tee we se ABER a HY rE aepanentel recat hese 4 NSA ON AA MAE AA AD fre m= . tm . | iad | is stl was Sy ue tyne EE aie Zi nt NTI ry nad rene (sadam ae eae 7 PASO J ate NSO PUT WN Ne ma ee ate Wb ‘1, === i tp uy Mee eM ntti fh i Sh Mp | 4 i i as i, we A, ise hi 0 | eC i ui \ S Gecel a ou. oa om, cae lat a pact Th al Jom, \URE a 3 oy 1 ice RP a ais WEE Jee] leer ihe 2 see ia nore Gath bes 5 as i lf Sa AN fae : Bs etre sae te S, AS 85 \y boy fy Ay fie oe wel, Neuall aN Prag, Eg td pL if a or Ce) sagt itl Pcie ue fot ore sae f fas Sse Ae 6, an higgl goon - \ es SEE (Aes A i ; Bo, J ( . 4 i il ; ee ees Pb 3g] a, SSeaN a rd iis ! i ail f ee 5) go — =. % Ty ont, The Quarterly Journal of ‘The Florida Academy of Sciences. A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research H. K. Watxace, Editor J. C. Dickinson, JR., Associate Editor VOLUME 15 ’ Published by THE FLoripA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Gainesville, Florida 1952 Dates of Publication Number 1—May 7, 1952 Number 2—October 8, 1952 Number 3—November 19, 1952 Number 4—April 11, 1953 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 15 NUMBER 1] The Evolution of the Ophioglossaceae of the Eastern United BEatese ED yedibard Pb. Stolen ws eter IN A ag 1 Pmmnensinip CateeOrics 2. 0) a eer eh ee 20 Hite birdsvor- VVelaka, By Gid-E. Nelson, Jr. mal "TETIOIAS ROP IS SM eae hal Ce ce ae 40 The Geographic Factor in the History of Bulgaria. By Sigis- POMOC sD VCLLTICh) an we ES ae IS i Se eS Al The Function of Mast Cells. A Methylcholanthrene-induced eVicistocytoma (= By Perihan Cambell 28-8 ot) as) Some Considerations and Problems in the Ecology of Floating slamels ay GCOnGeIk Reid nanan ee 63 NUMBER 2 Mielvinesamoss, Brannon 800-1950 02 Si 67 Some Myxophyceae in Florida. By Melvin A. Brannon ____ 70 IN@secerorm sinual WMeelings Mai nees olen Ae ee 78 Daylight Observations of Stars. By Alex G. Smith 79 A List and Bibliography of the Mammals of Florida, Living HOG GRIEG Ets tell Ds SICTINGI se ee EAE ake 86 NUMBER 3 Notes on the Larvae of Two Florida Salamanders. By John Ss Mecham and Robert E Helnan e Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Certain Snake Oils. By C. B. Pollard and David C. Yons, (i, Some Topographic and Edaphic Factors Affecting Plant Distri- bution inva Vidal Marsh: “By Curis Rh. jackson) = Effects of Histamine and Eugenol on Gastric Mast Cell Dia- pedesis and Leucopedesis in the Albino Rat. By Perihan Cambel, James T. Sgouris and Cecilia E. Conroy —__— Some Evolutionary Features Inherent in the Insect Faunas of the Tropies. By Charles: 1 Brucs The Mechanism of Skin Tumorigenesis. By Michael Klein __ A Study of the Toxicity and Stability of Dried Moccasin (Agkistrodon piscivorus) Venom. By C. B. Pollard, A. F. Novuck, R. W. Harmon, and WH Rimzler _. = A New Crayfish of the Genus Procambarus from Georgia with a Key to the Species of the clarkii Subgroup. (Decapoda, Astacidae), By Horton H. Hobbs, jr ae A Herpetological Survey in the Vicinity of Lake Shipp, Polk County, Florida. By Sem Rh. Telford j;, = NUMBER 4 Parasitic Crustaceans from Alligator Harbor, Florida. By A. Oi) PCOISC® 3220. =O Mabe 23, aed) SINE vee kk index to: Volume 15.222 i I TSE ne 127 147 149 155 162 165 175 244 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 15 Mareh 1952 No. I Contents St. John—The Evolution of the Ophioglossaceae of the Eastern iibearettes: 2! eas i! Biomogrsuip Categories 20 Nelson—The Birds of Welaka _.....__-______ _ 21 CEES CUS 2 a aT A RI 40 Diettrich—The Geographic Factor in the History of Bulgaria _. 41 Cambel—The Function of Mast Cells—A Methylcholanthrene- Huduced “Mastocytoma . _ 53 Reid—Some Considerations and Problems in the Ecology of Floating Islands*: 00 PasOnn SSCS UNM 63 $¢ Vi Au Nig, “\ i, \\ Vi Vie \Y 20 Jv 1¢ Vou. 15 Marcu, 1952 No. 1 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed May 7, 1952 me QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 15 Marcu, 1952 No. 1 THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES? EDWARD P. St. JOHN ~ Floral City, Florida Il] —THE EvoLuTIoN OF THE LEAF 1. Relationships between the pattern of venation and the ex- ternal form of the leaf—Conclusions as to the course of evolution in the Ophioglossaceae which are reported in this series of papers are based chiefly on the patterns made by the vascular systems of the leaves of the various species as they are revealed by a clearing process. ‘Therefore brief introductory consideration is given to the relationships between the external forms of the more primitive plants and the number, branchings, and fusions of their veins. The first multicellular land plants had no veins. They were very small, and parts that were in contact with the soil absorbed mineral solutions which passed through the cells to more distant parts. As plants elongated toward the source of light there was an almost continuous flow of fluids through the basal and central parts, and in time series of cells at the middle of the plant were modified to facilitate and control the flow of the plant fluids, thus forming a primitive vein. These plants were of linear form, and each was supplied with 4 single vein. When plants increased in size and numbers until crowding oc- curred those that were shaded on every side could make only slen- der vertical growth; but the older or more vigorous of the com- petitors overtopped their neighbors and, having abundant supply of the nourishing juices, expanded rapidly in full sunlight. When in some such way the tissues at the apex of the leaf reached so great thickness or width that the lateral parts were not well sup- plied by the single vein the same process that originally produced * Continued from Vol. 12, No. 4. MAY1 5 1952 2 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the vein caused it to divide into two branches, and this division of the nutritional supply caused the plant body to fork in a similar way. The successive repetition of this process produced those primitive plants in which the branching is dichotomous and each branch or segment, whether it is of early or late origin, has a single vein. In these simple plants there was no differentiation into branch and leaf. It is probable that the branches approached cylindrical form, and in some plants they grew in vertical position, as in living Psilotum and Equisetum. If they had branched and continued growth in one plane the branches would have shaded each other laterally, but as the successive branches appeared, by the funda- mental processes of growth in response to lighting, they diverged from each other and were able to continue growth without mutual shading. The adaptive habit of abaxial branching was then estab- lished. Ultimately some plants made the adaptation of branch- ing in several planes as a more efficient mode of securing adequate lighting. But if the branches of the early plants for any reason took a horizontal position, as they might in prostrate plants or in weak-stemmed climbing plants that overtopped their competitors, it is clear that the photo-synthetic processes would be furthered by broadening of the branches, while the lower surfaces of the branches would be modified by continual shading. Whatever the mode of production, sooner or later appeared the immediate ancestors of the ferns, in which the dorsi-ventral branches seem to have been thin and ribbon-like in form, each supplied with a single vein. These delicate plants were not pre- served as fossils, but Bower (1923; pp. 83 and 85) cites the juvenile leaf of Todea superba (FI. I, Fig. 1) as representative of such plants. This primitive form of leaf-architecture was later modified by the process called webbing, which is the response to certain con- ditions of lighting. Because of the nature of their life-processes aoa PLATE I 1, Juvenile leaf of Todea superba, enlarged, after Bower; 2, hypothetical representation of plant with four dichotomously branching divisions; 3, juvenile leaf of Botrychium australe var Millefolium; 4, sterile leaf of B. dissectum Spreng.; 5, progress of webbing in Botrychium, a, B. dissectum, b, c, d, varie- ties Oneidense, obliquum and Tenuifolium of Clausen’s Monograph; 6, fusion of veins in new tissues produced by webbing between lobes in three species of Thelypteris, latest form at top. Drawings by A. M. Laessle. 4 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES all plants grow toward the source of light. If they developed under conditions of dense crowding, as in a field of grass, lateral shading necessitated an erect linear leaf. If from the first the leaves lay in a horizontal plane fully exposed to sunlight, as in the floating leaves of many aquatic plants, growth took place on all margins of the leaves and they became peltate in form. If atmospheric conditions caused diffusion of light for a very long period of time a general marginal enlargement of leaves would be produced. In the shade of tall vegetation the light is diffused, and here too growth takes place on all exposed margins; but under such con- ditions equal enlargement on all margins cannot take place be- cause some parts of the blade are less fully exposed than others. Thus every variation of form between the linear and the peltate leaf has been produced as plants acquired adaptations to the vary- ing conditions of lighting. Webbing not only enlarges the leaf but also, especially in small leaves, more or less completely closes the gaps between segments of the leaf. This is illustrated in Pl. I, Fig. 5, which shows the progress of webbing in four related forms of Botrychium. This kind of enlargement complicates the pattern of venation, since many forkings of veins are required to supply the needs of the new marginal tissues—each new branch being the response to a wider demand for the nutritional fluids. On the other hand, if veins from different segments of the leaf approach each other in the new tissues that close the former gap between them, and if the area of the new tissues is so narrow that one vein can supply its needs, they fuse into one (PI. I, Fig. 6); and this vein, if it is fur- ther extended into new tissues, may then fork or fuse in response to the new conditions. This process, acting on small and much divided leaves, accounts for the origin of the simple leaf-blade and of anastomosing venation. As plants increased in size the chief function of the veins of their basal and central parts came to be the conduction of the plant fluids between the rootstock and more distant areas of the leaf, and the tissues that surrounded them functioned more and more as supporting parts for the enlarging leaf. Hence these supplying veins were little changed in form by altered environmental condi- tions that brought considerable change in the patterns of the dis- tributing veins of the marginal parts of the leaf. Therefore the THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 5 conducting veins in the basal and central parts of the leaf reveal the primitive structure of the remote ancestors, while the pattern of the mariginal distributing veins is the product of the life- processes of the plant today. In the more highly developed flower- ing plants many successive adaptations have so obscured these records that often they are practically illegible, but in plants as primitive as the Ophioglossaceae they provide much reliable in- formation as to phylogeny. 2. Origin of the vascular pattern in the Ophioglossaceae.—At the present time there is almost complete agreement among botan- ists that Botrychium was earliest in origin of the three or more genera of the Ophioglossaceae. Chrysler (1945, Nov.; pp. 498-504) is inclined to believe that the subgenus Eubotrychium includes the more primitive forms of the genus. Eames (1936, p. 118) con- sidered the large ternate-leaved forms of earliest orgin. In a series of drawings which illustrate progressive reduction in the evolution of the species he places B. virginianum, of the subgenus Osmundopteris, first. Clausen (1938; pp. 27 and 166) believes that those species of the subgenus Sceptridium in which the ultimate divisions of the leaf are intermediate in size are of earlier origin, and places B. multifidum first in what “he considers to be a natural series. B. dissectum Sprengel (B. dissectum var. typicum of Clausen’s Monograph) in several characters of fundamental nature (to which further attention will be directed in succeeding parts of this paper) is more primitive in structure than either B. virginianum or B. multifidum. As is generally true in this genus, it is connected by transitional forms with related species; but in the abundant plants that show the more primitive characters it is clear that each seg- ment of the blade was produced by dichotomous branching, and in nearly all each is supplied by one vein, the exceptions being in segmeats in which webbing has obviously taken place. Further- more, several series of intermediate plants connect it with more elaborated forms that seem to have been derived from it, and that are recognized as species. It seems to be the most signicant form in the genus, and to be as worthy of specific rank as others that have universally been so recognized. The name B. dissectum will be used with that connotation in the following pages. B. dissectum provides much evidence that it is the most primitive of North 6 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES American Botrychiums, and apparently of all known species, unless it be one found in New Zealand to which further reference will be made. If the significance of the pattern of venation of these primitive Botrychiums can be discovered it will afford a basis for the study of relationships throughout the family. Among the ferns are many examples of leaves the structures of which show that they are descended from plants which were wholly dichotomous in branching and venation. They may have two, four, or eight principal divisions of the blade, depending on whether the framework of the leaf was determined by the first, second, or third stage of dichotomy in the primitive ancestor (Bower, 1923; pp. 81-93)—-which of the three forms is present being determined by the extent to which lateral shading limited the expansion of the leaf in an early stage of its evolution. A hypothetical representation of a primitive plant having four major divisions is shown in Pl. I, Fig. 2. The blade has been produced by successive dichotomous forking, the equality of the divisions being modified in parts of the leaf by shading which has retarded or terminated the growth of one limb of a dichotomy. The lateral divisions are alike in form and size. The two median divisions, better lighted and ascending to meet the stronger light, have crowded each other, and therefore the segments along their ad- jacent margins have been stunted in development. Each division of the leaf, whatever its rank, has one vein. The external form and vascular pattern of the sterile leaf of B. dissectum is shown in Pl. I, Fig. 4. If this is compared with PI. I, Fig. 2 the general resemblance is obvious. In the two figures the lateral divisions are similar in form and venation; but the two median divisions of Fig. 2 are replaced in Botrychium by one nearly symmetrical ‘division which has an incompletely developed rachis and is supplied by two veins. Comparison of the two vascular patterns makes the relationship between them clear. Fusion, by webbing, of the median divisions of the plant represented in Fig. 2 would produce the subpinnate terminal division of Botrychium. The two veins that supplied the original median divisions are represented by the two that lie side by side in the petiole and rachis of Botrychium, each supplying the pinnae of its own side of the blade. The origin of these veins is at the point correspond- ing to that of the first dichotomy in the plant represented in Fig. 2. THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE i As long as there is a strong lateral demand for the fluids which they transmit they remain separate; when the blade narrows to- ward its apex they fuse into one which is sufficient to supply the lessened demand. We have here an adequate explanation of the origin and significance of the vascular pattern of a sterile leaf of B. dissectum. The fundamental pattern of venation of the leaf that is found in B. dissectum appears, with modifications that depend chiefly on the size of the leaf, in every species of the genus that has been available for study. It is almost exactly duplicated in the more primitive species of Ophioglossum, and is the basis of the patterns in all species of the genus that are found in North America. After the conclusions that have been outlined above had been reached impressive confirmation of them was found in two sterile leaves of Botrychium, apparently from immature plants, which Dr. Robert T. Clausen has identified as B. australe var. Millefolium (Hochst.) Pratl. These juvenile leaves certainly represent the most primitive form of Botrychium that has been found in the course of this study. One was cleared to show the vascular pattern. Its form and venation are shown in Pl. I, Fig. 3. Obviously its place in the evolutionary series is between the plant represented in Fig. 2 and B. dissectum (Fig. 4). The segments of the leaf are ribbon-like. Dichotomous branching can be traced in all parts of the plant, and each segment ends in a dichotomy. The incipient rachis extends but a short distance into the median division, leav- ing the upper parts of the fused divisions free, and showing that the fushion is incomplete. This plant provides the one inter- mediate stage that was needed to demonstrate in living plants the nature of the relationship between Botrychium and the fully dichot- omous plants. Raa In the development of leaf-architecture the triangular leaf- blade, formed by the process that has been outlined above, was an early departure from the strictly dichotomous form. It seems to have originated early in the phylogeny of the Filicales, and had a very important part in the evolution of that group of plants.” The fan-shaped leaf produced by simple dichotomy, which is * Flowering plants show a parallel stage in the development of leaf-archi- tecture. The vascular patterns of many cordate leaves (e.g. Viola) show that the midvein was formed by fusion of two median veins, while dichotomous branching is preserved in other parts of the leaf. 8 JOURNAL .-OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES suited only for growth in an uncrowded habitat, had now taken a form which far more successfully responded to the varied con- ditions of lighting in crowded plant-associations in which flower- ing plants predominated. The two veins at the middle of the blade gave supporting strength, and prepared the way for the development of a true rachis. There seems no doubt that the majority of modern ferns with pinnately divided leaves were de- rived from such a form. Indeed, every stage of the transition from the earliest subternate form to the completely pinnate structure may be traced in both external form and vascular pattern within the genus Botrychium. Bower (1923; pp. 87, 88 and 90) believed that monopodial branch- ing of the supplying veins and external parts of pinnate leaves was derived from primitive dichotomous branching through the forma- tion of a sympodium—that is, a series of dichotomies in which the right and left branches are alternately retarded in growth, thus producing a leaf with a zigzag rachis-like axis on which the re- tarded branches appear as alternate pinnae. He suggests that Lygodium represents an early stage in the development of monopo- dial branching. He finds confirmation of this theory in the de- veloping patterns of venation of several primitive ferns, but records an unexplained difficulty in applying the theory to juvenile plants of Botrychium and more advanced ferns. This difficulty does not exist under the interpretation offered above. It appears that primi- tive Botrychium, rather than Lygodium, reveals the origin of the pinnate leaf in at least the great majority of modern ferns. Indeed study of the vascular patterns of Botrychium and Ophioglossum indicates that the Ophioglossaceae, because in their phylogeny the usual evolutionary processes ceased at an early stage, throw more light on early stages of the development of leaf-architecture than any comparable group of plants. Campbell (1940; p. 307) in describing the cotyledon of B. obliquum, says that it “appears above ground as a long-stalked ternate leaf. The venation is dichotomous, and the ternate form results from unequal dichotomy.” However, the vascular pattern of the mature plant seems to afford unquestionable evidence that the ternate form was produced through the fusion of two median branches, as described above. The departure of the Ophioglossaceae from the Filicales was THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 9 long after the appearance of the ternate leaf, and came with the development of the specialized fertile segment and the subter- ranean habit of the gametophyte. That the first steps in the de- velopment of the fertile segment came before Botrychium broke away from the Filicales is indicated. In several species of Anemia the fertile basal pinnae are elevated in a way that is very sugges- tive of Botrychium; and, as Chrysler has pointed out (1941; pp. 16 and 17), the arrangement of the fertile segments in A. elegans resembles that of Cheiroglossa. The ancestors of these ferns seem to have originated with the Ophioglossaceae but were able to carry these characters on to higher levels of development, while the Ophioglossaceae at about this stage of development adopted the subterranean habit of the gametophyte, and because of consequent self-fertilization were unable to rise above the Eusporangiate level. 3. Origin of the Fertile Segment.—The conflicting theories as to the genetic relationships of the Ophioglossaceae have been based on the peculiarity of the fertile segment. Interest has centered ‘on the apparently adaxial branching of the peduncle from the petiole or blade, and upon this basis attempts have been made to trace descent from each of several orders of primitive plants. Campbell (1907-1940) considering Ophioglossum the genus of earliest origin, believed that it was derived from the Bryophyta. (Bower 1896) at first held the view that the spike of Ophioglossum was derived from the strobile of plants related to the Lycopodiales. Roeper (1859) suggested that the fertile segment originated from the fusion of two basal pinnae of a fernlike plant; and Chrysler (1910), having put this theory to the test of careful study of the venation of Botrychium, presented a widely accepted argument for that view. Bower at first opposed, but later accepted this inter- pretation. Zimmerman (1930) offered the theory that the leaf of Botrychium, with its sterile and fertile segments, developed from the telome of the primative Psilophytales. This theory was ac- cepted by Bower, and perhaps is gaining favor at the present time. Eames (1936, pp. 117-142 and 380-407) definitely accepts the fused- pinnae theory and emphasizes it throughout his discussion of the family; yet in other parts of the same book makes general state- ment of his acceptance of the telome theory. In the light of present knowledge it seems impossible to reconcile the two theories, and internal evidence indicates that the chapter on the Ophioglos- 10 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES saceae represents his later view. Thirty-five years after his original presentation of the fused-pinnae theory Chrysler (1945) considered the application of the telome theory to Botrychium in the light of his studies of the vascular systems of the genus, but with in- conclusive results. His final statement is, “The possibility of deriving Ophioglossales more or less directly from Psilophytales receives some support from the present investigation. If the evi- dence should be held sufficient, the hypothesis of Roeper would be abandoned.” Chrysler’s studies of the vascular systems of Botrychium were made by the process of sectioning. The investigations on which the present study is based were made by use of a clearing process (see page 16) which reveals, as in a line drawing, the venation of the entire leaf—petiole, blade, peduncle and spike. While this method gives little information as to the internal structure of the veins it does provide a more accurate and far more complete view of the vascular system as a whole. It is especially suited to the study of the leaf as a functioning organ, and therefore. to the explanation of adaptive evolutionary changes. The in- formation that has thus been secured is wholly confirmatory of the fundamental thesis of Chrysler’s early study (1910). The evidence that he offered is considerably enlarged, and reveals itself in more direct and impressive form. It has been shown in the preceding section of this paper that in B. dissectum the leaf trace, soon after it enters the petiole, divides into two veins which pass up into the blade, each supplying the pinnae of its own side of the leaf (PI. I, Fig. 4). The fertile segment of this plant is inserted on the petiole a little below the basal pinnae, and is supplied by two veins (Pl. HW). The vein that lies in the right side of the peduncle branches from the right vein of the petiole exactly as do the veins that supply the pinnae of that side of the blade. The left vein of the peduncle has the same relationship to the left vein of the petiole. The conclusion PLATE II aa Botrychium dissectum Spreng., showing pattern of venation in fertile leaf. Inset, diagram of ancestral eight-parted leaf, showing its relationship to leaf of Botrychium. A, basal pinnae fuse to form fertile segment; B, C, next pair of pinnae on each side fuse to form large basal divisions of the ternate leaf; D, two median divisions fuse to form terminal divisions of ternate leaf. Draw- ings by Arthur Odegard. 12 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is that the original basal pinnae have been elevated and fused to form the fertile segment. If, now, the pattern of venation of petiole and blade is compared with that of peduncle and spike they are found to be substantially identical. No one who examines the two patterns as they appear in the same plant (see Pl. II) can doubt that they are produced by a similar process of fusion. Cleared specimens of the various species of Euophioglossum show patterns that are fundamentally the same, and add other important evidence that indicates a simi- lar origin of the spike in this genus. Even in the very complicated pattern of Cheiroglossa (O. palmatum) the same basic structure of the spike is indicated. The evolution of the spike in the Ophioglossaceae was not a direct and uniform process, but the record of its essential nature, and of various stages of the process, which appears in the patterns of venation of the successive species is so clear that its course may readily and safely be inferred. First of all, it is clear that the fusion of segments that produced the blade of Botrychium could not have been accomplished by webbing after the axes of the thin dorsi-ventral branches of the ancestral plant had been condensed into subcylindrical supporting structures; therefore we know that the primitive Ophioglossaceae were small plants. It is possible that some of the early Filicales had already overtopped them. Certainly there were many primi- tive plants that exceeded them in height. Unfitted for assertive competition with these more robust neighbors, they were compelled to find unoccupied ground and—probably a much greater hazard —soil in which the fungus on which the embryo depends for life was already present. Wide distribution of their spores was essen- tial; but they were handicapped in securing this by their low stature. Therefore any variation that elevated the position of the sporangia and provided better distribution by wind was highly advantageous. Some form of such adaptation is frequent among ferns, but in the Ophioglossaceae it is especially prominent. In both Botrychium and Ophioglossum the height of the.fertile segment frequently is six to eight times that of the highest part of the blade of the living plant. The most superficial examination of thé species as they grow among associated plants confirms the importance of THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 13 this adaptation. Also it is significant that the taller species in both genera are most abundant at the present time. Owing to persistence until the present time (because of self- fertilization of the plants) of very ancient forms of Botrychium we have remarkably complete knowledge of the variety of forms among which selection acted to further the production of the most efficient mode of elevation of the sporangia. From study of these plants it is evident that the immediate ancestors of Botrychium bore sporangia on various parts of the blade, and that various seg- ments of the blade were elevated to secured better distribution of spores. Later these forms will be discussed in some detail, but two questions that arise from the variety of ways in which elevation of the sporangia was secured demand immediate answer. First, why were the basal pinnae selected to form the specialized fertile segment? The first exponents of the fused-pinnae theory offered the satisfactory explanation that the sporangia were chiefly located on this part of the blade. Taking the habit of the living plants into consideration we may go a step further. After the triangular blades of the more primitive species are fully grown they are nearly horizontal in position, and droop at the apex. At the time when the spores matured the basal pinnae were the most elevated parts of the blade. The same selective influences that later pro- duced the elaborated spike had already effected a considerable concentration of the sporangia on these segments. There follows the question, why were plants that not only ele- vated but also fused the pinnae perpetuated as the most efficient types? The answer is found when attention is given to the neces- sary stages in the process of transition from the separate to the fused pinnae. Fusion could not proceed far until the pinnae had reached a position nearly.at right angles to the plane of the blade. Sometimes it did not take place, as in Anemia and in frequent primitive forms of the ternate species of Botrychium (commonly called “abnormal”’) in which the usual fertile segment is replaced by two fertile segments, each supplied by a single vein. Some- times it was incomplete, as in many of the “abnormal” plants in which the peduncle is fused at its base but above divides into separate spikes. We understand why, among these forms, those that fused the pinnae were preferred if we remember that before fusion the fertile pinnae were of the thin dorsi-ventral type, and 14 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES that the presence of two veins at the middle of the fused organ greatly contributed to its strength as a supporting member. Con- firmation of this deduction is found in the fact that in the atypical plants spikes that are supplied by only one vein are always shorter than those in which two veins are present. The apparently adaxial branching of the peduncle from the petiole or blade is explained when consideration is given to the processes that produced it. Because of the nature of photo- synthesis, in all partly shaded habitats the axis of the leaf grows toward the source of optimum lighting. When the fertile basal pinnae of the primitive Botrychiums rose above the plane of the blade they invariably turned toward the stronger light (to which the apex of the blade was already directed), producing, when the habit had been genetically established, the effect that has perplexed generations of botanists. Only if they had turned away from the strongest light could there have been the superficial effect of abaxial branching. A recapitulation of this process may be ob- served in the unfolding leaf of Anemia adiantifolia. In these plants fusion of the pinnae never took place and hence this stage of phylogeny was not completely eliminated from ontogenetic de- velopment. Further consideration of the primitive Botrychiums as function- ing organisms, rather than merely as plant structures, affords added information as to the evolution of the fertile segment. The most striking difference between the primitive ternate-leaved Botry- chiums and most modern ferns is that the sporangia are so widely separated from the photosynthetic tissues of the blade. Usually the sporangia are borne on the margin or the under surface of the blade, where they are almost surrounded by chlorophyll-bearing cells which provide them with the nourishing juices upon which they depend for growth. In the Ophioglossaceae the isolation of the sporangia from the ordinary source of nourishment is so un- usual and so great that it suggests search for compensating: condi- tions. They are readily found. The fertile segment is not merely a supporting structure for the sporangia; it also is to a very considerable extent a photosynthetic organ. In Botrychium the sporangia are very large, and the fleshy tissues that surround the developing spores are well supplied with chlorophyll until the spores are mature, when they fade in color THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 15 from green through yellow to brown. In Ophioglossum the spores are imbedded in similar photosynthetic tissues. Indeed, the chief function of the blade seems to be to provide nutritive material for storage in the rootstock and roots. From these reservoirs the fertile segment receives nutrients which provide for the period of its growth, after which it seems to carry on the life-processes with a large degree of independence. The functional isolation of the two parts of the leaf is so nearly complete as to permit, in the genus Ophioglossum, of the development of such extreme forms as O. simplex in which the blade has disappeared, and O. Bergianum in which blades and fertile segment seem to arise separately from the rootstock. Saprophytic nourishment has had an important part in these courses of development, but it has not dominated them unless in the extreme cases. The photosynthetic function of the tissues that surround the spores directly aided the development of the specialized fertile segment. As the spore-bearing pinnae were elevated they pro- gressively required better support, -and as the consequent process of condensation proceeded the chlorophyll-bearing tissues were reduced in area and required better lighting that they might func- tion to the same effect. The tendency to satisfy this need cooper- ated with the need for better distribution of the spores to produce the remarkable height of the fertile segment. All students of the Ophioglossaceae call attention to the fact that among the ferns only these plants have a direct vascular supply to the sporangia. These distributing veinlets represent those that supplied the segments of the ancestral dorsi-ventral fertile pinnae. Their chief present function seems to be to supply the raw mineral solutions to the photo-synthetic tissues that surround the spores. Acceptance of the fused-pinnae theory of the origin of the fertile segment requires reconsideration of the form of the hypothetical ancestor of Botrychiuwm which is presented in PI. I, Fig. 2. A four- parted ancestral plant provides reasonable basis for the production of the sterile leaf of Botrychium; but in order to produce the blade and a fertile segment there must have been at least six divisions of the leaf of the ancestral plant. This is a number that is not produced in the normal process of dichotomy, and that fact led to further study of the vascular pattern of the mature fertile leaf. It was found that in large leaves the vein that supplies a basal 16 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES division of the blade sometimes has two connections with the vein of the petiole from which it arises. This indicates that crowding by associated plants which produced deep lateral shading has forced the original basal pinnae of the blade upward until they have fused with the next pair above to form the strong basal di- visions of the present plant. This fusion also accounts for the appearance of monopodial branching in these divisions of the blade. Several stages of the process by which the fusion was accomplished are so clearly shown in the vascular patterns of B. multifidum, B. matricariaefolium, and other species that the fact is indubitable. (These data will be presented in discussion of the species of Botry- chium.) In this way the conclusion is reached that there must have been eight divisions of the leaf in the ancestor of Botrychium. Pl. IJ, upper left insert, is a representation of such a plant, and shows the relation between its major divisions and the correspond- ing parts of Botrychium. If the fused-pinnae theory of the origin of the fertile segment is accepted a revision of terms used in description of the species should follow. Several that are in current use are definitely mis- leading. For example, to apply the word petiole to that part of the supporting stalk of these plants that lies between the insertion of the peduncle and the blade, or if that part is lacking to describe the leaf as sessile, is to imply that the peduncle is a part of the main axis of the leaf. The use in technical descriptions of terms that direct attention to the structural bases of taxonomic classifica- tion is not unimportant. The term dissected, as used in description of the blade of B. dissectum suggests a process exactly the opposite of that which produced the character to which it is applied. It is probable that its use long delayed perception of the obvious and exceedingly important dichotomous structure of the leaf. CLEARING PROCESS AND METHOD OF DISSECTION In primitive plants such as the Ophioglossaceae the patterns of venation of their leaves carry a significant record of phylogenetic history. For study in this field a satisfactory clearing process has several advantages over the usual process of sectioning. After washing place the fresh plants base upward in a test tube or similar receptacle. Cover with a 3 to 1 mixture of hydrogen peroxide and ammonia. Use some form of stopper or weight THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE LL which will allow gas to escape but will prevent any part of the plant from rising above the liquid. (An ordinary cylindrical olive bottle, in the metal cover of which several holes have been punched, is a convenient receptacle for the smaller specimens.) For average specimens clearing requires about an hour—more or less accord- ing to the size of the specimen and the strength of the reagent. When most of the chlorophyll has been removed pour off the liquid and fill the tube with alcohol. After an hour—when the specimen is sufficiently hardened—it may be drained, and arranged on a sheet of thin letter paper in such way as to avoid twisting or over- lapping of the parts. Roll with a test tube to secure complete con- tact with the paper and slightly to flatten the thicker parts. Cover with another sheet of smooth paper, and place between driers un- der pressure. Within an hour the specimen will dry and adhere to the paper upon which it was placed, and may be examined by transmitted light without removing it. For permanent preserva- tion the fragile specimen may be peeled from the paper and mounted between sheets of mica or plastic. If the specimens remain too long in the first bath contrasts are lost and essential tissues are destroyed. Recently dried specimens respond well to the process. It is slower and less satisfactory with old material, but herbarium specimens that were twenty years old have been cleared successfully. In leaves that are not fully grown the vascular structures are immature and the entire vascular pat- tern may not be shown. For study of the supply to the sporangia plants which are shedding their spores give best results. For study of Botrychiums of the subgenus Sceptridium it is pos- sible to expose the vascular bundles of the petiole and rachis for direct observation of their branchings and fusions. Follow the clearing process described above but harden in alcohol only long enough to permit handling of the specimen. Spread it on paper as in the clearing process, and roll lightly. With needle, tweezers and brush of stiff bristles remove about one-half of the tissues of petiole and rachis, exposing the vascular bundles. Slip a needle under the bundle at the base of the petiole and lift it free from surrounding tissues, smoothing them beneath it, and allowing it to fall back into place as the needle is moved toward the apex of the blade. Cover with thin smooth paper and dry under light 18 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES pressure. The specimen may be observed by both transmitted and reflected light. SUMMARY 1. The first small land plants in which no parts were far removed from contact with the soil could exist without vascular structures. As plants enlarged series of cells were modified to factilitate and control the flow of fluids to distal parts. As webbing enlarged the leaves and widened the marginal areas the same process that produced the veins caused them to fork in order to supply the needs of the new tissues. Thus the pattern of venation of the leaf was determined by successive stages in its development. With further enlargement of the leaves the basal and central parts of the leaf were chiefly useful as supporting parts, and the veins that passed through them functioned chiefly in the trans- mission of fluids between the rootstock and more remote parts; therefore they were little altered by environmental changes that brought considerable modification of the distal parts. Hence the supplying veins of the central and basal parts of the leaf reveal the primitive structure of the remote ancestors, while the pattern of the marginal distributing veins is the product of the life-processes of the plant of today. 2. Botrychium dissectum Spreng. in its adult stage shows more primitive characters than any other species of the Ophioglossaceae. Study of its vascular pattern by use of a clearing process reveals that it was derived from an ancestor whose branching was wholly dichotomous, through fusion of two median divisions of the an- cestral leaf. This vascular pattern is the basis of the vascular patterns throughout the family, and affords a means of tracing relationships all through the group. The ternate leaf, produced by this process of fusion by webbing, originated early in the phylogeny of the Filicales, and was the basis for the development of monopodial branching. 3. The vascular pattern of the fertile leaf of the Ophioglossaceae shows that the fertile segment originated from the elevation and fusion of two fertile pinnae of the ancestral plant. This course of development was the response to the special need for wide dispersal of spores in small plants that could not aggressively compete with more robust species but must find unoccupied ground. THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 19 Several stages and phases of the adaptive process by which the fertile segment was produced are discussed as to their relations with the life-history of the plants. LITERATURE CITED BOWER, F. O. 1896. Studies in the morphology of spore-producing members. London. 1923. The Ferns, vol. I. Cambridge Press. CAMPBELL, DOUGLAS H. 1907. Studies on the Ophioglossaceae. American Naturalist. 1940. The evolution of the land plants. Stanford University Press. CHRYSLER, M. A. 1910. The fertile spike in Ophioglossaceae. Annals of Botany, Vol. XXIV. 1926. Abnormalities in Botrychium and certain other ferns. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 1941. Structure and development of Ophioglossum palmatum. Bul. Tor. Bot. Cl. 1945. Variations and origin of Botrychium lanuginosum. Sept. Bul. Tor. Bot. Cl. 1945. The shoot of Botrychium interpreted as a series of dichotomies. Nov. Bul. Yor. Bot. :Cl. CLAUSEN, ROBERT T. 1938. A monograph of the Ophioglossaceae. Memoir of the Torrey Botani- cal Club, vol. 19. EAMES, ARTHUR J. 1936. Morphology of vascular plants. McGraw-Hill. ROEPER, J. 1859. Zur Systematik und natiirgeschicte der ophioglosseae. Bot. Zeit. ZIMMERMAN, W. 1930. Die Phylogenie der Pflanzen. Jena. 1938. Phylogenie. In Manual of Pteridology by F. Verdoorn. The Hague. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 15(1), 1952. 20 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MEMBERSHIP CATEGORIES Patrons — Who contribute $1,000 or more to the Academy. LirE Mempers — Who have given to the Academy $100 during any calendar year. SusTAINING MemMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $10.00 or more. ContTRIBUTING MemMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $7.50. REGULAR MemBEers — Who pay annual dues of $5.00. CoLLEGIATE MEMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $2.00 (restricted to col- lege students.) INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS — Which make annual contributions of $25.00 or more (or any amount set by the Council) to the Academy. GOOD BIOLOGICAL TEACHING MATERIAL CAN HELP PRODUCE “THE GOOD MAN.” Quintilian, a literary critic during the First Century, held that education, from the cradle upwards, is something which acts on the whole intellectual and moral nature, and whose object is the production of “the good man.” Most people will accept this. Therefore, since biological science plays such an important part in modern life, it is rational to expect that everybody study a great deal of biology, particularly, anatomy, botany, physiology, and zoology. And, since the modern microscope has done more than any other instrument of its size to enhance the better life, it is important that more and more people study the minute structures of animals and man. Otherwise, a normal outlook on life is impossible. Cytological, embryological, histological, neurological, parasito- logical and pathological preparations for classroom teaching and for research, and for the individual student and teacher can be supplied at the lowest possible prices. Workmanship, the best. For details, write to: The Agersborg Biological Laboratory Centralia, Illinois THE BIRDS OF WELAKA Gi E. NELSON, JR. University of Florida This paper presents the results of a study made at the University of Florida Conservation Reserve from June 1949 through June 1950. The Reserve is situated on the east side of the St. Johns River at Welaka, Putnam County, Florida. The purpose of the study was to list the birds found during a twelve-months’ period and to investigate the existing relationships between this avifauna and the major plant associations on the Reserve. Previous biological investigations were conducted on the Reserve by Friaut (1942), Frye (1941), Laessle (1942), McLane (1948), Moore (1946), Pierce (1941), Pournelle (1950), and others. The Conservation Reserve consists of an area of 2180 acres. It is roughly one and one-half miles wide from the east to the west boundary, the St. Johns River, and two and one-half miles long from north to south. Fish hatchery ponds are located at the north and south boundary. Numerous trails and fire lanes make all parts of the Reserve accessible. The vegetation units listed in this study are based on Laessle’s description of the plant communities of the area. I selected eleven associations and two communities as a basis for my investigation. These were: turkey oak, scrubby flatwoods, longleaf pine flatwoods, black pine flatwoods, slash pine flatwoods, bayhead, live oak ham- mock, mesic hammock, hydric hammock, river swamp, and marsh associations; and ruderal and aquatic communities. The term “live oak hammock” was used in place of Laessle’s “xeric hammock” as the former term seemed more descriptive for my purposes. Method of Obtaining Field Data Daily field trips were made of three to five hours duration. During this period several different associations were visited. Notes were recorded concerning the birds observed and the association in which they were found. At the end of five or six days of field work, representative portions of all the communities and associa- tions had been studied. A small bird collection was made, with emphasis on the birds about which there was any doubt as to subspecific identification. 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S/S ios |S fs SEIS lin) [O18 [y(t (penuyuos) | ATEWL B15 8 |p =e iB ie 5 ® 12 °o |g fe} Saale S 0, a THE BIRDS OF WELAKA P| | Ni penis ig? ee ak en wee ene aN ‘PS JsNsNY “VALJSAD VIIOMpPUaG ‘“IO[GIeAA AOTIOK Se | ie |e |e Ee ere ee MSG Eee aa REARS SU ‘CL PO-L Yor “DUYIWAWD DUDILWAWD DING ‘Ie{qieAA elnsieg * NE ito ulna ea rene St as ve "L YOU '14DJAO Y4Dj]aD DLOAULAA “IO|GIEAA POUA\OIO-9SULIO x |e | x * UNM a Sg een en ac ‘96-ST [dy ‘0g 1d9g ‘snwoanusaa sovayjUyay] *IO[GIe AA BUTYVO-ULIO AA a |x | # TN ae aE ete ‘O3-OT [dy ‘“6c-F1 4[n[ “valq10 DiwwjOU0JOIg ‘“JoTqQIeAA AreJOUOY}OIg | se fe | ae |e |e | bi aealaegl a/ WUNNG eae Ne Ga ce a ae ‘p API - OT AML “Vilna DyYop “IOTqIeAA OHI AA pue Yor[g | |e |e | oe | x eu atl etal ite ha hole okie: Se ae ea GREE Mat Shy GN ne rete ‘L PO-OT [Nady ‘snaovayo oanA ‘O2IlLA poto-poy | | NANG Se area eae ese ere aera ‘SZ OO ‘DIOIID SMLIDWYJOS OANA ‘OdTLA UENO | x we |e |e |e | we | om x Bir eeNU NAR Tente cee ote ane pn Set ‘Id [Mdy-%Z PO ‘snL}YOS sniuMWYOS OANA ‘OOTLA poproy-ontg x st KPa eS. tc. y ate ii ge Se Le "GT 1dog- GT [udy ‘suoufianyf oanA ‘Oo9ILA poyeoIY}-MoOT[IA Fle Nig eae oe a ‘1G Jeg ‘sisuaon10gaaou snasiuS CAMA ‘O9ILA Pokd-O}1Y AA UIOYIION st eI ee AD Meee laria| eels s e a la Deeg cee Pope anaes ng Ri ee ‘SNASLUG SNASIID OANA ‘OOILA PeAd-o}IYAA UOy Mos | | i A sal ies a Ie renee ig er ees eee i oF ‘snuDLOIaOpN] SnuUMIOIAOpH] smuD'T ‘oxXlIYS proysessoT # NUNN ite sts i ge ales Taras ‘8 GPH-O0S 990d ‘suadsaqns Dyajoulds snyjuy “ydIg UeolIouULy | fa lalalala lala lala lade | AAU ‘6G [MCV - ZL PO ‘“DiNpuajva Djnpuajpo snjnsay ‘yo|SuLy pouMor9-Aqny el) eels eae Pilerisateelid a. )a, cola he em toler ‘Da[niana vajnsana Mydoyog ‘s1eyoyeoyeusd AvIB-on[ se | i ot Sa ei eee RE a ar Gass et OMe Anh TR oe ar ‘SYDIS SYDIS DYDIG ‘prlqon{Tg Us19}sey we |e |e |e | we | leepetlemi lina alco eA WN cast ane ‘LG TMdy -66 PO. ‘woxp{ DIDYNs DJYOWO]AT ‘YsnIy], WusszT ussyseq a | # x |e |e | x gO aera ee elise 9 Bea NANG 2 Gere A IT as ‘T [Mdy-2 AON ‘snwoyusnU smsojDIsNUL snpIn]T, “UlgoY UIe\sey see pe |] See Soll Se [ea eel releases ie Si to Ko Wee WRC Reee Whirie: eet ce UME eee eta ‘un{ns wn{ns DULOJsOXOT, ‘IoYseIyy, UMOIg se | te |e |e fe fae fae |e | oe | | ies aie Wav WANNA SR Tee Gore ae ie ie ei 'p APIN - GG 1deg ‘sisuauyoWWO DYaJawNg ‘p1qyeD «| a | Ply eat ts Rectal ia tala ewe (s Meine eee ta ae eet Ng. cg etn Sess ‘soyojshjod soyojshjod snunwy “paqsuppoyw eee | UNGER cad eer ano ‘96-06 Ul ‘9g Ideg ‘snoDYI siuasnjDd SnsoYyjojs1yD ‘“UdIAA YsIeP OLIUeIg ale. Ne a ee ee "8G Id9g ‘sUASNyDd sLLasNyDd SNLOYIOISID “USIA\ YSIeJ PO[Iq-suoT #| falalalalalalals | se laseiceal Mlle ieee Cee Ore a Ce prea ‘SISUDULDIUL SNUDIOLAOpNY snsoyzohiyT, “USI,\ ePOTy we | # % | x | % |e |e | oe | | UNANGS &: Sot ae aos ‘py AVIAN -§ PO ‘UOpap Uopav sajhpojso.u [. ‘“UeIAA 9SnOP{ Uslo sey WN PERE s Cle ge be 2 Qe Alo |B jo (Silo |e je |e C= eee) folic A Fo iG Plo} |p) (mR I2 |e | Slee lal 218 lS (panurju0o) | ATaVL BIS 15 |= ER SE er ei lenl= ® |Z mal: : ar = or ~ Nn JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 26 aie ee WS AON - 8 ALTE “DINOSIND DJNISINb srjvOSMO “ePpPeID eplopy i. | | | Meek tie ee “LOLDUL SNUDIIXAUL XIPISSDD ‘OTYOVIg) poTie}-yeog ®, UNA Nasi a emery cat eer "9g Areniqey ‘snuyoiwos snxpydny ‘prqyoertg Aysny (Ngee: ise pee orate ae "6G Joquieydeg —“Djnq]Ds sniajOT ‘“e]OUQ s1oWInTeg bles vale Pale Nios Mana See es ae ‘snaowuaoyd smpjasy ‘“pilqyorlg posulM-poy Palio a Ms RG er Ge ‘DININGID DUSDUW DAUINIG ‘“yAIe[AOpeey, UIOy NOS ee (Nc eS RE eR te '6L At - 2 APN ‘snuoazhio xhuoyoyoq ‘yxuloqog : Nba espn on ier or nee ‘T [Mdy <‘snoisawop snoysawop sasspg ‘Moiredg Ysisuy Beer eee adore eae lene ee Eki IPI TT ne cee ‘0S APN - 06 THdy ‘ZI PO - 8s AIHL “BIplo1N4 DedYydo}dag *jAe\Spoy UOHIOWLY alle alee JIN [Sec picasa Ret Ginter Usa” Oi FR iene A ‘OL PO- PS SHY “VUILO DUOSIIAA “I9|GIe AA POPOOF{ ‘ folate secs Wd oae acne 17 Ae hot pe eo aes ‘DjOUs) SpYyIt} sidhjyjoay “yOIYI-MOTPX PPO A : Ae iaetlicen reales ae endl eal NON ERS NE SOREN Mg Sr Se YO ee ‘spYyoUly spy. sidhjyjoayy “yeOIYA-AoT[ex puvypAreyy : (Neeeancia: okt ae ‘PL [dy ‘syiqvjou sisuaopsoqaaou snumag ‘Ysniyy, 1oyeAA Ss [[ouulID \watcas: bead ches meee ORR ce oA A I ce Re ne Soe mEeN BEE Pa ody oe seule Ace e es -FL [Mdv ‘og des -GZ sny ‘sisuaopsoqaaou “u snumag “YsnIy], 10ye Ad ATS tay ee | ee oe a ‘T ABW - 0G IdV “13 FA “8G PO-T Ideg ‘sN{pIdDI0IND snumag “p1IIqUeAC EASELS SAR ae ean eae © ee ‘9 AON ‘vashsyoodhy wnivujod voio1puagq “re,qreAA Wye MOTJOX She : ‘ - é Ne RNIN ce cna as ‘LZ Edy -G6 PO ‘whnivwjod ‘d DOIOLpuaq “Ie[qIe AA Weg U19}SOA\\ . Plata ead ete lena wlels | INO 8S PO-Ts 41M ‘8G 1dy - ZG IRIN “40]09SIp ‘p DIIOApuad “IO[GIVAA STUeIG U1oy}ION - Pres lpres ere, eteey alles cls ide tee Saget es ae ee Fe Pe ‘DpLoye snujd DnOLpUag “IO[GIeA\ SUTG VPHOT J fleas A StINER OR kianr aot a. ee ‘6 AVIN- LG [EGY “DLs DIIOLpuaq “‘seTGIe AA [[Od-ypeTg , aes | Algo aa re leealimadels eer s e Roe ee Se ee ‘DIAUMUOP DIIUIWOP DIOLPUIG ‘IE|GIVAA PoyeOoIY}-MO TEX alle al Welt err lena lien asians (ANG eee ‘OL [Mdy - 13 QO 9 ‘“DJNU0LOD DJNUOLOD DIIOMPUaG “IETGIeAA AAAI, cll areal ee NERO Sm ees nate ‘9G [lady ‘[ idog ‘JsusIND SUadsSajNaDd DOIOApUagq ‘IeTqIeA\ suUIeD Wilem Niet rena guerra rcs en ea nO ee a eae ‘9G APN - 96 [Hdy | | ‘OL PO -T 3deg ‘suadsajnuaDd “9 DIIOMpUuag ‘IETqIeAA ONT _ poeyeo1y}-yxorlg WN N BIBS ISI Els els (se QE 12 lo |GlejosSiZia le ja | ye CRISIS lola A | Oo Blo) falc las /8./e]a/8 (SIs 4 ie : 3 B B ie = e (ponunyuos) T AWTAVL 5 5/3 |e Ba | 7 Bio |8 ® |< 8/5 8 ae S Ou ee Crem ie lec eencre | cy eccaulsLOe Nin =| 0 e | rewmnee | ag | OS ia eee aes 5 eee ie es sofoeds soqumu [e}0 J, COcn ie CUeedcr | eCONe STOR 0S) C00 1 OP lalse 1 | a68 a e6o Obie Or bale ye sdijy soquinu [P30], eee Wn | So ~ | See le (eo legos oe | S/he | sees te. | St a = a Bio SO) Ss 4 | S30 | Ss OR | @ wo, | te & = am Ce ees Soe eae ese edeseo =a 5 Sastre itch ales elias Sal a6 9S ey OES 59 oe Sohoct 2 |& | eee Pe | P es Belean NUNN ee eit ete eo 6 Yore - 6] uel ‘“pypojaw vypojaw vzidsojayy ‘Mox1edg suosg a jele|a| x eye is PNUNKNG oh crate 8g le ang gr 3 ae ‘T AN - LI PO ‘vunisucas vzidsojayy ‘MorIredg dureas ap ea fe & | x ING NNVE aes cea te oben "LE [dy -G AON ‘syjoo1g]D DiYyoLoUoZ, “MoIIedS poeyeorIy}-oFY AA, < ‘i ING Sls tare eae ee ee, eI ‘IZ Judy ‘ojisnd vypsnd pyazidg ‘moired ol I il ll PIERS) S Pek = Pale # ee UNIAN St Ps ker gin tee ‘GL [dy -G AON ‘Dutasspd putsasspd pyazidg ‘Moiredg suiddiyD = |e ¥ % és RoC Ne oti oa a a ‘IZ WdV-ZI PO ‘syvaysav syvarjsan DjYydouny ‘MOITedg spooA-sulg se INN Nees or ce aOR ET EB TE-P GH ‘Snaulwpis snaununis saja0a00g ‘Mo1edg 19dso/A Syealee Na Si gos ee ‘g uel “G6 AON ‘“DuUvaDS sisuayoIMpuDs snjnolasspg ‘MoIIedg YeuURAS cake geal icseal Se glee ae! al tec Re Le ee eg i pe ap ‘quay]D snuypyzydouyphsa opdig “s24MOJ, podo-o71Y Gees a Neto ae iors ee geese ale ley ieee|” SY NNG gear tan ene Se '§ AFI - PE PO ‘snwppyrydouyphua ‘a opdig ‘aaYMOT, pekoe-poy la] s r + og eed Sn aera eee ‘py SPIN - 03 IP ‘OT AON ‘8298112 SU4SLZ snindg =“Youyp{OD urSyseq | x rr VN ee aa i a aces re ok he G dog - 6% SNY ‘SIMO DULasspg “BuTUNgG poquleg cop ole S NG es ee Seat oe aah Roe ee hea a "6G 1940109 ‘vaupha puwasspg ‘surung OSIpu] on pe Bea ral ase Real Ge ae ae alnsaee eae lew y| das eae cc? Ge es ade ee eg ‘DUDPLOY SYDUIpLDD DuapuowYorYy ‘[eUIpIeD plop ca alee | pei seas eel gee [ak | a Ieee Ges: Saar eae eae: aie ge ‘GT 109g - GT [udy ‘piqns Diqns DSuDMg ‘IoBeUe], IoUTUINS lse AN surest cerca sees ab Aces ra wee cee aetae “Toquis0e(] *lajD 1ajD SNAYJO]JOPF ‘piIlqMoy uUso\sey |S a Pim Alnor |~ ele SEIS eee cles Sle ole (2/8 ele (ce SiS] Slca | Sle foe | B19 16/0 a) =|) o PO) ep) A at) 8./ 5.2/3] 2 |S | : SE la] [2 |e /Z2 (penunuos) | ATaAVL | |e 2 |B ae 8. |e/8 8 x = a. Lal n 28 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Birds Recorded at Welaka During the twelve-months period, 143 forms were recorded. Of these, 46 were permanent residents, occurring throughout the year; 22 were summer residents, breeding at Welaka but absent during winter; 87 were winter visitants, occurring only during winter; 36 were migrants, transient during spring or fall; and two were casuals. In Table I the presence of a species in a plant association is indicated by an “*”. In the first column the following abbreviations are used: PR—permanent resident, WV—winter visitant, SR—sum- mer resident, M—migrant, C—casual. RELATIONSHIP OF BirDsS TO PLANT ASSOCIATIONS In order to analyze the relationship of the bird species to the plant associations, it was necessary to determine the composition of the bird inhabitants in each association as well as the relative abundance of the species. A direct census was not practical because of the dense vegetation, therefore I used the frequency of occur- rence of each species. To calculate the frequency of occurrence of a species, the number of times the species was observed in an association was divided by the number of trips to the association (on a monthly basis). If the same species was observed more than once during the same visit it was still only counted one time. In this way the most noticeable birds were more likely to be given an equivalent value to the shy, retiring birds which nevertheless might be just as numerous. This method also indicated to some extent the relative numbers of individuals since there was more chance that an abundant species would be seen at least once during each trip than a less abundant species. It is desirable to make many trips into the field if this type of data is used. The tables of the monthly frequency of occurrences are not pre- sented because of their lengthiness. For purpose of comparison, it would seem desirable to separate the typical or characteristic bird inhabitants of each association from the birds which were found only a few times. No objective criterion was found by which this could be accomplished so that it was necessary to compare the total bird populations of each as- sociation. For plant names used in the following discussion, see Kelsey and , THE BIRDS OF WELAKA 29 Dayton (1942). Complete descriptions of the plant associations and communities used in this study and maps of the area are found in Laessle (1942). Birds of the Turkey Oak Association This association was composed predominately of turkey oak (Quercus laevis) with a scattering of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris). See Laessle (1942). A total of 50 bird species was recorded. The ten most frequently recorded species were Titmouse, Blue Jay, White-eyed Vireo, Summer Tanager, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Myrtle Warbler, Pine Warbler, Gnatcatcher, Red-bellied Wood- pecker, and Crested Flycatcher, respectively. The percentage of Turkey Oak bird species in common with the other associations is indicated as follows: Live Oak: Hammock _____ 86 per cent Hydric Hammock -_.._... 64 per cent longleak Pine So. penrccent. . Bayheadi 2 2 aes 62 per cent Stoshimiime; tk 78 per cent* River Swamp: > 60 per cent ‘SOLE oy a eee ee (Sper -eent — Black -Pime 22... 2 54 per cent Mesic Hammock __-._ MUL Dersecent: s Aquatica fas fen 304-7 30 per cent Fmrclerale Woke Fe HOnpereCent Wrancha gsi i) he ie ead 20 per cent Thus despite the distinctness of the Turkey Oak Association as a _ plant community, its bird population was shared with many other associations. The food and cover conditions were very poor, so that relatively few bird species were found constantly. A much larger number were observed sporadically which probably accounts for the close relationship to many other associations. The birds were often found in small groups which fed through the trees more or less as a unit. These groups usually contained Titmice, Chickadees, Gnatcatchers, Red-bellied Woodpeckers, Pine Warblers and Summer Tanagers. , No exclusive bird species were found in the association. Birds of the Scrubby Flatwoods Association Three species of small scrubby oaks formed most of this associa- tion. They were twin live oak (Quercus virginiana geminata), myrtle oak (Q. myrtifolia), and Chapman oak (Q. chapmani). The dense thickets formed by the scrubby oaks provided cover for a number of birds. A few scattered pines were present. A total of 44 bird species was recorded. 30 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The ten most frequently recorded species were White-eyed Tow- hee, White-eyed Vireo, Yellow-throat Warbler, Mockingbird, Cardinal, Blue Jay, Thrasher, Prairie Warbler, House Wren and Catbird, respectively. The percentage of Scrubby Flatwoods bird species in common with the other associations is indicated as follows: atunkey,: Oale (ee a ae 89° per cent “Bayhead’ ==> = ae 73 per cent Live Oak Hammock ___.- 89 per cent River Swamp _ 70 per cent BR AGLE Teeter e e eaenir et oa 86 per cent Hydric Hammock ____- 64 per cent Slash Pine 7250s a ss 84 per cent <° Black Pme 22338 59 per cent oneleate Piney =e. as 82 per cent Aquatica: = 3-2 aaa 389 per cent Mesic Hammock ____.___- 75 per cent —~ Marsh’... 