquioy— Avg Byoswieg |-* 7} 7": ME ft RE ARS SRR pa Sia ag git eS (uUBWYOT) raydwis wniupouwmly se alae . Smet conaeal Koni OOWID OOO OD OOo UO bo Dob oOooDoOm Noob on hoo oO bo ooo ds WNAUIIOLOL J S20) OM So) Pa Bl Gay SaIz[BIOT 10YI}Q | ||| |__| NOILV.LG
(ponuryuoD) ¢ ATAV J,
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
126
GQqQq7”0”0Q@QQ ee SSSS——s—606Oa——w—a“$»“0qSSeeee SSS
I ‘T er v9) T WT ‘qd fo ‘F ‘VW Ses S| se Meals fos cle We ale re oie se ee ea den cm bs LAIV] oyeyoAjod 1ay410 , TNE || ei |e |e |e a oy | Se a jee a fel | es eee Noa ear at aca cere cari BAIL] snwagdoj@y) VGITANNV T ‘A ac | x X X x See eel ra ao fia sta eaeng cay ie) ssire hfe is si 90 fe) vo) a) 6's 61 @) ol a) oe VAI] elreuurldiq pue snoyntg VIVWYACONIHOL > GAS. (a ee) ia i ie ae ee a (nyojaund2q pus suvbaja Ajqeqoad) ‘ds — xX xX xX SSS ES Tae ests sched igs cee) Ss tal 2a) 5918) aL ig: gr ige! tg? terigiie/ ve! si oie ce 9) gle Te, is) @ epee get wh eliente Nenlesilenel irae pyoyfua obo VHALVNOQOLY HO Mest lee Sy gets, boule Geta os ose ee VUMAILOY VIAOLV LOY t uc ve) re aacollo oto xX xX xX S32 ||O 0 5) se po oooh oonn boo ooooo mondo obo ono dodu ODO nD OOo VINVTTTAA J, SGHINIWTAHALV Td 1‘H‘S ‘a ‘ad ‘J x xX xX X xX X cee BS | ase wanes te) leniepceeniib te jfel els Jee) iersie- Talia ie: devel ia)» (a) ln) (ee) (eee) ivimaptel ta}iel(e) sie) (aitehter Te WSOAGA KRY RY Ae See eal aes ( ds sahydig Surjquieser our0s ‘surIoJ |e10Aes) VUOHAONOHdIG VIVAALNATDO if Ene 0) 051 xX xX xX eee SFG OG CS OSHE DS OND OSC OC OOO COO 8G) OC Os0N 0) G5 016-920-0 19 0 Od G2d O.50 ds sajojdnig a ‘fy ‘Vv X xX xX xX xX xX X SS | tea Le) eso Lo Mle rely si oejceyte ie Ne)iie) (shai lolleike ie) enol wate Me Keitel Moh (oho aie ite w «te epmuUunynuty, eee 4 X xX xX 4 xX Sic) ||: ORO Os G80"0. 0-0 oD OOO oo OOOO mG OFC [Wey DULLOWU ndwuns01bn) J VLVITIO) I W 9) x X eee x Xx DG [iat ONO [ONCE UEONCRUECRC NCIC NCEORCEC Ove) es pis) se (oy is) teme feike Seniesa eialcwtie isviel 'e teitelen BLIB[OIPeYy
SorpT]eoory 10440 —|—|—|—|_|+_j — | — NOLLV.LG
S—v—e—u“M30c0c0O50Oo6O©0O161631SSF—ECn“—6Wa—<_"—«=«~eSOom0D ee oooSssssssSssSsSsS SSS (penur}u0D) g aTav,
127
PLANKTON OF THE WEST CCAST OF FLORIDA
= ~~ OM a Ane gs 2 © 5 If 5 8 S 4 eae Ao a)
mae = 8 ss Ss ze S 8 => Ses LSS 2s SE ~—
=
xX X xX xX xX oe xX oe eee eo we oh Oe heheheh lh JYVaIQSoLy snyanuou— xX ee ole © ole mw ole @ ol oe oo lw we wl we ow te eh wh eh he lhl tl hl (sued) snyonuazyo SnUD DIN X xX x xX Gcraloo olan olon coon won boon Kn OOO Oo NAAN (euvqd) siuobyna pynuipul)
wuecy szusoomusj}— x De oni On (OC (CR (OC CCC (snv[O) oun snunjo) BprlourleD vaodad0D
ee * ~ e S oS (a ~S’ 2) *~ y S AS = = 8 Ld = & ~ 3 = =
|
VW W xixixi x deecteccdeee 5 ee cc VdOOVaLsQ Tay Epis 2 pace |e san | ay | Sach) Bae | acl aaa Seatac crocus oct ne Oe (é Yyumyona}) ‘dg Uopog I W sp) Wy xix looeles: xl xl xd x ler nee (é 1UUDUpLOU) ‘ds auppay . 5 ae . (4 $1.1)8011)90.) ‘ds snaiao0jdun,) ee (2 snowueyds) ‘ds snuophy) 52 |[POG obo od nob oD OG0 aS boda Gon (2 S11}S011sN}q0) ‘ds pULUsOg 1K ‘qd oo dlloaé xilxi xi x] x fol es ner oe O43 0 © (2) ‘ds puosounydnug VaHoOdv Ty)
Vd0d0uUHLV
SOIyT]BOOTT 19YIO eS SS | a Ba ee ees NOLLVLG
(ponuyjuo0D) ¢ AITAV J,
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
128
abil a nD, Tom te Ecker eS Ee a Gives DypUqung— if ‘ x xX X x 58 ol) Cake CU ORE Cal HORT 25) Clank Om a ra CO eas LOO a i ICC Aa ea Tarr (sued) pia fyhys p.10ua J,
Ss ee sk ee ee ee “SUIBILIAMA S20U0L09 sniuojdoipopnas qT K [occ ees oi Faihel emer oaNe tcc YSIv JN snuvpr.oy— dita lie. se cc Cc Ce CC CC Bg Heese veer aeeeseseeees cigiBTAT srpuarddIssIssiUl Sa YSIB [Al 827Dsu0p snuoidorg ‘al ii al xilxixl x xd x declines (sue) snyoo.inf— xX ee ofe oe ote oe of e oe of oe © of se © of we wo ole 6 © ee we eh aes eniee 4 TOTIOY MA: ahipo.g sabodouuay Sa cn CC (CC CC (CC ee eee sneyo niafruds DUUBY T 5 a cn ec CC CC CC AC CC boohoo Snob oc Cece ar ds snunjpo0ydnog X ewe ete ew ete oe ote wm ole © ole oe oP se © of we ow we wo ew TO 0 8G a0 (uapuasyo (A ) snouyunpyo snunpwohyooig Fae in A CC (CC CC CC CC Sieg snnburdoud 5 aa occ) CC CC CC AC AC De ovis enor elewe SIBQ 827Da.109 snUDDIOYIUD Y Da cc cn Cc CC CC Cc Oi neti ete Kn CnsGy Bung (Ort Oni eu Cd, On0. ach One OMe, (Chu on Ooth aC ds DILYINADND T Fae a ec Cc CC CC CC DeUoooon ou ano uE (000g) SnIDULLO Snapus) X | X ».¢ DSi (Fame ads ES | nc a ae il Bus SIULOIUINIAD SNUDIDIOSND ay: 1 O 5 a ib ai (snBjO) snsojnunjd— Da > a en cc CC (sueq) oand snwpj090]0) x xX ee ete ew we foe wel o we wef eo ew ww ee we hh he yyaFQserLy) SVU10916U0} SNUD1NI0.10 FT
T | rT 7 “ny ‘Ky “T ‘a ‘a tS. ‘F xi/xix x |x x x |x [ocr ste es * *qyoorqsery snasod SnUDDIDLD I
SOI}ITBOO'T TOYO ee ee Bee [ee ee [Ee one eee oe NOILVEG
er
(penutjuoD) ¢ TIav J,
129
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA
I WT x)xtxlertl x deel x lx fee eens (euec) DOO 1))9}980.L90 JA C00] OOo own x [oceleocel x Peeler nesses se eser esses ss WORITM “Gf °C DIDbu0a DYanUDD relies let ao i Be (OG CC VC (CCC SnD) Dj0U0L09 nrpadibuory VAIOOLLOV dav FT Se CC AC Uo CC 80°00 G0 Od 0-0.) 00-0. WOuriecich.c oicuideUe: Ow ds ado90.1a0 Fy Kforce elesetescloee|eee SHON oN RsMomamevsilse vWrem eM esewenadteute God 00.000 0 U0 F008 Dei Det NOD ds npjarapyn 4 x [oceleredeeedeee]e- olooullogol|@oaooguovn0o 00D oO0b0-0 00500 Uenvgiver et eMetieiys) re -dg sisdowpu) Te 9 ‘a ‘a ‘9 ‘a ‘V ac OC NC CC WO tonynospmeNen alte te “eueq Dsu0j— Da ail eC CO CC DC CC UC ** AUDeIQSELD Bunp DIDWDIV Wireel|ie eforel xy NS eT MEY CAE GIES SOLOS SCLON ano eT 5 a once oc CC CC CC Cn Cn CC Ce elt ale " gueq vjownd vurpyjajuog ff | a Oa | | Sok DOH ONG || AG ENOL ORR OO tao ole Te ok reo to co IO[OOY AA Wpdau DIA;U0T T T ‘qd a ak ene xilxixix It x foo: Senet oy erenerier « SOO G0 000 OC "* JaPVey AA _DAYySae— eae 5 x ad ae CC AC Navn mitin Oe os . (euec) suoufynan DLa0PLQD'T I ‘a x xl xix decclesclee cde ee cee: 0-6 61010 0.110, 0-0°070-0 cod O10-090.0 [UBC punowawp nidounv,) T x") x cole ele wale rele saervee : : Bie eee woe (euec) pphjoophyood DIIDPUD/) xl x [oredr etereleeeleee]ee + | GecncnUne iononcar Sad ey Neen ee “**(sneqo) suosfrurds snpqny.l0.1aja FT xX xX ee ele solos eles Cec ee ° oe eee oe «oe one ee ee oe woo (snBio) siusoouinpl DUYNIINT x slice oslo ee ’ eleae Wquarvne. 6 Wie aC tec teens ow Wis aa Sate yooog swaonj— KX [ec clec tle sede s eles cles cleeelees reeteerreseessessses sauggtqsely) DPN0II0ILG 0101.19 IT
SOI}I[BOOT 19I9O Ba a ee ea ee NOILV.LG
6060.
(penutyu0D) ¢ aTaVy, oe
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
130
eee
I ‘H‘d
=I ta ta ta ta
W ‘da ‘Vv ° Koa ex ae Xa ex ak 2 |/pcalece| foe A Sete set dee el [eae al] ate TC 1S Ee || Ss lhe S387 |p Sige bee If BX a | Bl ses ta Pies bees xixibx
e ‘I ‘9D ‘a ‘a ‘a ‘Oo ‘a ‘V
oh IA EM ay Soy]B00T 10430 NOILVLG
evel ensenenennennennsensnseanennnsssnannsnsennsnemneessremeemeeene=eneneeeen a ee re a a a cea Sse STsSSSisstsSosSs Sts estas sustcatussa=tsousustuaraarosunstelasansvaaijunasanarainsseaulsussnsanispansapeyesaseeraspanomsnemeneaeemenernpetemmrmenremamarmnn
ey eiceh [i apsaniaihiaeewl ces (pen ie) (4) (6 <a! fee) ce: vce, ie (oe @l er jes 6) @ «) @) 0) @) © 2) = \e) 0 #6) @ (es 6) © eo
sued snsnjqo— SNeID snzobuoja snw#ohs0g
ey 80 owl] cae ‘eiiseht! @) @).@ fife) e)-6) a! se) « (6 6) wie) ios" a “© ie .e) © .e' 8) 6) © © 0) 0 6 = eis ©
“lhcae xucwn| (eee ta Oot abel tal Up ateces wre ceccan tise fal ely at (aatas av AC aise Ua) ter el leds. oie? ant va snep punwyjinds Dryooqqn T
G) 6, 16) ei “¢) e: (pia) er (a) (@ (0) Oo sa) a5 e) wre wu) © (6: 1¢ in) 10) lap piel ete. Ss
iddipiyg vysnuaa—
qyIIIQselLy DInUuLU—
"*}O9IQSerr Diafiwoo vxeIUQ
Sites Soe ee eA Te es i eT CIC ie Youth Om eee é ‘ds snbjowmoysuv.og
ST CP Te oe a Sun in Se Clan Facer) eo. (a9Yost7) SN4DINLLIS—
eee es eo ee we wo ee $2 © © ee eo oe wee (a94ost7) snurspid sdopohoniay es ds sdopfip
©) cea 18) “er 16) fe, .¢ (0) 0; fat ee! ce)-.6 5 1m 6) 6) 0) (0) ye: ie) ta; @) sat @) elkie; @) 9
~*~ ta ta
ta ta
““qyoa1qserD DuDu DuuoynC Will iaprotaste tke tole te fondltave Po todts Fake ta ats nine saw am pareg viafuunjd nuoyng ValOdO1IOAD) SEE Hie is 9 ODEO 0855.05.05 OL 010 40D 2.0.0 SO .9 eploooedie yy peyyuepiuy CC CC eo eevee (Aptig) DIDAISOL DijpsauMaghy) sued vpoJaffa DID eee eae SO NE (SES) SITIO Eacushavaksnyeo¥saWanee Sok ckaWabePsWaeoksh tone “-(eueq) sepopib vyajososoD py ds azuoydovT] SIG | FyO Os D Oe GO Op trate 0 oe ee 6 6 6 © oe we (euvq) SUOLLINID nurdiagniy
va ~*~
ete ele ec of e ee
tad tae
Galxoale
(ponuyuoD) g aTavy,
131
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA
VW ‘a ‘FT aarti ise iaete x x x x x a (‘ds lafian'y) durrys prysed.10g vdadodvouqd acl gent ae raster lore rareta|tonae aegis Gs ayn hand Mg dtoow EDF o aca shohe ag @Arey podoyeu104s 104309 RNA es seed ge Petal feel b lees sees sees eee sees eset sree ese teee ga rer onenbel VdOd0LVWOLG all eat <ilem Sere ge bce erate ats dese Ser Pa at als es eta yaoarHawy q NA non aya aolo wallo co ollato olhaa oly eo ohn A nee yao Aono oO auInog snsourdsibuo0} SNaDUNDY, TF, GPLO][Lt}SUO JA] seta get [eo al Pecccall be 9 ll laa Se el cas ae ees aA age sone eur syrqnuu vyrdoy WL *9) oe Sigil DEO O10 Gs) D080 1] 0201/60 oH 50) O" OGIO OG sta OQ ORY HAO": G0'G' 00,6 0.0 OGG D030 OOO DOUG ds ss RR < Perens sees ogners pypmonuoibiu— ie Pay Hes ec > ts grees ee irate lee eal foestavesteatora orccdiom, oo teeso cee ofa eran qyporqsory) «p10a— Seal ose eceal oc ails altered eval oc Ballo oa Meera Apter ame eae gua, visnbun pu.nyddog 0 5 ae ed Cc CC CC DC OC esaeipt aw Caadiaiical xa Uteriawaleen aiaeuta’ st tol oem cutest ds — I W xX X xX xX 5 a oc (490.1qSOrD)) pyoULsDoo pyaohso/) XK Sig POCO. 0 Oyo oo Se [fiche ne) Coie) Ln) cer siose) seisfoiln) so) celselte) Xo! Ae) ko) hnsi*iie] a) 0] fe sie) Gols@ mat lke Me) eine nTelgenaifele ds yy I ‘HH 9) 4 xX xX xX xX 52 Wid 80 8.9 0050 00 07D 9.0°0°6 60 0.6 "GRO UOSTIM 9 W SnUndLawUo— c T aE =o) “A af ‘d 9) ‘q ‘Vv X x x X x X Bt | OOD. |ONONGEG, ORORO “SR OEO FOO "OG! GEO 70 ONG Gsoras drasOsGro ord OC sued snjsnuai— Eola Bit deol Lolere Pa |e Not ah eho Say Or ete die, ci (4) snip sxn00— Se | = decls aul] ee Allee a ovkal| 43 Salle Wl aa 6 eas GE Mem enie AN (qyoorqsory arunp— AE od ly Sa lO ie et ais AE le ae | ad jeter ence. GME sero am CRBS MPer terete wun snsoreds—
soly[Voory 19Y3O ee ee Sie ee eee NOILVLG
(penunuo0D) ¢ AITAV J],
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
132
H ‘d eee xX xX xX xX X xX xX CT 2 2? BAIV] ysl] I x xX see xX Si | aoc eer S| | OPE On Teed OI EIQ AO SO Tar OOO SU POC UI eR OR OBO OSE CN Cl Ue ie CRUE SCT Bg C7) 330 Usty VLVUEGLAt A vie el | sae x x Sg a a a aa CCR RS Ua RR NTS (SI HVT Ww ‘tc T ‘H 9) cf ‘d ‘9 ‘Vv X 4 xX xX x x x Soo Ieee ed anen oo fenisi ab inn ohiesi(ehcenieh eh sk oh eh isha sh ch ep eiohionieh cx.en abet (De "ds pilojnaipuadd y VLVOINO J, VIVGdYOHO H 9) Maaco ite coma) | elaeetot |Komcy |euret sh |tsicphed |tisin dey ef ll sucenieil lien alas cic‘ eac“on reir (eh fou wivehycu tom (et covi/alson 6) cep ‘ax. @) <ol piioucon euvehan ou catiar «homeo toM ey cero BAIB] pinbg yaodo1vHday) I ‘A ‘ry “A “Wy ‘d ‘yy ‘a ‘Vv xX xX x x xX X X SS | res sen cralth Leake sich shan 2hCod =a Buell ooh “Nea l2hchi = eo) MCeaced CORI CHAS BVAIV] podAsejed I9Y4.0 pig fctocbecfotx |x fx [x feccc cece etree ere eee eee BAIv] snUa A a lchctdoctch x | x fx fx [occ c cece eee eee eee easel (4) U9}0aq vdodA0NIag X 4 xX BS) Masse Ca [Pease 9) | asap ica Cab fasta fheg sed, |nq th cehilph (ob (od puKwe 92 (ex 9h (eyled eh eh sn lan (el (Saou: vaeh in (0) 3 Meh iohividomivinenneltele! (o Memy, Tyan epodo104q TU T WI si Bee el ‘Gd ‘Kf ‘F WW xilxixl xi xl xl x | x lec eee eee ees + BAIR] podoasexy VdadOdOuLsv+) VOSATION WT ‘H ‘1K a | “A ‘d ‘ x x xX 4 XK xX xX S| 30: GOB 0x0 0800000) 0805008 On ONGEORO: COPD Dit BAI] (einAyovag)— 9) ‘a aketial haerts x loc] x x 5 ae AIC] (prue]}9010q) qeig H 9) a | ‘ry ¥@) ‘dd ‘Vv 4 xX x XK X X X da | ION O ES OECD EDS ICONICTONCEC O/C ON Cs Te ClOHOSOM CU aCuCiC On CD Ca CEOUGE CIS BAIV] durtayg
sorT]B00'T I9Y1O ees ae a As eS es a ee ee NOILVILG
(penunuo)) ¢ AI1dV J,
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 133
PLANKTON COUNTS AND VOLUMES
The counts and volumes given in Tables 4 and 5 would indi- cate that the waters of coastal Florida are poor in plankton. The highest count shown, that of a half million plankters per liter of water, does not compare favorably with counts of millions of organisms per liter, which are not unusual for the North Atlantic. We believe, however, that the variety of plankton in Florida’s waters cannot be rivaled by that of northern waters. For example, a tow made Oct. 12, 1949, in which 1600 liters of water were strained, yielded 1.0 ml. of plankton material from which 33 species of copepods and 11 genera of diatoms were identified, plus several dinoflagellates and a variety of invertebrate larvae.
On the average, both the highest counts and the greatest plankton volumes were secured in coastal water at the 5 fathom station. In general, from that point offshore, the quantity of plank- ton varied inversely with the depth; however, the number of species present seems to vary in the same manner as the depth.
GENERAL SUMMARY
It has been stated that of all aquatic communities, that of marine coastal areas is the most cosmopolitan, including as it does not only neritic but also oceanic forms carried coastwards by currents, brackishwater and even freshwater forms carried down from the estuaries, epiphytes detached by wave action and lastly, bottom life swept up from the substratum. The plankton collections described in this paper, which number approximately 75, were taken throughout such a coastal environment and show —not the presence of a great abundance of plankton—but an exceedingly varied flora and fauna, with the dominant forms being the diatoms and the copepods. An attempt has been made to become generally familiar with the so-called normal or typical plankton constituents, their relative abundance and distribution. As the work continues, studies will be made to determine the nature of seasonal cycles or successions of plankton in these tem- perate to sub-tropical waters.
Particularly detailed records are being kept on the dinofla- gellate population, with the possibility that fluctuations in their abundance may—when sufficient data are available—be related to certain definite biological, chemical or physical changes in the Gulf water and thus solve, to a certain extent, the mystery of the red tide in this area.
JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
134
8N8N888868N<V6—0——“—-~“«~“=~—0“X—M——es—Sss“aaoawaoawaoOoO“OoOma oS
08s GOL ‘9 908‘S 609 ‘ZS IP6 ‘IFT | 688‘Z8 Gre ZEle e6e'Gg “|S a es - OSBIOAY 88¢ 02S PEE ‘Tt - 968 ‘2% LET ‘SZ POF‘ SPS | S00‘S8E OO Go S8| Be Res (1940990) 2 ZOF F9E 6EP'T SSI ‘G Gr Sethe Ss LNGAST nn (EOL OOCe| SO (taquieydag) 9 WSIA OU | PISIA OU | FISTA OU —||-_:-9GS‘08 96¢°1ZE | SZt‘og ZG LT VOOR We A ee (qsnsny) ¢ HISIA ou 229 ‘T 862 ‘T LPP ‘9 Ge Oo OO RNOMOR Gun UT Det OMOmon oO 992 ‘9 SPP ‘69 CURe) 0, @ 4) ie; (ele eo: a 64) 16) 6) 6 emewane (Ayn) P VISTA Ou fe) eee ie) (ui ce) ce; eM eile elets; et-eie idias © fe. 0: ei (@) “al eimurie! efiice, ce Ne) 10: 0) 0: ie) ete GOT ‘9 12S ‘06 069 ‘12zZ a Wal, e: jo Mele) ewrel se) ata 0s) ete Wve: ce (eunr) e VISTA ou 910‘'F ‘c) a) ems © /elishie! et Z16‘0S SEF‘ FZ 000‘ £9 ORO) 0 BCR | OWOSSO Os OM MOT FOC UBOS ICD CACHE Onl | OWS io) SOMOSOS Oat Gide sbac O05 (eunr) Z 06 166 ‘9Z $99‘ OT GOP ‘6z 9ZF‘Z0Z | 986‘ZS [99-729 [S819 Gi lia Bae (ABI) T 8 2 9 G i g fz I 7. |) Ln De. i a ne aa ae | ee eee LISI A NOLLV.LG
8888s ooo
Ta}8M JO Joy] tod suustues1Q Jo dequinyy ur syunoD uojyULTYg [v0] —F WAVY,
135
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA
G000° 1Z00° C100° $600" 1620" 1200° 6810" ETO te Bh we ee OdBIOAV 9000° G000° 1000° L010° 1800" 6Z10° 1S00° REO0 ee gfe a Sa (1940390) 2 F000" $000" 6000° Z100° 7O00 = | See 120° R60 a 2 2 ee (toqurezdog) 9 qISIA OU | YISTA OU | 4ISIA OU 1220" 9080" 0800° £Z00° 0900" > Sha eo aa (qsnany) ¢ JISTA ou 9000° 9000° T£00° ©) Oum Tulve) ee) 6) 0) 6 FF00' FIO’ 9°10° Yoet OU ooy0 OD OOO raga (Ayn) P VISTA ou @ vi ienletay eps (8. tw) CRIM 6. ete tad-©) ‘eee: ele: i6: @) 0 16 celtemie ce ev)\e, ometips we le Me. 0) ue 9100" e910" 9220 orem) | \Nitecre’ ce: (elanuie™ (GIEU) oval (ariel eurel_el (6i-6) le (eunr) e JISIA ou 2Z00° Teo ea) Groen veo G600° Z0ZO0" T800 sh Pel ca; 0; “ante 0) 0) e186) (alli ntday es, ehve) 0, eve) 0; e0)) ol .w) fe: elves ‘es: (0) 5 etre) pe els) isu pits (eunr) Z F000" G900° 2800° $r00° 6580" 8200" 11Z0° “1900S 3" Re Sa es “(ABIN) T 8 yi 9 G v ¢ Z if ——_—_§_]!| | q_!oiiii_i.}7 oo $ $ icxzc |__| — |oOi i i c cc oi ¢ —— LIST A, NOLLViLG
‘Wd Ut 0002 78 SeynUryy] DAL] SuIBNLIyUID 104j8 ‘19yVA\ JO JoYITT 19d spljog Jo SAopTIT[IA, SB possordxyy sournjoA YuUowsoK[dsIq] UOJYULTG—'G aAIAV],
136 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
LITERATURE CITED
CLARK, G. L. and BUMPUS, D. F. 1940. The plankton sampler—an instrument for quantitative plankton in- vestigations. Limnol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Publ. No. 5, pp. 1-8.
DAVIS, CHARLES C.
1947. Two monstrilloids from Biscayne Bay, Florida. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 66(4): 890-395.
1948a. Gymnodinium brevis sp. nov., a cause of discolored water and animal mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Bot. Gaz., 109(3): 358-860.
1948b. Notes on the plankton of Long Lake, Dade County, Florida, with descriptions of two new copepods. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10(2-3): 79-88.
FLORIDA STATE BOARD OF CONSERVATION and the MIAMI LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI 1948. The red tide. Educational Series No. 1, pp. 1-14.
FOSTER, E. 1904. Notes on the free-swimming copepods of the waters in the vicinity of the Gulf Biological Station, Louisiana. Gulf Biol. Sta.,-2nd Rep., (1903), Bull. No. 2, pp. 69-79.
GALTSOFF, PAUL S. ‘1948. Red Tide. Progress report on the investigations of the cause of the mortality of fish along the West Coast of Florida conducted by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and cooperating organizations. U. S. Dept. of the Int., Fish and Wildlife Service, Sp. Sci. Rep. No. 46, pp. 1-44. 1949. The mystery of the red tide. Sci. Mo., 68(2): 108-117.
GIESBRECHT, W. 1892. Systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des Golfes von Neapel und der Angrenzenden Meeres. Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel. Bd. 19. R. Friedlander und Sohn, Berlin.
GUNTER, G., SMITH, F. G., WALTON and WILLIAMS, R. H. 1947. Mass mortality of marine animals on the lower west coast of Florida, November 1946-January 1947. Science, 105(2723): 256-257.
GUNTER, G., WILLIAMS, R. H., DAVIS, C. C., and SMITH, F. G. WALTON 1948. Catastrophic mass mortality of marine animals and coincident phyto- plankton bloom on the west coast of Florida, November 1946 to
August 1947. Ecol. Mon., 18:3809-324.
HERRICK, C. L. 1887. Contribution to the fauna of the Gulf of Mexico and the South. Memoirs of the Denison Scientific Assoc., Granville, Ohio.
KING, GLADYS S. 1949. Production of red tide in the laboratory. Proc. Gulf and Carib. Fish. Inst. In press.
a
PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 137
MARSH, C. DWIGHT 1926. On a collection of Copepoda from Florida, with a description of Diaptomus floridanus, new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 70(10): 1-4,
NOLAND, L. E. 1936-37. Observations on marine ciliates of the Gulf Coast of Florida. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 55-56:160-171.
PENN, G. H. 1947. Branchipoda and Copepoda of the New Orleans area as recorded by Ed Foster in the early 1900’s. Proc. La. Acad. Sci., 10:189-193.
WELCH, PAUL S. 1948. Limnological Methods. pp. i-xvii, 1-381. The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia, Pa.
WILSON, MILDRED S. 1949. A new species of copepod of the Genus Corycaeus from the North American Coast. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 99(3239): 321-326.
