~ oy Feet ov et Oe ape poms te aren a wv oe yor awn FS + ~~ eee etages? ar uf a 2379251 $21 734 2a 322 152 Hiab tigi ey the . 32359575 | BERET Be 44%5 $ SPM Hf ‘3 2: ae ; =, - fa “5 a ( re mA Pa A iy BSPaep" xg ERY ¢ ~ oe ae ab =, I if t, t 1i0 at! {| H = eu ar = — = S2SHi % N, == SS f A " es ; ‘ Sir esa SS = Sera! FY yee Snr ! i? (ol eae The Quarterly Journal of The Florida Academy of Sciences. A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Editor H. K. WALLACE Associate Editors J. C. Dickinson, Jr. DonaLp R. DYER JoHn W. FLOWERS VOLUME 17 Published by THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Gainesville, Florida 1954 DATES OF PUBLICATION Number 1—June 9, 1954 Number 2—August 18, 1954 Number 3—October 18, 1954 Number 4—February 18, 1955 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 17 NUMBER 1] Relations of People to Each Other. By Raymond F. Bellamy— 1 Crime and Social Research. By Clyde B. Vedder -_......... igi Some Methods for the Treatment of Problems in Dimensional Semmcmve why Howard DD. Allen 2 4022 19 The Multitrichomate Oscillatoriaceae of Florida. By MME Sil ete ee sy. or eae oe ee ss YE A Simplified Synthesis of 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoic Acid and Ethyl 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoate. By Morris J. Danzig and Seg) IPS SCL, ae A SNe te ee ne 43 A Vegetative Key to the Native and Commonly Cultivated Eaimsomeionda. By Hugh Nelson Mozingo A6 A Method for Preparing and Mounting Thin Gross Sections of Human or Other Large Brains. By Granville C. Fisher and Prapene Ds Cig a ee ee 55 Membership List of the Florida Academy of Sciences —__- 59 enIME TAG ONIMIMNCINLS: as et alt NUMBER 2 Florida’s Resource-Use Education Problems. By Henry F. SOGSOP aa ES A et) oe 73 Nineteenth Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences 82 A Rapid Colorimetric Test for Organic Matter in Certain Mineral Soils. By Seton M. Edson and George D. Thornton 83 The Multitrichomate Oscillatoriaceae of Florida. By C. S. AS 1) ee ns Te) So) 87 Boron in Florida Waters. By Howard T. Odum and Bruce SPDIPEUSUD, cass SR SO eee ee 105 A New Crayfish from the Upper Coastal Plain of Georgia (Deeapoda, Astacidae). By Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. 110 A Suggested Inorganic Fertilizer for Use in Brackish Water. Zo Wyhalicolim (Cy {OC SO) a ae ee ee eee UNS Mea ceemca@onments ee 128 NUMBER 3 Studies of Fluorene Derivatives in Tumor Chemotherapy. By Mary F. Argus and L. R. C. Agnew _____ Meera 129 The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis in Corrections. By Vernon Fox .*_ eeeee 140 Adult Fish Populations by Haul Seine in Seven Florida Lakes. By Harold L. Moody A Regional Study of the Phosphate Industry. By H. T. Grace. 168 A.. A.A. S. Research Grant __.... oe 181 Additions to the Known Fish Fauna in the Vicinity of Cedar Key, Florida. By David K Cadvud 182 Notice of Annual Meeting _.... .. =. ee 184 NUMBER 4 Additional Specimens of Gavialosuchus americanus (Sellards) from a New Locality in Florida. By Walter Auffenberg __ 185 lected @thcens! fOr 10a) ee io. PDN Wee Ss 210 Studies in Stream Pollution Biology. I. A Simplified Ecological Classification of Organisms. By William M. Beck, Jr. _— 211 The Occurrence of Bison in Florida. By H. B. Sherman ___— 228 A Description of the Larvae of Ambystoma cingulatum bishopi Goin, Including an Extension of the Range. By Sam R. Telford, Jr. 20200 eee 233 Anatomical Study of Slash Pine Graft Unions. By Francois Mergen we 237 Modern Wholesale Market Facilities. By Ray Y. Gildea, Jr. _. 246 The Geoduck Clam in Florida. By Verle A. Pope _- 252 News and Comments 2... ee 253 linea ioy Wolloimne Ji 2 WO 254 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Scienees Vol. 17 Mareh, 1954 No. lI Contents Bellamy—Relations of People to Each Other __.-_-_S | Seeeeer Crime and Social Research _...__»= were 1: Allen—Some Methods for the Treatment of Problems in EMIS COMMCEE ee 19 Nielsen—The Multitrichomate Oscillatoriaceae of Florida ____ 25 Danzig and Schultz—A Simplified Synthesis of 3-Amino-4- Nitrobenzoic Acid and Ethyl 3-Amino-4-Nitrobenzoate __. 48 Mozingo—A Vegetative Key to the Native and Commonly Peeerere nisin Plorigg 220 ee _ 46 Fisher and Garrett—A Method for Preparing and Mounting Thin Gross Sections of Human or Other Large Brains _.____ 55 Membership List of the Florida Academy of Sciences _______ 5059 esi eTitG 08) al Pie ay aI VoL. 17 Marcu, 1954 No. l QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. The business offices of the JouRNAL are centralized at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wailace, Editor, Department of Biology. All subsequent correspondence concerning manuscripts may be handled directly between authors and associate editors: J. C. Dickinson, Jr., Biological Sciences, Department of Biology and Florida State Museum; Donald R. Dyer, Social Sciences, Department of Geography; John W. Flowers, Physical Sciences, Department of Physics. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be addressed to The Gift and Exchange Seciion, University of Florida Libraries. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed June 9, 1954 See QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE Mon. 1 f Marcu, 1954 RELATIONS OF PEOPLE TO EACH OTHER: RAYMOND F. BELLAMY Florida State University Perhaps the best definition of sociology which has been formu- lated is that it is the science or at least the study of the relation- ships or influences between different people. These influences we designate as interaction, and interaction may be as simple as the effect of a sweet smile or a reproving frown, or it may be as vast and complex as the influence which one great section of mankind, say the Russians or the Chinese, have on other nations or peoples. Interaction may be direct and immediate or it may function over great distances or periods of time. Some decades ago explorers came upon a tribe of African natives who had never even seen a white man, yet they were wearing cotton garments which were stamped “Marshall Field and Company, Chicago, Illinois.” There had been marked interaction between the Negro who raised that cotton in Dixie and his remote cousin in African who wore it. Similarly, we are still feeling the influence of George Washington, Eli Whitney, Peter Cartwright, Napoleon, Julius Caesar, Shake- speare, Mohamet, Buddha, Jesus, and Moses When the sociologist attempts to understand and explain or even describe the interactions of any peoples, he must be sensitive to the many factors which influence the forms which the interaction takes. The physical or geographic environment has a profound influence; we do not hunt for seals in Florida nor get our thrills out of mountain climbing. We take our delight in observing the scenery spread out on our bathing beaches, one of the advantages of which is that this scenery may become ambulatory or even ” Given at the annual meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences at Bae, Florida, Dec. 11, 1952, as part of a symposium on the ecology of orida. 2 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES amatory. But in spite of the claims of Huntington, Semple, and others, the physical environment will not suffice alone to explain the multitudinous reactions of mankind. The hereditary factor is important, probably much more impor- tant than the psychologists of the last few decades have believed. If one inherits the stature of a midget, he will not be very success- ful as center on an ordinary college basketball team; if he inherits haemophilia he had best not engage in farming or machine trades, and if he inherits a black skin he probably will not play golf or attend an artist series in a southern town. Just the number of people in a given area will affect the behavior therein. The writer taught a district school in the Bears Paw Mountains of Montana one summer and met with rather unusual reactions. When he “rented” a vacant cottage for the summer, he could not prevail upon the owners to accept any rent. Similarly, a team of horses and wagon for a twenty-mile trip were freely provided, and the owners of a cow absolutely refused to accept any money for a quart of milk a day, although they did finally agree to let the recipient milk the cow. In later years the people of Cincinnati, New York, and Atlanta have hardly manifested the same type of behavior. The difference was simply that in Mon- tana there was a sparse and scattered population while in the other places the opposite situation prevailed. The cultural factors are equally important, and culture may be defined as anything artificial, differing thus from the behavior of the less intelligent but probably more noble and worthy lower animals. Culture and the products of culture are schools, medical services, and other institutions, all inventions, and everything which surrounds us except the mere animal impulses of our lives. A special phase of culture is designated as social control which takes multitudinous forms, not only legal control embodied in our laws, but religious and moral teachings and convictions, folkways and customs, styles and fashions, public opinion, gossip, drill, and propaganda, all of which are disseminated by the press, radio and television, and such other media as sound trucks and wagging tongues. Therefore, to understand and explain or describe the interac- tions between the people of Florida, we must keep in mind con- stantly all these lines of influences. Moreover, we must never forget that we do not find any one of our list functioning alone, but instead RELATIONS OF PEOPLE TO EACH OTHER 3 they are all jumbled together into such a conglomerate mass that not even a platoon of Philadelphia lawyers could untangle them. From the sociological standpoint, what might be called the secon- dary effects of all these factors is of greater interest than the pri- mary effects, at least in many instances. In north and west Florida the physical factors of soil, tempera- ture, rainfall, and other physical factors suggest general farming, raising corn and cotton, tobacco in some regions, and we also find there lumbering, turpentining, and small-scale stock raising. These are the primary products of the physical factors. but they are merely the first link in what may be called a chain reaction. Cotton has always required a large amount of unskilled hand labor, and long ago this fastened slavery on the South. Had it been found that slave labor was efficient for cod fishing and for raising wheat and hay, then the North would have had slaves. The northern preachers would have found that Holy Writ sanctioned it, the school teachers would have believed in it, and it would have become an accepted part of the folkways. Conversely, had it been found that slave labor was unprofitable for cotton raising, then the South would have abhorred slavery and gray-clad men would have marched to war fired with a holy zeal to free their enslaved fellow men. But it did not happen that way and cotton raising resulted in salvery for the South. While slavery as such is gone, many of its features are still common in the cotton-raising regions of North Florida. Here still lingers the share-cropper practice with all its attendant features. While the tractors, the gang plow, and even the Rust cotton picker have made inroads, the one-mule plow. even the one-mule farm is still quite common. In fact, many of the farms are so small that complicated machinery cannot be used profitably. Some years ago the writer attempted to get the husband of a colored maid out of jail. He had been jailed for “jumping his con- tract,’ that is leaving his employer while still indebted to him. {t was found that all that was necessary was to hire a lawyer and the case would be thrown out of court; but, as an informed member of the bar said, “If you don’t get a lawyer, they'll send him up for three months sure.” This was the typical and old familiar pattern of the cotton-raising region which is also associated with turpen- ft JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tining and lumbering. There is more of it still existing than is usually realized. | Tobacco raising also necessitates hand work, and it should be no surprise that in tobacco-raising Gadsen County 56% of the popu- lation is made up of Negroes. This is the highest per cent of Negroes in any county except Jefferson which has 60%, and Jef- ferson is also an agricultural county. It is in this tier of north