3>2) eee 25 per cent Scrubby Flatwoods was usually found adjacent to Turkey Oak which partly accounts for the high percentage of species in common. Thus even shrub-dwelling birds, i.e., towhees, yellow-throat war- blers, thrashers, etc., were occasionally recorded in the edge of the Turkey Oak. The relationship to Bayhead was possibly due to the dense shrubby edge of the Bayheads. Here many birds were found which were also common to the Scrubby Flatwoods. No exclusive species of birds were found. Birds of the Longleaf Pine Flatwoods This association consisted of longleaf pines in scattered or dense stands and a dense shrubby understory. The flatwoods on the Reserve have not been burned for a number of years. A total of 53 bird species was recorded. The ten most frequently recorded species were Yellow-throat Warbler, Pine Warbler, White-eyed Towhee, Mockingbird, House Wren, Cardinal, Red-bellied Woodpecker, White-eyed Vireo, Cat- bird, and Florida Wren, respectively. The percentage of Longleaf Pine bird species in common with the other associations is indicated as follows: Live Oak Hammock ___.. Oi perucelt ae bay lead palsemessemae eae 62 per cent Slash bine ee Ss SEs 83 per cent River Swamp ___...... 62 per cent Turkey, Oak) a5 77 per cent Hydric Hammock __. 57 per cent Butera teok ees. ener ioaper cent +) .blacksPinet hes. eee 53 per cent Mesic Hammock ____. WOSper cent Aquatic es5 aes 41 per cent Scrubby Flatwoods __... 63 .peracent 4 Marshes 2 a5 serene 19 per cent The somewhat low correlation between Longleaf Pine and Black THE BIRDS OF WELAKA 31 Pine bird populations was unexpected since the vegetation was similar in the two associations. I feel that this was due not to the slight difference in vegetation but rather to the small size of the Black Pine area on the Reserve. All but two Black Pine bird species were found in Longleaf Pine Flatwoods but 23 Longleaf Pine bird species were not recorded in Black Pine. No exclusive bird species were found in this association. Birds of the Black Pine Flatwoods This association consisted of scattered black pine (Pinus serotina), slash pine (P. elliotti), and longleaf pine. The somewhat stunted understory was composed of fetterbush (Lyonia lucida), sawpal- metto (Serenoa serrulata), and gallberry (Ilex glabra). A total of 31 bird species was recorded. The ten most frequently recorded species were Yellow-throat Warbler, White-eyed Towhee, Mockingbird, Bobwhite, Pine War- bler, Cardinal, White-eyed Vireo, Flicker, Phoebe and Titmouse, respectively. The percentage of Black Pine bird species in common with those of the other associations is indicated as follows: Slasiiiseime: ees O3epen Cent. shayleadime cis. alle 81 per cent Live Oak Hammock. O8eperceent = Rugeralss.. 25 ees 81 per cent Hongleat Pine 2 90 per cent River Swamp —_... 74 per cent frunkey Oale” of 87 per cent Hydric Hammock ___ 68 per cent Scrubby Flatwoods ___. SA per Cent 2 eAguaticre: ier 1 mo 48 per cent Mesic Hammock __ SA per Gentis =. VMarsho eri ies dele ar 26 per cent All but two Black Pine bird species were found in Longleaf Pine and Slash Pine Flatwoods but the populations of each of the two latter areas were considerably larger than that of the Black Pine. Birds of the Slash Pine Flatwoods This type of flatwoods was found on slightly lower ground than the Longleaf Pine Flatwoods, although the two were sometimes difficult to distinguish from each other. Usually Slash Pine was found around flatwoods ponds and near the St. Johns River. The shrubby vegetation of sawpalmetto, gallberry, and waxmyrtle (Myrica cerifera) formed dense thickets in some areas; in others the understory was open and consisted mostly of broomsedges (Andropogon spp.). 32 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A total of 50 bird species was recorded. The ten most frequently recorded species were White-eyed Vireo, Pine Warbler, Cardinal, Yellow-throat Warbler, White-eyed Towhee, Summer Tanager, Catbird, Florida Wren, House Wren, and Titmouse, respectively. The percentage of Slash Pine species in common with those of the other associations is shown below: Live Oak Hammock __- 90: per cent. “Ruderal) {See 74 per cent Monvleat ckine = esune 88-per cent Bayhead’ =) ee 70 per cent Mesic Hammock ___..- 80 per cent Hydric Hammock ___ 60 per cent ibttnkey xO aks seen he eres 78 per cent » Black*Pme == 322 58 per cent River: |Swainip yes. 16. per cent: \-Aquatic 7 ae 38 per cent Scrubby Flatwoods ___ (4 per cént.. (Marsh; 2. eee 22 per cent The variety of habitat conditions for birds, i.e., thickets, open areas, and numerous trees, attracted many birds. As in the Live Oak Hammocks, this resulted in a high number of species in com- mon with a number of other associations. No exclusive species of birds occurred. Birds of the Bayhead Association This association occurred in depressions in the flatwoods and was dominated by broad-leaved evergreen trees. The character- istic trees were loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), swampbay (Persia palustris), and sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana). The edge of the bayheads consisted of dense shrubby vegetation. The in- terior had practically no understory because of the dense tree canopy. A total of 41 bird species was recorded. The ten most frequently recorded species were White-eyed Vireo, Catbird, Yellow-throat Warbler, Cardinal, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Florida Wren, Blue Jay, Pine Warbler, White-eyed Towhee and Thrasher, respectively. The percentage of Bayhead bird species in common with those of other associations is shown as follows: Live Oak Hammock ___. 88 per cent Hydric Hammock ____. 76 per cent IVersowaimp 28S. 8! oe 89. per'cent., Turkey Oak 22) sae 76 per cent Slash Pine: 2022s 85) per cent Ruderalt sees oe eee 73 per cent Mesic Hammock _...____. 6or per cent) ) Black Pine, == sss eae 61 per cent Moncleat Pines 8) ss S80) per-cent) S Aguaticy = maan ees 37 per cent S(O}: me ee ee ee Zo-per cent | >Narsiai cesses oes 24 per cent THE BIRDS OF WELAKA 33 The peculiar habitat conditions found in Bayheads, i.e., shrubby edge and highly shaded interior, is reflected by the above per- centages of species in common. For example, the similar relation- ship to the two very different communities, River Swamp and Slash Pine. No exclusive bird species recorded. Birds of the Live Oak Hammock Association Live oak (Quercus virginiana) and numerous shrubs character- ized this plant community. Some of the typical shrubs were myrtle oak, Chapman oak, farkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum), beautybush (Callicarpa americana), and dwarf sumac (Rhus copal- lina). The small oaks formed numerous scattered thickets. A total of 67 bird species was recorded. The ten most frequently recorded species were White-eyed Vireo, Titmouse, Parula Warbler, Cardinal, Red-bellied Wood- pecker, Pine Warbler, Gnatcatcher, White-eyed Towhee, Yellow- throated Warbler, and Prairie Warbler, respectively. A comparison of Live Oak Hammock species with those of the other associations showed the following relationships: ibonglear Pine 2b #2oper cents — River, Swamp =. iss. 57 per cent RMU Clenaligee es) hat 7 per cent- Hydric Hammock ——_ 55 per cent Mesic Hammock ____. GO pemicent |e bayhcadse 2 t= oD 54 per cent Slashwrine =e. Fg 2: Giiaper cent), ~ black Pimcges 2S asi 43 per cent phumnkeya @ake i.e 2 GAMpeE Cents Ne uiatice sssvulime dea: Ye 34 per cent Scrubby Flatwoods ____... DSmpeIGemty ye NianSla., sweeter els ee 15 per cent Live oak hammocks were apparently the most suitable bird habitats on the Reserve. Food and cover conditions here seemed more conducive to bird life than in any of the other associations. Not only were the highest number of different species found but also the greatest number of individuals, according to my data. Since tree-inhabiting and shrub-inhabiting birds were well repre- sented, Live Oak Hammocks had many bird species in common with other associations. Exclusive species were Hummingbird, Orange-crowned Warbler, Baltimore Oriole, and Field Sparrow. Birds of the Mesic Hammock Association This association had many plants common to the Live Oak Hammocks but the vegetation was much denser. Some of the 34 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES characteristic trees were southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), American holly (Ilex opaca), water oak (Quercus nigra), and live oak. Thick stands of saw palmetto were usually present. A total of 52 bird species was recorded. The ten most frequently recorded species were Parula Waiblen White-eyed Vireo, Titmouse, Cardinal, Florida Wren, Thrasher, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Red-eyed Vireo, Crested Flycatcher, and Yellow-throated Warbler, respectively. A comparison of the birds of this association with those of the other associations showed the following percentage of species in common: Live Oak Hammock ____. 88 per cent ’ Bayhead ==] 2-3 oes 65 per cent River, Swamp. 22. we 79 per -cent~ > -Ruderaly ee 65 per cent Slash=Pine = serve toe 77 per cent ° Scrub: 08. ae 63 per cent Hydric Hammock — 73-per cent (Black, Pine Saas 50 per cent oneleate bine see anen (i per cent. Aquatic: == ae 29 per cent thorkeyc@al as 22ers 67-per. cent: - i Matsh“! "oe 19 per cent The only exclusive species was Yellow Warbler, but this was the only record for the year. Birds of the Hydric Hammock Association This poorly drained hammock formed a narrow strip between the River Swamp and Mesic Hammock. The characteristic trees were water oak, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto). Characteristic shrubs were a large gall- berry (Ilex coriacea) and patches of saw palmetto. A total of 43 bird species was recorded. The ten most frequently recorded species were Cardinal, Parula Warbler, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Florida Wren, Red-eyed Vireo, White-eyed Vireo, Myrtle Warbler, Titmouse, Red-bellied Wood- pecker and Pileated Woodpecker, respectively. A comparison of the Hydric Hammock bird species with those of the other associations showed the following relationships: Wiesies Hanimock = as 88 per cent~ Longleaf Pine ______ 70 per cent Live Oak Hammock ___. 86 per, Gent «Scrub see oe ee 67 per cent River fomvalnip! (sass 64 ‘percent ~~ Rudérals 24 | Soe ee 60 per cent uirkeysOak. i 0 ee v4Ayper cent black Pine: =eaeaees AQ per cent Bay NEA asia e a Ot 2 ‘percent, -Aquaties = 2 oi 2 aeuses 25 per cent Siash sbine Ab 2 eee, U2 Sper cent \ Marsh se Os Beene 23 per cent THE BIRDS OF WELAKA 35 This association was poorly defined since its borders between Mesic Hammock and River Swamp were seldom distinct. Rusty Blackbirds were found exclusively in Hydric Hammock, but were present only during a short period. Birds of the River Swamp Association This association formed large areas along the St. Johns River. Characteristic trees included bald cypress (Taxodium distichium), swamp tupelo (Nyssa biflora), red maple (Acer rubrum), and cab- bage palmetto. Characteristic shrubs included buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), a willow (Salix longipes), and wax myrtle. Numerous vegetation-filled creeks ran through the area. A total of 51 bird species was recorded. The ten most frequently recorded species were Cardinal, Parula Warbler, Florida Wren, Red-eyed Vireo, Pileated Woodpecker, Titmouse, Gnatcatcher, Myrtle Warbler, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, and Red-bellied Woodpecker, respectively. A comparison of the River Swamp bird species with those of the other associations showed the following relationships: Mesias tHanmrmock < e Tirnovo ) f $ ie =s5 ke Sofi SHIPKA \ == / ofiy ase Bure = f TUNDZHA’ MODERN BOUNDARY CHANGES OF =| f BULGARIA (otter 8H. Sumner) y? ——""= Proposed by the Treaty of San =| 7 ; Mu, Stefano (1878) D —= =" Treaty of Berlin (1878) RIN F \ Plovdiv. sues Bulgarian Claims during First (Philippopolis) Balkan War (1912) ok Kharmanlii —— Treaty of Bucharest (19/3) 7 E) Wy, J Edirne Si : UF ARDA (Adrianople) v 5 : d BOSPORUS y ————— en elanaulh 5 fan @ i>, =e \\— = ry ont, gq purres,Tirand Okhrida Z ' Se 5 . mm | 5 A Oo CZ MARNE Thessalonike (@) (-2 6 S Q c=] SEA (— on aS Oo Ds e~ Cs Ke MAP OF = Os a A Ee BULGARIA = © e (After Stieler& Goode) Ns € & 0 Schbe oF MULES 8 C~) (4 RELIEF A : 0 POOGO5,000 Feet Mm" Political Boundaries PN 1000 “ “Hetty Railroads 500 is Marshes * | °, = Sea Level = SROLe GEOGRAPHIC FACTOR IN THE HISTORY OF BULGARIA AQ from Asia Minor who brought along a number of agricultural tech- niques such as the rose culture for the production of attar of roses. Certain Bulgarian elements have accepted Mohammedanism, just as earlier the nation embraced the form of Christianity of nearby Constantinople. The Mohammedan Bulgars known as Pomaks in- habit mostly the Rodopi region and conflicts between them and the Orthodox Bulgars in recent times have presented some unpleasant pictures of wanton cruelty and destruction. The main factor that has influenced the history of the country, however, is not found among the internal geographic conditions. It is really Bulgaria’s relationship to the Straits which governed its destiny in the past and is going to govern it in the future. The Straits have been one of the most contested territories in Europe. The narrowness of the water, the fast outflowing current, and the convenient hills along the shores, render the Straits easily controll- able from the land. On the other hand the very same narrowness of the water makes this an ideal crossing place. Thus next to the unbroken Pontic and Asiatic steppes, Asia Minor and Thrace formed the most important land bridge between the Orient and Europe. The Bulgarians therefore could not have determined their own history. Their local resources were insufficient to allow them to conquer and control the Straits. Only beyond the Balkan mountains could they maintain themselves during periods of foreign domina- tion. Here they were protected by mountains in the south and the great Danube on the north, which, with its marshy northern shore, was the only common boundary of all Bulgarian empires. But even here the Deli-orman was settled by Turks, not the horticul- turalists who settled in the south, but mostly shepherds bringing their flocks along from the dry Anatolian plateau. Bulgarian empires rose twice in the past. In both instances the struggle for the control of the outer defenses of the Straits engaged the main energies of the Byzantine empire. As soon as these had been secured, at least temporarily, and the Byzantines had recuper- ated their strength, with or without the aid of outsiders, the Bulgars were challenged by Constantinople and their power broken. The inherent weakness of Byzantium and good diplomacy were responsible for the utilization of outsiders for the purpose of checking the Bulgars. Such was the invitation to the Hungarians in the 10th, and the Kiev Russians in the 11th century to attack the Bulgars from the north. These power politics did not bring 50 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES about always the desired results as in the case of Syyetoslav who proved to be a more dangerous ally than the Bulgars were foes. Just before the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the growing Danubian power Hungary expanded and Bulgaria was reduced to a vassal status. Unfortunately, the intransingence of Louis the Great and his hostility towards the Oriental Christianity precluded a peaceful consolidation of the Danube basin with the Morava- Vardar-Sofiya-Maritsa corridors. Similarly, the Serbian empire of Stephen Dushan which defeated the Bulgar-Greek alliance and made Bulgaria an “allied state” did not suit the Bulgars, especially since it included much of the territory of the two Bulgar empires lying west of Struma and Timok valleys. All of these made an effective common defense against the Turks impossible and one by one these countries were conquered by Islam. Again the proximity and accessibility to the Straits explain why it was Bulgaria that fell first and regained her independence last. With the Turkish invasion land power conquered the Straits and has held it since that time. The history of modern Bulgaria is even more involved but still it revolves around the Straits. The consolidation of powers in Europe produced a few, but very powerful, protagonists. First the sea power of Great Britain, to whom the Mediterranean became a life line. But to France too the Mediterranean was a life line and even Italy considered it “Mare Nostrum’”. At the same time two young rising land powers appeared on the scene. One was Russia, which was in desperate need for an outlet to the sea. Hemmed in by ice on its long northern shore, save inac- cessible White Sea ports, blocked by the Skagerrak and Kategat at the Baltic and bottled up in the Black Sea by the Bosporus, Russia had to make a choice. No one can fight the Arctic ice, to the west she faced Europe, so her choice was expansion towards the south. That meant an attempt to conquer Constantinople. The second power was Imperial Germany, well organized, ef- ficient and ambitious. Gaining unity too late for colonial expansion and not trusting her own naval development too highly, she decided on a peaceful land penetration of the Orient. The outcome of her “Drang nach Osten” policy was the ambitious project of building the Berlin-Baghdad railroad, which of necessity had to lead through Sofiya. In between these conflicting geopolitical sectors lay two empires which in a 400 year’s struggle have succeeded in bleeding each other to death: Austria-Hungary and Turkey. The immediate GEOGRAPHIC FACTOR IN THE HISTORY OF BULGARIA 51 problem was the Slav pressure on both of them. Russia, the de- fender of Slavs and of Orthodoxy, was just as dangerous a foe of Austria-Hungary on the first account as of Turkey on the second. It was therefore to their mutual advantage to strengthen each other. But it was too late. Had they realized this fact 200 years ago history may have been different. Fortunately, the dynamic powers could not agree what to do with these two sick men of Europe. They all agreed not in so many words, that the best solution would be for no dynamic power to control the Straits and not to disturb the status-quo in the Danube area. Nationalism, however, was rampant. Thus the next step was to use local patriotism for the selfish interests of the great powers. Bulgaria became a pawn in the hands of Russia. She gained her religious independence first, and the Bulgarian Exarchate was re- established. This was followed by the independent Great Bulgaria of the treaty of San Stefano which expanded her boundaries to almost the limits of the Empire of Simeon. This was too an overt threat to the Straits and all the powers convened to draw up a new treaty. The treaty of Berlin practically nullified the treaty of San Stefano. Bulgaria was reduced to the Danube Foreland and the Sofiya basin. Inner Thrace was renamed East Rumelia and was to be governed by a Christian governor general under Turkey. This was a rebuke to Russia. The major part of the Dobrudzha was handed to Rumania for her aid in liberating Bulgaria. (See Inset) Russia, suffering a diplomatic defeat, shifted her interest to the Serbs in order to deal with Austria-Hungary directly and this re- sulted in the reorientation of Bulgaria towards the Danubian countries. In the first Balkan War Bulgaria hoped to regain Mace- donia but the conflicting demands based upon historic and rather dubious ethnic grounds resulted in a fight between the allies in which Bulgaria lost most of her conquest and which left her dis- satisfied and revengeful. Like once before, in World War I, she allied herself with the power controlling the Straits against the Serbs. Again she lost. ‘With the ascendance and economic recuperation of Nazi Germany Bulgaria became an economic colony of the Reich. The hope of regaining her lost territories made her join Germany and she lost again. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ol bo Through the Teheran and Yalta agreement the USSR gained a free hand in the Balkans and Bulgaria is now under complete Russian domination. Too late have the western powers realized what it meant to let the Russians march into Sofiya. Thus now Greece and Turkey, after having been “marshalled”, have been in- cluded into the North Atlantic Pact in order to protect them against the expansion of a land power more threatening than any other of the past. Here, however, a question has to be raised concerning the im- portance of the Straits in an atomic air age! The tremendous stra- tegic significance of the Straits in the past is undeniable, but isnt their importance still being measured in terms of ships and cannons rather than airplanes and A-bombs? With India’s independence the Mediterranean ceases to be a life line for Britain even in peace times. It wasn't much of a life line during the past war! Thus the threat is more of an ideological nature. One phase of that Pan- Slavism is threatening Europe; the other, communism, threatens the capitalistic system. Thus the issues involved have outgrown even the importance of the straits themselves and now the fate of Bulgaria has become inseparably linked with a conflict world wide in its scope, the struggle between the East and the West. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 15(1), 1952. THE FUNCTION OF MAST CELLS A METHYLCHOLANTHRENE-INDUCED “MASTOCYTOMA”! PERIHAN CAMBEL According to the available literature, Sabrazes and Lafon (1908) were the first authors to report a tumor composed of mast cells. They observed this orange-sized tumor in the injured upper lip of a horse. Schreus (1924) made the first record of a skin nodule composed of mast cells in a white mouse which had been painted with a neutral tar oil for three and a half months. Fabris (1927) called attention to similar subcutaneous, but multiple mast cell nodules in mice which had been intermittently exposed to fine pulverized tar in an enclosed atmosphere for several months. He coined the term “mastocytoma’” for these lesions. Three years later, Twort and Twort (1930) described an increase in mast cells in the skin of mice painted with carcinogenic agents (tar and oils). Among four thousand induced tumors they observed a “diffuse infiltrative condition” of mast cells in various internal organs following tar application. They considered this condition the cause of death of mouse No. 21079. Mastocytic skin infiltration and “granulomas” were noted in mice by De Vinyals (1931) during and after tar painting. Lignac (1930-32) observed in two out of fifty-four mice exposed repeatedly to benzol a “benzol leukemia” accompanied by a mast cell infiltration. The term “mastocytoma” came into wider circulation after Bloom’s (1942) excellent description of mast cell nodules composed of “neoplastic mast cells” in dogs. Deringer and Dunn (1947) discovered five cases of “mast-cell neoplasia” in mice (strains ALF and LA-ABC) from an experiment originally designed to study the incidence of renal disease and amyloidosis. These authors state that “reports on the autonomous growth of cells characterized by basophilic granules are infrequent’. Therefore, a subcutaneous “mastocytoma” associated with a fibro- sarcoma in a Swiss Albino mouse painted with 20-methylcholan- threne will be reported. The tumors were observed in the course * A contribution from the Cancer Research Laboratory, University of Florida and the Anatomy Department, Cancer Research Division, Washington University School of Medicine. Supported by Cancer Research Grant C-976 from the U. S. Public Health Service and a Grant from the American Cancer Society, Inc. 54 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of an experiment that had been set up for the study of epidermal carcinogenesis. Numerous mast cells were seen in the tissues around the tumors. Mast cells were also seen in the fibrosarcoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS Seventy-five Swiss Albino mice from the Albino Farms, aged 5 to 6 weeks, were painted 3 times in one week, with a 0.6 per cent benzene solution of 20-methylcholanthrene (MC) with 3 strokes of a No. 4 camel hair brush on the shaved dorsal skin. They were fed Purina laboratory chow and tap water ad libitum. Fifteen mice out of this group were observed for 18 months after which 14 were sacrificed, and one showing two peculiar growths on the dorsal skin died from a general infection. The tissues of this mouse were fixed in Bouin’s fluid and chilled S0 per cent ethanol. The skins and stomachs of MC-painted and non-treated control mice were fixed in chilled 80 per cent ethanol. The alcohol fixed tissues were dehydrated and cleared in the cold room at 4°C., and embedded in vacuo. Paraffin sections cut at 7m were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, Van Gieson, and Toluidine Blue O. The alkaline phosphatase (AP) reaction was carried out on ethanol-fixed material by Gomori’ (1941) method, and the periodic-acid-Schiff reaction (PAS) according to McManus (1948) on ethanol and Bouin fixed materials. CasE REPORT A tumor appeared under the skin in the dorsal lumbar region of the mouse approximately 138 months after the paintings. It grew rather rapidly at first and then remained stationary for about 3 months until the death of the animal. During this period it slowly developed a central delling due to ulceration of the covering skin in the center of the tumor. At autopsy, the mouse (20 g. body weight) showed bilateral sup- purative panophthalmia, four lung adenomas (one in each lower lobe and 2 in the left upper lobe), a slightly mottled hyperemic liver, enlarged spleen, markedly dilated stomach with atrophic glandular mucosa, brownish coloration of the cortex of the adrenals, absence of the thymus, and two tumors of the dorsal lumbar skin. The large tumor was partly covered with hairy skin, and had a central ulcerated delling involving skin and tumor. The ulcer was THE FUNCTION OF MAST CELLS 55 covered with a bloody crust. The tumor measuring 1.9 x 1.3 x 1.5 cm. was of firm, fish-flesh-like consistence and of whitish color on its cut surface. The second tumor, barely visible as a lentil-like elevation under the hair-covered skin, was located craniad of the former. It was whitish and firm, lying as a minute nodule in the corium. It was evident that the first tumor was a subcutaneous sarcoma. The second tumor could not be identified without histological examination. Microscopic observations.—The lungs showed bronchopneumonia, abscesses, typical adenomas and rare disintegrating mast cells. A necrotizing hepatitis with accompanying small granulomas was found. Bacteria were seen in the portal vein branches. The spleen contained numerous, megakaryocyte-like, uni- and multi- nuclear giant cells, occasional neutrophil leucocytes in the pulp, and mast cells in the capsule. The spleen pulp showed diffuse, irregular necroses, and the kidney a nephrosis in the Henle loops and the tubuli recti. Numerous mast cells were observed in the ovary and some under the uterine mucosa. The glandular stomach showed slight atrophy and gastritis, and the forestomach papillary excresences. The number of mast cells in the stomach wall seemed slightly decreased. Diagnosis: Bacterial toxemia. The large tumor was composed of interlacing bundles of fusi- form cells. It contained wide blood spaces lined only with a thin endothelial cell layer (Fig. 1, E). The tumor also contained meta- chromatic mast cells (Fig. 1, D) which decreased in size (0.6-1.2,) and disintegrated toward the central and deeper parts of the malignant growth. Larger mast cells varying from 1.2 to 1.8 in length and large scatterings of extracellular metachromatic granules (Fig. 2) were seen in the corium around the tumor which was infiltrating the skin muscle. Gram-positive bacteria were found on the tumors ulcerated surface which was covered with a PAS- positive fibrin layer. No basement membrane could be distin- guished under the epidermis in the PAS-sections. The corium and the cytoplasm of all its cells and its intercellular cement, the ground substances of the tumor, and portions of the plasma in the blood spaces were PAS-positive. No mitotic figures (ana-, meta-, and telophases) were noted. Histological Diagnosis: Fibrosarcoma. The small, metachromatic tumor (Fig. 1, A) consisted of large, irregular cells with apparently anastomosing processes. They con- 56 JOURNAL’ OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SES: Fig. 1—(A) Neoplastic mast cells with intensely metachromatic granules. x 165. (B) Mastocytoma seen as flat metachromatic nodule. > 5. (C) Nega- tive alkaline phosphatase reaction in mastocytoma. X 5. (D) Fibrosarcoma with intensely metachromatic mast cells of various sizes. X 120. (E) Fibrosar- coma with blood spaces. X 120. tained purple granules in their sometimes vacuolated, blue cyto- plasm. The granules sometimes masked the spherical nuclei (0.36- 0.72). The tumoral mast cells ranged from 1.8 to 3.0u in length in which they exceeded the mast cells (0.6-1.24) found ordinarily under the epidermis in mice, and those around the fibrosarcoma, but not those located closely around the metachromatic tumor. THE FUNCTION OF MAST CELLS of Although the mast cells around and in the fibrosarcoma gave a positive AP-reaction, the neoplastic mast cells and the mast cells adjacent to the metachromatic nodule were AP-negative (Fig. 1, C). The PAS-reaction was slightly positive in the cytoplasm, in the nuclei and in some granules of the neoplastic mast cells. Histo- logical Diagnosis: Mastocytoma. Fig. 2.—Extracellular granular shedding of mast cells in subcutaneous connective tissue around fibrosarcoma. (A) Areal distribution of metachromatic granules. (B) Linear type of distribution of metachromatic mast cell granules. X 500. DIscussION Although Schreus (1924), Fabris (1927), and De Vinyals (1931) observed nodular “mastocytomas’ after experimental tar exposure, and others of unknown etiology have been reported by Deringer and Dunn (1947), no mastocytoma traceable to treatment with MC or other pure carcinogenic hydrocarbons was encountered in the literature reviewed. However, mast cell infiltrations were noted by Cramer and Simpson (1944) in the skin of mice treated with MC, and in rat sarcomas induced by MC and benzpyrene by Holmgren and Woblfart (1947). Cloudman (1941) states that spon- taneous fibrosarcomas are not observed frequently in mice, although, in our experience, they can be induced occasionally by skin paint- ing with carcinogens, and Strong (1950) has induced them by subcutaneous injection of MC. An intense mast cell reaction with many, often diffusely spread, extracellular mast cell granules (Fig. 2) was observed around the fibrosarcoma. Mast cells penetrated 58 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES into the tumor, becoming smaller and scarcer toward its central portion in accordance with the findings of Holmgren and Wohlfart (1947) in experimental rat sarcomas. Paff and Bloom (1949) have shown that mast cells in tissue cultures possess ameboid movement and a secretory cycle which involves the shedding of metachromatic granules and ends with cell death. These properties were confirmed by Cambel et al. (1952) who presented evidence for mast cell migration from the gastric wall into the stomach lumen, and for a secretory cycle of the mast cells which is completed in the glandular mucosa and the gastric lumen of rats. These authors employed the term gastric mast cell diapedesis to designate this migration, because Tomenius (1947) and previous authors defined the wandering of leucocytes through the gastric wall as leucocytic diapedesis. Because the mast cells and their extracellular granules were seen in greatest numbers around the fibrosarcoma presented here, and because they became scarcer and smaller toward the tumor center, as shown also by Holmgren and Wohlfart (1947), it is assumed that tumor diapedesis of mast cells also occurs. To judge from their smaller size and their gradual disintegration in the tumor tissue, and their complete absence in the center of the blastoma, it is also assumed that they end their secretory cycle in the tumor tissue. Tumor diapedesis and the related secretory cycle could, therefore, explain apparently uneven distribution of mast cells around and in tumors, as well as their absence in others; facts which have caused controversy (Holm- gren and Wohlfart, 1947; Bali and Furth, 1949). Cramer and Simpson (1944) launched the concept of the role of the mast cell in the defensive mechanism against MC-induced epidermal carcinogenesis. The view that the mast cel! contributes by means of its heparin secretion to the formation of mucopolysac- carides is supported by the investigations of Holmgren and Wilander (1937), Jorpes (1946), and Oliver, Bloom and Mangieri (1947). By means of polymerization, polysaccarides could be formed from heparin which is a disaccharide -containing chondroitin sulfuric acid (Jorpes, 1946) since it has been suggested by Larsson and Sylven (1947) that metachromatic granules of the mast cells “are delivered to the skin in order to restore its content of labile sul- phurous compounds.” A relatively light PAS-reaction was found in the nuclei, cyto- plasm, granules, and intercellular cement of the blastomatous mast THE FUNCTION OF MAST CELLS 59 cells. We assume that the PAS-reactive material of mast cells varies in intensity of reaction and distribution at different phases of the secretory cycle, becoming scarce or absent upon liberation from the cells. It seemed as if the mast cells in and around the _mastocytoma had partly liberated their PAS-positive material be- cause the reaction was not intense or uniform. However, the reaction was intense in the ground-substance of the fibrosarcoma which did not show mitotic figures. Also, the tumor remained stationary after a certain period of growth without causing a marked decrease in weight of its host. Heilbrunn and Wilson (1949) showed that heparin inhibits mitosis in fertilized chaetoptera and frog eggs. Mucopolysaccharides used by Shear (1944) in the treatment of tumors had a cytotoxic effect on the neoplasms. Heil- brunn and Wilson (1950a, 1950b) found that Shear’s bacterial polysaccharides also prevented cell division and prevented fertiliza- tion. Furthermore, the bacterial polysaccharide prevented mitotic gelation in protoplasmic viscosity tests. Therefore, in accordance with Heilbrunn’s theory on mitotic gelation, it is presumed that the PAS-reactive polysaccharides found in the fibrosarcoma checked the growth of the tumor in spite of its histological malignancy by preventing the formation of mitotic figures. They may have derived partly from the mast cells during tumor diapedesis. The mast cells participating in this diapedesis were probably both histogenous and neoplastic mast cells. The wandering tumoral mast cells could be distinguished from other mast cells in the corium by their larger size. The mast cells decreased in size during tumor dia- pedesis. None of neoplastic size were found in the fibrosarcoma. The large neoplastic mast cells in and around the mastocytoma were AP-negative while the other mast cells around and in the fibrosarcoma were AP-positive. Mast cells in non-treated mice were found AP-positive by: Montagna and Noback (1948) and the present author (Cambel, to be published). Riley and Drenhan (1949) found that in the mouse and in the rat only a proportion of mast cells contained granules which gave a positive AP-reaction. Therefore, we believe with these authors that two functional states of the mast cells as shown by the AP-reaction exist during their secretory cycle. | In view of the reports in the literature and our personal observa- tions it seems that the mast cells are capable of tumor diapedesis and are concerned in a defensive reaction against tumor growth. 60 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES By shedding their metachromatic substance into the surrounding tissues, they may supply these with heparin or related substances. These could be polymerized into polymucosaccarides able to counteract tumor growth. The mastocytoma adjacent to the fibro- sarcoma may have originated in response to an overstimulation or tumorigenic incitement of the histogenous dermal mast cells. SUMMARY A case of subepidermal fibrosarcoma with an adjacent masto- cytoma induced by 20-methylcholanthrene in a Swiss Albino mouse is presented. Histochemical studies in mice seem to indicate that mast cells may show different functional phases during the secretory cycle. The role of these cells in a mechanism checking tumor growth by means of tumoral diapedesis and granular shedding is discussed. REFERENCES BALL T., and FURTH, J. 1949. A transplantable splenic tumor rich in mast cells. Observations on mast cells in varied neoplasms. Amer. J. Path., 25: 605-625. BLOOM, F. 1942. Spontaneous solitary and multiple mast cell tumors (“Mastocytoma”) in dogs. Arch. Path., 33: 661-676. CAMBEL, P., CONROY, C. E., and SGOURIS, J. T. 1952. Gastric mast cell diapedesis in the albino rat. Science, in press. CLOUDMAN, A. M. 1941. Spontaneous neoplasma in mice. In Snell’s Biology of the laboratory mouse. The Blakiston Co., Philadelphia. pp. 203-204. CRAMER, W., and SIMPSON, W. L. 1944. Mast cells in experimental skin carcinogenesis. Cancer Res., 4: 601-616. | DERINGER, M. K., and DUNN, T. B. 1947. Mast cell neoplasia in mice. J. Nat. Cancer Inst., 7: 287-298. De VINYALS, R. R. 1931. Les “mastzellen” dans le cancer expérimental de Ja souris blanche. Compt. Rend. Soc. de Biol., 108: 177-179. FABRIS, A. | 1927. Pathologica, 19: 157. Cit. by Bloom. GOMORI, G. 1941. The distribution of phosphatase in normal organs and tissues. J. Cell. a. Comp. Physiol., 17: 71-83. THE FUNCTION OF MAST CELLS 61 HEILBRUNN, L. V., and WILSON, W. L. 1949. The effect of heparin on cell division. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. a. Med., 70: 179-182. 1950a. Effect of bacterial polysaccharide on cell division. Science, 112: 56-57. 1950b. The prevention of cell division by anti-clotting agents. Proto- plasma, 39: 388-399. HOLMGREN, H., and WILANDER, O. 1937. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Chemie und Funktionen der Ehrlichschen Mastzellen. Ztschr. f. mikr. anat. Forsch., 42: 242-278. 1947. Mast cells in experimental rat sarcomas. Cancer Research, 7: 686- 691. FORBES. J.-H: 1946. Heparin. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, London. pp. 31-36. LARSSON, L. G., and SYLVEN, B. 1947. The mast cell reaction of mouse skin to some organic chemicals. II. The effect of common organic solvents. Cancer Res., 7: 680- 685. LIGNAG, G. O. E. 19380-1932. Die Benzolleukaemie bei Menschen und weissen Maeusen. Krankheitsforsch., 8-9: 403-458. McMANUS, J. F. A. 1948. Histological and histochemical uses of periodic acid. Stain Technol., 23: 99-108. MONTAGNA, W., and NOBACK, C. R. 1948. Localization of lipids and other chemical substances in the mast cells of man and laboratory animals. Anat. Rec., 100: 535-546. OLIVER, J., BLOOM, F., and MANGIERI, C. 1947. On the origin of heparin. An examination of the heparin content and the specific cytoplasmic particles of neoplastic mast cells. J. Exp. Med., XXCVI: 107-116. PAFF, G. H., and BLOOM, F._ 1949. Vacuolation and the release of heparin in mast cells cultivated in vitro. Anat. Rec., 104: 45-60. _ RILEY, J. F., and DRENNAN, J. M. 1949. The presence and significance of alkaline phosphatase in the cyto- plasm of mast cells. J. Pathol. a. Bact., 61: 245-251. SABRAZES, J., and LAFON, C. 1908. Granuloma de la lévre 4 mastzellen et a éosinophiles chez un cheval. Folia haemat., 6: 3-80. SCHREUS, H. T. 1924. Dermat. Ztschr., 40: 9. Cit. by Bloom. 62 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SHEAR, M. J. 1944. Chemical treatment of tumors. IX. Reactions of mice with primary subcutaneous tumors to injection of a hemorrhage-producing bac- terial polysaccharide. J. Nat. Cancer Inst., 4: 461-476. STRONG, L. C. 1950. Litter seriation and the invasion of fibrosarcomas in mice. Yale J. Biol. a. Med., 22: 302-307. TWORT, C. C., and TWORT, J. M. 1930. Classification of four thousand experimental oil and tar skin tumors of mice. Lancet, 218: 1831-1385. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 15(1), 1952. SOME CONSIDERATIONS AND PROBLEMS IN THE ECOLOGY OF FLOATING ISLANDS GeorceE K. Ren, Jr. University of Florida The late Dr. Thomas Barbour has said (1944:173), “In no region in the world is one more frequently interested and impressed by the floating vegetation than in Florida.” In addition to the usual floating plants, many lakes throughout the state are noted for large floating mats of vegetation which, in some instances, support trees and shrubs 15 feet or more in height. Lake Washington, which heads the St. Johns River, Lake Hellen Blazes, and Orange Lake are probably the most notable examples. Orange Lake is the largest of several lakes in north central Florida, and is a tributary of the St. Johns River. The climate in this rolling karst region is generally mild and comparatively uni- form, with subtropical temperatures influenced by winds from the nearby Gulf of Mexico. A wet period occurs generally from June through September, with precipitation in the form of thunder- showers of high intensity and short duration. The dry period extends from October through May. - Orange Lake lies almost wholly within Alachua County. The lake has an open water surface area of approximately 14,000 acres surrounded by Nymphaea marsh. This marsh, much of which is floating, may be over a mile wide in places. The depth of the lake is fairly uniform, sloping gradually from an ill-defined shoreline to 25-30 feet. The water is usually tinted brownish or greenish due to large amounts of suspended detritus, zoo- and phyto-plankton, and their extractives. The bottom is composed of thick layers of autochthonous silt and plant.detritus, which in some places is rather compact, overlying sandy clay and limestone. Chemically, the water is usually circum-neutral (pH: 6.8-7.2). Submergent plants are scarce in the open water. Floating islands, varying in size from a few feet to several acres, are impressive features of Orange Lake. They usually support abundant stands of vegetation whose roots penetrate a rather dense matrix of decaying plant detritus of peat-like nature. - No particular hydrophyte appears to dominate all of the floating islands. Pickerel weed, Pontederia lanceolata, and arrowhead, 64 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Sagittaria lancifolia, are probably the most characteristic forms, al- though many islands have been observed which supported dominat- ing growths of twig rush, Mariscus jamaicensis, smartweed, Persicaria sp., or spatterdock, Nymphaea macrophylla, with elder, Sambuccus simpsonii, willow, Salix sp., and myrtle, Myrica cerifera, frequently present. An abundant lower stratum flora is usually present and consists of such plants as pennywort, Hydrocotyl umbellata, parrot’s feather, Myriophyllum proserpinacoides, duck- weed, Lemna minor, or mosquito fern, Azolla caroliniana. In season, much color is added to the islands by the flowers of Bidens, arrowhead, spider lilies, Hibiscus, and the ubiquitous water hya- cinth. The fauna of the islands, and, more properly, the marsh in general, is varied and quite abundant. This is especially true of the invertebrate groups. Of the mammals, the raccoon, Procyon lotor elucus, has been observed wandering and swimming from island to island. Evi- dences of the marsh rabbit, Sylvilagus palustris paludicola, and the round-tailed muskrat, Neofiber alleni nigrescens, have been noted. As would be expected, in view of the extensive shallow marshes about Orange Lake, birds are abundant, many of them finding food and nesting sites on floating islands. Bird Island, with an area of 2-3 acres, has been recognized since the turn of the century for its phenomenal bird fauna. Egrets, ibises, herons, gallinules, red- winged blackbirds, grackles, and water turkeys are some of the more characteristic breeding birds associated with floating islands. Coots and migratory ducks are common in the area. Certain amphibians and reptiles are conspicuous elements in the biota of floating islands. Among the amphibians, the Louisiana newt, Triturus viridescens louisianensis, and the striped mud-eel, Pseudobranchus striatus axanthus, are often found among the sub- merged roots of the plants growing on the islands. Hylid frogs (Acris gryllus dorsalis, Hyla cinerea cinerea, Hyla squirella) and bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana, Rana grylio, Rana sphenocephala) occur in varying numbers. Turtles and snakes are associated with floating islands in the procurement of food and selection of nesting sites. The more common forms of turtles are the stink-jim, Sterno- therus odoratus, which is frequently found nosing around submerged roots, and cooter, Pseudemys floridana, often seen sunning on logs PROBLEMS IN THE ECOLOGY OF FLOATING ISLANDS 65 and edges of islands. The green water-snake, Natrix cyclopion floridana, and the Florida banded water-snake, Natrix sipedon pictiventris, are common inhabitants of the marsh and floating islands. Allen’s water-snake, Liodytes alleni, and others of fossorial tendencies (Farancia abacura abacura, Seminatrix pygaea pygaea) burrow in the substrate. The lizard, Anolis carolinensis, is often at home hundreds of feet from shore on an island. Much of the food of these reptiles consists of vegetation, frogs, small fishes, and in- vertebrates which are abundantly associated with the islands. Of 36 species of fishes which I have listed for Orange Lake (1950a), several show interesting affinities for floating islands. Among such, the topminnow, Gambusia affinis holbrooki, least killi- fish, Heterandria formosa, and darter, Hololepis barratti, which are usually considered littoral or bottom forms, are commonly found around the edges of islands some distance from shore. Black crappie frequently make their redds under the edges of islands which have become anchored or incorporated into the marsh. Prodigious numbers of invertebrate animals are produced in the lush emergent vegetation and submerged roots of the plants of floating islands. Seasonally, diptera emerge in vast droves and aquatic hemiptera and coleoptera thrive in the shallow waters of the edges and surfaces of the islands. Nymphs of 12 species of Odonata have been taken from stomachs of black crappie (Reid, 1950b:149). A species of ant, Tetramorium guineese, appears to be characteristic of the emergent vegetation, and the spider, Dolo- medes, is common. Crustaceans such as the amphipod, Hyalella azteca, and freshwater shrimp, Palaemontes paludosa, occur in the submerged portions of the marsh and floating islands in quantities sufficient to cause these organisms to be major items in the diet of many young and adult fishes. Quite naturally, several explanations for the genesis of floating islands are at hand. Barbour (op. cit., 173-174) says that fluctua- tions in water level float the dense tangled masses of vegetation bordering the water, and, once floating, the mats are made lighter by having the bottom of the mat scraped off by the lake bottom. Another explanation is that of the mat being made to float due to the buoyancy offered by the air chambers in the roots of many plants growing on the islands, that these islands were originally outer edges of littoral marsh which became broken off from the 66 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES main mass. Still another theory conceives of varying sized mats of peat-like material, composed mostly of Nymphaea roots, being floated from the bottom of the lake as the result of accumulations of gases of decomposition, these mats being invaded later by vegetation. The apparent fate of floating islands in Orange Lake is to become incorporated into the marsh, where they continue to contribute to the productivity of the lake. Some have been observed to die and sink. The preceding description of the general aspects of the biota of floating islands has, of necessity, included only the most conspicuous elements in the ecological relationships existing throughout the lake as a major community, or microcosm, and the marsh and floating islands as lesser communities. From what has been presented, innumerable ecological problems become apparent at once. Studies could be undertaken to determine something of (1) the oxygen- carbon dioxide relationships of the plants and animals on, in, and underneath the islands, (2) the intracacies of lacustrine food chains from the rich organic detritus stratum to the higher animals, (8) the physical, chemical, and biological requirements in the life cycles of the myriads of plants and animals, and (4) the assemblage of animals, some of which might be hitherto unreported for this ecologic niche, or biotope. All of these, and other relationships, present an intriguing chal- lenge for more detailed examinations of the many facets in the ecology of floating islands. LITERATURE CITED BARBOUR, THOMAS 1944. That Vanishing Eden. Boston (Little, Brown and Co.), pp. ix + 250. REID, GEORGE K., JR. 1950a. The fishes of Orange Lake, Florida. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(3), 1949(1950): 173-183. 1950b. Food of the black crappie, Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (LeSueur), in Orange Lake, Florida. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 79: (1949)1950 145- 154, Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 15(1), 1952. INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Contributions to the JournNAL may be in any of the fields of Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which itis presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings can be published only with the cooperation of the author. Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or other com- petent critics. 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") me , ¥ Os\' bh A it ta ae ; F aii yl ? f ; . ‘ , 2 us Pty” E at , = ¢ ot i a a te - to 2 - 5 L _ ‘ d a Restee) ee os, F ’] a ‘ ve f i ‘ “ P, Cm ‘ Zz 4 he ue a ; ( | Bde oe od 9h FA aes at eR aa ae aes A ; ' L > ' f ? ¥ ,% ny i me ¥ , oe vty » . ~ - c , scr a ~~ - 5 - ; ; ; ht : Oey / Vis > . z > ’ ~ 5 : A é " ; ' 5 =: ~ . ‘ fai Ok p sy Fr = y ’ ' j eG, 15 Fe Fe3 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Scienees Vol. 15 Jume 1952 No. 2 Contents SPORES CETARIO 202 67 Brannon—Some Myxophyceae of Florida 70 motice of Annual Meetings. _-___ LI 78 Smith—Daylight Observations of Stars 9 Sherman—A List and Bibliography of the Mammals of merida ive. and. Bxtinet 86 Vou. 15 June, 1952 "No. 2 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed October 8, 1952 fine QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Voi. 15 | JuNE, 1952 No. 2 MELVIN AMOS BRANNON — 1865 - 1950 68 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MELVIN AMOS BRANNON — 1865 - 1950 In the passing of Dr. Melvin Amos Brannon the Florida Academy of Sciences lost one of its staunchest supporters. A loyal member since 1939, when he moved to Gainesville, he was always happy to give of his time and talents whenever called upon. A distinguished scientist and educator, he received his early training at Wabash College earning the bachelors and masters degree there in 1889 and 1890. His Alma Mater honored him in 1893 with an honorary degree of Master of Arts and in 1932 with the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws. He earned his degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Chicago in 1912 after spending some years as instructor in Natural Sciences in Fort Wayne High School and as Professor of Biology at the University of North Dakota. In 1917 Whitman College honored him with the presentation of the degree of Doctor of Laws and in 1936 this honor was repeated by the University of Montana. The honorary degree of Doctor of Science was presented by the University of North Dakota in 1947. Dr. Brannon was most active during his middle years in the field of administration. Among his accomplishments was the organ- ization of the School of Medicine at the University of North Dakota in 1905, of which he served as dean from 1905 to 1911. He was appointed Dean of the College of Liberal Arts at this same uni- versity in 1911 and held this post until 1914 when he moved to the University of Idaho as President. In 1917 he accepted the presidency of Beloit College and remained there until 1923 when he accepted the chancellorship of the University of Montana. The years 1889-1933 must surely have been busy ones for in addition to all of the accomplishments already mentioned Dx. Brannon also made a survey of the forage plants of North Dakota for the Federal Government, organized the Devil’s Lake Biological Laboratory and served as its first director from 1908 to 1914, and in 1909 organized the Public Health Laboratories of North Dakota. He served as a Trustee of Beloit College from 1917 until the time of his death. During all the years of administrative endeavor he was able to maintain an interest in research and remarkably enough was able to find time in an already crowded schedule to pursue this interest. He published numerous contributions on fresh water and marine algae, the effects of growth substances on green algae, the in- MELVIN AMOS BRANNON — 1865-1950 69 fluence of heat on the maturation of fruits and vegetables, the influence of the Salton Sea on vegetable tissues and on the bio- logical phenomena of a dying lake. In “retirement” at the Univer- sity of Florida since 1939, he continued as an active research scientist until his death. He was a Fellow of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, President of the National Association of State Universities, and a member of many national scientific societies. Additional honors came to him as a member of Phi Beta Kappa, Phi Kappa Phi, Sigma Xi, Phi Sigma and Phi Delta Theta. The group of students and faculty that had the pleasure of Dr. Brannon’s friendship during his years at the University of Florida will long remember his outgoing nature. He lent encouragement to many and his democratic nature was an inspiration to all. He and his charming wife, Yvonne Tissier Brannon, enjoyed their con- tacts with younger groups and both were quite active in local scientific affairs. Dr. Brannon was president of the local chapter of Sigma Xi at the time of his death. He and Mrs. Brannon were most influential in keeping the Sigma Chapter of Phi Sigma alive during the war years when the student body at the University of Florida was reduced and interest was lagging. Dr. Brannon was also active in the civic affairs of the Gainesville community, serving as president of the Gainesville Rotary Club and acting as a moving figure in his neighborhood civic organizations. Dr. Brannon’s article on the Myxophycae was in the final stages of preparation at the time of his death and the editors of the QUARTERLY JOURNAL are proud that its publication has been accom- plished through the cooperation of Dr. C. S. Nielsen of Florida State University and Dr. Francis Drouet of the Chicago Natural History Museum.—J. C. D., Jr. Quar. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 15(2), 1952. SOME MYXOPHYCEAE IN FLORIDA! MELVIN A. BRANNON Gainesville, Florida This paper is a list of Myxophyceae collected in Florida during the years 1942-49. The specimens, including those referred ‘0 in my earlier paper in Journ. Florida Acad. Sci. 8: 296-303 (1945), come principally from stations in central Florida; random collec- tions were made in many other parts of the state. All of them are on file in the Herbarium of the University of Florida, Chicago - Natural History Museum, or the Museum National d Histoire Naturelle in Paris. Most of the material was named by Dr. Francis Drouet. I wish to acknowledge, with grateful appreciation, the laboratory facilities provided by the Department of Biology and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Florida at Gainesville. I am indebted for considerable and varied assist- ance to Dr. Hermann Gunter, Dr. Archie N. Tissot, Dr. Richard A. Carringan, Dr. Fred H. Heath, Miss Lillian E. Arnold, Miss Esther Coogle, and the several persons cited as collectors below. In the listing of specimens, numbers set in italics refer to my own collections unless otherwise noted. CHROOCOCCACEAE Anacystis firma (Kutz.) Dr. & Daily. In sink at Dr. Hull’s residence on Route 441, Gainesville, R. K. Strawn 308, May 1948; Sink I, Hibiscus Park Gainesville, 170, May 1948; in culvert, Bivins Arm to Paynes Prairie, south of Gainesville, 268, Aug. 1942. Anacystis marginata Menegh. Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 70, June 1942. Coccochloris elabens (Breb.) Dr. & Daily. On Chara, Hernando county, 557, Oct. 1948. Coccochloris Peniocystis (Kutz.) Dr. & Daily. Red Water sink, Gainesville, Dr. J. Speed Rogers, 170, May 1943. Coccochloris stagnina f. rupestris (Lyngb.) Dr. & Daily. Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 30, Jan. 1942. * This paper is published posthumously. Dr. Brannon’s original manuscript has been prepared for publication by Dr. Francis Drouet, Chicago Natural History Museum. SOME MYXOPHYCEAE IN FLORIDA ree Diplocystis aeruginosa (Kutz.) Trevis. Sink III, Palm Terrace, Gainesville, 11, 12, 25, 27, 227b, 419, 429, 526, Sept. 1941. Gloeocapsa alpicola (Lyngb.) Born. On soil, Gainesville, F. B. Smith 37, Nov. 1942; in Hatchett creek, Gainesville, 126, Nov. 1941; on sand, Sand Point, Everglades, J. E. Davis, Jr., 19, Jan. 1942; greenhouse, U. S. Forestry Station, Olustee, 226, May 1944. Gloeocapsa dimidiata (Kutz.) Dr. & Daily. Bivins Arm, Gainesville, 126, Nov. 1942. Gloeocapsa limnetica (I.emm.) Hollerb. In shallow water, shore of Lake Harris, Leesburg, Drouet & Brannon 11064, Jan. 1949. Gloeocapsa membranina (Menegh.) Dr. & Daily. Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 290, 305, Feb., Aug. 1945. Gomphosphaeria lacustris Chod. Lake III, Orlando, 489, May 1948. Merismopedia tranquilla (Ehrenb.) Trevis. In Griffin’s lake, Leesburg, 244, July 1941; La Belle, Everglades, ie Davis, Ir, 20, Oct. 1941. CHAMAESIPHONACEAE Entophysalis Brebissonii (Menegh.) Dr. & Daily. Rainbow Springs, Marion county, 375, Oct. 1946. Entophysalis rivularis (Kutz.) Dr. In culvert, Bivins Arm to Paynes Prairie, 40 rods east of Route 441, Gainesville, 40, 144, Feb. 1943; Sink II, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 47, Feb. 1942. . STIGONEMATACEAE Fischerella ambigua (Born. & Flah.) Gom. In Sink II, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 108, Oct. 1942. Hapalosiphon pumilus Born. & Flah. Under culvert one mile southeast of Devils Millhopper, Gaines- ville, 6, 140a, Sept. 1941; Sand Point, Everglades, J. E. Davis Jr. 19, Oct. 1941; in pond, Fourteenth and Center streets, Leesburg, Drouet & Brannon 11067, 11068, Jan. 1949. Nostochopsis lobatus Born. & Flah. In Santa Fe river two miles southwest of High Springs, May 1941. 72 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Stigonema ocellatum Born. & Flah. On grass in Griffin’s lake, Leesburg, 248, July 1944. NOSTOCACEAE Anabaena circinalis Born. & Flah. In Sink III, Palm Terrace, Gainesville, 49, Mar. 1942. Anabaena flos-aquae Born. & Flah. In Sink III, Palm Terrace, Gainesville, 49, Mar. 1942. Anabaena inaequalis Born. & Flah. Devils Millhopper, Gainesville, 166, Apr. 1943. Anabaena oscillarioides Born. & Flah. In Sink II, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 14la, Apr. 1942. Anabaena sphaerica Born. & Flah. In Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 279, Oct. 1944. Anabaena spiroides Klebahn In Sink II, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 523, July 1948. Anabaena unispora Gardn. In culvert from Bivins Arm to Paynes Prairie, south of Gaines- ville, 346, July 1946. Anabaena variabilis Born. & Flah. On decayed wood at the J. C. Dickinson dock, Bivins Arm, Gainesville, 64, May 1942. Aphanizomenon ovalisporum Forti In Sink III, Palm Terrace, Gainesville, 69, June 1942. Cylindrospermum licheniforme Born. & Flah. Near Sink II, on waste pasteboard, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 136, Jan. 1948. Cylindrospermum majus Born. & Flah. University avenue, University Park, Gainesville, 52, Apr. 1942. Cylindrospermum muscicola Born. & Flah. Midway down the cone of Devils Millhopper, Gainesville, 165, Apr. 1943. Nodularia spumigena Born. & Flah. On decayed wood in Hatchett creek, Gainesville, 14la, Feb. 1948. Nostoc carneum Born. & Flah. Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 270, Aug. 1944. Nostoc commune Born. & Flah. Hatchett creek, Gainesville, 8, Apr. 1941. SOME MYXOPHYCEAE IN FLORIDA 73 Nostoc cuticulare Born. & Flah. Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 277, Oct. 1944. Nostoc ellipsosporum Born. & Flah. Wet ground, Primrose street, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 62, May 1942. | Nostoc Hederulae Born. & Flah. Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 57, Apr. 1942. Nostoc humifusum Born. & Flah. On stone, south end of Orange lake, 157, Mar. 1943. Nostoc Linckia Born. & Flah. Hernando, 21la, Apr. 1944. Nostoc Muscorum Born. & Flah. Lake Alice, Gainesville, 13, 21-23, 27, 53, 60, Apr.-June 1941. Nostoc spongiiforme Born. & Flah. Culvert, Bivins Arm to Paynes Prairie, south of Gainesville, 116, Oct._ 1942. Raphidiopsis curvata Fritsch & Rich St. Johns river, Welaka, E. Lowe Pierce 83, Aug. 1942. RIVULARIACEAE Amphithrix janthina Born. & Flah. At J. C. Dickinson’s dock, Bivins Arm, Gainesville, 60, 80, 205, Sept. 1943; on root of tree in water, west shore of Orange Lake, Drouet & Brannon 11018a, Jan. 1949. Calothrix adscendens Born. & Flah. In pothole, Hernando, 44, Nov. 1940. Calothrix parietina Born. & Flah. In Hatchett creek, Gainesville, 3, 36, 51, Feb. 1942; on a floating dock, west shore of Orange lake, McIntosh, Drouet & Brannon 11100, Jan. 1949. Calothrix stellaris Born. & Flah. Bivins Arm, Gainesville, 39, 50, Feb. 1942. Gloeotrichia natans Born. & Flah. In culvert from Bivins Arm to Paynes Prairie, south of Gaines- ville, 81, July 1942. SCYTONEMATACEAE Aulosira implexa Born. & Flah. On floating Eleocharis, Lake Okeechobee, J. E. Davis Jr. 17, 279, Oct. 1941; in Sink II, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 112, Oct. 1942. 