WILSON, C. B. 1932. The copepods of the Woods Hole Region, Massachusetts. U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 158, pp. i-xix, 1-623.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(2), 1949 (1950)
oe. (yb OF
1
Ware i: i» reo Mec} ee to aotnilty aon 0 20
rif te >) “4 ada ee oi nisi wt “sits Brie) PRL ABSTOP oe Bear at Preieheone
i). pies mer ME me EO SSA | Yes notiginaesth 4 “daw . eR 7
oath ese Forth bt qaivege wad s
} [xr é Cave a este > ra oe . J se
a ee Jus Lehn: Gat, banat: Saas oe
| Sealitaeis ot
2 “ &
IF a ce : wy (, ee +3 f oeiislt ei? 186-1 Jive ge
» %
MT! 7 wpe 2 aistae). on i —
Syeuskonraalt stage | ak Bates is tie: Bie f “ait a
i (Agee 7
oo Oe
y Sy a
(Oost) ent (2)8f ee
ACUTE BENIGN NONSPECIFIC PERICARDITIS IN A SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE
Etwyn Evans, M.D. Orlando, Florida,
The pericardium is a sac around the heart and inflammation of it is called pericarditis. Pericarditis is more likely to be sec- ondary than primary. It may be secondary to systematic disease such as septicemia (a blood stream infection), active rheumatic fever, or uremia (where the kidneys fail), and is not uncommon as a terminal event. F requently it is secondary to coronary artery occlusion. The coronary arteries are the arteries that supply the heart itself with blood. When these become obstructed, a portion of heart muscle frequently dies and an area of pericarditis ap- pears over this nectrotic region.
Acute benign nonspecific pericarditis is an acute inflammation of the pericardium from which no specific organism is recovered and which eventually subsides without obvious permanent ill effects. It doubtlessly is a common disease but it is not often recognized and relatively little has been published about it. Barnes and Burchell of the Mayo Clinic reported 14 cases in 1942 and stated that acute benign nonsuppurative pericarditis is an important problem and that there must be instances in daily practice in which the lack of appreciation of distinctions result in mistaking acute pericarditis for acute coronary occlusion. Logue and Wendkos after their army experiences stated that the benign form of acute pericarditis is still not well known and that cases are being overlooked. The diagnosis is usually not difficult if one thinks of the possibility of pericarditis. Specific diagnosis is important because the immediate and ultimate prognosis as well as management is quite different in acute pericarditis than in coronary occlusion. Because of the importance of acute benign nonspecific pericarditis, ten cases seen in private practice in Cen- tral Florida were reviewed.
Several authors have commented upon associated respiratory infections and recurrences. Five and probably six of our patients had multiple attacks. Previous recent upper respiratory infections occurred in six. Chest X-rays revealed pneumonitis in two more. Two attacks appeared following acute gastroenteritis.
140 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Pain has been the outstanding symptom in all reports and aggra- vation of pain by body motion, turning, or even swallowing, has been emphasized because it rarely occurs in coronary occlusion, especially early. Pain aggravated by body motion or deep respira- tion was present in all our cases. It was substernal in seven; re- ferred to the left shoulder in three (inner aspect of left arm in one of these), and to the upper abdomen in four. The intensity varied from slight to severe. The onset was sudden in seven pa- tients, four of whom were pale and clammy and appeared acutely ill, Acute coronary occlusion was the original diagnosis in four cases.
A pericardial friction rub may or may not be audible, or faint, and limited to a certain phase of respiration. Its frequency, of course, will vary with carefulness with which it is looked for. A pericardial friction rub was heard early in nine of our patients. It was widespread in five and limited to systole in three. Systole is the period during which the heart is contracting. It was heard in four only because it was suspected and carefully sought. In the five patients with widespread rubs, the rub could be heard for three to seven days. In the four with faint rubs, it was audible for only one or two days. Widespread and early friction rubs are important in diagnosis because pericardial rubs secondary to myo- cardial infarction are rarely widespread and usually do not ap- pear for several days to a week.
Nine had moderate and variable fever; eight increased sedi- mentation rates; and seven moderate leukocytosis. The sedimen- tation rate is the distance that the red blood cells sediment out in one hour. It is increased in certain conditions. Moderate and variable increases in fever, leucocyte counts and sedimentation rates were observed by most investigators, but Barnes and Burchell rarely found leucocytosis.
Electrocardiographic changes indicative of pericarditis were present in nine cases (slight in one of these), and absent in one. The changes in general conformed to those previously reported. Serial changes were especially important. Absence of changes diag- nostic of coronary occlusion with myocardial infarction were also important. Occlusion of a coronary artery robs an area of heart muscle of its blood supply and causes it to die. This dead area is called an infarction. Such an area usually causes an initial
ACUTE BENIGN NONSPECIFIC PERICARDITIS 141
downward deflection of the ventricular complex in the electro- eardiogram called a Q wave. Abnormal Q waves are absent in uncomplicated pericarditis.
Two patients had chronic rheumatic valvular disease. Recur- rence of acute rheumatic carditis was ruled out by the clinical course and the absence of joint pains and prolonged PR intervals (a certain electrocardiographic change indicative of impaired conduction between the auricles and ventricles). Nay and Boyer found that joint pains preceded the pericarditis in 22 of 25 pa- tients with rheumatic pericarditis, and the PR interval was pro- longed in 36 percent. The absence of these findings does not rule out rheumatic carditis, however, but the clinical course in our patients was not what one usually would expect in a rheumatic patient. One patient was a 61 year old female with chronic rheu- matic valvular lesions who gave a history of a sickly childhood. She was discharged from the hospital clinically well two weeks after the onset of symptoms of pericarditis. The other was a 4 year old male with mitral stenosis (a chronic rheumatic lesion) who had one attack of rheumatic fever at the age of seven. Sub- sternal pain was present for two hours 24 hours after the onset of acute gastroenteritis. (There were numerous gastro-intestinal upsets in the community at the time.) Fever up to 101.5 degrees persisted for one day and the patient felt well thereafter. A faint pericardial rub could be heard during systole for one day. Serial electrocardiograms showed changes indicative of pericarditis. In- cidentally, during the period the patients with nonspecific peri- carditis were observed, three and probably four patients were seen with rheumatic carditis and pericarditis.
Although Bing reported epidemic pericarditis, his evidence justi- fying such a term is far from convincing. He reported five cases which appeared in a large hospital during the course of a year. It is of interest, however, that I should see eight cases in a moderatly populated area in a subtropical climate during the course of one year. Of further interest along these lines is the fact that one of the patients developed mild pericarditis after vis- iting another. No other possible contact transmission has been reported in the literature. It is possible that pericarditis in the two patients may have been fortuitous. Both occurred when there were more respiratory infections in the community than usual.
142 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Penicillin was given to eight patients but its value could not be determined because the disease is self-limited and its course frequently brief. The response appeared to be dramatic in one case, however. This patient appeared critically ill and his heart was large. Improvement was rapid and there was a striking spon- taneous reduction of heart size to normal in nine days.
Four of five patients showed significant enlargement of the cardiac silhouettes on X-ray. All hearts reverted to normal size within relatively short periods without pericardiocentesis. Peri- cardiocentesis is a procedure in which a needle is inserted into the pericardial sac and the fluid removed.
All patients recovered without apparent permanent ill effects.
An eleventh case was recently seen in consultation on one occa- sion. This patient was not followed carefully by me. The patient had precordial pain made worse by motion. He also had moderate leucocytosis, fever, and an increased sedimentation rate. Serial electrocardiographic changes were typical of acute pericarditis.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
‘1. Eleven cases of acute benign nonspecific pericarditis seen in private practice in a subtropical climate are presented.
2. The predominant complaint in each case was chest pain aggravated by body motion or deep respiration.
3. A pericardial friction rub was heard early in nine cases.
4, Electrocardiographic changes indicative of pericarditis were present in ten cases. The findings were altered in two cases be- cause of super-imposed “left ventricular strain.”
5. Differentiation from acute coronary occlusion is emphasized.
6. A case of possible contact transmission is reported.
7. Pericardiocentesis is not indicated unless there is evidence of serious cardiac tamponade (embarrassment of heart action be- cause of compression of the heart by the fluid confined within the pericardium ).
8. Acute benign nonspecific pericarditis is doubtlessly more common and more widespread than generally realized.
LITERATURE CITED
BARNES, A. R., and BURCHELL, H. B. 1942. Acute pericarditis simulating acute coronary occlusion, A Report of Fourteen Cases. Am. Heart J., 23:247.
ACUTE BENIGN NONSPECIFIC PERICARDITIS 143
WOLFF, L. 1944. Acute pericarditis simulating myocardial infarction. New England J. Med., 230:422. COFFEN, C. W., and SCARF, M. 1946. Acute pericarditis simulating acute coronary occlusion. Am. Heart P=S2:515. BING, H. I. 1988. Epidemic pericarditis. Acta Med. Scandinav., 80:29. FINKELSTEIN, D., and KLAMER, M. J. 1944. Pericarditis associated with primary atypical pneumonia. Am. Heart J., 28:385. ; NATHAN, D. A., and DOTHE, R. A. 1946. Pericarditis with effusion following infections of the upper respira- tory tract. Am. Heart J., 31:115. NAY, R. M., and BOYER, N. H. 1946. Acute pericarditis in young adults. Am. Heart J., 32:222. SMALLEY, R. E., and RUDDOCK, J. C. 1946. Acute pericarditis: A study of eighteen cases among service personnel. Ann. Int. Med., 25:799. LOGUE, R. B., and WENDKOS, M. H. 1948. Acute pericarditis of benign type. Am. Heart J., 36:587. HERMANN, G., and SCHWAB, E. H.
1938. Alterations in the electrocardiogram in diseases of the pericardium. Arch. Int. Med., 55:917.
PEEL, A. A. F. 1934. On the occurrence of the so-called “coronary T wave” in electro- cardiograms from cases of pericarditis. Glasgow Med. J., 122:149.
VANDER VEER, J. B., and NORRIS, R. F. 1937. Electrocardiographic changes in acute pericarditis. Am. Heart J., 14:31. BELLET, S., and MacMILLAN, T. M. 1938. Electrocardiographic patterns in acute pericarditis, evolution, causes and diagnostic significance of patterns in limb and chest leads; a study of fifty-seven cases. Arch. Int. Med., 61:881. ‘VANDER VEER, J. B., and NORRIS, R. F. 1989. The electrocardiographic changes in acute pericarditis; clinical and pathological study. J.A.M.A., 118:1488. BURCHELL, H. B., BARNES, A. R., and MANN, F. C. 1939. The electrocardiographic picture of experimental localized pericard- itis. Am. Heart J., 18:188. NOTH, P. H., and BARNES, A. R. 1940. Electrocardiographic changes associated with pericarditis. Arch. Int. Med., 65:291. GRAYBIEL, A., McFARLAND, R. A., GATES, D. C., and WEBSTER, F. A. 1944, Analysis of alschocdidiogeams obtained from ik 000 young, healthy aviators. Am. Heart J., 27:524.
144 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STEWART, C. B., and MANNING, G. W.
1944. Detailed analysis of the electrocardiograms of 500 R.C.A.F. aircrew. Am. Heart J., 27:502.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(2), 1949 (1950)
are
BOOK REVIEWS
The Mayflies of Florida by Lewis BERNER
University of Florida Studies, Biological Science Series [V(4), 1950. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida. $5.50.
Back in 1923, when Dr. J. Speed Rogers first occupied the “settee of biology” at the University of Florida, there was a gen- eral feeling that the fauna of northern Florida was only an im- poverished extension of that of southern Georgia, lacking any great interest for the taxonomist or ecologist. Since then the series of taxonomic-ecologic papers on various groups of animals produced by Rogers students and associates shou'd have dispelled any such belief. If any doubt should remain, however, Lewis Berner’s Mayflies of Florida will furnish the quietus. It may seem that‘the mayllies might offer fewer possibilities in Florida than many other orders of insects, but it takes only a few minutes of reading to realize that this is far from the truth. In fact, the mayflies of northern Florida, actually present as interesting problems as do the craneflies, crayfish, and other groups.
When Dr. Berner began his work, the number of mayfiies recorded from the state could easily have been inscribed on a 3 x 5 card. His final list comprising 48 species seems large con- sidering the small size of the area studied and the fact that vast tracts are suitable for only a very few common species capable of breeding in the standing water of swamps, marshes, and Ever- glades. A casual examination of the distribution maps shows that ‘there are two very distinct “peaks” of abundance for mayflies in Florida. These correspond very clearly to the areas in which fairly swift streams occur. Together these areas probably represent less than one-fifth of the state, making the number of species all the more remarkable.
For those who need a modern discussion of the taxonomic characters, relationships, and habitat distribution of the mayflies, the introductory material is highly recommended. There is also a discussion of the zoo-geography which is invaluable in under- standing the present distribution of the group in Florida. A work- able illustrated key to the genera and species found in Florida is provided for determination of specimens, and each genus and
146 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
species is exhaustively discussed particularly in regard to taxonomy, distribution, and ecological relationships.
One of the notable features of this book is the series of beauti- ful wash-drawings of mayflies prepared by Miss Esther Coogle. Watch for their reproduction in standard entomology texts because they are outstanding. The plates, maps, and other illustrations are all original, and together with the excellent typography add greatly to the appearance of the book. The completed work isa fine combination of scholarly research, artistic scientific illustrating, and outstanding scientific editing. It may well serve as a model of its type.
F. N. Youne (Indiana University) —
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Contributions to the Journal may be in any of the fields of the sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings will be published only with the financial cooperation of the author. Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or other competent critics.
MANUSCRIPT FORM.——(1) typewrite material, using one side of paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal margins; (3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight (avoid onion skin); (4) do not submit carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) footnotes should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short; (8) for bibliographic style, note closely the practices employed in Vol. 11, No. 4 and later issues; (9) a factual summary is recommended for longer papers.
ILLUSTRATIONS.——Photographs should be glossy prints of good contrast. Make line drawings with India ink; plan linework and lettering for at least one-half reduction. Do not use typewritten labels on the face of the drawings; provide typed legends on sepa- rate sheets.
PROOF.——Proof should be corrected immediately upon receipt and returned at once, with manuscript, to the editor. Ordinarily page proof will not be sent to the author. Manuscripts and plates will not be returned to authors unless requested. Abstracts and orders for reprints should be sent to the editor along with corrected galley proof.
REPRINTS.——Should be ordered when galley proof is returned. A blank form, with reprint prices, accompanies proof for this purpose. No reprints are furnished free to authors. Payment for reprints will be made by authors directly to the printer.
INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
_ Florida Southern College John B. Stetson University Lakeland, Florida DeLand, Florida Florida State University — St. Petersburg Junior College Tallahassee, Florida St. Petersburg, Florida University of Florida Rollins College Gainesville, Florida Winter Park, Florida Jacksonville Junior College University of Miami Jacksonville, Florida Coral Gables, Florida University of Tampa Glidden-Naval Stores Tampa, Florida ; Jacksonville, Florida
Rose Printing Company Tallahassee, Florida
stds
‘i, A, ‘v1 a te, to ms (eAF iret s 4} Tee, ns
Quarterly Journal
of the
Florida Academy of Sciences
Vol. 12 September 1949 (1950) No. 3
Contents
Moopy—A Strupy oF THE Natural History OF THE SPOTTED Trout, CYNOSCION NEBULOSIS in the Cedar Key, Florida, pte Nato asc ey lg 147
Rem—TuHeE FisHEs OF ORANGE LAKE, FLORIDA -__.__....-------------- 173
SOKOLOFF, REDD, AND DuTCHER— VITAMIN “‘P PROTECTION PRPPSPEEBEMEION, 2082 2 a)
SOKOLOFF, REDD, AND DuTCHER—NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MAn- GROVE LEAvES (RHIZOPHORA MANGLE L.)_.. 191
McLanr—NotTes ON THE Foop OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK Bass, MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES FLORIDANUS (LESuEUR), IN TEE a et De ta RTE 195
McLane—NotTES ON AN APPARENT “RAIN OF ORGANIC MATTER RACERS eee Pari tre Beier 203
Vou. 12 SEPTEMBER 1949 (1950) No. 3
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida
Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor,’Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. All ex- changes and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Subscription price, Three Dollars a year Mailed September 28, 1950
MAE *QUARTERLY JOURNAL »OF «THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 12 SEPTEMBER 1949 (1950) No. 8
A STUDY OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT, CYNOSCION NEBULOSUS, IN THE CEDAR KEY, FLORIDA, AREA.1
WILLIAM DEAN Moopy
The spotted trout, Cynoscion nebulosus Cuvier and Valenciennes, is one of the most important commercial food fishes of Florida and probably the most sought after marine game fish of the shallow inshore waters of the state. The range of the spotted trout is very extensive and is continuous from Chesapeake Bay to Texas. The species is known by a variety of common names throughout the course of its range. Along the west coast of Florida it is commonly known as spotted trout, speckled trout, saltwater trout or seatrout, or simply as trout.
The spotted trout is one of four species of the genus Cynoscion which occur between Chesapeake Bay and Texas. The gray trout, squeteague, or weakfish, C. regalis, shares the Atlantic range of the spotted trout but extends farther to the north. It is found from Cape Cod to eastern Florida and is especially abundant in the Chesa- peake Bay region. The gray trout is similar in most respects to the spotted trout, but apparently does not occur in the Gulf of Mexico., Commercially it is the most important of the sea trout. The sand trout, C. nothus, occurs from Chesapeake Bay to Texas and has often been confused with the gray trout along the Atlantic coast. The other species, C. arenarius, is often mistaken for C. nothus which it closely resembles, and is commonly known as sand trout or silver trout. This latter form is the sand or silver trout of com- mercial importance in the Gulf of Mexico, and does not occur along the Atlantic coast.
1A Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida.
OCT 3 - 1959
148 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Along the west coast of Florida the spotted trout is by far the most important and abundant of the sea trout. In Chesapeake Bay and along the coast of the South Atlantic states and in Texas waters considerable natural history data has been collected on the species, but little work has been undertaken along the west coast of penin- sular Florida. Much of the knowledge of the natural history of the spotted trout has been gathered incidental to investigations of the commercially more important and more readily available gray trout of the Atlantic. In many cases the number of specimens of C. nebu- losus collected with C. regalis was not very large, and little-known habits of this species were often assumed to be similar to those of regalis.
George Brown Goode (1884) compiled natural history data on the spotted trout. His observations were made along the North Car- olina coast, and included meager notes on distribution and move- ments, breeding seasons, growth, and migrations. Eigenmann (1901) studied the natural history, especially the food habits of young squeteague in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. Welsh and Breder (1924), in a study of the Sciaenidae of the eastern United States, contributed much to the knowledge of breeding and embryology of the sea trout. They were particularly interested in the gray trout, but included considerable information on young spotted trout. Hil- debrand and Schroeder (1928), in a study of the fishes of Chesa- peake Bay, contributed to the knowledge of the spotted trout in that area. Pearson (1929) investigated the commercial Sciaenids of the Texas coast and obtained much information on the spotted trout. His paper included data on spawning, growth and age, size and age at maturity, seasonal distribution, food habits, and other natural history data. Ginsburg (1929) examined a large number of sea trout in a review of the weakfishes of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and contributed greatly to an understanding of the species and their respective ranges. Hildebrand and Cable (1934), working on the Atlantic coast of the United States, further contributed to natural history data on the spotted trout, and worked especially with spawning, and development and growth of very small trout. Gunter (1945), in a study of the marine fishes of Texas, added to the knowledge of environmental requirements of the species, and to natural history data in the Gulf of Mexico.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 149
The purpose of this study was to investigate the natural history of the spotted trout in the Cedar Key area. Information was desired on seasonal distribution and movements, spawning, growth, and food habits of young and adult fish. Attention was paid to tempera- ture, salinity, and other ecological factors in order to determine their importance in the life of the trout.
The cooperation and aid of many people contributed materially toward the completion of this study. I would particularly like to thank the following for their generous contributions to this work.
I am indebted to Dr. E. Lowe Pierce for his many helpful sug- gestions and practical criticisms during the course of the study.
The following people were of service in the identification of ma- terial: Dr. Fenner A. Chace, Jr., Curator of the Division of Marine Invertebrates of the United States National Museum, for his identi- fications of Decapod Crustacea; Dr. John T. Nichols, Curator of Fishes of the American Museum of Natural History, for his identi- fications of fish; and Mr. Erdmann West of the University of Flor- ida Agricultural Experiment Station, for identifying marine sperma- tophytes.
I am grateful to the many persons who have given freely of their time and energy in the collection of specimens. In this capacity I wish particularly to acknowledge the help of Mr. R. B. Davis, who made available to me on numerous occasions the resources of his fish-house at Cedar Key. Finally I wish to thank Mr. George Vathis, Supervisor on Conservation of the Florida State Board of Conservation, for furnishing a permit for collecting.
METHODS
Throughout the course of this study collections were made in the Cedar Key area at least once a month, and twice a month when pos- sible. On occasions when the collection of specimens proved diffi- cult or impossible as a result of bad weather or other causes, addi- tional trips were made as frequently as once a week to obtain the desired data.
In order to obtain sufficient numbers of both young and adult trout throughout the year, several methods of collecting were em- ployed. No one technique could be used satisfactorily for trout of all sizes. Almost all young trout were taken by trawling. The equip- ment used for this purpose was an ordinary beam trawl measuring approximately five feet between runners and standing about one
150 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
foot in height. A five or six-foot bag constructed of minnow net- ting (one half inch stretched mesh) was attached to the beam and runners, and to a wire connecting the bottoms of the runners. In op- eration, the trawl was let out behind the boat 30 to 50 feet, depend- ing on the depth of the water, and pulled slowly along the bottom for several minutes.
This type of collecting was successful for most of the year, but it was limited to the capture of relatively smail trout. It was of little use during the winter months when the young trout had reached a size which enabled them to escape the trawl. The trout taken in the trawl ranged between 20 and 134 mm. in length”. Their mean length was 53 mm. Trout over 100 mm. in length were rarely taken in the trawl. A few small trout were also taken by seining
Approximately half of all adult trout were obtained from fish-
houses at Cedar Key. Local fishermen catch trout during most of the year, and many earn their living almost exclusively by fishing for this species. During this study 330 trout were examined at fish- houses. . As many data as possible were recorded in the field. Data on location of collection, depth, water and air temperature, and ecology were recorded for each collection. Small trout were preserved entire and examined at a later date in the laboratory. Large trout which could not be conveniently preserved entire, were examined in the field and the stomach, gonads, and other portions to be more closely examined, were wrapped in cheesecloth and preserved for future examination in the laboratory. All specimens were measured to the nearest millimeter, and examined for food content, parasites and sexual maturity.
To arrive at an estimate of the importance of various food items, the volume of these items was measured. A graduated cylinder was partially filled with water. The item to be measured was placed in the cylinder and the increase in volume was recorded. The larger food organisms which were complete or only slightly decomposed were measured directly and their volumes recorded. Partially de- composed or otherwise incomplete organisms were compared with
2All measurements of length are given in standard length unless other- wise stated. Standard length is taken to represent the linear distance from the anterior end of the snout to the structural base of the most caudal vertebrae.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 151
similar entire specimens of known volume and this measurement was recorded. Oiolithes, crystalline lenses, bones and other fish remnants not revealing sufficient evidence for volumetrical recon- struction were merely recorded, and no volume was estimated. Salinities, as well as air and water temperature, were taken peri- odically in order to determine the optimum conditions and tolerance limits for the trout in its natural environment. Salinities were taken at or near the surface in all areas except the Waccasassa River, where on several occasions both surface and bottom samples were taken. The water samples were collected in 12 ounce magnesium citrate botiles in the field and examined in the laboratory. The salt content was determined by measuring the density of the water, using one of a series of three hydrometers of the type used by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The hydrometers were calibrated to an accuracy of 0.0001 gram/cubic centimeter.
DESCRIPTION OF THE CepAaR Key AREA
Cedar Key is a small town located on the west coast of Florida, approximately 90 miles north of Tampa. The town is situated on Way Key, the largest of a number of small islands which lie close to the mainland between the Waccasassa and Suwannee Rivers. —
The shoreline features of the area are essentially those of a drowned coast. The gradual slope and low elevation of the main- land is manifested by broad coastal marshes which extend inland for more than a mile throughout this region. Numerous small streams drain the lowlying inland areas and empty into the tidal marshes bordering the Gulf. In many places outcroppings of the rocky substrata are exposed. Oyster bars occur in great abundance along the outer fringes of the marsh, and often extend for consider- able distances into the marsh and up the creeks.
The offshore features are quite varied. The gradual slope of the land continues beneath the water and results in an extensive shal- low region which borders the coast. The area around Cedar Key delimited by the one fathom line extends from two to six miles offshore. Many parts are so shallow as to be partially exposed at low tide.
The greater portion of these shallow areas is covered by a lux- uriant growth of submergent vegetation. This vegetation consists primarily of the following spermatophytes: turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum; manatee grass, Cymodocea manatorum; cuban shoal-
152 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Ind > 2 e Pe @ w ‘ wi oS Se zo . ¥ 2a [@) ms ee s = v4 La SS anit ees Ww Ss s ., a ® 6 o L<§ = > a © we a > = >~ uw iw - <x wh © uw @ fe x z= O'S = = o La ad ¢ Rab Sl oc rd *. q > o IAS . nS Po) WS el B < ate ee N \ 25 us * 4 eee 2 = ” Si ro) ro) 54 < ° ON ete ae ee 5 & ene i x SS 9 WZ ". iJ n 4 5. =
De cs te wee ES Ll aus ty ape rT) eG ae a i a 9 Se ze is a FY: > : < a Ss He & es S = st) 4 ey ae area = és se ‘ “e fos So atte. z oe. or be a0 eve = a & 308 a go; (fia, ate on
Figure 1. Chart of the Cedar Key area.
weed, Halodule wrightii; and, to a lesser extent Halophila engel- mannii. These grasses are usually found together, and rarely did one flourish to the exclusion of the others.
Channels extending shoreward from deeper water converge near Way Key, and tend to cut the large shallow area into separate flats.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 153
Most of the channels vary in depth from two to three fathoms. Many portions of the channel bottoms are swept bare by tidal cur- rents, and ragged masses of rock are exposed. In the more protected channels and flats, where tidal currents are mild, soft mud and sand accumulate on the bottom to a marked extent. The transpar- ency of the water in the channels is very slight because of the large amount of suspended material which it customarily contains.
Thirteen miles east of Cedar Key the Waccasassa River empties into Waccasassa Bay, a large shallow area rarely exceeding five feet in depth. Numerous oyster bars are scattered throughout the bay. The chief submergent vegetation, particularly along the inner portions of the bay, consists of the alga Sargassum pteropleuron Grunow, which is sessile and grows from rock or oyster formations in the shallow water. This alga often grows three or four feet long, and can be seen protruding above the water in many of the shallow areas along the shore where low salinities are found.
PuysicaL DATA
The location of two relatively large rivers to either side of Cedar Key and the presence of many lesser streams along the coast re- sult in a general lowering of the salinity in the area. The large ex- panse of shallow water makes possible more extreme temperature variations than are normally found in deeper water.
The difference in salinity in different parts of the area is large, ranging from fresh water in the upper portions of the rivers to water approaching normal Gulf salinity near Seahorse Reef. The range of salinity in any local area throughout the year is also quite large. This can be explained in part by assuming that the fresh water from the rivers and streams is incompletely mixed with the saline water of the Gulf as a result of complex tides, currents, and local weather conditions. Because of the shallow depths in the area and of the wave and tide action which prevent stratification of the water, temperature and salinity variations with depth are negligible in the channels.
Salinity
No great difference was found to exist between salinity of the water on the flats and that of the adjacent channels. The mean monthly salinities taken in the main ship channel at Cedar Key for 1949 are shown in Figure 2. The mean annual salinity for the same year was 24.9 parts per thousand. The range of mean monthly sal-
154 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
po AIR AND WATER
; TEMPERATURE
i MAIN SHIP CHANNEL
Is48—49g
—=—— AIR TEMP. WATER TENP.
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
MONTHLY RAINFALL
INCHES
SURFACE SALINITY
ae sar MAIN SHIP CHANNEL APNE al A ale
VARIATION IN SALINITY FOR A SERIES OF HIGH AND LOW TIDES| | IN DECEMBER, 1949
H— HIGH TIDE L=— LOW TIDE
PARTS PER THOUSAND
Figure 2. Physical data of the Cedar Key area.
inity during 1949 was 5.5 parts per thousand, while the range of the extremes from the channel was much greater. A high of 28.5 parts per thousand was taken in November of 1948, and a low of 16.0 parts per thousand was recorded in April of 1949, showing a range of 12.5 parts per thousand. The periods of lowest salinity at
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 155
Cedar Key were found in January, April, and during August and September, 1949. A comparison of the graphs of mean monthly salinity and precipitation (Figure 2) shows that salinities are lowest during greatest precipitation. The fluctuation of salinity with tide in the main ship channel on some occasions exceeded three parts per thousand. The outgoing tides move the water from Waccasassa Bay towards Cedar Key and normally result in lower salinity near Cedar Key during low tides. The Tide Tables of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1950 show an annual tide range at Cedar Key of 2.5 feet, and a spring range of 3.3 feet. Figure 2 shows salinity fluctuations with tides for several successive days.