central counties that lynchings occur most frequently. The secondary effects of the environment or the accompaniment of general agriculture is, to use sociological terms, superordination of the whites, and subordination of the Negroes. But again we must remember that many other factors enter the picture besides the geographical, such things as tradi- tional practices and attitudes. In this northern region there is a great gulf between the most prosperous group and the lowest economic class, be they white or black. In fact, the bottom economic layer of whites reaches to lower depths than the Negroes. The Negroes are coming up and they know it, and in general they make the best of their op- portunities. As a rule, they have flowers in their yards and they decorate their rooms with pictures, curtains, rugs, etc. The dregs of the whites are going down and, in fact, they have gone about as far as they can go. They have no pride and make no attempt to do anything but just live. The conditions under which these people live are almost unimaginable. Their homes are never seen except by a very few who make it a point to look out into the by- ways and hedges. Back out of sight or our smooth paved highways are the dilapidated shacks in which these poverty-stricken whites live. There is no use to describe them; just imagine the worst, and what you imagine will be better than the reality. Fishing villages have their own characteristic type of attitudes, but there is not too much uniformity in the patterns of the different fishing centers. For example, the practices and attitudes in a small community which is situated on a muddy beach where mullet fishing reigns differ greatly from those in such surroundings as at Miami Beach where fully-equipped boats take millionaire sports- men. out to catch sailfish and marlin. Here cultural factors, among them legal control in the form of sanitary laws, enter the picture. Some of the mullet fishermen spend most of their time right in their seine yards, and have make- RELATIONS OF PEOPLE TO EACH OTHER bY shift shacks in which they sleep. The interior of some of these shacks is filthy beyond comment; one can hardly believe that human beings would sleep under such begrimed and stinking covers. Yet the trucks in which these men haul their mullet are scrupulously clean, much cleaner than the cars or even the homes of most of our leading citizens. Here custom, tradition, and law all combine. They put up with the filthy couches since they are looked upon as just make-shift temporary waiting places and therefore do not count. It must be noted that many well to do and fastidious duck hunters will take a nap in just such quarters, even if they would be horrified at the idea of allowing bedrooms in their own houses to get into such a state. On the other hand, the law provides for food in- spectors to pass on the cleanliness of the fish trucks, and now the practice of keeping them clean has become a custom as well as obedience to law. As mean as the conditions are under which these fishermen live, their native intelligence is not necessarily low. The writer has become closely acquainted with some of these people and _ has come to respect and admire them. In their conversations some of the fishermen gave evidence of having as open minds, as ready conceptions, and as intelligent an understanding as our university colleagues. | As noted above, there are many local differences. In some lo- calities the Negroes are not allowed to do any commercial fishing and if they attempt it their boats and nets will be destroyed and they may suffer personal damage, while in other places the whites and Negroes work along side by side without friction. In parts of North Florida the population is very sparse and this is also true of other sections of the state, such as the scrub palmetto wastelands of South Florida, and, in fact, large tracts in almost any part of the state. As might be expected, in these thinly populated regions there is a general lack of social stimulus. The importance of such elbow rubbing is far greater than is generally supposed, and it should not surprise us if in the thinly populated regions of Florida we find a particularly impressive degree of cul- tural lag. It takes expression in their religion, their education, their recreation, and in every phase of their lives, including their crimes. In some of the little churches in these sparsely populated regions there may be found such things as a miniature trough filled with 6 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sawdust into which the devout worshipper may spit his tobacco juice. And on occasion, a member of the church choir will be followed by her faithful dog who will lie down by the choir box and behave admirably during the service. Whether or not such dog receives spiritual uplift from the music and the sermon is not definitely known. It is in such retarded communities that revivalism with its at- tendant phenomena of shouting, boistrous singing, and a torm of dancing are found. We would not find this type of religious ex- pression among the big property owners of West Palm Beach or in the chapel at Rollins College. Such wildly demonstrative church services are particularly common among the Negroes, not because they are Negroes, but because of the social and economic lives which they live. In fact, there is nothing in all Africa which is similar to this kind of religious service; it was typical among the European peasants and their American descendants at the time of our early colonial life, and it was from them that the Negroes received the pattern. Lily Mitchell, in her study of the religious sects of Worcester, Massachusetts, found that the lower the economic status of a people, the more vociferous were their religious demonstrations, but there are other factors besides the economic one. All people crave excitement and the opportunity to give expression to their emotions. It may be secured by attending a symphonic orchestra, a meeting of an Academy of Sciences, shouting one’s self hoarse at a football game or in many other ways. In the old West, the cow- boys knew no other way than by riding furiously through town, yelling Whoopee, and firing their pistols into the air. In Florida and in most of the South, the whites of the thinly populated re- gions and the Negroes generally have a choice between two out- lets—getting drunk and fighting or going to church and shouting— and frequently they do both. As the Negroes become more pros- perous and better educated and secure privileges of participating in athletics and other interesting activities their religious expres- sions become less spectacular, and the same is true of the under- privileged whites. Even the health of the people is affected greatly by the density of the population. There are Florida counties in which there has been no resident doctor for many years. As might be expected, in those counties there are many diseased tonsils, bad hearts, de- RELATIONS OF PEOPLE TO EACH OTHER i fective teeth, eyes, and ears, and many other forms of bodily ills. A physician who served on the examining board during the last war stated that he had not examined a single man from one of these counties who was free from all these ailments. Under these circumstances, it should not be surprising that the people have their own particular attitudes toward medical services. Among the colored people there is frequent resort to root doctors and con- jurers, the whites more frequently relying on as much calomel as can be piled up on a dime. It must be said, however, that such practices are nothing like as prevalent as they were a few years ago. Good roads, consolidated schools, radio programs, public health services, and other such present day innevations have done much to bring about changes in the attitudes and beliefs of the people. ; As noted above, even the types of crime differ according to the jocal conditions. Throughout the northern portion of the state, as far south as much corn is grown, moonshining is quite typical. During prohibition it became something of a big business and certain brands, or the products of certain bootleggers, became famous over a wide region. That greatest of all compliments, imi- tation, was practiced and many gallons were sold under the false name of the famous brand. On the other hand, some of these stills were, and occasionally still are, no more elaborate than a kerosene can attached to a few feet of gaspipe which is made to run through a wooden trough filled with water. This is hardly typical of the South Florida cities where anything but a boat load of smuggled Cuban liquor would be scorned. If, like Will Rogers, we are to believe what we read in the papers, some of these South Florida cities are the dwelling places, or at least the locale of operations of gamblers who carry on their business in size comparable to the national debt or the cost of war. Such things are not found in the more sparsely settled re- gions, but one may find there a lot of crap games and poker play- ing. Not only the presence of various forms of gambling, but the attitude toward them is significant. It should be remembered that the owner and proprietor of Bradley's Place, the former Monte Carlo of the East Coast was a devoutly religious man. The social enviroment in which he lived and from which he secured his beliefs and attitudes determined his convictions on this subject. 8 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES There are many things in the social behavior of Florida’s citizens which seemingly resulted from mere chance. There is no easily ascertainable reason why the most wealthy tourists and sun hunters should have preferred the East Coast and those more closely approximating the middle class should have gone to the West Coast. Just possibly the fact that the West Coast is slightly warmer may have had some slight influence, but it is highly probable that this fact was not known by either group. Similarly, it would be difficult to say why the excessively wealthy tended to flock to West Palm Beach, those with sporting blood to Miami, old people to St. Petersburg, retired scholars to Orlando, and the residents of Florida, itself, to take their vacations typically in Daytona Beach. Presumably there were reasons back of all these, but they were so obscure that in most cases to all appear- ances it was mere chance: Some surface explanations may be given; for example, Rollins College has had much to do with enticing the scholarly and artistic to Orlando, but that just pushes the questions back to why Rollins should have located near Or- lando and why it should have adopted this policy rather than Southern or Stetson. Whyever these original trends were started, they gained im- petus and have had far reaching effects. The yen for gambling and acting the playboy generally in the blood of the Miamians has resulted in race tracks. Jai Alai, million dollar golf courses, and certain other phenomena concerning which you are respect- fully referred to the Kefauver Committee. The West Coast has done fairly well in furnishing material for investigations, but not on such a resplendent scale. A large per cent of the St. Peters- burg residents, especially the winter residents, are retired trades- men and small business men and they are not interested in risking their carefully hoarded and hard earned savings on any horse. Therefore, as might be expected, St. Petersburg has the greatest shuffle-board court on earth. Likewise, the West Coast has tre- mendous trailer parks but lacks the staggering number of highly expensive hotels which are characteristic of the Miami area. In the matter of voting, the thinly populated regions are the most conservative, but at times they are puzzled as to how to express this conservatism. When Al Smith was a candidate for president, the question arose as to whether one should be con- servative by sticking to the good old Southern Democratic Party RELATIONS OF PEOPLE TO EACH OTHER 9 or stand up and protect the good old Protestant Church. Much the same type of choice was presented in the 1952 election, and some interesting decisions were made, but in ordinary cases it may be predicted fairly well how the different sections will vote. For example, in 1948 Dan McCarty was ahead on Wednesday morning, but even then it was realized by many that when the returns came in from the little, isolated precincts in West Florida, Fuller Warren would go ahead. It is well known