74 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fremyella diplosiphon (Born. & Flah.) Dr In Hatchett creek, Gainesville, 2, 22, 34, 174, 178, Feb. 1942. Fremyella tenera (Born. & Flah.) J. de Toni In Hatchett creek, Gainesville, 141, Feb. 1943. Hassallia byssoidea Born. & Flah. At corner of my house, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 229, May 1944; cement walk west of Science Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, 263, Aug. 1944; on wall of greenhouse, Experiment Station, Leesburg, 250, July 1944. Scytonema cincinnatum Born. & Flah. In Hogtown creek, west of golf course, Gainesville, W. R. Car- roll 122, Nov. 1942. Scytonema coactile Born. & Flah. In Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 10, Sept. 1941; at Hee nando, 88, Aug. 1942. Scytonema crustaceum Born. & Flah. Lake Tsala Apopka, Hernando, 85, Aug. 1942. Scytonema guyanense Born. & Flah. On ground by greenhouse, Experiment Station, Leesburg, 251], July 1944. Scytonema Hofmannii Born. & Flah. On *oards of chicken house, Gainesville, W. R. Carroll 265, Aug. 1944. Scytonema ocellatum Born. & Flah. On street in front of Dr. Gaddum’s residence, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 139, 189, Jan. 1943. Scytonema tolypotrichoides Born. & Flah. In Everglades 7 miles south of La Belle, J. E. Davis Jr. 20, Oct. 1941; in pond at Fourteenth and Center streets, Leesburg, Drouet & Brannon, 11067, 11086, Jan. 1949. Tolypothrix tenuis Born. & Flah. In front of Prof. N. Bourke’s residence, Hibiscus Park, Gaines- ville, 604, Apr. 1948. - OSCIELATORIACEAE Arthrospira Jenneri Gom. Sugar Hill creek, Gainesville, 289, Oct. 1944. Lyngbya aestuarii Gom. In Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 9, 111, Sept. 1941; Her- SOME MYXOPHYCEAE IN FLORIDA 75 nando, 86, Aug. 1942; in sand on a log on shore of Battery Point, Hernando county, 578, Oct. 1948. Lyngbya contorta Lemm. In Griffin’s lake, Leesburg, 253, July 1944. Lyngbya Diguetii Gom. In Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 10, 29, 34, 177, Sept. 1941. Lyngbya limnetica Lemm. In shallow water, shore of Lake Harris, Leesburg, Drouet & Brannon 11064, Jan. 1949. Lyngbya ochracea Gom. On sand in Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 192, Aug. 1943. Lyngbya Patrickiana Dr. In Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, $4, 120, Aug. 1942. Lyngbya putealis Gom. In Sink J, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 26, Aug. 1941; in Lake Wauberg, Gainesville, Dr. J. S. Rogers 106, May 1948. Lyngbya semiplena Gom. On Juncus, Battery Point, Hernando county, 561, Oct. 1948. Lyngbya Taylorii Dr. & Strickl. Bivins Arm, Gainesville, 9, 202, Sept. 1941; Lake Wauberg, Gainesville, Dr. J. S. Rogers 106, 111, May 1948. Lyngbya versicolor Gom. In Griffin’s lake, Leesburg, 253, 254, 279, July 1944; fish aquarium, University of Florida, Gainesville, H. E. Brantley 72. Microcoleus acutissimus Gardn. Surface soil, Primrose street, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 187, Apr. 1944. ; Microcoleus lacustris Gom. Wet surface of Primrose street, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 172, 179, May 1942. Microcoleus paludosus Gom. Surface of wet street, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 221, Apr. 1944. Microcoleus rupicola (Tild.) Dr. Surface of wet street, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 218, 235, Apr. 1944. Microcoleus tenerrimus Gom. On Juncus, Battery Point, Hernando county, 563, Oct. 1948. 76 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Microcoleus vaginatus Gom. Surface of wet street, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 173, 180, 189, May 1943. Oscillatoria Agardhii Gom. Sink III, Palm Terrace, Gainesville, 69, 76, June 1942. Oscillatoria amoena Gom. Lake Alice, Gainesville, 1, May 1940. Oscillatoria amphibia Gom. Sugar Hill creek, Gainesville, 75, 90, May 1942. Oscillatoria anguina Gom. Bivins Arm, Gainesville, 94, 109, Aug. 1942. Oscillatoria articulata Gardn. Fish aquarium, University of Florida, Gainesville, H. E. Brantley 74, June 1942. Oscillatoria chlorina Gom. Sink II, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 110, Oct. 1942. Oscillatoria Corallinae Gom. On Gracilaria, Battery Point, Hernando county, 556, Oct. 1948. Oscillatoria curviceps Gom. Battery Point, Hernando county, 575, Oct. 1948. Oscillatoria geminata Gom. West shore of Orange lake, Orange Lake, Drouet, Brannon, & Don McKay 11034, Jan. 1949. Oscillatoria limosa Gom. J. C. Dickinson’s dock, Bivins Arm, Gainesville, 65, June 1942. Oscillatoria nigro-viridis Gom. In Salt Springs, Hernando county, 551, Oct. 1948. Oscillatoria ornata Gom. Rattlesnake creek, Dr. Laessle’s place on Hartman avenue, Gaines- ville, 196, Aug. 1948. Oscillatoria princeps Gom. Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 9, 110, Sept. 1941, 1942. Oscillatoria proboscidea Gom. Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 129, Nov. 1942. Oscillatoria rubescens Gom. Freshwater pool, Hernando, 91, Aug. 1942. Oscillatoria splendida Gom. On submerged stones in Rattlesnake creek, Gainesville, 194, 200, 213, Aug. 1948. SOME MYXOPHYCEAE IN FLORIDA 77 Oscillatoria subuliformis Gom. On Juncus, Battery Point, Hernando county, 564, Oct. 1948. Oscillatoria tenuis Gom. In freshwater pond, Hernando, 46, Mar. 1942; Bivins Arm, Gaines- ville, 65, 120, 193, June 1942. Oscillatoria tenuis var. natans Gom. Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 252, May 1942. Oscillatoria tenuis var. tergestina Gom. Sugar Hill creek, Gainesville, 59, May 1944. Phormidium autumnale Gom. In H. E. Brantley greenhouse, University of Florida, Gaines- ville, 43, 74, 123, 130, Feb. 1948. Phormidium calidum Gom. In Hatchett creek, Gainesville, 38, Jan. 1942. Phormidium minnesotense (Tild.) Dr. Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 178, June 1948; in freshwater lake, Leesburg, 283, July 1944. Phormidium papyraceum Gom. In Ichtucknee Springs run, Columbia county, 80, 105, July 1942. Phormidium subfuscum Gom. On stones, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 40, Feb. 1942. Phormidium tenue Gom. In Sink II, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 129, 284, Apr. 1942; in Lakes Tsala and Apopka, Citrus county, 131, Dec. 1942. Phormidium valderianum Gom. In Orange lake, Alachua county, 153, Mar. 1948. Plectonema Nostocorum Gom. On sand rock in Tallahassee, A. B. Maclay 2, 23, 102, Dec. 1940; in Sink I, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 28, 108, Nov. 1941; culture (in water from city water supply of Gainesville, Apr. 1933), Dec. 1949. Plectonema purpureum Gom. In a bird bath in Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 41, Feb. 1942. Plectonema Wollei Gom. In Harris lake, Leesburg, 329, May 1948. Schizothrix arenaria Gom. Culvert, Bivins Arm to Paynes Prairie, south of Gainesville, 97, May 1942. 78 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Schizothrix calcicola Gom. In pothole, Hernando, 44, 219, Nov. 1940. Schizothrix Stricklandii Dr. On wet ground in Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 219, Aug. 1944. Skujaella Thiebautii (Gom.) J. de Toni On Ruppia, Battery Point, Hernando county, 558, Oct. 1948. Spirulina stagnicola Dr. Rare, Bivins Arm, Gainesville, 65, June 1942. Symploca Kieneri Dr. On wet sand, Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, 172, 249, May 1942. Symploca muralis Gom. In pine seed-bed, U. S. Forestry Station, Olustee, 228, May 1944; on soil at Experiment Station, Leesburg, 228, 297, July 1944. Oar, Journ) Hla, Acad Ser, lo) 1952: NOTICE OF ANNUAL MEETINGS The Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences and the Sixth Annual Meeting of the Florida Junior Academy of Science will be held on December 11, 12 and 18, 1952, at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Titles of papers to be presented should be sent to the appropriate Section Chairman prior to November 18, 1952. Biological Sciences: C. J. Goin, Biology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville Physical Sciences: H. P. Hanson, Physics Department, University of Florida, Gainesville Social Sciences: J. O. Boynton, Geography Department, Florida State University, Tallahassee DAYLIGHT OBSERVATION OF STARS ALEX G. SMITH University of Florida There is no reason to believe that the quantity of starlight reach- ing the surface of the earth is less in the daytime than at night. Nevertheless it is a matter of common experience that the stars are ordinarily invisible during the daylight hours. The explana- tion lies, of course, in the great amount of sunlight scattered by particles in the earth’s atmosphere. This scattered light creates a brilliant background, the familiar blue daylight “sky”, against which the stars disappear. NAKED EYE OBSERVATIONS It is popularly believed that stars may be seen during the day by viewing the sky from the bottom of a deep shaft, such as a well or chimney. The writer knows of two careful attempts to verify this phenomenon, both of which yielded negative results. In one instance J. A. Hynek of Ohio State University watched, with a group of students, for the culmination of Vega over the opening of a chimney 235 feet in height. The other experiment was con- ducted by A. N. Winsor of the University of Florida. Mr. Winsor attempted to detect Pollux at a time when that star passed near the zenith above a chimney 157 feet high. In neither case was any trace of the star seen from the chimney, even with slight optical aid. The Hynek experiment seems particularly conclusive, since Vega is the brightest star which can be seen from a vertical shaft anywhere in the northern hemisphere. H. F. Weaver has shown, from an analysis of sky brightness data, that it is theoretically impossible to see any star with the naked eye in broad daylight. This same analysis indicated, how- ever, that the planets Venus, Mars, and Jupiter are at times brilliant enough to be seen without optical aid during the day. It seems probable that chance sightings of these bodies from shafts have been responsible for the belief that stars may be seen under such conditions. In these instances the function of the shaft was in all likelihood merely that of focussing attention on a particular area of the sky. Hynek, in fact, remarks that “.. . the sky through the opening appeared just as bright as the sky outside.” 80 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TELESCOPIC OBSERVATIONS When one considers telescopic observations, the situation is quite different. It is a fundamental property of visual instruments that whatever their aperture or magnification they cannot increase the apparent brightness of extended objects. Thus, the sky ob- served through a telescope never appears brighter than it does to the naked eye, and in general the brightness is actually reduced by the instrument as the magnification is increased. On the other hand, the apparent brightness of a point object, such as a star, increases as the square of the aperture of the telescope. It follows, then, that as the aperture and magnification are increased, the sky will grow darker and the star will grow brighter, until finally the star becomes visible against the sky. Accounts of daylight sightings of stars in telescopes are not uncommon in astronomical literature. The Rev. T. W. Webb states that Arcturus was observed during the day by Morin as early as 1635. Nevertheless, the writer knows of no quantitative study made to determine the apertures and magnifications necessary to render stars of various magnitudes visible against the daytime sky. The practical importance of this problem was suggested by Mr. A. N. Winsor, who has organized a project in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Florida to investigate the feasibility of using daylight observations of stars and planets for purposes of surveying and navigation. While it was clear that successful sightings of stars could be made with relatively large telescopes, there were no available data to indicate that instru- ments small enough to be practical for field use could be utilized The author made a series of preliminary observations with a six- inch reflecting telescope which was equatorially mounted and equipped with setting circles, so that the location of stars in the daytime presented no great difficulty. It was found that the brighter stars could easily be observed with the aperture of this instrument diaphragmed to one or two inches. Accordingly, a small refracting telescope was constructed, using an objective lens with a diameter of two inches and a focal length of thirteen inches. The instrument was equipped with a rotating diaphragm providing a series of apertures ranging from one-quarter inch to two inches, and provision was made for introducing filters in front of the eye- DAYLIGHT OBSERVATION OF STARS 81 piece. This telescope was attached to the mounting described above. Systematic observations were made on a graduated sequence of six stars with stellar magnitudes which vary from —1.58 to 3.25, corresponding to a brightness range of 86 to 1. Since the brightness of an area of the sky changes appreciably with its own altitude, with the altitude of the sun, and with its azimuthal angle from the sun, the region of the sky under observation was monitored with a photometer, and data were taken only when the sky bright- ness was within about ten percent of 1.1 lamberts. This figure corresponds to a kind of “average” condition for a clear Florida sky, with both the sun and the sky region at an altitude of 45°, and with an azimuthal angle of 90° between the two. Each star was observed with six different apertures and four magnifications. The results of the observations were expressed in terms of a scale of relative visibility, with 0 corresponding to complete invisibility and 6 indicating a very conspicuous object. Objects rated at 5 or 6 strike the eye immediately when it is applied to the telescope; an object described as 3 is easy, once seen, but may require a momentary search of the field of view before it is detected. A rating of 1 is applied to an extremely difficult object, visible only if the observer knows precisely where it is located in the field. Figure 1 shows typical portions of the data; in order to avoid confusion, the curves for 0.5” aperture are plotted separately from those of the 1” and 2” apertures. While visibility generally increases with aperture and magification, in accord with the simple considerations outlined above, it will be noted that this is not always the case. In particular, the 10x curves are practically coincident for all three apertures, but this could have been pre- dicted from optical theory. If the exit pupil (that is, the beam which emerges from the eyepiece) is larger than the pupil of the eye, then the eye acts as the aperture stop of the system and any increase in the aperture of the telescope has no effect on the brightness of the image. Now, the diameter of the exit pupil is obtained by dividing the aperture of the instrument by its magni- fication, and it follows that with a power of ten and an aperture of 0.8”, the exit pupil just matches the 0.08” diameter of the daylight-adapted eye. Under these conditions any aperture in excess of 0.8” is wasted. 82 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The curves for 0.5” aperture show an effect which is more sur- prising, in that 15x gives better visibility than 40x. A probable explanation lies in the relatively large size of the diffraction discs 6 y — 2" APERTURE ———-.|" APERTURE VISIBILITY 0.5" APERTURE RELATIVE STELLAR MAGNITUDE Figure 1—Dependence of Stellar Visibility on Magnitude, Aperture, and Magnification. DAYLIGHT OBSERVATION OF STARS 83 produced by these small apertures. At high magnifications such discs appear diffuse and tend to fade out against the sky, being in reality no longer point objects. This hypothesis is confirmed by the observation that it is necessary to have a critically sharp focus in order to render stars visible against the daytime sky. In many instances failure to locate a star was traced to poor focussing, resulting from attempts to focus the telescope on ier- restrial objects several hundred feet away. Asa correlary, it follows that good optics are essential, since a poor telescope has no really sharp focus. Figure 2 shows a similar effect which was observed consistently throughout the data. For low powers, the visibility tends to peak at an aperture somewhat smaller than that at which the eye ceases to act as the stop. Although both the sky and the star are equally dimmed by the reduced aperture, the visibility ap- parently increases for physiological reasons. In spite of these complications which arise for small optical power, there is no doubt that aperture and magnification pay big dividends in going after the fainter stars. Like all scattered light, the light from the sky is partially plane 4 ol RELATIVE VISIBILITY = nm 0 0.5 | Re) 2 APERTURE IN INCHES Figure 2.—Anomalous Increase of Visibility at Small Apertures (Castor, Magnitude 1.58). 84 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES polarized. The degree of polarization in a given region depends on that area’s angular relationship with the sun, since it rises to a maximum in a direction 90° from the sun. This fact immediately suggests the use of a Polaroid filter to suppress the sky back- ground and render stars more easily visible. Numerous tests have indicated that in regions of the sky where polarization is high the improvement is indeed appreciable, amounting to about one unit on the visibility scale. Unfortunately, this gain cannot be fully realized for the fainter stars, for which the unavoidable loss of light in the filter partially nullifies the benefits of the reduced background. This limitation even more severely affects the use- fulness of ordinary colored filters. Since the sky is distinctly blue, while many stars are yellowish or red, it should be possible to discriminate against the sky by using filters which transmit only the longer wavelengths. It is even possible to determine from the spectral distribution curves for sky light, starlight, and the sensi- tivity of the eye a particular wavelength at which the visibility of the star should be a maximum. When this experiment was per- formed with a narrow-band filter, however, the loss of light proved disastrous. The best results were achieved with very light yellow or orange filters; in favorable cases the gain was from one-half step to a full step on the visibility scale. Summarizing the results for all of the filters tested to date, it may be said that the greatest improvements resulted in the cases where they were least needed —that is, on the brighter stars. CONCLUSION The present investigation has shown decisively that daylight observations of stars are possible with apertures of one to two inches and reasonably low magnifications. The twenty stars of first magnitude are easy objects, and there are an additional fifty stars of second magnitude which can be reached with a little more difficulty. The visibility of the brighter stars can be in- creased appreciably by the use of appropriate filters. An interesting by-product of this work was the discovery that at times a sky which appears perfectly clear to the naked eye shows rapid and marked fluctuations in transparency, as evidenced by the fading in and out of star images. This condition was re- peatedly found to precede by several hours the onset of a cloudy DAYLIGHT OBSERVATION OF STARS 85 sky. One is tempted to speculate that observations of this type might be of value in short-range meteorological prediction. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author is greatly indebted to Mr. H. W. Schrader of the Department of Physics, University of Florida, for the construction of the special telescope used in the research. LITERATURE CITED HYNEK, J. A. 1951. Photographing Stars in the Daytime. Sky and Telescope, 10:61. WINSOR, A. N. 1951. Private communication. WEAVER, H. F. 1947. The Visibility of Stars without Optical Aid. Publ. of the Astro- nomical Society of the Pacific, 59:232. WEBB, REV. T. W. 1917. Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes (Sixth Edition), p. 48. Longmans, Green & Co., London. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 15(2), 1952. A LIST AND BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA, LIVING AND EXTINCT H. B. SHERMAN University of Florida Much of the information contained in this article has been avail- able, in mimeographed form, to students of mammalogy at the University of Florida for several years. A number of students and former students have added references and made corrections. While space does not permit mentioning all of these, Dr. B. A. Barrington, Jr., Mr. Joseph C. Moore and Dr. George H. Pournelle have been especially helpful in this work. References to certain obscure publications, some of which I have not seen, have been furnished me by Dr. Remington Kellogg, Director of the U. S. National Museum, and also by Mrs. Venia T. Phillips, Librarian of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. The inclusion of fossil mammals, with which the author has had but little experience, is facilitated by the lists of Sellards, 1916a; Simpson, 1930d; and Kellogg, 1944, each of which contains a valu- able summary. Dr. Theodore E. White has been the most active author contributing to our knowledge of the fossil mammals of the state in recent years and I am indebted to him for criticizing the list presented here. Through his advice, Hexabelomeryx and Hexa- meryx are listed as separate genera, instead of referring Hexameryx to Hexabelomeryx as in Simpson 1945b, p. 157. Also, Dr. White states that his record of Megatherium hudsoni from the Pliocene, 1941a, was due to erroneous collection data and that it is of Pleisto- cene age. Dr. R. A. Stirton has furnished advice concerning Miocene and Pliocene members of the Equidae. In regard to Pleistocene mammals, Mr. H. James Gut has supplied information which would otherwise have been missed. The lists of recent mammals is largely the result of bringing up to date the lists of Sherman, 1937b and 1945b, and the inclusion of marine forms. In regard to the latter, the work of Mr. Josepn C. Moore, which is to appear soon in the American Midland Naturalist, has been most useful. While it is a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance received from the various individuals mentioned above, the use made of BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 87 information which they supplied, as well as omissions and errors which may be present, is the responsibility of the author. A List OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA, LIVING AND EXTINCT Order MARSUPIALIA.—Opossums, Kangaroos, etc. Family DipELPHIDAE—Opossums. Didelphis virginiana Kerr. 1792.—North American Opossum. Pleistocene Dedilphis virginiana pigra Bangs. 1898.—Florida Opossum. Recent Order INSECTIVORA.—Moles, Shrews, etc. Family Tatrmar.—Moles. Scalopus aquaticus (Linnaeus). 1758.—Eastern Mole. Pleistocene Scalopus aquaticus howelli Jackson. 1914.—Howell’s Mole. Recent Scalopus aquaticus australis (Chapman). 1893. Florida Mole. Recent Scalopus aquaticus anastasae (Bangs). 1898. Anastasia Island Mole. Recent Scalopus aquaticus parvus (Rhoads). 1894.—Little Mole. Recent Scalopus aquaticus bassi A. H. Howell. 1939.—Bass’s Mole. Recent Family Sorrcmar.—Shrews. Sorex longirostris longirostris Bachman. 1837. Bachman Shrew. Recent Cryptotis floridana (Merriam). 1895. Florida Short-tailed Shrew. Pleistocene— : Recent Blarina brevicauda (Say). 1823.—Short-tailed Shrew. Pleistocene Blarina brevicauda carolinensis (Bachman). 1887. Carolina Short-tailed Shrew. Recent Blarina brevicauda penisulae (Merriam). 1895. Everglades Short-tailed Shrew. Recent Order CHIROPTERA.—Bats. Family VESPERTILIONIDAE. Suaptenes whitei Lawrence. 1943. Miocene Miomyotis floridanus Lawrence. 1948. Miocene 88 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Myotis austroriparius austroriparius (Rhoads). Little Southeastern Brown Bat. Recent Myotis grisescens A. H. Howell. 1909.—Little Gray Bat. Recent Pipistrellus s. subflavus (F. Cuvier). 1832.—Georgian Bat. Recent Eptesicus fuscus osceola Rhoads. 1902. Florida Big Brown Bat. Recent Lasiurus borealis borealis (Muller). 1776—Red Bat. Recent Lasiurus seminolus (Rhoads). 1895.— Seminole Bat. Recent Lasiurus cinereus (Beauvois). 1796.—Hoary Bat. Recent Dasypterus floridanus Miller. 1902.—Florida Yellow Bat. Recent Nycticeius humeralis humeralis (Rafinesque). Rafinesque Bat. Nycticeius humeralis subtropicalis Schwartz. Florida Rafinesque Bat. Corynorhinus macrotis (LeConte). 1831. LeConte Lump-nosed Bat. Family Mo.ossmar.—Free-tailed Bats. Molossides floridanus G. M. Allen. 1982. Tadarida cynocephala (LeConte). 1831. LeConte Free-tailed Bat. Eumops glaucinus (Wagner). 1843. Glaucous Free-tailed Bat. Recent Recent Recent Pleistocene Recent Recent Order PRIMATES.—Lemurs, Monkeys, Marmosets, Apes, Man, etc. Family Homrnmar.—Man. Homo sapiens Linnaeus. 1758.—Man. Order CARNIVORA.—Carnivores. Suborder Fisstp—epA.—Land Carnivores. Family Ursipar.—Bears. Agriotherium schneideri Sellards. 1916.—Bear-dog. Arctodus floridanus Gidley. 1928. Florida Short-faced Bear. Euarctos sp. Simpson. 1930b.—Black bear. Euarctos floridans (Merriam). 1896. Florida Black Bear. Pleistocene— Recent Pliocene Pleistocene Pleistocene Pleistocene— Recent BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 89 Family Procyonmar.—Raccoons, Pandas, Coati, etc. Procyon nanus Simpson. 1929. Pleistocene Procyon lotor (Linnaeus). 1758.—Raccoon. sibs Pleistocene Procyon lotor elucus Bangs. 1898.—Florida Raccoon. Recent Procyon lotor varius Nelson and Goldman. 1930. Alabama Raccoon. Recent Procyon lotor marinus Nelson. 1930. Chokoloskee Raccoon. se Recent Procyon lotor inesperatus Nelson. 1980. Matecumbe Raccoon. | | Recent Procyon lotor auspicatus Nelson. 1930. Key Vaca Raccoon. Recent Procyon lotor incautus Nelson. 1930. Torch Key Raccoon. Recent Family Mustetmar.—Weasels, Mink, Otters, etc. Aelurocyon spissidens White. 1947. Miocene Oligobunis floridanus White. 1947. Miocene Mephitataxus ancipidens White. 1941. Miocene Leptarctus progressus Simpson. 1930. Pliocene Mustela frenata peninsulae (Rhoads). 1894. Florida Weasel. Pleistocene— Recent Mustela frenata olivacea Howell. 1913.—Alabama Weasel. Recent Mustela vison lutensis (Bangs). 1898.—Florida Mink. Recent Mustela vison evergladensis Hamilton. 1948. Everglades mink. Recent Lutra canadensis (Schreber). 1776.—Otter. Pleistocene Lutra canadensis vaga (Bangs). 1898.—Florida Otter. Recent Spilogale ambarvalis Bangs. 1898. Florida Spotted Skunk. Pleistocene— Recent Spilogale putorius (Linnaeus). 1758. Alleghenian Spotted Skunk. Miocene— Recent Mephitis mephitis elongata (Bangs). 1895.—Florida Skunk. Pleistocene— Recent 90 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Family CanmaE.—Dogs, Wolves, Foxes, etc. Daphaenus caroniavorus White. 1942. Miocene Amphicyon pontoni Simpson. 1930. Miocene Amphicyon longiramus White. 1942. Miocene Amphicyon intermedius White. 1940. Miocene Parictis bathygenus White. 1947. Miocene Nothocyon insularis White. 1942. Miocene Tomarctus thomasi White. 1941. Miocene Tomarctus canavus (Simpson). 1982. Miocene Aelurodon johnhenryi White. 1947. Miocene Temnocyon sp. Simpson. 19832. Miocene Paradaphaenus noblis (Simpson). 1932. Miocene Paradaphaenus tropicalis White. 1942. Miocene Mesocyon iamonensis (Sellards). 1916. Miocene Pliogulo dudleyi White. 1941. Pliocene Urocyon seminolensis Simpson. 1929. Extinct Gray Fox. Pleistocene Urocyon cinereoargenteus Schreber. 1775.—Gray Fox. Pleistocene Urocyon cinereoargenteus floridanus Rhoads. 1895. Florida Gray Fox. Recent Vulpes palmaria Hay. 1917.—Extinct Red Fox. Pleistocene Canis ayersi Sellards. 1916.—Dire Wolf. Pleistocene Canis riviveronis Hay. 1917.—Extinct Florida Coyote. Pleistocene Canis niger niger (Bartram). 1791.—Florida Wolf. Recent Family FELmArE.—Cats, Pumas, Jaguars, Lions, Tigers, etc. Felis inexpectata (Cope). 1895.—Extinct Puma. Pleistocene Felis concolor coryi Bangs. 1899.—Florida Puma. Recent Panthera augusta (Leidy). 1872.—Jaguar. Pleistocene Smilodon floridanus (Leidy). 1899. Florida Saber-tooth Tiger. Pleistocene Lynx rufus Schreber. 1777.—Bobcat. Pleistocene Lynx rufus floridanus (Rafinesque). 1817.—Florida Bobcat. Recent Suborder Prnnipepta.—Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses. Family PHocmar.—True Seals. Monachus tropicalis (Gray). 1850.—Monk Seal. Recent Cystophora cristata (Erxleben). 1777.—Hooded Seal. Recent BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 91 Order RODENTIA.—Rodents. Family ScrurmAEr.—Squirrels. Sciurus carolinensis carolinensis Gmelin. 1788. Southern Gray Squirrel. Pleistocene— Recent Sciurus carolinensis extimus Bangs. 1896.—Everglades Gray Squirrel. Recent Sciurus carolinensis matecumbei H. H. Bailey. 1937. Key Largo Gray Squirrel. Recent Sciurus niger niger Linnaeus. 1758. Southern Fox Squirrel. Recent Sciurus niger avicennia A. H. Howell. 1919.—Mangrove Fox Squirrel. Recent Glaucomys volans querceti (Bangs). 1896. Florida Flying Squirrel. Recent Glaucomys volans saturatus A. H. Howell. 1915. Southeastern Flying Squirrel. Recent Family MYLAGAULIDAE. Mesogaulus sp. Wood. 1947. Miocene Family ERETHIZONTIDAE.—Porcupines. Erethizon dorsatum (Linnaeus). 1758. Eastern Porcupine. Pleistocene Family HyprocHorrmar.—Capybara. Hydrochoerus holmesi Simpson. 1928. Extinct Capybara. Pleistocene Neochoerus pinckneyi (Hay). Giant capybara. Pleistocene Family GromymaAE.—Pocket Gophers, Salamanders. Plesiothomomys orientalis (Simpson). 1928. Extinct Western Pocket Gopher. Pleistocene Geomys pinetis Rafinesque. 1817.—Pocket Gopher. Pleistocene Geomys pinetis mobilensis Merriam. 1895. Alabama Pocket Gopher. Recent Geomys pinetis floridanus (Audubon and Bachman). 1854. Florida Pocket Gopher. Recent Geomys pinetis austrinus Bangs. 1898. Southeastern Pocket Gopher. Recent 92 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Geomys pinetis goffi Sherman. 1944.—Goff's Pocket Gopher. Recent Family HETrERoMymAE.—Pocket Rats and Mice, Kangaroo Rats and Mice, etc. Proheteromys floridanus Wood. 1932. Miocene Proheteromys magnus Wood. 1982. Miocene Family Castormar.—Beavers. Castoroides ohioensis Foster. 1838.—Giant Beaver. Pleistocene Castor canadensis Kuhl. 1820.—Beaver. Pleistocene Castor canadensis carolinensis Rhoads. 1898. Carolina Beaver. Recent Family Cric—ErmarE.—New World Rats and Mice. Reithrodontomys humulis humulis (Audubon and Bachman). 1841.—Eastern Harvest Mouse. Pleistocene— Recent Peromyscus sp. Gut. 1939.—Deer Mouse. Pleistocene Peromyscus polionotus polionotus (Wagner). 1848. Old Field Mouse. Recent Peromyscus polionotus rhoadsi (Bangs). 1898. Rhoads White-footed Mouse. Recent Peromyscus polionotus decoloratus Howell. 1939. Pallid Beach Mouse. Recent Peromyscus polionotus niveiventris (Chapman). 1889. Micco Beach Mouse. Recent Peromyscus polionotus phasma (Bangs). 1898.—Anastasia island Beach Mouse. Recent Peromyscus polionotus albifrons Osgood. 1909. White-fronted Beach Mouse. Recent Peromyscus polionotus peninsularis Howell. 1989. St. Andrews Beach Mouse. Recent Peromyscus polionotus leucocephalus Howell. 1920. White-headed Beach Mouse. Recent Peromyscus gossypinus gossypinus (LeConte). 1853. Cotton Mouse. Pleistocene— Recent Peromyscus gossypinus restrictus Howell. 1989. Chadwicks Beach Cotton Mouse. Recent BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 93 Peromyscus gossypinus palmarius Bangs. 1896.—Florida Cotton Mouse. Recent Peromyscus gossypinus anastasae Bangs. 1898.—Anastasia ~ Island Cotton Mouse. Recent Peromyscus nuttalli aureolus (Audubon and Bachman). 1841.—Southern Golden Mouse. Recent Peromyscus floridanus (Chapman). 1889. Florida White-footed Mouse. Pleistocene— Recent Oryzomys sp. Gut. 1939.—Rice Rat. Pleistocene Oryzomys palustris palustris (Harlan). 1837. Swamp Rice Rat. Pleistocene— Recent Oryzomys palustris coloratus Bangs. 1898. Everglades Rice Rat. Recent Oryzomys palustris natator Chapman. 1893. Central Florida Rice Rat. Recent Sigmodon hispidus hispidus Say and Ord. 1825. Northern Cotton Rat. Pleistocene—— Recent Sigmodon hispidus floridanus A. H. Howell. 1948. Canal Point Cotton Rat. Recent Sigmodon hispidus littoralis Chapman. 1889. Florida Cotton Rat. Recent Sigmodon hispidus spadicipygus Bangs. 1898. Cape Sable Cotton Rat. Recent Sigmodon hispidus exputus C G. M. Allen. 1920.—Pine Key Cotton Rat. Recent Sigmodon hispidus insulicola A. H. Howell. 1948. Captiva Island Cotton Rate. Recent Neotoma floridana floridana (Ord). 1818. Florida Wood Rat. Pleistocene— Recent Pitmys pinetorum. parvulus A. H. Howell. 1916. Florida Pine Mouse. | Pleistocene— Recent Synaptomys australis Simpson. 1928. Extinct Lemming Mouse. ‘2 Pleistocene 94 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ondatra zibethica (Linnaeus). 1758.—Flat-tailed Muskrat. Pleistocene Neofiber alleni alleni True. 1884. Florida Round-tailed Muskrat. Pleistocene— Recent Neofiber alleni nigrescens A. H. Howell. 1920. Everglades Round-tailed Muskrat. Recent Neofiber alleni struix Schwartz. 1952. Recent Family Murmar.—Old World Rats and Mice. Rattus rattus rattus (Linnaeus). 1758.—Black Rat. Recent Rattus rattus alexandrinus (Geoftrey). 1803.— Roof Rat. Recent Rattus rattus frugivorus (Rafinesque). 1814.—Fruit Rat. Recent Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben). 1777.—Norway Rat. Recent Mus musculus domesticus Rutty. 1772.—House Mouse. Recent Mus musculus brevirostris Waterhouse. 1837.—Southern House Mouse. Recent Order LAGOMORPHA—Rabbits, Cotton-tails, Hares, Pikes, etc. Family LrErpormar.—Rabbits, Cotton-tails, Hares, etc. Sylvilagus sp. Sellards. 1916. Pleistocene Sylvilagus palustrellus Gazin, 1950.—Pigmy Marsh Rabbit Pleistocene Sylvilagus floridanus floridanus (J. A. Allen). 1890. Florida Cotton-tail. Pleistocene— Recent Sylvilagus floridanus ammophilus A. H. Howell. 1989. Beach Cotton-tail. Recent Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus (Thomas). 1898.—Eastern Cotton-tail. Recent Sylvilagus palustris palustris (Bachman). 1837. Carolina Marsh Rabbit. Pleistocene— Recent Sylvilagus palustris paludicola (Miller and Bangs). 1894. Florida Marsh Rabbit. Recent BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 95 Order EDENTATA.—Armadillos, Sloths, Anteaters, etc. Family GLYPTODONTIDAE. Boreostracon floridanus Simpson. 1929.—Tortoise Armadillo. Pleistocene Family MEGATHERIIDAE. Megatherium hudsoni White. 1941.—Giant Ground Sloth. Pleistocene Family MEGALONCHYIDAE. Megalonyx jeffersonii (Desmarest). 1822. Jefferson Ground Sloth. Pleistocene Megalonyx wheatleyi Cope. 1871. Wheatley’s Ground Sloth. Pleistocene Family MYLODONTIDAE. Paramylodon harlani Owen. 1842.—Harlan’s Ground Sloth. Pleistocene Thinobadistes segnis Hay. 1919.—Ground Sloth. Pleistocene Family DasyropipAr.—Armadillos. Holmesina septentrionale (Leidy). 1889a. Northern Giant Armadillo. Pleistocene Dasypus bellus (Simpson). 1929.—Armadillo. Pleistocene Dasypus novemcinctus mexicanus Peters. 1864. Nine-banded Armadillo. Recent Order PROBOSCIDEA.—Elephants, Mastodons, etc. Family GOMPHOTHERIIDAE. | | Serridentinus floridanus (Leidy). 1886.—Serrate-toothed Mastodon Pliocene Serridentinus leidii Frick. 1926.—Serrate-toothed Mastodon. Pliocene Serridentinus brewsterensis. Osborn. 1927. Serrate-toothed Mastodon. Pliocene Serridentinus simplicidens. Osborn. 19238. Serrate-toothed Mastodon. Pliocene Family MAMMUTIDAE. Mammut sellardsi (Simpson). 1930.—Sellard’s Mastodon. Pliocene 96 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mammut americanum Kerr. 1792.—American Mastodon. Pleistocene Family ELEPHANTIDAE. Mammuthus floridanus (Osborn). 1929——Mammoth. Pleistocene Mammuthus imperator (Leidy). 1858.—Imperial Mammoth. Pleistocene Mammuthus columbi (Falconer). 1857.—Columbian Mammoth. Pleistocene Order PERISSODACTYLA.—Odd-toed Ungulates. Family Eguipar.—Horses. Anchitherium clarencei Simpson. 1932.—Three-toed Horse. Miocene Archaeohippus blackbergi (Hay). 1924.—Three-toed Horse. Miocene Parahippus leonensis Sellards. 1916.—Three-toed Horse. Miocene Parahippus barbouri White. 1942.—Three-toed Horse. | Miocene Merychippus gunteri Simpson. 1930.—Three-toed Horse. Miocene Merychippus westoni Simpson. 1930.—Three-toed Horse. Miocene Miohippus sp. White. 1942.—Three-toed Horse. Miocene Nannippus minor (Sellards). 1916.—Three-toed Horse. _— Pliocene Nannippus ingenuus Leidy. 1885.—Three-toed Horse. Pliocene Neohipparion phosphorum Simpson. 1930.—Three-toed Horse. Pliocene Hipparion plicatile Leidy. 1887.—Three-toed Horse. Pliocene Equus sp. See Savage, 1951.—One-toed Horse. Pleistocene Family TarrripaAE.—Tapirs. Tapiravus sp. White. 1942. Miocene Tapirus veroensis Sellard. 1929.—Florida Tapir. Pleistocene Tapirus haysii Leidy. 1852.—Hay’s Tapir. Pleistocene Tapirus copei Simpson. 1945. Pleistocene Tapirus terrestris (Linnaeus). 1758.—American Tapir. Pleistocene Family RurNocerAtTipar.—Rhinoceroses. Caenopus platycephalus (Osborn and Wortman). 1894. Slender-limbed Rhinoceros. : Miocene BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA U7 Diceratherium sp. Simpson. 1932. Teleoceras proterus oy) 1885.—Short-legged Rhinoceros. Aphelops longipes (Leidy). 1890.—Long-footed Rhinoceros. Miocene Pliocene Pliocene Order ARTIODACTYLA.—Even-toed Ungulates. Family ENTELODONTIDAE.—Extinct Giant Pigs. Daeodon (Dinohyus sp.) Simpson. 1930. Family Tayassumar.—Peccaries. Floridachoerus olseni White. 1941. Prosthennops elmorei White. 1942. Tayassu cf. tetragonus (Cope). 1899. Platygonus cf. cumberlandensis Gidley. 1920. Mylohyus gidleyi Simpson. 1929. Mylohyus browni Gidley. 1920. Mylohyus cf. exortivus Gidley. 1920. Mylohyus lenis (Leidy). 1869. Mylohyus pennsylvanicus (Leidy). 1889f. Family CAMELIDAE.—Camels. Oxydactylus floridanus Simpson. 1932.—Giraffe-camel. Miolabis cf. tenuis Simpson. 1932. Megatylopus major (Leidy). 1886.—Extinct Camel. Procamelus minor (Leidy). 1886.—Extinct Camel. Procamelus minimus (Leidy). 1886.—Extinct Camel. Tanupolama mirifica Simpson. 1929.—Extinct Camel. Tanupolama americana (Wortman). 1898.—Extinct Camel. Camelops sp. Simpson. 1932.—Extinct Camel. Family HyPErRTRAGULIDAE.—Pigmy Deer. Floridatragulus dolichanthereus White. 1940. Floridatragulus barbouri White. 1947. Leptomeryx sp. White. 1947. Hypermekops olseni White. 1942. Family NOTHOKEMADIDAE. Nothokemas grandis (White). 1947. Miocene Miocene Pliocene Pleistocene Pleistocene Pleistocene Pleistocene Pleistocene Pleistocene Pleistocene Miocene Miocene Pliocene Pliocene Pliocene Pleistocene Pleistocene Pleistocene Miocene Miocene Miocene Miocene Miocene 98 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Family PROTOCERATIDAE. Synthetoceras douglasi White. 1947. Miocene Syndyoceras australis White. 1941. Miocene Family CerviarE.—Deer, Elk, Moose, etc. Machaeromeryx gilchristensis White. 1940. Miocene Dromomeryx cf. americanus Simpson. 1932. Miocene Blastomeryx floridanus (White). 1940. Miocene Blastomeryx cf. marshi Simpson. 1932. Miocene Blastocerus extransus Simpson. 1928. Pleistocene Cervus sp. Gazin. 1950. Pleistocene Odocoileus sellardsiae Hay. 1917.—Sellard’s Deer. > Pleistocene Odocioleus virginanus virginianus (Boddaert). 1784. Virginia Deer. Recent Odocoileus virginianus osceola (Bangs). 1896.—Florida White-tailed Deer. Recent Odocioleus virginianus seminolus Goldman and Kellogg. 1940.—Seminole White-tailed Deer. ‘Recent Odocioleus virginianus clavium Barbour and Allen. 1922. Key, Deer Recent Family OREODONTIDAE. Genus undetermined. Simpson, 1932. Miocene Family Bovipar.—Bison, Cattle, Sheep, Goats, etc. Bison latifrons (Harlan). 1825.—Broad-headed Bison. Pleistocene Bison bison (Linnaeus). 1758.—Bison. Recent Order SIRENIA.—Sea Cows, Manatees, and Dugongs. Family DuconcmaE.—Dugongs. Hesperosiren crataegensis Simpson. 1932.—Extinct Dugong. Miocene Felsinotherium floridanum (Hay). 1922.—Extinct Dugong. . Miocene Family TricHECHIDAE.—Manatees, Sea Cows. Trichechus sp. Simpson. 1929c. Pleistocene Trichechus manatus latirostris (Harlan). 1823. American Manatee. : Recent BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 99 Order CETACEA.—Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. Family BastLOSAURIDAE. Basilosaurus brachyspondylus Sellards. 1916. Eocene Basilosaurus cetoides Sellards. 1916. Eocene Family PLATANISTIDAE.—River Dolphins. Goniodelphis hudsoni G. M. Allen, 1941.—River Dolphin Miocene or Pliocene Family ZreHmpAE.—Beaked Whales. Mesoplodon europaeus (Gervais). 1848-52. Gervais’ Whale. Recent Ziphius cavirostris G. Cuvier. 1823.—Cuvier’s Beaked Whale. Recent Family PHyseTERmDAE.—Sperm Whales. Hoplocetus sp. Kellogg. 1944. Pliocene Kogiopsis floridanus Kellogg. 1929.—Small Sperm Whale. 5 Pliocene Kogia breviceps (Blainville). 1838.—Pygmy Sperm Whale. Recent Physeter catodon Linnaeus. 1758.—Cachalot, Sperm Whale. Recent Family ACRODELPHIDAE. Pomatodelphis inequalis G. M. Allen, 1921.—Long-beaked Porpoise. Miocene Schizodelphis bobengi Case, 1934.—Long-beaked Porpoise. Miocene Schizodelphis depressus G. M. Allen. 1921. —Long-beaked Porpoise. Miocene Family DELPHINmAE.—Dolphins, Killer Whales, Blackfish, etc. Megalodelphis magnidens Kellogg, 1944. Miocene Globicephala baereckeii Sellards. 1916. Pleistocene Globicephala macrorhyncha (Gray) 1846.—Blackfish, Pilot. Whale. : Recent Steno rostrata Gray. 1846.—Rough-toothed Dolphin. Recent Stenella plagiodon (Cope). 1866.—Spotted Dolphin. Recent Stenella frontalis (G. Cuvier). 1829.—Bridled Dolphin. Recent 100 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Stenella longirostris (Gray). 1828.— l.ong-beaked Dolphin. Recent Delphinus delphis Linnaeus. 1758—Common Dolphin. Recent Tursiops truncatus (Montague). 1821.—Bottle-nosed Dolphin. Recent Grampus orca (Linneaus). 1758.—Killer Whale. Recent Pseudorca crassidens (Owen).—False Killer. Recent Family CETOTHERIIDAE. Isocetus species? Kellogg. 1944. Miocene Mesocetus species? Kellogg. 1944. Miocene Family BALAENOPTERIDAE.—Whalebone Whales. Balaenoptera floridana Kellogg. 1944. Pliocene Balaenoptera physalis (Linnaeus). 1758.—Finback. Recent Balaenoptera borealis Lesson. 1828.—Sei Whale, Pollack Whale. Recent Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepede. 1804.—Pike Whale. Recent Megaptera nodosa (Bonaterre). 1789.—Humpbacked Whale. Recent Family BaLaenrpaE.—Whalebone_ Whales. Fubalaena glacialis (Bonaterre). 1789.—North Atlantic Right Whale. Recent A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA, LiviNG AND EXTINCT ACOSTA, JOSEPH DE 1590. Historie naturel et moral de las Indies. Seville. (English translation revised by Clements R. Markham, Hakluyt Soc. London, 1880). ALLEN, E. ROSS 1950. Notes on the Florida panther, Felis concolor coryi Bangs., Jour. Mamm., 31(3): 279-280. ALLEN, E. ROSS and WILFRED T. NEILL 1952. Notes on the abundance of the Everglades mink. Jour. Mamm., 33(1): 113-114. ALLEN, G. M. 1916a. Bats of the genus Corynorhinus. Harvard Univ., Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 60(9): 333-353:;1 pl. 1916b. The whalebone whales of New England. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 8(2): 107-322; pls. 8-16, figs. 1-12. 1920. An insular race of cotton rat from the Florida ae Jour. Mamm., 1(5): 235-236. 1G Ya lie 1923. 1925. 1932. 1933. 1939. 194]a. 1941b. 1942. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 101 Fossil cetaceans from the Florida phosphate beds. Jour. Mamm., 2(3): 144-160. Additional remains of the fossil dugong of Florida. Jour. Mamm., 4(4): 231-239; 7 figs. The bridled dolphin (Prodelphinus froenatus) on the Florida coast. Jour. Mamm., 6(1): 59. A Pleistocene bat from Florida. Jour. Mamm., 13(3): 256-259. Geographic variation in the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus). The Canadian Field-Nat., 47(2): 31-32. Bats. Harvard Univ. Press. Pygmy sperm whale in the Atlantic. Field Mus. Pub. Zool., 27: 17-36; 1 pl., 2 text figs. A fossil river dolphin from Florida. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 89(1): 4-8; 3 pls. Extinct and vanishing mammals of the Western Hemisphere with the marine species of all the oceans. xv. — 620, 24 ill., Amer. Committee for International Wildlife Protection. Lancaster, Pa. ALLEN, HARRISON 1864. Monograph of the bats of North America. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 165: xxiii + 85; 68 figs. ; 1893. A Monograph of the Bats of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., (43). ALIGEN, J. A. 1871. On the mammals and winter birds of east Florida, etc. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 2: mammals, 11-185. 1880. History of the North Amer. Pinnipeds. Misc’l. Pub. (12) U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Territories. 1890. Descriptions of a new species and a new subspecies of the genus Lepus. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3: 159-160. 1895, On the species of the genus Reithrodontomys. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hast. de LOT-149- 1898. The mammals of Florida. Amer. Nat., 32: 433-436. 1901. A preliminary study of the North American oppossums of the genus Didelphis. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14: 149-188. 1908. The North Atlantic right whale and its near allies. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 24: 277-329; pls. xix-xxiv. ALLEN, ROBERT P. 1951. Can we save the key deer? Nat. Hist., 60(2): 79-83. ANDERSON, KNUD 1908. A monograph of the chiropteran genera Uroderma, Euchisthenes, and Artibeus. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 205-319. ANDREWS, R. C. 1916. Monographs of the Pacific Cetacea II. The sei whale. Memo:rs Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 2: 291-388; pls. 29-42, text figs. 1-38. 102 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ANTHONY, H. E. 1928. Field book of North American mammals. G. P. Putman’s Sons, New York. ARMSTRONG, CHARLES 1939. The experimental transmission of poliomylitis to the eastern cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus hispidus. Public Health Reports, Washing- ton, D. C., 54 (38): 1719-1721. September 22, 1939. ASDELL, S. A. 1946. Patterns of mammalian reproduction. Comstock Pub. Ce. AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES and JOHN BACHMAN 1841. Descriptions of new species of North American quadrupeds. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1: 92-103. 1846, 1851, and 1854. The viviparous quadrupeds of North America. 83 vols. BACHMAN, JOHN 1837a. Description of a new species of hare (Lepus palustris) found in South Carolina. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7(2): 1394-199; PIS eeliGerres elo) eandiliGenigselmamcde2: 1837b. Some remarks on the genus. Sorex with a monograph of the North American species. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7(2): 362-402; pls. 23-24. BAILEY, H. H. 1924. The armadillo in Florida and how it reached there. Jour. Mamm., 5(4): 264-265. 1930. Correcting inaccurate ranges of certain Florida mammals and others of Virginia and the Carolinas. Bull. 5, Bailey Mus. and Lib. Nat. Hist., Miami. 1933. Coyotes, (Canis latrans) in Florida. Bull. 8, Bailey Mus. and Lib. Nat. Hist., Miami. 1937a. Two new North American Mammals. Bull. 12, Bailey Mus. and Lib. Nat. Hist., Miami. 1937b. Change of name of Scirus carolinensis minutus Bailey. Jour. Mamm., 18(4): 516. . BAILEY, VERNON 1895. The Pocket Gophers of the United States. Bull. 5, Div. of Orni- thology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1900. Revision of the American voles of the genus Microtus, N. Am. Fauna, (17): 1-88; 5 pls., 17 figs. U. S. Dept. Agric. 1902. Synopsis of the North American species of Sigmodon. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 15: 101-116. 1905. Biological Survey of Texas. N. Am. Fauna, (25): 1-22; 16 pls., 24 figs. U.S. Dept. Agric. BAIRD, SPENCER FULLERTON 1859. Mammals of North America; the descriptions of species based chiefly on the collection in the museum of the Smithsonian Institu- tion. J. B. Lippincott and Co., Philadelphia, xxxiv and 764, 87 pls. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 1) BAKER, FRANK C. 1889. Remarks upon the round-tailed muskrat, Neofitber alleni, True. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 271-2738. BANGS, OUTRAM 1894. The geographical distribution of the eastern races of the cotton- tail (Lepus sylvaticus Bach.) with a description of a new sub- species, and with notes on the distribution of the northern hare (Lepus americanus Erxl.) in the east. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 26: 404-414. 1895a. The present standing of the Florida manatee in the Indian River waters. Amer. Nat., 29: 783-787. 1895b. Notes on North American mammals. Synonomy of the eastern skunk, Mephitis mephitica (Shaw), with a description of a new subspecies from Florida. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 26: 529-536. 1896a. A review of the squirrels of eastern North America. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10: 145-167. 1896b. A review of the weasels of eastern North America. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10: 1-24. 1896c. The cotton mouse, Peromyscus gossypinus. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- ington, 10: 119-125. 1896d. The Florida Deer. ‘Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10: 25-28. 1897. 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Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, east and west Florida, the Cherokee Country, the extensive territories of the Muscogulges, or Creek Confederacy, and the country of the Choc- taws. 520. London, Reprinted from original edition, Philadelphia, 1791. 104 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BAUGHMAN, J. L. 1946a. On the occurrence of a rorqual whale on the Texas coast. Jour. Mamm., 27(4): 392-398. 1946b. Some early notices on American manatees and the mode of their capture. Jour. Mamm., 27(8): 234-239. BEAUVOIS, PALISOT, DE 1796. Catalogue Raisonne Mus. Peale, Philadelphia. BEDDARD, F. E. 1900. A Book of Whales. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, N. Y. BLAINVILLE, M. H. DE 1838. Annales Francaises et Etrangeres d’anatomie et de Physiologie, appliquees a la Medecine et a lhistoire naturelle: par Mm. Laurent, Bazin, Hollard, Coste, Gervais et Jacquemart. Ann. d Anat. eb de Ehysiol. 2) 330-301, plu Xx BLAIR, W. FRANK 1935a. Some mammals from southern Florida. Amer. Midland Nat. 16: 801-804. 1935b. The mammals of a Florida hammock. Jour. Mamm., 16(4): 271-277. 1936a. The Florida marsh rabbit. Jour. Mamm., 17(3): 197-207. 1936b. The gopher mouse—Peromyscus floridanus. Jour. Mamm., 17(4): 429-493, 1943. Criteria for species and their subdivisions from the point of view of genetics. Trans. New York Acad. Sci., 44: 179-188. 1944. Inheritance of the white-cheek character in mice of the genus Peromyscus. Contr. Lab. Vert. Biol., 25: 1-7; 1 pl. 1946. An estimate of the total number of beach mice of the subspecies Peromyscus polionotus leucocephalus occupying Santa Rosa Island, Florida. Amer. Nat., 80: 665-668. 1950. Ecological factors in speciation of Peromyscus. Evolution, 4(3): DEO) 195la. Population structure, social behavior, and environmental relations in a natural population of the beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus leucocephalus) Univ. of Michigan. Contrib. Lab. Vert. Biol., (48): 1-47, 195lb. Interbreeding of natural populations of vertebrates. Amer. Nat., 85(820): 9-30. BLAIR, W. FRANK and WALTER E. HOWARD 1944. Experimental evidence of sexual isolation between three forms of mice of the cenospecies Peromyscus maniculatus. Contr. Lab. Vert. Biol., 25: 1-19. BODDAERT, P. 1784. Eleuchus Animalium. 1. BONATERRE, L’ABBE 1789. Cetologie. Tableau encyclopedique et methodique des trois Regnes de la nature. Paris. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 105 BRIGHAM, GEORGE D. 1937. Susceptibility of animals to endemic typhus fever. Public Health Reports. Washington, D. C., 52 (21): 660-662. BRIMLEY, H. H. 1937. The false killer whale on the North Carolina coast. Jour. Mamm.., 18(1): 71-73. CAHALANE, VICTOR H. 1947. Mammals of North America. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1948. The status of mammals in the U. S. National Park System. Jour. Mamm., 29(8): 247-259. CAHN, A. R. 1940. Manatees and the Florida freeze. Jour. Mamm., 21(2): 222-223. CAMP, CHARLES L. and VERTRESS LAWRENCE VAN DER HOOF 1940. Bibliography of Fossil vertebrates. 1928-1933. Geol. Soc. Amer., spec. paper no. 27, 508. CAMP, CHARLES L., D. N. TAYLOR and S. P. WELLS. 1942. Bibliography of fossil vertebrates. 1934-1938. Geol. Soc. Amer., spec. paper no. 42, 663. CARR, A. F., JR. 1939. Notes on escape behavior in the. Florida marsh rabbit. Jour. Mamm., 20(3): 322-325. CARR, CARLYLE 1936. Cotton rat control in Florida. Circ. 41, Univ. Florida Agric. Ex- tension Serv., 8 pp., 5 figs. CASE, E. C. 1934. A specimen of the long-nosed dolphin from the bone valley gravels of Polk County, Florida. Contr. Mus. Paleont. Univ. Mich., 4: 105-118, 2 pls. CHAMBERLAIN, T. C. 1917a. Interpretation of the formations containing human bones at Vero, Fla> Jour. Geol., 25: 25-39. 1917b. Further studies at Vero, Fla. Jour. Geol. 25: 667-683. CHANDLER, ASA C. ; 1947. Notes. on Moniliformis clarki in North American squirrels. Jour. Parisitology, 33(3): 278-281. CHAPMAN, FRANK M. 1889a. Description of a new species of Sigmodon from southern Florida. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 2: 118. 1889b. Preliminary descriptions of two apparently new species of the genus Hesperus from Florida. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., I: ARMA . 1889c. On the habits of the round-tailed muskrat (Neofiber alleni True). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 2(8): 119-122. 1893a. Description of a new subspecies of Oryzomys from the Gulf States. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5: 43-46. 106 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1893b. Description of two new races of mammals from Florida, with remarks on Sitomys niveiventris Chapman. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5: 339-341. 1894. Remarks on certain land mammals from Florida, with a list of species known to occur in the state. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 6: 333-346. 1943. Everglades Islet. Audubon Magazine, 45: 19-25; map, 3 photos. CHRISTY, BAYARD H. 1928. Bird notes from southern Florida. Auk, 45(8): 283-289. COLBERT, E. H. 1932. Aphelops from the Hawthorn Miocene of Florida. Bull. Florida Geol. Surv., 10: 55-58; 1 fig. CONNERY, HACK H. 1932. Recent find of mammoth remains in the Quarternary of Florida, together with arrowhead. Science (n.s.) 75: 516. COOKE, C. WYTHE 1926. Fossil man and Pleistocene vertebrates in Florida. Amer. Jour. Sci., Ser. 5, 12: 441-452. 1928. The stratigraphy and age of the Pleistocene deposits in Florida from which human bones have been reported. Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 18: 414-421. 1941. Pleistocene man in Florida. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 52: 1998, (abs). 1945. Geology of Florida. Geol. Bull., 29, Florida Geol. Surv. COOKE, C. WYTHE and S. MOSSOM 1929. Geology of Florida. Ann. Rept. Florida Sta. Geol. Surv., 20: 29-227, COPE, EDWARD D. 1866. Third contribut‘on to the history of the Balaenidae and Delphinidae. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 296. 1889a. An intermediate Pliocene Fauna. Amer. Nat., 23: 258-254. 1889b. The Edentata of North America. Amer. Nat., 23: 657-664. 1892a. (Note on the fossils of the Alachua Clays) contained in U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull., 84: 130. 1892b. On the phylogeny of the Vertebrata. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 30; 278-279. 1895. The fossil Vertebrata from the fissure at Port Kennedy, Pa. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 446-450. 1896. On some Pleistocene Mammalia from Petite Anse, La. Proce. Amer. Philos. Soc., 34: 458-468; pls. x-xii. CORYes Gb: 1896. Hunting and Fishing in Florida. Estes and Lauriat, Boston. COUES, ELLIOTT 1871. Progress of American ornithology. Amer. Nat., 5: 364. 1877. Fur-bearing animals; a monograph of North American Mustelidae. Department of the Interior, Misc, Publ., 8: xiv and 348, 20 pls. 1896. The Nation, 63, p. 404, Unsigned. (% Barbour & Allen 1922). BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 107 COUES, ELLIOTT and JOEL ASAPHA ALLEN 1877. Monographs of North American Rodentia. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. of the Territories. XI: 1091. Appendix B. Material for a bibliog- raphy of North American mammals, by Theodore Gill and Elliott Coues, 951-1081. CUVIER, F. 1832. Essai de classification naturelle des vespertilions, et description de plusiers especes de ce genre, Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, ie Es CUVIER, G. 1829. La Regne Animal. Nouv. ed. DALI W..H. . 1887. Notes on the Geology of Florida. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3) xxxiv: 161-170. 1891.. On the age of the Peace Creek Beds, Florida, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. 120. DALL, W. H. and G. D. HARRIS. 1892. Correlation papers: Neocene of North America. U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 84. DE POURTALES, L. F. 1877. Hints on the origin of the flora and fauna of the Florida Keys. Amer. Nat., 11: 137-144. DESMAREST 1822 Mammalogie. DICE, LEE R. 1940. Relationships between the wood-mouse and the cotton-mouse in eastern Virginia. Jour. Mamm., 21(1): 14-28. ELLIOTT, D. G. 1901. i aay y ‘ Eppa, gee PEERS Seacoast EEE ; é Ree gS ce 8 ite Uortmmelnat Br Fe NEC et a a Mie ute Lie (ely une nyo =e ¥ y he Se - ts ‘ ‘ F ! yas ¢ *. iF Bea Pi oe + ae ; i an 2 f =| 5 = — @ j f ko és . € ui , mat = o SY ora a a ‘ f z “3 u ~— a on - be = 3 ¢ 2 2 ; fs ay ~~ rm re y “ ~~ Us / = o \ | & io i ~ - = 7. ¢ = ~ rc co < , j ‘ a ee _ a“ : p : AP ie a i { 4 eit - —— 3 “ 1 = : 4 iF : U ” > - = ‘ : — An } u st Me ae i 4 * , mi “ ule = = ’ be 0 : ' Joy i z = y = Pes . , i ee + Pie oi - ee F hs x i (ae ay pr as ee F vl 1 + s a ae a 4 = eo: + 4 ‘3 yn ~ ‘ Bn “ e = wy J 7 z + Wo 3 atinass i, 1 & _ ~ \ - Cae 1 * we L bY INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Contributions to the JourNaL may be in any of the fields of Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. 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The Journat does not furnish any free reprints to the author. Payment for reprints will be made by the author directly to the printer. QOuarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 15 December 1952 No. 4 Contents Pearse—Parasitic Crustaceans from Alligator Harbor, MUNIN ABCHRE ISG See Ne det Rem et a a 187 meen to. Volume Lp to 944 Voi. 15 DECEMBER, 1952 No. 4 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed April 11, 1953 foe QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA: ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 15 DECEMBER, 1952 No. 4 PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR, FLORIDA A. S. PEARSE Duke University From April 16 to June 16, 1952 the writer worked at the Oceano- graphic Institute of the Florida State University at Alligator Harbor. The Director, Dr. Harold J. Humm, did everything he could to further my search for parasitic crustaceans. The caretaker at the Institute, Richard Durant, also helped materially in the collection of hosts. Professor Franklin Olson, William Hargis, Charles Yentsch, Edward Joseph, and others helped in the collection and identification of hosts. Dr. Fenner Chace of the United States National Museum gave free access to OB. Wilson’s collection of copepods and their literature. Grateful acknowledgment is made to these persons. An account of the commensals and parasites ob- served follows. Order COPEPODA Suborder ARGULONMDA Family ARGULIDAE Argulus americanus Wilson A single female was taken from the outside of the head of a bony gar, Lepisosteus osseus (L.). Argulus laticauda Smith Ten females were taken from the skin and mouths of nine stingarees, Dasyatis sabina (Le Sueur). Argulus megalops Smith A single female was collected from the gills of six toadfishes, Opsanus tau (L.). 188 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Argulus varians Bere Two females were taken from the skin of a bat-fish, Ogcocephalus nasutus Ginsberg, and from a spiny boxfish, Chilomycterus schoepft (Walbaum). Suborder NoToDELPHYOIDA Family MYICOLIDAE Pseudomyicola glabra Pearse Fourteen females were collected from ten oysters, Ostrea virginica Gmelin. Family DOROPYGIDAE Doropygus molgulensis n. sp. Figure 1 Host.—Several females were taken from the branchial cavity of ascidians, Molgula occidentalis Traustedt, trawled in Alligator Har- bor on June 3. Female——Head elongated and turned down very little. First thoracic segment shorter than those that follow. Incuba- tory pouch inflated and rounded dorsally; eggs large, 46 in number, urosome 4- segmented, fourth segment shortest; genital segment long- er than any im the abdomen. Caudal rami slender, with two terminal setae, more than twice as long as last abdominal segment. First antennae 9-segmented; basal segment longer than wide, the base wider than distal end; second segment wider than long, as are the third, fourth and fifth; sixth segment as wide as long; seventh and eighth wider than long; ninth longer than wide; the basal segment has a stout anterior seta; segments 2-8 are setose on Fig. 1. Doropygus molgulensis n. sp. - PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 189 the anterior margins, 9 is also setose at tip. Second antennae slender, 4-segmented; all segments longer than wide and about equal in length; stout setae near the distal end of the second and fourth segments; a curved terminal hook at the distal end of the fourth. The legs are all biramous and have 3-segmented rami, except the first in which the endopod is 2-segmented, the terminal segment strongly tapering. Fifth leg 2-segmented, the terminal segment three times as long as the basal and with five equally spaced short setae on the distal two-thirds of the anterior border and a longer and a shorter terminal seta; also a short seta on the posterior border of the basal segment. Length.—1.3 mm. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93714. Male.—Unknown. This species is somewhat like Wilson’s (1932) D. laticornis, but is smaller in size, has longer caudal rami, different segmentation of the endopods of the first and second legs. Doropygus robustus n. sp. Figures 2-8 Hosts.