Samples taken in Waccasassa Bay and River show a gradual de- crease in salinity from Cedar Key to the Waccasassa River, and the presence of salt water for several miles upstream from. the mouth of the river. Samples were taken in the Waccasassa River in Janu- ary, February, and December of 1949, and during February and April of 1950. These samples were taken at three different locations in the river: one station was at the mouth, another was one mile upstream, and a third was two miles upstream. The mean salinities for these locations were respectively 10.4, 3.8, and 2.2 parts per thousand. A large fluctuation of salinity was found to occur at each of these locations with changes of water level in the river and
with the height of the tide.
Temperature
The mean air temperature for 1949 at Cedar Key was 23.7° C and the mean for surface water in the main ship channel was 23.9° C. A close relationship between air and surface water temperatures was normally found to exist. The mean monthly water temperatures showed a low of 15.7° C for January and a high of 29.7° C for June, 1949, a range of 14° C. for the year. Individual water tempera- tures taken in the main ship channel ranged from 33.6° C in June of 1948 to 13.5° C in January, 1949, a difference of 20.1° C. The mean monthly air and water temperatures are shown graphically in Figure 2.
Air and water temperatures were recorded in the Waccasassa River on three occasions during cold periods in winter. Water tem- perature fluctuations in the river were not found to be as extreme | as those found on the flats and in the channels at Cedar Key. Tem-
156 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
peratures recorded from the Waccasassa River ranged from 16.3° C on January 4, 1949, to 21.0° C on February 26, 1949. Temperatures taken in the main ship channel at Cedar Key on January 8, 1949, showed a low of 13.5° C, indicating that the temperatures in the river was somewhat higher than that of the water around Cedar Key during the colder periods.
Turbidity
The water throughout much of the area is always somewhat tur- bid. During tidal changes and in areas where currents or wave action are present, turbidity of the water is great. At no time was it possible to observe the bottom in the channels or over the deeper flats. Many times the bottom was obscured in water less than three feet in depth. |
The offshore water is usually clear of sediment during good weather. In the vicinity of Seahorse Reef the bottom can usually be seen clearly in depths of one or two fathoms. In the Waccasassa River and the inner part of the bay some discoloration of the water is always present, and is probably due to organic materials in solu- tion.
SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENTS
Adult spotted trout are resident in the Cedar Key area throughout the year. The trout of all ages prefer the shallow areas over bot- toms which are densely covered with vegetation. They apparently move about in small schools, and seem to swim in and out with the tides in the more shallow areas. The adults prefer deeper water than the young, and are usually found in greatest abundance in water from one to two fathoms in depth. The trout inhabit the channels to a lesser extent than the shallow grassy areas, although on some occasions they are taken in abundance in the main ship channel at Cedar Key. During the low tides, when the water over the flats becomes shallow, the trout concentrate along the channels, in the deeper holes, and over the deeper flats. A definite preference for grassy areas was noticed on Seahorse Reef on several occasions.
Dvring cold periods in winter large numbers of trout move into the rivers and deeper streams along the coast. This movement is undoubtedly an attempt to escape the low water temperatures which are found in the more shallow areas during this time. The trout do not ascend the rivers during the first cold periods of the
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 157
year, but only late in winter when the average temperature of the outside water has dropped very low. Such a situation was observed on January 11 of 1949, when 25 trout were taken from the Wacca- sassa River. During this time the water temperatures in the main ship channel at Cedar Key dropped as low as 13.5° C. The trout apparently do not move into the river at the same time every year since they were not found in the Waccasassa during 1950 until Feb- ruary 19. It seems unlikely that they ascend the rivers to feed, be- cause almost all specimens taken in the Waccasassa contained no food in their stomachs. The food examined in the few which were not empty proved either to be fishermen’s bait or badly decomposed ' forms of marine origin. Salinity is apparently not a decisive factor either in affecting their movement into the rivers, as the fish are able to tolerate a wide range of salinity. Numerous specimens were taken two miles upstream from the mouth of the Waccasassa in water having a salinity of 1.2 parts per thousand. Gunter (1945) found that in Texas waters spotted trout inhabit areas varying in salinity from 2.3 to 34.9 parts per thousand, but found the greatest numbers of the species between salinities of 5.0 and 20.0 parts per thousand.
Recently hatched trout appeared in June of 1949. These young showed a marked preference for the shallow grassy flats, which undoubtedly furnish them with protection and food. The smallest trout were usually quite concentrated, and tended to become more widely distributed over the flats as they grew larger. The young became scarce in trawl catches in December, and by January had almost disappeared. This was probably due to their increased size which enabled them to escape the trawl, rather than to any ex- tensive movement from the area. Several first year trout were taken in Deep Creek in February of 1949, which suggests that the young move into the rivers and creeks along the coast during the cold periods in late winter, as do the adults.
SPAWNING
The spotted trout spawn in the Cedar Key area from late March or early April to October. Although ripe females were found widely scattered throughout the area, it is probable that actual spawning takes place inshore over the grassy areas. The young were most abundant over the shallow grassy flats, and efforts to collect them . from channels and the more offshore areas were not successful.
158 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Pearson (1929), found that in Texas waters the spotted trout spawned largely, if not entirely, in the bays and lagoons along the coast from March or April until late October. He found females of the species in varied stages of ripeness throughout the spawning season, and concluded that the species spawned over a period of several weeks. His observations show a climax of spawning to occur in Texas in April and May.
Data on the season and duration of spawning in the Cedar Key area was obtained from two main sources. One was by examination of the gonads of mature trout to determine their stage of maturity. The other was furnished by observing the presence, abundance, size, and location of young trout collected in the area.
Observations were made of the gonads of all specimens of adult trout taken during the course of the study. The adult specimens were easily sexed, as the appearance of the ovaries and testes was quite different, especially so during the breeding sason. The normal ovary during most of the year is long and small in diameter, with a translucent pinkish coloration. During spawning the ovary be- comes greatly enlarged, and assumes a yellow granular appearance. The proportions of the immature testis are similar to those of the immature ovary, but it is roughly triangular in cross section and has an opaque whitish coloration. The testes also enlarge during spawning, but not to the extent of the ovaries. The spent condition was not easily recognized and was not identified with any certainty until near the end of the spawning period. A spent ovary resembles the immature ovary to some extent, but often assumes a bluish or dark rose coloration and is somewhat flaccid. The development of the ovaries of females prior to spawning could be detected more easily than could the development of the testes of males, and was therefore regarded as a better indication of the imminence of spawning. For this reason the conclusions drawn from observation of gonads concerning the advent of spawning and its duration are based primarily on the results of observations of roe in females. Preparations were made of ovarian material showing various stages of maturity of roe. These sections were examined microscopically. Plate 1 shows photomicrographs of some slides prepared from this material.
The first evidence of the 1949 spawning came from examination of a mature female trout caught in Waccasassa Bay in February,
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 159
Se
Plate 1. Photomicrographs of ovarian material. (Approx. 75 x)
1 1. immature ovary.
2. partially mature ovary. 3. mature or ripe ovary. 4, spent ovary.
Observation of the gonads of all mature females collected from March through October indicated that spawning probably did not occur to any extent before late March, and that it continued through September and probably extended into October. During February one mature female in 16 examined showed the presence of roe, whereas in April 74% and in July 99% contained roe. Table 1 pre-
160 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
sents graphically by months the percentages of mature female trout with ripe or ripening roe.
Months | Percentage JAMUATY cei ie hae ahs he Rete Be no «eines te eae 0 February: 220s «ov ey «Sn Choe. . ~ i ee 8 Marchi. rcs ae an oral oes Re eee + +. eieg R ee A 40 April. shed ses € sos aS ees pie anes . 9 TELA Oh a 74 May assis capa5 Pang ake + sel a AE ws o 1 ee ee 80 JUNC ck 5 G-G Os e a e « «=, ee ee 86 Jahy aces ee tas bela oR cs Baletee « » » REE ee err 99 AUBUSE sista ce cok WR eke ees sb ue «ode ee een cee 89 September.:. ci. as ses Sook ode oad. oo ee 16 October...... Bag a said Saratededas oe ae Bets SRR rr 0. November: ..)ci0e od. obsa ei hecetekenns aeons ee 0 December, ooi5.0 bis sos ears 8 5d lane ds aes ee 0
Table 1. Percentage by months of adult female trout containing ripe or nearly ripe roe.
Additional information on spawning in the Cedar Key area was obtained from collections of young trout. The first collection of trout spawned in 1949 was taken on June 12, from a shallow grassy flat inshore from Seahorse Key. These young trout ranged in length from 32 to 74 mm. Obviously there must be a time lag between spawning and the presence of young trout. Since many of the young trout taken in June were too small to have resulted from spawning the previous year and too large to have been spawned in June, it is apparent that spawning first began somewhat earlier than June, probably in late March or early April of 1949. As has been men- tioned above, the spent condition in females was not recognized until near the end of the spawning season, and it was therefore not possible to use this evidence along with the presence of young trout as an indication of spawning during the early portion of the period.
Very young trout measuring between 20 and 30 mm. were found in varying abundance in the area from June to October, indicating that some spawning must take place during this period. In October and during the following months, however, only increasingly larger young were taken, suggesting that spawning for the year was over.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 161
The eggs and larval stages of the species were not collected. Smith (1907), found that in North Carolina the eggs hatch in 40 hours in water at a temperature of 77°F. Pearson (1929), states that the eggs are probably buoyant, and drift and hatch over the grassy bottoms in shallow water; the young seeking protection in the thick aquatic vegetation.
The approximate number of mature and almost mature eggs con- tained in a nearly ripe 397 mm. female taken in April was found to be 464,000. The ovary examined was 111 mm. long and had a volume of 18.4 ml. The computation was made by weighing and counting the eggs in a small sample of the ovary and then calculat- ing the number in the whole ovary which had been weighed. Pear- son (1929), determined the approximate number of eggs in two nearly ripe females measuring 480 and 620 mm., and found them _ to contain 427,819 and 1,118,000 eggs, respectively.
GrRowtTH AND MATURITY
Monthly summaries of length-frequency were prepared from measurements taken of 954 spotted trout from Cedar Key and vicin- ity from October, 1948, to December, 1949. Data from correspond- ing months in 1948 and 1949 were combined in order to group as many specimens as possible in any one month. As little variation was found to exist in growth during corresponding periods of 1948 and 1949, it is believed that combining data for the two years is warranted.
The growth of the young spawned in early summer can be traced throughout most of the year. Members of this first year class ap- peared in trawl catches in June, and ranged from 82 to 74 mm. in length. The growth of these young was rapid, and by November they had reached a length of 100 to 180 mm. Spawning after June reached a climax in August and September, and resulted in a wide length-frequency distribution in the following months. The data indicate that in June, after approximately one year of growth, the trout had reached a length of about 200 mm. This is somewhat larger than would be expected from a comparison with other studies of growth of the species.
Reference to the length-frequency summaries (Figure 3) shows the difficulty involved in tracing age groups. With the exception of the youngest group, no age groups are clearly indicated. Pearson (1929:182) observed this situation during a study of length-fre-
162 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
AUGUST
Pea
SEPTEMBER
Ha Pt ae
ae
oD
oe ire OCTOBER “CIN oO
: CUA le] pew ALA lahat LJ
3 TA
= heya | | | NOVEMBER
MARCH
| eee
APRIL
CPE RRR
LENGTH IN
Figure 8. Monthly length-frequency curves asi spotted trout from the Cedar Key area.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 163
quency distributions of approximately 3,000 spotted trout collected in Texas. He found that although “size groups appear in the fre- quency summaries, no one definite year class, save the youngest, can be clearly traced or recognized throughout the entire period of collection. There is a decided tendency for the various age groups to overlap one another to such an extent as to render any estima- tions of the growth and age from length-frequency studies unreli- able.” Pearson further stated that he “had noted this fact previously with respect to a series of length measurements made in 1925 upon several hundred trout taken at Pamlico Sound, North Carolina.”
Welsh and Breder (1923), examined the scales of 20 trout from Punta Gorda, Florida, and calculated average length of these trout for the first six winters (Table 2). Pearson (1929), examined scales of 554 spotted trout in Texas and arrived at the average lengths of the species in that area for the first eight winters. A comparison of their findings is listed on Table 2.
Florida Fish Texas Fish
(Punta Gorda) | (Corpus Christi) vor: irda ae 110-120 mm. 150 mm. SELIILL Loe en aoa 230 240 reenter. 20S AL ee. . 310 300 LPC CD 2 ee 360 350 LLL Sie i 400 400 SUED) ie a ee ee 430 440. SETEUIL TREE acpi pa aes eae Ine a, ea 490 Riehl Wanber 25. S peblie| Sah ae in Set a 520
Table 2. Mean growth of Florida and Texas spotted trout for the first eight winters.
The data obtained from the Cedar Key area compare quite closely with Welsh and Breder’s, and Pearson’s findings. The length-fre- quency summaries (Figure 3) show a range in November preced- ing the first winter from 30 to 130 mm., and a range for the second winter from 200 to 300 mm., with a mode in December of 250 mm. Age groups beyond these first two are not clear. Limitations im- posed by equipment reduced the amount of data in the 100 to 200 mm. range and complicated estimation of rate of growth and - size reached during the latter part of the first year.
164 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The mean length of adult specimens examined was 273 mm. Fe- males were found to be larger than males. The mean length of adult females was 285 mm., while the mean for adult males was 265 mm. The largest female measured 485 mm. and the largest male, 872 mm. The species measured in the Cedar Key area was not as large as in certain other portions of its range. Pearson (1929), recorded speci- mens as large as 680 mm. in Texas.
Examination of the roe during spawning season showed that the females were able to spawn and had thus reached maturity between 210 and 250 mm. in length. The smallest female taken with ripening roe measured 210 mm. Of 260 females with roe that were examined, only two were less than 220 mm. in length. The size at which ma- turity was reached in the males as indicated by ripening of the testes appeared to be somewhat smaller than in females, probably between 200 and 240 mm. in length. Apparently the trout do not normally begin spawning before they have reached a length of 240 to 250 mm. As a result they probably are not able to spawn until their second or possibly third summer.
Foop OF THE SPOTTED TROUT
The stomachs of 954 young and adult spotted trout, taken from the Cedar Key area from October, 1948, to December, 1949, were examined for food content. Of these specimens, 511 or approxi- mately 54% contained food; in the following analysis of food habits only the latter are considered. The large number of empty stomachs probably reflects the sporadic feeding habits of the trout.
The spotted trout is a voracious feeder and shows a preference for live active food. Undoubtedly the preference shown by the species for the shallow grassy areas may be largely attributed to the great abundance of food forms which inhabit such areas. The presence of particles of grass in about 10% of the stomachs ex- amined indicates that the trout feed to a considerable extent in the grass near the bottom. Little extraneous material other than this vegetation was found in the stomachs.
The food of both the young and adult trout consists almost en- tirely of various forms of marine fish and crustacea. The principal factor affecting the selection of food during the growth of the trout appears to be the relative size of the food organism. Figure 4 shows the percentage of stomachs of young and adults containing one or more of four major food groups. From this figure it can be seen
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 165
THE PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF THE FOUR MAJOR mss) GROUPS IN THE STOMACHS OF TROUT OF VARIOUS SIZES — COPEPODS
CARIDEA => \PENEIDEA
PERCENTAGE
50. 100 150 200 250 LENGTH IN MM.
Figure 4. The percentage occurrence of the four major food groups in the stomachs of trout of various sizes.
that a succession of three major crustacean groups form a series of foods from young to adult. It is also apparent that fish form an item in the diet of both young and adult trout, and increase in importance in the diet of the larger trout.
The small trout ranging in size from 20 to 30 mm. fed largely on . copepods. From Figure 4 it can be seen that in 20 mm. trout over
166 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
80% of the stomachs? contained this group. An average of 52 cope- pods per stomach were present in this size trout. Although trout under 20 mm. in length were not collected or examined, the trend of this food group suggests that copepods probably form an even more important food for sizes smaller than those examined.
One or more species of Mysidacea formed an important supple- mentary food group in young trout from 20 to 70 mm. in length. Approximately 23% of the stomachs of 20 mm. trout contained mysids. This group gradually decreased in abundance and disap- peared entirely from stomachs of trout over 70 mm. in length. In the 20 and 30 mm. trout an average of about 1 mysid per stomach - was present. Even though this group was not as recurrent or abund- ant in the stomachs of these small trout as were copepods, they formed a moderate portion of the food of the very young.
Young trout from 40 to 150 mm. in length fed to a large extent on several species of small shrimp of the Tribe Caridea. Although these smal] shrimp were found in stomachs of 30 to 350 mm. trout, they were most abundant and comprised the major food group of 40 to 100 mm. trout. Approximately 80% of the stomachs of 50 to 80 mm. trout contained one or more of these forms.
The Tribe Caridea was represented in stomachs by three families and eight species. The most important family, Hippolytidae, was represented by Angasia carolinensis (Kingsley) and Hippolyte sp. Angasia carolinensis was present in stomachs of 40 to 280 mm. trout, but occurred in greatest abundance in 40 to 100 mm. fish. Hippolyte sp., the most abundant of the Caridea, was about ten times as abundant as Angasia carolinensis and formed the bulk of the food of 40 to 100 mm. trout.
The family Palaemonidae was represented in stomachs by the following species: Palaemon floridanus Chace, Palaemonetes pugio Holthuis, Palaemonetes intermedius Holthuis, Periclimines longi- caudatus (Stimpson), and Periclimines americanus. Of these spe- cies, Periclimines longicaudatus was the most abundant form found in stomachs, and occurred most often in 40 to 80 mm. fish. It was about one fifth as abundant as Hippolyte sp. The remaining species of Palaemonidae were found in relatively few stomachs and did not appear to form important food items in the diet of young trout. Listed in order of their frequency of occurrence they were as fol-
3Only stomachs containing food are considered.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 167
lows: Palaemonetes pugio and Palaemonetes intermedius, Pericli- mines americanus, and Palaemon floridanus. The family Crangon- idae was represented by a single unidentified species in the stomach of a 60 mm. trout.
A noticeable shift in the diet of the trout is seen to take place at the 150 mm. size (Figure 4). At this size the carid shrimp are rap- idly decreasing as an important food item, and the fish and peneid shrimp become the major food items for the larger trout. Since the food of 150 mm. and larger trout is similar, trout of this size group for the purpose of the discussion on food, are considered with the adult or larger trout.
Fish were eaten by both young and adult trout, but were of rela- tively small importance in the diet of the young. The common anchovy, Anchoviella mitchilli, was the principal food fish found in trout smalier than 150 mm., while the pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides, predominated in the larger fish. Approximately 50% of all identified fish found in the stomachs of the adults were pinfish, and many of the unidentified forms were probably of this species. An accurate picture of the recurrence of the various species of fish in the trout stomach was complicated by the large number of forms which were decomposed to such an extent as to preclude identification. Approx- imately 83% of the fish found in stomachs could not be identified specifically. Many of the unidentified fish resembled and were probably pinfish. Of the fish which could be identified, the fol- lowing were found to occur in limited abundance in stomachs: Cynoscion nebulosus were found in the stomachs of three adult trout ranging from 270 to 300 mm., Mollienisia latipinna were found in the stomachs of two trout taken in Deep Creek. Mugil cephalus, Menidia sp., Gobiosoma sp., Bairdiella chrysura, Chloroscombrus chrysurus, and a species of the family Scombridae, occurred only once in stomachs.
The peneid shrimp food of the adult trout was represented in stomachs by a single species, Peneus duorarum Burkenroad. This species was numerically the most prominent form found in stomachs of trout over 150 mm. in length, although volumetrically it repre- sented about 87% of the foal of trout of this size. Young trout ap- parently do not begin eating these shrimp until they fesich a size of about 50 mm., and do not take them in abundance until around 150 mm. in length. Figure 4 shows that 40 to 60% of the stomachs
168 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
of trout ranging from 150 to 300 mm. in length contained this food group. In the larger fish ranging in size from 300 to 450 mm. this food is less prominent in the diet, and the fish become the most important group both in percentage of occurrence in stomachs and in volume.
Several incidental items not forming ‘impart food for the trout were found in stomachs. Amphipods occurred in a few stomachs of small trout. Swimming crabs of the family Portunidae were present in the stomachs of six trout taken at Seahorse Reef. One squilla (Order Stomatopoda) was found in a single specimen. Extraneous material such as wood, shell, tunicates, and sponge each occurred once in stomachs.
A volumetric comparison of the two major food groups of the adult trout for the four seasons of the year is shown on Table 3. The percentage volume of the two groups was similar during the spring and summer months, but during the fall and winter months an increasing abundance of fish was found in the stomachs. In the fall months approximately 70% of the volume of food was repre- sented by fish, and during the winter months about 77% of the volume was attributable to fish. Thus it can be seen that while fish and crustacea are taken in equal abundance volumetrically during the spring and summer, fish predominate during the fall and winter and form from 70 to 77% of the food volume of the larger trout.
Percentage Percentage
Season Fish Crustacea Spring (March—May)i) =). 200. Sora 52 48 Summer (June—August)............... 54 46 Fall (September—November)........... 68 32 Winter (December—February).......... 76 24
TABLE 3.—A Seasonal Comparison of the Volume of Fish and Crustacea Eaten by Trout 150 mm. and Longer
DIscussION
The spotted trout occur in the shallow areas along the coast from Chesapeake Bay to Texas. It is essentially a warm water fish, pre-
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 169
ferring the shallow water over grassy bottoms. Within the limits of its extensive range the species is subject to a large amount of variation in its physical environment. These variations effect its distribution, movements, food and other aspects of its natural his- tory.
In the more northern portion of its range the species is apparently most abundant during certain seasons of the year. It has been ob- served in Chesapeake Bay that from March to May and from Sep- tember to November the species is most numerous, apparently moving offshore to deeper water during the colder months. In Texas, where extensive offshore bars separate large lagoons from the open Gulf, the trout spend the greater portion of the year in © the lagoons, large numbers moving into the deeper passes and into the Gulf during the cold periods. In the Cedar Key area the species is present during the entire year, invading nearby rivers and streams for short periods in the coldest weather. The trout in this area may also move into the deeper waters of the Gulf to escape the cold, although no evidence to indicate this was found.
The rate of growth, season of spawning, size at maturity, and food habits of the species appears to be similar for the trout taken from the Florida and Texas Gulf coast, although larger specimens were reported from Texas waters than were taken in the Cedar Key area. In all parts of the range in which it has been investigated, the species has shown a tolerance to wide variations in salinity, and a marked negative reaction to low water temperatures.
In the Cedar Key area C. nebulosus shows a decided preference for the grassy flats during practically the entire year. A closely re- lated species, C. arenarius, is found predominantly in the channels of the area. As a preference for different types of habitats is shown by the two species, little interspecific competition probably occurs.
SUMMARY
1. The results of a study of the natural history of the spotted trout, Cynoscion nebulosus, in the Cedar Key, Florida, area are pre- sented. The study was in progress from October, 1948, to De- cember, 1949.
2. A brief description of the major ecological aspects of the Cedar Key area is included. |
3. The spotted trout was found to be resident throughout the year,
170 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and to prefer the shallow grassy inshore areas. Seasonal move- ments into the rivers and deeper streams along the coast were observed to take place in late winter, primarily in January and February, to escape the occasional low water temperatures which occur in the shallow portions of the area.
4, Spawning occurred from late March or early April to October. The young appear in the shallow grassy areas prior to tes and are found there until late in winter.
5. Growth was rapid. A length of approximately 130 mm. was at- tained by the first winter and 250 mm. by the second winter after spawning. .
' 6. The trout become mature by the time they reach 240 to 250 mm.
in length, or by the second or possibly third winter.
The food of the young and adult was found to consist of various
forms of marine fish and crustacea. The young fed on copepods,
mysids, carid shrimp, and small marine fish, while the adults fed primarily on larger marine fish and peneid shrimp.
=
List oF REFERENCES
ANDERSON, W. W., and M. J. LINDNER 1943. A provisional key to the shrimps of the family Penaeidae with espe- cial reference to American forms. Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc. 73:284- 319. ANDERSON, A. W., and E. A. POWER 1949. Fishery statistics of the United States 1950. U. S. Dept. of Interior Statistical Digest 18. Fish and Wildlife Service. Govt. Print. Office, Washington. BREDER, CHARLES M., JR. 1948. Field book of marine fishes of the Atlantic coast from Labrador to Texas. pp. i-xxxviii, 1-382 (Rev.). Putnams Sons, New York. EIGENMANN, CARL H. 1901. Investigations into the history of the young squeteague. Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. 21, 1901 (1902) :45-51, illus. GINSBURG, ISAAC 1929. Review of the weakfishes (Cynoscion) of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, with a description of a new species. Bull. Bur. Fish. 45:71-85. GOODE, GEORGE BROWN 1884. Natural history of useful aquatic animals. Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. Sec. 1(3):362-865. GUNTER, GORDON 1945. Studies on marine fishes of Texas. Pub. Inst. Marine Sci. 1(1):1- 190, 11 figs.. 75 tables.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT E71
HAY, W. W., and C. A. SHORE 1918. The decapod crustaceans of Beaufort, N. C., and the surrounding region. Bull. Bur. Fish. 85:371-475, pls. 25-39. HILDEBRAND, S. F., and LOUELLA E. CABLE 1934. Reproduction and development of whitings or kingfishes, drums, spot, croaker, and weakfishes or sea trouts, family Sciaenidae, of the Atlantic coast of the United States. Bull. Bur. Fish. 48:41-117. HILDEBRAND, S. F., and W. C. SCHROEDER 1928. The fishes of Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 48:1-366. PEARSON, JOHN C. 1929. Natural history and conservation of the redfish and other commer- cial sciaenids on the Texas coast. Bull. Bur. Fish. 44:129-214. PRATT, HENRY S. 1935. A Manual of the common invertebrate animals (exclusive of insects). pp. 1-854(Rev.). Blakiston Co., Philadelphia. SMITH, HUGH M. 1907. The fishes of North Carolina. N. C. Geol. and Economy Survey. 2:806, pls. 15-19. U. S. DEPT. OF COMMERCE, COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY 1948. Tide tables east coast North and South America for the year 1950. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Pub. No. 719. pp. 1-226. U. S. Govt. Print. Office, Washington. WELSH, WILLIAM W., and CHARLES M. BREDER, JR. 1924. Contributions to the life histories of the Sciaenidae of the eastern United States coast. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 39( 1928-1924) :141-201 60 figs.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(3), 1949( 1950)
alk & e, i” say : 4) ae by 4 mh a 4 . ) | : on Lt oe Na 4 af ie Hl 7m if , 7 Me ‘ Le 7 -
he okt eee Fe "SORT, atitTe A Fer, = ih
ing au i! th 4 Ae ‘ ne) Ay 4 (ign ig ‘ h y ‘ t 4
é : S, Ve AS ; r ih? ; Pe a a ve 2 isi eld eines fy ceiplahaeh Ae aenda abet AS a i z A, f Re rie oe Aa te i
et ASS a A 115 Gb ae,
ate enti wok 40) ealldtilaay fy
fA to8 [ Sieh 2 yi? ; ' ; re cel Ato ested! dh oolielay any in we re : CLUKYARLDS> Oe AF a ae Bai B.S \). Dat, aeth eoleseies pS ca ae wertiaey. “Vere b Ueber gai lte Die Vis seriey a oe . reo Ue ie | <i Shs Ge cl byares jae 15 eft Po & okt fen ! ¥ é ‘ L 2 Stine sc. : vi : " ‘ i ae Ae ial elfh, : , eho a ‘ 5 i
pS : Gh hag tae a i “er Pt Mie a cite 2 } L ; A d > 4 iy ‘ rT 4 : ) r : . 5 rn a 1 f ip
THE FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE, FLORIDA?* GrorcE K. Rem, Jr.
Despite the great abundance of lakes in Florida, and the varied and interesting lacustrine fish fauna that occurs in the state, no de- tailed published account of the fishes of a specific lake appears to exist. Harkness and Pierce (1940) presented a list of fishes which occurred in Lake Mize, a small sinkhole lake, and Dickinson (1949) listed the fishes found in some small ponds and ditches in northern Florida. Earlier more general papers on Florida ichthyology include a checklist and bibliography of Florida fishes (Evermann and Ken- dall, 1899) and a key to freshwater fishes (Carr, 1937). The only annotated faunal accounts of fishes of particular localities or situa- tions are those of Hubbs and Allen (1944), Allen (1946). Herald and Strickland (1949), treating the fauna of two calcareous springs, and that of Goin (1948), which lists the species occurring in the water hyacinth community. A section in Bailey and Hubbs (1949) lists the peninsular endemics. Although the United States Fish and Wildlife Service has recently shown considerable interest in the fisheries resources of Orange Lake, and has just completed an in- vestigation of conditions there, no ichthyological results have been published. It has thus seemed worthwhile to compile an annotated list of the fishes known to inhabit Orange Lake, which is one of the larger of the hundreds of lakes that occur in the central section of peninsular Florida.