that each part of the country has its typical crimes. In the northeast, embezzlement is typical, in the west it is bank robbery, and in the South it is murder or manslaughter. While homocide is common in the South generally, it was Jack- sonville which for some years led the world in its murder rate, with Tampa a fairly close second. It is said that Jacksonville lost its preeminence because when a man killed his wife and committed suicide or vice versa, Jacksonville reported the suicide only and assumed that the murder did not count. The great wealth of West Palm Beach is accompanied by cer- tain practices and attitudes suggestive of Bar Harbor. For ex- ample, while the bathing costume on most of the Florida beaches was only slightly more elaborate than that of the Australian aborigines, none of that was allowed at West Palm Beach until relatively recently. The bathing beauties there even had to wear stockings. It was in West Palm Beach that one lady had an ex- pensive pipe organ installed, and soon a second lady placed an order with the organ builder and said, “Now I do not know any- thing about pipe organs; all I want is for you to put in one which will cost more than the other lady's.” This attitude grew in the social soil of that locality. One cannot fail to see the effects of the different types of culture in anything which happens. At our last gubernatorial inaugura- tion, Miami put on the most scintillating show of all. Their highly trained motorcycle police, their floats, and their other features surpassed everything else. By contrast, Jacksonville’s participation was not overly impressive. All this was just a part of the general picture. Miami is not an industrial city; it lives by furnishing entertainment. We may say that all it has to sell is a big show. But Jacksonville is commercial and industrial and pays relatively little attention to excessive exhibitionism. 10 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Let us turn from Florida momentarily and look to Colorado. Some decades ago Creede was a little town in the midst of ex- quisite scenery, but it had not been exploited as a tourist center and very few people went there. It had extensive mining activity and got its living that way. The people were friendly and hos- pitable to a remarkable degree. By contrast, Palmer Lake lived off of tourists and there had developed the practice of gouging them whenever possible. It even cost a quarter to get a traveller's check cashed. It must be acknowledged sadly that Florida gen- erally and parts of it especially have been going headlong in the Palmer Lake direction of late and apparently the trend will continue. It would take many pages and many hours to search out and give the explanations of why St. Augustine’s road signs say “bends” rather than “curves’, why and what the Latin influence is in Tampa, similarly the significance of the Greek colony at Tarpon Springs, the Czech colony at Masaryktown, the influence of the Ringling Circus and Art Gallery at Sarasota, the characteristic social phenomena of celery raising at Sanford, potato raising at Hastings, the cattle industry at Kissimmee, and the many other specialized activities of Florida’s people. They may all be reduced to the universal human desires for security, new experience, recognition, and response, as condi- tioned by physical environment, biological factors, population density and diversity, culture, and social control, and taking ex- pression in the social processes of competition, cooperation, ad- iustment, and other phases of interaction—the influences which one Or more persons may exert on one or more others. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(1), 1954. CRIME AND SOCIAL RESEARCH CLypE B. VEDDER University of Florida Although crime is one of the most widely recognized social problems of our time, the efforts of social research in this area are almost entirely without significance. A defensible subtitle of this paper could well be “The Futility of Social Research in the Area of Crime.” A widely accepted definition of crime relates to a violation of a law. The more laws, the more chances of law violation. Any analysis of crime should begin with some consideration of juris- prudence, violation of which produces crime. Legislature, who represent the public, pass too many laws, many of them punitive, many passed in an emotional frenzy. Since 1900, more than 400,000 new laws have been added. There are more than one billion laws on our statute books. We have more laws than people, about six for every man, woman, and child, and our laws are increasing faster than our birth rate. In 1931, 76 per cent of the inmates of Federal Prisons would not have been incarcerated had they committed their crime but fifteen years sooner. (Barnes and Meeters, 1951, p. 77). Lawmakers are not necessarily well informed, even in the law. One legislator stood up and said, “for this crime of arson, either hang him or make him marry the girl,’ and in 1950 a state at- torney general ruled that “anyone who commits statutory rape in a parked automobile should have his driver’s license revoked.” (Time, 1950). The New York legislature once passed a bill, fortu- nately vetoed, that required barbers to be licensed, which would bar ex-convicts from this trade, despite the fact that convicts were taught the barbering trade in New York prisons. To appreciate why the fruits of social research are largely ig- nored, a general understanding of present-day attitudes of the public toward penal problems is essential. In the beginning society's attitude towards crime was such that it was considered an affront to the gods. After the rise of the State, crime was regarded as a violation and a challenge to law 12 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and order. Combination of legalistic and religious attitudes per- sist to the present day and many still think of the criminal as not only a law violator, but a sinner as well. As Cuber and Harper (1951, p. 1) point out, in many “problem” aspects of everyday life, we follow the dictates of expert rather than public opinion. If the physician diagnoses the patient's “problem” as diabetes the patient accepts this “expert opinion” without insisting on a public-opinion poll in regard to the matter. In the trouble areas of our society generally labeled “social problems” of which crime is one, we have no such popularly approved experts. For problems relating to race relations, juve- nile delinquency, and crime, who are to be regarded as “experts” with public recognition comparable to the acceptance that is accorded physicians, engineers, physicists, and chemists? “Expert opinion” rests ultimately upon public acceptance of the “expert.” And society fails fully and consistently to accept “experts” on so- cietal phenomena. Society simply does not hear our voices in regard to crime or the treatment of criminals. There is considerable justification for lack of public acceptance. Social scientists are not in complete agreement and as they com- municate with one another use an intellectual jargon which the public does not understand. Such contributors seem more in- terested in impressing each other than in making information meaningful to all. As a result of this stricture in the communica- tive processes, society utilizes about ten per cent of our sociologi- cal knowledge. It is little wonder that social scientists some- times get discouraged over the slowness of the public to accept their findings, but some progress is being made in the field of mental illness and its treatment. (Woodward, 1951, p. 448). There is a continual stream of misinformation stemming from the radio, press, television, and the motion pictures. Much public though is in terms of stereotypes which are continually reinforced by newspaper cartoons and movies. For example, the public has: uncritically accepted Lombroso’s earlier conception of the crimi- nal type with the receding forehead, prognathous jaw, dangling arms below the knees and possessing low sensitivity to pain. Many believe that unusual physical characteristics mark the socially variant individual. Do not movies and the theater put before our eyes individuals who are at first glance recognizable as villains? CRIME AND SOCIAL RESEARCH 13 Contrariwise, the public believes a “good” appearance suggests innocence. Blue eyes, mild manners, a clear complexion, and sun tan tend to remove suspicion. Women, more than men, appear before the jury in the deceptive attire of innocence. Motion pictures probably deserve the greatest criticisms in furthering these fallacies of human behavior. The American Prison Association is on record in a protest against much of the content of the movie “Caged” as well as an article appearing in Collier's on the same subject. (Cass, 1950, p. 24). The picture, “Highway 301” comes under similar indictment. Ostensibly recommended by governors of three states, in addition to the F.B.I., at least by strong implication, this movie purports to establish the thesis that there is such a thing as the “congeni- tal criminal.” The public is apt to accept this fallacy despite the fact that no one is born a criminal. Crime is social, not biological, hence cannot be hereditary. A criminal does not produce “tainted” offspring. If crime is a matter of “bad blood” we had _ better prepare for a real crime wave when our Service men return. In- mates of prisons have contributed more than their share to national blood banks. After writing four letters to the studio responsible tor “High- way 301, peristence “paid off” and the writer was referred to the technical director who was asked for some authority, any authority, for the term “congenital criminal.” The following letter was received: “In answer to your letter of October 29, 1951, we used the term “congenital criminal” in our picture “Highway 301” to denote the type of individual who has criminal tendencies from the time of birth. Practically all the criminals involved in the Tri-State Gang started their criminal careers at the ages of six and seven. This was not due to environmental ‘conditions, inasmuch as_ their brothers and sisters became law-abiding citizens. These tend- encies were due to a congenital, inborn mental condition. These men were beyond reformation or reasoning. Some people are born with a natural instinct for sexual per- version . . . while others have a congenitally criminal mind which governs their vicious lives. Sincerely yours,” This letter is completely devoid of documentation, despite the fact that documentation was requested. Another follow-up letter 14 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES was mailed, with self-addressed, stamped return envelope en- closed, but nothing more has been heard. Social scientists may reach 10,000 students with established scientific fact, but the motion picture may easily reach ten million individuals, including some of the students. Until some control or censorship based on scientific truth is utilized, the public will continue to think of criminals as “sneaky, hand-in-pocket petty thieves, glassy-eyed sex degenerates, fast-talking oily individuals, or the side-mouth talking, black-jack toting hoodlum, who would just as soon knock his grandmother in the head as he would to take a pull on the bottle sticking out of his back pocket.” And worst of all, the public is informed that he is “born that way.” Newspapers have promoted crime by constant advertising of crime, by glorifying criminal leaders and acting as press agents for them, by the jocular method of presenting crime news which takes away the dignity of the court proceedings. A reporter applied the name “Purple Gang” to a relatively unimportant group in Detroit and those gangsters were built up by the label into crimi- nal giants. (Sutherland, 1947, p. 184). Due to the apathy of the press, the people of the United States know more about living conditions behind the Iron Curtain than they do of the 200,000 inmates behind prison walls. Despite the fact that the disciplines of Psychology, Psychiatry, and Sociology in every university stress that emphasis must be placed on the individual, rather than on the crime committed, a leading newspaper in one of Florida's largest cities a few weeks ago editorialized: “COURTS ARE TOO MERCIFUL: LET THE PUNISHMENT FIT THE CRIME!” which is just about the way Beccaria phrased it in 1775. Is it any wonder that the public accepts only ten per cent of our socio- logical knowledge on