—Seventeen females were taken from the branchial cavi- ties of thirty-five ascidians, Styelia plicata (Le Sueur), dredged in Alligator Harbor. Female.—Head turned ventrally; the front with a short rounded process, the dorsal posterior corner angulate. Thoracic segments not clearly defined, except along the ventral margin; first segment shortest, second segment a little longer, third and fourth segments a trifle longer and about equal in length. Incubatory pouch much inflated dorsally and containing more than 700 eggs. Genital seg- ment mostly covered by the brood pouch. Abdomen 3-segmented, the segments increase in length slightly from front to rear and decrease slightly in width; last segment indented to anus and minutely spinulose at tip. Caudal rami slender, tapering, two- thirds as long as anal segment, with three short setae at tip. First antennae 3-segmented; basal segment wider than long, tapered; second about the same length as the basal, but tapered, armed with a small curved spine at tip; two terminal segments minutely spinulose; segments poorly defined. Second antenna 3- 199 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES segmented, the second segment longest; terminal curved hook with an expanded base. A) senor LS SS | i 6 7 8 & Figs. 2-8. Doropygus robustus n. sp. 2, side view of female; 3, exopod of first leg; 4, fifth leg; 5, endopod of second leg; 6, third leg; 7, first antenna; 8, second antenna. First legs biramous, rami 38-segmented; with long plumose setae:—exopod (Fig. 3): 1, 1, 6, and a spinulose tip; endopod: 1, 1, 7. Legs 2-4 are biramous; exopods all 3-segmented, segments increasing somewhat from proximal to distal, minutely setose and with about three small spines at and near tip; endopods (Fig. 6) slightly more than a third the length of the exopods, unsegmented, with spines at tip and on margins. Fifth legs short, wide, uniram- ous, 2-segmented, with three curved spines at tip. _ PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR _ 191 Length of body, 5.7 mm. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 98715. Male.—Unknown. This species differs from other notodelphids in the great extent of the brood pouch, the rudimentary character of the endopods of legs 2-4, the lack of setae on the caudal rami, and the large number of eggs in the brood pouch. Suborder CycLOpomDa Family ERGASILIDAE Ergasilus lizae Kryer Fourteen large females were taken from the gills of the striped mullet, Mugil cephalus L., and thirteen from those of the white mullet, Mugil curema Curier & Valiencennes. Ergasilus mugilis Vogt Fifty-nine were taken from the gills of twenty-one striped mullet, Mugil cephalus L. Family BOMOLOCHIDAE Tucca impressus Kryer Fourteen females and males were taken from the gills of four spiny boxfishes, Chilomycterus schoepfi (Wallbaum). Bomolochus achirus n. sp. Figures 9-13 Hosts.—Six females, a male, and a young male were taken from the gills of thirteen hog chokers, Achirus fasciatus Lacepede, col- lected in Alligator Harbor. Female.—Cephalothorax almost twice as wide as long (1.0-0.51 mm.). First thoracic segment fused with head and separated by deep lateral sinuses from the second segment. Cephalon rounded in front; separation from first thoracic segment indicated by lateral indentations; first segment almost as wide as cephalon; second seg- ment much narrower than first (0.8-0.52 mm.); third, fourth and fifth segments progressively narrower. Genital segment not as wide as preceding segment. Abdomen slender, 3-segmented, seg- ments shorter toward posterior; caudal appendages a little longer than preceding segment, with a short lateral seta near base and a 192 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ah Bs So Alh Er Ee, oy UY ae ae (Varese 4H oad 1S Ger a) | (2 I SF TY Figs. 9-13. Bomolochus achirus n. sp. 9, female; 10, second antenna; 11, fifth leg; 12, posterior end of male; 13, maxilliped of male. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR — 1938 short, intermediate, and a very long terminal seta. Egg strings (1.2 mm.) reach almost to tip of long setae on caudal appendages. First antennae long and slender, setose and spinulose on anterior border; one long forwardly directed seta on the base and one back- wardly directed at the tip of the base. Two small spines occur between the bases of the antennae. Second antenna stout, a cor- rugated finger-like process at its tip; the terminal segment with a curved spine near its base and three more slender curved spines at its tip. The second segment has a stout lateral seta near its tip. The mandibles lie along the posterior border of the upper lip and terminate in a single spine. The first maxilla ends in two stout setae. The second maxilla ends in a single smooth spine. The maxilliped has a stout basal segment and an s-shaped sharp terminal claw which bears a stout basal seta and a sharp lateral hook; the basal segment bears two spines, a stout one at its base and a more slender setose one on its inner margin. All the swimming legs are biramous and have 3-segmented rami. The fifth legs are 2-segmented with a lateral and three terminal setae; the lateral margin is minutely setose throughout and the median margin on its distal fourth. Length of female, 2.59 mm.; width of cephalothorax, 1.24 mm., length, 0.95 mm.; length of abdomen, 0.9 mm.; length of egg strings, 1.62 mm. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93716. Male.—The body is much smaller than that of the female. The cephalothorax is longer than wide. The second maxillae end in strong curved hooks. The maxillipeds end in a single strong curved hook which is finely spinulose along its entire inner margin; the preceding segment is spinulose on its inner basal third and bears a seta on its distal angle. The swimming legs are similar to those of the female. The abdomen is also 3-segmented but the first seg- ment is shortest and the middle segment longest. The genital seg- ment bears a small appendage with a single terminal seta at its posterior corners. The caudal rami are similar to those of the fe- male. Type.—U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 938717. Length of male, 1.24 mm.; width of cephalothorax, 0.42 mm., length, 0.35 mm.; length of abdomen, 0.4 mm. This species differs strikingly from other in the genus Bomolochus 194 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in the shape of its cephalothorax, the proportions of the male and female abdominal segments. It differs from Wilson’s (1913) B. nothrus and B. attenuatus that he described from the West Indies in the number of segments in the exopod of the first swimming legs, the length of the abdomen, the shape of the cephalothorax, and the size of the abdomen in relation to the egg strings. It is named for its host, Achirus fasciatus Lacepede. Bomolochus mugilis n. sp. Figures 14-17 Hosts.—Eight females were taken from the gills of twenty-one mullet, Mugil cephalus L., from Alligator Harbor on May 7. Female.—Cephalic segments rounded in front, about twice as wide as long. Metasome segments decrease in width posteriorly. Genital segment about as wide as preceding segment. Abdomen 3-segmented; second segment shortest; third segment longest. Caudal rami about as long as preceding segment; with a short lateral, two short and two long terminal setae. Ovisacs with 3-4 eggs across, about the same length as the body (2.1 mm.). First antenna densely setose at base and segments not easily ob- served; setae spinulose near base and slender near tip; one very long seta near the end of the densely setose basal portion. Second antenna with a smooth basal segment, rugose second segment with a row of small lateral spines with recurved tips, and a bifid terminal rugose segment with one and three spines at the tips of the branches. There is also a terminal seta. The mandibles are slender and turned under the upper lip. The first maxilla is more robust and ends in three stout setae. The second maxilla has a stout backwardly directed basal segment and ends in two setose tapering segments. The maxilliped has a wide triangular basal segment; the terminal claw is S-shaped, has a sharp lateral spine and a long plumose seta that arises near its base. The first legs have 3-segmented rami; those of the endopod are very wide, the terminal segment bears five plumose setae, the first and second segments each bear one; the exopod bears 0, 1, and 5 plumose setae. The 2, 3, and 4 legs have 3-segmented rami; the endopod of the second legs has very wide segments with 0, 2, and 5 setae; three of those of the last segment are plumose, stout and PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR — 195 Figs. 14-17. Bomolochus mugilis n. sp. 14, female; 15, second antenna; 16, second maxilliped; 17, seta from endopod of third leg. 196 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES long, the other two are short. The plumose setae on the endopods of the second legs are peculiar in having setae across them near the base (Fig. 17). The fifth legs are 2-segmented, with one lateral and three short terminal setae. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93728. Male.—Unknown. Length of body, 2.1 mm.; width of cephalon, 1-2 mm.; length of egg strings, 2.1 mm., width, 0.3 mm. This species is somewhat like Wilson’s (1913) Bomolochus at- tenuatus but differs in that it has a shorter abdomen and longer egg strings; the first legs have 3-segmented rami; the second anten- nae differ in their armature. From his B. nothrus it differs in the shorter egg strings, the 3-segmented exopod of the first legs, the termination and armature of the second antennae, and the presence of a longer plumose seta on the maxilliped. From Wilson’s (1932) B. albidus it differs in possessing a 2-segmented fifth leg, a different terminal spine on its maxilliped, and a quite different second antenna. From his (1911) B. teres in not having 4-segmented exo- pods on the 2, 3, and 4 legs. From his (1911) B. nitidus from the same host in the segmentation of the legs, the length and character of the egg strings, and the character of the second antennae. Suborder CaLicompA Family CALIGIDAE Caligus bifurcatus n. sp. Figures 18-28 Host.—Two males and a female were taken from the skin of three shark remoras, Echeneis naucrates L., that were caught in the Gulf by a whistle buoy offshore on June 10, 1952. Female.—Carapace a little longer than wide. Frontal plates rather narrow; lunules shallow, well separated. Posterior sinuses narrow and nearly closed posteriorly. Median lobe not projecting beyond the lateral lobes. Free thoracic segment short, constricted at both ends. Genital segment narrowed in front, with two rounded lateral lobes behind; these bear a short leg that has two setae and two short stout spines. Abdomen straight and 1-segmented, about half as long as genital segment, twice as long as wide. Caudal PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 197 rami half as long as the abdomen, with three long and three short plumose setae, all shorter than the ramus. Egg strings slightly longer than the genital segment and abdomen; with about twenty- three eggs. ta @. mz Ch i/ e. ee i; > CLS oe an 2 & K Ri KK CUNY Figs. 18-28. Caligus bifurcatus n. sp. 18, female; 19, second antenna; 20, maxilliped; 21, furca; 22, caudal ramus; 23, fourth leg; 24, male second an- tenna; 25, first maxilla; 26, posterior end of male; 27, posterior sinus; 28, maxilliped. 198 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The first antenna is short; the terminal segment shorter than the preceding one. Behind each frontal plate is a strong accessory spine. Second antenna with a wide basal segment and a slender curved terminal one which bears a seta near its middle; terminal hook short and sharp. First and second maxillae are blunt slightly curved spines, the former with two minute separate setae on its base and the latter with a small bulb which bears two little setae. The first maxillipeds are slender and of the usual form. Second maxillipeds have a triangular depression on their bases; terminal hook curved, sharp, with a seta near its middle, less than half as long as basal segment. Furca with two biramous divergent branches, a rounded anterior loop which has two conical lateral processes. First two swimming legs of the usual form. Third legs short and wide with the hook on the posterior border. Fourth leg with a very wide basal segment; three terminal segments short with five short spines. Fifth legs with two short strong spines and two short setae. Length of body, 4.8 mm.; carapace length, 2.2 mm., width, 2.1 mm.; abdomen length, 0.6 mm., width, 0.2 mm.; genital segment length, 1.3 mm., width, 1.2 mm. Male.—Similar to female except as follows. Cephalothorax wider than long. Accessory frontal spines are longer than those of female. First maxilla bears a tubercle on the anterior border. The second antenna has corrugated areas on the two first segments, and the terminal hook has an accessory lateral hook. The genital segment bears two pairs of small lateral appendages near the pos- terior end, each with three or four terminal setae. Abdomen 2- segmented, the first segment about a sixth as long as the second. Length of body, 3.2 mm.; carapace length, 2.0 mm., width 2.1 mm.; genital segment length, 0.5 mm., width, 0.5 mm. Types.—Male and female, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93713. - This species is given its specific name for the bifid branches on the furca, which differ from all other members of the genus Caligus. The species is further distinguished by the broad base and small spines on the other segments of the fourth legs. The fifth legs of the female are also distinctive. The furca remotely resembles those of Lepeophtheirus bifurcatus Wilson (1905) and L. hippoglossi Kr¢yer (1838), but the lunules on the front definitely place it in the genus Caligus. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR _— 199 Caligus amplifurcus n. sp. Figures 29-35 Hosts——A male and a female were taken from two hard tailed jacks, Caranx crysos (Mitchill) from Octakocne Cove on June 12, 1952. Female.—Carapace slightly longer than wide and more than half the entire length, slightly narrower in front. Frontal plates not very wide; lunules projecting very little and directed forward. Posterior sinuses with a sharp angle at the anterolateral corner; median lobe projects behind the lateral lobes. Free thoracic seg- ment short spindle-shaped, about a fourth as wide as the carapace. Genital segment slightly longer than wide, sides nearly straight, somewhat narrowed in front; short rounded lateral lobes at back; a little less than half as long as carapace; two rudimentary legs, posterolateral, with one and two setae. Abdomen wide with straight sides; half as long as genital segment. Caudal rami nearly half as long as abdomen; with three long plumose setae and two short terminal setae. Egg cases more than half as long as the body; with about twenty-two eggs. First antennae short, equal to slightly less than the space be- tween the lunules. Second antenna with a stout and sharp terminal spine that has a brown tip. Maxillae both simple spines; the second with a seta at its base. First maxillipeds slender, with two terminal setae. Second maxilliped rather small and slender; the terminal hook not much curved. The furca is very stout; posterior branches wide, incurved with little space between them; anterior portion with a narrower “waist” that narrows slightly anteriorly and leads to an expanded part that is wider than the posterior branches and bears two anteriorly directed hooks laterally. The legs are not peculiar, except that the first legs are short; the basal segment of the second leg bears a peculiar process with three small terminal hooks; the fourth legs are 3-segmented and bear only four long setae. Length of body, 4.6 mm.; carapace length, 2.2 mm., width 2.1 mm.; length of genital segment, 1.8 mm.; length of egg strings, 2.6 mm. Male.—Much like the female except as follows. Second anten- nae with a stronger, longer terminal hook with two small terminal 200 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES spines and a corrugated area for it to meet on the preceding seg- ment (Fig. 33). The maxillipeds are wider, have a rounded process on the margin proximal to the hook. The abdomen is rather poorly indicated to consist of two segments, the first being shortest. Length of body, 3.1 mm.; carapace length, 2.0 mm., width, 1.7 (arin PEN TS A 30 ie PN 7G = oe x = fm SRA Ww ul Ny ~ = a saa | UO 7 GW RO Figs. 29-35. Caligus amplifurcatus n. sp. 29, female; 30, second antenna; 31, appendage on basal segment of second !eg; 32, furca; 33, male second an- tenna; 34, posterior end of male; 35, second maxilliped. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 201 Types.—vU. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93710. This species differs from others in the genus in its peculiar wide furca, the 3-spined appendages on the second legs,-and the second antennae of the male with its characteristic terminal hook and its corrugated chitinous area. It perhaps remotely resembles Krgyer’s (1863) C. pelamydis but its furca is wider, it has three, not four, segments of its fourth leg, and lacks the appendage on the second leg. Caligus schistonyx Wilson Two were taken from a bony gar, Lepisosteus osseus (L.), and ten from twenty-four striped mullet, Mugil cephalus L. Caligus praetextus Bere Two specimens were taken from stingarees, Dasyatis sabina (Le Sueur), and one from a striped mullet, Mugil cephalus L. Caligus setosus n. sp. Figures 36-39 Host.—Twenty-three individuals were taken from the roof and sides of the mouths of two sea catfishes, Galeichthys felis (L), three from the same situation in six Gulf kingfishes, Menticirrhus littoralis (Holbrook), and a male and a female from a gaff-topsail catfish, Bagre marina (Mitchill). Female.—Carapace less than half the entire length, narrowed in front, anterior border indented in middle. Frontal plates deep. Lunules large, circular, projecting. Posterior sinuses rather wide. Lateral lobes strongly curved inward. Posterior border of carapace nearly straight. Lateral striated area with a sinus near anterior end to receive a lateral appendage. Free thoracic segment short, slightly wider than long.’ Genital segment oval, narrowed anteriorly, with small lateral lobes at posterior end; two lateral setae near posterior margin. Abdomen 1-segmented, shorter than genital seg- ment, with straight sides. Caudal laminae short, with three long and three short setae at tip, setose on inner margin. Egg strings nearly two-thirds as long as body; with 26-30 eggs. First antenna stout and setose. Second antenna rather short; terminal hook sharp. First maxilla small; with a swollen base and a single terminal hook. First maxilliped slender with two terminal, 202 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES curved hooks. Second maxilliped also rather slender; terminal hook with a small seta. Furca with a rounded anterior border that has a slight median notch; posterior branches pointed, incurved, LLELE SIAN Ca A < | = Co co [| Al — — Ani TT PALA LOTT Al KX li wi A aN Figs. 36-39. Caligus setosus n. sp. 36, female; 37, second leg; 38, furca; 39, male. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR — 206 longer than anterior portion; a more delicate triangular projection extends laterally and somewhat posteriorly. First leg short, slender; with three small terminal claws and a single seta; basal segment with two setae. Second leg biramous, rami 3-segmented; the second segment of the endopod is abund- antly provided with about four rows of short setae along its whole posterior margin. This feature of the second segment is unique, and is the basis for the specific name of the species. The other segments of the second leg are not very different from other species in the genus Caligus. Third leg with a wide basal segment; rami separate. Fourth leg 3-segmented, the setae gradually longer toward the tip; leg more than half as long as genital segment. Length of body, 3.17 mm.; cephalothorax length, 1.35 mm., width, 1.35 mm.; length of abdomen, 0.53 mm.; length of egg strings, 2.1 mm. Male.—Like female but carapace slightly wider than long; ab- domen 2-segmented, the first segment shorter than second; second antenna with long segments and second segment corrugated op- posite terminal hook; maxilliped stout, with a strong spine opposite the end of the terminal hook and a seta on the inner margin of the hook; second legs as in female. Length of body, 2.2 mm.; carapace length, 1.05 mm., width, 1.1; length, genital segment, 0.45 mm., abdomen, 0.35 mm. Chalimus.—Without lunules; carapace longer than wide, abont two-thirds of entire length; genital segment wider than fifth seg- ment, about as long as abdomen, and the latter with very short caudal rami. Types, male and female.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 98712. This species is distinguished by the numerous setae across the posterior margins of some of the thoracic segments and certain seg- ments of the second and third legs. This is particularly striking on the lateral margin of the endopod of the second leg of the female and male. Hence the name setosus is given. The furca is peculiar, with curved posterior branches and triangular lateral appendages on the base. It resembles Wilson’s (1908) C. rufus but the cephalo- thorax is wider, the abdomen is not tapered, the second maxilliped is more ellipsoidal in form, the egg strings are longer, and the furca is quite different. 204 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lepeophtheirus bonaci n. sp. Figures 40-49 Host.—A female and what appears to be the carapace and first thoracic segment of a male was taken from the gills of a black grouper, Mycteroperca bonaci (Poey), along with two Thysonate triloba Pearse and seventy Hatchekia serrana Pearse. Wass . See = ae was WV], | Figs. 40-49. Lepeophtheirus bonaci n. sp. 40, female; 41, second antenna; 42, second maxilliped; 48, first leg; 44, tip of first maxilliped; 45, posterior end; 46, furca; 47, tip of fourth leg; 48, male furca; 49, second antenna. Female.—Carapace ovate, a trifle longer than wide, slightly nar- rower anteriorly. Frontal plates rather wide and not very deep, less than half the width of the carapace. Median lobe half the width of the carapace, slightly rounded on posterior margin, pro- jecting well back of posterior lobes. Posterior sinuses narrow and PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR — 205 short. Free thoracic segment short and less than half as wide as genital segment, widest in middle. Genital segment less than half as long and wide as carapace, slightly narrowed anteriorly, posterior border straight. Abdomen l-segmented, more than one-sixth as long as genital segment. Caudal rami shorter than abdomen, longer than wide, tipped with three long and three short setae. Egg strings slightly longer than whole body. First antenna short, with spines and setae. Second antenna rather narrow; terminal hook narrow, tapered, rather straight, with a small sharply bent terminal spine. First and second maxillae -each consist of a stout, blunt spine. First maxilliped slender with a long and a short seta at tip. Second maxilliped rather slender, with a curved terminal hook that is half as long as the basal seg- ‘ment and has a short seta near its middle. Furca with straight branches; almost as long as base; with finger-like projections on either side near anterior end of base and a triangular papilla dorsal to that, the center of the base with a space that is rectangular be- hind and has two blunt triangular processes in front. The first legs have three short terminal spines and a seta at the tip, three plumose setae on the posterior margin of the terminal segment; the pos- terior margin of the second segment is also plumose. Second leg biramous, with 3-segmented rami. Third leg with a wide flat basal segment, a strong hook, and two short 2-segmented rami. Three basal hooks on fourth leg short, next hook longest; leg 4-segmented. Fifth leg visible in dorsal view, with three setae. Just anterior to this leg near the margin of the genital segment is a small seta which has an expanded base and is also visible in dorsal view. Total length, 3.9 mm.; carapace length, 2.4 mm., width, 2.3 mm.; genital segment length, 1.0 mm., width, 1.0 mm.; abdomen length, 0.25 mm., width, 0.25 mm. Tentative male cephalothorax.—Cephalothorax longer than wide. Appendages on it similar to those of female, as far back as first leg. Second antenna with a longer, more curved terminal hook. Furea with curved branches. Width of cephalothorax, 1.45 mm. Types.—U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93709. This species is much like L. dissimulatus Wilson (1905), but differs in the character of the furca of the male and female; shape of the genital segment, the longer egg strings, the larger number of setae on the caudal rami, the comparative length of the claws on the 206 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES fourth leg, the presence of a seta on the middle of the terminal claw of the second maxilliped, the comparative length of the cephalothorax with the remainder of the body, and the simpler border of the male second antenna. Lepeophtheirus unispinosus n. sp. Figures 50-53 Host.—A single female was taken from the gill of a sea catfish, Galeichthys felis (L.), caught in Alligator Harbor. This fish also had twelve Caligus setosus on the roof of its mouth. It had been in an outdoor tank for several days and was examined on May 22, 1952. Another individual was taken from the same host from the same locality on May 12, 1952. Female.—Carapace elliptical, a little longer than wide. Frontal plates with posterior rounded projections; on these the forked bases of two long accessory spines rest. Posterior sinuses narrow with sides nearly parallel. Free thoracic segment short and narrow, about a fourth as wide as genital segment. Genital segment ellipti- cal, half as wide as carapace. Abdomen more than a third as long as genital segment. Caudal rami short, less than a fifth as long as the abdomen. No egg strings present. First antennae short, the basal segment about the same length as the terminal one. Second antenna with the curved terminal claw longer than the base. First maxilla slender, with a small lateral spine. Furca narrow, the branches slender, straight, and longer than base, which has a narrow margin, is rounded anteriorly, and has almost straight sides. First maxilliped slender and_ short. Second maxilliped curved terminal hook two-thirds as long as base; with an oval thin section in the basal two-fifths. The terminal segment of the first legs is quite peculiar and gives the species its name; basal segment with a seta and a triangular terminal process with a rounded tip; terminal segment with the usual three setae and a single terminal spine with two minute spines at its base. Second legs with the second and third segments of the endopod very broad and narrow; the spine on the first segment of the exopod large, and that on the second segment a third as long and more curved. Third legs wide and rather short. Fourth legs 3-segmented, short, with short spines. 207 PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR Vince ) j moe , Roa e, Lif) ee S | LUI 52, first maxilla; 53, furca. Figs. 50-53. Lepeophtheirus unispinosus n. sp. 50, female; 51, first leg; 208 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Total length, 3.95 mm.; carapace length, 1.8 mm., width, 1.72 mm.; genital segment length, 1.27 mm., width, 0.9 mm.; abdomen length, 0.55 mm., width, 0.23 mm. Type.—vU. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93708. Male.—Unknown. This is distinguished by its long accessory spines behind the frontal plates, the single large terminal spine on the first leg, and the furca. Its furca is somewhat like that of L. dissemulans Wilson (1905), but it differs from that and other species in the character of the first legs and other features. It differs from Bere’s (1936) L. marginatus in the segmentation and spinosity of the fourth leg, the shape of the furca, the longer genital segment and abdomen, and the longer second maxilliped. It differs from Wilson’s (1944) L. christianensis in the peculiar ending of the first leg, the furca, and the long abdomen. Lepeophtheirus hummi n. sp. Figures 54-59 Host.—Three females and a male were taken from the skin of a southern fluke, Paralichthys lethostigma Jordan & Gilbert, on June IIL, UES. Female——Carapace rounded and slightly narrower in front, barely longer than wide. Frontal plates rather narrow, one-fourth the width of the carapace. Posterior lobes rounded, irregularly spinulose in some individuals. Median lobe five-twelfths of entire width, with rounded corners and straight posterior margin, project- ing well back of lateral lobes. Free thoracic segment slightly more than a fourth as wide as carapace, constricted at both ends; slightly more than half as wide as genital segment. Genital segment slightly longer than wide, with rounded corners but rather rectangular in outline. Abdomen less than a fourth as long as genital segment, longer than wide, with straight sides. Caudal rami a third as long as abdomen, with three long and two short setae. Egg tubes about half as long as body, with about eighteen eggs. First antenna short and spinulose. Second antenna slender, with a small terminal spine. First maxilla small, the base wide. Second maxilla wide with two posterior stout spines which are without lateral lamellae. First maxilliped slender, with two terminal setae. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR = 209 Second maxilliped rather slender, terminal claw with a seta at the middle of its inner margin. Furca short and wide, with flat posterior lamellae that are striated across the center, with S-shaped inner margins; anterior end rounded and clear, angulate on lateral mar- gins. Figs. 54-59. Lepeophtheirus hummi n. sp. 54, female, 55, third leg; 56, second maxilla; 57, furca; 58, posterior end of male; 59, second antenna of male. First swimming legs with a short seta near the middle of the posterior margin and typical terminal claws and setae. The second legs are of the usual form for the genus. The third legs bear an unusual papilla and strong spine (Fig. 55) on the flat basal segment. The fourth legs have a wide basal segment and are 4-segmented; the terminal seta is the longest; the basal one is minute and has laminae on both margins. The fifth legs protrude at the posterior border of the genital segment and bear three setae. Total length, 5.2 mm.; carapace length, 3.0 mm., width, 2.8 mm. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93706. Male.—Carapace about as wide as long (2.15:2.18 mm.); nearly half as long as entire body; median lobe extending behind the 210 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES lateral lobes; posterior sinuses rather wide and deep. Genital segment as wide as long, rounded in front and constricted; at the posterior corners are two short conical appendages with rounded tips and plumose setae. Second antenna biramous; both rami with terminal hooks, the anterior one most robust and more curved, the posterior one setose at tip on inner margin; both rami with strong chitinous ridges. Length of body, 3.7 mm.; width, 1.8 mm. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93707. This species somewhat resembles Wilson’s (1905) L. edwardsi. The female differs in the shape of the furcula, the lack of lamella at the base of the second maxillipeds, a shorter body, shorter egg strings, and notably in the peculiar body that bears the hook on the third leg. The male has biramous second antennae with strong striated chitinous ridges, and has an appendage with a stout spine on the third leg like that on the female. Both sexes have second maxillae much like those of L. edwardsi. The species also is some- what like Wilson’s (1905) L. bifurcatus but the furcae of both sexes are quite different; the second maxillae are bifid but lack lateral lamellae; the fourth legs lack the little rosettes at the bases of their spines. The species is named for Dr. H. J. Humm. Family TREBIDAE Trebius tenuifurcatus Rathbun Figures 60-65 Hosts.—Thirty-two males and females were taken from the skin of eight stingarees, Dasyatis sabina (Le Sueur) on May 9, and four- teen from a single representative of the same host on May 20. These parasites moved about actively. Female.—Carapace slightly wider than long, sides not much curved. Frontal plates of medium width, together more than half as wide as carapace; no lunules. Eyes in contact. Free thoracic segment small, about a sixth as wide as carapace, wide in the middle. Genital segment oval, without posterior lobes but with three dorsal spines; on the ventral surface is a small lobe with three setae and two spines, on the lateral surfaces in the anterior third there are about eleven small spines and a row of eight similar spines across the anterior end. Abdomen elongated and narrow, 2-segmented, C) . egcusra 8 i pee AGG sS -~EZ2f = rh AN MN y aires Sara ED, eS ey 62 =.= =(ai= ae) \ = ew | ca — = 65 — — 4 aaa = 6 eee (a feed = == rz) ql COM Figs. 60-65. Trebius tenuifurcatus Rathbun. 60, female; 61, furca; 62, tip of posterior lobe; 63, male; 64, furca; 65, caudal ramus. 212 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the second twelve-fifteenths longer than the first; less than a quarter as wide as the genital segment and somewhat more than one and a half times as long; a little less than a fifth of the distance from the posterior end are small lateral lobes with two minute setae. Caudal rami less than a fifteenth of length of abdomen, with three long and two short setae. : First antenna rather long. Second antenna robust, with a strong terminal hook which bears a lateral seta about a third of the distance from its base and a short spine on the posterior margin of the base. First maxilla stout, with a strong terminal hook, about four-ninths as long as the second antenna. Second maxilla with a divided tip, the rami about a fifth the length of the appendage and somewhat divergent, about equal in length, the median one slightly more slender. At the base of each maxilla is a small papilla which bears a single strong seta. First maxilliped slender and elongate, one terminal claw long and bears two small spines at tip; second claw short and robust, reaches only a little beyond the base of the terminal claw and bears a single terminal seta. Second maxilliped short, slender, with two small conical papillae on the posterior margin near base; second segment somewhat less than half the length of first, terminal hook with a seta on its base. Furca with a rounded base that has two blunt conical lateral processes; arms about a fifth longer than base, slender slightly curved inward. The four swimming legs all biramous; the first with 2-segmented rami, the others with 3-segments; basal segments of all legs very robust. Egg strings a little longer than abdomen and caudal rami, with 32-40 eggs. Length of entire body, 4.2 mm.; cephalothorax length, 1.2 mm., width, 1.3 mm.; genital segment length, 0.7 mm., width, 0.6 mm.; abdomen length, 1.4 mm., width, 0.38 mm. Type.—w. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93705. Male.—Carapace almost a third wider than long. Second maxilla with median branch very short. Maxillipeds more robust than that of female. Furca with lateral spines on base shorter. Genital segment about as long as abdomen, which is 2-segmented with the second segment a trifle longer; with two pairs of rudimentary legs, each with three setae, another seta on the lateral margin. Length of body, 1.6 mm.; carapace length, 0.5 mm., width, 0.75 mm.; genital segment length, 0.3 mm.; abdomen length, 0.5 mm. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 213 Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93705. Only one female of this species has previously been recorded from the east coast of the United States. As it was imperfectly known and no male has been seen it seems proper to give rather complete descriptions of both sexes. The writer doubts if Wilson's (1908) T. tenuifurcatus is the same. It differs in the shape of the furca, the position of the terminal spines on the first maxillae, the length of the short egg strings and short abdomen, the shorter free thoracic segment, and the shape of the genital segment. Family PANDARIDAE Pandarus sinuatus Say Four females were taken from the skin of seven bonnet-head sharks, Sphyrna tiburo (L.), and four from the skin of a spot-fin ground shark, Carcharhinus limbatus (Muller & Henle). Nesippus alatus Wilson Four were collected from the skin of a bonnet-head shark, Sphyrna tiburo (L.). Family ANTHOSOMIDAE Lernanthropus longilamina Pearse A single female was taken from the gill of a spade fish, Chaeto- dipterus faber (Broussonet). Lernanthropus amplitergum Pearse Three were taken from the gills of two pinfishes, Lagodon rhomboides (L.), ten from eight white grunts, Haemulon plumieri (Lacepede), and five from three blue-striped grunts, H. sciurus (Shaw). Lernanthropus brevoortae Rathbun A single female was collected from a gill of a menhaden, Brevo- ortia tyrannus (Latrobe), and four from three Brevoortia patronus Gunter. : Lernanthropus leidyi Wilson One specimen was taken from three silver perch, Bairdella chrysura (Lacepede). 214 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lernanthropus hirsutus n. sp. Figures 66-72 Host.—A single female was taken from the gill of a white grunt, Haemulon plumieri (Lacepede), caught in Alligator Harbor on May 21. Female.—Body rather robust. Cephalon, with posterior border .z, Figs. 66-72. Lernanthropus hirsutus n. sp. 66, female; 67, first antenna; 68, first maxilla; 69, second maxilla; 70, first leg; 71, caudal ramus; 72, tip of ramus of fourth leg. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 215 slightly indented, with two long lateral plates with hirsute margins, narrower in front. Post cephalic body slightly wider than cephalon, a shallow indentation where the third legs arise; posterior end tapered, but with a straight posterior border, reaching to middle of abdomen. Two finger-like lateral lobes at anterior end of genital segment, which is short. Caudal rami, short, narrow with three minute spines and smaller brown denticles at tip. First antenna short, 6-segmented, with setose tip. Second an- tenna, curved, tapered; terminal hook sharply bent. Mouth tube, conical, pointed posteriorly. First maxilla with rounded tip and three setae. Second maxilla slender, terminal claw minutely spinu- lose on inner margin. Maxilliped robust, terminal claw two-thirds as long as preceding segment. First legs with a lateral spine on basal segment; exopod with five spines; endopod with a single terminal seta; a small papilla with a single seta on basal segment. Second leg with a round papilla with a single seta on lateral mar- gin; exopod with four spines; endopod with a single terminal seta. Third leg with two very short hirsute rami. Fourth legs nearly two-thirds as long as body; both rami with small cross segments; exopod with both dorsal and ventral surfaces with a spine on about every second segment; margins also minutely hirsute; endopod with a row of minute spines across each segment. The tips of the rami of the third and fourth legs, and the caudal rami and the lateral margins of the cephalon are thickly covered with minute brown bodies which are setose on the cephalon and are minute granules on the legs. No egg strings are present. Total length, 3.2 mm. with the fourth legs, 2.8 mm. without them; carapace length, 0.6 mm., width, 0.7 mm.; post cephalic body length, 1.7 mm., width, 0.8 mm. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93703. Male.—Unknown. This species is unique in its hirsute lateral plates on the cephalo- thorax, the pseudo-segmented spinulose rami of the fourth legs, and the short flat rami of the third legs. It is named for the hirsute border of the cephalon. The general form is somewhat like Wil- son's (1913) L. spiculatus and his (1935) L. manicatus but it differs from these in the features just mentioned and others. 216 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lernanthropus wilsoni n. sp. Figure 73 Host.—Two males were taken from the gills of a black grouper, Mycteroperca bonaci (Poey), collected near the light buoy offshore in the Gulf of Mexico. Male.—Body short and stocky. Cephalothorax about as long and wide as body, with smooth lateral margins, somewhat narrower in front. Remainder of body about as long as cephalothorax. Abdomen short and narrow, longer than wide, with three lateral lobes that are nar- rower posteriorly, rounded on mar- gins. Caudal rami divergent, half as long as abdomen with a dorsal and two terminal setae. First antenna 6-segmented, with a seta on the third segment and about five on the tip. Second antenna very stout, with a projection on base op- posite the tip of the curved terminal claw. Second maxilla rather short and robust, terminal claw two-thirds as long as preceding segment and spinulose at tip. Maxilliped very stout; terminal claw also robust, slightly curved. First leg with endopod much _ smaller than exopod, with a single Fig. 73. Lernanthropus wil- : Gein i, Ga. Melle. terminal seta; exopod with five short blunt spines; a minute spine mesiad to the base of the endopod. Second leg with a papilla with a stout terminal and a slender lateral seta on the lateral margin; exopod with a short lateral spine and three minute terminal spines; endopod with a single basal papilla with a minutely plumose terminal seta. Third and fourth legs biramous and unsegmented: third with endopod half as long as exopod; fourth with endopod three-fourths as long as exopod; both legs have a lateral papilla with a single seta on the base of the exopod. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 217 Length of body, 1.7 mm., with fourth legs 1.9 mm.; carapace length, 0.85 mm., width, 0.78 mm. Type and cotype.—uv. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93704. Female.—Unknown. This species is somewhat like Wilson’s (1922) L. paenulatus. But it differs from this and all other species in the genus in the length of the rami on the third and fourth legs and the papilla with a single seta on the bases of those legs. The proportions of the cephalon and the remainder of the body are like Wilson's L. brevoortae but the biramous third and fourth legs with their basal setose papillae differ. The shape of the body is somewhat like Burmeister’s (1833) L. pupa but there are setose papillae on the third and fourth legs, those legs are longer and more slender, and the caudal rami are 1-segmented. Family EUDACTYLINIDAE Nemesis tiburo n. sp. Figures 74-81 Host.—A single female was taken from the gill of a bonnet-head shark, Sphyrna tiburo (I..), from Alligator Harbor on June 2. Female——Carapace elliptical, longer than wide and evenly rounded, lateral margins with many small tubercles. Second and third segments about twice as wide as carapace; fourth segment seven-eighths as wide as the third; fifth segment slightly more than half as wide as fourth. Genital segment wider than long. Ab- domen 3-segmented, third segment longest; two and a half times narrower than genital segment. No egg strings present. First antenna with about thirteen segments. Second antenna with setose posterior margin; terminal hook slender, sharply re- curved at tip, and rather slender, with a seta near base. Second maxilla stout, with a short curved terminal spine that is minutely spinulose along its margins; and the preceding segment spinulose where the claw meets it. Second maxilliped large, with a long curved terminal claw that has two short setae on its inner margin. First leg with wide basal segment, exopod longer than endopod, setose on both margins of basal segment, terminal segment with two setae at tip; endopod with second segment shorter and more slender than first, with a terminal seta; basal segment setose at tip. 218 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Second leg with exopod a little shorter than endopod, terminal segment with seven and six spines. Third leg with exopod almost as long as endopod, with eight and four spines. Fourth leg with exopod a little shorter than endopod, with eight and four spines. Fifth leg, slender, with three terminal setae. @ 18 g Figs 74-81. Nemesis tiburo n. sp. 74, female; 75, first antenna; 76, second antenna; 77, second maxilliped; 78, first leg; 79, second leg; 80, fourth leg; 81, fifth leg. Length of body, 2.7 mm.; cephalon length, 0.9 mm., width, 0.7 mm. Type.—vU. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93702. Male.—Unknown. This female differs from other species in the genus in the straight terminal hook on the second antenna with its short sharply curved tip. Her 2 to 4 legs also differ in the number of spines on the exopods. Her first legs also differ in the shape and spinosity of the segments. She appears to be closest to the writer's N. pilosus (1951) PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 219 and Wilson’s (1932) N. pallida but the second antenna differs in structure. The number and length of the spines on the legs and the comparative width of the segments is different. As the speci- men bears no egg strings or spermatophores it is probably some- what juvenile, but its appendages appear to be mature. Eudactylina longispina Bere Ten females were collected from a bonnet-head shark, Sphyrna tiburo (L.). Eudactylina turgipes Bere Two were collected from the gills of five butterfly rays, Ptero- platea micrura (Schneider). Family PPEUDOCYCNIDAE Cybicola elongata Pearse Four were taken from the gills of a king mackerel, Scomberom- orus cavalla (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Family DICHELESTHIDAE Hatschekia linearis Wilson Twelve were taken from the gills of seven white grunts, Haemulon plumieri (Lacepede), and one from a gill of a pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides (L.). 82 Figs. 82-83. Hatschekia harkema Pearse. 82, first and second antennae; 83, egg strings. 220 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Hatschelsia harkema Pearse Figures 82-83 Twenty-three females and seven males were collected from spiny boxfish, Chilomycterus schoepft (Walbaum), April 23 and May 26. These furnished better materials than those collected at Beaufort, N.C. The females had 4-segmented first antennae. Some of them also bore a lineal series of egg strings which contained about a dozen eggs. Hatschekia serrana n. sp. Figures 84-92 Hosts.—One hundred and thirty-two (0,131,1) females were ob- tained from the gills of three red groupers, Ephinephelus morio (Cuvier & Valiencennes), and 78(8,70) from two black groupers, Mycteroperca bonaci (Poey). Female.—Head slightly wider than long, nearly circular in out- line; narrower than trunk (0.31-0.46 mm.). Eggs large, 4-6(7) in a string. First antenna 5-segmented, with few setae. Second antenna 2- segmented and armed with a sharp terminal claw. Mouth tube anterior to bases of maxillipeds, nearly rectangular, longer than wide. Maxilliped more slender than second antennae, with a large and a small terminal claw. First and second legs with 2-segmented rami. The basal seg- ment of each with a terminal seta. Exopods of first with three and the second with 4 terminal setae; endopods both with 3 terminal setae; first segment of first exopod with a terminal spine, second with a seta. The caudal appendages are slender and armed with three terminal and a lateral seta. The abdomen is short and bi- lobed; the preceding body is produced a little on either side of it. Length of body, 1.12 mm., width, 0.48; length of egg string, 0.87 mm. Male.—A single male was taken from the gill of Mycteroperca bonaci (Poey). It was similar to the female but the head was about as long as wide (0.2 mm.) and the trunk was narrower (0.12 mm.). The total length of the body was 0.57 mm. Types.—vU. S. Nat. Mus. female 93701, male 93700; both from Mycteroperca bonaci (Poey). Figs. 84-92. Hatschekia serrana n. sp. 84, female; 85, first antenna; 86, second antenna; 87, maxilliped; 88, first leg; 89, second leg; 90, male; 91, second antenna; 92, maxilliped. This species is named for the family (Serranidae) of fishes to which the two hosts belong. It differs from three related species that Wilson (1913) described from the West Indies. It differs from Hatschekia insolata in the shape of the body, the lack of two pairs of lateral setae, and the larger number of eggs in its strings. From H. uncata in the shape of the head, body, and abdomen; in the segmentation and armature of the first antennae; and in the number of eggs in its strings. From H. iridescens it differs in the shape of the head and body, the number of segments in the first antenna, the fewer setae on the legs, and the smaller number of eggs in its strings. 222 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Suborder LERNAEOPODOIDA Family CHONDRACANTHIDAE Pseudochondracanthus elongatus n. sp. Figures 93-96 Host.—Twenty-eight females, mostly with attached males, were removed from the gills of six southern swellfishes, Spheroides speng- leri (Bloch), taken off the mouth of Alligator Harbor in the Gulf and in the harbor on April 23 and May 16. 96 Figs 93-96. Pseudochondracanthus elongatus n. sp. 98, female; 94, anterior end that shows first antennae, second antennae, lateral horns, mandibles, maxilla, maxilliped, legs; 95, posterior end; 96, male. Female.—Head longer than wide, truncate in front, one-fourth narrower in front than further back, rounded posteriorly; from each anterior corner a blunt, slightly curved, and strongly tapered horn extends laterally. Head is partially covered with a carapace that is narrower anteriorly, and has a deep median groove for the an- terior half of its length. A single free thoracic segment is slightly narrower than the head; it bears a pair of unsegmented, biramous appendages, with very short rami. A narrower neck succeeds the second segment. Behind this the body is unsegmented and covered with minute scales, which are more spinulose at the margins and PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 223 rounded toward the interior. At the posterior end it is produced into two rounded lateral lobes, which are not quite as long as the abdominal processes which are rounded, clearly separated in the middle and tipped with three short spines of which the largest is toward the median line. Egg strings are 1/9 longer than the body; they have 37-43 rows of eggs with 4-9 in a row. First antenna with a wide basal segment; terminal segment nar- row, short, and tipped with three short setae. Second antenna short; basal segment wide and round, terminal segment a sharp curved claw. Mouth parts at posterior end of head. The mandible ends in a curved claw which has a row of small blunt teeth along its convex border. The maxilla has such teeth along both borders of the terminal hook. The maxilliped is large and ends in a sharply recurved hook. Length of female, 4 mm.; of egg strings, 4.5 mm. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93698. Male.—A pigmy attached to the abdomen of the female. Cara- pace ellipsoidal in lateral view. Second antenna ending in a stout hook. Abdominal segments indicated dorsally. Caudal rami short, conical, with two setae. Mouth parts all hooked at distal ends. No thoracic appendages. Length.—0.42 mm. Type.—u. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93699. This species differs from Wilson’s (1908, 1935) P. diceraus and P. hexaceraus in being longer, more slender, having longer egg strings, non-articulated caudal rami, the structure of the legs, the shape of the cephalon and the following neck, and the character of the first antenna. The male differs in the shape of the cephalo- thorax, the segmentation of the abdomen, and the character of the appendages. It is on the whole closest to Wilson’s P. diceraus but is easily separated from.it by the female caudal rami and first legs and by the shape of the male cephalon. Acanthochondria tenuis n. sp. Figures 97-102 Host.—Two females with attached males were taken from four bat-fishes, Ogcocephalus nasutus Ginsberg, on April 19 and 24. Female.—Head with posterior margin straight; narrower toward anterior end, but with two anteriorly directed rounded lateral lobes. 224 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES First metasome segment short and distinct; second segment twice as wide as long, not clearly defined; third and fourth segments slightly longer than wide, their limits indicated by slight lateral indentations. End of fused thorax with very short rounded lateral prolongations and a very short median plate between them. Geni- tal segment slightly wider than long, widest near anterior end. Abdomen 1-segmented, wider than long, shorter than genital seg- ment. Caudal rami stout, 2-segmented, with a single short terminal spine and a short lateral seta. 99 100 YY) Figs. 97-102. Acanthochondria tenuis n. sp. 97, female; 98, anterior end; 99, first antenna; 100, 101, posterior end; 102, male. First antenna narrow and cylindrical; setose at tip. Second with a stout basal segment and a curved terminal claw. Mandibles curved, spinules on anterior smaller than those on the posterior margin. Second maxilla stout, terminal claw with spinules on anterior smaller than those on the posterior margin. Maxillipeds rather slender. First and second legs cylindrical, biramous, exopod longer than enodopod, rami unsegmented, shorter than basal por- tion. Length of body, 4.1 mm., width, 1.0 mm.; length of egg strings, 5.8 mm, Male.—Cephalothorax robust, with a dorsal sinus that indicates the boundary between the head and thorax. Trunk 3-segmented. Caudal rami rather stout and sharply pointed. First antenna small and short. Second antenna robust, with a curved terminal hook, PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR = 225 mandibles similar to those of female. Maxillae stout with a single terminal spine. Maxillipeds slender, 3-segmented with a terminal hook. Legs both l-segmented with a single terminal spine. Length of body, 0.54 mm. Types, male and female.—U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93695. This species is named for its slender form. It differs from others in the genus Acanthochondria in the short processes at its posterior end, the great length of its egg strings, and the shape of its abdomen. It also differs from those described by Wilson (1908, 1935) from the Pacific Coast in the same features, and from Scott's (1913) figures of Chondracanthus. Acanthochondria albigutta n. sp. Figures 103-110 Host.—Two females, each with an attached male, were taken from the roofs of the mouths of two flounders, the Gulf flukes, Paralichthys albiguttulus Jordan & Gilbert. One of these bore egg strings and was 8.3 mm. long, the other had none and measured 4.3 mm. in length. The species is named for the host. Female.—Head elliptical, slightly longer than wide, with lateral lobes at the anterior end; split to near the posterior margin along the median line; a dorsal plate covering the posterior third. First two metasome segments free; the first very short and not as wide as head; the second somewhat wider than head and with two an- terior lobes. The two pairs of legs are biramous and unsegmented; the exopods project at the side of the body. Third segment of thorax free; fourth and fifth segments fused; all these wider than head. The fifth segment is produced into two posterior processes with rounded tips; these are less than 2.5 as long as the preceding segment is wide. Genital segment, tapering, somewhat wider than long. Abdomen nearly twice as wide as long; near its base on each side is a stout 2-segmented seta on a small caudal ramus. First antenna tapering, cylindrical, 2-segmented; the second seg- ment short and tipped with a group of about five short setae. Second antenna with a broad basal segment and terminated with a long curved hook. Mandibles curved and with fine teeth on both margins. The rami of the legs are about equal in length. Length of body, 8.3 mm., width, 2.4 mm.; length of egg strings, 11.0 mm. 226 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Type.—w. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93696. Male.—Cephalothorax rounded dorsally. . First antenna $- segmented. Two pairs of biramous legs on last two thoracic seg- ments. Abdomen 3-segmented, the last segment longest. Caudal rami stout, less than half as long as preceding segments; tipped with two short setae. Length of body, 0.16 mm. Figs. 103-110. Acanthochondria albiguttula n. sp. 103, female; 104, an- terior end; 105, mandible; 106, maxilla; 107, maxilliped; 108, posterior end; 109, first and second legs; 110, male. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 227 Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93697. This species differs from others in the genus in that the first thoracic segments are not both narrower or wider than the head. The head is peculiar in having anterior lateral lobes, and such lobes are present on the second thoracic segment. The third thoracic segment is clearly set off from the fourth. The posterior processes are too short for Wilson’s (1932) A. exilipes and too long for Krgyer’s (1863) A. flurae. The male is unique in having 3-segmented anten- nae, large biramous swimming legs on the thorax, and a long 3-seg- mented abdomen. It differs from the writer’s A. cyclopsetta (1952) in the shorter legs, the first antenna, and the stouter second maxil- liped. The male differs from all of Oakley’s (1930) species. Triphyllacanthus ancoralis Bere Four were taken from the gills of three short-nosed bat-fishes, Ogcocephalus radiatus (Mitchill) and one from two other bat- fishes, O. nasutus Ginsberg. Family LERNAEOPODIDAE Thysanote triloba n. sp. Figures 111-116 Host.—Two females were taken from the posterior corner of the gill cavity of a black grouper, Mycteroperca bonaci (Poey), col- lected on May 16 by the light buoy in the Gulf of Mexico. Female.—General form elongate, gradually narrowed toward anterior end. Cephalothorax, bluntly rounded in front, sides nearly parallel; more than a third of the entire length. Body slightly wider posteriorly. Sides of cephalothorax and body rather rough. Egg strings more than half the length of body and cephalothorax; containing about fifteen eggs lengthwise and six crosswise; ellipti- cal in form. The processes at the posterior end on the sides of the body mostly have short bifid tips; those at the base of the cephalo- thorax divide two or three times. Between the egg strings are two finger-like processes that are nearly as long as the posterior ap- pendages. First antenna imperfectly 3-segmented and tipped with a very short pair of spines. Second antenna biramous, bent across the anterior end, and meeting in front of the mouth tube; exopod broad, 228 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES l-segmented, and bluntly rounded; endopod 2-segmented, narrower and tipped with two spines. Mandibles curved, with about twelve strong teeth on the posterior margin. First maxilla with a broad base and tipped with five stout setae. Maxilliped with basal seg- ment nearly twice as long as wide, rather stout, with a short spinous process where the terminal hook meets it; terminal hook corrugated on inner margin, with a small seta near tip. Second maxilla fused at tip, with a short terminal bulla, shorter than the cephalothorax, reaching slightly beyond the eyes but not to the anterior end. The branches on the tips of the lateral processes number 14, 21, 16 and 16 on the two specimens available; those on the sides of the pos- terior end of the body number about 28, 26, 21, and 21. The smaller numbers probably are on less mature appendages, or one has been lost. Figs. 111-116. Thysanote triloba n. sp. 111, female; 112, ventral view of anterior end; 113, caudal rami; 114, second maxillae; 115, left side of anterior end, ventral; 116, maxilliped. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR = 229 Length of body, 4.5 mm.; cephalothorax length, 1.0 mm., width, 0.6 mm.; body length, 2.0 mm., width, 1.2 mm.; egg strings length, _ 2.8 mm., width, 0.7 mm. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93694. Male.—Unknown. This species is like Heller's (1865) T. lobiventris but the egg strings are visible for their entire length; the posterior processes are separate to nearer their bases; the egg strings are somewhat longer; the body is narrower. The species name indicates that many of the lateral processes are branched three times. Naobranchia lizae Kryer Eight taken from the gills of a short-nosed bat-fish, Ogcocephalus radiatus (Mitchill), seventy from six other bat-fishes, O. nasutus Ginsberg, fifty-nine from twenty-five striped mullet, Mugil cephalus L., and six from a spiny boxfish, Chilomycterus schoepft (Walbaum). Naobranchia variabilis Brian One was taken from the gill of a common sea bass, Centropristes striatus (L.), one from ten sand fishes, Diplectum formosum (L.), and two from ten white grunts, Haemulon plumieri (Lacepede). Charopinus dasyatis n. sp. Figures 117-119 Host.—A single male was taken from the skin of a stingaree, Dasyatis sabina (Le Sueur), one of eight taken in Alligator Harbor on May 9. Male.