Orange Lake is the largest of three major lakes lying within a drainage basin of nearly six hundred square miles in north-central Florida. The basin forms a tributary of the St. Johns River through Orange Creek to the Oklawaha River. Except for the extreme north- eastern tip, which lies in Putnam County, all of the lake is within the boundaries of Alachua County. Orange Lake is approximately sixteen miles long and four miles wide at the widest point. Open surface of the lake covers approximately 14,000 acres and this is surrounded by marginal marsh that is nearly a mile wide in places. Subsurface drainage probably contributes considerably to the water volume since surface runoff is mostly confined to River Styx, a small creek at the northwestern end of the lake.
1A contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida.
174 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The bottom is composed of thick layers of silt and plant detritus over sandy clay and limestone. It slopes from shore to an average maximum, fairly uniform depth of approximately 30-35 feet.
Chemically the water was circum-neutral (pH: 6.8-7.2) during 1947-1948, except in June, 1948, when the pH was 8.2. Surface tem- peratures varied from 33° C. in June, 1948, to 13.5° C. in January of the same year. Orange Lake water is usually turbid and tinted brownish or greenish by considerable amounts of suspended detri- tus and its extractives and by the presence of considerable quantity of plankton.
Vegetation in the open water areas consists of sparse growths of. submerged Ceratophyllum demersum and scattered patches of such emergent plants as Nymphaea macrophylla and Panicum paludiva- gum. The littoral zone is marked by marshy areas of submerged vegetation consisting predominantly of Ceratophyllum demersum, with lesser stands of Nais guadalupensis and Philotria densa. The marsh is characterized by thick stands of N. macrophylla, Sagittaria spp., Persicaria sp., Mariscus jamaicensis, P. paludivagum, and other emergents growing in profusion and intermixed with several species of floating plants such as Lemna minor, Azolla caroliniana, and, in places, the very abundant water hyacinth, Piaropus crassipes. Great mats of hyacinths, and floating islands of compacted plant debris and roots supporting large shrubs and emergent plants (Persicaria, Panicum, Sagittaria, etc.) are conspicuous vegetational features of the lake. Invertebrate organisms used by fishes as food are abundant in the littoral vegetation. Crustaceans, such as the scud (Hyalella azteca), and shrimp (Palaemonetes paludosa), Cladocera, and Copepoda, are especially abundant. Odonata and Diptera larvae are quite plentiful, seasonally, and comprise important items in the diet of many fishes.
This list is an outgrowth of an investigation which was carried on intensively from February, 1947, through May, 1948. In addition, considerable data taken previous and subsequent to that period are at hand.
Collections were made by means of various types of seines and traps, and by hook-and-line fishing; much information was ob- tained by examination of catches of sport and commercial fisher- men.
FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE 175
The common names employed are those given by Carr (loc. cit.) except for a few which through continued local usage have seemed preferable.
I am grateful to Dr. Coleman J. Goin for helpful criticisms and assistance during the course of the investigation and preparation of the original manuscript. Appreciation is also expressed to Dr. Archie F. Carr, Jr., for reading the manuscript, and to many friends in the Department of Biology, University of Florida, and at Orange Lake, for aid in many ways. I wish particularly to acknowledge the co-operation of and generous loan of equipment by Mr. Homer J. Klay, Jr., proprietor of Orange Lake Fishing Camp.
Specimens were collected under a permit granted by Mr. John F, Dequine, Chief Fisheries Biologist of the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission.
List OF FISHES
The following list includes thirty-seven species of fishes known to occur in Orange Lake. Two additional forms (Ictalurus spp.), although not definitely recorded by the author, probably occur in the lake. It is believed that this represents a nearly complete list of the fishes in the lake.
Lepisosteus platyrhincus De Kay FLoripA SPOTTED GAR
Gars are common in Orange Lake and its tributaries. This species is found more frequently near the shoreline and in the marshes where it feeds on small fishes. It was observed in considerable abundance among hyacinths at the northwest end of the lake. Gravid females are usually noted in early summer.
Amia calva Linnaeus BowFIn, MUvupDFISH
This species, known locally as mudfish, is common in the lake. Individuals of large size (10-12 pounds) are frequently taken by sport fishermen. Brightly marked young were collected at the upper end of the lake in March, 1947. They were approximately 55 mm. in standard length and were guarded by a somewhat vicious adult.
Signalosa petenensis vanhyningi Weed FLoripaA LESsER SHAD
These forage fish were not observed in Orange Lake until July, 1948. On the basis of my collections, I do not believe them to be overly common in the lake.
176 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur ) NORTHERN GiIzZARD SHAD
This species appears to be much more common in Orange Lake than the lesser shad. Known locally as “shadine minnow,” it occurs frequently in large schools and it forms an important part of the food of bass (McLane, 1949) and crappie (Reid, 1950a) in this vicinity. !
Neither Signalosa nor Dorosoma appears to be hardy. Both die almost instantly upon being taken from the water. In September, 1948, several kinds of fishes were observed in the cove at Orange Lake Fishing Camp. All seemed very weak and were gulping at the surface. Hundreds of dead shad were observed floating on the — surface and represented by far the most abundant casualty group.
Examination of stomach contents of shad in Orange Lake re- vealed their food to consist almost entirely of ostracods, copepods, and cladocerans, with phytoplankton in much lesser quantity.
Erimyzon sucetta sucetta (Lacépéde) EASTERN LAKE CHUB-SUCKER, SUCKER
Suckers attain comparatively large size (850 mm. in standard length) in lakes in this area. They were taken frequently in the chicken-wire traps used for collecting specimens, and appear to be common in the lake.
Notemigonus crysoleucas boscii Valenciennes FLoripA GOLDEN SHINER
This species is one of the more common forage fishes in Orange Lake. Shiners are of great importance in this vicinity as bass bait. Hundreds are sold daily during certain seasons by fishing camps. Large size (200-300 mm. in standard length) is attained and they appear to be hardy and resistant. They occur most commonly in the marsh and in patches of Panicum and Nymphaea.
Opsopoeodus emiliae Hay Puc-NOsED MINNOW
This species is represented in my collections by specimens taken from small sandy areas near the shore and from among the roots of plants on floating islands.
Notropis maculatus (Hay) © RED MINNOW During summer months this species occurs occasionally in large
FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE Fit
schools breaking the surface, apparently eluding larger fishes. In- dividuals acquire brilliant orange-red to red coloration which is doubtless associated with breeding. Although probably common in Orange Lake, “red minnows” are most apparent during breeding season. At other times = are not taken frequently by ordinary collecting methods.
Ictalurus spp.
Although none of these forms was observed by the author, local catfishermen assured me that “channel cats” are taken from Orange Lake. It is quite likely that the channel catfish referred to is Ictalu- rus lacustris punctatus. The white catfish, Ictalurus catus, is known to occur in adjacent Lochloosa Lake, which is connected with Or- ange Lake and it may likewise occur in the latter.
Ameiurus nebulosus marmoratus (Holbrook) MARBLED BROWN BULLHEAD, SPECKLED CAT
This species was taken quite commonly on “catlines” in the lake. From observations made of the catches of local commercial fish- ermen, I judge it to be the most common of the catfishes, and rather abundant in the lake.
Ameiurus natalis erebennus Jordan YELLOW BULLHEAD, YELLOWBELLY
Yellow Bullheads are abundant in Orange Lake. They were ob- served in considerable quantities in the catches of local fishermen and constituted a large portion of their take. Young of this species were seen on numerous occasions swimming in compact masses herded by an adult. On May 1, 1947, there appeared to be an upset in the oxygen-carbon dioxide balance in the water in the cove at Orange Lake Fishing Camp. The young catfish, which for a num- ber of days preceding this date had been behaving normally in the school, were scattered and swimming at the surface, gulping. By noon of the same day the water apparently had become normal, for the young catfish had again schooled and were moving below the surface.
Schilbeodes mollis (Hermann) TADPOLE Maptom
This species, the smallest of the local catfishes, occurred com- monly in the grassy regions along a causeway across the upper end of the lake, and among the submerged roots of hyacinths and plants _
178 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
composing floating islands.
Esox niger LeSueur CHAIN PICKEREL, J ACKFISH Although not usually sought after as a food or game fish in this vicinity, this pickerel is taken frequently on casting plug or live bait. It appears to be more abundant in the open water than in the littoral zone. Esox americanus Gmelin BULLDOG PICKEREL This species is the smaller of the pickerels known to occur in Florida. It was taken commonly while seining in the dense vegeta- tion along the shoreline of the lake.
Anguilla bostoniensis (LeSueur ) ) AMERICAN EEL Eels are taken occasionally on hook-and-line. One individual was captured in a fish trap during the investigation. They are believed to be rather common in the lake. Chriopeops goodei (Jordan) RED-FINNED KILLIFISH This small cyprinodont was found to be abundant in the marsh and underneath floating islands. C. goodei is endemic to peninsular Florida. Leptolucania ommata (Jordan ) OcELLATED KILLIFISH, TARGET FIsH Target fish do not appear to be as common as the other cyprino- donts. They were taken in the grassy margins, usually in associa- tion with Gambusia affinis holbrookii and Heterandria formosa.
Fundulus chrysotus (Gunther ) GOLDEN TOPMINNOW During the winter months this species is in great demand as bait for black crappie; thousands of topminnows are sold daily. F. chry- sotus does not appear to be overly abundant in the lake proper, although it was found quite commonly in the swampy areas border- ing the lake.
Fundulus dispar lineolatus (Agassiz) EASTERN STAR-HEADED TOPMINNOW Siar-heads were taken rather infrequently as compared with other
FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE 179
cyprinodonts of Orange Lake. They were found occasionally in the swampy portions of the lake and in connecting ditches.
Jordanella floridae Goode and Bean FLAGFISH This small, colorful fish was found commonly in the shallow grassy regions of the lake and in roadside ditches which are con- nected with the lake. It does not seem to be common in the marshy areas of the main body of the lake. This species is restricted to peninsular Florida. Heterandria formosa (Agassiz) LEasT KILLIFISH This small, viviparous form abounds throughout the lake where vegetation is dense. It was found underneath floating islands con- siderable distances from shore. Gambusia affinis holbrookii (Girard) EASTERN Mosguito-FisH, Por Gut This ubiquitous fish is abundant in practically all situations in Orange Lake. It occurs in much the same habitat as Heterandria formosa. Mollienisia latipinna LeSueur SAILFIN, MoLiy, SULPHUR MINNOW Sailfins do not appear to be abundant in Orange Lake. They were found more commonly in the roadside ditches and swamps, although a few individuals were taken in the marsh and along the shoreline. Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams) PIRATE PERCH This species is found commonly in the marshes and was taken fre- quently from underneath floating islands and hyacinth mats.
Hololepis barratti (Holbrook) FLORIDA SWAMP DARTER
This was the only species of darter taken. It appears to be fairly common, although never abundant, in the shallow shore zones and underneath floating islands.
Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (LeSueur ) BLACK CRAPPIE, SPECKLED PERCH
Although black crappie are commonly found in many of the
streams and lakes throughout the state, it appears that the lakes of.
180 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the central highlands region afford a habitat conducive to maxi- mum growth and abundance. Crappie of 300 mm. in standard length, and weighing nearly three pounds, are not uncommon in this area.
In Orange Lake the habitat preference of the adult crappie dur- ing the non-breeding season appears to be open water. During the breeding period, which usually begins in January and continues through April, crappie are most abundant along the outer edges of the marsh, where the redds are placed. A marked sexual dimor- phism is particularly conspicuous during the spawning season. The male crappie assumes a much darker appearance through more in- tense pigmentation, especially on the venter and cheeks.
Food of crappie consists primarily of fishes, amphipods, and in- sect larvae.
Mesogonistius chaetodon elizabethae Bailey BLACK-BANDED SUNFISH
Until January, 1947, this small sunfish had not been found in Orange Lake (Reid, 1950b). At present, only two specimens have been taken. It is believed that this species is rare in the lake proper, although it is common in an adjacent lake to the southward, Haw- thorne Prairie, which at previous times was connected with Orange Lake.
Chaenobryttus coronarius (Bartram ) W ARMOUTH
The warmouth appears to be quite common in the lake, especially in the marsh and swamps, and is often found among hyacinth rafts and around floating islands. It is highly esteemed as a panfish.
Enneacanthus obesus (Girard ) BANDED SUNFISH Only one specimen of this form has been taken by the author. It is probably rare in this lake. Chable (1947) considers this species to be more characteristic of lotic environments.
Enneacanthus gloriosus (Holbrook) BLUE-SPOTTED SUNFISH This attractive small centrarchid occurs commonly throughout all of the densely vegetated areas of the lake. It was often found under floating islands and in shallow areas along the northwestern end of the lake.
FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE 181
Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens Cope BLUEGILL, COPPERHEAD, BREAM
Known locally as “brim”, this species is probably the most abun- dant of the panfishes in Orange Lake. During breeding season, usually in late spring and summer, bluegills are taken in tremendous numbers. Catches of forty individuals in a single morning by one fisherman are not uncommon. In years past, this species chose patches of Nymphaea for breeding sites and congregated in consid- erable numbers, the redds in water up to ten or twelve feet deep. Of late, the patches of Nymphaea have become sparse, so that pres- ent spawning sites are not clearly defined. A coppercolored stripe across the nape of the adult fish, especially actively breeding males, accounts for the name “copperhead”.
Food of the bluegill is composed of amphipods, entomostracans, insect larvae, and molluscs.
Lepomis microlophus microlophus (Giinther ) SHELL-CRACKER Although quite common in Orange Lake, this species does not appear to be as abundant as the bluegill. Shell-crackers seem to have much the same habits as bluegills in their choice of spawning sites and food, although breeding during 1946 and 1947 occurred several weeks later than that of bluegills.
Lepomis punctatus punctatus (Cuvier ) STUMP-KNOCKER These smaller sunfishes do not seem to be abundant in Orange Lake. They were collected occasionally from swampy areas and marsh zones. Lepomis marginatus (Holbrook) FLORIDA LONG-EARED SUNFISH This highly colored and retiring sunfish occurs frequently in the marsh and densely vegetated areas of the lake. Its habitat appears to be similar to that of Enneacanthus gloriosus.
Micropterus salmoides floridanus (LeSueur ) FLORIDA LARGE-MOUTHED Bass Large-mouth bass are common in Orange Lake. Like black crap- pie, bass appear to find conditions in the lakes in this region highly favorable and they attain great abundance and size. Different color patterns were noted during the investigation. Some of the large indi-
182 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
viduals were a light brown or tan, while others were colored with the more characteristic green pattern.
Elassoma zonatum (Jordan) BANDED PigMy SUNFISH
Several specimens of this species were collected at the north- western end of the lake in the densely vegetated areas near the mouth of River Styx. This record represents an extension of the known range of the form, since it has been known previously only as far south as the Santa Fe River drainage in northern Florida. E. zonatum is believed to be comparatively rare in Orange Lake.
Elassoma evergladei Jordan EVERGLADES Picmy SUNFISH This species is common among the roots of hyacinths and under- neath floating.islands. Because of the deep iridescent blue mark- ings of the males, this fish is much sought by local aquarists. Much of its brilliance is soon lost, however, unless dark bottom or back- ground is provided.
Labidesthes sicculus vanhyningi Bean and Reid FLoripA Brook SILVERSIDES, GLAss MINNOW The glass minnow, as this fish-is commonly known in this region, seems to be essentially an open water inhabitant. It does not occur as abundantly in the turbid water of Orange Lake as in the clear, sand-bottom lakes of the highlands section of the state.
LITERATURE CITED ALLEN, E ROSS 1946. Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida. Published by the author. 1946: 1-36. BAILEY, REEVE M., and CARL L. HUBBS 1949. The Black Basses (Micropterus) of Florida, with Description of a New Species. Occ. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., 516 1-40, Pls.. 1-2. CARR, ARCHIE F., JR. 1937. A Key to the Fresh-water Fishes of Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci., 1: 72-86, 1 fig. CHABLE, ALPHONSE C. 1947. A Study of the Food Habits and Ecological Relationships of the Sunfishes of Northern Florida. (Unpub. Master's Thesis, Univ. Fla. Library, 1947). DICKINSON, J. C., JR. 1949. An Ecological Reconnaissance of the Biota of Some Ponds and Ditches in Northern Florida. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11(2-3): 1-28, Pls. I-II, Maps 1.
FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE 183
EVERMANN, BARTON W. and WILLIAM C. KENDALL 1899. Check-list of the Fishes of Florida. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1899. (1900: 35-108. GOIN, COLEMAN J. 1948. The Lower Vertebrate Fauna of the Water Hyacinth Community of Northern Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 6(3-4): 148-154. HARKNESS, W. J. K. and E. LOWE PIERCE 1940. The Limnology of Lake Mize, Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 5: 96-116. HERALD, EARL S. and ROY R. STRICKLAND 1949. An Annotated List of the Fishes of Homosassa Springs, Florida. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11(4): 99-109. HUBBS, CARL L. and E. ROSS ALLEN 1944, Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 6:110-180, Figs. 1-4. McLANE, WILLIAM M. 1948. The Seasonal Food of the Largemouth Black Bass, Micropterus sal- moides floridanus (Lacepede), in the St. Johns River, Welaka, Flor- ida. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 10(4) :108-188. REID, GEORGE K., JR. 1950a. Food of the Black Crappie, Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (LeSueur), in Orange Lake, Florida. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. In press. 1950b. Notes on the Centrarchid Fish. Mesogonistius chaetodon elizabethae, in Peninsular Florida. Copeia. In press.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(3), 1949( 1950)
Od Ase wef san
t le th f; wae he eae ete \ bid Bed He ws 1s ‘ “s P 9 Bi -fe ef, z . Md ' ' LING) 9M fh ithe =A d ¢ ‘ el Se a ' .. f : é # f La) 17% {4 is ‘4 Ls at Pi 2 es tS ¥7 am i eee on Co , PSP ea: ad arty ’ a ‘ tc” » i 1 ° 2 U j
Pek ee e
( ek of) ial a Das e%
A mags ens hy. Hr Weis mh Lagi
” Y wa Bi syn wy aR 4 4
it aed gtr: gta ai, 405
on 7~ it. 4 4 ‘ a a . mo ‘ if . A ‘ (i ’ Am 3 ‘ a 4 & 6 ye WARE i ae | y yyy: ES bs Yt, fk fave Rerwital K7he es hn gi oun wi a 1
re ne nan Bie Py
ey te tien
* ry a
SSA Spt A ie
| ibaa ol mh pa: i ee vers Lf rh PB) } 7 We Pa “She an! cui) a: 1G ci cedpeniat f
“ Me oy vena i te SOO DFE
iit fz Sali att aan: & . itt ie ¢ Sie.
A hi NG) Ch 7 “oh iat
4 yh) ‘at wa) ‘ *N
tat eee 1 Disgaea tw TO
aC om Low h £4)
VITAMIN ‘P’ PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION
Boris SOKOLOFF, JAMES B. REDD AND RAYMOND DUTCHER? Southern Bio-Research Laboratory
Florida Southern College
Griffith, Anthony, Pendergrass and Perryman (1947) were the first to demonstrate the protective action of flavonoids in radiation injury. Submitting the extremities of rats to X-ray radiation they discovered a beneficial effect from rutin therapy. The restorative process was considerably accelerated and local hemorrhages were prevented. They also were able to prevent the increase in capillary fragility in rats submitted to peritoneal administration of radon oint- ment by treating the animals with rutin. Clark, Uncapher and Jor- dan (1948) investigated the effect of total-body radiation given in a single dose to guinea pigs. A dose of 220-225 r consistently killed 67 per cent of the animals, with 50 per cent dead within 13 days. They fed the animals daily with drinking water containing 0.2% of calcium flavonate prepared fresh every day. The calcium flavonate was actually an extract of lemon peel, free of water, sugars, and hesperidin. This preparation was given for seven days before the application of X-ray radiation (225 r). The mortality rate was decreased to 35 per cent. The investigatiors concluded that, “under the experimental conditions described, a flavonoid preparation derived from lemons, administered in the drinking wa- ter, reduces the mortality from total-body roentgen irradiation by about half,” and that “the hemorrhagic symptoms (petechial hemor- rhages, ecchymoses, generalized purpura) of the treated animals were considerably less marked than those of the controls.”
Field and Rekers of the Department of Radiation Biology, Uni- versity of Rochester, School of Medicine (1948-1949) conducted an investigation with 37 dogs of the beagle breed on the protective action of vitamin ‘P’ factors. They established that when the stan- dard total body single dose of 350 r was given to the dogs, 60 per cent of them succumbed in 20 days. In 64 per cent of the radiated dogs there appeared typical leukopenia, thrombocytopenia and an- emia, which were followed by gross bleeding. They accepted the end-mortality of treated and control dogs as the most reliable basis
1Carll Tucker Fellow.
186 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
for the evaluation of anti-irradiation agents. Various flavonoids were given to the dogs for 35 days altogether, for seven days prior to ir- radiation and continuing until 28 days post-radiation. The prepara- tion was given three times a day, by mouth, a daily dose of 150 mil- ligrams. They found that some flavonoids (rutin, morin, flavonol hesperidin, eriodictyol and d-catechin) protected the dogs against radiation to a considerable degree. The mortality was reduced to 10-17 per cent (11 per cent in the case of rutin) with a significant reduction in the hemorrhagic diathesis. On the other hand, naringin, quercitin, quercitrin and methyl chalcone hesperidin were found to be ineffective as far as the protection against radiation was con- cerned. According to these investigators ascorbic acid gives no pro- tection against radiation but when ascorbic acid was given together with quercitin the mortality of the dogs was reduced to 10 per cent. Since Szent-Gyorgyi (1936) and associates suggested that ascorbic acid probably exerts a catalytic effect potentiating the action of Vitamin ‘P’ this observation seems to support their point of view.
It was observed that severe thrombopenia present in all radiated dogs was not significantly altered by the administration of vitamin ‘P’ factors. Thus it might appear that vitamin ‘P’ factors affect the vascular system directly, perhaps participating as a principal in the “wear and tear’ of a part or all of the vascular system by inhibiting its degeneration and stimulating its regeneration.
Field and Rekers (1949, p. 750) concluded “that previous mis- understanding of the nature of vitamin ‘P’ has arisen from both the failure to recognize that several flavonone analogues possess very similar antihemorrhagic activity and that ascorbic acid has the capacity to potentiate activity in other flavonones.”
In our investigation 50 rats were submitted to X-ray irradiation. They were of British brown breed obtained from Dr. Francis Car- ter Wood of St. Lukes Hospital, New York City. They were divided into two groups. One group of 20 rats served as control, while the second group of 30 rats was given vitamin “P” compound (CVP compound ) isolated from citrus waste and compound of four identi- fied flavonoids. The average weight of the rats was 180 grams, the rats were kept on regular Purina Laboratory Chow. The radiation factors were: 250 kv, 15 ma, with 0.5 mm Cu and 8.0 mm Bakelike Filters. Target distance was 27.5 cm and 210 r/min dose rate. All rats received 800 r total-body X radiation in a single exposure.
VITAMIN ‘P’ PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION 187
Sixteen rats of the control group, or 80 per cent, succumbed dur- ing the second and third weeks after the exposure (Table 1). One of the animals succumbed as early as the 1lth day while one lived 23 days after the exposure to radiation. All of them manifested gross hemorrhages of various gravity and pronounced pathological lesions in the adrenal glands. The fasciculata and reticularis were particu- larly affected with argentaffin fibrils showing signs of degeneration. Four rats, or 20 per cent, survived in spite of the presence of numer- ous petechial hemorrhages and generalized purpura.
TABLE 1.—Control Group of 20 Rats
Number of Days of SCT Re ee ar 11 | 12] 13) 14] 15} 16) 17) 18) 19 | 20] 21 | 22} 23
Nemberet hats souccumbed| 1; 2| 2| 1] 3) OdnSto2l LJ) 0) .0;)-0) 1
Mortality Rate: 80 per cent
The treated animals were divided into two groups. 10 rats re- ceived orally 4 milligrams of vitamin ‘P’ compound per day during ten days, three days prior to radiation and seven days post radia- tion. 20 rats received 5 milligrams of vitamin ‘P’ per day for 30 days, seven days prior to radiation and 23 days post radiation.
In the first group of animals, which received 40 milligrams of vitamin “P’ compound altogether, the mortality was reduced to 40 per cent (Table 2). The rats which did succumb to the injurious effect of radiation lived longer than control animals. Only one died during the third week after the exposure while the rest succumbed on the 22nd, 23rd, and 24th days respectively. The petechial hemor- rhages in the treated animals were considerably less pronounced but some pathological changes in the adrenal cortex were observed, mostly in the zone reticularis (vacuolization ).
TABLE 2.—The Rats Which Received 40 Milligrams of Vitamin ‘‘P”’
23 | 24
Number of Days of Survival............... 18 |.19 | 20 | 21 | 22
Number of Rats Succumbed............... 1 0 0 0 1
Mortality Rate: 40 per cent
188 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
In the second group of rats, which was given 150 milligrams of vitamin ‘P’ compound altogether during 30 days, the mortality was reduced to 10 per cent (Table 3). One rat succumbed on the 18th day and the other on the 24th day after the exposure to X-ray radi- ation. In this group of treated animals petechial hemorrhages were very little pronounced and in some of the rats apparently absent altogether. The rats which survived the exposure remained alive for several weeks after the experiment was terminated.
TABLE 3.—The Rats Which Received 150 Milligrams of Vitamin “P”’
Number of Days of Survival.......... 18 19" (20° 222 eee ee
Number of Rats Succumbed....... vous) dil Ode O08) POR hs Os ita il
Mortality Rate: 10 per cent
From this observation it appears that so-called vitamin “P” com- pound, containing four flavonoids naturally present in citrus fruit, gives a considerable protection to rats against a total-body, near- lethal dose of radiation.
In our previous publication. (Sokoloff and Redd, 1949) we stressed the importance of making a clear distinction between in- creased capillary permeability and capillary fragility. In the case of radiation injury there seems to be present a pronounced increase in capillary fragility which might be prevented by large doses of
flavonoids naturally present in citrus fruit.
REFERENCES
GRIFFITH, J. Q., JR., E. ANTHONY, E. PENDERGRASS and R. PERRY- MAN 1947. Effect of Rutin on Recovery Time from Radiation Injury in Rats, Proc. soc. exp. Biol. Med., Vol. 64, pp. 332-8. CLARK, W. G., R. P. UNCAPHER and M. L. JORDAN 1948. Effect of Flavonoids (Vitamin P) on Mortality From Total Body Roentgen Irradiation, Science, Vol. 108, pp. 629-680. REKERS, P. E. and J. B. FIELD 1948. Control of Hemorrhagic Syndrome and Reduction in X-Irradiation Mortality with a Flavonone, Science, Vol. 107, pp. 16-7. FIELD. J. B. and P. E. REKERS 1949. Studies of the Effects of Flavonoids on Roentgen Irradiation Dis- ease. 11. Comparison of the Protective Influence of Some Flavonoids and Vitamin C in Dogs, J. Clin. Invest., Vol. 28, pp. 746-751.
VITAMIN ‘P’ PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION 189
ARMENTANO, L. A. BENTSATH, T. BERES, St. RUSZNYAK and A. SZENT-GYORGYI 1986. Uber den Einfluss von Substanzen den Flavongruppe auf die Per- meabilitat der Kapillaren. Vitamin P, Deut. med. Wochschr., Vol. 62, pp. 13825-1382. : SOKOLOFF, B. and J. B. REDD 1949. Study on Vitamin P. Capillary Permeability and Fragility, Mono- graph, Florida Southern College, pp. 1-152.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(8), 1949(1950)
‘a me ;
Af
Ae Bier : § i wie Ri! sa! Wik aes
rN . ath iam, a poole Pet sate Aurae ; HT D eit yal thi atl
bw “4 Ma
ae a as dears aelege in Nee et i: austiss
i ‘ t A i J i 4 ra) si Sy, 5 1 a N - - | ‘ : i , A j rf a ; - 7 c < \ he vie | rt 7 pie OF y i 3 + i” ’ 7 ‘ i til ) sty é 4 ; i 4 - - ) i { ‘f 1 y yt ; y . pu ' ' , AY, j a 5 i ne
ae . : ‘ i vo af ae le \ aiyitat AON ‘home ; | a ata P yakehnen ith orVe (aes eat. Lem Leake |
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MANGROVE LEAVES (RHIZOPHORA MANGLE L.)
Boris SOKOLOFF, JAMES B. REDD AND RAYMOND DuTCHER* Southern Bio-Research Laboratory |
Florida Southern College
The Mangrove family of Rhizophoraceae is composed of fifteen genera and more than fifty species. Two species of mangrove are most common in the bays and gulfs of Southern Florida, namely so-called red mangrove, or Rhizophora Mangle L. and white man- grove, Laguncularia racemisa. Red mangrove grows prolifically around the Ten Thousand Islands as well as in Monroe and Collier Counties. It is found in considerable quantities along the West Coast up to Tampa Bay. Here, however, the mangrove leaves are much smaller and the plant itself is found only occasionally. Man- groves grow most extensively in salt water although they tend to penetrate up the rivers.