crime and juvenile delinquency? Although research in the social sciences indicates an extension of parole and probation, and abolition of capital punishment, most of the press and the public are against the former and in favor of the latter, despite all evidence to the contrary. There is great public indifference and ignorance to all rehabili- tative efforts plus the fear that such plans might cost too much. The public still has its twin convictions that crime must be pun- ished and criminal behavior must repeat itself, since criminals are born bad. Unfortunately, jealousies, pride, “ethnocentrism” CRIME AND SOCIAL RESEARCH 15 prevent the educators, psychiartists, psychologists, and sociologists from pooling their knowledge in an honest effort to make crime prevention and rehabilitation a real and living thing. There has been little or no reform in American jurisprudence the past 100 years. Courts produce injustice as well as justice, are not business-like, utilize little scientific knowledge, and have operated as closed desciplines since Beccaria’s time. In 1909, Taft said, “the administration of criminal law is a disgrace to our civilization.” (Sutherland, 1947, p. 277). Our courts still use medieval devices. Only this spring, a Charleston, South Carolina defendant was brought into court and ordered to balance a Bible between her fingertips and that of her jailor’s. Then the judge intoned these words: “By Saint Peter, by Saint Paul By the grace of God who made us all, If this woman took the money, Let the Bible fall.” The Bible wavered and fell and the defendant contessed, re- vealed the missing $200 in her house, and was hustled off to jail. (Time, 1951). This lack of “scientific approach” was further exemplified by a prosecuting attorney of St. Louis in the fall of 1950. He offered two Negroes a two year sentence if they would plead guilty to robbing another Negro of $79, but when they pleaded innocent, he man- aged to convict them and got them a twenty vear sentence for fighting the case, and this heavier sentence was affirmed by the Missouri Supreme Court. As James Finan (1951) from the Edi- torial Staff of Reader’s Digest, said in his address to the American Prison Association of that year, “when you ladies and gentlemen can explain that to yourselves, perhaps you can explain it to me.” Serology, the science of blood testing, is not accepted by many courts. The California case of Arias v. Kalensnikoff (1937), in which the defendant was found guilty, although exonerated by the test, and despite evidence that (1) the mother was twice married, (2) she named another man on certificate first, (3) the accused was over 70 years of age and said by his wife to have been impotent for many years. But the jury took the mother's word, and ignored the scientific evidence, and another jury did the same in the case of Charlie Chaplin. 16 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The conflicting view of modern science and legal procedure was again illustrated according to the Christian Men’s League in Pennsylvania. Despite the medical view that alcoholism is a dis- ease, the Pennsylvania court decided that alcoholism is a self- inflicted injury and delivered itself of the following fallacy: “Man drinks because he desires, intends, and wills to experience the effect. If the sane man chooses to use the destructive forces upon himself, the law will not relieve him from his folly.” (Spectator, 1951). Such decisions, for the most part go unchallenged by both the physical and social sciences. Suggestions are in order. What is needed is official agitation for a change, and we can commence by scrapping Beccaria’s penal philosophy of the 18th century and concentrate upon the “doer” instead of the “deed.” Attempts should be made to educate the public through an en- lightened press, because most people only know “what they read in the papers.” Distinctions between misdemeanors and felonies should be abolished, as well as thousands of silly, senseless and stupid laws as failure to attend church for three successive times is a capital offense in one state. Incentives should be provided ex-convicts by a definite plan of “social forgiveness” such as the elimination of criminal records after a ten year successful adjustment. Those who are interested in the control of crime can find more justifica- tion for approaching their problem in the local community than on a national scale. We should place a ceiling on maximum sentences, similar to Mexicos 30 year limit, abolish capital pun- ishment in states without large racial minorities, and provide legal assistance to all accused of crime. At the moment, 90 per cent of those incarcerated forfeit their constitutional right to a trial and “cop out” to a lesser charge. One of the most vital needs of the times is a Bureau of Statistics and Research. In the 1951 Annual Meeting of the Mississippi Association on Crime and Delinquency, that organization made this startling challenge: “The Mississippi Association on Crime and Delinquency will give $50 in cash to any person at this meeting who can tell how many adult misdemeanor and felony prisoners passed through our county and circuit courts last year. And $100 will go to the CRIME AND SOCIAL RESEARCH 7 person who can give the number of adults offenders handled by our municipal and justices of the peace courts last year.” Needless to say, there were no takers. There is no way at present of knowing even the number of arrests and convictions in any state, or in the nation as a whole, much less the character- istics of the offenders, nature of that offense, or their distribution within state or nation. There should be enacted an absolute Indeterminate Sentence Law. Progressive penology calls for such enactment. All crimi- nals should have sentences from 0 to Life and be committed to a Correction Authority that decides upon the nature and length of treatment, after a careful examination and periodic re-exami- nation. Abandon the arbitrary, flat sentences, for under the flat sentence, some men are kept too long, others not long enough. This irra- tional procedure creates more crime, increases cost of crime in apprehending, trying, and rehandling law violators. Stop build- ing maximum-security prisons; only 20 per cent need them. Dr. Schnur of the University of Mississippi recommends more emphasis on State Police, record and finger-print all violators, in- cluding juveniles who are most likely to be professional criminals. State Jail Inspection Service is needed, also State Misdemeanant Farms set up. Every prison needs a reception center as well as a classification program. And finally, some State exchange of pris- oners, even consideration of a regional prison, where specialized programs are indicated. New England states are in the lead in this area, just as states are now contemplating the establishment of regional universities. it is admitted that the above suggestions merely “scratch the surface’ as regards solving the crime problem, but at least a much- needed start would be made. The voices of our social sciences have been silent long enough. ’ REFERENCES BARNES, HARRY E., and NEGLEY K. TEETERS 1951. New Horizons in Criminology. Prentice-Hall. New York. CASS, E. BR. 1950. Letters. Prison World, (July-Aug.): 24. 18 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CUBER, JOHN F., and ROBERT A. HARPER 1948. Problems of American Society. Henry Holt & Company, New York. FINAN, JAMES 1951. There is No Prison Problem. Federal Probation, (Mar.): 18. SOUTHERN MICHIGAN STATE PRISON 1951. The Spectator, (Jan. 20). SUTHERLAND, E. H. 1947. Principles of Criminology. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. TIME, INC. 1950. Time, (Dec. .4): 27. 1951, “Lime, (Mar. 5): 24. WOODWARD, JULIAN C. 1951. Changing Ideas on Mental Illiness and Its Treatment. American Sociological Review, (Aug.): 448. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(1), 1954. The papers presented at the Social Sciences Session of the Academy at Rollins College in 1953 have been published as a Symposium Number of The Florida Anthropologist (Vol. VI, No. 4) on the subject: “Development of High Civilizations in Hot Climates”. Copies may be secured from Ripley P. Bullen, Treasurer, Florida Anthropological Society, 103 Seagle Building, Gainesville, Florida. SOME METHODS FOR THE TREATMENT OF PROBLEMS IN DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY Howarp D. ALLEN Lakeland, Florida Table I lists some of the characteristics of a series of geometrical figures possessing consecutively greater and greater dimensions. Starting, with a dimensionless point, it includes, in order, a line segment of length a, a square of sides a, a cube of sides a and a four-dimensional counterpart of a cube, having sides of length a. The method used in drawing the different axes of a set of four- dimensional coordinates is shown in figure 1. Consider first the origin 0. This is a point the sole characteristic of which is position. It is also the first of the series of figures listed in Table I. TABLE I Characteristics of Figures in Increasing Number of Dimensions. (Column 5 Lists Both Space and Non-Space Characteristics). | | Four- | | Dimen- Figure Pome Mine ss square | — Cube sional | | | | Figure | | Number of dimensions 0 1 2 3 4 Terminal points 1 2 4 8 16 Line segments 0 1 4 Jey, 32 [PACES "2. cks eae ae 0 | @) I 6 24 Cubes eee 0 0 0 1 8 Mutua!ly-perpen- dicular segments 0 | 1 2 8 4 The second figure is a line segment of length a. It is the locus traced by a point moving the distance a along the x-axis from the origin. Table I shows the line segment as having one dimension, no faces, no cubes and as having two terminal points each of which is located on the same edge. 20 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The next figure, the square, is the area locus generated by the movement of the previous line-segment, oa, through the distance a along the y-axis from the origin in the xy plane. From the table we learn that it has two dimensions, four terminal points, four edges, one face, no cubes and that it has two perpendicular lines connected at each terminal point. In the tracing of the square trom the generatrix (line segment) there is a line segment in the locus for the initial and final posi- tions of the generatrix and an additional line segment traced by each moving terminal point—four line segments in all. pS | Seg ee ree PS Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 1. One method of combining non-space (u) with space coordinates. Figs. 2-3. Successive steps in the construction of space non-space figure. 2, line OA (generatrix point O), square OABC (generatrix line OA), cube OABCGDEF (generatrix square OABC); 8, space and non-space perspec- tive figure traced by generative cube OABCGDEF moving along u-axis. Fig. 4. Resolution by projection of x-component of circumferential distances. TREATMENT OF PROBLEMS IN DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 21 Illustrated in figure 2 is the cube OABCGDEF the generatrix of which is OABC, the square section of the xy plane. At each position along its path from the origin through the distance a along the z-axis the generatrix remains coincident with or parallel to the xy plane. This figure has three dimensions, eight terminal points, and six faces (the initial face, the final face and one face generated by the movement of each line segment). It has twelve line segments, four initial, four final, and one generated by the movement of each terminal point. There are three mutually perpendicular lines joined at each terminal point. Appearing for the first time is the cube of which there is one. If the cube is moved as generatrix for the distance a along the u-axis from the origin, the locus is the four-dimensional member of the series of figures in Table I. Besides the terminal points, line segments, faces and cubes of the initial and final positions of the generatrix cube, there is an additional line segment traced by each moving terminal point, a face traced by each moving line segment and a cube traced by each moving face. The figure (illustrated in figure 3) possess four dimensions, six- teen terminal points, thirty-two line segments, a total of twenty- four faces, eight cubes, and four mutually perpendicular lines joined at each terminal point. This is, of course, not possible in three dimensions but requires a fourth, which we can scarcely perceive. It is to be noted that the line segment is bounded