—Head elongated, tapered toward the front. Antenna 4- segmented; with three terminal setae, one of which is spinulose near the tip. Second antenna biramous, the exopod 2-segmented, the basal segment extends past the terminal one and is twice as long as it; the terminal segment is wider than long and is armed with a separate curved claw; the endopod is shaped like the basal segment of the exopod, exceeds it a little in length and has a fringe of minute bristles at its tip. The first maxilla is biramous, the basal segment nearly twice as long as the 2-segmented endopod; exopod very short and bearing a single terminal seta and a minute lateral spine. Second maxilla larger than maxilliped and subchelate with a clear expansion for the terminal claw to meet. Maxilliped 3- 230 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES segmented, the second segment very short, the third segment square, almost twice as wide as long, terminal claw stout and sharply curved; projection that claw meets minutely ciliate. The free thoracic and abdominal segments are minutely ciliate on their an- terior dorsal regions. The genital segment bears a ventral process. The caudal rami are nearly as long as the combined cephalic, thoracic, and abdominal segments; each bears a short terminal v7 (os a Figs. 117-119. Charopinus dasyatis n. sp. 117, male; 118, second antenna; 119, first maxilla. Length of male body, 2.72 mm.; length of cephalon, 1.35 mm.; length of caudal rami, 0.83 mm. Type.—v. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93693. Female.—Unknown. This male differs from others in the genus Charopinus in the structure of the first maxillae, the great length of the caudal rami. It somewhat resembles Retzius’ C. dalmanni (1830), but differs in the length of the caudal rami, larger size, and more slender first antenna and the greater number of segments in it. Its specific name refers to the host. Clavellopsis longilamina Bere Eleven specimens were taken from the gills of twenty-nine striped mullet, Mugil cephalus L. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 2381 Brachiella concava Wilson Four females were taken from the gills of nine stingarees, Dasyatis sabina (Le Sueur). Brachiellina, n. gen. Family Lernaepodidae; Subfamily Clavellinae Female cephalothorax about as long as second maxillae. Second maxillae have three ovoid appendages on their median surfaces, and a similar appendage and two groups of three are attached to the posterior end. Genotype, Branchiellina papillosa Pearse Brachiellina papillosa, n. sp. Figures 120-121 Host.—A single female was collected from the gill of a cowfish, Lactophrys tricornis (L.), on June 7. Female——Cephalothorax stout, cylindrical, and about four- sevenths as long as the trunk. No carapace on scolex. Second maxillae separate to tips, with a terminal bulla, there are three ovoid appendages on the inside of each. There is no constriction at the end of the scolex. The trunk is twice as wide as the scolex, with four ovate appendages on each side at the posterior end in groups of one and three; there is no abdomen. Egg strings slightly more than a third as wide as long; with about four eggs crosswise and fifteen lengthwise. First antennae 3-segmented, with two short terminal setae. Second antennae rounded at tips, turned down across frontal mar- gin, biramous, endopod with a single seta. Mouth tube with di- vergent setae around its margin, which reach almost to the tip of the first antennae. First maxillae tripartite, the two longest lobes with longer setae than the short basal lobe. Maxillipeds in a _ separate lobe, slender; with a short sharp curved terminal hook. Length of body with egg strings, 5.1 mm., without, 3.2 mm., width, 1.15 mm.; second maxilla length, 1.75 mm., width, 0.71 mm,; scolex length, 1.2 mm., width, 0.6 mm. Type.—vU. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93728. Male.—Unknown. Figs. 120-121. Brachiellina papillosa n. sp. 120, fe- male; 121, antennae and mouth parts. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR — 238 The species is named for the ovoid papillae on the end of the abdomen and on the second maxillae. It differs from all lernaeo- podids in possessing these ovoid papillae. Order ISOPODA Suborder CyMOTHOEA Family AEGIDAE Rocinela signata Schiodte & Meinert A female was taken from a blue-striped grunt, Haemulon sciurus (Shaw), that was caught in a trawl near Buoy 26, nine miles south- east of Alligator Point. Family CYMOTHOIDAE Agathoa medialis Richardson Eight were taken from the skin of eight stingarees, Dasyatis sabina (Le Sueur), and one from a gill of a pinfish, Lagedon rhom- boides (L..). Agathoa oculata (Say) Four were taken from the skin of a bony gar, Lepisosteus osseus (elke) Family SPHAERIDAE Paracerceis caudata (Say) A single female was collected from twenty-five ascidians, Styelia plicata (Le Sueur). Suborder BopyromEA Family BOPYRIDAE Capitetragonia n. gen. Body of female broad, flattened and somewhat asymmetrical. Abdomen unsegmented, but segmentation indicated by lateral notches. Head square, as the name indicates; posterior corners more rounded than anterior. All seven pairs of thoracic legs pres- ent. Five pairs of pleopods biramous, rugose. Uropods absent. Male with thoracic segments distinct and each with a pair of legs. Abdominal segments fused, appendages indicated by five pairs of rounded nodules and lateral indentations. Branchial parasites. Type.—Capitetragonia asperotibialis Pearse. bo (99) ~ JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Capitetragonia asperotibialis n. sp. Figures 122-130 Host.—Two females with attached males were taken from the gill chambers of two shrimps, Crangen normanni (Kingsley). Female.—Head wider than long, square with rounded corners. Eyes absent. Both pairs of antennae with a very wide rounded base and a single conical terminal segment which is setose at tip. Maxillipeds with palp that has a small claw at tip. Figs. 122-130. Capitetragonia asperotibialis n. sp. 122, female; 123, head ventral view; 124, first and second antennae; 135, seventh leg; 126, abdomen ventral view; 127, male; 128, head and first thoracic segment; 129, seventh leg; 1380, abdomen ventral view. Thorax with separate segments; the first four with a small pos- terior lateral lobe; epimeral plates on second and third segments wide. Legs all present, with strong curved terminal claw. Mar- supial plates narrow, last one with about forty-three setae across posterior margin. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 235 Abdomen unsegmented but segmentation indicated by lateral notches. Sixth segment without appendages, rounded and short; all other segments with biramous lamellate appendages that have rounded tips posteriorly, but the endopods are wider and truncate toward the anterior margin. Length of body, 5.2 mm., width, 3.1 mm.; head length, 1.0 mm., width, 1.2 mm.; abdomen length, 1.5 mm., width, 2.03 mm. Male.—Head fused with first thoracic segment much wider than long; with small eyes. First antenna 2-segmented, setose on antero- distal corner of basal segment and at tip of terminal segment. Second antenna l-segmented, setose at tip. Thoracic segments separate, about equal in length, widest in middle of body. The seven pairs of legs quite similar, with short curved terminal hooks, anterior borders lamellose and spinulose. Abdomen unsegmented, a median notch at posterior end; ap- pendages indicated by five rounded ventral nodules; no uropods. Length of body, 1.35 mm., width, 0.47 mm.; head length, 0.12 mm., width, 0.24 mm.; abdomen length, 0.3 mm., width, 0.837 mm. Types, male and female.—U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93720. This species resembles Shino’s (1933) Bopyrella pacifica in the general form of the female, but differs in the shape of the head and the character of the abdominal appendages of the female. The male has differently shaped thoracic appendages and his abdomen has no lateral netches. It also resembles Krgyer’s (1838) Bopyroides hippolytes, but the antennae of both males and females have fewer segments; the abdominal segments of the female are not indicated by lateral sinuses and show no other evidence of segmentation ex- cept the biramous pleopods; the male thoracic segments and ab- domen are quite different in shape. Phyllodurus robustus n. sp. Figures 131-143 Host.—A female with an attached male was taken from the branchial cavity of Upogebia affinis (Say) on June 19 by Dr. H. J. Humm and forwarded to the writer. The host was collected on the flats west of Alligator Point. Female.—Body three-fifths as wide as long; rounded at both ends. Head a third as long as wide, somewhat triangular and front little curved, corners rounded. Eyes absent. First antenna 3- 236 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES segmented; basal segment very wide; terminal segment with about eighteen terminal setae; middle segment with about six on its medio-distal angle; basal segment with two setae. Second antenna 4-segmented; two distal segments setose around tip; two proximal segments setose on anterior distal corner, two short spines among the setae on the basal segment. Figs. 131-148. Phyllodurus robustus n. sp. 181, female; 182, head and right leg; 133, first antenna; 134, second antenna; 185, frontal process; 136, seventh leg; 137, sixth leg; 138, posterior end of abdomen; 139, fifth abdominal leg; 140, male; 141, first antenna; 142, second antenna; 143, fourth leg. Seven distinct segments in the thorax; the first five with a small rounded lobe behind the epimeral plates. Abdomen with six dis- tinct segments which are more strongly curved posteriorly, and the last two are completely enclosed, except behind, by the preceding segment. Abdominal appendages unsegmented; first five biramous and sixth uniramous. The sixth segment is wider than long, rounded in front and with a median notch behind. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 237 There are five pairs of incubatory plates; the posterior pair have a row of stout setae across the posterior border. The seven pairs of legs are subchelate; the terminal claw is not sharply pointed and may bear accessory spines. Length of body, 8.2 mm., width, 5.0 mm.; head length, 1.5 mm., width, 1.95 mm. Male.—Body twice as long as wide. Head slightly more than half as long as wide. Eyes small, elongated, near posterior margin and not very close to lateral margins. First antennae 3-segmented; segments decrease in length and width from base to tip; setae also decrease in the same way. Second antenna 5-segmented, basal segment widest, second segment longest, setae increase from second segment to tip. The thoracic segments decrease in width in the following order: 5, 4, 6, 3, 7, 2, 1; all have rounded lateral angles and those on 6 and 7 slant backward. The thoracic legs are 5- segmented; segment 4 is beside 5 and bears a bunch of about ten terminal setae; terminal hook curved, sharp and bears against a surface with rough granulations. The six abdominal segments de- crease progressively in width; terminal segment with base less than half as wide as tip, which has three short rounded lobes. Abdominal appendages are indicated by rounded ventral protruberances. Length of body, 2.7 mm., width, 1.35 mm. Types, male and female.—U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 93719. This species differs from Stimpson’s (1857) P. abdominalis, as described by Richardson (1903). The female does not have her abdomen tapered and it does not end in a pointed terminal seg- ment but in a segment that is wider than long with a median sinus. The abdominal segments grow gradually narrower and wrap about one another more and more. The posterior incubatory plates have a row of stout setae across them. The male has the fifth thoracic segment widest; the head is much narrower; all thoracic segments have rounded and more pointed lateral epimera; the final abdominal segment is similar in shape but much shorter. Suborder AMPHIPODA Family LEUCOTHOIDAE Leucothoe spinicarpa (Albidaard) Five were taken from twenty-five ascidians, Styelia plicata (Le Sueur); sixteen from twenty other ascidians, Molgula occidentalis 238 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Traustedt; and one from eight stingarees, Dasyatis sabina (Le Sueur). Family GAMMARIDAE Melita nitida Smith From twenty ascidians, Molgula occidentalis Traustedt, a single female was taken. Melita fresnelii (Audouin) From twenty ascidians, Molgula occidentalis Traustedt, sixteen specimens were taken, and from twenty-five other ascidians, Styelia plicata (Le Sueur) sixteen were collected. Corophium lousiananum Shoemaker Hosts.—Several specimens were taken from an ascidian, Styelia plicata (Le Sueur), and from an unidentified colonial ascidian, both from Alligator Harbor. Order CIRRIPEDIA Suborder LEPADOMORPHA Family LEPADIDAE Octolasmis mulleri Coker This barnacle commonly occurred on the gills and mouth parts of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Suborder BALANOMORPHA Family BALANIDAE Chelonibia patula (Ranzani) Common on the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun, on the carapace and appendages. Suborder RHIZOCEPHALA Loxocephalus texanus Boschma From one to five were present on the abdomens of blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR = 239 Order DECAPODA Suborder PAGUROIDEA Family PAGURIDAE Pagurus floridanus (Benedict) This hermit crab sometimes occupied a snail shell but more often lived in a sponge which it dragged about. SUMMARY Three hundred and eighty-six fishes of seventy-seven species were examined. Thirty-nine of these harbored parasites:— cope- pods 36, isopods 11, and amphipods 1. Fifty species of copepods were found and twenty of these appear to be new. Six species of isopods were recorded from fishes, shrimps, and ascidians; two ap- parently new. Four species of amphiopods occurred in ascidians, and one also in a stingaree. Three barnacles lived in or on crabs; one of these was a sacculinid. A hermit crab commonly lived in a sponge, which it dragged about over the floor of the ocean. One copepod occurred in an oyster. The writer made similar studies at Bimini in the Bahamas (1951) and at Port Aransas, Texas (1952). The collections at Bimini were about coral islands in the open sea; those at Port Arkansas were from the open Gulf of Mexico and the channels between the islands alongshore and the Gulf; and those at Alligator Harbor were from a long completely enclosed bay and from the open Gulf. The last had the closest association with fresh water, but Port Aransas furnished collections from the greatest variety of habitats. Table 1 shows the influence of habitat on the occurrence of parasitic copepods. Of course some of the results are due to the chance opportunity to examine hosts, but on the whole they have some significance. Most argulids were found at Alligator Harbor, most cyclopods and caligids at Port Aransas, and equal number of lernaepodids at Port Aransas and Alligator Harbor. The hosts at Bimini were fresh and in good condition, but at the other two lo- calities they were often old or had been preserved, yet there were no argulids at Bimini. In general there were the greatest number of types of parasites where there was the greatest variety of habi- tats explored (Port Aransas) and fewest where there were fewer types available. TABLE 1 Distribution of Genera of Parasitic Copepods in Three Localities Along or in the Gulf of Mexico or in the Gulf Stream Number of new species found is indicated in parentheses Port Alligator Genera Bimini Aransas Harbor Arguloida ANOS eo kak Ee eee BS 4 Wolopsivce oben AS ee vee if Cyclopoida Bomolocinishs 3 seats weet Ges vf 8 2 (2) rc@asilusy:. so seen. i Se Saw ae 1 2 (Gran Giunes soe =i ee eee s an (Gls) Waeniacanthus a2 oe een eet 1h) TRIS O Ink ee ke oe seal, My As ae = 13GB) BUC Care Seay ee a es ee es 1 1 WMGCOpSiS.: 280s. i bes ha OL a TS¢L) Total-seyelopids 22a 0 Q (4) 5) Caligoida Anithosoma. 2-22 == siete Ame Ones ie 1 ATTUTCLE SE V2) Sas Se | Cahiouse oF: .seb. so. eee ees So) 9 (5) Dd (2) Gy bicola pe. sae 2 a Rares Stl) 1 1 Dy smamius) 023 262 Beaker ban = LCi) PCH SUIS a ie oe Oe ae a 1 FEI COS te ee on ee A jPe((@b)) Elytrophoragse: -=sess eee ee (hs) 2 Budactylimay 2222227 eae Lead 1: Gh) 2 Hlatscheokra. = ate see ee Law, \O°(4) 1 3 (1) KTOV EIA 5 Ost arene eee Pane see ieee y ee! 1 Lepeophtheirus) 2.53 a ae 2; 4 (2) [Cermarath nop Us ee ees 5 (4) 8 TE) Lermaceicus 2822-5. sess see Sate. sb 1 INGInGSiS: oe tats eet tg eee ee eal (al) 1 (1) INeSsippus; abs 22 2 eet ee eae if: al Pandartis ? 0s 2S oer ae Ret PE eS 1 1 POrISSOPUS sie es was Ht PSeud OGY Cris; ena eee eae k GE) SAG tin 3 Sethe a Re ae ee ee = 17) fbi 2\ OFT (iapemene Aree ee eee i i PRIX Op) MOTUS op kw ae Ole eae wee aE 1 otal caliords ees eee Sealy) 35° (11) 26 (8) Notodelphyoida Doropy ous, 2s = ee = 2, (2) Psendomyicola 22. ae a bia I Total notodephids _... me tigpal ( 0 3 (2) Lernaeopodoida Acanthochondna 222 test aes 1 rC) 2-2) Brachiell a. a e5s nae bree ae 4A (1) 19h) Charopinuss eso ek ee ee is TGs) Glavellopsisi2 28322)! Deira 2 LAC Naobranchia gs = 0 28 sete oie OFe((aL) 2 AC ONG eek rene creel Aes eee epee es oa 1 Pseudochondracanthus ___________ La) iKhysanote,, 2a ee Bi) pel Lp Tryphyllacanthts. ses eee ' i Total lernaepodids __.. Saye | 10 (8) 10 (7) rands otal” ec eee _ 24 (14) 45 (15) 43 (17) PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 241 However, the number and variety of hosts was different at the three localities. At Bimini 368 fishes and 73 species were studied, at Port Aransas 803 fishes of 138 species, and at Alligator Harbor 386 fishes of 77 species. This indicates that Alligator Harbor with fewer hosts and species examined and nearly equal degree of in- festation was more favorable for parasitic copepods than the other two localities. Furthermore infestation was at times very heavy. For example, eight stingarees, Dasyatis sabina (Le Sueur), harbored 8 argulids, 33 caligids, 8 isopods, and 1 amphipod on the outsides of their bodies, and 2 lernaepodids on their gills. A black grouper, Mycteroperca bonaci (Poey), 1 caligid on its skin, 2 Thysanotes at the bases of its gills, 70 Hatschekias, 2 lernaepodids, and a nema- tode on its gills. Altogether the findings indicate that Alligator Harbor with its less direct connection with the open sea is most favorable for the development of large infestations with copepod parasites. Limited observations on isopod, amphipod, and barnacle parasites point in the same direction. BIBLIOGRAPHY BERE, RUBY 1936. Parasitic copepods from Gulf of Mexico fish. Amer. Midl. Nat., 17: 511-625. BURMEISTER, H. 1833. Beschreibung einiger neuen oder venig bekannten Schmartzerkrevse. Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol. Nat. Cur., 17: 271-336. MEE EER, GC, 1865. Crustaceen Reise Osterreich. Freg. Novara Zool. Teil. Bd., 2: 1- DO tale KR@YER, H. 1838. Om snyltekrebsene, isaer med Hensyn til danske Fauna. III Form- beskrivelser. Naturh. Tidssk., 2: 8-52, 131-157. 1838a. Gronlands amfipoder Kobenhavn. 1-98, 3 pls. 1863. Bidrag til kundskab om Snyltekrebsene. Kobenhavn. 1-352, 18 pls. NORDMANN, A. VON 1832. Micrographische Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der virbelloser Thiere. Berlin Pt., 2: 1-150. OAKEERY,’CoL. 1930. The Condracanthidae (Crustacea: Copepoda); with a description of five new genera and one new species. Parasitology, 22: 182-201. PEARSE, A. S. 1947. Parasitic copepods from Beaufort, North Carolina. J. Elisha Mitch. Sci. Soc., 63: 1-16. | 2.42. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1948. A second report on parasitic copepods collected at Beaufort, N. C. Ibid., 64: 127-131. 1951. Parasitic Crustacea from Bimini, Bahamas. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 101: 341-372. 1952. Parasitic Crustacea from the Gulf of Mexico. PILSBRY, H. A. 1907. The barnacles (Cirripedia) contained in the collections of the U. S. National Museum. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 60: x + 122. 1916. The sessile barnacles (Cirripedia) contained in the collections of the U. S. National Museum; including a monograph of the American species. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 98: xi + 857. REINHARD, E. G. 1950. The morphology of Loxothylacus texamus Boschma, a sacculinid parasite of the blue crab. Texas Jour. Sci., 2: 360-365. RETZIUS, A. 1829. Beskrifning ofer en ny Skandinavisk Lernaea fran Nordsjon, kallad Lernaea dalmanni. Kong. Svenska Akad. Handl., 109-119, pl. 6. RICHARDSON, HARRIET 1905. Further changes in crustacean nomenclature. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington., 18: 9-10. 1905. A monograph of the isopods of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 54: liii + 727. SAY. 1 1818. An account of the crustacea of the United States. Jour. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 1: 393-401, 423-488. SCO econ 1913. The British parasitic Copepoda. London. ix + 256, pls. 1-62. SHINO, S. M. 1933. Bopyrids from Tanabe Bay. Mem. Col. Sci. Kyoto Emp. Univ., B8: 249-300. SHOEMAKER, C. R. 1934. The amphipod genus Corophium on the east coast of America. Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 47: 23-31. SFEBBING; -T. R:-R: 1906. Amphipoda I Gammaridea. Tierreich., 21: xxxix + 806. STIMPSON, W. 1857. The Crustecea and Echinodermata of the Pacific shores of North America. Boston Jour. Nat. Hist., 6: 503-513. WILSON, C. B. 1905. North American parasitic copepods belonging to the family Caligidae. Pt. 1. The Caliginae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 28: 479-672. 1908. North American parasitic copepods: new genera and species of Caliginae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 33: 593-627. PARASITIC CRUSTACEANS FROM ALLIGATOR HARBOR 243 1911. North American copepods belonging to the family Ergasidae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 39: 263-400, Pls. 41-60. 1913. Crustacean parasites of West Indian fishes and land crabs, with descriptions of new genera and species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 44: 189-277. 1922. North American parasitic copepods belonging to the family Dichelesthiidae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 60: 1-100. 1932. The copepods of the Woods Hole Region Massachusetts. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 158: xix + 635, 41 pls. 1935. Parasitic copepods from the Pacific Coast. Amer. Midl. Nat., 16: 776-797. 1935a. Parasitic copepods from the Dry Tortugas. Pap. Tortugas Lab., 29: 327-347. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 15(4), 1952. GOOD BIOLOGICAL TEACHING MATERIAL CAN HELP PRODUCE “THE GOOD MAN.” Quintilian, a literary critic during the First Century, held that education, from the cradle upwards, is something which acts on the whole intellectual and moral nature, and whose object is the production of “the good man.” Most people wili accept this. Therefore, since biological science plays such an important part in modern life, it is rational to expect that everybody study a great deal of biology, particularly, anatomy, botany, physiology, and zoology. And, since the modern microscope has done more than any other instrument of its size to enhance the better life, it is important that more and more people study the minute structures of animals and man. Otherwise, a normal outlook on life is impossible. Cytological, embryological, histological, neurological, parasito- logical and pathological preparations for classroom teaching and for research, and for the individual student and teacher can be supplied at the lowest possible prices. Workmanship, the best. For details, write to: The Agersborg Biological Laboratory Centralia, Illinois INDEX TO VOLUME 15 (New Names are in Italics) Acanthochondria albigutta, 225 Acanthochondria tenuis, 228 Annual Meetings, Notice of, 78 Birds of Welaka, The, 21 Bomolchus achirus, 191 Bomolochus mugilis, 194 Brachiellina, 231 Brachiellina papillosa, 231 BRANNON, MELVIN A., 67, 70 BRUES, CHARLES T., 149 Bulgaria, The Geographic Factor in the History of, 41 Caligus amplifurcus, 199 Caligus bifurcatus, 196 Caligus setosus, 201 CAMBEL, PERIHAN, 53, 147 Capitetragonia, 233 Capitetragonia asperotibialis, 234 Charopinus dasyatis, 229 CONROY, CECILIA E., 147 Crayfish of the Genus Procambarus from Georgia with a Key io the Species of the clarkii subgroup, A New, 165 Crustaceans, Parasitic, from Alligator Harbor, Florida, 187 DICKINSON, J. C., JR., 69 DIETTRICH, SIGISMOND, deR., 41 Doropygus molgulensis, 188 Doropygus robustus, 189 Ecology of Floating Islands, Some Considerations and Problems in the, 63 Gastric Mast Cell Diapedesis and Leucopedesis in the Albino Rat, Effects of Histamine and Eugenol on, 147 HARMON, R. W., 162 Hatschekia serrana, 220 Herpetological Survey in the Vicinity of Lake Shipp, Polk County, Flor- ida, 175 HELLMAN, ROBERT E., 127 HOBBS, HORTON H., JR., 165 Insect Faunas of the Tropics, Some Evolutionary Features inherent in the, 149 JACKSON, CURTIS R., 137 KLEIN, MICHAEL, 155 Lepeophtheirus bonaci, 204 Lepeophtheirus hummi, 208 Lepeophtheirus unispinosus, 206 Lernanthropus hirsutus, 214 Lernanthropus wilsoni, 216 Mammals of Florida, Living and Ex- tinct, A List and Bibliography of the, 86 Mast Cells, the Function of, a Methyl- cholanthrene-induced “Mastocy- toma’, 53 MECHAM, JOHN S., 127 Membership Categories, 20 Myxophyceae in Florida, Some, 70 Nemesis tiburo, 217 NELSON, GID E.) JRag2 NOVAK, A. F., 162 Ophioglossaceae of the Eastern United States, The Evolution of the, 1 Officers for 1952, 40 PEARSE, A. S., 187 Phyllodurus robustus, 235 Plant Distribution in a Tidal Marsh, Some Topographic and Edaphic Factors Affecting, 137 POLLARD, C. B.,. 184, 162 Procambarus howellae, 167 Pseudochondracanthus elongatus, 222 REID, GEORGE K., JR., 68 RUNZLER, W. H., 162 Salamanders, Notes on the Larvae of Two Florida, 127 SHERMAN, H. B., 86 Skin Tumorigenesis, The Mechanism ot, 155 SMITH, ALEX G., 79 Snake Oils, Some Physical and Chem- ical Properties of Certain, 134 Stars, Daylight Observation of, 79 ST. JOHN, EDWARD P., 1 TELFORD, SAM R., JR., 175 Thysanote triloba, 227 Venom, A Study of the Toxicity and Stability of dried Moccasin, 162 YOUNG, DAVID C., JR., 184 INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Contributions to the JouRNAL may be in any of the fields of Sciences, by any member of the Academy. 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Driexinson, Jr., Associate Editor VOLUME 16 Published by par EF LORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Gainesville, Florida 1953 Dates of Publication Number 1—June 20, 1953 Number 2—September 21, 1953 Number 3—November 24, 1953 Number 4—February 3, 1954 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 16 NUMBER 1 The Distribution of Hydrocoryne Born. & Flah. By C. S. IC GUSE fi Se et Mea a eat uae ete Saeed ts AAS OS EE ee RC Joell A Modified Cupra-ammonia Test for Determining Cation Ex- change Capacity of Mineral Soils. By S. N. Edson and [Fx Be 1S WU mak De eee oe AO ES aa 5) A Study of Gastric Secretion of Toluidine Blue O in the Rat. ba viachael Klein and Many E. Arsuss = = os ee Observations on the Growth Response of Aspergillus niger and other Fungi to Various Levels of Zinc. By Seton N. Edson 17 Winter Bird Census in a South Florida Hammock and Slough. mG wlCrUrlOUCWIISS 2 ake. PE ee ee 23 Qualitative and Quantitative Theory as Applied to Body Build ese Une ewe eK DUNE ih ts eee es Ee 35 The Study of Fungi with the Electron Microscope. By Manuel Deazoy.and Eloyd’ Ss ~shubileworth =. 252) sa 65 NUMBER 2 Problems of the Utilization of Florida’s Resources. AN SDE OOS LTT eS RN i 69 Some Aspects of Beach Erosion on the Southeast Florida @orsteeBin Clark Io Cross 92 ose. Be a ee 95 Weather Extremes in Florida During 1950-51. By Richard L. The Older Population—A Potential Community Resource. Eiiglae SLOMLOMADICLMCh 22 b LMOEE Se) 5 Pees Sto hs oe ee 13 The Foreign Trade of Florida. By Murray W. Shields 123 NUMBER 3 Plant Succession on Key Largo, Florida, Involving Pinus cari- baea and Quercus virginiana. By Taylor R. Alexander __ 133 Herpetological Results of the Berner-Carr Entomological Sur- vey of the Shire Valley, Nyasaland. By Arthur Loveridge_ 139 Some Further Studies on the Akee. By Edward Larson, Mark F. Wynn, S. John Lynch, and Donald D. Doughty —— 151 Influence of Wound Healing and Croton Oil on Skin Tumori- genesis. By Michael Kien 2 32 157 An Anatomical Study of Twenty Lesser Known Woods of Florida. By G. P. Urling and Reynolds B. Smith __ 2 ___ 163 Check List of Flora of Big Pine Key, Florida and Suibeatinehe Keys. By John D. Dickson, III, Roy O. Woodbury and Taylor R- Alexander ee 181 Research Notes (0 EE EEE eee 198 NUMBER 4 Interracial Incidents in the Movement of Negroes to the State of Washington. By Charles U, Smith). = 201 Ofticers=for: 1954. 3. es 208 Florida's Non-Metropolitan Urban Growth 1930 to 1950. By sigismond den. -Dictinich, 25. a's aaa a 208 Some Geographic Problems of the Bahama Islands. By C. Wallace. Dierickx 2 2a i Pe 2) Fh The Question of Innate vice nae or Sociability. By Raymond F.- Bellamy 2-02. 3 223 A Valuable Drug in a Mushroom. By William A. Murrill —~ 233 Notes on the Life History of the Lizard, Neoseps reynoldsi piejneger. By Byrum W. Cooper === 235 The Prevalence of Pinworm Infection Among First Graders of Tallahassee, Florida, and Vicinity. By Sue S. Cates 239 Records of Pleistocene Reptiles and Amphibians from Florida. By Bayard H Brattstrom ">| ee 243 The Influence of Croton Oil on Skin Tumorigenesis in Strain C57 Brown Mice. By Michael’ Klein 22) =) eee 249 Myxomycetes Developed in Moist Chamber Culture on Bark from Living Florida Trees; with Notes on an Undescribed Species of Comatricha. By Const. J. Alexopoulos —_- 254 A New Florida’ Journal.) "= 2 ee ee Quarterly Journal of the Florida ng Ss f S* 4 ‘ Tred; Vi, 4 of Sciences” 21 Vol. 16 March, 1953 No. I Contents Nielsen—The Distribution of Hydrocoryne Born. & Flah. _.___ 1 Edson and Smith—A Modified Cupra-Ammonia Test for Determining Cation Exchange Capacity of Mineral Soils __ 5 Klein and Argus—A Study of Gastric Secretion of Toluidine Meer IRUCiee 2S el TD Edson—Observations on the Growth Response of Aspergillus niger and Other Fungi to Various Levels of Zinc _..._____ 17 Hotchkiss—Winter Bird Census in a South Florida Hammock Sot) SLCC Wi ESM aS Se Ul nn a A Ley Bullen—Qualitative and Quantitative Theory as Applied to Body Build Research—Case Study of 547 Women —__.______. he) Azoff and Shuttleworth—The Study of Fungi with the PPE Eim@u MlerOseamey oie ee Nb _ 65 Vou. 16 Marcu, 1958 No. 1 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed June 20, 1953 tot QuUARTEREY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Voi. 16 Marcu, 1958 INo? 4: THE DISTRIBUTION OF HYDROCORYNE BORN. & FLAH.! C. S. NIELSEN The monotypic genus Hydrocoryne, Schwabe ex Born. & Flah., Ann. Sci. nat. VII Série, Bot. 5: 128 (1887), with the species H. spongiosa, were first described in Sprengel’s Systema Vegetabilium, 4 (1): 373 (1827). The original description is somewhat inadequate: “Alga sordide virens clavata lubrica filis densissime intricatis com- posita”. These plants consist of sheathed filaments with one-several trichomes and are sparsely branched; the cells are ovoid to sub- globose; the heterocysts are intercalary. The first American record of the alga is that of W. A. Setchell in 1892 from Connecticut. It apparently was not reported until collected again by the author in 1948 near Tallahassee, and identi- fied by Dr. Francis Drouet of the Chicago Natural History Museum. In the following year it was collected by Drouet et al. in the same general area. Drouet (1951) has removed the genus from the Scytonemataceae in which family it was included by Bornet & Flahault, and placed it in the family Nostocaceae. According to the International Rules, legitimate nomenclature in this group of plants begins with Bornet & Flahault’s Révision des Nostocacées hétérocystées in 1887. One species: H. spongiosa Schwabe ex Born. & Flah., loc. cit. 1887; Schwabe in Sprengel, loc. cit. 1827: Fl. Anhalt., 136, 1839. Schizothrix spon- giosa Grunow in Rabenh., Fl. Eur. Alg. 2: 270. 1865. Calothrix tenuissima A. Braun in Rabenh., ibid p. 271. 1865. Symphyo- siphon minor Hilse in Rabenh., Algae Exsiccatae, No. 1776. 1865. Cystocoleus minor Thuret, Ann. Sci. Nat., VI Ser., 1: 381. 1875. Hilsea tenuissima Kirchner, Krypt.-Flora von Schlesien 2 (1): 289. 1878. * Contribution number 54, Botanical Laboratory, Florida State University. 2 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES H. spongiosa Schwabe ex Born. & Flah. Commonly epiphytic, forming thin irregular web-like membranes of a dark grey-green color; filaments of interwoven trichomes, 4-6.5 mic. in diameter, occasionally branching, and forming bundles up to 30 mic. thick; pale blue-green cells sub-globose, 3-4 mic. wide with narrow colorless sheaths; heterocysts approximately 4 mic. in diameter and from one Qo of wees to two times as long. e: The heterocysts of the spec- RS imens examined averaged = about 5.5 mic. in length. oe Hansgirg ris: reports the i Bias 8 ‘ Hey) Spores, a - ic. in diameter, and about twice as long. These were not observed in the j specimens cited below. Specimens seen: (All are ae represented in the crypto- AWTS : IS gamic herbarium of the & g3 Chicago Natural History Mu- 1 seum, and those from Flor- Ris ida are to be found also in / the herbarium of the Florida | State University.) Germany: Gross-Kuhnauer Fig. 1—Hydrocoryne spongiosa Schwabe See, Dessau, Schwabe, 1823- ex Born. & Flah. 24 (type material of H. spon- giosa); clay pit, Kavallen, near Breslau, Hilse, 16 Nov. 1864 (type material of Calothrix tenuissima and Symphyosiphon minor); Alter Rhein bei Praest, Rheinland, H. Royers, 26 Aug. 1909. Bohemia: in pool, near Lnare, B. Fott, 1 Aug. 1947; near Stupritz, A. Hansgirg, 1884. Connecticut: Lantern Hill, North Stonington and Ledyard, W. A. Setchell, 13 Sept. 1892. Flor- ida: Leon county, pond north of Tallahassee, Nielsen 25, March 1948; Ochlockonee river, near Stephensville, Drouet, Crowson, & Petersen 10506, 6 Jan. 1949. THE DISTRIBUTION OF HYDROCORYNE 3 LITERATURE CITED BORNET, ED., and FLAHAULT, CH. 1886-88. Revision des Nostocacées Hétérocystées Continues dans les Princi- paux Herbiers de France. Ann. Sci. nat., VIle Sér., Bot., III, IV, V, and Vil. DROUET, FRANCIS 1951. Cyanophyta, in G. M. Smith, Manual of Phycology, Chronica Bo- tanica Co. FORTI, A. 1907. Myxophyceae, in J. B. deToni, Sylloge Algarum. VY. HANSGIRG, ANTON 1892. Prodromus der Algenflora von Bohmen. Archiv der Naturw. Landes- durchforschung in Bohmen. VIII, Nr. 4, (Bot.). NIELSEN, C. S., and MADSEN, GRACE C. 1948. Preliminary Check List of the Algae of the Tallahassee Area. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11 (A). SCHWABE, S. H. 1839. Flora Anhaltina, Tomus II, Berlin. SPRENGEL, C. 1827. Systema Vegetabilium Caroli Linnaei, Ed. 16, IV, Pars I, Gottingen, 1827. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 16(1), 1953. A MODIFIED CUPRA-AMMONIA TEST FOR DETERMINING CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY OF MINERAL SOILS 1 S. N. Epson anp F. B. SmirH Testing the soil for plant food elements has developed to a re- markable degree in the past few years. Tests for most of the nutrient elements have been fairly well established. Every index of the potential crop-producing power of the soil should be used in diag- nosing the fertilizer needs of soils. The cation exchange capacity of the soils is such an index, but it is rarely determined for this purpose because of the long, tedious leaching processes. The importance of cation exchange capacity—hydrogen, calcium, and magnesium saturation in relation to soil acidity and lime re- quirement, soil microbiological and physical properties of soils—is well recognized. However, there is need for rapid, accurate meth- ods for determining these characteristics if they are to find wider use in soil testing programs. It is generally agreed that a knowledge of the reaction, cation exchange capacity, and a history of the local cultural practices are of considerable value in determining the fer- tilizer needs of a soil. For example, a soil that has a high cation exchange capacity and soil reaction near neutral may be assumed to have an adequate supply of calcium and also possibly magnesium. Even more specific information concerning the needs of the soil is at hand if one knows that the cation exchange capacity is influ- ence principally by clay or organic matter. Many of the red soils in northwest Florida are fairly heavy in texture and, judging from the clay content, one might expect them to have a high exchange capacity, but by actual test they are frequently found to have a cation exchange capacity of only 2 to 3 m.e. per 100 gms. A better knowledge of the soil means better soil fertility control and consid- erable savings in applied fertilizer. Fieger, Gray, and Reed (1934) proposed a rapid exchange ca- pacity soil test by the use of the highly colored cupra-ammonia ion. Later, Mehlich (1938-1942) introduced the use of triethanola- mine acetate-barium hydroxide buffer as a rapid estimation of base exchange capacity of soils. Bower and Truog (1940) offered a colorimetric method using manganese as the exchange ion. All of * Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. 104. 6 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES these methods had certain disadvantages which prevented them from popular use as a rapid soil test. Not the least was the necessity of titration, centrifuging, oxidation process, and other time-con- suming techniques. Probably the nearest approach to a rapid soil test for cation ex- change capacity was developed by Sieling (1941). This method differed from the cupra-ammonia method of Bower et al. in that copper acetate was used as the copper-carrying salt instead of cop- per nitrate. Sieling found, among other things, that (1) copper forms a stable and highly colored solution which is easily stand- ardized; (2) the small ionic radius and positive valence of two makes copper an effective replacing ion; (3) copper acetate is much less acid than the nitrate, sulfate, or chloride salts, thus allowing the re- action to go more to completion. To remain within the sensitivity range and conform to Beer's law, Sieling developed two separate sets of dilutions, one for soils with exchange capacity less than 27 m.e. per 100 gms. of soil and one for soils from 28 to 64 m.e. per 100 gms. Results by this method were found to be closely correlated to results obtained by various leach- ing methods when tried on 21 soil types. Since most mineral soils in Florida have a cation exchange ca- pacity less than 20 m.e. per 100 gms. of soil, a modification of Siel- ing’s procedure using only the dilute solution of copper acetate and comparing the resultant color with a permanent color standard calibrated to read directly in m.e. cation exchange capacity is pro- posed. The use of tightly sealed permanent cupra-ammonia color standards, developed in the same manner as the cation exchange capacity test, eliminates the necessity of additional equipment and results in a saving of time. THe METHOD The basis for the test is the use of 5 ml. of 0.2 N cupric ions to supply 1 m.e. of copper for each 5 gms. of soil sample, or 20 m.e. per 100 gms. of soil. When a 5 gm. air-dry soil sample is shaken for a full minute all of the cation positions on the exchange complex are replaced by the copper ion. The amount of copper remaining in solution, if any, is effectively measured by adding a definite amount of ammonium hydroxide, which forms the cupra-ammonia complex, and comparing this with the standards prepared in a similar manner. A MODIFIED CUPRA-AMMONIA TEST ih PREPARATION OF THE REAGENTS For measuring the cation exchange capacity of the soil, the fol- lowing reagents are needed: Solution A. Copper acetate-acetic acid solution, approximately 0.07 N in terms of acetic acid and 0.2 N in terms of cupric ions. The final reaction should be adjusted to pH 4.62. To prepare this solution, measure exactly 4.0 ml. of 99.7% glacial acetic acid and add to about 500 ml. of distilled water. Dissolve exactly 19.962 ems. of C.P. Cu(CsH302)2.H2O in this solution and make up to 1000 ml. in a volumetric flask with distilled water. For all practical purposes, standardization is not necessary; however, for research and exploratory work, solution A may be readily standardized by one of any of the approved methods. Solution B. Dilute 1 volume of concentrated NH,OH to 4 vol- umes with distilled water. Keep tightly stoppered to prevent the escape of NHs3. PREPARATION OF PERMANENT COLOR STANDARDS Fill 11 screw cap vials with 20 ml. of solution A and distilled water, as indicated in columns 1 and 2, Table 1, and mix thoroughly. Remove 10 ml. of the mixture and add 5 ml. of solution B. Screw a wax-coated plastic cap on the vial and mix the solutions. The standard which contains 5.0 ml. of solution A corresponds to a soil which has an exchange capacity less than 2 m.e. per 100 grams, and the one with no solution A corresponds to 20 m.e. per 100 grams exchange capacity as indicated in column 3, Table 1. PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING THE TEST The steps taken to conduct the cation exchange capacity test may be briefly stated as follows: 1. To 5.0 ml. of solution A in a 16 & 150 mm. test tube, add 15 ml. of distilled water. 2. Carefully weigh out 5 gms. of a representative air-dry soil and add to the test tube. | 3. Cover the mouth of test tube with a small piece of wax paper, hold with the thumb and shake vigorously for a full minute. 8 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 4, Filter through a No. 1 Whatman filter paper and collect exactly 5 ml. in a marked tube. With a pipette, add 2.5 ml. of solution B. Swirl tube to mix, and filter into a clean 16 & 150 ml. test tube. Repeat the filtration a second time in order to remove all of the Fe-Al-hydrate. Considerable error is involved if all of the Fe- Al-hydrate is not removed. Compare the resultant clear blue color with the prepared set of cupra-ammonia color standards. TABLE 1 Cupra-Ammonia Permanent Color Standards MI. of Solution A MI. of Dist. HsO | M.E. per 100 gms. Soil 5.0 | 15.0 | 0 4.5 | ele | 2 4.0 16.0 | 4 3.5 | 16.5 | 6 3.0 17.0 | 8 D5) IL | 10 220 18.0 | 12 15 18.5 | 14 1.0 19.0 | 16 0.5 | 19.5 | 18 0 20.0 | 20 RESULTS Results obtained by the cupra-ammonia rapid cation exchange capacity method on 15 soils representing the principal soil groups in Florida were compared with those obtained by the conventional ammonium acetate method (Table 2). The readings were made in a simple comparator fashioned from a test tube rack with a solid piece of frosted glass secured to the back. The permanent color standards were placed in the rack; the unknown samples were matched with them. Results were recorded to the nearest whole m.e. per 100 gms. of soil. Agreement was good in all instances except for one sample of Scranton sand, which gave a lower value by the cupra-ammonia method than by the ammonium acetate method. The time required to conduct a single soil test is about 5 minutes. Judging from these results, the simplified test should aid materially in characterizing soils and add to the efficiency of any well rounded soil testing program. A MODIFIED CUPRA-AMMONIA TEST 9 TABLE 2 Comparative Values of the Exchange Capacity of Some Florida Soils by the Standard Ammonium Acetate and Cupra-Ammonia Methods | Depth | | NH:;C:H:0O2 | Cu(C2H;O2). Soil Type | of Soil | pH |M.E./100 gms.* | M.E./100 gms. | | | Red Soils | | Ducker, s.lj-2 | 6” ea sGre-}| 90077 = 10.0 Greenville f.s. 6” | 5.9 | 8.50 | 8.0 Phosphatic Soils | | Gainesville lf.s. | ie PG Ay es) 8.35 8.0 Fellowship ls. _ 5M 6.3 9.69 9.0 Arredondo _____ | Gr tert AO 2.0 Flatwoods Soils | Plummer fs. 8” Slow | 2.70 3.0 emmy Sis os tess | 5” et 4.20 4.0 Rvexctesis 22 ets 8” (Retviy ee tee | 3.19 | 3.0 Parkwood f.s. __ GF 5.9 SST 4.0 Serantonm: S. 6” 4.8 50 5.0 Seranton, ss 2-1 67 Sula | 7.05 0 Scranton S. 2. 62 5.0 | 2.302" 2.0 Yellow Sands Lakeland f.s. __ g” 5D. 2.05 | 2.0 Bionton ts. GZ iD LSir* 2.0 Lakeland f.s.¢ _ | 6” [eines aye | 2.00 | 220 * Recorded data from the Alachua County Soil Survey of Florida. ** Recorded soil samples, College of Agriculture, University of Florida. ¢ 250 Ibs. per acre total Cu. Reuther, Smith, and Specht (1952) reported that many citrus soils contained over 200 pounds per acre of total copper, a few with as much as a ton per acre. Since copper is used as a soil amend- ment as well as an important ingredient in many sprays, it was decided to investigate a typical citrus grove soil to learn what in- fluence copper added to.the soil may have on the exchange capacity as determined by the cupra-ammonia method. Varying amounts of copper sulfate up to one ton per acre were added to soils and the exchange capacity was determined. Results of this test indi- cated that amounts up to 250 pounds per acre of total copper did not affect the determination. Where copper in excess of this amount is suspected, a blank should be made at the same time the test is made on the soil, using only distilled water, for use as a correction factor. 10 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES REFERENCES BOWER, C. A., and TRUOG, EMIL 1940. Base Exchange Capacity Determination of Soil and other Material. Ind. and Eng. Chem. Anal., Ed. 12: 4: 11-418. BIRGER: ELA. GRAY). and) REED ]— 1934. Determination of Base Exchange of Soils with Copper Nitrate. Ind. and Eng. Chem. Anal., Ed. 6: 281-282. MEHLICH, A. 1938. Use of Triethanolamine Acetate-Barium Hydroxide Buffer for the Determination of Some Base-Exchange Properties and Lime Require- ments of Soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 3: 162-166. MEHLICH, A. 1942. Rapid Estimation of Base-Exchange Properties of Soil. Soil Sci., 53: 1-14. REUTHER, W., SMITH, P. F., and SPECHT, A. W. 1952. Accumulation of the Major Bases and Heavy Metals in Florida Citrus Soils in Relation to Prosphate Fertilization. Soil Sci., 73: 375-381. SIELING, DAHL 1941. Base Exchange Capacity Determinations of Soils by Means of a Rapid Colorimetric Copper Method. Amer. Soc. Agron., 33: 24-36. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 16(1), 1953. A STUDY OF GASTRIC SECRETION OF AOLUIDINE, REVUE OFIN THE RAI? 2 MiIcHAEL KLEIN AND Mary F. Arcus Numerous studies on gastric secretion employing dyes have been reported for the dog, (Dawson and Ivy, 1925; Kobayashi, 1926; Visscher, 1942). Inasmuch as some laboratories are not equipped to accommodate so large a species, it was considered worthwhile to investigate the possibility of substituting a smaller experimental animal such as the rat for studies of this type. The dye, Toluidine Blue O, was employed since experiments on the dog had shown this compound to be rapidly secreted by the gastric glands (Visscher, 1942), METEIODS Sprague-Dawley male rats weighing 290 to 478 gms. which were employed were maintained on Purina Laboratory Chow pellets and water ad lib. before the start of the experiment. Animals were fasted 48 hours, but were allowed water prior to the time of opera- tion. A laparotomy was performed on each animal using ether anesthesia, and a loop of the intestine adjacent to the pylorus ligated to prevent backflow into the stomach. The abdominal cavity was closed using nylon sutures and each animal returned to its original cage. The animals were not treated further until 3 to 3% hours following the laparotomy by which time all had emerged from the anesthesia. Some of the animals were injected intraperitoneally with a solution of histamine dihydrochloride * in a concentration of 0.6 mg. per ml., each receiving 0.002 mg. of histamine per gm. body weight. Toluidine Blue O (C.I. 925) + was dissolved in varying concentrations in water and in propylene glycol. These solutions were injected into 5 groups of rats as follows: Group I —6 rats, injected intravenously (femoral vein) with an aqueous solution containing 5 mg. of dye per ‘ A contribution from the Cancer Research Laboratory, University of Florida. * Supported by a grant from the Damon Runyon Memorial Fund. * Obtained from Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y. * Obtained from National Aniline Division, Allied Chemical and Dye Corp., New York, N. Y. 12 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ml. Each rat received 0.25 ml. per 100 gm. body weight. Group II —3 rats, injected intraperitoneally with an aqueous solution containing 5 mg. of dye per ml. Group II[—2 rats, injected intraperitoneally with an aqueous solution containing 1.25 mg. of dye per ml. Group 1V—4 rats, injected intraperitoneally with a propy- lene glycol solution containing 1.25 mg. of dye per ml. Group V —2 rats, injected intraperitoneally with 1.0 ml. of propylene glycol per 100 gm. body weight. Each of the rats in Groups II, III and IV, received 1.0 ml. of dye solution per 100 gm. body weight. When both histamine and Tolui- dine Blue O were injected into the same animal, this was done si- multaneously. Each animal was anesthetized 12 hour following the time of in- jection and a blood sample withdrawn either by heart puncture or from the aorta. The abdominal cavity was exposed, the esophagus ligated below the diaphragm, and the stomach removed and rinsed in Ringer's solution maintained at room temperature. The gastric contents were collected in a calibrated centrifuge tube, the volume recorded, and the pH obtained with Hydrion paper. The stomach contents and blood samples were each diluted 1:1 with acetone, stirred, and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 2000 r.p.m. The super- natant was withdrawn and a 1 ml. aliquot diluted with acetone to 10 ml. This was stored at 5° to 10° C. overnight following which it was centrifuged 20 minutes at 2000 r.p.m. and the supernatant re- moved for spectrophotometric analysis. An acetone blank was used for all determinations. In the case of gastric samples, the pH of the blank was adjusted to that of the sample using HCl. The same acetone was used throughout the experiment and was redistilled prior to use. A Beckman Model DU Spectrophotometer was em- ployed in making the measurments. Spectrophotometric curves for Toluidine Blue O standards showed this compound to have maxi- mum absorption at 620 mp. All gastric and blood extracts were analyzed over the range of 575 to 675 mu. The presence of Tolui- dine Blue O in these extracts was established when spectrophoto- A STUDY OF GASTRIC SECRETION 13 metric analysis resulted in maximum absorption at 620 mp. Extracts from control animals (Group V) showed no peak absorption in the region of this wave length. The presence of dye in the urine was determined by examination of urinary bladder contents. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A total of 17 rats was employed, 15 experimentals injected with the dye and 2 controls. All but two of the experimentals received simultaneous injections of histamine. The latter compound was administered since it had been reported by Ray and Peters (1951), that a high level of gastric secretion was thereby obtained. It was found subsequent to the initiation of the present experiment that injection of histamine even in the large amounts employed did not alter the volume of gastric secretion in the rat (Klein et al., 1953). Analysis of stomach extracts % hour following intravenous injec- tion of Toluidine Blue O established the presence of the dye in the gastric contents of all the animals of Group I (Table 1). Thus it is shown that the rat stomach, like that of the dog (Visscher, 1942), is capable of secreting Toluidine Blue O when an aqueous solution of the dye is administered directly into the blood stream. An attempt was made to repeat these results using the intraperi- toneal route since this method of administration is more convenient than the intravenous one. For the first group of animals injected in this manner (Group II), the dose of Toluidine Blue O was in- creased fourfold. The time between injection and collection of the samples was extended to | hour for two animals. These alterations in dose and time were instituted since it was anticipated that the dye would be diluted in the peritoneal cavity and might be ab- sorbed slowly. When spectrophotometric analysis of the gastric extracts revealed the presence of the compound in both rats, the time was shortened to % hour for 1 additional rat in the same group. Again the dye was found to be secreted by the stomach (Table 1). In another series of rats (Group III), the dose given intraperi- toneally was decreased so that these animals received the same amount of dye on a body weight basis as the intravenously injected animals (Group I). Spectrophotometric analysis of gastric extracts showed Toluidine Blue O to be present in both animals (Table 1). Thus studies in gastric secretion with aqueous solutions of Toluidine Blue O are practicable using the intraperitoneal route. 14 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 Gastric Secretion of Toluidine Blue O in Pylorus-Ligated Rats Dose | | Toluidine | | | Presence of | Blue per | | Injection _Toluidine Group | Total | 100 gm. | Solvent | route | Blue in rats b. wt. : | stomach no” _| none | mg. | | i I | 6 | 1.25 | aqueous Presi, | = II 3 5.0 | “aqueous 'j| (166) PeSHUA OVAA HSSOSASS g ugh A mee 28 ET Ee (6c) P9HO DVAL | ASS e Ste IN ASL od a) AACA SOS Regional Distribution (68) onurpyy YyMos ($3) [eyUueD YWON ISeA\ Qi~ AO oon ~-ronqooo oH qH ona SMrmtonroeen OHnrtoot sal cD (67) [eRueD YON sey ACOAN YT Ar W SIO 00 CIS (O6T) onuUeiTV °[PPHN (TILT) purlsuq MON cd In ry 69 O10 oowtrwnonto in| lon (9) oooeocoes 06 XH xt ol S Ti 6 aN ww DIB SOSO ee an Sor~rronnrt SCOSHIOO DADA AAN AI o119 19 18 fox | 9) (99F) Jopuy pur cE pesy Ueto Ay ih Matte ce ck ht oD) He ral wer ona eave Sika ae Senet H Wg eesti pet Bay rs tee DS Ses ipa Ue ss 1 ©) ' E Mao} MH uel tsas) oR De 1S) foes fae ech ahs (cb) ee eq0005¢609 HAZ 2zHOS Body Types DADOTOON tH+Hatorca (aa) fox | COM OOHOS mH on ($3) A¥[S-O1IS (1-0 eG B 2 iS = (6T) Ueissny oO com “os é (0g) YsHiag — li So) Zz (GLZ) UeoleULY PIO (LG) Plo1seN il I=) i! o e pe (STS) HUAN | oH (T8) GE IDAC pesy Uso AA Bp ES — as s 7 os _ . ait bas waa - i Ay Se ee ‘ ai 4a a, at as , ’ ‘ a, es: 2 . £ ‘ ra ’ ¥ 5 | - aes 2 ; vy . y ’ > 4 af : 1 z is ’ C Ba oe Shs ‘ Ouarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Scienees Voi. 16 dume, 1953 No. 2 Contents Problems of the Utilization of Florida’s Resources _...._---—=—s—- 69 Cross—Some Aspects of Beach Erosion on the Southeast © DLE OOS sip Lele AA Eg le ae eer a Bebe 5 Day—Weather Extremes in Florida During 1950-1951 _...__. 102 Dietrich—The Older Population—A Potential Community “RECS Pye SU GR ES Ee Ee CONES Shields—The Foreign Trade of Florida —_._-_»_____ 123 OCT 5 1953 }} yy \ ell AN 4 ACN - if} ' Vou. 16 June, 1953 No. 2 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed September 21, 19538 THE OUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vor. 16 June, 1953 No. 2 PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES A symposium presented in cooperation with the Florida Resource- Use Education Committee at the First General Session of the Six- teenth Annual Meeting of the Academy, Tampa, Florida, November 28 IIE OPENING REMARKS RatpH E. PAcE University of Florida In many ways, Florida is a frontier state. From this point of view an interesting paradox prevails. The United States presents few examples of a more highly developed social organization than that which exists in the “Gold Coast” on the lower East Coast. At the same time there are few, if any, areas of the country which are less developed than the Everglades, the “piney flats,” and the “hammock” sections. Because of this parodoxical situation, Florida has an exceptional opportunity to devote careful and thoughtful attention to the utiliza- tion of the resources of the state. It would appear self-evident that many of the answers to questions of this sort which have been acquired elsewhere through a process of trial and error can be applied in the Florida environment. It seems reasonable to assume that the state should profit materially as a result of this situation. The Social Science Division of the Florida Academy of Sciences has arranged this symposium in conjunction with the Florida Re- source-Use Education Committee. It is our hope that the material contained in these papers will contribute materially to the welfare of the state and its inhabitants. 70 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SOIL CONSERVATION PROBLEMS IN FLORIDA Coxiin D. GuNN Soil Conservation Service The accomplishment of the basic physical objective of soil con- servation activities of the Department of Agriculture is the primary soil conservation problem of Florida. This basic objective is the use of each acre of agricultural land within its capabilities and the treatment of each acre of agricultural land in accordance with its needs for protection and improvement. This primary problem may be broken down into two principal phases: » l Human: 2: Physical: The great human problem is to get our citizenship to realize that our population in this Nation has increased from approximately 5-%4 million in 1800 to approximately 165-%4 million at the present time, while our acres of crop land per person have been reduced from 3.1 acres in 1800 to 2.5 acres in 1953. Florida land owners particu- larly should be interested in this situation for we still have land that can be brought into production and land wastage can be prevented and production per acre increased in Florida by use of soil and water conservation techniques. Much is being accomplished toward making our Florida popula- tion more soil conservation conscious by women’s clubs, garden clubs, civic clubs, churches, farm organizations, the press and ‘through the public schools, colleges and universities. The Flor- ida Resource-Use Education Committee, appointed by the Gover- nor, is accomplishing much in cooperation with the State Depart- ment of Education, the public schools and the institutions of higher learning. The physical phase of Florida’s soil conservation problem has a number of angles. The most recognizable symptom of soil loss is erosion which is caused by wind or water. Heavy run-off of rainfall on sloping land results in actual removal of productive soil, destruction of growing crops, damage to highways and secondary roads and silta- tion or filling in of streams, lakes and reservoirs. Water manage- ment and water disposal systems to prevent loss of sloping land consist of terraces, sodded outlets and adequately protected areas PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 71 to which excess water can be conducted. Cultivated crops, includ- ing orchards, are planted on the contour. A Florida farmer was quoted recently as saying he was building a complete terrace and water disposal system and planting his crops on the contour be- cause he learned in school that a straight line is the shortest distance between two points and he has learned by observation and ex- perience that a straight furrow is the shortest route to idle land. Use of close growing vegetation and forest trees helps prevent erosion. Wind is another destructive agent on clean cultivated, light soils. Wind erosion not only removes soil from a field but the top soil which is depended upon for production is, of course, the soil that is blown away. Here again we have crops actually destroyed and roads damaged. “Sand dunes” and “blow holes” result from heavy wind erosion and much damage is done to fences. Use of grass and trees and retirement of land from cultivation is the ideal remedy for wind erosion. On cultivated land the plant- ing of windbreaks, permanent or temporary, will remedy the situa- tion. The incorporation of large quantities of organic matter in the soil and “trashy” cultivation are very beneficial. The productiveness of many Florida soils is reduced through leaching and rapid oxidation of organic matter. Here again plow- ing in heavy crops of vegetation, particularly legumes, will be very helpful. One of Florida’s acute soil conservation problems is subsidance (sinking or wasting away) of her very productive organic (muck) soils. When water is removed from muck soil the subsidance av- erages approximately an inch per year. There appears to be little variation in rate of subsidance between cultivated and unculti- vated areas. Ultimate exhaustion seems inevitable. Good manage- ment practices, maintaining a high water table and returning large amounts of organic matter to the soil tend to lessen the oxidation process and to prolong the life and usefulness of organic soils. In addition to the problem of erosion prevention touched upon earlier, there are approximately 13,000,000 acres in Florida requir- ing some form of water management or control to accomplish the optimum use of this land within its capabilities. This involves the proper use of water and may involve drainage or irrigation or both and sometimes neither. 72, JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A conservation problem involving both land and water and gen- erally spoken of as Biology or wildlife phases of a soil conservation program has particular significance in Florida. Conservation farmers are finding that measures that conserve soil and water and increase crop yields also contribute to the supply of game and fish. Quail, dove, turkey, migratory water fowl, deer and fur-bearing animals find favorable living conditions on areas under soil conservation plans. Farm ponds, natural or artificial, are sources of food production in addition to their uses for irrigation, stock water and recreation. Productivity of an area of water can be increased by proper management and fertilization the same as an area .of land. Florida’s soil conservation problems are being attacked and solved by the land owners through Soil Conservation Districts. There are 56 of these farmer-created and farmer-operated districts in Florida. They include 59 of the 67 counties in the State. Each district is governed by a Board of Supervisors who are farmers and who must be elected by farmers. This governing body develops a district- wide plan of operations and invites each land owner to work out a conservation plan for his farm. This Board of Supervisors secures technical assistance for individual farmers from whatever source it is available. In Florida assistance has been secured from The Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, The College of Agri- culture, The Agricultural Extension Service, Florida Forest Service, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, State Road De- partment and other State Agencies. Federal Agencies assisting are Soil Conservation Service, Forest Service, Geological Survey and others. Here we find true democracy at work. Farmers building and operating their own organization with the assistance of any and all public servants who can help them to use each acre of agricultural land within its capabilities and to treat each acre according to its needs for protection and improvement. PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 73 WATER CONSERVATION PROBLEMS IN FLORIDA RicHarp A. EDWARDS University of Florida Most of the water used in Florida by industries, agriculture, municipalities and homes is derived from ground water supplies, that is, water secured from below the surface of the earth. In the development and conservation of water from these sources, three main problems confront the people in the State of Florida: first, the development of adequate supplies of fresh water, particu- larly in coastal areas; two, the prevention of encroachment by salt water around the borders of the State; and, three, the maintenance of pressure or “head” in the deep artesian aquifers. The first problem, that of adequate supplies of fresh water, is experienced primarily along the east coast from St. Augustine south and in the southern part of the peninsula. There the deeper ar- tesian waters are salty because as yet fresh water has not re- placed the original salt water locked up in the marine formations. The near surface formations do not, for the most part, contain good aquifers so that abundant fresh water is not always available in the amounts desired. Salt water contamination and encroachment are serious problems in the coastal areas. As a result of extensive drainage by canals, or of excessive well pumping, salt water may move into the aquiters thus contaminating the ground water. The balance between fresh water and salt water has developed over a period of time as a result of the accumulation of fresh water on the land. If the level of ground water is lowered, the salt water from under the ocean moves inland to take the place of the fresh water which has been removed. This encroachment then causes the wells to be con- taminated by saline waters. Encroachment of this nature has taken place in Dade and Pinellas Counties and at Panama City. About twenty-five years ago, Tampa was forced to abandon its well fields and utilize water from the Hillsboro River (Cooper, et al., 1950). Some years ago the well fields at Miami were con- taminated by ocean water which flowed up the drainage canals at low water and worked downward in the solution channels into the aquifers. Necessary steps have been taken to prevent a re- currence of this condition. 74 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In some of the deeper artesian aquifers, such as the limestones, sufficient pressure is maintained by downward moving ground water to cause the water to flow out of the wells and springs much like the way water flows out of a faucet in your home as a result of the pressure produced by the storage of water in an elevated standpipe. As the pressure decreases, the amount of water flowing out of the system diminishes. The same situation exists in the artesian aquifers under the State of Florida. Where wells flow or are pumped, the water level in the aquifer decreases. In some areas the head or the height to which the water rises in the wells has been lowered. Near Jacksonville it has been determined that the head has decreased about thirty feet below the level at which it was prior to the production of water from this horizon (Stringfield, et al., p. 705). This means that up the slope of the formation, in this case, a little distance west, wells which formerly would just flow now have the water thirty feet below the surface. Continued removal of water from the aquifers will lower the water level still more, so that, locally, a level may be reached below which it is not economical to pump water. These illustrations indicate that in certain localities there are difficulties in securing adequate supplies of water. As the State develops it should be expected that the difficulties will be multi- plied. However, it is well to point out that there is adequate water in the State. Silver Springs alone produces on the average about as much water as is consumed in the State each day. Unfortu- nately, the areas which have inadequate supplies of water are not close to major springs. It is to be noted then that most of the problems of water sup- ply are found in the coastal areas. Certainly, extensive drainage along the coastal regions has contributed to the salt water contami- nation in those areas. Sensible plans of drainage must be de- veloped to prevent further contamination. It is known that the lowering of the water table in coastal areas has destroyed the balance between salt and fresh water. Some methods of maintaining the level of ground water such as securing supplies from widely separated wells and controlling the amount withdrawn are steps in the direction of maintaining the present balance. Where it appears that the aquifer is being depleted at a rate faster than the water is being replaced by natural processes, PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 75 artificial recharge of the aquifer may be accomplished by supply- ing it with uncontaminated surface water. In the artesian aquifers most of the water discharged, either in springs or by wells, has been derived from precipitation falling on the recharge area. If the present levels are to be maintained, then it is necessary to withdraw only the amount of water which can be supplied and can be moved through a particular aquifer. Studies of the nature of the aquifer and route of migration of the ground water from the area of recharge to the point of discharge are necessary to keep withdrawals within the capacity of the aqui- fer. Here, too, it might be feasible to use artificial recharge to maintain the levels. In the central part of the State from Lake Okeechobee north, there are large quantities of fresh water available, for this is the region of the “Big Springs” and it seems that there is small likeli- hood of the problem of salt water contamination in the deep aqui- fers of this area. A thoughtful development of the sources of ground water should place Florida in a position to meet the grow- ing needs of industry, agriculture and an increasing population. NATURAL VEGETATION, FLORIDA’S BASIC RESOURCE Joun H. Davis University of Florida So much of Florida’s natural vegetation is unaltered or only slightly altered that even after four hundred years of occupancy by Europeans, it remains one of the state’s greatest resources. The pine and cypress forests and woodlands, the hardwoods forests, and the prairie and marsh grasslands cover the largest areas. The forests have yielded abundant lumber and other forest products, and now with better management their yearly output is being grad- ually increased. They are the greatest of the natural vegetation resources. The grasslands, which include not only prairies and marshes but also the ground cover vegetation of the open flatwoods type of pine forest, are extensive and they have been used for pasturage for centuries. Recently many of the grasslands have been improved by various engineering practices, introduced grasses, and proper man- 76 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES agement so that now “improved pastures’ with large herds of cattle are one of the state’s growing assets. Millions of acres of unimproved grassy woodlands are cattle ranges, the cattle depend- ing upon native grasses for forage. The Everglades, and other marshes or swamps, that built up organic soil deposits of peat and muck furnished some of the best agricultural land after proper drainage. Reclaimed marshland areas in the Everglades and similar areas constitute a soil resource that would not have been present without the saw grass and other plant growth that formed the muck and peat. Over-drainage is destroying or retarding some of this marsh vegetation that would accumulate more organic soils for future use, and a better manage- ment of marsh and swamp areas is imperative if this soil resource is to be preserved. Numerous types of vegetation are resources as the habitats for wildlife and fish, and for recreation and scenic purposes. The value of these is much greater than generally supposed mainly because the tourist trade is partly built around hunting, fishing, and recreation. Deer, turkey, quail, ducks and many other ani- mals depend almost entirely upon natural vegetation for food and cover. Wild life management is becoming increasingly more impor- tant, and to do this properly a detailed understanding of the natural vegetation is most essential to maintain or improve the populations of the game animals. Probably the least understood and most poorly managed natural areas are the state's waters, both inland and coastal, and the aquatic and marsh vegetation of these constitute a very valuable resource. The plant life in all waters is the basis of the food chain or food pyramid at the top of which are the sport and food fishes. Mullet and other herbivorous fish depend entirely on aquatic plants for food and if it were not for the great shoal water areas of marine aquatic vegetation, these and other fish would be far less abundant. Fresh water lakes, ponds, and rivers abound in marsh and aquatic plant vegetation, and as yet these are not properly understood so as to supply information for the better management of the fish, water fowl, and other animals. Hydrobotanical investigations on an extensive scale are needed to bring about the fullest develop- ment of inland water resources, that constitute about 6 per cent of the total area of the state. PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 77 Last, but not least, are the recreational and scenic values of the natural vegetation. Highways that pass through swamp, ham- mock, prairie and other scenic areas attract tourists and local resi- dents alike and there should be a program to encourage the mainte- nance of as many of these scenic types of vegetation as possible. The parks, both state and national, are in most cases in areas where the unaltered vegetation is the chief attraction. This is particularly the case of the great Everglades National Park in southern Florida that contains some of the most unusual types of vegetation in the United States, and which is visited by about a million persons per year. County and urban parks are also important. There are some types of vegetation, as the great mangrove swamps of the southwest coastal areas, that are potential future resources. ‘These mangrove forests may later prove valuable for tannin extracts, lumber and charcoal, as they have in the Orient. Recently paper has been made from saw grass plants, and since there are over a million acres of dense saw grass marshes in the Everglades alone, this vegetation may prove a great resource. Thus vegetation as a whole is a great, if not the greatest, resource of Florida as at present used or enjoyed, and there remain many uses to which it has not yet been put. The present and the future best utilization of all types of vegetation will depend upon many numerous and thorough studies of its composition, nature, environ- ment, and changes, all of which are the concern of botanists, and plant ecologists particularly. SOME PROBLEMS OF FLORIDA'S FORESTS (Cr rH Courter Florida Forest Service The care, management, and support of natural resource programs are only justified by their value to our human resource—our people. Forestry, with its broad scope in land area, its present economic value, its much larger potential value, is worthy of our combined constructive thoughts and sustained effort to make it more ade- quately serve our people. | 78 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Our Woops or GREAT BENEFIT Florida’s forest land—21,500,000 acres—amounts to 60% of the total acreage of our State. Annually $200,000,000 are received from the sale of forest products at the primary manufacturing plants. An additional $50,000,000 are derived from re-manufacture. In addition to sustaining the third largest industry of the State, our forests are of great additional value. Soil, water, and wildlife conservation are intimately tied in with proper forestry practices. Furthermore, Florida is a more comfortable, better place to live in because of our trees. THE CONDITION OF OurR Woops The original timber, virgin longleaf pine, numerous hardwoods, and long-lasting cypress, are practically all cut out. Second growth stands are being immaturely harvested. We must grow from seed and little seedlings our future crops of trees. Yet even in the face of increased demands, firm markets and good oe we are cutting and burning more than we are replacing. Forest FrrE CONTROL In over 20 years, 12,600,000 acres have been placed under or- ganized protection. Even so, annual losses—despite the modern suppression efforts—amount to 3 to 4% annually. A blacker picture is the 7,400,000 acres—one-third of the forest areas of Florida— which have no organized protection and about 40% burns over annually. The combined losses in the woods amount to about $8,000,000 annually. In economic loss this is over $50,000,000 as the wholesale economic value is 7 times the standing tree loss. Jobs, payrolls, and profits go up in smoke. People cause 98% of these fires—30% carelessly and 68% incendiary—and only 2% is caused by lightning. TREE PLANTING Some 130,000,000 seedlings have been set out in the past 20 years, reforesting about 209,000 acres. At this rate it would require 200 years to plant the cut over and burned land that needs planting to make it productive. Current efforts are being accelerated to raise 50 million seedlings per year, but this is a scant half of what is necessary. PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 79 MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION Large ownerships are doing a generally good job of proper cutting and utilization. They are managing their areas to keep the land productive. Only 31 ownerships of 50,000 acres or more com- prise 22% of the forest area. Medium ownerships—5,000 to 50,000 acres—show a lower per- centage of good management and amount to 31% of the acreage. Small ownerships—under 5,000 acres—total 55,000 in number and are very poor in their cutting and utilization. They own 38% of the forest land. At the present time some 12 trained foresters are working pri- marily with the small woodland owners in some 34 counties. They are reaching only a small segment but are providing in the woods assistance to get good management. Wuy Tus Laccinc PROGRESS? With our forests only producing about one-third of their ca- pacity, why is not more being done to meet the problem? Lack of information, lack of support, and human indifference are the reasons for our failure to do what should be done. EDUCATION AND INFORMATION Well integrated education in conservation, including forest con- servation, will help solve this problem. Since education is pri- marily accomplished with our youth, colleges, high schools, and grammar schools can be of great value in maintaining and building up this valuable resource. To accomplish this education, we need to touch the spark with our adults. You teachers, you scientists, and you educators need to be informed and aroused to do some- thing toward the goal. | Other adults—businessmen, legislators and Mr. Average Citizen —need to get the message and to be aware of the need for action. Only wide-spread information and enlightenment will accomplish this. ACTION PROGRAM With proper information and education of both youth and adults, the door can be opened to do the forestry conservation job that is necessary to the benefit of our citizenry, present and future. 80 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Cooperation in reducing wildfires, in more reforestation or tree planting, and assistance in management of our woodlands, will come. It will take some additional funds to accomplish this worth- while job but Florida will be repaid many times over. FLORIDA'S WILD LIFE RESOURCES FRED JONES Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission Just how important are Florida’s wild life resources, how big a business is hunting and fishing in the State, and how is it meas- ured in terms of the economic and social benefits derived from participating in such outdoor pleasures? These are the questions to be answered below. Arthur Carhart, renowned outdoor writer, asserts in an article published in the Sports Afield Magazine that, as ascertained by research of several years duration, the average sportsman spends $600 a year on fishing and hunting. This figure includes such items as ammunition, guns and fishing tackle, transportation, meals and lodging, guides, boats, dogs, clothes, fishing and hunting fees, and other miscellaneous equipment bought primarily because of these outdoor activities. In order to be conservative in his estimate, Car- hart took this figure, reduced it by one-third, and arrived at $400 as the average annual expendure of a sportsman. This sum, though based on nation-wide estimates, can be accepted as valid also for Florida. In discussing the importance of Florida’s wild life resources, the State's fresh water fishing and hunting should be considered first. In 1950 about 100,000 persons bought licenses to hunt. There were others who hunted but who were exempted from purchasing a license. Therefore, there were obviously more than 100,000 persons who actually hunted. However, to remain on the conservative side, those hunters who were unlicensed will not be counted. Even so, accepting Carhart’s estimate, the annual expenditure for huntine amounted to $40,000,000 in 1950. At the same time there were roughly 280,000 fresh water fishing licenses sold. In this case, however, the unlicensed people have PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA'S RESOURCES 81 to be considered since so many are exempted from purchasing fish- ing licenses. Under present laws of Florida, children under 15, persons over 65, and all persons who fish in their home counties with cane poles, are exempt. The cane pole provision alone has been estimated to exempt more than half the actual number of fresh water fishermen. So, by discounting all the elderly folks and all the children, and by counting only a number of cane pole fishermen equal to the license buyers, the number of fresh water fishermen can be figured at 560,000 people. Multipling this number by the $400 and the annual expenditure will amount to $224,000,000. The combined income from fresh water fishing and hunting in Florida amounts then to $264,000,000 each year. But of course, fresh water fishing and hunting are only the smaller part of the overall picture of hunting and fishing in Florida. Flor- ida’s salt waters are the most popular in the country, and they are the basis for the real income from sports fishing. Since there is not salt water fishing license required in this State, only estimates can be used. On the basis of hundreds of questions asked, thousands of miles traveled, checking with the State and local chambers of commerce, and other research by this writer, and in- formation furnished by other sources, it was possible to arrive at some reliable figures. There can be no doubt whatever but what at least a half a million Floridians go fishing in the State’s salt waters with some regularity. Likewise there can be no doubt but what there are at least a million and a half visitors who fish at one time or another. In this case, since more than half the fishermen are from other states, there can be no doubt but that the average expenditure that be traced back to fishing and/or hunting is at least the $400 per year. Thus, the two million more fishermen will spend another $800,000,000. This com- bined with the fresh water fishing and hunting expenditures gives a total of more than one billion dollars a year spent for fishing and hunting in Florida! Dividing this sum by the total population of the State will give the rounded figure of $335 per person per year income from fish- ing and hunting. This total represents ten per cent of the total income from hunting and fishing for the country as a whole as estimated by Carhart mentioned earlier. 82 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES If this figure seems large, further proof can be found in the sales records of the national manufacturers of fishing tackle and from information of the State Chamber of Commerce. They report that the second most-asked question at their information booths on the state line is about where and how to fish. With the exception of Florida’s climate, none of the other resources draws as many people to the State as do the fish and game resources. As far as climate is concerned it is well to remember that climate without recreation is not enough. No informed person will doubt that Florida’s tourist business would be seriously impaired if all the State’s fish and game resources were suddenly lost. The protection of Florida’s fish and wild life is of vital interest to all Floridians, not only because it is a billion dollar industry but because as Carhart states it “Outdoorsmen do not measure what they get out of hunting and fishing in dollar terms. There is treasure found in outdoor living which is beyond any measure of dollars spent. There is a very definite element of maintaining a national spirit, stamina, love of country, in outdoor ways. These are most terifically vital things—things we should emphasize in protecting what we possess in outdoor America.” THE ECONOMY OF FLORIDA WALTER J. MATHERLY University of Florida The position which the economy of Florida occupies in the present differs greatly from the position it occupied in the past. Florida in 1953 is not the same state as that which existed fifty years ago; neither is it the same state as that which existed twenty- five years ago; or even ten years ago; it has undergone a series of fundamental changes—changes that are political, social and cultural, as well as economic. More than a double decade ago we ceased to be an infant state of self-sufficing farmers, of self-contained lumber-mill communities, of small isolated tourist towns and cities. We have grown up; we have achieved adulthood; we have devel- oped into a mature state of inter-dependent manufacturing indus- tries, of inter-connected recreational and distributing centers, of PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 83 inter-related urban communities. We have attained high distinction in the life and economy not only of the South, but also of the nation. We are the most unusual, as well as the fastest growing state south of the Potomac and east of the Rio Grande, the eae of Texas to the contrary notwithstanding. The economy of Florida is based on several major types of ‘in- dustries: 1. Agriculture. Agriculture is concerned with a wide variety of crops ranging all the way from corn, cotton, tobacco and peanuts in Mainland Florida, to citrus fruits, sugar cane and winter vegetables in Peninsular Florida. Cash farm income from crops in Florida increased from $79 million in 1935 to $345 million in 1950, or an increase of 336 percent as compared with 314 percent in the nation. The production of citrus fruits alone, which in 1949 represented 30 percent of all cash receipts from Florida's farm marketing, increased from 55 million boxes in 1940-41 to 105 million in 1950-51, or an increase of 89 percent, whereas the na- tion’s increase was only 24 percent. While agriculture, including citrus, ranks high in the economic life of the state, the state is no longer pre- dominantly rural or agricultural. It has become increasingly urban, industrial and commercial. 2. Livestock production. Cash farm income from livestock, which con- sists largely of hogs, dairy cattle and beef cattle, increased from $19 million in 1985, to $92 million in 1950, or an increase of 390 percent, as compared with 284 percent for the nation. Improvements in cattle breeding and in feeds and grasses, together with the fencing and care of ranges and the establishment of branch plants of the big packers in Flor- ida, are bringing Florida rapidly into the forefront in the American cattle industry. 3. Forestry. Forestry makes use of 67 percent of the land area of Florida, and together with its allied industries, employs 39,000 people. It could, with proper fire protection, provide annually two billion cubic feet of wood or eight times our present consumption. In 1950, the value of processed forest products in Florida, as they left the manufacturing plants, was estimated at $300 million. 4. Manufacturing industries. Florida factories in 1947 shipped $819 million of goods manufactured in the state; employed 78,665 people to whom were paid $169 million as wages and salaries; expended in over- head, profit and taxes $181 million; and purchased raw or partly proc- essed materials costing $451 million, all of which provided markets for the sale of products from farms, mines, forests and other plants. Flor- ida’s total income from manufacturing in 1950 was $340 million. Manu- facturing enterprises are increasing rapidly in number both in Mainland Florida and in Peninsular Florida. They differ in character from the 84 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES industries of the North since they are concerned primarily with the utiliza- tion of natural resources native to Florida. 5. Business and financial enterprises. These non-manufacturing en- terprises consist principally of wholesaling and retailing, banking, insur- ance, real estate, transportation and communication, public utilities, and service industries. In 1950, wages and proprietors income from these enterprises amounted to $1.7 billion and their payrolls represented 320,782 people. Retail sales in Florida from 1929 to 1948 increased 373 percent and department store sales 377 percent whereas in the nation they only increased 170 percent and 224 percent respectively. 6. Tourist industry. No picture of Florida’s economic activities would be complete without the tourist business. It employs 54,000 people and is concentrated mainly in Peninsular Florida. Its annual return was estimated at $790 million in 1947-48. Nobody knows what it does yield since no scientific study thereof has ever been made. In the expansion of these industries, Florida has increasingly developed a balanced economy. In Florida it is necessary to give attention to agriculture, to the extraction of minerals, to manu- facturing, to distribution, to transportation and communication, to recreation, and to other important enterprises. We cannot afford to concentrate on any one of these activities at the expense of the others. We would make a grave economic mistake if we permitted ourselves to become exclusively tourist, exclusively industrial, ex- clusively agricultural, or exclusively anything else. To apply our- selves exclusively to any one part of our economic system is to make ourselves a one-industry region. A one-industry region always rises or falls with the prosperity or failure of that one in- dustry. The permanent well being of any state, or nation, is de- pendent upon a balanced economy, upon a diversified economic life, upon an industrial structure with many, rather than few, types of enterprises. In 1950, the total income of Florida arising out of Florida indus- tries and other occupations and professions, was $3,376,000,000. Reduced to a per capita basis this income amounted to $1,210 as compared with $959 for the Southeast and $1,436 for the United States. This means that if our total income in 1950 had been dis- tributed equally among all of our inhabitants, each man, woman and child in Florida would have received $1,210. It means also that if each man, woman and child in Florida is to be as well off as each man, woman and child in the United States, we must PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA'S RESOURCES 85 increase our per capita income from $1,210 to $1,436. While Florida has approximately the same per capita income as Texas, Iowa, and Minnesota, it ranked first in per capita income in 1950 among the states of the Southeast and far above the Southeast as a whole. THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF FLORIDA FROM A GEOGRAPHIC POINT OF VIEW HENRy F. BECKER Florida State University GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, AND RESOURCES During the past decade, 1940-1950, Florida evidenced spectacu- lar growth and expansion in population, total and per capita income, and such economic activities as the tourist industry, agriculture, manufacturing, and new construction. Such growth and expansion must be based on the use of natural resources. Among our environmental assets brief mention should be made of wet subtropical climate; a peninsula with large areas of level land with warm sandy to sandy loam soils; numerous sur- face and underground water resources; long coast line with sandy beaches; great variety of native animal and plant life; phosphate and other mineral deposits; and a location accessible to markets in and outside the South. All natural environments contain handicaps which must be taken into account because they offer resistance to man’s efforts. Illus- trative for Florida are such items as occasional severe freezes, much infertile sandy soil, large areas of poorly drained land, and insect pests and disease carriers. SOME MAN-MADE FLORIDA PROBLEMS Men develop the natural resources they have to meet their needs and desires in terms of what they know, what tools they have, and what they think. Often they are too greedy and know too little about natural laws—about how nature is put together and how much punishment can be visited upon the natural environment 86 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES without evil results. All too often man’s aims and actions in using the land are at variance with his own long-term good. The evi- dences of man-made problems include the small remaining stands of mature timber and the large tracts of cut-over, burned-over land; the lowered water table and contaminated water supply in some areas; too many low incomes and too much poverty; and often inadequate educational, recreational, and health facilities. SOME COMMENTS ON FLORIDA’S FUTURE I assume that as social scientists we are interested not in “here today and gone tomorrow use of resources, but in possibilities for long-term or “permanent” development that will provide reason- ably high levels of living for an optimum population. Taking into consideration what we now know and what we now know we have, the following lines of development seem indicated. Obviously we expect to take advantage of new discoveries and new technological developments not now foreseeable. Also we are fully aware of the dynamic character of a human society. 1. Heavy emphasis on service occupations related to tourist industry. Obviously should continue. 2. About 21 million acres or two-thirds of the total land area of the state is recommended for permanent forest; could create a resource greater than the original. Q 3. Further improvement of pastures and of stock. 4. Further diversification and refinement of agricultural adjustments to subtropical environment. 5. Further development of other lines of resource-use suitable to Florida environment, such as manufacturers of wood, food processing, other high value-low power and raw material manufactures, and use of sea resources. PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 8&7 THE ACADEMY AND FLORIDA’S PROBLEMS OF RESOURCE-USE SIGISMOND DER. DIETTRICH University of Florida Ever since its foundation, in 1936, the Florida Academy of Sciences was most vitally concerned with the problems of Flor- ida’s various resources. Anyone interested in problems of Florida’s resources, first, has to know what they are and where they are to be found; second, to determine the character, scope and magni- tude of the problems; and, finally, to study ways and means of solving these problems. If the Academy would limit its function only to encourage scientific research it would have aided the State greatly but in its original concept it went beyond such a limitation when Article II. Purposes, of the Academy's Charter, states that one purpose shall be “to unify scientific interests of the state.” To develop an effective policy of wise resource-use an integration of all scientific material is basically essential, thus, when the Acad- emy purposefully designated the unification of the State’s scientific interests it has provided a much-needed framework which permits the interchange of scientific information and ideas. Not only did the Academy set, as one of its goals, the bringing together of the best and most up-to-date scientific information pertaining to Flori- da, but also, through its multifarious activities, promoted the em- phasis upon the problems of Florida’s resources. No better example could be quoted than the splendid admoni- tion of the Academy’s first president who, in delivering his annual address on the “Opportunities for Research in Florida,” stated: “Tt is essential that the potential natural resources of Florida geological, botanical, and zoological, be investigated. Not only do we need a knowl- edge of our total potential resources but we also need to know how far we dare or dare not to go with the modification, utilization, and exploita- tion of these resources. Here I would also include some of the resources of anthropological or even aesthetic interest. If some or a part of these resources must be sacrificed at the altar of progress, then the least we can do is to create accurate pictures and records of what has been. Some of our native animals and plants together with their natural setting are at least leaning, if not actually going, toward annihilation; Indian mounds are going likewise; even natural wonders like sinkholes with their con- commitant, peculiar life are choked with fenders, cans, and stoves of 88 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES yesteryear. We should study, record, and map what still remains in pri- meval state.” It would be hard to put better the words, the ideas underlying the wise use of Florida’s resources. It even may be conceived as symbolic that the first paper of the first annual meeting of the Academy dealt with the problems of some rare and threatened Florida birds. The establishment, in 1939, of a Social Science Section gave formal recognition to the need of a definite place for the study of the societal aspects of Florida's problems. These sentiments were clearly voiced in the Academy’s Resolution Concerning the Social Sciences which states: “This development is in the finest tradition of academies of sciences, and is of great importance in that the bringing together of the active workers in the biological, physical and social sciences in Florida for an annual meeting in which there can be discussed the inter-relationships of these fields, as well as their more detailed phases, will inevitably be of value to workers in every field. “By becoming an academy of all of the sciences, the Academy's oppor- tunities for effective service become as broad as the vast range of problems which today face a troubled world.” Concurrently, a Conservation Committee was established, the chairman of which was a member of the Council of the Academy. Aside from the great number of papers, dealing with problems of Florida’s resources, presented at annual meetings, two events focussed formal attention upon the problems of Florida’s resources. The first was the Forum on Florida’s Resources presented as one of sectional meetings of the Social Science Section at the Lakeland meeting of the Academy in 1950, and the second is this round table discussion, which, given in cooperation with the statewide Florida Resource-Use Education Committee, opens the Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the Academy in this hospitable City of Tampa. From its inception until to-day the Academy was one of the stimulators for the study of Florida’s resources. Based upon this experience, it is fair to conclude that, if any, the Academyss role in encouraging the study of Florida’s resources, and the resultant service rendered to the State, will steadily increase with growth and maturity of the Academy. PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 89 FLORIDA'S OLDER POPULATION—A POTENTIAL COMMUNITY RESOURCE T. STANTON DIETRICH Florida State University Old age is a topic which is becoming more and more important to all of us. Since 1900, the proportion of older people in Florida has in- creased by more than 1,600 per cent, while the total population has increased by 400 per cent. In 1950, 237,000 persons were over 64 years old; a half-century ago there were less than 14,000 old people. Between 1940 and 1950, over 100,000 older people wer2 added to our population, an increase of more than 80 per cent. If we assume the current mortality rates for those over 54 years of age will continue, and if we assume no person over 54 years of age enters Florida during the next ten years, in 1960 we still will have as many old people as we have today. But if we assume that the number of persons beyond the age of 54 who will come to Florida in the next ten years is no greater than it was in the past decade, we face the probability that, in 1960, we will have almost 400,000 old people. The change toward an aging population is not an event of the future; it is a change that already has taken place, and one that is continuing. It suddenly has become all too apparent that our older popula- tion has grown more rapidly than we believed it would. We have been rudely awakened to the fact that our current employment prac- tices that encourage compulsory retirement at 65, the inadequate provisions of social security, and the inability or unwillingness of children to contribute to the support of their elder parents now loom before us as ominous social barriers to adequate and satis- fying adjustment in old age. But the problems of old age are not entirely economic. The change in the traditional age structure of Florida, from a young, rural population to an older urban population will require adjustments not only for the individual but for the social organiza- tion of the entire State community. Our attitudes toward the aged will need to be readjusted and our patterns of behavior must be 90 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES re-oriented to absorb this older population into the total activity of community life. To do this without serious disruption of our social insitutions and group living is a challenging problem. Older people want activity, friendships, emotional security, a sense of usefulness. Socially, our aging population is a huge reser- voir of human resources that is eager to be exploited. If the re- sources of these older people are to be socially exploited, our concept of the aged as an enfeebled group must be discarded. Therefore, rather than make elaborate plans for our older popu- lation, we must plan with them. We must plan, then, to live among ‘our elder neighbors, to make full use of their social assets, and to plan together the type of community in which we want to live; to develop the kind of social living we wish to enjoy during the years of our anticipated retirement. PROBLEMS OF MINORITY GROUPS IN FLORIDA D. EK. WiLLIaMs State Department of Education The Negroes form a strong nucleus of the population of Florida, since about one-fourth of the Floridians are colored. The problems of this minority group are of vital interest to all who are concerned about the wise use of our human resources. The State of Florida recognized the significance of this societal problem and tried to solve it, at least partially, by greatly improving the educational opportunities of Negroes in Florida during the past quarter of the century. In 1927 public education for Negroes was provided in eight hundred sixty-six schools which operated am average term of 128 days. Two thousand two hundred thirty-six teachers taught ninety-three thousand five hundred thirty-nine children. Eleven per cent of the teachers had some college training. Their average annual salary was $447.00. Ninety-eight per cent of the enrollment was in Grades One through Eight and two per cent was in Grades Nine through Twelve. Most of the schools were small. Many schools were taught in churches, lodge halls, and residences. Most of the rural schools were not provided with water, toilets, equipment or teaching materials. As would be expected, teaching procedures reflected these conditions. PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 91 Understandings, attitudes and practices have changed gradually. As the economy of the State developed, its ability to provide public education increased. As citizens and officials understood the rela- tionships between moral philosophy, governmental responsibility, and educational needs, their attitudes and practices regarding pro- vision of education improved. As a result, the office of Supervisor of Negro Education was established in the State Department of Education, with the following objects: (1) to induce school boards to adopt policies for improvement of Negro schools; (2) to encourage adequate appropriations from public funds for the support of Negro education; (8) to enlist the active interest of superintendents in providing adequate buildings and equipment for Negro schools; (4) to promote living salaries for Negro teachers; (5) to improve teaching in Negro schools; (6) to encourage improvement of the living conditions through the schools, and (7) to co-operate with the State Board of Control in the development of the Florida Agri- cultural and Mechanical College and to work with the private Negro schools in the extension of educational facilities for Negroes. Several philanthropic funds were helpful in stimulating school officials to improve Negro schools. Small grants from the Rosen- wald Fund stimulated the construction of 128 schoolhouses that were well-planned, constructed, lighted, ventilated, and heated. In addition to grants on schoolhouse construction, the Rosenwald Fund helped counties to extend school terms, purchase small li- braries, and provide transportation for children. The fact that ninety-eight per cent of the school enrollment in Negro schools in 1927 was in the elementary school (Grades One through Eight) reflected the prevailing attitude toward providing high school opportunities for Negroes. The Trustees of the Slater Fund recognized this condition and sought to promote the develop- ment of high schools. Small grants were made to county school boards to help to add high school grades, employ high school teachers, and provide high school equipment in the most populated center in the county. Instruction in these schools was related directly to community needs. Agriculture, Home Economics, and Trades Courses were taught because they contributed directly to- ward the improvement of living in the community. On the other _ hand college preparatory courses were not neglected. These County Training Schools, as the Negro high schools were first called, served 92 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES also as the preparatory schools for colleges. Many of the graduates of County Training Schools became teachers in the elementary schools. The trustees of the Jeanes Fund sought to stimulate county school officials to help the small rural Negro schools through the employ- ment of a supervisor. The Jeanes Supervisor worked with all the teachers in the rural schools to improve school facilities, methods of teaching, adjustment of the curriculum to community needs, and worked cooperatively with the churches, the county agents, home demonstration agents, health personnel and other community agencies to improve the work of the school and living in the com- munity. Since the establishment of the State Supervisory Program, many Jeanes Supervisors have been replaced by general supervisors. Improvement of personal health and community sanitation has been one of the most urgent school needs. Persistent and patient effort has been made to help colleges and public schools meet this need. Through help from governmental health agencies and vol- untary health associations, colleges have been stimulated to pro- vide some health education in the preparation of teachers and teachers have been helped to teach desirable health practices. After the publication of the 1930 Federal Census Report, it was discovered that 18.8 per cent of all Negro adults were illiterate. In order to try to help these adults to learn to read and write, volun- tary classes were promoted. Shortly afterwards, the Works Prog- ress Administration provided financial support, personnel, and ma- terials for the establishment and operation of classes for adults. These classes were helpful in developing desirable understanding and support of public education. Thousands of adults now receive instruction at all grade levels throughout the State. The people of Florida have had such a bounty of natural re- sources that they used them wastefully and unwisely. The in- fluence of the use of natural resources on the development of human and institutional resources has only recently been realized. Some progress has been made but adequate emphasis on Resource-Use Education awaits a general realization of our dependence on re- sources and the critical condition of our resources. The Negro schools responded splendidly to the call of resource-use education and some of the most effective programs in the State are found in Negro institutions. PROBLEMS OF THE UTILIZATION OF FLORIDA’S RESOURCES 93 Only in retrospect do we realize how much has been accom- plished. The school term has been increased to 180 days for all schools. One hundred twenty-six thousand children are enrolled. Four thousand four hundred teachers are employed a minimum of ten months each year at an average annual salary of $2,743.00. Ninety-one per cent of the teachers have four or more years of college training. Sixty-nine per cent of the enrollment is in Grades One through Six and thirty-one per cent is in Grades Seven through Twelve. Fifteen per cent is in Grade One. Modern facilities are being provided as fast as tax resources permit. More money is invested in school facilities each year now than all school property was worth in 1927. The most gratifying and encouraging growth has been in atti- tudes which guide action. Through a better understanding of the problems of a minority group by all people involved definite for- ward steps have been made in the solution of these problems through bettering educational facilities and opportunities for Ne- groes. This more effective education is improving the economy of the State which enables it to provide more adequate service to the people and is an outstanding example of a better use of Florida’s human resources. SUMMARY RALPH E. PAGE University of Florida We have attempted in these papers to present pertinent data regarding the natural and social resources of Florida. We have also considered some of the problems which are involved in the educational processes which are designed to qualify the citizens of Florida to utilize these resources more effectively and more efficiently. Finally, we have directed our attention to the role of the Florida Academy of Sciences in connection with this tremen- dously significant problem of resource use. It is suggested that this symposium has been logically organized. The resources of Florida have been analysed in what appears to be a rather natural sequence: 1. Soil and water conservation 2. Natural vegetation in general 94 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 3. Forests 4. Wildlife resources 5. The organized economy of Florida 6. Personnel resources a. The aged b. The negro The purpose of this symposium has been to present an over-all picture of Florida’s resources and to point out problems. The solu- tion of these problems and the education of the persons most directly concerned will engage the best efforts of the scientists and educators of the state for many years to come. It is our sincere hope that we have presented facts and raised questions which will stimulate addi- tional study and research designed to promote improved resource utilization. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 16(2), 1953. SOME ASPECTS OF BEACH EROSION ON THE SOUTHEAST FLORIDA COAST CLARK. I. Cross University of Florida The ocean beaches of Southeast Florida are in a state of un- balance which is resulting in accelerated erosion. Asa result serious losses have been suffered by property owners and the state. Most efforts at control have been directed by technically trained engineers who have built structures without understanding all forces involved in beach formation. This lack of understanding is a fundamental reason for general failure of control efforts. The influences of ground water movement and hydrostatic pressure upon beaches are of especial importance and it is believed that no consideration has been given these factors in either man-directed beach modifica- tions or control efforts. Losses are directly caused by beach retrogression, which destroys property by direct attack upon the land and improvements, and beach progradation which undesirably widens the beach front. Indirectly losses include cost of protective structures and the detri- mental effects of erosion upon tourism. A beach, while subject to short-term disturbances, in general rep- resents an equilibrium condition. If the normal forces of waves and currents are disturbed in any way, as by the building of jetties or breakwaters, the character of the beach may be altered com- pletely. The new forces created may result in highly undesirable erosion or equally undesirable deposition until a new state of equilibrium is established. This new state may render the value of structures worthless for the purpose for which they were in- tended. | The beaches of Florida have developed over a long time under relatively uniform conditions. Recently, however, man has modi- fied the pre-existing conditions so that the beaches, as dynamic features of the natural landscape, are no longer in a state of ad- justment. The most significant of the changes wrought by man in this area have been the cutting of the Intercoastal Waterway, cutting across offshore bars to lagoons, and construction of break- waters and jetties. Groins, bulkheads and seawalls are of more 96 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES local significance and have usually been of a protective nature, built after a state of unbalance had been created by the larger proj- ects. Unfortunately these and other protective devices modify the beach and thus the processes of beach formation, therefore may be detrimental. Before an understanding of the modifications of beaches can be attained it is necessary to know the mechanics of beach formation. A beach is defined as the zone extending from the upper and land- ward limit of effective wave action to low-tide level. As the beach is exposed to the forces of moving water, which remain relatively constant, it becomes adjusted to those forces. The steepness of the curving offshore profile is a function of the power of waves. Waves beating upon a coast contribute debris which piles up and requires wave energy to move it. Any increase in debris alters the profile, slowing up erosion shoreward until the increase is moved seaward or along shore. In a profile of equilibrium the steepness of the profile is adjusted to the power of the waves and the amount of debris to be moved and will not change. The offshore slope presented to the waves may be less steep than the slope required for a profile of equilibrium. Under this condition the line of breakers lies well offshore and if erosion is vigorous at and seaward of the breaker line, the debris stirred up may be thrown up either at the beach or as an offshore bar. Where a supply of debris is continuous, as where brought by a river or by a longshore current, the offshore bar may be extended seaward. However, offshore bars may also be attacked and cut away by the waves if there is a falling off in the supply of material. The curve of the shoreline is determined by the littoral current. Wind-driven waves meeting the shoreline obliquely carry waste in a zigzag path along the shoreline and transport much material into the littoral zone during periods of extreme wave action. Long- shore currents sweep waste into the deeper water of bays where the decrease in velocity results in deposition at the still water con- tact. Because beach drift material tends to go in a straight line, shorelines tend to straighten. Tidal influence generally keeps a channel open through bay bars although such an opening is so shallow that it does not act as a permanent obstacle to migration of sand alongshore. Sediment sinking below wave base is undisturbed except by strong tidal cur- BEACH EROSION ON THE SOUTHEAST FLORIDA COAST = 07 rents which scour and keep open channels. Tidal currents sweep before them waste material carried by longshore currents. Such material may be deposited in conspicuous delta-like forms (below high water level) in sheltered waters. The incarried deposits rep- resent a great quantity of fine waste from the outer beach which is subtracted from the longshore drift. Because a bay is relatively protected and therefore wave action seldom stirs up the deposited sediment, the outgoing tide does not contribute an appreciable amount of debris to the longshore current. IDEALIZED BEACH PROFILE GREAT VERTICAL EXAGGERATION MAXIMUM HIGH TIDE MEAN HIGH TIDE ! N L A N NATURAL EQUILIBRIUM ya ——. WM. A — AVE. SEA LEVEL ESTABLISH WATER a LEVEL IN THIS ZONE few ete b MEAN LOW TIDE BARRIER BEACH (Figure 1) Normally beaches are subject to uniform movements of ground water and have adjusted to them. However, altered ground water conditions exist in Southeast Florida and must be considered as, in part, responsible for accelerated erosion. The causes of erratic beach width have not been thoroughly in- vestigated by engineers. However, geologists and physiographers have attempted to determine why a beach may narrow during one storm and widen during another storm of similar characteristics. Their findings indicate that variations in hydrostatic pressure are responsible for fluctuations in beach width. Douglas Johnson made an early study on the effect of ground water movement upon the “quickness” of sand. Darton observed 98 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the relative firmness of beach sand during periods of both pro- longed rain and drought. These early investigations and recent research indicate that the major factor in sand removal from a beach is ground water movement or hydrostatic pressure. The upward movement of water, although it may be very slight, reduces the friction of sand grains and “quickens” them. When the water table is high sand will move fast but a low water table will tend to make the beach stable or build up. In Southeast Florida when storms, extremely powerful eroding agents, cause a sudden large rise in tide (the mean range at Holly- wood Beach is 2.5 feet, the spring range 3.0, but a maximum of 10.6 feet was recorded in 1926), the normal movement of ground water would be landward into the inland lagoons (See Figure 1). However, when inlets have been cut through barrier beaches, the lagoons are but tidal estuaries and there is no stabilizing hydro- static pressure firming beach sand. The extreme permeability of Florida’s beach structure (Parker and Stringfield noted tidal effects in wells at an average maximum distance of 6,400 feet from the beach line in the Miami area), and often very narrow barrier would accentuate water movement under natural conditions and thus re- duce storm damage. The completion of the intercoastal waterway in effect made virtually all the beaches in the area offshore and created an altered hydrostatic pressure condition. Unfortunately dramatic visible proof of the effect of altering hydrostatic pressure in Southeast Florida, comparable to that noted in man-cut inlets, is lacking. At Palm Beach, Lake Worth Inlet was dredged across the barrier beach and two jetties constructed between 1918 and 1925. The jetties were 800 feet apart to allow for maximum tidal effect. South Lake Worth Inlet was dredged across the barrier beach in 1927. Since 1925 erosion of ocean beaches and formation of tidal deltas has been a problem for the Palm Beach area. Protective structures were designed and con- structed but none was really effective in building up the beach (See Figure 2). Sand has been replaced by dredging from Lake Worth at a cost of approximately $50,000 a year (1947). The hurri- cane of 1947 doubled the amount needed. Despite the addition of material at Palm Beach erosion has steadily extended southward from South Inlet. This is at least in part due to the intercepting effect of jetties as illustrated in Figure 2. V4 MILE (Figure 2) 100 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In 1924 Baker’s Haulover Inlet was cut to connect the north end of Biscayne Bay with the ocean. Completion of solid causeways (except for small openings) across the south end of Biscayne Bay had resulted in pollution and Baker's Haulover Cut was designed to promote better circulation in the bay. Velocity of the current in the inlet is quite swift, thus interception of beach drift material has been large. Many protective structures have been constructed along Miami Beach with variable effectiveness. To control beach erosion at Palm Beach, Miami Beach and other Southeast Florida beaches where similar conditions prevail, it is suggested that natural equilibrium be restored in-so-far as possible. Instead of long solid jetties and an open channel it is. believed that there should be a narrow channel with a lock and gate to control the level of the inland waterway. The lock or locks and gates should be opened for full discharge on the ebb tide to secure chan- nel scour and to keep the water level substantially below that of the ocean most of the time. The low normal tide range in this area might give an impression that maintainence of differential water level was unimportant but extreme permeability and, more significant, the occurrence of maxi- mum high tides coinciding with hurricanes of greatest wave vio- lence makes it essential that a favorable hydrostatic pressure be secured. Tropical storms are most common in the southeast of Florida which suggests that corrective action be initiated in this area. As locks and gates prevent tidal currents from carrying sand derived from longshore currents into lagoons, this waste, aided by favorable ground water movement, would tend to rebuild eroded beaches without the expense of costly beach structures whose effec- tiveness is subject to question. LITERATURE CITED BUNTING, D. C., GENTRY, R. C., LATOUR, M. H., and NORTON, GRADY 1951. Florida Hurricanes of 1950. Bulletin No. 45 Florida Engineering and Industrial Experiment Station. COTTON, CHARLES ANDREW 1945. Geomorphology. 4th Edition. John Wiley and Sons. GRANT, U. S. 1946. Geological Society of America Bulletin V of 57, Number 12, part 2, abstract p. 1252. BEACH EROSION ON THE SOUTHEAST FLORIDA COAST 101 HANSEN, HOWARD J. 1947. Beach Erosion Studies in Florida. Bulletin No. 16 Florida Engi- neering and Industrial Experiment Station. JOHNSON, DOUGLAS : 1919. Shore Processes and Shoreline Development. John Wiley and Sons. PARKER, G. G., and STRINGFIELD, V. T. 1950. Effects of Earthquakes, Trains and Tides . . . on Water in the Geo- logical Formations cf South Florida. Economic Geology, 45: 441-60. SVERDRUDP, H. U., JOHNSON, MARTIN W., and FLEMING, RICHARD H. 1946. The Oceans. Prentice Hall. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 16(2), 1953. WEATHER EXTREMES IN FLORIDA DURING 1950-1951 RicHarp L. Day University of Florida During the years 1950 and 1951 many interesting and contrasting extremes took place in Florida’s weather. Nearly all possible varia- tions for Florida were recorded: heat, cold, drought, torrential rains, snow, and, in 1950, three full-fledged hurricanes. The year 1950 opened with the second warmest January of rec- ord, the statewide average of 68.2° having been exceeded only once since such records were begun by the U. S. Weather Bureau in 1891. This figure was 9.0° above normal and only 1.2° below the all-time warm January in 1937. Along with January, 1937, January, 1950 was the only month of the name on record during which no freezing temperatures were registered at any time any- where in Florida. January, 1950 was, furthermore, the driest January on record in Florida, the average precipitation for the state being only 0.39 of an inch—far below the normal 2.73 inches. In fact, only one month of any name has ever been drier: February, 1911 with an average of but 0.18 of an inch over the state. The warmth and dryness of January, 1950 were definitely re- lated in that the state was under the influence of a westward extension of the “Bermuda high” during most of the month. Be- cause of the persistence of this subtropical anticyclone, few cold fronts with their accompanying invasions of cold polar air and showers could enter the state. The Bermuda or Atlantic high gave way during the last half of February, 1950 and thereafter a strong trend toward cooler temperatures was experienced. In fact, not until May was another month as warm as January had been in its average temperature. April was the second coolest month by that name on record. Frosts were recorded widely in northern Florida as late as April 10th. By June there was a return to hot, dry weather. In fact, it was the fourth driest June on record with the rainfall averaging 3.74 inches for the State, compared with a normal of 6.70 inches for the month of June. One of the most severe heat waves on record for Florida occurred during the period June 17 to 28, 1950. In this WEATHER EXTREMES IN FLORIDA DURING 1950-1951 1038 12-day period the temperature reached 98° or higher daily at Jacksonville. The peak for Jacksonville was 103°, and for the State 105°. Map 3 shows isotherms of the highest temperatures recorded throughout Florida during the summer of 1950. Most of these high temperatures were experienced during the June heat wave. The smaller inset map shows a typical pressure pattern over the United States during this heat wave. It will be noted that the isobars extend from northwest to southeast across the South Atlantic States into Florida with a trough of low pressure tending to split the subtropical high just east of the Florida Peninsula. This pres- sure pattern results in westerly to northwesterly winds in contrast to the normal southerly winds of summer. Such winds in summer usually bring extreme heat and drought from the intensely heated continent. By contrast, the more normal southerly winds origi- nate over the tropical seas and therefore have somewhat less extreme temperatures and carry much more moisture. The. significance of the hot west and northwest winds is ap- parent in the northwest to southeast orientation of the isotherms of highest temperatures on Map 3. It will be observed that in the northern and central portions of the peninsula, maximum tempera- tures for the summer were generally higher on the east coast than on the west coast. Thus the peak temperature at Melbourne, on the east coast, was 102°, while that at Tarpon Springs, in the corresponding latitude on the west coast, was only 95°. The hottest portion of the State was the interior, away from the moderating influence of the sea. The lowest maximum of all was at the city office of the Weather Bureau in Miami with only 90° as a peak temperature for the entire summer. This southeastern coast of Florida is cooled by prevailing southeasterly winds. Northwest- erly winds traveling the length of the peninsula are practically non-existent during the summer. Such winds are the only true winds in southern Florida. In winter they may bring frosts almost to the southern tip of the peninsula. It is also interesting to observe the cooling effect of Lake Okee- chobee on Map 3. Highest temperature during the summer at Okeechobee, just north of the lake, was only 94°. The hurricane season of 1950 was rather remarkable in that three fully developed hurricanes entered Florida compared with an 104 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES average of only 0.83 storms per year of true hurricane intensity during the past 65 years. (Winds must reach 75 miles per hour or higher to be classified as of hurricane force.) In 1950, the center of the first hurricane moved inland from the Gulf of Mexico over the extreme western boundary of Florida, west of Pensacola, at about 10:00 p.m. of August 30th with winds just over hurricane force. Heaviest rainfall was at Panama City, with 14.96 inches. The unique hurricane of the year was the so-called “Cedar Key™ storm which hovered about Cedar Key for nearly the entire day of September 5th. Map 1 shows the erratic track of this storm, which came to an almost complete standstill and looped twice, once just east of Cedar Key, where winds attained 125 miles per hour in gusts and the barometer fell to 28.30 inches. The inset for Map 1 shows the storm as it appeared at 1:30 a.m. on the 4th, after it had moved southeastward and inland to a point about 10 miles southwest of Brooksville. By the time of this weather map winds had diminished to less than hurricane force throughout the area of the storm. The prolonged presence of the hurricane at Cedar Key resulted in a rainfall of over two feet in a little more than 24 hours—one of the heaviest rainfalls ever to be recorded in the United States during such a brief time. Two figures have been given: 24.50 inches according to the U. S. Weather Bureau in their Climato- logical Data for Florida (1950), and 25.20 inches according to Bunt- ing, Gentry and Latour (1951: 10). Map 1 shows the distribution and quantity of rain falling in Florida during the passage of this hurricane. The area of peak rainfall around Cedar Key is conspicuous on this map. It will be noted that a second region of particularly heavy rain was centered around Brooksville, where the total fall for the storm was 20.38 inches. A short distance south of this town the storm again slowed down and changed direction, thereby causing a great concentra- tion of rainfall. Another interesting feature of this map is the astonishing rainfall gradient along the Gulf coast northwest of Cedar Key. Less than 100 miles (by air line) to the northwest of Cedar Key (which experienced 24.50 inches of rain) only 0.20 inch of rain fell at St. Marks! The final hurricane of the season moved inland directly over the city of Miami at midnight on October 17th-18th. In fact the eye WEATHER EXTREMES IN FLORIDA DURING 1950-1951 105 of the hurricane actually passed between the U. S. Weather Bu- reaus International Airport Office and downtown office! The inset to Map 2 contains a weather map for Florida at 1:30 a.m. on October 18th, when the hurricane center had progressed to a point some 15 miles north-northwest of Miami. Highest wind for one minute was 122 miles per hour at the downtown office of the Weather Bureau, and momentary gusts of over 150 miles per hour were estimated by Weather Bureau observers. The barometer dropped to 28.25 inches at the downtown office. Map 2 reveals that the heaviest rain fell not at Miami or other points over which the precise center of the storm passed, but instead about 25 to 40 miles east of the center. A gauge two miles west of Titusville accumulated 14.97 inches of water during the storm, the heaviest fall in Florida. This storm, while somewhat more intense than the Cedar Key storm, moved along at a steady rate of about 15 miles per hour. Consequently, it did not remain long enough over any one area to produce such heavy rains as fell around Cedar Key and Brooksville in the earlier storm. The presence of far heavier rains on the eastern side of the October hurricane (Map 2) is conspicuous and in line with the conclusions of Cline (Tannehill, 1950: 76). “Cline’s investigation leaves little doubt, however, that the travelling cyclone, when crossing the Gulf and South Atlantic coasts of the United States, is characterized by more intense rainfall to the right front quadrant than in other parts of the cyclone and that so far as observations are avail- able, little rainfall occurs, as a rule, in the rear half of the storm area.” Cline attributes this to convergence of winds in the right front quadrant with those coming from the right rear quarter, due to the greater strength of the winds in the right half of a hurricane than in the left half. It seems likely that when a hurricane travels the length of the Florida peninsula, as the October, 1950 hurricane did, that this effect would be made still more pronounced as a result of the moisture laden winds coming directly onshore from the warm Gulf Stream off the east coast. By the time these winds have rotated to the western side of the storm, however, they obviously have lost a large portion of their original moisture supply because of the length of time they have been depositing rain over the 106 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES land. Furthermore, Brooks (Brooks, 1930: 2) has pointed out that as winds move inland from the sea, the greatly increased fric- tion of the land surface suddenly slows air movement, thereby inducing a “pile-up” of air. This serves to accelerate the already active lifting of the air rushing into the hurricane, thereby further increasing the rate of moisture condensation and rainfall just inland from the coast. The hurricane season of 1950 was not long over before rapid cooling heralded the approach of winter. As early as November 6th the first freezing temperatures came to northern Florida. Then on November 25-26, 1950 arrived the great cold wave which brought record low November temperatures to many places throughout southeastern United States. The lowest temperature in Florida was the 16° recorded at Secotan, which was within 1° of the all-time low for the month of November. Even after- noon temperatures hovered about the freezing point in extreme northern Florida on the 25th as strong northwest winds persisted throughout the day. This was probably the coldest football weather ever experienced in Florida. The announcer at the Gator Bowl Game being played at Jacksonville on this date actually reported a temperature of 27° at the grandstand while the game was in progress! The maximum for the day at both Jacksonville and Tallahassee was but 35°. Minimum temperatures experienced during this cold spell reached below freezing as far south as Home- stead on the night of the 25th when a reading of 30° was recorded. This remarkable November cold wave accompanied a powerful thrust of Arctic air which was drawn far southward by an unusually intense cyclonic storm that developed in the Carolinas on the 24th, then moved northward into Pennsylvania on the 25th, and finally westward into Ohio by the 26th. This storm brought the most severe winds to northeastern United States since the New England hurricane of 1938. Velocities attained hurricane force at a number of points. The temperature on the southwest side of the storm dropped to 8° above zero as far south as Atlanta, Georgia, while simultaneously temperatures were as high as 60° at New York City! On the night of the 25th temperatures were lower in southern Florida than in Maine. The month of December following this cold wave averaged more than 3° below normal, although no outstandingly low tempera- WEATHER EXTREMES IN FLORIDA DURING 1950-1951 = 107 tures were recorded. Nevertheless, there were many days of frost and extensive damage was done to tender winter vegetable crops. To provide some idea of the average temperatures in a cool winter month in Florida, Maps 7 and 8 have been prepared. Map 7 shows the mean daily maximum (afternoon) temperature during Decem- ber, 1950, while Map 8 shows the mean daily minimum (night- time) temperature for the same month. For comparative pur- poses, the inset on Map 7 depicts the normal mean daily maximum temperature in January, which is on the average the coolest month of the year in Florida. The inset for Map 8 shows the normal mean minimum temperature for the same month. On Map 7, it will be noted that for the cool month of December, 1950, the isotherm of 68° for the mean maximum temperature extended from St. Petersburg on the west coast, northeastward to the vicinity of Daytona Beach on the east coast of the Florida peninsula. On the inset map (accompanying Map 7) the normal mean daily maximum temperature isotherm of 70° for January, commonly the coolest month of the year, occupies approximately the same position. It appears to be significant that this isotherm of comfortably warm afternoon temperature corresponds very well with the general northern limits of winter resorts and retire- ment towns. An examination of Map 8 will show some startling contrasts in the average or mean nighttime (minimum) temperatures in various parts of Florida. In December, 1950 the average minimum temperature at a point 10 miles east of Jasper (on the southwestern border of the great Okeefenokee Swamp in extreme northern Flori- da) was but 34°, while at Miami Beach the mean minimum was 61°, and at Key West 63°. The southeast or “Gold Coast” stands out on this map for winter nights which are much warmer than elsewhere in Florida. The inset for Map 8 shows a similar night- time temperature pattern for the normally coolest month of January. Normal mean minima vary from 40° in the extreme northern portion of the State to 62° at Miami City (figures for Miami Beach not available in this case) and 65° at Key West. The most severe cold wave of the winter of 1950-1951 arrived on February 3rd and 4th, 1951. The lowest temperatures during this cold wave are shown on Map 4. During this cold wave a reading as low as 10° above zero was registered at Crestview 108 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in northwest Florida, the lowest February temperature since 1905. In only three previous years have lower temperatures been re- corded in Florida: 9° above zero in January 1942, 8° above in January, 1940, and —2° (two below zero) at Tallahassee in Feb- ruary, 1899. During the 1899 cold wave a reading of 6° above zero was observed as far south as Gainesville on the northern portion of the peninsula. The February 3-4, 1951 cold wave also was notable for the two-inch snowfall it brought to St. Augustine and Crescent City, probably the heaviest snow to be experienced in Florida since the 1899 cold wave. In 1951 a trace of snow fell as far south as Bradenton, while in 1899 a trace was observed at Tampa. The inset to Map 4 shows the pressure pattern for United States at the height of the February, 1951 cold wave (1:30 a.m., Feb. 4). At the time of this map it was snowing across the northern penin- sula of Florida, while heavy rain with temperatures as low as 35° to 40° was being experienced deep into the Everglades of South Florida. This bitterly cold rain, perhaps the coldest rain on record for southern Florida, resulted in the death of some 5,000 range cattle. Following this February cold wave the weather became much milder and the month ended with a normal mean temperature. The next unusual weather was the earliest hurricane on record. Such a storm actually approached to within 100 miles of the Ft. Pierce- Stuart area of the central east coast of the Florida Peninsula on the afternoon of May 17. While hurricane winds were ex- perienced offshore, near the center of the storm, nothing more than fresh winds and light showers took place along the coast. This early beginning was deceptive and it was followed by one of the least active hurricane seasons in many years. No hurri- cane touched Florida in 1951 and the only tropical storm to enter the state passed across the Everglades region on October 2nd. This storm brought 8 to 18 inches of rain, but its highest winds were not much over 60 miles per hour. August, 1951 was the second hottest month on record for Florida in average temperature, although extreme temperatures did not reach such high levels as in June, 1950. The mean temperature for this month was 83.3°, equal to the previous hottest August in 1941, and only 0.3° below the hottest month of all in July, 1932. DAILY M AUG DAILY RANGE MPERATURE IST, 1951 b) L N DAILY | DECE a Cs ie W MAL MEAN MUM TEMPER; ANUARY (°F) sually cool ] ei MAP | TOTAL RAINFALL ACCOMPANYING HURRICANE OF SEPT. I-7, 1950 (INGHES) WEATHER MAP OF FLORIDA joo2 130 AM, SEPT. 6, 1950 esa TOTAL RAINFALL ACCOMPANYING / HURRICANE OF OCT, I5-I9, 1950 (INCHES) WEATHER MAP OF FLORIDA 130 AM, OGT. 18, 1950 HIGHEST TEMPERATURE SUMMER 1950 (°F) PRESSURE PATTERN AT HEIGHT OF HEAT WAVE JUNE, 1950 1020 1017 1014 10 1008 (905 1002 1005 1008 {oil LWNE 26, 1950 & LOWEST TEMPERATURE IN COLD WAVE OF FEB: 3-4, |95! (°F) PRESSURE PATTERN AT HEIGHT OF COLD WAVE FEB. 3-4, 1951 JOOB 1oll 1014 107 FEB, 3, 1951 Plate I. —= Hurricane Rainfall and Temperature Extremes. G2 os 74° INIMUM TEMPERATURE USM 99! (°F) MAP 8 MINIMUM TEMPERATURE iIMBERy =|950 (Ge) December. WEATHER EXTREMES IN FLORIDA DURING 1950-1951 109 Map 5 shows the mean daily maximum (afternoon) temperature during this hot August of 1951. Average maxima for the month varied from 97° at De Funiak Springs in northwest Florida down to only 89° at Miami Beach. Careful study of this map reveals that the hottest days are found on the mainland (in northwest Florida), and in the central and northern interior portions of the peninsula. A surprisingly cool spot is Okeechobee, with an average maximum of only 90°, as compared with 93° to 95° over most of the remaining interior portions of the peninsula. The moderat- ing effect of the large lake (Okeechobee) is therefore evident. Map 6 shows the mean daily minimum (nighttime) tempera- tures for the same hot month of August, 1951. It will be noticed that the temperature distribution is almost the exact reverse of daytime conditions, with the warmest (instead of coolest) places being on the southeast coast, and the coolest nights being in the extreme northern interior. Thus, average minima varied from highs of 80° at Miami Beach and Key West, and 76° at Okeechobee, down to 69° at a point 10 miles east of Jasper on the southwestern edge of the Okeefenokee Swamp. For comparative purposes an inset has been provided for Map 5, which shows the normal mean maximum temperature in August in Florida. The pattern is similar to that depicted in Map 5, although not quite as pronounced. Another inset map accom- panies Map 6, which shows the mean daily range in temperature during the particular summer month under consideration (August, 1951). As might be expected, the areas most modified by ocean breezes—southeastern Florida, the Florida Keys, the Pinellas Penin- sula, and Cape San Blas region in northwestern Florida—have the smallest daily temperature range. These are, of course, the regions which have the coolest daytime and warmest nighttime tempera- tures. The greatest mean daily range was observed at Madison in extreme northern interior Florida, as contrasted to the smallest mean daily range of only 9° at Miami Beach. In concluding this summary of unusual events in Florida’s weather during 1950 and 1951, it seems appropriate to quote a paragraph from the Weather Bureaus CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA—FLORIDA SECTION, for February (1952: 14). “A water- spout, two tornadoes, a minor tropical storm, and a trace of snow were included in this month’s weather (Feb., 1952)”. MEAN DAILY MINIMUM TEMPERATURE DAILY MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE | = AUGUST, 1951 AUGUST, 195 (°F) MEAN DAILY RANGE NORMAL MEAN IN TEMPERATURE DAILY MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE AUGUST 4 . AUGUST, 1951 ("F) - MEAN DAILY MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE es MEAN DAILY MINIMUM TEMPERATURE DECEMBER, 1950 3 ee DECEMBER, 1950 NORMAL MEAN prve* NORMAL MEAN DAILY MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE D> DAILY MINIMUM TEMPERATURE eed Y JANUARY (Wa) mi (a) Plate Il. Hottest August on Record and an unusually cool December. / ¢ . af » ws S “4 '- L oo ee . ¢ L ¥ x v % N a 110 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The tropical storm referred to in this quotation moved north- eastward across the southern portion of the state from the Naples- Everglades area of the Gulf coast to the Stuart-West Palm Beach area of the Atlantic coast during the night of February 2nd, 1952. Accompanying the storm were winds up to 60 miles per hour and 2 to 4 inches of rain. It was the first tropical storm of record between January and April. While this out-of-season tropical storm and the other contrast- ing meteorological phenomena referred to in the preceding quota- tion did not take place in 1950-1951, they provided a striking conclusion to the chain of unusual weather events which had occurred in Florida during those two years. Despite being located at the edge of the tropics, Florida can display many of the sur- prising extremes which one would ordinarily expect to find much nearer the heart of the middle latitudes. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to extend his sincere appreciation to Dr. Sigis- mond deR. Diettrich for his helpful suggestions, Dr. William H. Pierson for his cartographic advice, and Mr. Dean Westmeyer for his careful drafting of the maps which accompany this article. LITERATURE CITED BROOKS, C. F. 1930. General Statement. Rainfall of New England. Journal of New England Water Works Association, 4: 2. BUNTING, D:-G., GENERY, RK. C., LATOURS MM: Ee 1951. Engineering Progress at the University of Florida. Florida Hurri- canes of 1950—History and Analysis, Bulletin Series No. 45, 5: 10. TANNEHILL, I. R. 1950. Hurricanes. Princeton, N. J., 7th edition, p. 76. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WEATHER BUREAU 1950. Climatological Data—Florida, 54: 162. 1952. Climatological Data—Florida, 56: 14. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 16(2), 1953. THE OLDER POPULATION—A POTENTIAL COMMUNITY RESOURCE 4 T. STANTON DIETRICH Florida State University Old age is a topic which is becoming more and more important to all of us. According to recent figures published by the Metro- politan Life Insurance Company, a child born in 1949 can now expect to live to be almost 68 (67.7) years old: for a girl the expectancy is that she will live to be 71.5 years old and for a boy, the probability is that he will survive to be 66 years old. In 1948, the chances were 99 out of 100 that a child who entered school at the age of six would survive to enter the labor force, or go to college at the age of eighteen. In other words, since those who reach the age of eighteen can expect 52.8 more years of life, 99 per cent of our children in the first grade of school may expect to live until they are 71 years of age. Even persons who have reached the age of fifty can now antici- pate exceeding the Biblical age of three-score and ten years: men can expect to live an additional 22.6 years, and the prospects were that women would continue to live for another 26.4 years. This means, because it has been tradition in our culture for persons to be considered “old” when they reach the age of sixty-five, that many of us not only can expect to be included among the increas- ing number of older people, but we will probably remain in this older population category for a decade, and perhaps longer. It is one of the paradoxes of modern American society, that despite the trend in the increased tempo of urban living—due, in part, to the accelerated pace of our industrialized economy—more of us are continuing to live longer. We are becoming conscious of the fact that problems of an aging population are of personal concern because they involve our own future. Until very recently, the number of older people was not large, and it was accepted as axiomatic that after the age of 65, the efficiency and usefulness of a person as a productive employee had 1 Some of the demographic material incorporated in this paper is from a research project sponsored by a grant for the Florida State University Re- search Council. 112 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES been dissipated. Generally, it was believed a person 65 years old was entitled to be “retired” from gainful employment. He should then be able to enjoy the leisure of his few remaining years in the relative economic comfort to be provided by his savings, his pen- sion, or perhaps by some assistance from his children. “Looking backward it is not difficult to see the origin of the attitudes that have tended toward regard of older people as super- fluous. The country was shifting to an industrial economy in a period when youth was plentiful and when comparatively few people lived beyond the 50’s and 60's. Industry required great strength and long hours of work. Young, strong bodies were needed and were available . . . Increasing application of machines and power produced more goods than purchasing power could absorb, and simultaneously shortened the work week. The birth rate continued to decline and operate as a further check on the total capacity of the country to consume the industrial output. Thus, when a plethora of workers developed in the 1930's, it was the older ones (along with the very young) whose services were eschewed (Tibbits and Sheldon, 1952). We are face to face today with the realistic fact that we must discard our stereotype concept of older people as an enfeebled and unusable population. With more and more of us becoming sixty-five years of age, and with those reaching this chronological mile-stone also living longer, very few of us will like to entertain the idea that we are no longer wanted or needed in the conduction of community affairs. It would be fool-hardy, of course, to maintain that all persons who reach the age of sixty-five are still employable and are men- tally and physically in good health. Older persons, themselves, undoubtedly are willing to admit they are not “as young as they used to be,’ but this by no means implies they are satisfied to be cast aside and segregated from the remainder of community life. If the older population merits consideration as a group with its Own special problems, it is because they have been set aside by social conditions and attitudes that tend to age-type them as “old.” “In our society the changes in living required by aging are based not only on changes in physical and mental capacities but also on social pressures. There is a difference in the situation of a man who has to adjust his behavior to an actual decline in physical OLDER POPULATION—A POTENTIAL RESOURCE 113 or mental powers and that of a man who has to adjust it to social prescription of such a change before it is necessitated by his physi- cal or mental condition. To the adjustment required by physio- logical handicap there is added the adjustment required by social limitation or vice versa” (Pollak, 1948). In the culture of our modern American society there is con- siderable evidence of dissatisfaction or maladjustment among the population classified as “old” (Schmidt, 1951). “There is ample evidence of their bewilderment and feeling of insecurity in a fast moving world that has failed to provide assurance of income and opportunity for obtaining normal satisfactions and for making continuing contributions to community life” (Tibbits and Sheldon, 1951; Monroe, 1951). Social barriers to adequate and satisfying adjustments in old age include present employment practices that encourage com- pulsory retirement and close out the working careers of many persons simply because they are considered “too old” at the age of sixty-five. Our social security provisions, group retirement plans, etc., for the most part, have been formulated on a catch-as-catch basis largely because there has been little or no adequate informa- tion upon which to develop a long-range social program. The trend toward the small, individual family unit system in American society, together with the social pressure to maintain luxury stand- ards of living, has resulted in an inability or unwillingness on the part of the children to include the support of elderly parents as one of their major responsibilities. But the problems of the older people are not entirely economic. They want activity, friendship, emotional security, a sense of use- fulness. Socially, our aging population constitutes a huge natural resource eager to be exploited (Wheeler, 1952). If we are to “exploit” the resource of older people in our com- munities we must, of course, be motivated by more than a zealous desire to do something “for” or “about” them. We need to know who these people are; how many of them there are; to what extent is their number increasing in proportion to the total population; what are the needs of the older people—are they very different from those of younger persons; are we to be concerned only with those who are physically, mentally or economically dependent; what are the community facilities that might be utilized to assist the 114 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES older people to satisfy their felt needs; and finally, what do the older people want, what can they do for themselves? Obviously, in the limited time at our disposal, it would be im- possible to discuss all of these questions; therefore, since an ade- quate knowledge about the population we are to work with is basic to intelligent social planning, our attention will be directed to some of the more pertinent facts about the size and growth of the older group of people in Florida. It is recognized, of course, “there is no single criterion or classification by which an individual or class may be unequivocally designated as aged or old” (Con- ference on Aging, 1951). However, traditionally and under the provisions of social security sixty-five has been widely accepted as the age of expected retirement; therefore, for statistical purposes, we shall use sixty-five as the lower age-limit of the older population. During the past half-century, Florida has experienced an un- usually rapid growth of its entire population, but of particular interest has been the phenomenal increase in the number and proportion of older people, especially among the white population. It is typical of the average community, usually through its Chamber of Commerce, to take great pride in any population increase, how- ever small it may be. Rarely, however, do the claims of the “fastest growing community’ recognize the full and realistic significance of the effect population growth and changes may have upon com- munity life. Generally it is assumed that any population growth implies “progress.” But whether or not a population increase, especially if it also includes the addition of a large number of older people, will become a valuable asset or a serious social problem often depends upon how well community leadership and lay people are aware of the impact it will have upon all aspects of community living: economic, political, educational, welfare, and other areas of social life. Therefore, as we turn our attention to the older population of Florida, two considerations should be con- tinually kept in mind. First of all, the trend of the past half-century indicates that our population has aged considerably and that it will continue to age for some time. This change in the traditional age structure of Florida has developed an entirely new pattern of social relation- ships. It is necessary to recognize that an aging population means adjustments not only for the individual members but for the entire OLDER POPULATION—A POTENTIAL RESOURCE 115 social organization of the community. Our attitudes toward the aged will need to be readjusted and our patterns of behavior must be re-oriented to absorb this older population into the to- tality of community life without seriously disrupting our social groups and institutions. The change toward an aging population is not an event which we can anticipate; it is a change that already has taken place and is still continuing. In the second place, while recognizing the fact that our popu- lation has become, and is becoming older, there is danger in con- sidering the older people as an isolated or segregated segment of the total population, or to consider the older population as a group of mental and physical dependents. While we do not go along with the opinion expressed in the following statement, we repeat it here because it was quoted in a recent issue of a journal devoted to the problems of the aged. “Don't think the more healthy and active of America’s older people are patiently waiting for the rest of us to decide their fate . . . On the contrary .. . it may be they who decide ours. Robert Havighurst, professor of education at the University of Chicago, predicts that by 1980 the balance of power in any election will be held by those over sixty. The Townsend and newer, similar movements, indicate what this may mean in the life of the country if the rapidly grow- ing number of oldsters are forced to band together as a “special interest’ group. Couldn't age vs. youth, “retired” people vs. work- ers, become as a real a conflict as capital vs. labor?” (Ogden and Ogden, 1952.) Our concern in dealing with the older population is not intended to urge consideration of them as a special interest group but to focus attention upon the need for incorporating their growing numbers into community planning in order to utilize their capa- bilities and interests as community resources. In view of the fact that older people are an integral part of the total population, it is well to recognize there are other population changes that will directly affect the future social planning of the State, and which will provide a sound basis for better evaluat- ing and understanding the significance of Florida’s aging popu- lation. Some of the more significant changes are summarized below: 116 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (1) The total population of Florida has more than quadrupled since 1900 from approximately a half million (529,000) to very close to three million (2,771,000) in 1950. In the 1940-1950 decade alone, Florida’s population increased by about 875,000—or a rela- tive increase of over 45 per cent that was exceeded only slightly by two other states: California (53.3%) and Arizona (50.1%). (2) Of the 875,000 population increase during 1940-1950, about one-third (275,000) were added through natural increase (excess of births over deaths), and two-thirds (582,000) through migration. This large influx of newcomers, particularly because they included a large number of older persons (probably about 115,000 persons over 54 years of age), is one of the more important reasons for anticipating the social adjustments Florida must make to accom- modate an aging population. (3) Despite the fact that over a half million children were added to Florida’s population between 1940 and 1950, and that the pre- school children was increased by 92 per cent, our population has continued to grow older. In the past decade, about one-half of the population increase occurred in the age-groups over 35 years. The median age rose from 29 to 31; the population over 64 years old increased 80 per cent, and the 55-64 year age group—many of whom will survive to the “old age” group of 1960—was increased by 66 per cent. (4) Not only has the population became older, it has become more feminine. So rapid has been the increase in the number of women that, in 1950, every age group beyond 14 years had more females than males. Even in the younger age groups, the excess of males under 14 years of age was only 11,000, the result has been that the “man’s world” now shows 100 women for every 97 men. (5) Also of importance to the changing social structure of Flor- ida is the proportional decline of the nonwhite population. A half century ago 44 per cent of the population was nonwhite; in 1950, the proportion was reduced to 22 per cent. (6) One other significant fact about Florida’s population should be mentioned. Fifty years ago, four-fifths of the population lived in rural areas; thirty years ago, two-thirds were rural residents; OLDER POPULATION—A POTENTIAL RESOURCE 18 7 but today only one-third of the population lives outside urban areas (communities with populations of 2,500 or more). Time does not permit a detailed analysis of these data; however, it is clear they cannot be overlooked while attention is focussed upon the growth in the number and proportion of older persons. To summarize: in the last decade, Florida has added a large num- ber of children to its population; it has received an unusually large number of migrants from other States; its sex ratio has changed so that in almost every age-group there are more females than males, especially in the older and potentially more dependent group over sixty-four years of age; and it has become a more white population and more of its people—about two-thirds—are living in urban areas. Of particular interest is the fact that the older population in Florida has reflected the same type of changes as the total popula- tion. In general, the group over sixty-four years of age is pre- dominantly white, feminine, and urban. Racial Composition. In 1900, about 30 per cent of the older population were nonwhite; by 1940, the proportion had declined to 17 per cent, and in 1950 there were less than 15 per cent of the older population who were nonwhite. Sex Ratio. The older group has become feminine more rapidly than the total population. From 1900 to 1920, the trend was to- ward a more masculine older group; that is, to have more men than women. In 1900 there were 110 men for every 100 women, and by 1920, the ratio of men to women had reached its height of 121. Since 1920, a reversal in the trend has occurred, and by 1940, there were only 105 men for every 100 women. In 1950, for the first time, there was an excess of older women: only 95 men for every 100 women. This sharp decline in the sex ratio for the older population is significant in view of the tendency to consider the older group as largely composed of retired men. That there are now more women than men in the older population not only indicates women are out- living men, but also that older women (and perhaps younger ones, too) out-number the men who are migrating to Florida. There- fore, any plans to utilize the community resource of older people should consider the fact that the majority of the elder citizens are 118 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES women, and that the proportion of older women is likely to be still greater in the future. Older People in Urban Areas. As is true of the total population, the older group also seems to prefer to live in urban places. Back in 1900, less than 30 per cent of the older population were living in urban communities; in 1950, approximately two-thirds of them were residing in places of 2,500 or more people. In 1940, the older population constituted 7.3 per cent (83,000) of the urban population; whereas, ten years later, the proportion was 9.4 per cent (164,000). It is interesting to note that while the total urban population (excluding the so-called “fringe”) was in- creased by 54 per cent during the 1940-1950 decade, the older population in the urban areas was almost doubled (99%); in other words, of the 563,000 increase in the urban population, 13.4 per cent (75,600) were older people. Although all urban areas experienced increases in their older populations, the major increase (34,000) was in the five larger cities —those with a 1950 population of 50,000 or more. These cities— Jacksonville, Miami, Orlando, St. Petersburg, and Tampa—with a total population of 728,000 have approximately 10 per cent (73,000) of their population in the older age groups as compared with 7 per cent (39,000) ten years ago. Generally, the larger cities are not considered to be attractive to the older people, but the fact remains that almost one-third (31%) of Florida’s older population live in the five most highly urbanized communities. This concentration of older people in urban communities implies that solving the problem of the aged will have to consider this residential preference. More informa- tion is needed, for example, as to whether older people really are more satisfied with city living, or whether they feel it is more economical for them to live in cities. It will be necessary to know to what extent the increasing proportion of older people is due to people living longer and how much is due to the migration of older people to the urban communities. Over-all Growth of the Older Population. Perhaps the most striking feature of the older population has been its phenomenal growth which has far exceeded the rate of growth for the rest of the population. In 1900, less than three per cent of Florida’s popu- lation was over sixty-four years of age, but in 1950 the proportion OLDER POPULATION—A POTENTIAL RESOURCE 119 was 8.6 per cent. This means an increase from 14,000 to 237,000 during the past half-century, or an accumulative increase of more than 1,600 per cent compared with only 400 per cent for the popu- lation less than sixty-five years of age. In part, of course, the rapid growth of the older population can be attributed to the declining birth and death rates throughout most of the current Century. Until 1940, the steady drop in the birth rate tended to increase the proportional size of the older popu- lation, while the declining death for all age groups not only has increased the probability of survival to the age of sixty-five, but, for those who attain this age, the remaining years of life have been extended. Despite the influence these factors have had in con- tributing to an aging population, they do not account entirely for the rapidity with which Florida’s older population has grown. A most significant factor is the rather large number of older people who have been attracted to Florida from other parts of the country. Migration of Older People. A rough estimate of annual migrants to Florida during the past decade indicates that approximately 40 per cent (95,000) of those over sixty-four years of age came to Flor- ida between 1940 and 1950 (Dietrich, 1952). As of July 1, 1950, it is estimated there were about 240,000 persons over sixty-four years of age: 38,000 (16%) were survivors from the group who were over sixty-four years of age in 1940; 105,000 (44%) were survivors of the 55-64 year age-group of 1940; 56,000 (23%) were survivors of those who were 55-64 years old when they came to Florida during the 1940-1950 decade; and 41,000 (17%) were persons who were over sixty-four years of age at the time they came to Florida during the last ten years. In other words, of the 582,000 migrants of the past decade, almost 17 per cent of them are now sixty-five years of age or older. These data tend to confirm the observation of T. Lynn Smith (1951) that “changes now underway in American society increased the tendency for aged persons to move to more desirable parts of the country upon retirement during the decade 1940 to 1950 and that this tendency will be even greater in the decades that lie ahead.” As for the future, if the 1940-1950 survival rates for those 54 years of age remain about the same and no migrants over fifty-four years old come to Florida in the next ten years, Florida still would have just as many persons over sixty-four years of age in 1960 as it had 120 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in 1950. On the other hand, if the number of persons over fifty- four years of age who will come to Florida in the next ten years is no greater than it was during the decade 1940-1950, it would not at all be unrealistic to anticipate that Florida will have 400,000 persons over 64 years of age in its 1960 population. Thus, it is apparent that the number of older people in Florida has been swelled considerably because of the attraction the State has for those who are reaching retirement ages, and there is little doubt that the trend forecast by Dr. Smith will continue throughout the current decade. Demographic data, such as those presented above, are one of the best means for obtaining objective and realistic information about the numerical and proportional growth of the older popula- tion in Florida. Their principal short-coming, however, is that they raise, rather than answer, questions about the social implica- tions of an aging population. Each community will find it worth- while to evaluate the implications of its own population trends. In their article, “Sharing Community Responsibility,’ Jean and Jess Ogden (1952) present some rather interesting observations about the social adaptability of older people in various communi- ties: “Many older people have been able to do their own thinking and planning in terms of their community contributions. A retired lawyer gives his time and attention to persons needing legal aid but unable to pay for it. A retired doctor, disturbed by the needs of the medically indigent in his rural community, decides to open his office and let it be known that money is not a primary consideration with him; he needs to serve. A group of retired Quakers have made themselves an important part of a rural community in Florida where they are fostering a remark- able, if not unique, program of sharecropping education. Their aim is to help raise the total social and economic level of that area. Each member of this group is past retirement age, has financial security, and can devote his years of wisdom to a socially useful community program. “Among the professional group with assured incomes countless ex- amples could be cited of conscious planning for social usefulness during the years of leisure. And some individuals can be found in the nonprofessional groups who have found a way of sharing community responsibility. There is the elderly housewife . . . who has become a self-appointed information center. Anyone who needs a baby sitter or information about where or how to register to vote in this district calls her . . . There is the retired farmer (who) has prepared for and is enjoying his retirement. But he is made miserable by seeing the unhappiness of his neighbors who have OLDER POPULATION—A POTENTIAL RESOURCE 121 achieved their life’s goal—retirement—but who have retired from, with nothing to retire to. What can be done for them? he asks. Or are they now hopeless, and would it be better to concentrate on helping the young folks get ready for retirement? He is working on both—‘and have never had so little time for my hobbies in my life!’ “Cases of this kind prove that talents of the elder citizen can be used in important community services. The fact that it is a small minority who can work out their own salvation indicates the need for accepting the facts of the increasing aging group and rethinking community life with their contributions in mind.” A number of studies throughout the country and especially those made in the Florida communities of St. Cloud, Winter Park, West Palm Beach, Orlando and St. Petersburg have found, among other things, that many old people are anxious and willing to participate in the social activities of community organizations. Relatively few of the older people retire from their employment voluntarily and most of them express a desire to do at least part-time work. For the most part, the older people are in good physical and mental health; they have the time and the desire to contribute to com- munity life if the opportunities and facilities can be made available to them. Perhaps the simplest approach toward finding answers to the question, “How can the older people be utilized as a Community resource®”, lies not so much in a complete change in our social system that will be adapted to the needs of older persons as in adopting a different point of view—a new concept or philosophy of aging. If the information about Florida's population presented here has meaning, it is this: Florida’s older population has grown tremendously and will probably continue its rapid growth for some time; and that most of us can expect to be numbered among the old people of tomorrow. Therefore, rather than make elaborate plans for our older popu- lation, we must plan with them. In the emerging social system, there is every indication that the older people of today, and we, the older people of tomorrow, can be important and useful re- sources. We should make every effort, then, to integrate our elder citizens into the life of the community and to exploit them as social assets. In this way the type of community can be planned and the kind of social living be developed that we would wish to enjoy during our later years of maturity. 122 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES REFERENCES BURGESS, E. W. 1949. The Growing Problem of Aging in Living Through the Older Years (C. Tibbits, Ed.). University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michi- gan. DIETRICH, T. STANTON 1952. Floridas Older Population. State Improvement Commission, Talla- hassee, Fla. HAUSER, PHILIP 1951. Social Implications of An Aging Population. Northwestern University Fourth Centennial Conference, Chicago, IIl. METROPOLITAN LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY 1951. The Average Life-time Continues to Lengthen. Statistical Bulletin, 82 (Nov.): 6; 82 (Feb.): 2. NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON AGING 1951. Man and His Years. Health Publications Institute, Inc., Raleigh, N. C. OGDEN, JEAN AND JESS 1952. Sharing Community Responsibility. Annals, 279 (Jan.): 98 ff. POLLAK, OTTO 1948. Social Adjustment in Old Age. Social Science Research Council, Bulletin 59. New York. SCHMIDT, JOHN F. 1951. Patterns of Poor Adjustment in Old Age. American Journal of Sociology, 57 (July). SMPDEL oi -EYNIN 1951. The Migration of the Aged. Problems of America’s Aging Popula- tion. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida. TIBBITS, C. and HENRY D. SHELDON 1952. A Philosophy of Aging. Annals, 279 (Jan.): 6. WHEELER, HOWARD 1952. Creative Activities of Older People. Annals, 279 (Jan.): 85. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 16(2), 1953. THE FOREIGN TRADE OF FLORIDA Dr. Murray W. SHIELDS University of Florida From the standpoint of location, Florida is in an advantageous position to carry on foreign trade with our neighbors to the south. Our Atlantic Coast and Gulf Coast give us 1,277 miles of salt water coast line. This is the longest coast line giving access to the ocean of any state in the U. S. This geographical position is very important when we consider what trading possibilities we have. Florida is nearer to Central America, South America, and the West Indies than that of any other section in the U. S. It comes as a surprise to some people to learn that Florida ports are nearer the western part of the Middle West than are New York City and other ports of the North Atlantic. Florida, instead of being directly south of the northeastern part of the U. S., is southwest. Jacksonville is south of Cleveland and Pensacola is south of Chicago. From Chicago to Pensacola by rail is the same distance as from Chicago to New York City. St. Louis is 140 miles nearer to Jacksonville than it is to New York City. Kansas City is 173 miles nearer (Campbell, 1935: 85). From the standpoint of economy and time saved, many pro- ducers of the Middle West and South find it advantageous to route their shipments through ports in Florida. I wonder about the possibilities of developing manufacturing in the state which would use not only the resources of Florida but also the products of South and Central America and the West Indies. The foreign products could be shipped by water to our ports at low cost. Many types of industries have grown up in recent years. Many of these are small, but they hold out a promise of future growth. Our climate is favorable for many industries. Our state and local taxes are moderate. Our labor supply is ade- quate. The rate of population growth for Florida has been larger during the past decade than that of any other state except Arizona and California. Our per capita income of $1,102 in 1949 gave us buying power superior to that of any other south-eastern state, and was 124 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES very close to the national average of $1,330 (Bureau of Economic and Business Research, 1951: 1). The trend in manufacturing has been to leave the old industrial areas of the Northeast and move to the new areas in the South and West. This trend should make for further growth in manufacturing in Florida. Conditions are very favorable for certain types of manufacturing where expense for heating the plants and curtail- ment of operations on account of cold weather in the north could be avoided and buildings for manufacturing plants could be con- structed more cheaply than they can in northern areas. Industries such as furniture maufacturing might be developed here that would use imported products such as hardwoods. Such furniture might have a large market. If the textile industry came south to benefit from nearness to raw materials, a labor supply less troubled with union restrictions, and other low costs of production, other industries using tropical and semi-tropical raw materials, might also gain by having factories here. There is the possibility of establishing branch factories in Florida where large U. S. manufacturers ship products to Latin-American countries. The finished products could be shipped more quickly than they could from the northern plants. The cost of production might be lower because of our climatic and other advantages al- ready mentioned. The advantages of branch factories in Florida would not apply in cases where it would be an advantage to have the branch fac- tory located in a foreign country to get over the tariff wall or to save on transportation by shipping the articles in a knocked-down condition or where the manufacturer wanted to create good will in countries that are anxious to industrialize. In many cases prod- ucts can be manufactured more cheaply by utilizing the full ca- pacity of American plants than they can by establishing small units in other areas. Florida can boast of other conditions favorable to foreign trade. Our harbors are adequate. Shipping is well developed. Loaded freight cars can be run on ships, transported to Cuba by water, and run off on to rails to be taken to their destination. This saves unloading and loading at the ports. It speeds up transportation and saves money. THE FOREIGN TRADE OF FLORIDA 125 In 1950 imports weighing 1,805,350 short tons came into the ports of Florida. These imports had a value of $104,200,000 (Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1951: 38). Exports leaving Florida weighed 2,019,050 tons and had a value of $127,900,000 (Ibid., p. 35). The chief imports from the standpoint of weight for the Jackson- ville District which includes the following harbors: Jacksonville, Charlotte, Port Everglades, Tampa, Miami, Palm Beach, Fort Pierce, Key West, and St. Petersburg, and for the Mobile District which includes the harbors of Port St. Joe, Panama City, and Pen- sacola, were, in short tons: residual fuel oil, 449,649, gypsum or plaster rock, 202,902, cement, 166,033, fertilizer and fertilizer mate- rials, 201,217, bananas, 118,116, inedible molasses, 105,789, news- print paper, 80,907, edible molasses and related sugar products, 66,552, vegetables, 35,414, coffee, 35,186, fruits except bananas, 34,207, iron and steel mill products, 31,358, petroleum, 24,528, lumber, 93,204, sugar, 21,660, and coal tar products, 24,730 (Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, 1950). The chief exports from these same harbors were, in short tons, fertilizer materials, 1,447,829, Department of Defense Cargo, 336,868, inedible molasses, 126,336, lumber 76,538, animal oils and fats, 58,709, naval stores, 48,528, animal feeds, 38,760, fruits pre- pared and preserved, 29,255, iron and steel mill products, 12,431, paper, 9,308, and coal, 4,539 (Ibid.). It would be difficult to determine how many commodities pro- duced in Florida are shipped to other states and then become exports of those states. From the figures cited it is evident that the same condition exists in Florida as in the nation as a whole where we have an excess of exports over imports. Every student of foreign trade knows that the credits and debits sides of the balance of payments must balance. For everything we get we must give something in return. For everything we give up to foreigners we can expect to get something in return. In economic activity we do not get anything for nothing. Our excess of exports over imports, including invisible items, should point to the need for more imports. Virgil O. Reed, Vice- President of J. Walter Thompson Advertising Agency, said, “Trad- ing means both buying and selling, and without both there is no 126 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES trade but merely gifts, grants, defaulted loans and bitterness and misunderstanding as a reward for forced exports. Wouldnt we help other nations raise their standards of living far more by really trading with them rather than playing rich uncle to a resentful world?” (Seattle University, 1951: 5.) How is the U. S taxpayer ever going to get away from the burden of subsidizing Europe if protectionism is allowed to prevent other countries from earning their way in world trade by excluding im- ports that compete with non-economic industries? (Ibid.). For the general welfare of Florida as well as that of the U. S. as a whole, we should welcome every move to lower trade barriers. A good beginning was made in 1934 when we began our reciprocal trade agreements with foreign countries which lowered tariff duties on a large number of imports in exchange for their lowering duties on our exports to them. I have heard some complaints from the fruit and vegetable grow- ers of this state. The whole history of reduction in rates of duty shows that it is far better to have a smaller part of a large trade than a large part of a small trade. We know that our trade with Cuba almost doubled during the first year after our trade agree- ment went into effect. Cuba has been one of Florida's leading customers. The increased trade which comes from lower tariff barriers is good evidence that the people of Florida are gaining advantages from the agreements. When our country embarked upon the trade agreements pro- gram we increased our foreign trade in 1938 and 1939 by 30 per cent compared with 1934 and 1935. Our exports to countries with which we had concluded trade agreements increased 63 per cent, while exports to nonagreement countries increased only 32 per cent. Our imports from trade-agreement countries increased 22 per cent as compared with an increase of only 12% per cent for imports from nonagreement countries (Office of Public Affairs, 1951: 3). Florida has a particular interest in promoting trade with Latin America. The trade agreements help peaceful countries to carry on friendly commercial relations with each other. They furnish the means by which friendly nations can cooperate in removing irritations which make the job of carrying on international trade so difficult. THE FOREIGN TRADE OF FLORIDA 127 Countries which have learned to agree on thousands of individ- ually minor possible points of difference develop common interests. They are likely to line up together on important issues. This is shown by the fact that 38 of the 39 members of the United Nations with which the U. S. has reciprocal trade agreements supported the United Nations action in Korea. We should be particularly concerned about our trade with Cuba. Cuba is about 100 miles off the tip of Florida. Her foreign trade consists of exchanging her specialty crops of sugar and tobacco principally, for cereal crops such as wheat, rye, oats, and barley, and for automobiles and parts, textiles, machinery, iron and steel products, petroleum, and a few others (Pan American Union, 1949: 16, 17). During 1950, for the second time in three years, Cuba bought more from the U. S. than she sold to the U. S. (The Chase National Bank, 1951: 19). In spite of this fact, on June 8, 1951, the Secretary of the U. S. Department of Agriculture increased the quotas allotted to Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and the full duty countries. At the same time Cuba’s quota was reduced from 98.6% of total im- ports from areas other than domestic sources and from the Philip- pine Islands to 96%, effective January 1, 1953 (82nd Congress). Cuba’s quota is not to be less than 98.6% of our total requirements. It is not beneficial to Florida nor to the U. S. to keep out Cuban imports with tariff duties and quotas. Imports from Cuba would pay for our exports to her. Increased imports mean increased ex- ports. It would enlarge the area of territorial specialization and commodities would be produced under advantageous conditions to get low costs of production. We annexed Texas back in 1845 and since then the other states have traded with her on a free-trade basis. Was anybody injured? What do we have to lose by freer trade with Cuba? Much has been said about the quota on sugar which applies to Florida as well as to Cuba and to other areas. It has been said that we can produce sugar in the Everglades as cheaply as it can be grown in Cuba. Whether this is a true statement of fact or not, there is no economic justification for a quota on sugar. Quotas reduce the volume of international trade. They create a price disparity between the importing and exporting countries. 