The important feature of mangrove physiology is that the differ- ence between the osmotic pressure of leaves and roots is higher than in many other plants, according to the investigation of Blum. Due to this fact and to the constant supply of minerals from sea water, mangrove leaf is particularly rich in sodium and potassium and, to a lesser extent, in magnesium. Although considerable litera- ture exists about the tannin content of mangrove bark we were unable to find any reference as to the nutritive value of the leaves of this plant. Our investigation was limited to the species of Rhizo- phora Mangle (red mangrove) and we have no information con- cerning Laguncularia racemisa. Its nutritive value might or might not correspond to that of red mangrove. Our material was obtained mostly from the Fort Myers area and it is possible that some varia- tion in the content of essential factors exists depending on the place of growth. The water content of mangrove leaf varies from 78 per cent up to 79 per cent and all our data are estimated on a dry material, obtained from fresh leaves, with a moisture content not
higher than 3-4 per cent.
VITAMIN, MINERAL AND AMINO-ACID CONTENT OF MANGROVE LEAF Our particular attention was directed to the vitamin content of
—— es
1Carll Tucker Fellow.
192 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
mangrove leaf. There was some variation in the vitamin content of several batches of dried mangrove leaves but this variation was within the limit of 15 per cent. An exception to this rule was caro- tene. Here we found a much greater variation in the potency of the samples tested. The method of preparation of dry material affected the vitamin A content to a considerable degree. Sun cured mangrove leaves have shown as low as 30 units of carotene per gram of im material, but the leaves dried in vacuum gave as much as 90-100 units per gram.
Our investigation disclosed that mangrove leaf in dry form con- . tains: vitamin B* (thiamin) 1.56 - 2.03 mcgs per gram; vitamin B» (riboflavin) 4.5 - 5.6 megs per gram; folic acid 0.60 - 0.67 mcg per gram; niacin 20.3 - 28.0 mcgs per gram; and pantothenic acid 4.0 - 4.5 mcgs per gram.
The protein content of dried mangrove leaves is relatively high— 12.1-14.3 per cent—which might be compared with the protein con- tent of alfalfa meal (16 per cent), alfalfa leaf meal (20 per cent), corn (9 per cent), oats (12 per cent), barley (13 per cent), and wheat (12 per cent). We gave some attention to the amino acid content of this material although our investigation is not yet com- plete in this respect. Table 1 gives some figures of essential amino acids of mangrove leaf.
TaBLE 1.—Amino Acids, Pounds per Hundredweight
Material Protein Arginine Lysine Methionine per cent per cent per cent per cent Mangrove leaf dehy- diated), > #dvier-mcHe 14.3 1+ 0.9 0.42 Material Cystine Tryptophane | Glycine per cent per cent per cent Mangrove leaf, dehydrated.......... 0.24 0.36 0.8
Dried mangrove leaf contains 18.9 per cent of crude fiber and 2.9 per cent of crude fat. The calcium content is 16.1-16.4 mcgs per gram; sulphur 0.62 per cent; iodine 8 mgs per kilogram; with man- ganese estimated as 27 mgs per kilogram. Ash — 6.65 per cent.
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MANGROVE LEAVES 193
CuHick FEEDING TEST
Two lots of chicks (100 chicks in each) served for this trial. Both lots were kept on Payne’s ration (consisting of yellow corn, wheat, barley, meat scraps, fish mean, soy bean meal, calcium carbonate, salt, vitamin D concentrate (20 grams per 100 pounds) and man- ganese sulphate (10 grams). In lot number I, alfalfa meal, dehy- drate, 17 per cent of protein (10 pounds per 100 pounds) was used. Lot number I was fed the same ration but the alfalfa was replaced by mangrove leaves (10 pounds) supplemented with 0.75 pounds of vitamin A concentrate (1,362,000 U/lb.). The results of this trial are incorporated in Table 2.
TABLE 2. Average Weight, Pounds Lot I Lot II és WHEGIES) CEG 6 ae 0.603 0.620 2 URGES CE GIGGy Te eee ae 1.678 1.726 Loe HERES! Ol 200 ee 2.91 3.2 FSGS DICTA ee 9 a Total feed per bird in 12 weeks (in pounds).... 10.61 10.68
From this table it appears that the increase of weight in Lot II containing mangrove material was as good if not better than in Lot I with alfalfa. This trial seems to indicate that mangrove leaf prop- erly dehydrated and supplemented with vitamin A might be used in chick rations instead of alfalfa.
Although no feeding test was conducted with mangrove meal on cattle there is a possibility that this material might be used for this purpose.
SUMMARY
The leaves of Rhizophora Mangle L., known as red mangrove, were investigated on nutrients.
It was found that the protein content of mangrove leaf varies from 12.1 to 14.3 per cent with the amino acid composition similar to that of alfalfa leaf.
194 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The carotene content of mangrove leaf is inferior to alfalfa leaf; the thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid and pantothenic acid contents approach that of alfalfa.
A chick feeding trial indicates that mangrove leaf properly de- hydrated and supplemented with vitamin A might be used in chick rations instead of alfalfa.
LITERATURE CITED BLUM, G. 1941. Osmotic Investigation on the Mangrove. Ber. Schweiz. Ges. Vol. 51, pp. 401-409. PAYNE, L. F.. M. J. CALDWELL and J. S. HUGHES 1945. Vitamin Supplements for Low Grade Alfalfa Meal. Poultry Science, Vol. 24, pp. 375-6.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(8), 1949( 1950)
NOTES ON THE FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS, MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES FLORIDANUS (LeSUEUR), IN A FLORIDA LAKE?
WILLIAM M. McLANE
Buck Pond is one of several hundred small solution lakes in the Central Highlands region of Northern Florida. It is fifteen miles east of Mill Dam Lake, Marion County, and lies in the Ocala Na- tional Forest. The total surface area of the lake is approximately eighteen acres occupying a basin which is shaped like a figure “eight.” A shallow shelf extends out from the shoreline about twenty-five feet. Beyond the edge of this shelf the bottom drops off rapidly to a maximum depth of twenty-five feet in the central portions of the lake. The firm sandy bottom of the lake is covered with a thin layer of organic matter derived from the aquatic vegeta- tion which grows only in the shallower portions of the shore zone. No surface streams enter or flow out of Buck Pond and its water remains unstained and quite transparent throughout the year. The only aquatic vegetation observed at the time of this study included species of: Panicum, Leersia, Myacca, Nymphoides, Sagittaria, Jun- cus, Pontederia, and H ypericum.
In connection with his studies on fish populations of some small lakes in Florida, Dr. O. Lloyd Meehean, then of the U. S. Fish Hatchery at Welaka, Florida, poisoned the fishes of Buck Pond on July 17, 1941. His results were published shortly thereafter (1942). At Dr. Meehean’s suggestion I collaborated in the field work at Buck Pond and obtained there the data presented in this paper.
APPLICATION OF POISON
The poison used was derris powder with 5% Rotenone content, mixed with water to form a thin paste, then further diluted until thin enough to use with a spray nozzle. Sufficient derris was applied to give a mixture of .5 parts per million in the lake. The poison was distributed uniformly by the use of an orchard type pump mounted on a fifty gallon drum. This equipment was placed in an eighteen foot sponson canoe powered with an outboard motor. The first treatment was begun at nine oclock in the morning and the entire shore zone was sprayed. After this vegetation zone was cov- ered the nozzle was removed and the end of the hose placed just
1Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida.
196 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
in front of the outboard motor propeller. Then the remainder of the lake was treated while making decreasing circular patterns with the canoe. Immediately afterwards a second application of poison was sprayed on the vegetation zone. The entire process of applying the derris took about three hours.
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS
The unusual results obtained on the food of the largemouth black bass in Buck Pond can be understood more clearly with the aid of the following observations from my field notes presented in chronological order.
Spraying with derris commenced at nine o’clock in the morning. Five minutes later bass were observed striking at affected fishes in the vegetation zone. Fifteen minutes after spraying began many suckers were seen jumping out of the water onto dense mats of vegetation at the bases of Hypericum plants and some jumped out onto the shore. Bass, bluegills, shell-crackers and warmouth bass were noticeably affected at approximately 9:45 A. M. At this time also many partially digested regurgitated sunfishes and suckers were observed on the lake bottom at depths of four to ten feet. Some severed heads and bodies of sunfishes and suckers were like- wise seen lying on the bottom. ‘At six o’clock in the afternoon the inflated air bladders of fifteen suckers were counted floating, fully inflated, on the surface of the lake. Two softshell turtles, Amyda ferox (Schneider ), were seen at this time swimming crazily around in the middle of the lake with their heads above water. Between six and seven o clock, approximately nine hours after poisoning began, Hololepis was observed at the surface for the first time. Three to four hundred of these darters were seen in the open waters of the lake swimming around in small circles with their snouts breaking the surface of the water. No other species of fish was seen alive at this time. |
The bass obtained were measured and weighed, and the stomach contents preserved in a 10% formalin solution. To aid in identifica- tion of stomach contents, a synoptic collection was obtained of all species of fishes found in the lake. Dying and dead fishes were col. lected and preserved during and after completion of the poisoning with the help of volunteers from a local CCC camp. One hundred and twenty bass were obtained on July 17 and an analysis of the stomach contents of one hundred and ten individuals containing
FOOD OF LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 197
food is presented in Table 1. The following list shows the species composition of this lake habitat and the first five forms are arranged in descending order of abundance as based on total fishes recovered after poisoning.
1. Erimyzon sucetta sucetta (Lacépéde)—Eastern Lake Chub- sucker
2. Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens Cope—Eastern Bluegill
3. Lepomis microlophus (Giinther )—Shell-cracker
4. Chaenobryttus coronarius (Bartram)—Warmouth Bass
3. Micropterus salmoides floridanus (LeSueur )—Florida Large- mouth Bass
6. Gambusia affinis holbrookii (Girard)—Eastern Mosquito-fish
7. Heterandria formosa Agassiz—Least Killifish
8. Labidesthes sicculus vanhyningi Bean and Reid—Southeast- ern Brook Silverside
9. Hololepis barratti (Holbrook)—Florida Swamp Darter
10. Fundulus dispar lineolatus (Agassiz)—Eastern Star-headed Minnow .
11. Fundulus chrysotus Holbrook—Golden Topminnow
DISCUSSION OF FOOD AND FEEDING
The effects of poisoning on Buck Pond fishes present some inter- esting facts on the feeding habits and food of largemouth bass. A much higher percentage of stomachs contained food (92%) than was reported for the stomachs of bass from the St. Johns River (68% ) (McLane, 1948), which were not obtained by use of poison. Though evidence was found of some cases of regurgitation this fac- tor was much lower than is experienced when using more conven- tional methods of obtaining bass. The severed heads and cutup bodies of fishes seen on the bottom are attributed to the feeding activities of the soft-shelled turtles, which, though they were affect- ed by derris, apparently fed to some extent on the affected fishes before succumbing themselves.
An examination of the data in Table 1, augmented by the field observations presented, shows that the bass fed quite heavily on all species of fishes known to occur in Buck Pond, except Fundulus chrysotus. It appears that the bass captured food in all the differ- ent ecological situations present. However, the strikingly high per- centage of darters in the stomachs is probably due to distortion of |
198 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
AV. SIZE (STAND. LENGTH MM)
TOTAL ORGANISMS © NO. STOMACHS
AV. PER FISH MAX. (ONE FISH)
LIST OF ORGANISMS EATEN Decapoda
Palaemonetes paludosa Procambarus fallax Odonata
Undet. nymphs
Undef. adults
Orthoptera
Opshomala v. vitreipennis Coleoptera
Phyllophaga sp. Hypotrichia sp.
Undet. insects
Araneida
Dolomedes ft. triton
Pisces
Erimyzon s. sucetta Lepomis m. microlophus Micropterus s. floridanus Centrarchids (undet.) Chaenobryttus coronarius Fundulus dispar lineolatus Heterandria formosa Undet. fish
Lepomis m. purpurescens Lepomis sop.
Gambusia a. holbrookii Labidesthes s.vanhyningi Hololepis barratti Miscellaneous
Fish eggs
Myacca sp.
Detritus
Total food organisms
oO 0 DOWWNMNONN——-—-N—-—-AWANGAN—-W
OABNOW-Hh-—-NW ~p
TABLE 1
Food of 110 specimens of Micropterus salmoides floridanus (LeSueur), 101- 470 millimeters in fork length, from Buck Pond, Marion Co., Florida.
FOOD OF LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 199
the normal feeding pattern by the poisoning of the water. Hololepis is a quiescent, bottom-dwelling form seldom found in bass stomachs. None of the five hundred individuals eaten in the present case had been extensively digested, and it seems evident that they were cap- tured as they rose from the bottom or gasped at the surface on feel- ing the effects of the derris poison. In contrast, the Centrar chids and specimens of Labidesthes were found in different stages of digestion. My observations of food of bass from lakes Pee to Back Pond made over a period of years indicate that these latter forms are staples in the normal diet of bass.
The maximum number of fishes eaten by one bass was recorded from a specimen 177 millimeters in fork length, which contained 47 specimens of Hololepis with an average standard length of 17 millimeters and 1 Gambusia 15 millimeters long—a combined total of 814 millimeters. Nine of the specimens of Hololepis were exam- ined and the following organisms recorded from their stomachs: $2 Chaoborus sp., 37 Chydorus sp., 15 Cyclops sp., 2 Chironomidae, and 2 Amphipoda.
A total of 988 fishes were consumed by the 110 bass, giving an average of 8.98 fishes per bass. By contrast, in the St. Johns River I found (1948) that the average number of fishes eaten per bass was 1.14. The extremely high ratio found in Buck Pond (due pri- marily to the consumption of Hololepis) shows how derris poison- ing may alter the results of a food study by increasing the avail- ability of food items that are not normally present in the diet of the largemouth black bass.
S1zE GROUPS
In addition to the 120 bass examined for stomach contents, 222 specimens, some of which floated to the surface during the night and were recovered on July 18, contributed to the length-frequency data presented in Figure 1. The smallest bass obtained measured 101 millimeters and may represent the minimum growth of bass hatched during the 1941 (?) breeding season. Eighty-eight per cent of the 342 bass fall in the first two size groups, whereas only 12 per cent represent bass weighing one pound or more which were available to anglers up until the time of poisoning. Buck Pond with only 2.2 desirable bass per acre may represent a body of water that has been effectively fished by anglers, or was intrinsically low in productivity.
200 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
175 Hees anes Sena Bea 150 Beas Seea Been Badal Pee Beea Beas Oaeo oo08 125) boro GaaG @O8a BGS [ie cas OSB GB OoOOd BSeaa OGoa x Saag a) a | Be A BBB ne ion GS SBG8 OOBB Bees ioo) - HG HH BSna ee Te aa Sean s | HEE HAE HoH OGan Hy EEE BaSe I = AHH seo 75 eee GGes a BOBS Beae = | ate 0000 2 Spa8 Baee Zz Beea G88 Baso G8as Seaee BSee TT Bono BOoBB a: haat] so FH EE aSae Eas eee odae HH eBEe 5o5a Beo8 | Glas Seee Haan BeBe Deus SRes HESS Sash 25 ERs Baas HGGo8 | a rate jale Baan Seae Boag GS2e RSBaS ia Gaba ees seam aaae) nictela econ geoe8 oso aeea oa08 gene | Hy EEF OW EEE EEG) GEES ke ae
101— 200/201 —300/ 301 — 400] 401—S00/50I— 616 FORK LENGTH IN MILLIMETERS
FIGURE 1
Size distribution of 842 specimens of Micropterus salmoides floridanus (Le- Sueur) from Buck Pond, Marion Co., Florida.
FOOD OF LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 201
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Benjamin B. Leavitt, De- partment of Biology, University of Florida, for critically reading the manuscript; and to the Staff Artist, Miss Esther Coogle, for making Table 1 and Figure 1.
LITERATURE CITED McLANE, WILLIAM M. 1948. The seasonal food of the largemouth black bass, Micropterus salmoi- des floridanus (LeSueur), in the St. Johns River, Welaka, Florida. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10(4): 108-138, 2 figs. and 7 tables. MEEHEAN, O. LLOYD 1942. Fish populations of five Florida lakes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 71: 184-194, 7 tables.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(3), 1949( 1950)
* ee toh abi te vitmovi Ue nO) ‘Sault deren Maker ene- ae :
Ligrtiay ce Nal a of nome a
a
a | | $54 $ i feet (IC) ’ E im ' f B a Ee |
( va | as "2 a ie |) x ad "t Cele FOROL (8 EET Cie “bao ee
NOTES ON AN APPARENT “RAIN” OF ORGANIC MATTER IN FLORIDA?
WILLIAM M. McLANE AND GIDEON E. NELSON
In a summary of spurious and authentic rains of organic matter McAtee (1918) states, “Other jelly rains have proved to consist of the egg masses of midges, and of colonies of infusoria,’ but cites no specific case nor reference to such a case in the literature. There- fore it is felt that the following account is worthy of publication.
At the University of Florida Conservation Reserve, Welaka, Put- nam County, Florida, a very heavy summer thundershower, accom- panied by a slight Northwest wind, commenced at two oclock on the afternoon of July 23, 1949, and lasted until about five o'clock that afternoon. Shortly after the rain ended one of us (Nelson) came out of Apartment 3 on the Reserve and was startled to observe that the entire front of the apartment was peppered with thousands of gelatinous masses which had not been present just before the rain started. He immediately called the senior author over to see this phenomenon and we collected random samples of the gelatin- ous masses placing some in 70% alcohol, 5% formalin, and in tap water. Several photographs were taken just before sundown in hopes of obtaining a record to illustrate the density of the mate- rial, (Plate 1). These gelatinous masses averaged approximately 5 x 10 mm. in size, were blue-green in color to the naked eye ( a few were colorless), and were present in greater density on the window screens, lower siding baseboard, and the outer one-half inch square mesh hardware cloth on the lower half of the front screen door. The samples in tap water disintegrated within ten (10) days.
We were unable to find any of this material on the lawn, the shell road or sidewalks; however, scattered masses were observed on the Northwest end of the laboratory building and the Northwest corner of the garage building on the Reserve. On July 24 this ma- terial was found on Jean’s Grill in Welaka, one mile away, and at the Star Theater, Crescent City, which is nine air miles Southeast of Welaka. At no place was the density as great as on Apartment No. 8.
The only explanation for the sudden occurrence of this organic matter seemed to be that it had rained down. We suspected that it
1Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida.
204 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
represented either the egg masses of some mollusk or was some form of Algae. The U. S. Weather Bureau in Jacksonville, Florida supplied the information that no unusual winds had been reported for the area for the week ending July 28 and that the only disturb- ance for the State was a small tornado 10 miles North of Madison, Madison County in North Western Florida on July 20 (180 air miles from Welaka ).
PLATE 1
Chironomid egg masses on the outside walls of Apartment Number 3, Uni- versity of Florida Conservation Reserve, Welaka, Putnam County, Florida.
Samples were sent to Dr. William J. Clench, Harvard College, and to Dr. Henry van der Schalie, Michigan Museum. They replied that the material did not represent the egg masses of Mollusks; however, the samples at Michigan were identified as insect eggs by Drs. J. Speed Rogers and T. H. Hubbell.
On August 20 Mr. Arnold F. van Pelt observed globular masses of jelly in small areas on the sides of the laboratory building and on Apartment Number 2 at the Reserve and recorded the follow- ing data: “temperature, 22°C, relative humidity, 100%, heavy rains in early afternoon later tapering off until the sky was overcast with
AN APPARENT RAIN OF ORGANIC MATTER 205
the sun in evidence for short periods of time. Some of the globules had become brown in drying up, while others remained very gel- atinous.” Samples that were placed in boiled rain water cooled to room temperature deteriorated by August 27. On August 22 we ob- served the areas mentioned above and found only brownish masses of dried protoplasm. In contrast, the dried up masses still on Apart- ment Number 3 were blue-green and very glassy in appearance on this date. (It is interesting to note that the organic matter observed on July 23 and August 20 was noted after heavy rains).
On August 23 at 2:00 A. M. the senior author scooped up about a dozen Chironomids from the screen door of Apartment Number 4 on the Reserve and threw them into the freshly changed water of a bowl containing a young pet turtle. Most of the midges flew up off the water so this performance was repeated and some of the insects were pushed down under the surface to wet their bodies and wings. While eating breakfast on the same date four gelatin- ous masses were observed in the turtle bowl. These appeared identi- cal to those previously collected on the buildings, but like those from Apartment Number 2, were a slight brownish color and with no trace of blue-green. Two of the four masses were preserved in 70% alcohol on August 25 when it was first observed under the microscope that some of the eggs inside the masses were hatching. Hatching was first observed at noon in the laboratory at which time the water temperature was 31°C and the air temperature 31.5°C. By September 5 all the larvae in the above culture (esti- mated at 100) had died except for two specimens which could be seen actively moving in their tubes of sand grains. We identified these larvae as members of the family Chironomidae. Careful micro- examination of the preserved masses from the July 23, August 20 and 23 collections revealed that they were all very similar in struc- ture, arrangement of the eggs inside the individual masses and in size, and are believed to be egg masses of Chironomids. The late Dr. Melvin A. Brannon, University of Florida, kindly identified the material responsible for the blue-green color of the Apartment Number 3 sample as Myxophyceae.
July to December are months when great swarms of midges are known to occur in this region of the St. Johns River and these swarms are attracted by lights much as the mayflies are during some years in the Lake Erie region. Many midges were observed
206 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
at lighted windows and doors during these months at the Reserve by us; however, the gelatinous egg masses were found only after very heavy rains on the dates given in this note. The senior author has spent approximately three years at the Conservation Reserve and this is the only known instance of the occurrence of this phe- nomenon during this period.
LITERATURE CITED McATEE, W. L.
1918. Rains of organic matter. U.S.D.A. Weather Bureau, Monthly Weather Review, 45 (1917): 217-224.
Penn SERVES the Photographer
wis is the age of specialization in every field. PENN
CAMERA’S specialty is photography . . . in all its facets. And we're working at it constantly. PENN CAMERA is one of the world’s largest photographic stores, serving amateur, professional, industrial, scientific and medical photographic requirements. And because we do business on a nation-wide basis, we are equipped to handle any order . . . from a single camera to a complete photographic laboratory . . . at lowest competitive prices. PENN CAMERA’S prompt and accurate service, and GUARANTEE of satisfaction on ALL purchases add up to Buyer Confidence and Seller dePENNdability.
Write Today for Full Details of PENN SERVICE and PENN VALUES!
We Buy °* We Sell © We Trade
PENN CAMERA reece cal
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(3), 1949( 1950)
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Contributions to the Journal may be in any of the fields of the sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive lengtn, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings will be published only with the financial cooperation of the author. Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or other competent critics.
MANUSCRIPT FORM.——(1) typewrite material, using one side ot paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal margins; (3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight (avoid onion skin); (4) do not submit carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) footnotes should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short; (8) for bibliographic style, note closely the practices employed in Vol. 11, No. 4 and later issues; (9) a factual summary is recommended for longer papers.
ILLUSTRATIONS.——Photographs should be glossy prints of good contrast. Make line drawings with India ink; plan linework and lettering for at least one-half reduction. Do not use typewritten labels on the face of the drawings; provide typed legends on sepa- rate sheets.
pROOF.——Proof should be corrected immediately upon receipt and returned at once, with manuscript, to the editor. Ordinarily page proof will not be sent to the author. Manuscripts and plates will not be returned to authors unless requested. Abstracts and orders for reprints should be sent to the editor along with corrected
galley proof.
REPRINTS.——Should be ordered when galley proof is returned. A blank form, with reprint prices, accompanies proof for this purpose. No reprints are furnished free to authors. Payment for reprints will be made by authors directly to the printer.
INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Florida Southern College John B. Stetson University Lakeland, Florida DeLand, Florida
Florida State University St. Petersburg Junior College Tallahassee, Florida St. Petersburg, Florida University of Florida Rollins College
Gainesville, Florida Winter Park, Florida Jacksonville Junior College University of Miami Jacksonville, Florida Coral Gables, Florida University of Tampa Glidden-Naval Stores Tampa, Florida Jacksonville, Florida
Rose Printing Company Tallahassee, Florida
Ouarterly Journal
of the
Florida Academy
of Sciences
Vol. 12 December 1949 (1950) No. 4 Contents
St. John—The Evolution of the Ophioglossaceae of the
MPP IRIECO SUALCS aoe vic ial eve eee Hin © «0 ejp vidio ies 207 eee NEI 88 ie ort Saupe engi 468 Sia sieleoe qecerae 219 Jackson—A Key to the Genus Scleria Berg in South Florida.... 220 Rae MMO SCHON CS ec a) ee a bee Feld le ed enc ene es 222, Ray—Biochemical Aspects of the Cancer Problem............ 223
Edson and Smith—A Preliminary Investigation of the Growth Response of Aspergillus niger to Various Levels of Copper as a Biological Method of Determining Available Copper
PLE 22 dg RUDRA SRE ee eat na GA 235 Brodkorb—The Number of Feathers in Some Birds.......... 241 Yudowitch—Particle Size by X-Ray Scattering.............. 246 EMER SERIOUS aio eihe ka ahs wie vans oie es os bess elelace 251 DPD ELE | LA OUEE Ae RE Re Sos AI 253
ae i.
f may 1 1951 &
: \ ‘4 SS aaron
VoL. 12 DECEMBER 1949 (1950) No. 4
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research
Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Inc., Tallahassee, Florida
Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to A. C. Higginbotham, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Physiology, Florida State University, Talla- hassee, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Subscription price, Three Dollars a year
Mailed May 3, 1951
THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE een IDA AGADEMY «OF, SCIENCES
VoL. 12 DECEMBER 1949 (1950) No. 4
THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES?
E,pwarp P. St. JOHN
Floral City, Florida
The Ophioglossaceae are commonly considered the most primi- tive of living ferns. They are small plants and very simple in struc- ture. In several species the underground rootstock produces but a single leaf each year.
They form a closely related family of three genera; Helmintho- stachys contains but one species, and is confined to the Australian and Indo-Malayan regions; Botrychium is assigned 23 species in the latest monograph of the family (Clausen:1938), and is world- wide in distribution;; Ophioglossum is credited with 28 species by the same authority, and is found on all of the continents. Nearly one-half of the known species are found in the United States. Five of the seven subgenera of Botrychium and Ophioglossum are well represented; the other two include but four species.
The family is so differentiated from other primitive plants that since the beginning of systematic botany it has been an unsolved phylogenetic puzzle. Such men as Prantl, Hooker, Campbell, Chris- tensen, and Bower, with other contemporary botanists of note, have given special attention to the problem; Clausen in his monograph cites 68 authorities and 115 different titles. Research has been largely in the fields of morphology and cytology, and much knowl- edge of the anatomy of these plants, and of the earlest stages of ontogenetic development, has been accumulated. On this basis several possible lines of descent have been suggested, but in the Ophioglossaceae specialization has been carried so far that useful
1Kssential parts of the investigation were made possible through an A.A. A.S. research grant from the Florida Academy of Sciences.
208 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
comparisons are not readily made, and anatomical evidence of genetic relationship has not been conclusive.
The most obvious structural peculiarity of the Ophioglossaceae, and the one which has been the chief basis of attempts to trace their lineage, is the apparently adaxial branching from the petiole or blade of the fertile segment of the leaf. A second character, which is found in no other ferns, is the presence of a direct vascular supply to the sporangia. A third equally distinctive trait is the subterranean habit of the gametophyte.
When one turns from anatomy to the life history of these plants similarly striking characteristics demand explanation. Why was the evolution of these plants arrested at an early stage so that they form, as Bower (1926) puts it, “an imperfectly modernized relic of the Paleozoic flora’? How were these small and simple plants able to survive until now among countless competitors that have far more varied and elaborated equipment for the struggle for existence? Why are there so few species in a family of plants that have had so long a history and that have made their way into all parts of the world? Why is it that among these plants, as in no ‘other group, well differentiated forms that few if any botanists would otherwise hesitate to recognize as species are connected by chains of intermediate plants that make the delimitation of species almost impossible? Why has specialization in a few essen- tial organs been carried so far that apparent continuity with related plants has been lost?
This study is based upon the belief that the peculiarities that raise the questions contain the answers. These plants could not have survived the long and intense competition that they have endured unless the extreme divergencies from the usual forms and habits of comparable plants were adaptive. When the signifi- cance of these adaptations in the life history of the living plants has been ascertained we have both a guide to the course of the evolutionary processes that have been at work and a test of the validity of any hypothesis as to the evolutionary steps that pro- duced the plants of today. In this study, which has been carried on for twelve years past, the approach which has been suggested has directed and supplemented the morphological investigations.
EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 209
1.—THE DOMINANT FACTOR IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY— THE GAMETOPHYTE
In all terrestrial species of the Ophioglossaceae the gametophytes originate and perform their functions several centimeters below the surface of the soil; in the two epiphytic species they are buried in decaying vegetable matter. In all, sunlight is excluded from the developing sporophyte, and growth is made possible by sym- biotic relationship with a fungus. The embryo is so dependent upon saprophytic nourishment that it dies unless infection takes place at an early stage.
Elsewhere among living plants the subterranean gametophyte is found only among the Psilotaceae and the majority of the Lyco- podiaceae, groups of primitive plants which significantly resemble the Ophioglossaceae in arrest of development at an early stage, in obscure delimitation of species, and in world-wide distribution of identical or closely related forms. If it is believed that the Ophioglossaceae were directly derived from plants related to the Psiltotaceae or the Lycopodiaceae it might be argued that the subterranean gametophyte is hereditary but, as will appear later in this paper, the presence of this trait is rather an argument against such a line of descent. If descent was from the primitive Filicales the trait was acquired at the point of departure from the ancestral line, and is to be explained by its connection with changing environmental conditions which forced radical adjust- ments in the life history of the plants.
In search for such conditions attention turns at once to the ex- treme competition to which these Paleozoic plants were subjected on the appearance and wide distribution of flowering plants, with their many new adaptations to aid in the struggle for survival. Observation of the distribution of ferns in central Florida suggested the great importance of the subterranean gametophyte in this connection. Here the climate provides alternation between periods of frequent rains and prolonged drought. The porous limestone of the region absorbs large quantities of water during the rains and gives it off slowly during the dry periods. As a result ferns are almost invariably associated with rocks, except that a few species grow in the immediate vicinity of swamps or ponds. In
210 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the grottos, and in forests where boulders and ledges are thickly scattered, the rocks support abundant sporelings, while the ground between bears no young plants. These conditions only exaggerate those that exist over a large part of the land area of the world. Wherever even brief periods of drought occur small plants with undeveloped root-systems are greatly limited in habitat by the lack of a continuous supply of moisture. Every year countless bil- lions of fern spores fail to produce plants, not because they lack vitality, nor because of absence of ecological conditions suitable for mature plants, but because of the exacting requirements of the young plants in the earliest stages of their growth.
In the intense competition with other plants the Ophioglossaceae found the continuous moisture which the gametophytes require by adopting the subterranean habit,? and were thus enabled to move into unoccupied areas of soil. Consequently they had little competition with other spore-bearing plants, and in later plant associations competition with flowering plants was greatly reduced. The importance of the acquisition of this very unusual trait can hardly be overemphasized. Wide and careful study of the plants in their habitats indicates that this character alone might account for the survival of these primitive plants to the present time. However, survival was secured at the expense of evolutionary advance. )
The subterranean life of the gametophyte necessitated certain adjustments of the sexual parts. Eames (1932) describes the game- tophytes of Botrychium as tuberous bodies from one to twenty millimeters in length, varying from thick-ovoid to dorsi-ventral form. In B. obliquum the flattened structure bears on its upper surface a ridge upon which the antheridia are located, while the archegonia are in lower positions on each side of the ridge. In Ophioglossum the general form is cylindrical, with considerable branching in the epiphytic species, and the position is vertical. The descriptions of botanists seem to imply that the antheridia
2The Lycopodiaceae afford clear evidence that the subterranean habit of
the gametophyte is derived (Eames 1986, p. 189). It is not present in all species; and gametophytes that are normally subterranean sometimes develop on the surface and produce chlorophyll. This has also been observed in the Ophioglossaceae.
EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 211
and archegonia are indiscriminately scattered over the upper half of the gametophyte, but their drawings show the antheridia predominating on the upper parts. Eames states that development proceeded from the “undoubtedly primitive cylindrical form” to the dorsi-ventral type of Botrychium. It is obvious that the position of the antheridia above all or most of the archegonia facilititates fertilization as water passes downward through the soil.
The connection between the life history of the plants and this course of evolution is clear. When crowding of the more favorable habitats by other plants brought about the transition from terres- trial growth of the gametophyte to the subterranean habit the opportunity for cross-fertilization through close association of the gametophytes was greatly reduced; and the ease with which self- fertilization was accomplished in the changing but not yet fully adapted gametophyte was also lessened. Hence any variation that would facilitate self-fertilization would have high selective value. The tendency toward self-fertilization enabled the gametophyte to descend to lower levels where the supply of moisture was better, and this action again increased the selective value of self- fertilization.
While special adaptation for self-fertilization has been generally recognized by botanists who have given special attention to these plants, no one seems to have called attention to the fact that under the conditions that have been described hybridization, or even cross-breeding within the species, is almost impossible. In order that either may be accomplished two viable spores from different plants must be carried by percolating water to the same place an inch or more below the surface of the ground; and the gametophytes derived from them must produce functioning sexual parts at the same time. Even after this has been accomplished, and if the gametophytes are in actual contact, self-fertilization is more likely to occur.
The evolutionary effect of this condition is very great. The almost complete absence of inter-breeding between varying forms elimi- nates the most effective means of bringing about recombination of genes, and the range of variation can little exceed the limits of mutation and recombination in the individual plant. The usual effect of geographic isolation does not appear, for plants in the
212 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
same colony are almost as effectively segregated, so far as cross- breeding is concerned, as those that are separated by thousands of miles of space. Whatever further evolution takes place must be extremely conservative in nature. It will consist almost entirely in the elaboration of characters which the plants already possess. Here is a condition which is entirely sufficient to explain the per- sistence of these ancient plants in substantially their original form through a period in which the greater part of the evolution of flowering plants was accomplished.
The taxonomy of the Ophioglossaceae affords many examples that illustrates the general statements of the preceding paragraph. One of the outstanding peculiarities of this group of plants is that © while they are of world-wide distribution the number of species is very small. Since they are of ancient origin it might be supposed that a considerable number of species has been lost, and in case of the strongly differentiated monotypic genus Helminthostachys this is surely true; but there is little, if any, evidence that this has happened since the generic types were established in Botrychium or Ophioglossum. In each genus the species are closely related, and usually the course of evolution is clearly indicated by transitional and juvenile forms. There is but one “missing link” in the evolution of the species of eastern North America. This has to do with the origin of the epiphytic Cheiroglossa (O. palmatum), and here the juvenile plants throw clear light on the problem. Furthermore, the species that now exist are found in substantially the same forms in the most widely separated regions. B.Lunaria has made its way around the world, and is found from Alaska and Iceland in the north to Australia and Patagonia in the south. O.vulgatum is widely distributed in the entire northern hemisphere. In both genera other species have encircled the globe in north-temperate or tropical regions with but slight tendency toward the formation of geographical varieties. The small number of species and their conservatism of form are precisely what is to be expected because of the extreme rarity of cross-breeding.
The absence of cross-breeding affects the evolutionary process in another way that is especially significant in these plants. Inter- breeding produces variation, and if the new forms provide better adaptation they are preserved and may lead on to new specific
EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 213
forms, while selection and the production of lethal mutations eliminate such forms as cannot be incorporated into the new species-group. But the self-fertilizing Ophioglossaceae reproduce the individual plant with but slight variation, and eliminate forms almost wholly by ecological selection. It is not strange that in these plants well differentiated species are still connected by chains of transitional forms.?
In still another way the enforced in-breeding of the Ophiglos- saceae has affected the processes by which the plants have been enabled to survive through ages of intense competition. Without cross-breeding the production of lethal combinations of genes is less than among hybridizing plants. In generalizing evidence from many sources Julian Huxley (1942, 84) says, “Inbreeding will also promote the rejection of unfavorable and the spread of favorable mutations..... Elimination of the more deleterious mutations will be greater when the frequency of homozygosis is increased by inbreeding or self-fertilization”. In this way the ability of small populations to maintain themselves may have been so considerably increased as appreciably to affect survival.
Inbreeding, consequent upon the subterranean habit of the gametophyte, has not merely dominated the course of structural evolution in these plants; indirectly it has shaped after one general pattern the life histories of all. They were small plants from the first, for their vascular patterns show that they were derived by a short step of transition from primitive plants of small size whose patterns of branching and venation were wholly dichotomous. They were unfitted for assertive competition with more robust plants, and were unable to escape from this condition because of the limitations upon further development which were enforced by the absence of inter-breeding. Their strategy of survival was of necessity to make the most of the smallest unoccupied areas and of the brief seasonal periods when the competing plants were in
8The persistence of transitional forms that arise while new species are taking form is favored by another characteristic of the Ophioglossaceae. At present all of the species are rare plants, and there is every reason to believe that this relationship with other plants has existed for a very long time in the past. Therefore competition has not been within the species, but between the species and other plants. It follows that divergent forms will persist as long as they meet the minimum requirements for survival.
214 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
less active growth. In Botrychium both of these adaptations are conspicuous. The successive appearance of species in the phylogeny of the genus was in general accompanied by successive reduction in size. There is a parallel trend toward shortening the annual period of growth. In some of the larger ternate species the leaf is retained, and presumably functions, until that of the next year appears; in some of the smaller species the period of active growth lasts but four or five weeks. In Ophioglossum the same tendencies are carried to extremes. Plants of several species produce- spores at less than three centimeters in height, and the leaf may complete its growth and mature spores within one month. In one tropical species reduction has been carried so far that the blade has dis- | appeared and the plant sustains itself wholly as a saprophyte, only the sporebearing part appearing above ground. Only the epiphytes fail to show this tendency, and they are the exceptions that prove the rule. Having been driven into the trees by their competitors they found an uncrowded habitat on the trunk of tree- ferns and palms, and developed the largest leaves that are found in the family.
. There seems to be convincing evidence that the subterranean gametophyte has limited and directed the processes by which the Ophioglossaceae acquired their present form and their ecological relationships with other plants. If that is true the stage in the phylogeny of the plants at which this trait was acquired must throw light on the origin of the family. Because of its limiting effect upon the acquisition of new characters it appears that it could not have been acquired before the essential traits of the family had been established. The dorsi-ventral leaf, the character- istic fertile segment, and perhaps even the generic types are too great innovations to have been produced by plants that do not inter-breed. For reasons that will appear in later discussion of the fertile segment it seems probable that the transition from the terrestrial to the subterranean habit of the gametophyte rather closely paralleled the development of the generic traits. That this occurred after the appearance of the fern-like leaf was strongly indicated by Chrysler’s early studies (1910, 1926) and important further evidence will appear in later discussion of the evolution of the leaf of both Botrychium and Ophioglossum.
EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 215
SUMMARY
1. The subterranean gametophyte of the Ophioglossaceae has enabled this group of plants to survive from Paleozoic times to the present day.
2. The absence of cross-breeding, consequent upon the subter- ranean habit of the gametophyte, offers satisfactory explana- tion for: .
a. The early arrest of evolution in these plants;
b. The small number of species in the ancient and widely distributed family;
c. The persistence of transitional forms that were involved in species-making;
d. The extreme degree of specialization that has taken place in a few essential organs;
e. The general tendency toward reduction and withdrawal in the competitive experience of the family.
3. Since the subterranean habit of the gametophyte practically ended cross-fertilization, and so limited the acquisition of new characters, the stage in the phylogeny of these plants at which the trait was acquired will throw light on the ancestry of the Ophioglossaceae.
I].—SPECIALIZATION IN THE ROOTSTOCK AND THE ROOTS
Campbell (1940, et al.), Bower (1926, et al.), and others have given much attention to morphological and cytological study of the stem or rootstock, and the roots, of the Ophioglossaceae. Little attention has been given to the ways in which they function in the life history of the plants, or to the specialization which these relationships have produced. Observation of the various species with these considerations in mind reveals a considerable number of data that are of interest to the taxonomist.
The rootstock of the Ophioglossaceae is buried in the soil at about the same depth as the gametophyte and, like it, benefits from the more regular supply of water that is thus secured. Be- cause of its subterranean position it is little subject to alteration from response to ecological conditions, but two forms of speciali- zation are quite apparent.
In Botrychium the rootstocks are vertical in position, and more or less completely approach cylindrical form. In Ophioglossum they
216 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
range from long-cylindrical to oblate-spheroidal form. The long cylindrical forms are found in species that occupy the drier habitats, and show adaptation to the lower level of moisture in superficial layers of the soils of such places. The ovoid and globose forms are found in species that grow in low Bound and seem to have been derived from the longer type.
The leaves are produced in spiral succession, and therefore the cylindrical rootstocks are successively lengthened at the apex; in globose forms expansion is largely lateral. Therefore the rootstocks of young plants of species which are characterized by different forms show more resemblance than do those of older plants; but the characteristic form for the species is constant in mature plants, and is a character of taxonomic significance. The number of leaf scars is indicative of the age of the plant, and is a valuable char- acter for distinguishing plants of small species from young plants of larger species having leaves of similar form. In subtropical species of Ophioglossum the number of leaf scars does not give exact information as to the age of a plant, since usually more than one leaf is produced at a time, and in three species seven func- tioning leaves have been found on one plant.
An important function of the rootstock is to serve as a reservoir of stored nutrients which make possible the rapid growth of the leaf when it first appears above ground, and which in some species must be accomplished in very brief time. Usually this function is shared with the roots, and in such species the roots persist through more than one period of growth. The bulbous form of the root- stock in some species shows adaptation for this purpose. Ophio- glossum crotalophoroides illustrates its extreme form; in plants that are no more than six centimeters tall the globose rootstock may be nearly a centimeter in diameter, and the roots are very slender and live only until the leaves and spores are fully matured.
Saprophytic nourishment is essential to the life of the gameto- phyte and embryo, and the symbiosis which produced it may be supposed to have originated when subterranean growth of the gametophyte was established. It has carried over to the sporophyte and has an important part in its life processes. Eames (19386, p.136) says, “The reduction of the leaf blade is doubtless connected with this condition, as is the case with many plants with fungous asso- ciates.” Bower states (1926, p.86) that “The mycorhizic condition
EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 217
does not necessarily entail a marked state of reduction, though in extreme cases this may be seen.” The direct cause of reduction in the plants that are under consideration seems to be found in ecological selection, but mycorhizal symbiosis certainly favors it, and perhaps is an essential enabling factor in some cases.
The chief importance of saprophytic nourishment in the sporo- phyte may well be in connection with the long periods of dormancy between the periods of functioning of the leaves. These may ex- tend through four-fifths of the year, and occur at times when conditions are most unfavorable for the plants. Both survival through the long resting period and accumulation of nutritive material for later use are favored by the symbiosis.
Although it can have had no effect upon the evolution of the family, it is worthy of record that the subterranean habit of the rootstock gives complete protection from injury by fire in both Botrychium and Ophioglossum. This certainly has had great influ- ence upon the abundance of the plants in Florida at the present time; and facts that appear in connection with it throw light upon the role of these plants in the existing plant associations. The Florida peninsula is especially subject to devastating fires be- cause of its long dry season and because of over-drainage of the sandy soil through underground drainage systems which are so complete that they frequently issue from the ground near the coast as navigable rivers. It is known that for several hundred years past large areas of a kind that include most of the habitats of Ophioglossum are annually burned over. In the areas where the fires have occurred the shrubby species of the plant associations are greatly retarded in growth for several years, thus producing very favorable conditions for small plants that have escaped in- jury. One of the notable habitats of several species of Ophioglossum is a level area, about twenty acres in extent, which is divided into nearly equal parts by a road which acts as a barrier against the spread of fire. When it was discovered the plants were abundant on the east side of the road, and infrequent on the west side. A few years later fire swept over the west side, and within three years the plants were abundant there and were becoming rare on the east side. Seven years later the western area was burned over, and again the number of plants in that part of the habitat was mul- tiplied within a few years. The story of this habitat illustrates
218 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
how an adaptation may at a critical time in the phylogeny of a species have a value quite different from that which produced it.
The roots of the Ophioglossaceae show considerable specializa- tion, and afford several characters of taxonomic significance. They are without root-hairs, and usually are fleshy or swollen in appear- ance, from adaptation for storage or symbiosis; but in species in which these functions are performed by the rootstock they may be exceedingly slender. When they serve as storage reservoirs they tend to be large and abundant. In some species both of Botrychium and of Ophioglossum the exaggerated size of the roots in propor- tion to that of the leaves is striking.
In three species that occupy the drier soils vegetative reproduc- tion by budding from the roots is common, and it is occasional in at least two species of the wet lands. In O.petiolatum seven plants have been found on one root-system. In color the roots of different species vary from translucent white to yellows and browns of several shades. O. tenerum, which has been much confused with other small species with which it is associated, can be positively identified by the bright yellow color of the roots during the time of their growth.
SUMMARY
1. The rootstocks of the Ophioglossaceae show adaptations to vary- ing degrees of moisture which afford characters of taxonomic significance.
2. Specialization for storage of nutritive materials in rootstocks and roots varies among the species and provides reliable taxo- nomic characters. .
8. Saprophytic nourishment is important in the life history of the Ophioglossaceae, as regards both survival and perrenation.
4. The deeply buried rootstock is protected from damage by fire, and the response to “burning over” of the habitat strikingly reveals the place of the Ophioglossaceae in the present plant associations. .
5. The roots of the Ophioglossaceae, and espceially of Ophioglos- sum, show considerable specialization, and thus provide char- acters which may be used in the identification of species.
EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 219
LITERATURE CITED BOWER, F. O. 1926. The Ferns. Vol. II. Cambridge Press. CAMPBELL, DOUGLAS H. 1940. The Evolution of the Land Plants. Stanford University Press. CLAUSEN, ROBERT T. 1938. A monograph of the Ophioglossaceae. Memoir of the Torrey Botani- cal Club vol. 19. EAMES, ARTHUR J. 1936. Morphology of vascular plants. McGraw-Hill. BUXLEY, JULIAN -S. 1942. Evolution. The Modern Synthesis. Harper and Brothers.
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICERS FOR 1951
PUERUT Ei ek ee a oe Oe Taylor R. Alexander (Botany) University of Miami, Coral Gables
(RES PUES FE: PG ae ea ee ea R. S. Bly (Chemistry ) Florida Southern College, Lakeland
Secretary-Treasurer_____- A. C. Higginbotham (Physiology) Florida State University, Tallahassee
US PADD ceeeete ten dee es ae a H. K. Wallace (Biology) University of Florida, Gainesville
ASSHOMICMEOUOT = J. C. Dickinson, Jr. (Biology) University of Florida, Gainesville
BQSGE RIE: SGU TSG a LT Le EE To be appointed Chairman, Physical Sciences Section... K. L. Yudowitch (Physics) Florida State University, Tallahassee
Chairman, Biological Sciences Section... H. Arliss Denyes (Physiology ) Florida State University, Tallahassee
Chairman, Social Sciences Section____________________- S. deR. Diettrich (Geography )
University of Florida, Gainesville Louise Williams (Biology ) Lakeland High School
Council Members-at-Large____...-----. A. M. Winchester (Biology ) John B. Stetson University, DeLand
Chairman, Local Arrangements Committee____....... Clyde T. Reed (Biology ) University of Tampa, Tampa
astmEresTaCnt W900! 2. ne ed al Fit H. H. Sheldon (Physics ) University of Miami, Coral Gables
BeSIBEICSIOCHY NOAO 2s ees J. E. Hawkins (Chemistry )
University of Florida, Gainesville
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(4), 1949( 1950). ©
A KEY TO THE GENUS SCLERIA BERG IN SOUTH FLORIDA
Curtis R. JACKSON
Florida State University
The genus Scleria Berg of the family Cyperaceae is well repre- sented in the sedge flora of South Florida. This genus is exceeded in number of species by only a few other genera and can be found in abundance in pinelands, meadows, hammocks and road- side fields. All species that are listed here are found in moist habitats although other edaphic factors for each species may vary widely. A general habitat type has been indicated following each species description.
The southern part of peninsular Florida south of the northern shore of Lake Okeechobee is the area included in this study. Nine species have been found in this area and are considered by the author to represent a fairly complete record of the species of this genus.’ Descriptions of these species have been made from speci- mens collected within the indicated range since the available information? has frequently seemed misleading.
The following key to the species has been constructed upon achene characteristics as this structure appears to be the most invariable and distinct feature of a species.
Achene body smooth or ridged lengthwise. Achene body smooth Hypogynium absent Plant densely pubescent; spikelets in separate clusters
alone stem?si4G 2 oe eee S. hirtella Plant glabrous or nearly so; spikelets terminal or texminaland axillary. 2! 22) ee _ S.lithosperma Hypogynium present Hypogynium papillose-crustaceous ___...-_- S. triglomerata
Hypogynium bearing many (8-10) papillose tubercles S. oligantha Achene body with longitudinal ridges from base to apex
1§. georgiana Core has been reported from Lee and Dade Counties and S. Curtissii Britton from Dade County.
2The “Manual of the Southeastern Flora” by Small (1933) has been fol- lowed with few exceptions.
A KEY TO THE GENUS SCLERIA 221
Ridges numerous (at least more than three), pronounced S. costata Ridges 3, low, rounded, sometimes obscure -..---..-----.--.--- S. lithosperma Achene body papillose, reticulate or wrinkled (not ridged lengthwise ) Achene papillose “ee” OVEN ee MARE ES UPRY a Og LT Caan ts Ae) Co S. ciliata ebrTHaS LA TOUS) 2. eR DMRiG ID inlet owt) Pina, area Ay s S. Brittonii Achene reticulate or wrinkled Achene reticulate; spikelets terminal or terminal and
Pevibnaneee ern eae NEM KO Oo Tose S. Muhlenbergii Achene wrinkled or rarely somewhat reticulate; spike- lets in separate clusters along stem ___-__--_--------- S. verticillata
_S. hirtella Sw. 1-6 dm. tall, stems slender; leaf blades 1.5 -4mm. wide, blades and sheaths pubescent; clusters of spikelets grouped laterally along stem; bracts about as long as spikelets, ciliate; scales reddish-brown, 2-4 mm. long with acute or attenuate tip, ciliate; achene smooth, white, 1.5-2 mm. long, sub-globose; hypogynium absent. Low, wet sandy fields, Broward and Palm Beach Counties.
S. lithosperma (L.) Sw. 3-7 dm. tall, stems slender, sometimes reclining; leaf blades 1-2 mm. wide, scabrous, channeled with ciliate keel; spikelets ter- minal or terminal and axillary; bracts filiform; achene 2.5 mm. long, ovoid, white, smooth, many times with three low, rounded ridges from base to apex; base narrow, depressed between ridges; hypogynium absent. Found in hammock clearings, Dade County.
S. triglomerata Michx. Stout, clumpy, reclining, up to 1 m. tall; leaf blades 8-7 mm. wide, glabrous; spikelets terminal or terminal and axillary; some bracts much longer than the spikelets, acute; scales 5-9 mm. long, brown or pale; achene 3.5-4 mm. long, smooth, white, ovoid with a short obtusely triangular papillose-crustaceous hypogynium. Sub-tropical hammocks and other hard- wood associations, Dade and Broward Counties.
S. oligantha Michx. Stout, 7-9 dm. tall, growing in clumps; leaf blades 3-4 mm. wide, scabrous; spikelets usually terminal, many flowered; bracts up to 6 mm. long; achene ovoid, white, smooth, 3-3.5 mm. long; hypogynium low, angular; area between achene body and hypogynium bearing numerous (8-10) papillose tubercles. Wet, sandy soil, edges of Lake Okeechobee and lower Kissimmee flood plain.
S. costata Britton Up to 1 m. tall, glabrous; leaf blades 1-4 mm. wide; spike- lets terminal; scales up to 9 mm. long; achene 3-8.5 mm. long, white, globose with sharp tip, prominently longitudinally ridged; base of achene triangular with shallow pits; hypogynium absent. Low sand or marl soils, Dade, Collier and Palm Beach Counties.
S. ciliata Michx. Slender, up to 9 dm. tall, often reclining, pubescent (some- times sparingly ); leaf blades 1-3 mm. wide; clusters of spikelets terminal or terminal and axillary; scales 4-6 mm. long, brown to reddish-brown, often with a ciliate keel; achene 2.5-3 mm. long, white, papillose (sometimes wrinkled), sub-orbicular; hypogynium with 8 slightly notched tubercles.
222 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Sandy and calcareous soil, Dade, Broward, Palm Beach and Collier Counties.
S. Brittonii Core Plant 6-8 dm. tall, glabrous; leaf blades 2-3 mm. wide; spikelets usually terminal and axillary; scales greenish-brown, glabrous, 4-5 mm. long, attenuate; achene 2-2.5 mm. long, globose, white (sometimes dark), papillose and somewhat wrinkled; hypogynium pronounced, 8-lobed, each lobe in turn being 2-lobed, lobes finely papillose. Low sandy meadows and pinelands, Broward and Okeechobee Counties.
. Muhlenbergii Steud. Plants up to 7 dm. tall, slender, spreading; leaf blades 2-5.5 mm. wide; spikelets terminal and axillary; scales 3-5 mm. long, light brown, sharply acute; achene 2.5-3 mm. long, globose, strongly reticulate, the ridges beset with pale or rufous pubescence; hypogynium 3-lobed, ap- pressed-ascending on the achene body. Low meadows and roadsides, Broward and Okeechobee Counties. (S. setacea Poir)
. verticillata Muhl. Plant up to 7 dm. tall, slender; leaf blades 1-3 mm. wide, © lower sheathes finely pubescent; spikelets in separate clusters along upper part of stem; scales 1.5-2.5 mm. long, green; achene about 1.5 mm. long, sub-globose, wrinkled or rarely reticulate, narrowing into a stipe-like base; hypogynium absent. Dry pinelands, low sand or marl prairies, Dade and © Broward Counties.
iv a)
72)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Dr. W. M. Buswell, Dr. T. R. Alexander and Mr. R. O. Woodbury of the Botany Department, University of Miami for their help and interest in this study and Dr. Earl L. Core, Department of Biology, West Virginia University for his helpful comments and information concerning this genus.
MEMBERSHIP CATEGORIES
Patrons — Who contribute $1,000 or more to the Academy.
Lire Members — Who have given to the Academy $100 during any calendar year.
SUSTAINING MEMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $10.00 or more.
CONTRIBUTING MEMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $5.00.
REGULAR MEMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $3.00.
CoLLEGIATE MEMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $2.00 (restricted to college students. )
INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS — Which make annual contributions of $25.00 or more (or any amount set by the Council) to the Academy.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(4), 1949( 1950)
BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM?
FRANCIS E.. Ray
The disease, cancer, as we are familiar with it today, although known to the ancients, was first described scientifically by Rudolf Virchow in about 1857. In recent years, it has been the focus of perhaps more attention and intense research than any other disease of man; yet, it remains one of medicine’s major mysteries. In the normal body there seems to be a limiting or controlling principle that inhibits growth when the proper size is reached. When the cells go wild and multiply without limit, often migrating to other parts of the body and initiating a similar proliferation, we have the condition known as cancer. Why and how these unchecked tumorous growths start and continue is not completely understood, but we now know that certain chemicals can cause cancer.
Cancer causes upward of 190,000 deaths a year in the United States. It is now the number two killer, being exceeded only by heart disease. In 1900 it was number seven and 64 persons per 100,000 died of cancer. The rate had risen in 1947 to 132 per 100,000. From the standpoint of age, 98 percent of all cancer deaths occur after the age of 30, and 90 percent after 40. The disease is some- what more common in females than in males; approximately 52 percent of all cancer deaths being women. This percent has dropped in recent years. This is probably due to the great educational ~ campaign carried out by the American Cancer Society. The site of the primary lesion differs in the sexes. Approximately 80 percent of cancer in males is in some part of the alimentary tract, while in females about 80 percent is in the breast or uterus.
So far as climate is concerned, the warmer areas have lower cancer rates than the colder sections, both in the United States and Europe. Cancer of the skin alone is more prevalent in the South and is generally twice as prevalent in the country as in the city. The type of cancer varies somewhat in different parts of the world. Cancer of the liver, for example, is much more prevalent in the Orient than in Europe or America.
1A contribution from the Cancer Research Laboratory, University of Florida.
224 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Occupational or industrial cancers have long been known to occur among cotton workers, iron workers, gas-stokers, glass work- ers, and particularly among workers in the coal-tar and chemical industries,
Over a century ago, in 1775, it was noticed by Percival Potts that chimney sweeps often developed cancer, particularly of the scrotum. The suggestion was made that this form of cancer was an occupational disease but the idea was ridiculed and = but forgotten.
CARCINOGENIC HyDROCARBONS
Early in 1900, however, it was observed that workmen engaged in coal tar distillation were susceptible to skin cancer, which was commonly called “tar cancer”. The number of these cancers gave rise to the obvious inference that there was some agent or com- pound in the coal tar which was causing the cancers. At first all tests on animals were negative but in 1915, Yamagiwa and Ichikawa of Japan succeeded in producing skin cancers by applying coal tar distillate to the ears of rabbits over a long period of time. Kennaway (1924, 1925) then showed that synthetic products may cause cancer. Tars produced by the action of aluminum chloride in tetralin (1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene) and by the reaction of hydrogen with isoprene and acetylene at high pressure caused cancer on long application. The next logical step was to answer - the question: What particular substance or substances in coal tar distillate possessed carcinogenic action?