by two points, the square by four line segments, the cube by six squares and the four-dimensional figure by eight cubes. The proof of the theorem, if it were persented as a theorem, would be in the form of geometrical induction, i.e., if so and so is true for such and such a value of n and for the next greater value of n and for the next, then it must also be true for the next greater value of n, et cetera, (n in this case being the number of coordi- nates required for the construction of the figure). Continua and Projections. Continua of the form 22 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES furnish another means of examining figure series in dimensional geometry through the examination of their geometrical forms so far as is possible. Of especial interest are the projections of this series of figures on a point, line segment, plane, or volume as the case may be. Intercepts, too, are of value because they lend themselves readily to algebraic proof merely by setting the proper variable equal to zero. Starting with the pair of isolated points x2 == 7? (1) and constructing the figure, it is seen that the first of this series is discontinuous. More exactly it may said to be continuous through n dimensions where n is the number of dimensions of the figure—in this case zero. II represents the intercepts of the circle Meats By eae ae (IIT) on the x-axis. III is a continuum of one dimension. Its semi-projection on the x-axis (Fig. 4) is a line segment. Points pi, ps, ps, . . . spaced evenly along the semi-circumference, when projected on the diameter, AB, display an harmonic relationship in their distances from the origin. Distances between any two adjacent projected points are foreshortened along the x-axis in both directions away from the origin. Because only the x component of the distances between adjacent points shows up on the projection, the points on the projection appear to be concentrated towards the right and leit extremities of the diameter. The circle, III, is the intercept of the quadric surface et y2 + 72 = 7 (IV) on the xy-plane. Strictly speaking the equation immediately above does not repre- sent a two-dimensional figure. It is a continuum and motion in a very small section of the curvo-planar surface is practically limited to two dimensions. Its projection on the xy-plane is the area in- closed within the circle x2 Ly? == y2, Points evenly distributed over one-half of the quadric surface (IV) show the same relationship as to distance between adjacent TREATMENT OF PROBLEMS IN DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY = 23 points and crowding toward the periphery as do those of the semi- circle, when projected on the disc section of the xy-plane. The chief difference is that one more dimension is involved and, in this second case, foreshortening and crowding away from the origin are in all directions in the xy-plane. All of this suggests that the equation et yt 24+ w= PP (V) is that of a three-dimensioned continuum whose u-intercept is the quadric spherical surface (IV) and that evenly spaced points throughout the continuum, would, when projected on the volume inclosed within the u-intercept, display the same harmonic fore- shortening and crowding but in all directions in three dimensions away from the origin. Enough of the series of figures is known to permit verification, extension and proof through geometrical induction, although it is not possible to extend this proof by ordinary known means. One conclusion is that the entire visible universe, so far as it is known, looks something like this hypothetical projection of a three-dimensional continuum on ordinary space. Circumfer- ential distances should be unaffected in the projection. This is apparently true in the universe. Radial distances should be foreshortened (as in perspective) away from the origin. The only radial distances measurable beyond the range of ordinary trangulation are those between successive wave fronts of radially incident light. The radial distances between these wave fronts appear foreshortened in the manner of perspective away from the observer. Great crowding of galaxies toward the visible periphery of ordinary space is another phenomenon which occurs in the uni- verse. The hypothetical projection of a three-dimensional con- tinuum calls for this crowding, toward the u-intercept, of points or bodies distributed more or less homogeneously throughout. One great objection to the similarity seems over-ruled when we consider the source of light near at hand as being on the periphery of another projection perpendicular to the plane of observation along the u-axis. To explain this more clearly it is necessary to cite the projection of a quadric surface on a diametrical plane. If, from our point of observation, this quadric surface is entirely 24 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a plane projection and we wish to consider the right or left or top or bottom hemispheres we must look upon them as discs viewed edgewise. ‘True distances measured on the quadric sur- face would, in the case of the projection of any of the above hemispheres, appear less near at hand (the periphery of the disc) and forelengthened toward its center. This phenomenon would be the result of trying to picture the quadric surface as a truly two-dimensioned figure. Extending this one more dimension, if the three-dimensional continuum is viewed as purely three-dimensional—not curved through a fourth—both the source and the destination of the moving yardstick must be considered if any comparison of relative distances is to be made. LITERATURE CITED BRINK, RAYMOND W. 1937. A First Year of College Mathematics. D. Appleton-Century Co. New York. pp. 573-580. HAUSMANN, ERICH, and SLACK, EDGAR P. 1948. Physics. D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. Toronto. pp. 23-33, pp. 101-170. SMITH, EDWARD S., SALKOVER, MEYER, and JUSTICE, HOWARD K. 1938. Calculus. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. pp. 169-171, pp. Ibe aos Aisne Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(1), 1954. THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA * C. S. NIELSEN Florida State University Species of the Oscillatoriaceae may be divided into two groups. One of these is distinguished by the development of from two to many trichomes within the sheath, and the formation of colored sheaths in many species. In the other only one trichome is present in a sheath and a yellow to dark sheath may rarely be produced, but never red nor blue. Of these latter, three genera, character- ized by the absence of a visible sheath, Oscillatoria, Spirulina, and Arthrospira, have been treated in a previous paper (Nielsen, 1954); the remaining will be discussed in a subsequent consideration. Five of the six genera of the multitrichomate forms as listed by Gomont (1892) are represented in the Florida flora, Dasygloea excepted. The collections include those of J. Donnell Smith in the years 1878-1880 in the Gainesville area which are described in the papers of Rev. Francis Wolle. The specimens in the Wolle herbarium have been reexamined by Drouet (1939). These re- determinations of the Florida specimens as originally reported by Wolle (1887) and Tilden (1910) are cited. The invaluable assist- ance of Dr. Francis Drouet of the Chicago Natural History Museum for the determination of all specimens cited is most gratefully ~ acknowledged. The following abbreviations are used to designate the location of these collections: C, cryptogamic herbarium of the Chicago Natural History Museum; D, personal herbarium of Francis Drouet; F, herbarium of the Florida State University; H, Farlowe herbarium, Harvard University; N, United States National Her- barium, Washington, D. C.; N. Y., Herbarium of New York Bo- tanical Garden; P, University of Pennsylvania herbarium; and U, herbarium of the University of Florida. KEY TO GENERA Section I.—Trichomes never exceedingly numerous in sheath, more or less loosely aggregated. Sheaths colored in many species. * Contribution number 61, Botonical Laboratory, Florida State University. 26 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Sheaths firm, lamellose, hyaline or colored. Many tri- chomes within sheath; cells never very short, apex of trichome never capitate. 1. Schizothrix AA Sheaths firm, lamellose, purple or peach-colored. Tri- chomes 1-few within sheath. Apex of trichome never capitate. 2. Porphyrosiphon AAA Sheaths more or less mucous, occasionally becoming diffuent with age, always hyaline. Many trichomes within sheath; cells never longer than wide, in several species exceedingly short; apex of trichome capitate. 3. Hydrocoleum Section Il.—Numerous trichomes in the filaments developing with- in sheath, closely congested. Sheaths always hyaline, never lamellose. A Filaments caespitose, dichotomously branched. Sheaths firm or hardly diffluent. 4. Sirocoleum AA Filaments repent, here and there branching or simple. Sheaths more or less mucous, often diffluent. 5. Microcoleus 1. Schizothrix Kiitzing ex Gomont. Filaments forming a definite cushion, often calcium-encrusted, or in erect, prostrate or waving fascicles, or entwined in a pan- nose stratum, often trunk-like below, above spreading, rarely sparingly pseudo-branched and simple. Sheath hyaline, or be- coming dark yellow or red or purple or blue, firm, lamellose, acuminate apices, and turning blue with chlor-zine-iodine in nearly all species. Trichomes few within sheath, more or less loosely aggregrated; cell length often longer than trichome diam- eter, never shorter by much; apex of trichome straight, usually attenuate, never capitate. Membrane of apical cell not thickened above. Subgenus I. Inactis. Filaments caespitose, often with repeated pseudo-branches, forming pulvinate finally often lime-encrusted concrescences, or penicillate waving fascicles. Sheaths hyaline or scarcely colored. THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 27 A. Filaments pulvinate caespitose. 1. Filaments bare at base, above falsely branched. Tri- chomes 2-3 » wide; cells shorter than diameter. 1. S. vaginata 2. Filaments densely intricate and tortuous below, more or less free above. Trichomes 1.5-3.0 u wide; cells up to three times longer than diameter. 2. S. aikenensis B. Filaments penicillate, in waving fascicles. Trichomes toru- lose, 5-11 » wide. 3. S. rivularis Subgenus II. Hypheothrix. Filaments prostrate, often sparingly pseudo-branched, closely intricate in a stratum sometimes calcium-encrusted. Sheaths hya- line. A. Filaments exceedingly contorted, scarcely flexuous, not ex- tricated without rupturing. Stratum thin, leathery-mem- branaceous, never lime-encrusted. Sheaths firm. Trichomes within sheath in pairs or solitary, 1-1.7 » wide. A. S. calcicola B. Filaments long and flexuous, extricated without rupturing. 1. Filaments most delicate, exceedingly elongate, scarcely branched. a. Stratum lime-encrusted. Trichomes 1-1.7 » wide; cells longer than diameter. 5. S. coriacea b. Stratum not lime-encrusted. Trichomes 1.5-2 » wide: cells longer than diameter. 6. S. lardacea 2. Filaments moderately elongate, not delicate, branched. a. Trichomes 1.5-3 » wide; cells longer than diameter, up to 5 » long. 7. S. arenaria b. Trichomes 1.7-2 » wide; cells longer than diameter, §-12.5 » long. Not lime-encrusted. 8. S. longiarticulata Subgenus III. Symplocastrum. Filaments prostrate at base, closely joined above into erect symplocoid fascicles. Sheaths hyaline. 28 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A. Rigid, erect, spine-like fascicles, 3 cm. or more in height. Trichomes 3-6 » wide, 4-11 » long. Protoplasm coarsely granular. | 9. S. Friesii Filaments prostrate to somewhat, erect, and at times slightly fasciculate. Trichomes 3.3-3.6 » wide, length 2-2% times width. Protoplasm homogeneous to finely granular. 10. S. mellea Filaments long, erect, intricate below, often in shert con- torted erect fascicles above. Trichomes 4-6 » wide; cells quadrate or shorter than wide. Apical cell with depressed conical calyptra. 11. S. Stricklandii Subgenus IV. Chromosiphon. Filaments forming erect or prostrate symplocoid fascicles, or a pannose stratum, rarely free-floating. Sheaths always developing color with age. A. Cells subquadrate, or shorter than diameter. 1. Sheaths blue toward inside. Trichomes 7.5-8.5 u wide. 12. S. chalybea 2. Stratum, caespitose or appressed, semiorbicular. Sheaths reddish. Trichomes may be solitary within sheath, 4-9 p wide. Apical cell scarcely attenuate, rotund. 