128 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Prices rise in the importing country and fall in the exporting country. Quotas are more effective in restricting imports than are import duties. Imports will flow in over a tariff wall if the price differ- ence between the exporting and importing country makes it possible. But with quotas, only a certain amount can come in. Most people know that tariffs raise prices, but they do not know that quotas do. When we use import duties, the government collects some revenue. With the use of quotas, the government does not collect any revenue. In the case of sugar, we have both a tariff duty and a quota. The sugar producers of the U. S. receive plenty of protection. Apparently, we do not want sugar on an economic basis. FOREIGN TRADE ZONES Is there a possibility that a foreign trade zone might be es- tablished at one of our ports in Florida? A foreign trade zone is an isolated, inclosed, and policed area in or adjacent to a port of entry, without resident population, having facilities for loading and unloading, for supplying fuel and ships stores, for storing goods, and for reshipping them. In this inclosed area goods may be unloaded, stored, mixed, blended, repacked, manipulated, manu- factured, exhibited, assembled, graded, cleaned, and marked with- out customs expense, or formalities. It is possible to process goods into a class subject to a lower rate of duty, e.g., separating stones from ring settings and reassembling them after entry. After the goods are manipulated or manufactured or whatever is required to be done to them in the foreign trade zone, they can be entered into customs area on compliance with customs regulations or they can be re-exported. This is so favorable to our import trade as well as to our export trade that its offers many advantages to light manufacturing and to the import and export trade in general. Here are a few examples of manufacturing within the foreign trade zone. Olive oil could be imported from Spain. Domestic ingredients could be added to the olive oil to make salad dressing. The salad dressing could be exported to world markets without ever having been subject to import duties or to customs red tape. Insurance costs would be reduced. THE FOREIGN TRADE OF FLORIDA 129 When imported goods are entered through the customs and then are stored, insurance is carried on the duty-paid value. When they are stored in a foreign-trade zone, the insurance carried is for the actual goods value bfore the tariff duty adds to the value. The difference in insurance costs can be large on such items as liquor that carry high duties and excise taxes. Sheet aluminum can be imported from Great Britain and fab- rication can be carried on in the zone. Then knock-down dwellings for the tropics can be exported. Casein from Argentina can be mixed with chemicals from the U. S. to make glue to export all over the world. The 1950 amendment to the 1934 act which provided for the establishment, operation, and maintenance of foreign trade zones in ports of entry of the U. S. provided for all types of processing within the zone with the exceptions of rectification of spirits, manu- facturing of certain special commodities which are subject to in- ternal-revenue taxation or supervision in customs territory, and the specific prohibition against the manufacturing of watches and clocks. This latter exception does not affect assembly operations such as fitting imported watch movements to watch cases made in Ene U: S. (Lyons, 1951: 120). Imported goods subject to internal revenue, excise or processing taxes may be stored in a zone and withdrawn in lots as convenient. During the storage of such merchandise in a zone, no part of the importers capital is tied up in taxes, bonds, or duties. The re-export business is one of the most important reasons for the creation of the foreign trade zone. It provides a crossroads for world shipping. Goods may travel from one producer country to another with freedom by using a foreign trade zone. Goods can be transshipped either in the original form or after being processed without the penalty of customs duty and they are free from drawback headaches. Those headaches come from waiting to collect the 99% refund supposed to be paid by the U. S. Treasury Department when a previously dutiable article is exported as a part of processed goods. The foreign trade zone permits stockpiling and this helps to develop a consignment market. The stockpiled merchandise is available for immediate delivery. No time is lost in trans-ocean travel. There is no time limit on goods stored in the zone. It is 130 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a cheap, quick way to insure adequate inventories for the U. S. market. Owners of the goods can borrow against warehouse re- ceipts issued for goods stored in a zone without posting a bond. Consignment stockpiling centers develop world markets for commodities. Here, domestic manufacturers, merchants, and for- eign buyers may inspect or sample stockpiled merchandise. Goods that are under quota restrictions can be shipped and stored. Quantities in excess of quota can then be held awaiting the next quota period. Articles entering the zone from customs territory solely for ex- port, destruction, or storage, are treated as exported for such pur- poses as drawback, warehousing, and bonding provisions of the tariff laws, and for exemption from liability of internal revenue taxes. Cleaning, grading, repacking, and forms of processing may be done to enhance the value of the goods. Sub-standard goods may be brought up to standard. In case of imports of food, drugs, cosmetics, alcoholic bever- ages, insecticide, fungicides, and rodenticides, particularly with regard to their labelling and packing, if they do not conform to requirements, they can be relabelled, repacked, etc., to bring them in line with the regulations, before customs appraisal and liquida- tion. If goods are improperly marked, marking can be done to avoid customs penalties or forced re-export. Liquids shipped in bulk may be bottled, labelled, and packed in the zone without being subject to any licensing requirements. The consignee can examine merchandise and avoid the dangers of defective merchandise which he might wish to return, thus sav- ing customs duties on unsaleable or unsuitable merchandise. An importer can cut duty costs by not paying on shrinkage. That is the part of stored merchandise lost through evaporation or seepage. Liquor, tobacco, nuts, and similar commodities lose weight this way. In these days of turmoil and strife, foreign trade has become more important to the peace and security of the world than it has ever been before in the world’s history. We should offer every facility which will assist in bringing about a freer exchange of goods. Foreign trade zones will generate more cargo for our ships, thus aiding our merchant marine, and they will serve to speed up the time spent by ships while in our ports. This reduction of time THE FOREIGN TRADE OF FLORIDA 131 spent in our ports will decrease the turn-around time of ships and will increase the amount of cargo which a ship will carry over a given period of time (Ibid., p. 23). We now have foreign trade zones at New York City, New Or- leans, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Seattle, and San Antonio. The latter zone is, of course, for air shipments. I hope to see the time when it will be economically feasible to have a foreign trade zone in Florida. LITERATURE CITED BUREAU OF ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS RESEARCH 1951. A Short Report on Florida Manufacturing. Special Bulletin, University of Florida, 2: 1. CAMPBELL, A. S. 1935. The Foreign Trade of Florida. Economic Series, University of Florida, 1285. CORPS OF ENGINEERS, U. S. ARMY 1950. Freight Traffic (Reported by Harbors). ENON'S: TL. E. 1951. The Foreign Trade Zone’s Part in Stimulating International Trade. American Merchant Marine. Mid-Century Analysis. Proceedings— American Merchant Marine Conference, pp. 23, 120. OFFICE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS 1951. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Program, Department of State, p. 3. PAN AMERICAN UNION 1949. The Americas in World Trade. Washington, D. C., pp. 16, 17. SEATTLE UNIVERSITY 1951. The Foreign Trade Explorer, 36: 5. THE CHASE NATIONAL BANK 1951. Latin-American Business Highlights, p. 19. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 1951. Quarterly Summary of Foreign Commerce, pp. 35, 38. 82nd CONGRESS, Ist SESSION 1948. Sugar Act of 1948 as Amended by Public Law 140. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 16(2), 1953. a Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from _ non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. 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Payment for reprints will be made by the author directly to the printer. Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Scienees ‘VolIG | September, 1953 No. 3 Contents Alexander—Plant Succession on Key Largo, Florida, Involving Pinus caribaea and Quercus virginiana _____.. _. 188 Loveridge—Herpetological Results of the Berner-Carr Entomological Survey of the Shire Valley, Nyasaland __ 189 ig i Larson, Wynn, Lynch, and Doughty—Some Further Studies I eer 151 Kléin—Influence of Wound Healing and Croton Oil on emer FiIMOTivenesis 157 Urling and Smith—An Anatomical Study of Twenty Lesser fee vyoods Of Florida oe.) _ 168 Dickson, Woodbury and Alexander—Check List of Flora of Big Pine Key, Florida and Surrounding Keys _..._____ 181 SR re ee 198 DEC? 19 a, LIBRARY Vor. 16 SEPTEMBER, 1953 No. 8 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed November 24, 1953 tae OUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 16 SEPTEMBER, 1953 ; No. 3 PLANT SUCCESSION ON KEY LARGO, FLORIDA, INVOLVING PINUS CARIBAEA AND QUERCUS VIRGINIANA TAYLOR R. ALEXANDER University of Miami INTRODUCTION During March, 1952, two field trips were made by a plant ecology class to locate and study an area on north Key Largo that had been reported by Mr. Fred Fuchs, Sr., of Homestead to contain numerous pine logs and live oak trees. It had been the general opinion of biologists in the Miami area that pines and oaks were absent from the northern Florida Keys and there was no evidence to support the fact that they had ever been a part of the flora of the northern keys. Since the remains of a pineland area and living oaks were found, it was decided to make a detailed ecological analysis of the area. A survey of the literature available on the exact distribution of Pinus caribaea and Quercus virginiana on the Keys contributed the following facts: Small (1913), in his Flora of the Florida Keys, stated that P. caribaea was “common on some of the larger lower Keys; very rare on the upper Keys. In this publication the genus Quercus was not listed. In the publication Florida Trees, Small (1913) wrote concerning P. caribaea “to the keys of Southern Flor- ida” and for Q. virginiana, “the live oak grows in woods and ham- mocks nearly throughout Florida, except the Keys.” Harper (1927) in discussing the upper keys wrote . . . “The slash pine, sawgrass, cabbage palmetto, and myrtle (Myrica cerifera), are rare or absent on the upper Keys.” Cooke (1939) stated, . . . “These keys are long, narrow islands covered by a dense jungle of low trees and shrubs but containing no pines or Spanish moss.” Thus, the occurrence of P. caribaea on the northern keys is a matter of record since 1913 while mention of the occurrence of ove 1 134 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Q. virginiana in this area was not found. The occurrence of pines of north Key Largo was further substantiated by interviews with two long time residents of the keys. One reported that there were numerous pines there in 1903 and another stated that he had seen a few living pines there as late as 1936 while cutting live oak for a boat he was constructing. He commented on the fact that the oak and mahogany in that area had been cut by local people for years. This same person stated that live oaks also grow on Old Rhodes Key. AREA STUDIED The area is located about 1000 feet west of a point on the main highway on north Key Largo, one mile and a tenth north of the turn off for the Barnes Point road. As nearly as can be estimated from U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey Map T-4577 the area centers at approximately 25° 17’ 25” Lat. and 80° 17’ 40” W. Long. The pine logs and stumps, and the living oak trees were found only in a limited area of hammock growth which is bounded on the north and west by a mangrove swamp and the road on the east. METHODS After a preliminary survey, it was decided to work into the hammock area from its western edge where it bordered on a man- grove swamp. A line transect, 300 feet long, was run toward the east into and through the area where pine remains and living oaks were found. A string was stretched to mark the transect and all plants whose branches extended over and under the string were listed and marked on a chart with their height and spread indi- cated. An eye level was used to establish the change in elevation along the line, using the mangrove area outside as station number one and zero elevation. Soil samples were collected at regular stations on the line for observation and pH measurements. A Beckman meter was used to determine pH. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Twenty-five species were found on the transect in the hammock and 160 plants were plotted. In Table I these plants are listed and arranged in order of the percentage that a species contributed toward the total. The affinity as listed indicates whether or not PLANT SUCCESSION ON KEY LARGO, FLORIDA 135 the plant is frequently found in or restricted to the vegetation types—hammock or pinelands as known on the mainland of south Florida. Examination of other areas of typical Key Largo ham- mock for comparative purposes showed little difference between them and the area studied. According to Davis (1943) the vegeta- tion type is “Coral Rock Jungle Hammock.” The species list in the table does not include the plants in the first thirty feet that ran through the mangrove swamp where a few stunted and widely spaced specimens of Rhizophora mangle, Conocarpus erecta, and Laguncularia racemosa were growing. There was an abrupt change in vegetation type from mangrove swamps to typical sub-tropical hammock vegetation. The man- grove area was essentially “land locked” and highly saline. This probably accounted for the stunted character of the swamp trees and edaphic conditions undoubtedly played the dominant role ia establishing the sharpness of the dividing line between the two types of vegetation. For example, the mangroves were on a marl- like material of pH 8.8 and a few feet within the hammock the humus and sand material was pH 6.7. Furthermore, Key Largo is well known as an emerged coral reef and the broad-leaved hammock plants grow on the coral limestone wherever it is high enough to be above the strong influence of salt water. Accord- ing to measurements made, six inches of increase in elevation is enough to allow the radical change of vegetation type. Essentially, the roots of the hammock plants grow in their own organic litter as only a little sand can be found on top of the coral limestone. For the most part this limestone is not eroded or broken to any extent and does not offer a good substrate for plant roots to pene- trate. Hence, the accumulation of litter aids in the very slow extension of the hammock into the mangrove area. The first pine stumps, standing trunks, and fallen logs were found in the hammock about fifty feet from the mangrove edge and on soil about one foot higher than the mangrove area outside the hammock. The first oak tree was plotted at 140 feet from the margin where elevation had increased to its maximum of one and a half feet. At this point the pine logs and stumps became more numerous. Eight pine logs were counted in the transect area. Most were fifteen to thirty feet long and one had a diameter of fourteen inches. All were seasoned and most were burned to 136 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES some extent. Some were buried in leaf litter and organic matter. Only a few standing trunks were found and one of these, near the mangroves, was thirty feet tall. In the mariginal area of the hammock occasional oak seedlings were found and young mahogany trees were numerous. It should also be noted that specimens of Diodia rigida, Serenoa repens, Sabal Palmetto, Rhacoma ilicifolia, Quercus virginiana, and Guet- tarda scabra were growing in the hammock and undoubtedly could be considered relics of the pineland. It appears from the evidence that pines were replaced by sub- tropical hammock growth in this area and that live oak along with mahogany acted as pioneer broad-leaf hammock trees and they Fig. 1.—Interior of hammock near end of transect: Trunk A—Live Oak, Trunk B—Mahogany, Trunk C—Pine log. PLANT SUCCESSION ON KEY LARGO, FLORIDA 137 in turn are being replaced by other species listed in Table I, as indicated by their dominance (Fig. 1). This type of succession has been widely accepted for the mainland in south Florida. Further- more, there is good evidence that succession of this type can occur rapidly in South Florida under the extended growing period. It is recognized that there is danger that mans’ activities in an area such as this could easily affect normal succession. It is worthy of note that Captain B. Romans wrote in his Concise Natural His- tory of East and West Florida in 1775 that in the area of “young” Matacombe key the mahogany and other timbers had been nearly cut off. In the area studied there was no evidence of extensive clearing or cutting activity in recent years. There are fairly large oaks (up to thirty feet) and mahoganies standing and there is evidence that hurricanes had accounted for the loss of other large © specimens. TABLE I Occurrence of Species on the Transect | | Species | Percent | Affinity Beenie amiiaris 02 | 20.0 | Hammock Pima inp ene Se | 10.0 Hammock Woecolopis laurifolia 10.0 Haminock Reynosia septentrionalis 6.9 Hammock Seyickeuta Mahacont 2 3 6.3 Hammock Pithecolobium guadelupense 5.6 Hammock MerOwinii TOXMeETUMT 2s 2 5.6 Haminock Wimax moridana 2 = | 5.0 Hammock Icacorea paniculata ________- 258 ee Seer ane 5.0 Hammock Bimenenssyineiniana 92 3.1 | Pineland mapanea Silayanensis 2 3. Hammock em brahelae Sara) sae Less than 3% Pineland Benommae Tepes stat ke ee Less than 3% Pineland Sepa, (alii tC ee ee | Less than 3% Pineland Eeereonia imetOlia 2 > 28 Less than 3% Pineland Meniscus ciusiim 2 i Se Less than 3% Low Area Salgprranthes ZUZ VOM 9 | Less than 3% Hammock Meypetes diversitolia = | Less than 3% Hammock Pebiolis rirtticoSa es Less than 8% | Hammock Millandsia sp. (epiphyte). =. Less than 3% | Hammock memusops-emarginata = Less than 3% Hammock lecauinia keyensis. 2. se Less than 3% | Hammock Psyecnotria, Sulzneri 2 Less than 3% Hammock Beacon clawed. ese ee | Less than 3% Hammock Momma lonvitolia 09" Less than 3% Hammock | | 138 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SUMMARY 1. A line transect was used to establish the successional aspects of an area on Key Largo, Florida. 2. New evidence is given to support earlier reports that Pinus caribaea did grow on Key Largo. 3. The range of Quercus virginiana is extended to Key Largo. 4, Plant succession toward the climax subtropical hammock type apparently proceeded on Key Largo very much as it does on the mainland. LITERATURE CITED COOKE, C. W. 1939. Scenery of Florida. Geological Bulletin No. 17, State of Florida, Department of Conservation, Tallahassee. DAVIS, J. H., JR. 1943. The Natural Features of Southern Florida. Geological Bulletin No. 25, State of Florida, Department of Conservation, Tallahassee. HARPER, R. M. 1927. Natural Resources of Southern Florida. From the 18th Annual Report of the Florida State Geological Survey. SMALL, J. K. 1913. Flora of the Florida Keys. (Published by the author), New York, Ni. 7¥: SMALL, J. K. 1913. Florida Trees. (Published by the author), New York, N. Y. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 16(3), 1953. HERPETOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE BERNER-CARR ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE SHIRE VALLEY, NYASALAND ARTHUR LOVERIDGE Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts The 238 specimens, representing 48 species of reptiles and amphibians, that are recorded in this paper, were collected by Dr. A. F. Carr, Jr., when assisting Dr. Lewis Berner in a survey of insects of medical importance. This investigation was carried out in connection with the Shire Valley Project, at the request of Sir William Halcrow and Partners, the engineering firm respons- ible for the initial surveys. _ Berner and Carr were in Nyasaland from June 15 until Septem- ber 10, a period corresponding to that country’s dry winter season. The almost entire lack of rain during their stay was unfavorable to herpetological collecting which, indeed, was only incidental to their primary objective. Nevertheless, Carr managed to add to Nyasaland’s known herpetofauna two forms of Hyperolius, though one of these—H. m. marmoratus—has long been represented in the British Museum by an unrecorded juvenile (17.6 mm.) speci- men collected at Port Herald by J. E. S. Old. The calls of both species, as noted by Carr, have been included in this report. Naturally Berner and Carr's itinerary was almost entirely re- stricted to the Lake Nyasa-Shire Valley system from Kotakota on the western shore of the lake to Mutarara and Chindio near the confluence of the Shire with the Zambezi in Mozambique. Con- sequently their lowland collections are largely supplementary to those made during my own recent (1948-1949) expedition which was chiefly directed to the mountains of Nyasaland. Though Carr’s material consists largely of widespread lowland forms, the precise locality data accompanying the specimens justify the publication of this list coming, as it does, from a region that has been herpeto- logically neglected for many years. The collection has been deposited in the American Museum of Natural History, and I am indebted to its custodian, Mr. C. M. Bogert, for affording me the opportunity to study it and retain 140 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES some of the duplicate frogs for the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard. REPTILIA TESTUDINIDAE Kinixys belliana belliana Gray 6 ex. grass flats near Lake Shirwa (Chilwa). 16. viii. 52. A very old tortoise with the concentric rings almost obliterated from the anterior half, though sharp and distinct on the posterior lobe. Carapace length 171 mm.; height 77 mm.; breadth 115 mm. PELOMEDUSIDAE Pelusios sinuatus (A. Smith) juv. ex. Chimwala Village, left bank of Shire River about 5 miles below Fort Johnston. 6. vii. 52. Carapace length 110 mm.; height 40 mm.; breadth 84 mm. GEKKONIDAE Hemidactylus mabouia (Moreau de Jonnés) d ex. Nchalu, Shire River between Chikwawa and Chiromo. 27. viii. 52. Upper labials 13, lower 10; scansors under first toe 6, under fourth 9; preanal pores 48. Hemidactylus mercatorius Gray juv. ex. Ntundu Village, 3 miles south of Fort Johnston. 2. vii. 52. 6 ex. Port Herald, Shire River. 25. viii. 52. 2 ex. Nkula, Walker’s Ferry, 22 miles N.N.W. of Chileka. 1. ix. 52. Upper labials 9-11, lower 8; scansors under first toe 5, under fourth 7; preanal pores in ¢ 34. H. gardineri Boulenger is a syno- nym. Lygodactylus capensis (A. Smith) é ex. Ntundu Village, 3 miles south of Fort Johnston. 2. vii. 52. 2 ex. Fort Johnston, upper Shire River. 3-5. vii. 52. juv. ex. Elephant Marsh, 17 miles north of Chiromo. 17. vii. 52. juv. ex. Tengadzi River, 11-14 miles north of Chiromo. 24. vii. 52. 6 ex. Nkazi River, 30 miles south of Fort Johnston. 8. viii. 52. é ex. in banana axils, Lake Malombe, Shire River. 12. viii. 52. Preanal pores of ¢ 6 4-5; subcaudal scales subequal except on regenerated tails where they tend to be transversely enlarged. ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SHIRE VALLEY, NYASALAND 141 Pachydactylus bibronii turneri (Gray) @ ex. Nchalu, Shire River between Chikwawa and Chiromo. 27. viii. 52. AGAMIDAE Agama hispida armata Peters 2 ex. dry scrub across Shire River from Chiromo. 27. vii. 52. Midbody scale-rows 84. CHAMAELEONIDAE Chamaeleo dilepis dilepis Leach 2 ex. Chiromo. 238. vii. 52. Total length 240 (120 + 120) mm. Chamaeleo melleri (Gray) On the outskirts of Blantyre Dr. Carr captured a Giant One- horned Chameleon, which he brought back to the States alive (cf. fig.). Unfortunately in captivity it completely wore away the characteristic rostral horn. The reptile proved a voracious and 142 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES indiscriminate feeder, accepting anoles and tree frogs as well as insects. Mr. W. T. Neill of Silver Springs, Florida, to whom I am indebted for these notes and the accompanying photograph, writes me that if he wiggled a finger in front of the chameleon, it would slowly extrude its tongue for about an inch before shooting it out in an effort to capture the finger as it would a fly. Recently (1953, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 110, p. 189, pl. ii) I published a photograph of a Zomba specimen swallowing a weaver bird that it had caught. C. melleri is the largest of all African chameleons as it attains an overall length of almost two feet. Brookesia platyceps carri Loveridge 8 66 ex. forest in Ruo Gorge between 3000 and 3500 feet. 6. ix. 52. These are paratypes of the race occurring on the plateaus (about 6000 feet) of Mlanje Mountain where the typical form is found below 3000 feet. Consequently Dr. Carr’s specimens are somewhat in the nature of intermediates. SCINCIDAE Mabuya striata striata (Peters) juv. ex. Rest House at Chiromo. 27. vii. 52. 2exs Port Herald!) 25, vill. o2- Mabuya bocagii mlanjensis Loveridge 2 2 ex. Chambe Plateau, Mlanje Mountain. 31. viii. 52. First labial in contact with anterior loreal on both sides of one skink, on neither side in the other; midbody scale-rows 38-42; toes of adpressed hind limb meet fingers or wrist of backward pressed forelimbs. Both examples of this recently (1953) described race are gravid, in one the ova are relatively small, in the other eyed embryos are present. Mabuya varia varia Peters 1 ex. cloud forest stream on Zomba Min. 15. viii. 52. 1 ex. garden of Shire Valley Hotel at Limbe. 12. vii. 52. 1 ex. Shire River between Chiromo and Port Herald. 21. vii. 52. Ablepharus wahlbergii (A. Smith) 2 ex. closed forest at about 4000 feet on Mbongwe Mountain near the Mlanje Road about 4 miles east of Limbe. 5. ix. 52. Gravid, the 4 eggs measuring about 7 x 4 mm. ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SHIRE VALLEY, NYASALAND 143 GERRHOSAURIDAE Gerrhosaurus nigrolineatus nigrolineatus Hallowell 6 ex. Port Herald, Shire River. 26. viii. 52. Normal in all key characters. VARANIDAE Varanus niloticus niloticus (Linné) Head ex. Zomba. 1952. TYPHLOPIDAE Typhlops schlegelii mucruso (Peters) I ex. Zomba. 1952. Midbody scale-rows 34; midbody diameter 28.5 times in total length of 570 (562 + 8) mm. Gravid ? holding 24 eggs measuring about 14 x 8 mm. CoOLUBRIDAE Natriciteres olivacea uluguruensis Loveridge @ ex. Tengadzi River, 11-14 miles north of Chiromo. 24. vii. 52. Midbody scale-rows 17; ventrals 141; tail truncate. Gravid. That the Montane Marsh-Snake should occur on the Lower Shire is surprising; perhaps this is an aberrant individual should further collecting reveal that the majority have 19 midbody scale-rows as is usual for the lowland (typical olivacea) race. Boaedon lineatus lineatus Duméril & Bibron 6 ex. Nchalu, Shire River between Chikwawa and Chiromo. 27. viii. 52. Midbody scale-rows 29; ventrals 208; subcaudals 61. Mehelya capensis capensis (A. Smith) é ex. Shire River, 6 miles south of Fort Johnston. 12. viii. 52. Midbody scale-rows 15; ventrals 212; tail truncate. Philothamnus hoplogaster (Ginther) 2 ex. Fort Johnston. 2 ex. Ruo Gorge at about 2800 feet, Mlanje Mountain. 6. ix. 52. 2 ex. Zomba. 1952. Midbody scale-rows 13-15, the lower figure is remarkable, but on the Fort Johnston ? the last row with 15 scales is opposite the 70th: ventral, which is well in advance of midbody. Curiously 144 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES enough the Zomba snake has only 14 at mathematical midbody between snout and anus. Ventrals 150-159; subcaudals 88-90. Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia hotamboeia (Laurenti) 2 ex. Nfundu Village, about 4 miles south of Fort Johnston. 6. vii. 52. Midbody scale-rows 19; ventrals 172; subcaudals 34. Psammophylax tritaeniatus variabilis Ginther 2 ex. Chambe Plateau, Mlanje Mountain. 31. viii. 52. Midbody scale-rows 17; ventrals 161; tail truncate. Psammophis sibilans sibilans (Linné) 2 ex. Tengadzi Bungalow, 12 miles north of Chiromo. 28. vii. 52. Midbody scale-rows 17; ventrals 173; tail truncate. Dispholidus typus (A. Smith) Head of ¢ ex. Zomba. 1952. ELAPIDAE Naja melanoleuca Hallowell Head ex. Zomba. 1952. 6 ex. forest fringing small stream between Cholo and Mlanje. 18. viii. 52. Midbody scale-rows 19; ventrals 211; subcaudals 68. VIPERIDAE Bitis arietans (Merrem) 2 heads ex. Zomba. 1952. 8 ex. Shire River between Chiromo and Port Herald. 21. vii. 52. Midbody scale-rows 33; ventrals 134; subcaudals 33. AMPHIBIA PIPIDAE Xenopus muelleri (Peters) 2 ex. shallow marginal water of Shire River at Chiromo. 22. vii. 52. 9 ex. erosion potholes in flood-scoured rocks about 25 feet above Mpata- manga Gorge, 22 miles west of Chileka. 12. ix. 52. 5 tadpoles, some of which were transforming; same data as last. BUFONIDAE Bufo carens A. Smith 1 ex. Nchalu, Shire River between Chikwawa and Chiromo. 27. viii. 52. ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SHIRE VALLEY, NYASALAND 145 Bufo regularis regularis Reuss 1 ex. Fort Johnston, Upper Shire River. 3-5. vii. 53. 2 ex. breeding in grassland brook between Chileka and Mpatamanga, 17 miles west of Blantyre. 18. vii. 52. 12 ex. breeding near Shire River at Chiromo. 22. vii. 52. 1 ex. Tengadzi River, 11-14 miles north of Chiromo. 24. vii. 52. 1 ex. in drying marsh 8 miles north of Port Herald. 22. viii. 52. This last is a 9.5 mm. juvenile, only recently transformed. Carr was impressed by the sonorous calls of these toads which he heard all the way from the Lake to the Zambezi. RHACOPHORIDAE Afrixalus fornasinii fornasinii (Bianconi) 11 ex. banana axils, Gande Village at edge of Elephant Marsh 17 miles north of Chiromo. 17. vii. 52. ex. tall grass on banks of Ruo River at Chiromo. 24. vii. 52. ex. banana axils on northeast shore of Lake Malombe. 12. vii. 52. ex. banana axils on banks of Shire at Port Herald. 15. viii. 52. ex. erosion pothole in flood-scoured rock about 25 feet above Mopata- manga Gorge, 22 miles west of Chileka. 2. ix. 52. ew eb DO Afrixalus brachycnemis brachycnemis (Boulenger) 4 29 ex. banana axils at Limbe. 138. vii. 52. 7 2@Q ex. Nkazi River, a tributary of Shire River, 30 miles south of Fort Johnston. 8. viii. 52. Brown lateral bands are absent or indistinctly indicated in the Limbe frogs; indistinct or very pronounced in the Nkazi specimens, some of which have also a vertebral stripe. Some of these may be young ¢ 6. Hyperolius marmoratus marmoratus Rapp 5 juv. ex. broad-leaved plants floating near bank of Shire River at Chiromo. 24. vii. 52. 4 ad. 64,1 @ ex. reeds at edge of Shire River at Port Herald. 26. Vili. 52. In the juveniles a lateral band may be present or absent; the typical hour-glass pattern on the dorsum is present or changing to a vertebral streak; the 2 retains the hour-glass pattern, but a dark, light-edged, lateral line is all that remains of a lateral band. Two of the pouched 3 ¢ retain the lateral line but a somewhat obsoles- cent streak is all that remains of the hour-glass pattern; one of the remaining ¢¢ is cream-spotted and black-streaked like Rapp’s 146 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES left-hand figure; the other is symetrically streaked with cream and black almost exactly like a specimen (M.C.Z. 20815) from Shilowane, Zoutpansberg, northern Transvaal (received in exchange from the Transvaal Museum), but not quite so comparable with our extensive series of topotypic ¢ ¢ from Stanger, Umvoti River, Natal. Possibly I am incorrect in applying marmoratus as a subspecific name to these Nyasaland frogs. Carr, who found the frog (M.C.Z. 27872) longitudinally striped with black and yellow, and the second specimen (A.M.N.H. 456012) in which the yellow stripes were broken, calling from low twigs and grass stems at 8 P.M., compares the call to a squeaky buzzing “jiink, iiink, iiink” emitted very faintly and unobstrusively. To those I consider subadults or adults (M.C.Z. 27871), possibly erroneously, he attributes a single whistled note, heard both at Chiromo and Port Herald, indeed “all the way from the Lake to the Zambezi.” He compares this call to that of Hyla crucifer which species he considers the frog resembles generally in ground color, postorbital bar, and the cross-like or H-shaped marking on the dorsum. Their calls came from emergent, Panicum-like grass some- thing like maiden cane. A Snout to anus of juveniles 17-21 mm.; ¢ ¢ 24-26 mm.; 2 25 mm. This is a much smaller form than the usually distinctively-marked H. m. albofasciatus inhabiting the Shire Highlands and Lake Nyasa. Hyperolius marmoratus ? albofasciatus Hoffman juv. ex. Zomba Mountain at about 6000 feet. 15. viii. 52. This form has been taken on Zomba, and my only reason for querying the identification is because this newly-transformed froglet is only 14 mm. in length, so lacks diagnostic characters. Hyperolius concolor tuberilinguis A. Smith imm. ¢ ex. evaporation gauge at Nchalu on Shire River between Chik- wawa and Chiromo. 27. viii. 52. Though I have taken tuberilinguis at Chikwawa and it is known from Chiromo, the identification of this 22 mm. frog may be re- garded as tentative for adult ¢ ¢ of tuberilinguis measure as much as 33-36 mm. Hyperolius puncticulatus puncticulatus (Pfeffer) ad. @ ex. small stream at Limbe. 138. vii. 52. ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SHIRE VALLEY, NYASALAND 147 Unquestionably not H. p. choloensis for there are no spots on the dorsum of this fine 37 mm. sedge-frog. Hyperolius pusillus (Cope) imm. ¢ ex. Elephant Marsh 17 miles north of Chiromo. 17 vii. 52. 5 juv. ex. tall grass beside Ruo River at Chiromo. 24. vii. 52. 9 juv. ex. tall grass beside Shire River at Chiromo. 27. vii. 52. These frogs, swept from the grass in an entomological net, have been compared with topotypes (M.C.Z. 23095-23100) of pusillus, a species that is new to Nyasaland. They have also been examined by my colleague Mr. Benjamin Shreve who concurs in the deter- mination. Snout to anus the juveniles range from 14-15 mm., the subadult ¢ 18 mm. Carr describes their call as ventriloquial and one of the most elusive he has ever heard. It sounded like “chick-peep-peep-peep- peep. The “peeps” were four in a row and occurred at a rate of about two per second. The calls came from tall grass along the Ruo River and, though no frog was actually seen calling, he at- tributes it to this species which he describes as being green, finely dotted, and as small as Pseudacris ocularis. RANIDAE Rana fuscigula angolensis Bocage é ex. small creek on the Upper Shire River. 11. viii. 52. é ex. Zomba Mountain about 6000 feet. 15. viii. 52. 6 ex. Chirombezi Creek on Limbe-Mlanje Road. 19. viii. 52. 3 66 ex. Chambe Plateau, Mlanje Mountain. 31. viii. 52. Tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb attains nostril in 6 (No. 424) or beyond end of snout (5 ex.); length of tibia more than half the length from snout to anus; fourth toe with from 1 to 2 phlanges free of web, fifth toe with 1, or half a phlange free of web, or webbed to the tip. Only the Chirombezi ¢ has a very black throat. A light vertebral stripe present only in the 50 mm. 2. Snout to anus of ¢ ¢ 52-60 mm. Rana oxyrhynchus oxyrhynchus A. Smith. 6 ex. Fort Johnston. 3-5. vii. 52. 3 $6 ex. potholes in flood-scoured rocks about 25 feet above Mpata- manga Gorge, 22 miles west of Chileka. 12. vii. 52 & 2. ix. 52. 6 2 ex. grass beside Ruo River at Chiromo. 22. vii. 52. 2 2 ex. Tengadzi River, 11-14 miles north of Chiromo. 24. vii. 52. 6 2 ex. Chirombezi Creek on Limbe-Mlanje Road. 19. viii. 52. 148 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches be- yond or well beyond end of snout in all; length of tibia much more than half the length from snout to anus; first, second, third, and fifth toes with at most half a phalanx free, fourth toe with 1% or 2 phlanges free. Snout to anus of ¢ ¢ 31-38 mm.; 2 2? 30-32 mm. Rana mascareniensis mascareniensis Duméril & Bibron 1 juv. ex. Fort Johnston. 3-5. vii. 52. 1 juv. ex. Marshy shore of Lake Shirwa (Chilwa). 16. viii. 52. 1 juv. ex. Chirombezi Creek on Limbe-Mlanje Road. 19. viii. 52. Tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches nostril or end of snout; length of tibia rather more than half the length from snout to anus; first, second, third and fifth toes with 1 phlanx free of web, fourth toe with 2 phlanges free. Length of juveniles 25-30 mm. Rana mascareniensis mossambica Peters @ ex. edge of Elephant Marsh, Gande Village, 17 miles north of Chiromo. Was Svat, BR, Tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches nos- tril; length of tibia rather more than half the length from snout to anus; first toe with 2 phlanges free of web, second and third with 1%, fourth with 3, and fifth with 1 phalanx free; an inner and a well-developed outer metatarsal tubercle. This 89 mm. record fills in a gap in the distribution of mossambica, described from Tete on the Zambezi. Rana ansorgii Boulenger 1 juv. ex. marshy shore of Lake Shirwa (Chilwa). 16. viii. 52. 1 juv. ex. Chirombezi Creek on Limbe-Mlanje Road. 19. viii. 52. Tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches well beyond end of snout; length of tibia much more than half the length from snout to anus; first, second, third and fifth toes with 1% (Shirwa) or 2 (Chirombezi) phlanges free of web, fourth toe with 3 phlanges free. Snout to anus of both juveniles 25 mm. Phrynobatrachus perpalmatus Boulenger ex. muddy shore of Nkazi River between Liwonde and Zomba. 8. vii. 52. ex. Tengadzi River, 11-14 miles north of Chiromo. 24. vii. 52. ex. Pista Marsh 4 miles south of Chiromo Ferry. ex. sandbar of Ruo River 5 miles above Chiromo. 18. vii. 52. ex. marshy shore of Lake Shirwa (Chilwa). 16. viii. 52. mR DY WO re ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SHIRE VALLEY, NYASALAND 149 Tympanum sometimes scarcely distinguishable; tips of fingers more or less spatulate, those of the toes with tiny disks to which the webbing extends on all toes except the fourth, however the disk is often shrunken in preserved specimens so that it may be said that the phlanges free of web from first to fifth are: 1, 1, 1, 1-1%, 1; tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches eye (in 2), between eye and nostril (8), or nostril (2). In common with natalensis this species has a light, somewhat horseshoe-shaped, circum-anal marking whose arms terminate in a horizontal light line on the buttocks. It is often difficult to dis- tinguish perpalmatus from young natalensis, but the latter are less extensively webbed and the toes, though occasionally swollen, lack the definite disks of well-preserved perpalmatus. Snout to anus of 11 juveniles 15-19 mm.; 2 ¢ 6 19-22 mm.; 2 26 mm. Phrynobatrachus natalensis (A. Smith) ex. small stream at Limbe. 138. vii. 52. ex. muddy shore of Shire River at Chiromo. 22. vii. 52. ex. Masengere Creek 20 miles north of Chiromo. 22 vii. 52. ex. small stream on Mlanje Road 9 miles from Cholo. 18. viii. 52. ex. fern bed by Likabula River, foot of Mlanje Mtn. 19. viii. 52. ex. erosion pothole in flood-scoured rock about 25 feet above Mpata- manga Gorge, 22 miles west of Chileka. 2. ix. 52. Se Be OC Tympanum sometimes scarcely distinguishable; tips of fingers not dilated, of toes more or less spatulate in young only; from first to fifth toes the phlanges free of web are: 2-1, %-1, 1-2, 2-3, 1-1%; tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches eye (in 5), between eye and nostril (1), or nostril (9). Mostly juveniles 18-25 mm.; presumed ¢ é 26-30; ? 2 31-85. Phrynobatrachus ukingensis mababiensis FitzSimons 2 & 11 juv. ex. small but fast mountain stream at 2500 feet, across Shire River from Fort Johnston. 7. vii. 52. dé ex. muddy shore of Nkazi River between Liwonde and Zomba. 8. Vil. 52. 2 ex. small stream at Limbe. 13. vii. 52. 2 juv. ex. Tengadzi River, 11-14 miles south of Chiromo. 24. vii. 52. Tympanum hidden; tips of fingers and toes not dilated; toes with only a trace of web at base, the phlanges free of web from first to _ fifth toe being: 2, 2, 3, 4, 3; tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches eye or just beyond (22 and 10 juveniles), or 150 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES nostril (¢ and 8 juveniles). Snout to anus of juv. 10-15, average 12 mm.; ¢ 17 mm.; 2 2 20-2] mm. Arthroleptis boulengeri de Witte 9 ex. small but fast mountain stream at 2500 feet, across Shire River from Fort Johnston. 7. vii. 52. 2 ex. stream in cloud forest on Zomba Mtn. about 6000 feet. 4 ex. small stream at Limbe. 13. vii. 52. 1 ex. small stream on Mlanje Road 9 miles from Cholo. 18. viii. 52. 5 ex. Chirombezi Creek on Limbe-Mlanje Road. 19. viii. 52. 5 ex. Likabula River, lower slopes of Mlanje Mountain. 19. viii. 52. 4 ex. closed forest at about 4000 feet on Mbongwe Mountain about 4 miles east of Limbe. 5. ix. 52. This determination, as stated elsewhere, must be considered tentative until direct comparison has been made with the holotype from southeast Belgian Congo. The following characters have not been tested on every specimen. Tympanum distinct, or indistinct in very young; tips of fingers and toes usually slightly swollen or distinctly dilated, their bases without web; tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches tympanum (in 1), the eye (19), just beyond (7), or even to the nostril (3); a single small metatarsal tubercle only. Snout to anus 10-18, average 14 mm., those over 14 mm. are mostly adult. Arthroleptis stenodactylus stenodactylus Pfeffer 1 ex. small but fast mountain stream at 2500 feet, across Shire River from Fort Johnston. 7. vii. 52. 1 ex. edge of Lower Shire River at Port Herald. 26. viii. 62. Tympanum indistinct, its horizontal diameter about half the orbital diameter; tips of fingers and toes not dilated; tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches the tympanum; metatarsal tubercle longer than inner toe. Snout to anus 22-27 mm. MICROHYLIDAE Phrynomerus bifasciatus bifasciatus (A. Smith) 1 ex. Nchalu, Shire River, between Chikwawa and Chiromo. 27. viii. 52. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 16(8), 1958. SOME FURTHER STUDIES ON THE AKEE?? Epwarp Larson, Mark F. Wynn, S. JoHN LYNCH, and DonaLp D. DoucHtTy The akee, Blighia sapida, is native to the Guinea coast of West Africa but is now commonly grown in the West Indies, Tropical America, and Southern Florida. The arils of the akee are eaten by some people, but there are numerous reports in the literature of poisoning due to its ingestion. It has been estimated that there have been over 5000 deaths in Jamaica since 1886 due to akee poisoning (Manson-Bahr, 1950), commonly spoken of as vomiting sickness in the West Indies. Seidelin (1913) investigated a series of deaths due to vomiting sickness in Jamaica and reported no definite conclusions regarding the causative agent. Scott (1916) reported that vomiting sickness in Jamaica is due to the akee. He stated that much of the poison of the akee is extracted with boiling water and that the pathological changes induced consist chiefly of a general hyperemia and a ten- dency to hemorrhage in various organs. He stressed that the soup or “pot water’ made from akee produced the most acute symptoms and that the akees were poisonous when unopened, picked from broken branches, or had soft spots. In later studies, Arnold (1947) reviewed 107 deaths in Jamaica which occurred over a period of 14 months. From this clinical investigation Arnold definitely states that the akee is responsible for the vomiting sick- ness and that the toxic principle is a saponin present in the arils of the unopened akee, whereas the arils of the ripe or “yawning” akee are non-toxic. Although this type of information may be found in standard texts on tropical diseases, the problem has not been solved from a practical viewpoint as an outbreak of vomtiing sickness in Jamaica caused more than 40 deaths during the early Pare or Lal” | *From the Research Laboratory of the Veterans Administration Hospital and the University of Miami Medical Research Unit and the Experimental eee Division of Research and Industry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida. * Reviewed in the Veterans Administration and published with the approval of the Chief Medical Director. The statements and conclusions published by the authors are the result of their own study and do not necessarily reflect the opinion or policy of the Veterans Administration. 152 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In addition to the clinical literature cited there has been some experimental work. Connal and Ralston (1918) fed certain extracts to dogs and found that the placenta, arils, or husk were non- poisonous when consumed individually. After blending some of the preparations which included unripe or over-ripe portions of the fruit, the animals vomited and soon died. No further reference will be made to the effects produced by the administration or eating of spoiled or over-ripe akees because we believe that most spoiled fruit will produce gastro-intestinal disturbance. Evans and Arnold (1938) state that the akee contains a saponin (which is hemolytic) and is probably the toxic substance. Since this fruit is being introduced into Southern Florida (Smiley, 1951) by nurserymen and others, it is imperative that the nature of the poisoning be understood and an antidote developed. Our preliminary work (Lynch, Larson & Doughty, 1951 and Wynn, Larson & Doughty, 1952) demonstrated that there are many un- founded statements in the literature and further investigation was necessary. Therefore a program was initiated to determine which portion of the akee is toxic and also the anatomical and physio- logical changes induced. TABLE I Effect of Various Akee Preparations on Rabbits Preparation Derived from: | No. of Animals Deaths | Survivals | | Ariiss= Rapes weer: eee | 10 0 | 10 €otyledons, Ripe — | A | A | 0 Red Membrane, Ripe ____- 8 0 | 8 Anise Writers: ne 2 2 18 1s | 3 Cotyledons, Unripe _____. 6 | 6 : 0 Fruit has been obtained from five different sources, four in the South Florida area and one from a commercial market in Jamaica. Suspensions, which were made from ripe, unripe, and artificially ripened fruit, have been fed to rabbits, rats, dogs, and monkeys. Intravenous injections of cell-free, water soluble extracts have been made into both rabbits and dogs. The material was administered SOME FURTHER STUDIES ON THE AKEE 153 to the rabbits and dogs by stomach tube or intravenously. The material given to the rats was administered by stomach tube. The material given to the monkeys was spread on either bread or banana and eaten voluntarily by the recipient. The following quantitative determinations have been made on the blood: Chloride, non-protein nitrogen, total solids, white and red cell counts, coagulation time, and sedimentation rate. Body temperature of the animals has been taken rectally. Table I shows the results on rabbits. The arils of the ripe or “yawning fruit being non-toxic, all 10 animals survived, whereas with the unripe there were 15 deaths among 18 animals. This table also shows that the cotyledons from either ripe or unripe fruit are definitely toxic. Red membrane (placenta) was adminis- tered to 8 rabbits with no ill effects. The results, Table II, with rats, monkeys, or dogs are similar to those of the previous table. There were no deaths from the arils of the ripe fruit, whereas the arils from the unripe caused the death of 5 of 24 rats, 4 of 7 monkeys, and no deaths in 6 dogs. The cotyledons caused death in 4 of 18 rats. The emetic effect is tabulated for monkeys and dogs because these animals can vomit which is not true of either rats or rabbits. Emesis was induced in both monkeys or dogs by the toxic preparations. TABLE II The Effect of Various Akee Preparations on Rats, Monkeys and Dogs Rats Monkeys Dogs 25 si mera era eee afare cs albsid) 6S ; Arils, Unripe __. | 24 5) | 19 7 2 4 | 6 5 | 0 Eras. Ripe, _- 2 | 13 0 | IES ae Oma a) 8 9) | On Cotyledons _____ | tg + 15 1 0 1 1 0 0 - Table III shows the physiological changes induced by adminis- tration of lethal doses. Rabbits dying of akee poisoning present the following physiological picture: the blood chlorides increase; 154 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the temperatures, red and white cell counts and the hematocrit decrease. TABLE III Effects of Lethal Preparations | | Red Cell | | | Chloride ae in | White Ion in Temp. Thou- Cell | flemato- | mg/100 oe sands/ | Count crit lene mm*® | per mm® %o | | | | Number of Animals _ | 9 | 11 | 7 7 | 10 Normal Range __. | 360-584 | 102-106 Pannen coe snt 87-51 Average Deviation ) from Normal Mean _.. |+65.mg_ | —4.29° —2197 | —1899 | -—8.5 Average Percent | | | | | Deviation from | | | Normal Mean ____. +15.% | —4.1% Beye me eee | Animals dying of akee, whether it be given intravenously or by mouth, present similar gross findings at autopsy. The lungs are congested having very marked reddish areas in them, or in some cases an entire lobe is reddish in color. Both auricles of the heart are distended with dark venous blood. The stomach and intestines of most of the animals showed hyperemia. The kidneys are usually pale. In some animals we have also noted hemorrhages in the subcutaneous fascia in the area of the internal mammary artery. The spleen, pancreas, and voluntary muscle have appeared to be normal. Microscopic studies of the sectioned and stained tissues showed the following changes: The alveolar spaces in the lung contain fluid, the heart shows myocardial degeneration, and the kidney has been congested. This syndrome resembles secondary shock. Tests for the presence of a saponin in the akee using whole rabbit blood as a substrate were negative. Control experiments using a commercial saponin showed marked hemolysis. This might have been anticipated from some of our previous observations as we hzve not observed any hemoglobin-tinged urine, nor has the blood serum or plasma of the moribund or dead animals been tinged with hemoglobin. Also Sollmann (1948) states that the saponins are 10 to 1000 times more toxic by vein than by mouth SOME FURTHER STUDIES ON THE AKEE 155 but we have found no marked difference in the toxicity due to the route of administration. General tests for alkaloids were conducted by adding potassio-mercuric iodide, iodine in potassium iodide or picric acid to filtered aqueous preparations. These tests have been negative. Manson-Bahr (1950) states that the toxic principle is precipitated by the addition of alcohol. Jordan and Burrows (1937) reported that the poisonous principle could not be precipitated by alcohol from its aqueous solution. Our work substantiates the latter report as the addition of ethyl alcohol to the aqueous preparations produced innocuous precipitates; the supernatant liquid remained toxic. SUMMARY 1. The arils of either the ripe or naturally “yawning” akee are non-toxic. 2. The arils of the akees which have been allowed to ripen or “yawn after picking are not toxic. 3. The arils of the unripe or “non-yawning” akee are definitely toxic. 4. The cotyledons of either the ripe or unripe akee are definitely toxic. 5. The toxic material is water soluble; stable in aqueous medium at 100° C., and is not precipitated from aqueous medium by ethyl alcohol. 6. The toxic principle is not a saponin nor an alkaloid. 7. Some of the symptoms induced by the toxic principle are those of secondary shock. 8. The an and histological changes induced have been studied. LITERATURE CITED ARNOLD, L. E. 1947. Vomiting Sickness—orAckee Poisoning. Jamaica Medical Review, 1: 26-55. CONNAL, A., and RALSTON, W. 1918. Sane experiments with the fruit of Blighia sapida in Nig, Jour. Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, 21: 81-84. - EVANS, K. L., and ARNOLD, L. 1938. Experimental studies of poisoning with ackee (Blighia sapida). Trans. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. & Hyg., 32: 355-62. 156 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES JORDAN, E. O., and BURROWS, W. 1937. The vomiting sickness of Jamaica, and its relation to akee poisoning. Am. J. Hygiene, 25: 520-45. LYNCH, S. JOHN, LARSON, E., and DOUGHTY, D. D. 1951. A study of the edibility of akee (Blighia sapida) fruit of Florida. Proc. Fla. State Horticult. Soc., 64: 281-84. MANSON-BAHR, P. H. 1950. Manson's Tropical Diseases. 13th Edition. Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Maryland. SGOW7 he sct 1916. On the “Vomiting Sickness” of Jamaica. Annals Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 10: 1-79. SEIDELIN, H. 1913. On “Vomiting Sickness” in Jamaica. Annals Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 7: 377-479. SMILEY, N. 1951. Subtropical Gardening in Florida. University of Miami Press. SOLLMANN, T. 1948. A Manual of Pharmacology. 7th Edition. W. B. Saunders Co., Phila- delphia, Pennsylvania. WYNN, MARK F., LARSON, E., and DOUGHTY, D. D. 1952. Akee toxicity. Fed. Proc., 11: 405. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 16(8), 1953. INFLUENCE OF WOUND HEALING AND CROTON OIL ON SKIN TUMORIGENESIS # MicHAEL KLEIN When mice (Deelman, 1924; Pullinger, 1943; and Pullinger, 1945b) or rabbits (Fritsche, 1943; Linell, 1947; and MacKenzie and Rous, 1941) are painted on the skin with a carcinogen and following this receive deep wounds within the treated area, tumors arise at the edges of or near the cut surfaces. Although tumors also were observed at other sites on the painted skin, they were concentrated and appeared earlier at the wounded sites (MacKenzie and Rous, 1941). Pullinger (1943, 1945b) observed a similar local- ization of skin tumors in mice painted with a carcinogen and re- ceiving multiple wounds. It also was observed that among some of the mice, tumors appeared first in areas of wound healing or on scars (Pullinger, 1943). It has been proposed that latent tumor cells (Berenblum and Shubik, 1947; Friedewald and Rous, 1944) or cells with latent neoplastic potentialities (Friedewald and Rous, 1950) are pro- duced in the skin following painting with a carcinogen, a process referred to as initiation. These transformed cells may then be acted upon by a non-carcinogen (wounding, croton oil, turpentine) with the resultant formation of visible skin tumors (Berenblum and Shubik, 1947; Friedewald and Rous, 1944; and Friedewald and Rous, 1950), the latter process being referred to as promotion. Rous and Kidd (1941), in investigating the influence of wounding on the tar-painted ears of rabbits reported that wound healing occurred by an ingrowth of epithelium from the cut edges. On the basis of this observation, Pullinger (1945b) suggested that potentially malignant cells produced by a carcinogen might migrate towards an area which suffered repeated, deep wounding and thereby become a focus for subsequent tumor formation. If some of the cells with latent neoplastic potentialities migrated to a wounded area in response to one wounding, their presence could be detected by repeated painting with croton oil, a potent pro- * A contribution from the Cancer Research Laboratory, University of Flor- ida, Gainesville, Florida. This investigation was supported by Grant C-1709 from The National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service. 158 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES moter in skin tumorigenesis in mice (Berenblum, 1941; Berenblum and Shubik, 1947). This problem was the subject of the present investigation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Strain DBA/2 JAX male mice, 5-10 weeks of age, were employed. These were housed in wire cages which were maintained in air- conditioned quarters (76° - 78° F.). A supply of Purina Laboratorv Chow Pellets and tap water was available to the animals at all times. The mice were painted on both ears with a 0.5 per cent solution of 20-methylcholanthrene, referred to hereinafter as MCA, and a 5 per cent solution of croton oil? both dissolved in olive oil. Each solution was applied using a No. 3 camel-hair brush. Following one application of the carcinogen, the mice were isolated one to a cage for several days and then re-grouped 10 to a cage for the remainder of the experiment. The animals were wounded 2 weeks after the start of the experiment by punching a 2 mm. hole through the middle of each ear. A total of 60 mice was divided equally into Groups A and B. Group A—Controls—These mice received no further treatment. Group B—Two weeks after wounding, the ears were painted twice weekly for 20 weeks with croton oil. The mice were examined routinely for the presence of skin tumors. Although all observable growths were recorded, none was considered a tumor unless it persisted at least 2 weeks and attained a minimum size of 1 mm. All surviving mice were sacri- ficed 1 month following the last painting with croton oil. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION No skin tumors were induced among the mice in Group A (Table I) in response to one application of MCA to the ears fol- lowed by a single ear punching. The average period of observation for this group was 194 days. Pullinger (1945a) painted mice repeatedly on the nape of the neck with a low dose of carcinogen and then excised one piece of skin from each painted area. Al- * Obtained from the Fisher Scientific Company, Eimer and Amend, New York,NY: INFLUENCES ON SKIN TUMORIGENESIS 159 though many skin tumors were observed among these animals, less than 1 per cent were associated with the wounded sites. In the same experiment, another group of mice was painted once with 1/3 to 5 mg. of MCA following which a piece of skin was excised from each painted area. Among 119 mice, some observed as long as 12 months, 4 developed 1 tumor each. However, only 1 of the 4 was associated with a wounded site. It is apparent from these experiments-that in mice, potential tumor cells induced with a carcinogen are not stimulated sufficiently by a single excision and its associated wound healing to develop into visible skin tumors. Croton oil which is known to be a potent promoter in skin tumorigenesis in mice also has been observed to be ineffective following one application (Klein, 1953; Salaman, 1952). It is interesting to note that a promoting influence in skin tumorigenesis (tumor localization in wounded sites) was obtained in mice exposed to a small or large dose of carcinogen when areas of the painted skin were excised repeatedly (Pullinger, 1943; 1945b). TABLE I Influence of Wound Healing and Croton Oil on Skin Tumorigenesis in Mice. Each Mouse was Painted Once with a 0.5 Per Cent Solution of Methyl- cholanthrene in Olive Oil. 2 FS Sia * oO ¢ calc ® mie Gl bea co) Oe Be = na n & » = 20'S z 2 ee GL 1s |e eile S | ca las om =) om ™ 0 SiS ) aS "a S| TS as ne) S| (S) = 3 ee ose), 2B Be | Se |e a8) cel ee O BH BS |<<0| 26) 64 | Be |e | tee ase | | Fosse no. | no. Ow | Gopee |e nO: no. days | days A | wounded yl 0 0 0 0 Oe ees 194 B_ | wounded = croton oil | 24 37 18 54 17 1 Let | 189 * On or adjacent to wounded sites. In Group B, in addition to the wounding, the mice were treated continuously with croton oil. A skin tumor incidence of 54 per cent was observed among the mice after an average latent period of 131 days (Table I). Four of the mice bore 2 tumors each while the remaining tumor bearers bore 1 each. Only 1 of the 17 tumors 160 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES induced was situated on or adjacent to a wounded site. If the effect of the wounding was to cause a migration of potential tumor cells from the surrounding areas to the cut surfaces, this should have become evident following continued painting with croton oil. The fact that tumors were not observed to be concentrated in the wounded sites suggests that potential tumor cells were ab- sent from those sites. Recently, it was reported that one applica- tion of 0.15 per cent 9:10-dimethyl-1:2-benzanthracene followed by repeated applications of croton oil, the latter in a concentration of 2.5 per cent, resulted in the induction of numerous skin tumors per mouse (Salaman, 1952). We employed croton oil at a con- centration of 5 per cent and observed only 1 to 2 tumors per mouse. One reason for the lower tumor yield at the higher concentration may be the greater skin damage produced by the latter. Thus, if potential tumor cells had migrated to the wounded sites as suggested by Pullinger (1945b), but then were destroyed by the croton oil solution, this could account for the lack of tumors at those sites. On the other hand, it may be that more than one wounding is necessary in mice before migration of potential tumor cells to wounded areas will occur. SUMMARY Strain DBA male mice were painted once on the ears with 20- methylcholanthrene. These mice were then divided into 2 groups. In Group A, a hole was punched through each ear. In Group B, the mice were painted repeatedly on the ears with croton oil in addition to the wounding. No skin tumors were obtained in Group A in response to a single wounding. A tumor incidence of 54 per cent was observed in Group B. However, only 1 of 17 tumors induced was located on or near a wounded site. Since croton oil was administered repeatedly to these mice, the lack of tumor localization in Group B suggests that potential tumor cells were absent from the skin in the wounded sites. LITERATURE CITED BERENBLUM, I. 1941. The cocarcinogenic action of croton resin. Cancer Research, 1: 44-48. BERENBLUM, I., and SHUBIK, P. 1947. A new quantitative approach to the study of the stages of chemical carcinogenesis in the mouse’s skin. Brit. J. Cancer, 1: 383-391. INFLUENCES ON SKIN TUMORIGENESIS 161 DEELMAN, H. T. 1924. Die entstehung des experimentellen teerkrebses und die bedeutung de zellregeneration. Z. Krebsforsch, 21: 220-226. FRIEDEWALD, W. F., and ROUS, P. 1944. The initiating and promoting elements in tumor production. An analysis of the effects of tar, benzpyrene, and methylcholanthrene on rabbit skin. J. Exper. Med., 80: 101-125. FRIEDEWALD, W. F., and ROUS, P. 1950. The pathogenesis of deferred cancer. A study of the after-effects of methylcholanthrene upon rabbit skin. J. Exper. Med., 91: 459-484. FRITSCHE, H. 1948. Praneoplasie und regeneration. Z. Krebsforsch, 54: 77-111. KLEIN, M. 1953. The promoting action of croton oil in skin tumorigenesis. Cancer Research. In press. LINELL, F. 1947. On the tumour promoting effect of a single mechanical trauma. An experimental study on skin tumours in tarred rabbits. Acta Path. et. Microbiol. Scand., Suppl. 71, 110 pp. MacKENZIE, J., and ROUS, P. 1941. The experimental disclosure of latent neoplastic changes in tarred skin. J. Exper. Med., 73: 391-414. PULLINGER, B. D. 1943. The localization of experimental tumours in scars and healing wounds. J. Path. and Bact., 55: 301-809. PULLINGER, B. D. 1945a. An experimental approach to the problem of trauma and tumors. J. Path. and Bact., 57: 467-475. 1945b. A measure of the stimulating effect of simple injury combined with carcinogenic chemicals on tumour formation in mice. J. Path. and Bact., 57: 477-481. ROWS, 2.) and KIDD; J. GC. 1941. Conditional neoplasms and subthreshold neoplastic states. J. Exper. Med., 73: 365-390. SALAMAN, M. H. 1952. The latent period of co-carcinogenesis. Brit. J. Cancer, 6: 155-159. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 16(8), 1953. N 4 4 “a * z cat ee * ~ = “ - he . a OS ar £2. = * .: SEE b- ss . , = “ g a rol, ice Bee = res GMa wile aera be s j fi ‘ eae nS a a 3 p : : re ‘ * - . Pe. or e - é =