Bloch and Kennaway (1930) found that it was the high boiling, neutral, nitrogen-free fractions of coal tar that possessed carcino- genic activity. Intense research was begun at the Cancer Hospital in London to determine the active carcinogenic compounds of the high-boiling fractions. All tests on known compounds were negative; thus, they were faced with the conclusion that tar cancer was due to some unknown compound or compounds. The search for this unknown was long and arduous because the biological assay re- quires as much as a year for each test. Furthermore, large num- bers of pure strain mice must be used for each particular test. Then came a most important observation. Hieger (1930) showed that carcinogenic tars gave characteristic fluorescence spectra with bands at 4,000, 4180 and 4400 A’*. This fact centered attention upon anthracene and its derivatives. A closer approximation to
BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 225
oy por BP
a
I CH; OR avg | vy
fe. OrO4 O-On
(00-12) @-3) (0 (o) NHoccy CH, og? *>w ==) NV Cre ane i
Ix
NHoccu, NHOCCH,
HO ary ieee MES or XL
226 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the desired spectra was found in 1,2-benzanthracene I, but the bands were displaced toward the shorter wave lengths and the compound was not carcinogenic. This, nevertheless, gave the im- portant clue that carcinogenic compounds were probably poly- nuclear hydrocarbons of the benzanthracene type. An examination of compounds of this type was undertaken. It is important to note the band spectra of 1,2-benzanthracene was displaced toward the shorter wave lengths. By increasing the molecular weight, a shift of the bands in the desired direction would be expected. Cook (19383) of the Cancer Institute, in a series of brilliant investiga- tions, synthesized and tested a great number of such compounds. The quest for a compound with the desired spectrum led to | 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene, II, which had been synthesized in 1918. While this was not exactly the same as that of carcinogenic coal tar it was fairly close. The hypothesis that there exists a close relationship between a definite fluorescence spectrum and carcino- genic activity proved true, for 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene produced carcinomas when applied to the skin of experimental animals. It was found, moreover, that the 1,2-benzanthracene nucleus possesses latent carcinogenic activity, for on substitution in the 5 and 6 positions with alkyl groups, carcinogenic activity became apparent. More cases of this type will be considered later. It is important that all the compounds prepared by Cook at this stage of his investigations were structurally related to benzanthracene.
Employing the criterion of band spectra, Cook (1935) and coworkers isolated from two tons of pitch, by an almost endless process of extraction, crystallization, and distillation, a few grams of very active carcinogenic compound. It proved to be an unknown hydrocarbon—1,2-benzpyrene. The structure was established by syntheses from pyrene. On the basis of the yield of 1,2-benzpyrene from the pitch, they calculated that it is present in coal tar to the extent of about 0.003%. The formula is usually written as in II or IV which shows relationship to 1,2-benzanthracene. 1,2-Benz- pyrene is more potent carcinogenically than 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthra- cene, and the fluorescence spectrum is exactly that described by Hieger for cancinogenic tars, except that the bands are better defined. The evidence is that this is the compound which causes tar cancer.
BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 227
Metastasis has been observed to occur in many cases of artifi- cially produced carcinoma, although the sites of injection are not especially favorable for it to occur. The tumors produced are often identical with those that occur spontaneously.
So far, the study of carcinogenic compounds, as we have seen, had attacked the problem of one type of purely occupational cancer and had solved it, but in about 1934 a new discovery broadened the field tremendously and brought out many startling relationships.
In 1933, Wieland and Dane dehydrogenated dihydronorcholene with selenium and obtained a yellow aromatic hydrocarbon; they assigned it structure V and called it methylcholanthrene. An ex- amination of the formula reveals it to be a derivative of 1,2-benzanthracene.
Kennaway (1925) and Cook and Haslewood (1933) had realized a possible relationship between the bile acids and benzanthracene compounds and were doing research on it before the appearance of Wieland and Dane’s work. Later (1934), Cook and Haslewood made the important announcement that methylcholanthrene is a powerful carcinogenic agent—in fact, the most powerful then known. Fieser and Newman (1935) showed that methylcholan- threne could be prepared from cholic acid—a still more important bile acid than desoxycholic acid. Thus, for the fiirst time, we have evidence that cancer may be caused by the presence of a com- pound of known structure which may be prepared from compounds found in the human body. Possible relationships between the sterols and sex hormones will be considered later.
RELATIONSHIP OF CARCINOGENIC ACTIVITY TO STRUCTURE
The testing of these compounds for carcinogenic activity is carried out either by applying dilute solutions of the compound to the skin of mice or by the subcutaneous injection of crystals or a dilute solution. It has been found that a pure strain of mice is necessary, for the tumors produced by these agents obey the law of genetic transplantation and are thus only transplantable in mice of the same strain. Also, the tumors in “stock” mice appear irregu- larly, which is not conducive to positive results. The transplan- tation of tumors is the most convincing test of malignancy.
_ A number of the hydrocarbons that have been tested for carcino- genic activity have been classified as derivatives of 1,2-benzan-
228 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
thracene. Although 1,2-benzanthracene is probably not carcino- genically active, it does possess a latent cancer producing power which is manifested on substitution in certain positions. It is found that these positions are most always 5, 6, 9 and 10.
Considering the 5 and 6 positions, the activity depends little upon the nature of the substituents as long as both positions are substituted. Thus, 5,6-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene behaves the same as 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene. The inactivity of the compound containing the isopropyl radical at the 6-position shows that the character of the radical is of some importance. It also is usually considered that the 5-position has slightly greater influence upon the activity than the 6-position.
We may regard methylcholanthrene as 6-methyl-5,10-dimethy- lene-1,2-benzanthracene. 9,10-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene is the most powerful carcinogen known. Carcinogenic activity is thus very definitely connected with the 9- and 10-positions.
BIOCHEMICAL THEORY OF CARCINOGENESIS
With the discovery that methylcholanthrene could be prepared from the bile acids, desoxycholic and cholic acid, there was an immediate tendency to postulate such a chemical transformation in the body and thus account for the appearance of tumors. The chemical reaction would represent the abnormal metabolism of bile acids or cholesterol. The reactions necessary are oxidation, hydrogenation, ring closure, and dehydrogenation and all of these are known to occur in the human organism. There is no proof that this transformation occurs nor is there proof that it does not occur. The fact that methylcholanthrene, cholesterol, and the bile acids all contain the 5-membered ring has been pointed out as signifi- cant in the interrelationship of these compounds. Since this ring has been shown to have no especial influence on carcinogenic activity, the evidence for this hypothesis is somewhat weakened.
Many years before the discovery of the chemical structure of the sex hormones and the carcinogenic compounds, there were numerous observations that warranted some connection between cancer and estrogenic substances. Leo Loeb (1915) and co-workers carried out breeding experiments, very similar to those of Maud Slye (1913). They found that it is possible to develop various strains of mice in which the appearance of mammary cancer was almost constant for one particular strain, although it could vary
BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 229
as much as 0% to 100% from strain to strain. This same rate was also found in the offspring. With this knowledge, some very inter- esting experiments were possible. Using a strain of mice, the females of which were characterized by a high rate of mammary cancer, Loeb found that if the ovaries were removed at the age of 3 to 4 months, there was a marked decrease in the number of cancers appearing over that which would be expected. Removal of the ovaries after 8 months had no effect on the rate of incidence of the tumors. The conclusion of this work is that there is a definite relation between hereditary influences, the ovarian hor- mones, and cancer. .
Since 1934, one of the female sex hormones—estrone—has been available in the crystalline state. Many investigators, in testing the compound for estrogenic activity in mice, noticed that in numerous cases cancer of the mammary gland appeared. Cook (1985), who has reviewed the literature extensively, reports that there are thirty to forty instances in which male mice receiving estrone have developed cancer of the breast. In 1934, Cook, Dodds, Hewett and Lawson found that 9,10-di-n-propyl, 9,10-dihydroxy and 9,10-dihydro-1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene were very active estro- genic substances; 0.025 mg. was sufficient to induce estrus when injected in ovariectomized mice. Cook also found that 1,2-benz- pyrene and 5,6-cyclopentano-1,2-benzanthracene were estrogenic in large doses (100 mg.). Bachman and Bradbury have synthesized several other compounds of the 1,2-benzanthracene type with alky] groups at the 9 and 10-positions and showed that they were estrogenic.
Azo Dyes
It has been found that Butter Yellow, 4-dimethylaminoazoben- zene, produces liver cancer when fed to rats. Azobenzene, VI, and 4-aminoazobenzene, VII, were inactive while 4-monomethylaminoa- zobenzene, VIII, was active. The effect of methyl substituents on the ring has been summarized by Miller and coworkers (1949) in diagram IX in which Butter Yellow has an activity of 6. It will be observed that substituents in the 2 and 3-position destroy the activity entirely. A substituent in the 2’-position reduces the activity one-half but one in the 3’-position doubles the activity. The 4’- position gives a compound less than one-sixth as active as Butter
Yellow.
230 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The elimination of the Azo group gives a biphenyl derivative. This proved to be less active than Butter Yellow, showing that the Azo group intensifies the action but is not essential to carcinogenicity.
AMINOFLUORENE
In 1941 Wilson, DeEds and Cox discovered the carcinogenic activity of 2-acetylaminofluorene (AAF), X. The carcinogenic hydrocarbons seldom cause tumors except at the cite of injection. Butter Yellow when fed, produces mostly liver tumors. In con- trast to these, AAF’, when fed, causes a wide variety of tumors— breast, bladder, intestine, kidney, liver, lung, ear duct, etc. In fact, it causes a reaction more like a metastasising spontaneous cancer than any of the compounds previously discussed.
The only metabolite reported is 7-hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluo- rene, XI, Bielschowski (1945). This is weakly carcinogenic. Morris and Westfall (1948) have found that AAF attains a maximum con- centration in the various organs in 2 to 4 days. But inasmuch as only 32 percent of the original dose could be accounted for, other metabolites must be present. To aid in isolating and identi- fying these, we have recently prepared AAF with radioactive C-14 in the 9-position, and in a separate compound, AAF with radio- active carbon in the methyl position of the side chain (Ray and Geiser, 1950). The final results are not yet available but prelimi- nary studies, Morris et al (1950), show quite conclusively that the acetyl group is removed in the organism. Radioactive carbon diox- ide, in considerable amounts, is exhaled starting within a very short time after ingestion of the compound labelled in the side chain. No radio carbon dioxide is eliminated when the AAF labelled in the 9-position is fed. In contrast to the 32% recovery that Morris and Westfall obtained by chemical analysis, these radio- active compounds give 95% or better recovery. AAF has just recently been synthesized, Ray and Angus (1951), in our labora- tory with N-15 (isotopic nitrogen). This will enable us to determine the fate of the nitrogen during metabolism.
In a further study of the effects of the side chain, we have pre- pared the benzoyl! derivative of 2-aminofluorene and the p-toluene- sulfonyl derivative. The benzoyl group is less readily removed in vivo than is the acetyl. If the free amine is necessary to carcino-
BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 231
genesis, then the benzoyl compound might be expected to be less potent. In harmony with this, it is found that fewer tumors are produced and that the induction time is somewhat longer. So far as is known, no enzyme system will remove the p-toluene- sulfonyl (or tosyl) group. The ingestion of this compound produced no tumors. Metabolism studies showed that only 0.5 percent of the ingested dose is eliminated in the urine in contrast to 25 percent of AAF.
Summing this work up then, it seems evident that the free amine must be available either by direct administration or as a product of metabolism.
Pinck (1948) has postulated that two molecules of acetylami- nofluorene become joined together in the 9-position to form 2.2’-diacetyldiaminobifluorylidene and that this is the essential carcinogen. It could react with protein molecules by means of the Michael reaction which, after several steps, results in the joining together of the protein molecules and the regeneration of the bifluorylidene. In order to test Pinck’s hypothesis, we made both the bifluoryl, XII, compound and the bifluorylidene, XIII, Weis- burger, Weisburger and Ray (1949). Preliminary tests show that the bifluoryl compound is noncarcinogenic, while the bifluoryli- dene is carcinogenic, but probably no more so than acetylamino- fluorene itself. According to Pinck’s hypothesis it should be more highly carcinogenic.
Another test of Pinck’s hypothesis has been made from an entirely different standpoint. Bielschowsky (1945) found that the only metabolite of AAF that has been isolated, contained the hydroxyl group in the 7-position. To determine whether hydro- xylation of AAF is a necessary prelude to carcinogenesis, we have prepared 7-chloro-2-acetylaminofluorene. Tests of this material show it to be noncarcinogenic. Evidently the blocking of the 7- position by chlorine makes it impossible for the AAF to function as a Carcinogen.
Now the introduction of chlorine in the 2 and 7-positions has been shown to greatly increase the activity of the 9-position. If Pinck’s hypothesis were correct, 7-chloro-2-acetylaminofluorene should be a more active carcinogen, whereas it seems to be en- tirely inactive.
232 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The question then arose whether some active group in the 7th- position would also destroy the potency of the compound. To investigate this, we prepared 2,7-diacetyldiaminofluorene. On test- ing, this seemed to be more actively carcinogenic than AAF itself.
It has recently been shown by Miller and coworkers ( 1949’) that the methylene bridge in the 9-position is not essential for carcinogenesis. When replaced by sulfur, the incidence of tumors in the mammary gland and ear duct was about the same as with AAF. When converted to the sulfoxide, the activity was reduced but not destroyed. When oxygen replaced the methylene bridge, the compound was still capable of producing tumors. In fact, when the bridge was omitted entirely, as in N,N-dimethyl-4- aminobiphenyl, the compound still produced tumors. In the light of these results, it can be seen quite definitely that while the 7-position in fluorene must be reactive, the 9-position is nonessential.
It would seem, therefore, that Pinck’s hypothesis is faulty in that it neglects to take into consideration the importance of the 7-position and emphasizes the importance of the 9-position.
We hope, by continuation of these investigations, to learn some- thing about the mode of initiation of cancer by chemicals and perhaps to gain a clue as to how spontaneous tumors originate.
LITERATURE CITED
BACHMANN, W. E. and BRADBURY, J. T. 1987. Synthesis of 5-phenll-9,10-dialkyl-9,10-dihydroxy-9,10-dihydro-1,2- benzanthracene and related compounds. J Org. Chem., 2:175-182. BIELSCHOWSKI, F. 1945. A metabolite of 2-acetamidofluorene. Biochem. J., 39:287-289. BLOCH, E. H. and KENNAWAY, E. L. 1930. Further experiments on cancer producing substances. Biochem. J., 24:497-504. COOK, J. W. 1933. Experimental production of malignant tumors. Proc. Roy. Soc. B113: 277-281. COOK, J. W. 1935. Carcinogenic hydrocarbons and their relation to sterols. Chem. Week- blad, 32:563-566.
COOK, J. W. 1937. Chemical factors in the etiology of cancer. Bull. soc. chim., [5] 4:792-804.
COOK, J. W., DODDS, E. C., HEWETT, C. L. and LAWSON, W. 1934. Estrogenic activity of condensed ring compounds in relation to their biological activities. Proc. Roy. Soc., B114:272-286.
BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 233
COOK, J. W. and HASLEWOOD, G. A. D. 1938. Conversion of a bile acid into a hydrocarbon derived from 1,2-benza- thracene. Chem. and Ind., 52:758-759.
COOK, J. W. and HASLEWOOD, G. A. D.
1934. A degradation product of desoxycholic acid. J. Chem. Soc., 428-431. FIESER, L. and NEWMAN, M. S.
1935. Methylcholanthrene from cholic acid. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 57: 961. HIEGER, I.
1980. Spectra of Cancer producing tars and oils. Biochem. J., 24:505-511. KENNAWAY, E. L..
1924. The formation of cancer producing substances. J. Path. Bact.,
27 :233-238. KENNAWAY, E. L. 1925. Experiments on Cancer producing substances. Brit. Med. J., 2:1-6. LATHOP, A. E. C. and LOEB, L.
1915. Further investigations on the origin of tumors in mice. I. Tumor inci- dence and tumor age in various strains of mice. J. Exper. Med., 22:646-673.
MILLER, E. C., MILLER, J. A., SAPP, R. W. and WEBER, G. M.
1949. Studies on the protein bound aminoazo dyes. Cancer Research, 9: 336-340.
MILLER, E. C., MILLER, J. A., SANDIN, R. B. and BROWN, R. K.
1949. Carcinogenic activities of certain analogues of 2-acetylamino-fluorene in the rat. Cancer Research, 9:504-509.
MORRIS, H. P. and WESTFALL, B. B.
1948. Distribution of N-acetyl-2-aminofluorene in the rat following a single feeding. J. Nat. Cancer Inst., 9:149-154.
MORRIS, H. P., WEISBURGER, J. H. and WEISBURGER, E. K.
1950. The distribution of radioactivity following the feeding of Carbon 14-labeled 2-acetylaminofluorene to rats. Cancer Research, 10:620- 624,
PINCK, H.
1948. A biochemical hypothesis of the genesis of cancer. Ann. N. Y. Acad.
scr., 00:1-17. PORT, P.
1775. Chirurgical observations relative to the cataract, the polypus of the nose, the cancer of the scrotum, the different kind of ruptures and the mortification of the toes and feet. London.
RAY, F. E. and ARGUS, M. F.
1951. The synthesis of 2-acetylaminofluorene-2-N15, Cancer Research, (in press )
RAY, F. E. and GEISER, R. C.
1950. Synthesis of 2-acetylaminofluorene-9-C14 and 2-acetylamino-fluorene- 6-C14, Cancer Research, 10:616-619.
234. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SEXM. 1918. The incidence and inheritability of spontaneous cancer in mice. Zischr. f. Krebsforsch., 18:500-504. 1926. Nature and heredity in Cancer. J. Cancer Research, 10:15-49. WEISBURGER, J. H., WEISBURGER, E. K. and RAY, F. E. 1949. Compounds for Cancer Research. IV. J. Org. Chem., 14:448-491. WIELAND, H. and DANE, E. 1988. The constitution of bile acids. LII. Z. physiol. chem., 219:240-244. WILSON, R. H., DeEDS, F. and COX, A. J. 1941. The leat and carcinogenic activity of 9-ncbtj aie elude cis) Cancer Research, 1:595-608. WILSON, R. H., DeEDS, F. and COX, A. J. 1947. The Carcinogenic activity of 2-acetylaminofluorene. Cancer Research, 7:444-558. YAMAGIWA, K. and ICHIKAWA, K. 1915. The production of tumors by the application of a solution of coal-tar to the ear of the rabbit. Mitt. med. Fak. Tokio, 15:295-299.
INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Florida Southern College John B. Stetson University Lakeland, Florida DeLand, Florida
Florida State University St. Petersburg Junior College Tallahassee, Florida St. Petersburg, Florida University of Florida Rollins College
Gainesville, Florida Winter Park, Florida Jacksonville Junior College University of Miami Jacksonville, Florida Coral Gables, Florida University of Tampa Rose Printing Company Tampa, Florida Tallahassee, Florida
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(4), 1949( 1950)
A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF THE GROWTH RE- SPONSE OF ASPERGILLUS NIGER TO VARIOUS LEVELS OF COPPER AS A BIOLOGICAL METHOD OF DE- TERMINING AVAILABLE COPPER IN SOILS?
5s. N. Epson and F. B. SmirH
The determination of plant nutrients in soils by the use of fungi has been practiced for a considerable period of time. However, the use of these microorganisms for measuring available minor elements in the soil is of recent origin.
Impetus for more active research in this field has followed the publication of such methods as the lettuce-pot-culture test of Jenny (1944) and the Neubauer Seedling Method (Neubauer and Schnieder 1933), which takes from six to ten weeks to produce results. Mulder (1938) used a modification of the Neubauer Method in his first attempts to solve the reclamation of soils in Holland. Here again, the time required for the test proved to be a great disadvantage even though the results obtained were quite satisfactory. In the meantime, considerable information on the nutrition of fungi had accumulated. Steinberg (1919) suggested the use of Aspergillus niger for the study of minor elements as early as 1919. Later, he confirmed the essentiality of heavy metals for the nutrition of this organism (1934, 1939, 1945). Mulder re- duced the time element for these tests to four or five days by using the fungus that the work of Steinberg suggested. With the use of Aspergillus niger Mulder was able to complete his research on the “reclamation disease” on Dutch soils and at the same time present a biological test for available copper, magnesium, and molybdenum in soils.
The work of Foster 1989 and Beadle (1944) indicates that certain minor elements function as catalysts in the metabolism of both higher and lower plants. Without the minor elements, the enzymes become inoperative and, consequently, no growth results. Con- sidering a large group of enzymes that require magnesium, zinc, iron, manganese, and copper, it appears that most of the heavy metals are nonspecific and, to some extent, interchangeable. How-
1A Contribution from the Department of Soils, University of Florida.
238 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ever, copper seems to be an exception, since it is confined to the copper oxidase enzymes, tyrosinase, laccase, and ascorbic oxidase (Foster 1949) which are known to be responsible for the black and brown pigmentation that accompanies the spore formation of Aspergillus niger.
It is with the pronounced color effect that the following pre- liminary investigation of the growth response of Aspergillus niger to various levels of copper was concerned. If the physiological changes in relation to increments of copper are sufficiently different in their effect on the physical appearance of the spores, then a useful biological test for available copper in soils is indicated.
EXPERIMENTAL
Aspergillus niger was isolated from a fresh soil sample which had been treated with glucose and buffered at a fairly low acid reaction.
Pfeffer's (1895) medium was selected for the study of available copper instead of Mulder medium, principally because it is buffered at a lower pH. This was a definite advantage since CaCO; was used to purify the basal medium which, in turn, would exert a considerable influence on the reaction of the solution. Ammonium nitrate was used instead of potassium nitrate in order to maintain an acid reaction. The use of sucrose in place of glucose is con- sidered beneficial, because the non-reducing sugars are known to be better able to stand the high temperature of the autoclave without loss of available carbon.
With some revisions, the procedure of Mulder (1939-40) was adopted, the principal changes being the method of purification and the size of the flasks used in the test. The Steinberg (1919) CaCO; coprecipitation method was utilized to purify the basal medium and 500 ml flasks were used. Two solutions were employed in this, namely, solution A with the purified basal medium plus copper; and solution B with the purified basal medium plus cop- per, iron, manganese, zinc, and boron. In each instance a prelimi- nary test was performed, using no copper as compared to 2 ppm of copper in two small 125 ml flasks. Results of the preliminary test indicated the approximate response of this organism to copper. One set of standard cultures was grown in each of the two media, using none, 0.12, 0.25, 0.50, 1.0, and 2.0 ppm of copper. The growth
GROWTH RESPONSE OF A NIGER TO COPPER 237
on the soil culture with an unknown amount of copper was com- pared with these standards to determine the amount of available copper present in the soil sample. The entire procedure can be conveniently presented in the following steps:
ue
Weigh out two % gm samples of air-dry soil, previously passed through a 20 mesh sieve. Place in 500 ml Erlen- meyer flasks.
Add 20 ml of nutrient solution containing the following ingredients to each flask of soil:
(A) Pfeffer’s Basal Medium plus Cu
EEROSCt | Shinn. con yaiczasiaec, <peay ats 30.0 gm MORE oe en ag SROs 10.0 gm Lg = G1 AUG pele altlimatagpariad Saas We oes 5.0 gm [PSL ils 66 Ailend bes 2.5 gm CIOS US ra LE bs Oe iat reesnagelenpeteeteraten ( variable )
(B) Pfeffer’s Basal Medium plus Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, B ST EC neon ie. eee 50.0 gm II IN CG) recog ake eel tse 10.0 gm S15 E pimonamneteh ce: Salen Sete petit 5.0 gm |)" yt @ PAT 5 © giant Seen 2.5 gm SESE FON die Soa rcazeyn 3 wt hs ( variable )
Pee SC) se ATO, foc Paes. oss cick 0.75 ppm Mn = E15 U0) Selon Mellie I gaat al dine, Renan 0.75 ppm B
Le Sale Ss et O ide eeenine batts sae 10.00 ppm Fe TES o ed 5 Gt 0 site mmiiatemel pier eines & Mee 4.00 ppm Zn
To remove traces of Cu from the basal medium, heat nu- trient solution 15 minutes at 15 Ibs. pressure in the presence of 15 grams per liter of pure CaCOs, filter while hot.
Add the desired Fe, Mn, Zn, B, and Cu salts to the nutrient solution after filtration.
The nutrient solution is now sterilized in the autoclave at 105 C for 5 minutes.
. Prepare in the same manner without soil, a series of six
500 ml flasks, containing CuSO..5H:O in the following amounts: O, 0.12, 0.25, 0.50, 1.00, 2.00 ppm.
To avoid absorption of the Cu on the glass surface of the flask, the CuSo;.5H,O is added to the solution after sterilization.
238 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
8. Inoculate the solution in the flasks with a few drops of a heavy spore suspension of Aspergillus niger. The suspension is prepared by washing the growth of a 5 day old slant with 2 or 3 ml of copper-free nutrient solution.
9. Incubate the culture at 28 C for 100 hours. Refer the un- known sample to the series of culture standards and record the comparative development of spores in terms of ppm
of Cu. 10. Cu in ppm of air-dry soil.? Less than’ 0.4) ppm'Gu “ino ee ee Very deficient OMe. Payppm Cates, Sor ee ms: .... Slightly deficient Greater than 2.0 ppm Cu ......- 7% Not deficient
The preliminary results provided sufficient contrast for both solution A and B to warrant further investigation. A noticeable difference in the amount and nature of mycelium was evident in solution A, probably due to the lack of interchangeable or sup- porting minor elements.
The results obtained from the standard cultures further sup- ported the findings revealed by the preliminary studies. In solu- tion A a decided variation in amount of mycelium was produced. The optimum appeared to be about 1.0 ppm of copper. There was a noticeable inhibition of growth with 2.0 ppm of copper. The rate of development progressed proportionally to a maximum effect at about 4 days. In solution B a very vigorous growth oc- curred, starting rapidly within the first 24 hours. At the end of 3 days, a large amount of pure white mycelium was produced in all flasks. On the fourth day, black spores first appeared at 2.0 ppm of copper and gradually spread, in proportion to the amount of copper to the blank, which had little or no spore formation. The contrast was easily distinguishable by the amount of black spore color present. The optimum seemed to be at about 100 hours.
The unknown with % gram of the soil sample corresponded to about 0.25 ppm of copper for solution A and about 0.30 ppm of copper for solution B. According to the values prescribed by Mulder, less than 0.4 ppm of copper would be considered very deficient. This value, of course, would have to be fixed for local conditions; i.e., type of soil, crops, and climate.
2Adapted from Mulder’s values for copper deficient soils.
GROWTH RESPONSE OF A NIGER TO COPPER 239
It is of interest to note that the optimum changed from 1.0 ppm for copper alone, to over 2.0 ppm when iron, boron, manganese, and zinc were present.
The medium with iron, zinc, manganese, and boron present is considered more satisfactory than the one without these elements, since it is reasonable to assume that the small amount of soil used in the test will have minute amounts of these elements present.
SUMMARY
A preliminary study of the effects of copper on the morphological characterisics of Aspergillus niger is reported.
Pfeffer’s basal medium was used for the investigation, because it contained sufficient buffer capacity and utilized sucrose as a source of energy.
When used alone, copper produced black spores and greatly affected the amount of growth present in proportion to the con- centration of this element. Optimum spore formation and amount of mycelium occurred at about 1.0 ppm of copper.
Copper, in addition to zinc, iron, manganese, and boron pro- duced an abundant amount of mycelium for all concentrations of copper. However, the maximum spore formation occurred at 2.00 ppm of copper and varied in proportion to decreasingly smaller amounts of copper. The blank showed little or no spore formation. When % gram of soil was added to 20 ml of the conper-free nu- trient, a characteristic spore formation occurred which appeared to be in proportion to the amount of copper present in the soil. This amount is referred to the culture standards to determine the ppm of available copper present.
The results obtained warrant further investigation of Aspergillus niger as a simple biological method of analysis for available copper in soils.
LITERATURE CITED
BEADLE, G. W. 1944. Genetics and metabolism of Neurospora. Physiol. Rev. 25:648.
FOSTER, J. W.
1939. The heavy metal nutrition of fungi. Bot. Rev. 5:207-239. FOSTER, J. W.
1949. Chemical activities of fungi. Academic Press, New York, N. Y. JENNY, H.
1944, Nutrient level determinations by greenhouse and field methods of studying fertilizer needs. Unpublished work.
240 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
McGEORGE, W. T. 1946. Modified Neubauer method for soil cultures. Soil Sci. 62:61-70. McGEORGE, W. T.
1946. Soil properties contributing to citrus chlorosis as revealed by seedling
tests. Ariz. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 112:129-165. MULDER, E. G.