13. S. thelephorcides 3. Stratum indefinite. Sheaths purple-gold or peach-color. Trichomes numerous within sheath, 6-8 » wide. Apical cell conical, often acute. 14. S. purpurascens 4. Stratum never caespitese. Sheaths yellowish-gold. Tri- chomes scarcely constricted at cross-walls, 7-13 « wide; cells subquadrate to twice as short as diameter. 15. S. Muelieri Stratum black, cartilaginous. Sheaths dark blue. Tri- chomes contricted at cross-walls, 4-7 » wide. Apical cell at first shortly conical, with age becoming longer and most acutely conical. 16. S. Taylorii OU Cells longer than wide. 1. Filaments moderately elongate. Sheaths yellow-gold. Trichomes 3-4 » wide. Cells rarely subquadrate. 17. S. Lamyi THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 29 2. Filaments moderately elongate. Sheaths blue-green to blue, irregular at margins. Trichomes 1.7-3 » wide. 18. S. Heufleri 3. Filaments slender, tortuous. Sheaths rose to dark red, eroded. Trichomes 1-2.5 » wide. Apical cell rotund. 19. S. roseola 4. Filaments elongate. Sheaths internally pale to steel- blue, eroded at margins. Trichomes 2-4 » wide. Apical cell long and acute conical. 20. S. Guiseppe Filaments elongate. Sheaths dark violet, eroded at margins. Trichomes 2.0-2.5 » wide. Apical cell obtuse conical. 21. S. violacea UL 1. Schizethrix vaginata Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 302, pl. 7, f. 1-4 (1892). Stratum expanded, crusty-mamillose, calcium-encrusted, dark bluish- erey, fragile, or not hardened by lime, greenish-black, very hard in dried specimens. Filaments densely matted in specimens not lime-encrusted, forming a horny mass, erect, parallel or tortuous and intricate, simple bases, apices sparingly pseudo-branched. Sheaths wide, somewhat lamellose, apices acuminate, rarely ocreate, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Tri- chomes pale blue-green, few within sheath or solitary, not constricted at cross-walls, 2-3 « wide; cells often shorter than diameter of trichome, occa- _ sionally subquadrate, 1-2 uw long; cross-walls granular. Lee county: salt flats, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Meyers, Paul C. Standley 73208, 73257, 73274, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Wakulla county: salt flats, north of lighthouse, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen 10, 4 Oct. 1951 (C, F). The species may be found with Calothrix scopulorum B. & F. 2. Schizothrix aikenensis (Wolle ex Forti) Philson. Journ. E!i- sha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 55: 96 (1939). Stratum expansum, tenue, calce haud incrustatum, aeruginosum vel olivaceum vel fusco-griseum atrum. Fila inferne dense intricata tortuosa. superne plus minusve libera. Vaginae firmae, ambitu leviter erosae, hya- linae, chlorozincico iodurato non coerulescentes, trichomata pauca plerum- que solitaria includentes. Trichomata dilute aeruginea, 1,5 ad 3,0 mu crassa, ad genicula non valde constricta; articuli diametro ad triplo longiores, pro- toplasmate grosse granuloso farcti; cellula apicalis obtusa conica. Stratum expanded, thin, not calcium-encrusted, blue-green to olive to dark grayish black. Filaments densely intricate and tortuous below, more 30 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES or less free above. Sheaths firm, slightly eroded at margins, hyaline, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine reagent, with few trichomes enclosed, usually solitary. Trichomes pale blue-green, 1.5-3.0 « in diameter, not con- spicuously constricted at cross-walls; cells up to three times diameter, pro- toplasmic granules conspicuous; apical cell obtuse conical. South Carolina. Aiken, in sluggish pools, H. W. Ravenel 243, 1877 (C), type material of Hypheothrix aikenensis Wolle. Florida: Holmes county, bank soil of Choctawhatchee river, 3 miles north of Westville, H. R. Wilson, 4 Aug. 1952 (C, F). Wakulla county, Spillway dam, Phillips pool, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen é+ Madsen 518, 9 Oct. 1948 (C, F). The species has been reported for the state by Crowson (1950). 3. Schizothrix rivularis (Wolle) Drouet. Field Mus. Bot. Ser. 20 (6): 131 (1942). Caespitose, delictae gelatinous fascicles up to 10 cm. tall, above blue- green to violet, below and within discolored, hyaline sheath, above slender, below wide, often entirely diffuent, turning brilliant blue with chlor-zinc- iodine. Trichomes blue-green to rose, fragile, easily breaking, 5-11 wu wide, constricted at cross-walls apices attenuate and conical; cells subquadrate, more or less shorter or longer than diameter, cross-walls not granular, con- taining large refringent protoplasmic granules; apical cell long and obtuse conical. Wakulla county: Spillway dam, Phillips lake, St. Marks wildlife refuge, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 730, 5 Dec. 1948 (C, F); Madsen, Drouet & Crowson 810, 14 Jan. 1949 (C, F). The trichomes averaged 7.5 to 9 » in diameter, and were found with Hapalosiphon pumilus B. & F. Crowson (1950) reported the species for the state. 4. Schizothrix calcicola Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 307, pl. §, f. 1-3 (1892). Stratum never lime-encrusted, gelatinous, very hard upon drying, thin, papery-membranaceous, black or rarely yellowish blue-green. Filaments: short, very tortuously and densely intricate, not extricated without rupturing, rarely pseudo-branched. Sheaths firm, subcartilaginous. apices acuminate, at first firm, cylindrical with one trichome included, getting wider with age, sublamellose, eroded and irregular at margins, trichomes two or rarely more included, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes pale blue- green, not constricted at cross-walls, 1-1.7 « wide; cells longer than trichome diameter, usually 2-3 yu, occasionally up to 6 yw; cross-walls at times with two protoplasmic granules. THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 31 Citrus county: in pothole, Hernando, Brannon 44, 219, 10 Nov. 1940 (C); Dade county: base of avocado tree, 5 miles west of Goulds, C. R. Jackson 5, 15 July 1952 (C, F); Jackson county: Flor- ida Caverns State Park, Nielsen & Madsen 332, 31 Aug. 1948 (C, F); Leon county: moist limestone cliff, Apalachicola river at Jackson Bluff, Jackson, 9 Nov. 1950 (C, F); Wakulla county: spring, Phillips picnic grounds, Newport, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 173, 14 July 1948 (C, F); on rock in Theb’s pool, New- port, A. H. Johnston 75, 11 Nov. 1950 (C, F). The species was found with Calothrix parietina B. & F., Ana- cystis montana (Lightf.) Dr. & Daily, and Fischerella ambigua (B. & F.) Gom. It has been reported for the state by Nielsen & Madsen (1948 a) and Brannon (1952). 5. Schizothrix coriacea Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 309, pl. §, £. 6-7 (1892). Stratum lime-encrusted, broadly expanded up to % cm. wide, crusta- ceous-leathery, rugulose, greenish-red, pale rose, or brick-red, below dis- colored. Filaments very densely intricate, fragile, however, separating without rupturing, exceedingly elongate and flexuous, generally sparingly pseudo-branched. Sheaths cylindrical, firm, close, lightly eroded, long acuminate apices, never lamellose, turning very blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes pale blue-green, few within sheath, parallel, or solitary, 1-1.7 u wide, in dried specimens constricted at cross-walls, cells indistinct. Cells - generally much longer than trichome diameter, 3-6 uw long: cross-walls rarely granular; apical cell acute conical. Dade county: quarry, 16th Ave. & 79th St. N.W., Miami, Ruth Patrick, Jan. 1939 (C); floating on water in backwash of canal at eastern edge of cypress swamp on Tamiami trial, Ruth Patrick 3, 28 Dec. 1937 (D). Jackson county: on limestone walls, Florida Caverns State Park, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10874, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F). The species was found with Scytonema Hofmanii B. & F. and Plectonema nostocorum Gom. It has been reported for the state by Madsen & Nielsen (1950). 6. Schizothrix lardacea Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 311, pl. §, f. 8-9 (1892). Stratum expanded, not calcium-impregnated, up to 3 cm. wide, hard and elastic, composed of layers of more or less the same color, dark or olive-green to red. Filaments flexuous, exceedingly elongate, tortuous, not 32 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES or insignificantly branched, extricated without rupturing. Sheaths cylindri- cal, firm, apices contracted, even acuminate, at first firm and smooth, with age wider and rough, turning very blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes few within sheath, frequently solitary, parallel, pale blue-green, 1.5-2 4 wide, not constricted at cross-walls in living specimens, torulose when dried, cells longer than trichome diameter, on occasion subquadrate, usually 2-3 y, long; cross-walls generally characterized by two protoplasmic granules. Jackson county: on limestone, cave entrance, Florida Caverns State Park, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson i0400, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Wakulla county: on log, sulphur spring, 1 mile north of Newport, Drouet, Crowson & Thornton 11329, 25 Jan. i949 (C, F); on concrete, swimming pool, one-half mile north of Newport, Drouet, Madsen & Thornton 11349, 11370, 25 Jan. 1949 (GE): The alga was found with Fischerella ambigua (B. & F.) Gom., Gloeocystis Grevillei (Berk.) Dr. & Daily, and Scytonema figure- tum B. & F. The thalli of these specimens were from olive-green to violet. The species has been reported for the state by Madsen & Nielsen (1950). 7. Schizothrix arenaria Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 312, pl. 8, f. 1J-12 (1892). Stratum thin, fragile, blue-green, never calcium-encrusted. Filaments firm, exceedingly flexuous and closely intricate, trunk-shaped below, trunk simple, above divided and pseudo-branched, pseudo-branches exceedingly twisted and intricate. Sheaths firm, eroded at margins, apices acuminate, in lower part of filaments broad and lamellose, turning blue with chlor- zinc-iodine. Trichomes pale blue-green, few in lower portion of filaments, loosely aggregated, parallel, often solitary in pseudo-branches, 1.5-3 « wide, constricted at cross-walls (in dried specimens); cells longer than wide, to 5 u long; apical cell acute conical. Florida: Smith, Mar. 1878 (P). Drouet (1939) reported the species for Florida from the Wolle collection. Brannon (1952) reported it also from the state, but the Alachua county collections have been redetermined as Micro-- coleus paludosus Gom. and M. vaginatus Gom. 8. Schizothrix longiarticulata Gardner apud Geitl. Mem. N. Y. Bot-.Gard..7: 50, pl 40) &95, (1927). Filaments prostrate, 4.5-5.5 « in diameter, moderately regular and smooth along surface, may be branched toward the ends; 1-2 trichomes in sheath, THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 33 1.7-2 uw in diameter, not constricted at cross-walls; cells 8-12.5 « long, nox: granular; apical cell conical; sheath colorless, homogeneous. Lee county: on moist sand, region of Hendry creek, about J0 miles south of Fort Myers, Paul C. Standley 73206, 73485, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Monroe county: south shore of Big Pine key, M. Alice Cornman, 4 Mar. 1948 (C); barren soil, shore near Big Pine Inn, Big Pine key, M. Alice Cornman, 2 May 1943 (C); Saddle- bunch Keys, 5 miles east of Key West, Julian A. Steyermark 63211a, 1] Mar. 1946 (C); saline flats south of Big Pine Inn, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip & J. Francis McBride, Apr. 1951 (C); thallus deep green, marshy places, stunted buttonwood stand west of artificial lake, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip 41909, 9 Feb. 1952 (C); on dark grayish mud, near buttonwood section, toward North Pine bridge, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip 41939, 18 Feb. 1952 (C); on dry soil in de- pression in limestone, pine-palm woods, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip 41938, 18 Feb. 1952 (C); on dry gray soil, near buttonwood section toward North Pine bridge, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip 41940, 19 Feb. eee ot layerner, Lawrence B. Isham,2, 1 Oct. 1952 (C). Palm Beach county: on old cement walks by Royal Poinciana blvd., east of Flagler memorial bridge, Palm Beach Drouet & Louderback 10216, 24 Dec. 1948 (C). Santa Rosa county: de- pression in sand dune, Pensacola beach, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10573, 10587, 10596, 10598, 10609, 8 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Broward county: on barren ground beside the road be- tween Dania beach and Hollywood beach, Drouet & Louderback 10271, 28 Dec. 1948 (C); in barren spots of a road-embankment in the mangrove swamp south of South lake, Hollywood, Drouet 10286, 29 Dec. 1948 (C). The thallus of these specimens varied from gray to dark green; they were not found on limestone, but formed incrustations in barren spots on soil and sand. They were found with Lyngbya aestuarii Gom., Porphyrosiphon fuscus Gom., P. Notarisii Gom., Scytonema figuratum B. & F., S. crustaceum B. & F., S. ocellatim B. & F. and Schizothrix purpurascens Gom. The species was re- ported for the state by Madsen & Nielsen (1950). 9. Schizothrix Friesii Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 316, pl. 9, f. 12> (1892). Stratum indefinite, expanded, black or olive to steel-blue. Lower fila- ments tortuous and intricate, above erect, parallel, subdichotomously and 34 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES falsely branched at ends, forming spiny erect rigid fascicles 3 cms. or more high. Sheaths cylindrical, firm, acuminate apices, lamellose, smooth or a little eroded at margins, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes pale blue-green, few within sheath or solitary, parallel, conspicuously con- stricted at cross-walls, 3-6 « wide; cells quadrate or up to twice the width, 4-11 ,, long, all except apical cell filled with large protoplasmic granules; apical cell truncate-conical. Florida: Smith, Mar. 1878 (P). Jackson county: on barren red clay banks, U. S. highway no. 90, 5 miles east of Marianna, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10340, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Liberty county: Florida highway no. 20, swamp at Ochlockonee river, Nielsen & Kurz 875, 19 Feb. 1949 (C, F). Walton county: Florida highway no 81, 5 miles north of Redbay, Nielsen & Mad- sen 448, 3 Sept. 1948 (C, F). This species was reported for the state by Drouet (1939) and Nielsen & Madsen (1948b). 10. Schizothrix mellea Gardner. Mem. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 7: p. 53 (1927). Filaments prostrate to somewhat erect, and at times slightly fasciculate, 400-800 uw long, 8-15 , diameter, moderately and alternately branched; apices acuminate, closed; trichomes 1-3, or as many as 6, within a sheath, 3.8-3.6 « diameter, straight or arcuate, with filaments not congested, slightly constricted at cross-walls; cells 2-2.5 times as long as broad, homogeneous to finely granular, pale aeruginous to slightly honey-color; cross-walls thin. but conspicuous; apical cell blunt-conical; sheath homogeneous, hyaline, but soon changing to dense honey-color. Schizothrix mellea var minor Gardner. Mem. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 7: p. Oo) (1927): : Trichomes 2.2-2.4 mw in diameter. Collier county: on dry sand near Naples, Paul C. Standley 73382, 19 Mar. 1940 (C). Lee county: on wet sand, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Standley. 73534, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Washington county: stream bank, Falling Waters, 4 miles south of Chipley, C. R. Jackson, 14 Jan. 195i (Gy): The thalli of the specimens examined varied from black to dark gray. Zygogonium ericetorum (Roth.) Kitz. was found with sey- eral specimens. THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 35 ll. Schizothrix Stricklandii Drouet. Amer. Midl. Nat. 29: 51 (1943). Stratum expanded, pannose, from olive to green through black; fila- ments long erect robust, below intricate, above branching often in con- torted short erect fascicles; sheath hyaline at first slender, with age becoming wider and lamellose, eroded at margins, turning brilliant blue with chlor- zinc-iodine; trichomes blue-green to olive, 4-6 « wide, not or very slightly eontricted at cross-walls, apices not or very little attenuate; cells quadrate or shorter than diameter (never longer), cross-walls especially conspicuous, protoplasmic granular; apical cell short and truncate-conical, membrane thickened above and more or less depressed-conical. Alachua county: Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, Brannon 219, 4 Apr. 1944 (C, U); 261, 2 Aug. 1944 (C); 339, 5 June 1946 (C). Gadsden county: barren ground in upland woods, U. S. highway no. 90, 4 miles east of Quincy, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10424, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Jackson county: at wayside park, U. S. high- way no. 90, 1 mile west of Cottondale, Nielsen & Madsen 852, 19 Feb. 1949 (C, F). Marion county: Rainbow Springs near Dun- nellon, Brannon 376, 20 Oct. 1946 (C). Monroe county: on dry compact soil, along upper N-S road about % mile north of E-W road, E. P. Killip 41772, 17 Jan. 1952 (C). Wakulia county: bar- ren ground, St. Marks river bridge, Newport, Drouet, Madsen &© Crowson 10796, 10817, 13 Jan. 1949 (C, F). _ Plectonema Wollei Gom. and P. Nostocorum Gom. were fre- quently found with these specimens. The species has been re- ported for the state by Madsen & Nielsen (1950) and Brannon (1952). 12. Schizothrix chalybea Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 319, pl. 9, f. 3-5 (1892). Stratum indefinite, tomentose, pale blue-green to steel blue. Filaments undulate, moderately elongate, pseudo-branched, false branches dichoto- mous, appressed, joined loosely in erect fascicles two mm. high. Sheaths very wide, lamellose, layers discolored, internal pale steel blue, external hyaline, firm, cylindrical, smooth or a little eroded at the margins, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes dark green, few within sheath and parallel, or often solitary, conspicuously contricted at cross-walls, 7.5-8.5 u wide. Cells generally shorter than diameter of trichome, occasionally subequal, 3-8 yw long, all except apical cell filled with large protoplasmic granules. Apical cell up to 11 ,, long, obtuse to acute conical. Florida: Smith, Mar. 1878 (P). 36 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Scytonema crustaceum B. & F. was found with this specimen. Drouet (1937) states that this species appears usually to inhabit moist limestone. He (1939) has reported it for the state. 13. Schizothrix thelephoroides Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 319, pl. 10, f. 1-4 (1892). Stratum pannose, blackish-red, caespitose to appressed, semi-orbicular. Filaments dichotomously divided and pseudo-branched at appressed edges, forming fascicles one-half cm. high, apices acuminate, more or less spirally contorted. Sheaths, firm, very wide, lamellose, layers discolored, internal reddish, external hyaline, below acuminate apex most often dilated, slightly eroded at margins, transversely corrugate, turning blue with chlor-ziunc- iodine. Trichomes blue-green, many or solitary within sheath, occasionally two, parallel, separate, conspicuously constricted at cross-walls, 4-9 , wide: cells in lower portion of trichome consistently twice as long as wide, in upper portion subquadrate, 6-14 , long, filled with large protoplasmic granules; apical cell scarcely attenuate, rotund. Lee county: on sand, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south ot Fort Myers, Paul C. Standley 73430, 73451, 73465, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). 14. Schizothrix purpurascens Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 320, pl. Oars G-Onclso.): : Stratum indefinite, expanded, blackish-violet. Filaments somewhat elon- gated, more or less divided and pseudo-branched subdichotomously, in- tricate below, above parallel and forming tortuous creeping fascicles. Sheaths purplish-gold to rose, apices hyaline, firm, solid, very broad and lamellose, irregular and eroded at the margins, apices acuminate, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes pale blue-green, numerous within sheath, somewhat separate and parallel, generally constricted at cross-walls, 6-8 , wide; cell length equivalent to trichome diameter or to one-half width, usually 3-8 u long, all except apical cell filled with large protoplasmic granules; apical cell conical, often acute. Var. purpurascens (alpha). Sheaths purple-gold. Trichomes not con- stricted at cross-walls. Var. cruenta Gom. Sheaths purplish-rose or peach-color. Trichomes generally constricted at cross-walls. Florida: Smith, Mar. 1878 (C, P, N). Calhoun county: barren soil, state highway no. 20, 3 miles west of Blountstown, Drouez, Crowson & Livingston 10712, 10714, 10 Jan. 1949 (GC, F). Es- cambia county: depression in sand dunes, Gulf of Mexico, west of Gulf Beach, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10550, 8 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Gadsden county: barren soil of upland woods, U. S. THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 37 highway no. 90, 4 miles east of Quincy, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson, 10412, 10414, 10416, 10417, 10419, 10420, 10425, 10426, 10431, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F); Apalachicola river flood plain. U. 5. high- way no. 90 at Chattahoochee, Nielsen 1442, 9 July 1949 (C, F). Jack- son county: on barren red clay, U. S highway no. 90, 5 miles east of Marianna, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10334, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Leon county: clay bank near Ochlockonee river, U. 5. highway no. 90, west of Stephensville, Drouet, Crowson & James Petersen 10481, 10587, 6 Jan. 1949 (C, F); eroded clay bank, Meridian road between Lake Iamonia and Ochlockonee river, Drouet, Kurz & Nielsen 11262, 11268, 24 Jan. 1949 (C, F); barren ground, north-west shore of Lake Iamonia, Drouet, Kurz & Nie!- sen 11279, 11281, 24 Jan. 1949 (C, F); barren ground, open pine woods, Fla. state highway no. 61, 6 miles south of Tallahassee, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 11551, 11553, 11556, 27 Jan. 1949 (C, F); barren ground at Blue Sink, state highway no. 61, 8 miles south of Tallahassee, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Atwood 11582, 29 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Liberty county: limestone canyon walls, Aspalaga on Apalachicola river, Nielsen, Madsen & Crow- son 773, 12 Feb. 1949 (C, F). Santa Rosa county: depression in sand dunes, Pensacola beach, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates, 10572, 10574, 10575, 10576, 10589, 10596, 10609, 8 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Wakulla county: Spillway dam, Phillips pool, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 10840, 13 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Washington county: soil along U. S. highway no. 90 at Chipley, Nielsen & Madsen 444, 3 Sept. 1948 (F); Nielsen %& Madsen 861, 19 Feb. 1949 (C, F). The species has been reported for the state by Drouet (1939); he has redetermined the Smith specimen cited by Wolle as Phor- midium congestum Rabenh. S. purpurascens Gom. has also been reported by Nielsen & Madsen (1948b) and by Crowson (1959). The form is found commonly with other algae; some of these include: Cylindrospermum sp., Microcoleus paludosus Gom., M. rupicola (Tild.) Dr., Mougeotia sp., Plectonema Nostocorum Gom., Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gom., Schizothrix Lamyi Gom., S. longi- articulata Gard., Scytonema figuratum B. & F., S. Hofmanii B. & F., Stigonema panniforme B. & F. and Zygogonium ericetorum (Roth.) Kiitz. 38 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 15. Schizothrix Muelleri Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 321, pl. 10, f. 5-7 (1892). Filaments in an expanded, indefinite stratum, dark to blackish-greei:, intricate or forming fixed mossy decumbent fascicles, or free-floating, elongat« and somewhat flexuous, divided and pseudo-branched at the ends. Sheaths yellow-gold, firm or partially diffluent, irregular at margins, apices acumi- nate, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes blue-green, few within sheath, occasionally solitary, slightly constricted at cross-walls, 7-13 Lu wide; cells one-half trichome diameter or a little longer, usually 4-9 ,, filled with large protoplasmic granules; apical cell obtuse-conical. Liberty county: Deep Cut creek, Aspalaga, Apalachicola river, Madsen, Wagner & Pates 2052, 15 Apr. 1950 (F). 