1938. Over DeBeteekenis Van Koper voor den Groei van Planten, pp. 38-48.
Diss. Landbouwhoogeschool, Wageningen, Holland. MULDER, E. G.
1939-1940. On the use of microorganisms in measuring a deficiency of copper, magnesium, and molybdenum in soils. Antony Van Leeu- wenhoek 6:99-109.
NEUBAUER, H., and SCHNEIDER, W.
1923. Die Nahrstoffaufnahme des Keimpflanzen und Ihre Anwendung auf die Bestimmung des Nahrstoffgehalts der Boden. Atschr. Pflanzener- — hahr. u. Dungung. 2:329-362.
PFEFFER, W.
1895. Ueber Election eae ca) Nahrstoffe. Jahrb. wiss. Botan. 28:205-
26827) STEINBERG, R. A. 1919. A study of some factors in the chemical stimulation of the growth of Aspergillus niger. Amer. Jour. Bot. 6:380. STEINBERG, R. A. 1984. The so-called chemical stimulation of Aspergillus niger by iron, zinc, . and other heavy metals. ue Torrey Bot. Club. 61:241. STEINBERG, R. A.
1939. Growth of fungi in synthetic nutrient solutions. Bot. Rev. 5: No. 6,
pp. 327-350. STEINBERG, R. A.
1945. Use of microorganisms to determine essentiality of minor elements.
Soil Sci. 60:185-189.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., .12(4), 1949( 1950).
THE NUMBER OF FEATHERS IN SOME BIRDS! PrerRcE BRODKORB
Information on the number of feathers in various species of birds is scarce, the most extensive work being that of Wetmore (1936), who investigated 73 species of passerine birds and six representa- tives of four other orders. Four additional species were reported by Dwight (1900), Knappen (1932), and Ammann (1937). In all 83 species, representative of six orders, have been studied. In the present paper counts of 16 species are given, raising the overall total of species to 94 and the number of orders to eleven.
The feathers were removed individually with forceps, counted, and discarded. The smaller ones were counted under a dissecting microscope. Since counting is very tedious work, a tally of each hundred feathers or less was kept. Counts on an individual bird were made at intervals over a period of several days, to mitigate satigue and consequent error.
Unless otherwise specified, only the contour feathers were counted. In cases of doubt as to the type of feather magnification was used. Since my birds were under refrigeration for some time, during which significant weight losses may have occurred, data on the weights of the bird and its plumage were not obtained. Rough calculations, however, indicate that in many species the weight of the feathers exceeds that of the skeleton.
In further work of this type it would be desirable to record the feather number by pterylae. When I first began counting no record of the distribution of feathers was made. On later counts I divided the body into regions, but these included parts or all of several pterylae. |
The number of feathers in relation to body size has been used to derive formulae relevant to the temperature control mechanism | (Hutt and Ball, 1938). Before such formulae can have much meaning, however, several other factors need to be investigated, such as the weight of the feathers, the texture of the feathers (whether lax or compact), the presence or absence of bare areas of skin, the occurrence and size of aftershafts, and especially the density of the downy under layer.
Little is known about the variation in the number of feathers among individuals in the same species. Wetmore recorded 1119-
1A Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida.
242 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
2973 contour feathers among members of the Passeriformes. In this same order 3138-4342 contour feathers were reported by Dwight, by Ammann, and by Staebler (1941). My counts in this order, 3183-4607, are in close agreement with those of the latter group of authors. My counts of non-passerine species are also sub- stantially higher than Wetmore’s figures for non-passerines.
For aid in securing the specimens used I am indebted to Julian J. Baumel, Byrum W. Cooper, Thomas W. Hicks, Benjamin B. Leavitt, Joseph C. Moore, Gideon E. Nelson, Jr., James A. Oliver, and Paul G. Pearson.
COLYMBIDAE
Podilymbus podiceps podiceps. Pied-billed Grebe. Female. Col- lected December 30, 1948, 12 miles southeast of Bronson, Levy — County, Florida. Total contour feathers 15,016. These were dis- tributed as follows: head and neck 7912, body and legs 5412, left wing 779, right wing 913.
ARDEIDAE
Ixobrychus exilis exilis. Least Bittern. Male. Collected May 20, 1949, at Payne’s Prairie, Alachua County, Florida. Total contour feathers 3867; total powder downs 846. The powder downs were distributed as follows: left pectoral 206, right pectoral 192, left femoral 235, right femoral 213. I also counted 256 filoplumes, but this figure does not represent the total number of that type.
ANATIDAE
Anas crecca carolinensis. Green-winged Teal. Female. Collected January 28, 1949, at Sheepshead Creek, Levy County, Florida. Total contour feathers 11,450. These were distributed as follows: head 4832, neck 2226, body 1690, oil gland 22, tail 378, left leg 160, right leg 152, left wing 976, right wing 1014.
Anas acuta tzitzihoa. Pintail. Male, nearly adult. Collected Jan- uary 28, 1949, at Sheepshead Creek, Florida. Total contour feathers 14,914, distributed as follows: 10,492 on head and neck, 2701 on legs and body, 1721 on wings. On the rump there were found 02 semiplumes; no others were seen in other regions. I also pulled off incidentally and counted 379 downs, but this figure was only a small fraction of the total. I estimate that the number of downs on a duck approximates the number of contour feathers.
Two other species in this family have been counted. Knappen (1932) recorded 11,903 in a mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), and
NUMBER OF FEATHERS IN SOME BIRDS 243
Ammann (1987) reported 25,216 on a whistling swan (Cygnus columbianus ). RALLIDAE.,
Rallus longirostris scotti. Florida Clapper Rail. Female. Col- lected April 30, 1949, at Cedar Key, Levy County, Florida. Total contour feathers 7224, distributed as follows: 8956 on head and neck, body and legs 2233, left wing 515, right wing 520.
Fulica americana americana. American Coot. Female. Collected November 16, 1949, at Welaka, Putnam County, Florida. Total contour feathers 13,918. They were distributed as follows: head 4989, neck 2899, left wing 723, right wing 720, body and legs 4551, rectrices 14, oil gland 17.
SCOLOPACIDAE
Erolia minutilla. Least Sandpiper. Female. Collected April 30,
1949, at Cedar Key, Florida. Total contour feathers 4480. STRIGIDAE
Otus asio asio. Southern Screech Owl. Male. Collected February 18, 1949, two miles north of Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida. Total contour feathers 6458, distributed as follows: head 2345, neck 340, body 896, left wing 763, right wing 818, left leg 659, right leg 637.
Strix varia georgica. Florida Barred Owl. Male. Collected June 24, 1949, at Gulf Hammock, Levy County, Florida. Total contour feathers 9206. This specimen had a great many pin-feathers. The screech owl which I counted, however, had very little down and still fewer semiplumes, so the barred owl figure is believed to be fairly accurate.
CAPRIMULGIDAE
Chordeiles minor minor. Eastern Nighthawk. Female. Collected April 30, 1949, at Cedar Key, Florida. Total contour feathers 8332, distributed as follows: head and neck 1252, legs and body 1115, left wing 445, right wing 520. Wetmore (1936:166) reported 2034 and 2265 contour feaathers in two specimens of this race.
TROCHILIDAE
Archilochus colubris. Ruby-throated Hummingbird. Female. Col- lected May 15, 1949, at Gainesville, Florida. Total contour feathers 1518, distributed as follows: head 881, neck 162, body and legs 684, left wing 143, right wing 148. Wetmore (loc. cit) reported 940 feathers in a male of this species.
244 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PICIDAE Centurus carolinus carolinus. Carolina Red-bellied Woodpecker. Male. Collected April 24, 1949, at Santa Fe River, near High Springs, Alachua County, Florida. Total contour feathers 3665, distributed as follows: head 1557, neck 258, body and legs 1034, left wing 456, right wing 365. CORVIDAE Cyanocitta cristata cristata. Southern Blue Jay. Juvenile female. Collected July 25, 1949, at Gainesville, Florida. Total contour feathers 3778. Wetmore (loc. cit.) reported 1898 feathers in a male of the northern blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata bromia). MIMIDAE Mimus polyglottos polyglottos. Eastern Mockingbird. Male. Col- — lected March 18, 1949, at Gainesville, Florida. Total contour feath- ers 3297. The downs were estimated at several hundred. Wetmore (op. cit.: 167) reported 1601 feathers in a female of this subspecies. Toxostoma rufum rufum. Eastern Brown Thrasher. Juvenile fe- male, full grown. Collected July 9, 1949, in Escambia County,, Florida. Total contour feathers 3379. Wetmore (loc. cit.) reported. 1960 feathers in a male of this form. ICTERIDAE Seannclle magna argutula. Southern Meadowlark. Male. Collected February 15, 1949, two miles south of Kenansville, Osceola County, Florida. Total contour feathers 4607. FRINGILLIDAE Hichingaden: cardinalis floridana. Florida Cardinal. Female. Col- lected July 26, 1949, at Gainesville, Florida. Total contour feathers. 3183. Wetmore (loc. cit.) reported 2280 feathers in a male of the eastern race, Richmondena cardinalis cardinalis.
LITERATURE CITED AMMANN, G. A. 1937. Number of contour feathers in Cygnus and Xanthocephalus. Auk, 54: 201-202. DWIGHT, J. 1900. The sequence of plumages and moults of the passerine birds of New York. Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., 13: 73-360, pl. 1-7. HUTT, F. B., and L. BALL 1938. Number of feathers and body size in passerine birds. Auk, 55:: 651-657. KNAPPEN, P. 1982. Number of feathers on a duck. Auk, 49: 461.
NUMBER OF FEATHERS IN SOME BIRDS 245
STAEBLER, A. E. 1941. Number of contour feathers in the English sparrow. Wilson Bull., 58: 126-127. WETMORE, A. 1986. The number of contour feathers in passeriform and related birds. Auk, 58: 159-169.
Penn SERVES the Photographer
HIs is the age of specialization in every field. PENN
CAMERA’S specialty is photography . . . in all its facets. And we're working at it constantly. PENN CAMERA is one of the world’s largest photographic stores, serving amateur, professional, industrial, scientific and medical photographic requirements. And because we do business on a nation-wide basis, we are equipped to handle any order. . . from a single camera to a complete photographic laboratory . . . at lowest competitive prices. PENN CAMERA’S prompt and accurate service, and GUARANTEE of satisfaction on ALL purchases add up to Buyer Confidence and Seller dePENNdability.
Write Today for Full Details of PENN SERVICE and PENN VALUES!
We Buy © We Sell © We Trade PENN CAMERA NEW YORK 1, N.Y.
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(4), 1949(1951)
PARTICLE SIZE BY X-RAY SCATTERING
K. L. YupowItTcH Florida State University
Consider the measurement of particle size by two radiation techniques. First let us examine the range of particle size measure- able by imaging or microscopy. From the resolution limit:
eee = ) min’N“ max = ) max/N4A min
where: d = particle size = wavelength ~ = numerical aperture.
Inserting the extreme values of wavelength and numerical aper- ture attainable with light and electrons:
dmin Light 4000/2 = 2000 Electrons | 0.05/0.002 = 25
dmax A max/® = ~@ A max’? = ©
where: lengths are in Angstrom Units..
Now consider the range of application of the second technique, diffraction. From a Bragg’s Law relation:
pee = \ min”? *” §max dman = \ max’? si2 §min where: 6 = half difffraction angle.
Inserting the extreme values of wavelength and half diffraction angle attainable with light, electrons and X-rays:
dmin dmax Light 4000/2 = 2000 | 6000/0.002 = 3 x 108 Electrons | 0.05/2 = 0.025 0.1/0.002 = 50 X-rays ODi2e=
0.25 2/0.002 = 1000
where: lengths are in Angstrom Units.
PARTICLE SIZE BY X-RAY SCATTERING 247
From the above figures it appears that there are adequate over- lappings of range to permit measurement by at least one of these techniques of any particle size. However, the electron bombard- ment and specimen desiccation make it impossible to utilize electron microscopy for many materials. If, in addition, we con- sider experimental imperfections, we arrive at the following con- servative ranges: (in Angstrom Units’)
X-ray (or electron) diffraction | — 100 | Blectrn imaging (if available) 500 — 50,000 Light imaging (or diffraction) 5000 — oo
Ordinary X-ray diffraction and electron or light microscopy leave a gap of 100 to 500 or 100 to 5000 Angstrom Units. This range intermediate between atomic and microscopic regions was characterized by Ostwald in 1915 as “die Welt der vernachlassigten Dimensionen.” The new realization of the significance of colloids in the plastics, rubber, oil, food and dyestuffs industries and of toxins and viruses in fundamental medicine has created a practical as well as academic interest in this heretofore neglected range.
A number of ingenious methods have been developed for meas- uring these small particles. These methods are mainly based on sedimentation velocities and surface effects like absorption. One sometimes obtains a particle weight, sometimes a particle count, sometimes a particle surface. Usually the result is a sort of aver- age—different averages from different methods. In the event of a particle of unknown or unsymmetrical shape or carrying surface ,zayers, the problem is complicated indeed. Suffice it to say tnat these methods alone do not give us all the information we might desire about our particles. The remainder of this discussion is concerned only with efforts to extend the X-ray diffraction method above the conservative 100 Angstrom Unit limit, and supplement these methods.
The first of two X-ray diffraction techniques employed in particle size measurement is known as line broadening. Line broadening is observed as a diffuseness in the lines of a Debye-Scherrer X-ray powder pattern as the crystalline particles become smaller than a few hundred Angstrom Units. This phenomenon is quite analogous to the lack of resolution of spectral lines from an optical grating as the total number of grating lines is reduced. The approximate intensity distribution may be expressed by a Gaussian.
248 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Within the past decade a second X-ray technique for particle size measurement has been developed. By treating the particle as a homogeneous mass of electronic scattering centers, a distribu- tion is derived for the intensity of X-rays scattered at small angles from the main beam. The Rayleigh-Gans expression for this inten- sity distribution is commonly approximated by a Gaussian.
For both cases, the Gaussian distribution may assume the same logarithmic form:
where: I C
log I = C — (kd/A)?
intensity of scattered X-rays constant of specimen:
scattering angle
1.17 (cos 6)¥? for line broadening 0.93 for small angle scattering Bragg angle for line
oan AS HS a ah
In both of these X-ray techniques, as in optical diffraction, the angular broadening (g) is proportional to and approximately equal to (,\/d). To achieve an ideal broadening of several degrees, it is necessary that the wavelength of radiation used be about one order of magnitude smaller than the particle size. To best measure 100 to 5000 Angstrom Unit particles, we require ideally about 100 Angstrom Unit radiation. As this X-ray-ultra-violet radiation is so difficult to produce and use, we choose to compromise on about 10 Angstrom Unit X-rays. Such X-rays are termed “soft,” and must be used in vacuum to avoid excessive air absorption.
The use of such long wavelengths improves the resolution by spreading the diffraction pattern over such large angles that the geometric smearing covers a relatively small increment of the pat- tern. That is, the soft X-rays give rise to sufficient true broadening to make insignificant the spurious broadening from experimental imperfections. |
In addition it should prove possible under favorable conditions to resolve the weak secondary intensity maxima about the main beam, which are predicted by the rigorous small angle scattering theory. These maxima are analogous to the corona rings fre- quently observed about the moon. The location of one or more of the intensity maxima affords another means of determining the
PARTICLE SIZE BY X-RAY SCATTERING 249
particle size. Theory predicts the peaks at values of (kg/xd)d = 1.76, 2.72, etc.
As an example of the application of soft X-rays, consider this study of colloidal gold with aluminum k-a X-rays ,) = 8.32 Ang- stoms ). Figure 1 shows the small angle scattering pattern obtained on the film. Figure 2 shows a log I vs. (kg/\)2 plot from the densitometer record of this pattern. A curve obtained with con- ventional hard copper radiation is shown in the same figure.
Fig. 1.
The particle size may be obtained directly as the square root of the slope. The aluminum curve yields a value of 602 Angstroms. The linear portion of the copper curve, however, is crowded to immeasureably small angles. An attempt to deduce particle size from this curve leads only to a minimum value of about 300 Angstroms.
The first secondary peak on the aluminum curve, correspond- ing to (kg/)d = 1.76, is found at (kg/\) = 3.05 x 10°%. The particle size from this peak position is then (1.76/3.05) x 10* or
250 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
576 Angstrom Units. This peak is completely absent on the copper curve. whe ¢
We have, by employing soft X-rays, measured 600 Angstrom particles ‘to within about 5% error. Conventional X-rays with the same technique gave unreliably low results. We may conclude that the use of soft X-rays extends the applicability of size determi- nation by diffraction above 100 and towards 5000 Angstroms.
100
LoeI vs. (K@/X)- 50k. FOR ALUMINUM AND COPPER RADIATION
INTENSITY °
SLOPE =—3.62 x10”
3 bi 8 10 12 14 (KO/))~ [x10 © ANGSTROM~2]
Fic.2
NEWS AND COMMENTS
It has been brought to the attention of the Editor that some members apparently are under the impression that manuscripts may be submitted for publication in the Journal only at certain times. That is absolutely not the case. You may submit manu- scripts to the Editor any day in the year; incidentally, manu- scripts should be mailed directly to the Editor. Sometimes manu- scripts are handed or mailed to us by persons other than the author that turn out not to be intended for publication. Therefore, we preter to receive manuscripts directly from the author.
The Council met in Lakeland on October 28, 1950. President H. H.-Sheldon called the Council to order at 8:30 A. M. The following members were present: J. Corrington, T. S. Dietrich, J. E. Hawkins, W. Melcher, C. S. Nielsen, C. T. Reed, B. P. Reinsch, Earl Smith, H. K. Wallace, G. F. Weber, A. M. Winchester. Items of possible interest to the membership at large from the Secretary's minutes are as follows:
The Secretary-Treasurer’s report indicated the Academy was heading into harder times. It was also reported that the Printer had indicated he was being forced to increase prices. If more income is not forthcoming something will have to be done about the size of the Journal.
The Editor reported no manuscripts on hand for Volume 12, Number 4.
The Editor reported that since Science Hall at Gainesville had been condemned all of the back numbers of the Academy Journal had been re-wrapped and stored in the University Library.
The Advertising Manager reported that there had been no response from the Advertising Committees set up from the various institutions to solicit advertising. Only one ad had been secured up to the time of his report. This is one way in which the size of the Journal can be maintained or increased—each ad will pay for several pages of printing.
The President reported no progress had been made on the problem of state taxation on Academy publications. The Council voted this problem into the lap of the Public Relations Committee, but every member should take the opportunity to “educate” the local representatives when the occasion presents itself.
252 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The following members were reported as deceased by the Necrology Committee: C. E. Bell, R. W. Harrison, L. H. Hadson, A. McBride, J. E. Spurr, J. H. Terrill.
The President appointed a Library Committee consisting of C. J. Goin (Chairman), J. E. Hawkins, H. K. Wallace.
Clyde T. Reed (University of Tampa) was appointed A. A. A. S. representative to attend the Academy Conference in Cleveland at the Christmas Meeting.
The meetings in Lakeland on the campus of Florida Southern College, December 1 and 2, were quite enjoyable. Highlights included the weather, the banquet, the hospitality (both native and foreign). Tampa was selected as the site for the 1951 meet- ings. Mr. Edward P. St. John was awarded the 1949 A. A. A. S. Grant-in-Aid to help finance publication of his researches on the Ophioglossaceae of Florida.
In Volume 12, Number 1 we reported the presence of Dr. W. C. Allee, of the University of Chicago, on the campus of the Uni- versity of Florida as a guest. Now we are pleased to report that he has taken up residence in Gainesville and is the new head of the. Department of Biology. Dr. Allee has friends and former students throughout the state who will be delighted to learn of his migration. .
Dr. John H. Davis, Jr. (Botany, U. of F.) has recently returned full:of vim and vigor from a year’s trip to New Zealand, bearing, among other things, as gifts to the Department of Biology, two specimens of the rare “Sphenodon”. John declares that life “down under’ is a little more austere than we are used to here at home.
Dr. Lewis Berner (Biology, U. of F.) has also recently returned from a trip, only he traveled in Africa, making an entomological investigation of the Volta River basin.
News from Florida State University includes the publication of an outstanding book “Catholic Social Thought” by Melvin J. Williams (Sociology) and the arrival on the campus of Meyer F. Nimkoff to assume the duties. of Head of the Department of Sociology. Dr. Nimkoff was formerly Chairman of the Department of Sociology at Bucknell University and President of the Eastern Sociological Society. He replaces Raymond E. Bellamy, long-time Council member and one of the founders of the Academy. Dr. Bellamy had requested relief from administrative duties in order
NEWS AND COMMENTS 253
to devote more time to teaching and research. We were pleased to note the presence of Dr. Nimkoff at the meetings in Lakeland.
Miss Louise Williams did a mighty fine job organizing and con- ducting the meetings of the Junior Academy in Lakeland. The program looked interesting and the banquet was a sell-out. Dr. Winchester was also involved as coordinator for the Junior Acad- emy. Congratulations to both of you.
Congratulations, too, to T. Stanton Dietrich (Sociology, F. S. U.) for a fine job as our first Advertising Manager. The ads which appear in this number are the result of his efforts. The first ads are probably the hardest to secure. Now that the ice is broken the Advertising Manager’s job may not be so formidable (we hope). Incidentally, Dr. Dietrich is the only Academy member who has responded to my pleas for material for the News and Comments section.
The By-Laws were amended in December, 1949, to increase the number of classes of membership so that there would be one to fit the pocketbook of every member. Have you increased your classification? If not please see the membership categories listed elsewhere in this number, keeping in mind that no decreases are desired or contemplated.
REsEARCH NOTES
RHODODENDRON CHAPMANII FOUND BETWEEN TWO PREVIOUSLY REPORTED STATIONS. — Rhododendron Chapmanii had, until 1942, been considered to be confined to the low pine woods of West Florida, more specifically the lower reaches of the Apalachicola River and pin pointed in a relatively small area north of Port Saint Joe.
In March of 1942 Dr. Henry R. Totten of the University of North Carolina, then major in the army at Camp Blanding, located a small colony of Rhodo- dendron Chapmanii on the shores of Kingsley Lake, the report of which colony is recorded in Vol. 7, Nos. 2-3, of the Proceedings of the Florida Academy of Science for 1944.
This is to report another site in which are hundreds of plants extending, in various concentration, over some forty acres. This site is in Gadsden County, about 15 miles southward from Quincy off the Lake Talquin road. It is far enough removed from either of the previously reported areas to constitute a new station. The plants were observed in bloom and carefully checked against yard specimens of the author obtained ten years ago from the Port Saint Joe station. — JOHN O. BOYNTON, Florida State University.
INDEX TO VOLUME 12
Aspergillus niger, A Preliminary In- vestigation of the Growth Re- sponse of, to Various Levels of Copper as a Biological Method of Determining Available Copper in Soils, 235
BOOK REVIEW, 145
BRODKORB, PIERCH, 241
Cancer Problem, Biochemical Aspects of, 223 .
Carotid Sinus Syndrome, The, 45
Cirsium Smallii Britton, 65
Cynoscion nebulosus, A study of the Natural History of the Spotted Trout, in the Cedar Key, Florida, Area, 147
DAVIS, CHARLES C., 67
DE VALL, WILBUR B., 21
DE VANE, CLAUDE L., 21 DUTCHER, RAYMOND, 185, 191
EDSON, SETON N., 105, 235 ESHLEMAN,S. KENDRICK, III, 35
EVANS, ELWYN, M.D., 45, 139
Feathers, The Number of, in Some Birds, 241
Fishes of Orange Lake, Florida The, 173
HARPER, ROLAND M., 1 Institutional Members, 234
JACKSON, CURTIS R., 220
KING, JOSEPH E., 109
Litcht chinensis Sonn., Anatomy and Secondary Growth in the Axis of, 51 Membership Categories, 222
Micropterus salmoides flottdanus(Le Sueur), Notes on the Food of the Largemouth Black Bass, in a Florida Lake, 195
MOODY, WILLIAM DEAN,147 MURRILL, WILLIAM A.,61, 65 MCLANE, WILLIAM M., 195,203
NELSON, GIDEON E., 208
News and Comments, 63, 251
Officers for 1950, 50
Officers for 1951, 219
Ophioglossaceae, of the Eastern United States, Evolution of, 207
Particle Size by X-ray Scattering, 246
Pebble Phosphate Striplands, A Field Survey of Florida’s, 21 :
Pericarditis, Acute Benign Nonspecific, in a Subtropical Climate, 139
Plankton of the West Coast of Florida, A Preliminary Report on, 109
Plankton taken in Marine Waters of Florida in 1947 and 1948, Obser- vations of, 67
Plants of Florida, A Preliminary List of the Endemic. Part IJ]—Notes and Summary, 1
Rain of Organic Matter, Notes on an Apparent, 203
RAY, FRANCIS E., 223
REDD, JAMES B., 185, 191
REID, GEORGE K., Jr., 173 Research Notes, 65, 253
Rhizophora mangle L., Nutritive Value
of Mangrove Leaves, 191
Scleria Berg, A Key to the Genus, in South Florida, 220
SMITH, F. B., 105, 235
SOKOLOFF, BORIS, 185, 191
Sponges, A Key to Florida’s Fresh- Water, with Descriptive Notes, 35
ST. JOHN, EDWARD P., 207
Streptomyces albus, Antibiotic Action of, against Mold Decay Organisms of Citrus Fruits, 105
THORNTON, GEO. D., 105
VENNING, FRANK D., 51
Violet, A New Florida, 61
Vitamin ‘P’ Protection against Ra- diation, 185
YUDOWITCH, K. L., 246
YOUNG, F. N., 145
WHY LABORATORIES PREFER
@ it is clear; for solution visibility
® chemically inert; resists acids, alka-
lies, alcohols, water @ flexible: flex life 10-12 times rubber
@® non-toxic: will not affect any solution
@ mirror smooth: easily cleaned, may
be steam sterilized
@ sticks tight to glass: no clamps or
wires needed
@® will not check or craze: unaffected by oxidation The photograph at the left showing Tygon Tubing
on the Karl Fischer Aquatator is used through the courtesy of Arthur S. La Pine & Co., Chicago, Illinois.
PLASTACS & SIT NTTBEWCS
DINVSIOR,
}rONEWARE. Akron 9, Ohio.
ATLANTIC CHEMICALS, INC. P. O. Box 3466 Michigan Ave. & RR Orlando, Fla. Distributors of Laboratory Apparatus and Reagents
4
q t , w P| - ; = "Tw L Vipraits
he guds.
a3 =< oe é ‘ bare q ; ‘ Oe
a : = pad
wa
ls @
> = 4 * Oe | i y j , : i ; , ¢ -_ a 4 j , . i ‘ ms % oped ‘ ws 7 = a = — es ” i 7 > - ¥ A = | i ' 1G 3 P ox - = _— = eo - * = r i ya ° ’ Pv. : . = \ «=! : , «A ‘ n t ‘ ” 4 i 1 Pi a >| ‘ - ’ ’ J a % Peet we Wes a 1 @ i ‘$ 7 a : “ i —< i HN Le - Ri * < _ a
i
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Contributions to the Journal may be in any of the fields of the sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings will be published only with the financial cooperation of the author. Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or other competent critics.
MANUSCRIPT FORM.——(1) Typewrite material, using one side of paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal margins; (3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight (avoid onion skin); (4) do not submit carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) footnotes should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short; (8) for bibliographic style, note closely the practices employed in Vol. 11, No. 4 and later issues; (9) a factual summary is recommended for longer papers.
ILLUSTRATIONS.——Photographs should be glossy prints of good contrast. Make line drawings with India ink; plan linework and lettering for at least one-half reduction. Do not use typewritten labels on the face of the drawings; provide typed legends on sepa- rate sheets.
PROOF.——Proof should be corrected immediately upon receipt and returned at once, with manuscript, to the editor. Ordinarily page proof will not be sent to the author. Manuscripts and plates will not be returned to authors unless requested. Abstracts and orders for reprints should be sent to the editor along with corrected
galley proof.
REPRINTS.——Should be ordered when galley proof is returned. A blank form, with reprint prices, accompanies proof for this purpose. No reprints are furnished free to authors. Payment for reprints will be made by authors directly to the printer.
...the only calculator in its price range with simul- taneous, automatic “push- button” multiplication. Since more than half of all work done on calculators is multiplication, the cal- culator that does it easiest and fastest will save you time and money.
@ Call today for a free demonstration
Cheulelors
FLORIDA MARCHANT OFFICES Jacksonville—-306 Hildebrandt Bldg. 5-7911 Miami—605 N. W. 12th Avenue - 3-8949 Orlando—224 W. South Street - - 3-4258 Tallahassee—114 N. Adams Street 3-1268 Tampa—119 So. Franklin Street - 2-1786 West Palm Beach—313 Datura Street 2-3883
¥239'K
~s
”
rh
ia
eS a
See en ey Fee eiede
iii
3 9088