16. Schizothrix Taylorii Drouet. Amer. Midl. Nat. 30 (8): 673 (1943). Filaments among other algae or joined into a black cartilaginous stratum, growing straight, subrigid, subparallel, bases branched, sheath at first thin and hyaline, with age getting wider, dark blue and within black to steei- blue, lamellose, smooth at margins or eroded, turning blue with chlor-zinc- iodine; trichomes pale blue-green, 4-7 u wide, constricted at cross-walis, frequently torulose, apices attenuate and acuminate; cells quadrate or shorter or longer than diameter, protoplasm inconspicuously granular, cross-walls not granular; apical cell at first shortly conical, with age becoming longer and most acutely conical. Collier county: dry sand, Marco Island, Paul C. Standley 73399, 73401, 73410, 19 Mar. 1940 (C). Monroe county: south shore of Big Pine key, M. Alice Cornman, 4 Mar. 1948 (C); Saddlebunch key, 5 miles east of Key West, Julian A. Steyermark 63210 a, 11 Mar. 1946 (C); saline flats south of Big Pine Inn, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip & J. Francis McBride, Apr. 1951 (C); Cudjoe Key, Lawrence B. Isham 6, 1952 (C); greenish saline flats near Knight home, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip 41819, 24 Jan. 1952 (C€); Indian key, Lawrence B. Isham 15, 1 Oct. 1952 (C). The thalli of the specimens examined and cited above varied from grey to steel-blue, and were found with Microcoleus chtho- noplastes Gom., Porphyrosiphon fuscus Gom. and Schizothrix longiarticulata Gardn. The species differs from S. chalybea Gom. in the nature of the sheath, size of trichome and configuration of the apical cells. THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 39 i7. Schizothrix Lamyi Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 323, pl. 11, f. 1-3 (1892). Stratum compact, dark olive-green to green. Filaments moderately elongate, intricate, exceedingly tortuous and pseudo-branched, false branches more or less spread part. Sheaths yellow-gold, firm, very lamellose, irregul- lar at margins and often fimbricate, apices acuminate, turning blue with chlor-zine-iodine. Trichomes blue-green, few within sheath or solitary, parallel, slightly constricted at cross-walls, 3-4 « wide; cells generally longer than diameter of trichome, occasionally subquadrate often 4-8 ,, long, filled with large protoplasmic granules; apical cell truncate-conical. Alachua county: Swan Lake, Melrose, Brannon 351, 26 June 1946 (C). Calhoun county: barren ground in a high boggy prairie, state highway no. 20, 3 miles west of Blountstown, Drouet, Crowson & Livingston, 10710, 10712, 10713, 10714, 10715, 10723, 10 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Escambia county: fresh-water pool, dunes of Gulf beach, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10589, 10541, 10547, 8 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Holmes county: soil, 5 miles north of Westville, Choctawhatchee river, C. E. Rufh, 4 Aug. 1952 (C, F). Jefferson county: soil, Judge Hopkin’s camp, Lake Miccosukee, Nielsen & Crowson, 956, 11 Mar. 1949 (C, F). Lee county: on dry open sand, region of Hendrv creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Paul C. Standley 73208, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Leon county: eroded clay bank, Meridian road between Lake Iamonia and Ochlockonee river, Drouet, Kurz & Nielsen 11262, 11263, 11268, 24 Jan. 1949 (C. F). Liberty county: Florida highway no. 20, Ochlockonee river swamp, Nielsen <- Kurz 392, 19 Feb. 1949 (C, F); Rock Bluff, Apalachicola river valley, Nielsen & Kurz, 30 Oct. 1950 (F). Okaloosa county: stream beside U. S. high- way no. 98, east of Fort Walton, H. Tiffany, 27 Dec. 1945 (C). Walton county: roadside poo!, U. S. highway no. 98, 5 miles west of the Walton-Bay county line, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10660, 10666, 10567, 9 Jan. 1949 (C, F). The specimens examined above were frequently found with the following: Hapalosiphon pumilus B. & F., Scytonema figuratum B. & F., S. Hofmanii B. & F., Schizothrix purpurascens Gom., Stigonema panniforme B. & F., Tolypothrix tenuis B. & F. and Zygogonium ericetorum (Roth.) Kitz. The species has been re- ported for the state by Madsen & Nielsen (1950). 40) JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 18. Schizothrix Heufleri Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 325, pl. 9, f. 7-8 (1892). Filaments firm, tortuous, entangled, often divided into fascicles and pseudo-branched. Sheaths steel-blue, or black to blue-green, firm, wide, lamellose, irregular at margins, eroded above, below fimbriate, apices acumi- nate and generally fibrillar, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Tri- chomes blue-green, few within sheath, separate, parallel, generally solitary in a branch, not constricted at cross-walls, 1.7-3 , wide; cells longer thau trichome diameter, 4-8 u long, sparingly filled with large protoplasmic granules; apical cell moderately attenuate, obtuse. Broward county: barren ground in Circle, Hollywood blvd., Hollywood, Drouet & Louderback 10257, 27 Dec. 1948 (C, F); on cement block in Australian pine woods, south of South lake. Hollywood, Drouet 10312, 29:Dec. 1948 (C, F). Lee county: on dry sand, Bonita Beach, Paul C. Standley 73215, 14 Mar. 1940 (C); on dry sand, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Paul C. Standley 73352, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Wakulla county: on bark of tree, south side of spring-pocl, Wakulla Springs, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 11499, 27 Jan. 1949 (C, F); on rock in over-flow from Club spring, north of Newport, D. Blake, 23 july US, (CS 1). The specimens cited were found with Anacystis montana (Lightf.) Dr. & Daily, Porphyrosiphon fuscus Gom., Scutonema figuratum B. & F., S. ocellatum B. & F. and Schizothrix sp. It has been reported for the state by Madsen & Nielsen (1950). 19. Schizothrix roseola (Gardn.) Drouet. Field Mus. Bot. Ser. 20°(6); 132; (1942). Stratum rose-color to dark, crustaceous; filaments slender, tortuous, flex- uous, above united into erect to repent fascicles, below pseudo-branched; sheath at first hyaline and then later rose to dark red and wider, eroded, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine; trichomes blue-green, 1-2.5 ju wide, cylindrical, slightly constricted at cross-walls, apices not attenuate; cells subquadrate to longer than diameter, occasionally cross-walls granular, pro- toplasm very homogeneous; apical cell rotund. Gadsden county: upland woods, U. S. highway no. 90, 4 miles east of Quincy, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10430, 4 Jan. 1949 (G, F); clay bank, Aspalaga, Apalachicola river, J. E. Harmon 10, 4 Nov. 1950 (C, F). Lee county: on moist sand, Hendry creek, 10 miles south of Fort Myers, P. C. Standley 73463, Mar. 1940 (C). THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 41 Liberty county: Rock Bluff, Apalachicola river valley, Nielsen & Kurz, 80 Oct. 1950 (C, F). Monroe county: on black mud, plant ereyish-white, pine-palm woods, north-west of Inn, sink-hole Big Pine key, E. P. Killip & Jason R. Swallen 40392, 25 Mar. 1950 (C). Stigonema panniforme B. & F. and Glococystis Grevillei (Berk.) Dy. & Daily are found with the species. It has been reported for the state by Madsen & Nielsen (1950). 20. Schizothrix Guiseppei Drouet. Field Mus. Bot. Ser. 20 (6): 138 (1942). Stratum blue-green to black-crustaceous. Filaments long in fasciculate branches, below intricate, above joined into erect fascicles repent and often twisted. Sheath at first hyaline finally internally pale blue or steel-blue, wide, lamellose, eroded at margins, turning brilliant blue with chlor-zinc- iodine. Trichomes blue-green or yellowish green, long, straight, fragile, 2-4 « wide, not constricted at cross-walls, apices abruptly attenuate and acuminate, cells up to 3 times longer than diameter, cross-walls never granular, protoplasm never or scarcely granular, apical cell long and more or less acute conical. Lee county: on salt flats, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Paul C. Standley 73187, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Monroe county: on dark greyish muck, near buttonwood section, toward North Pine bridge, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip 41939, 18 Feb. 1952 (C). - Specimens may be found with Schizothrix longiarticulata Garda. 21. Schizothrix violacea Gardner. Mem. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 7: 52, pigeon 99 (1927). Filaments elongate, subrigid, sparingly tortuous, pseudo-branches ap- pressed, often aggregated into repent fascicles; sheaths violet (upon ma- turity blackish-violet) to apices, rarely hyaline or pale violet, firm, wide, lamellose, frequently eroded at margins, occasionally fimbriate, apices long attenuate and acuminate, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine; trichomes pale blue-green, few within sheath, separate, parallel, more often solitary in branch, slightly constricted at cross-walls, 2-2.5 mu wide; cells up to 3 times longer than trichome diameter, rarely subquadrate, 2-7 uw long; protoplasm with dispersed large granules; cross-walls never conspicuous, never granular; apical cell obtuse-conical, without calyptra. Collier county: dry bank, Marco Island, Paul C. Standley 73393, 19 Mar. 1940 (C). Lee county: south of Estero, Paul C. Standley 92781, 15 Mar. 1946 (C); between Estero and Benita Spgs., Julian A. Steyermark 63199 a, 10 Mar. 1946 (C). 42 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The thalli of the specimens examined produced a black crus- taceous stratum, and were found with Porphyrosiphon fuscus Gom. and Scytonema crustaceum B. & F. (To be concluded in Vol. 17, No. 2) Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(1), 1954. A SIMPLIFIED SYNTHESIS OF 3-AMINO-4-NITRO- BENZOIC ACID AND ETHYL 3-AMINO-4-NITROBENZOATE By Morris J. Danzic! and Harry P. SCHULTZ University of Miami Kaiser (1885) and Thieme (1891) reported the synthesis of 3- amino-4-nitrobenzoic acid; the first synthesis was accomplished by nitration of 3-acetamidobenzoic acid and the second by am- monolysis of ethy] 3-ethoxy-4-nitrobenzoate. Both syntheses, how- ever, required unusual starting materials and gave poor yields of 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoic acid. The need for relatively large quanti- ties of 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoic acid in this Laboratory stimulated development of a new synthesis of this compound. The new method developed in this Laboratory for the synthesis of 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoic acid was patterned after the synthesis used by Ullman and Uzbachian (1903) for the preparation of 2-amino-5-nitrobenzoic acid from 2-acetamido-5-nitrotoluene. E;XPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 3-Amino-4-nitrotoluene.—This material was prepared from m- acetamidotoluene in 36% yield according to the procedure of Green and Day (1942). 3-Acetamido-4-nitrotoluene.—This substance was prepared by acetylating 3-amino-4-nitrotoluene according to the general pro- cedure given by Fieser and Martin (1935) for the acetylation of o-nitroaniline. Using charcoal treatment, the crude reaction product (melting at 80-83°) was recrystallized twice from ligroin (boiling point 90-120°) to give an 84% yield of 3-acetamido-4- nitrotoluene melting at 82-83°. Morgan and Mickelthwaite (1913) reported a melting point of 88-89° for this compound. 3-Amino-4-nitrobenzoic acid—In a 2-l., three-necked flask equipped with a stirrer, gas inlet tube, and reflux condenser were placed 900 ml. of water and 23.0 g. (0.118 mole) of 3-acetamido-4- nitrotoluene. The temperature of the reaction mixture was raised * Currently post-doctorate fellow, Chemistry Department, University of Minnesota. 44 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES to 80°, carbon dioxide was rapidly bubbled into the suspension, and stirring was commenced. Potassium permanganate (18.4 g.) was added, whereupon the temperature of the mixture attained 85°; this temperature was maintained for the remainder of the reaction by using an electric mantle. At thirty minute intervals two more 18.4 g. portions of potassium permanganate were added, making a total of 55.2 g. (0.35 mole) of oxidizing agent added to the reaction mixture. After a total of three hours of reaction time, 10 g. of filter-aid was added to the reaction and the mixture filtered, rinsed, and cooled to room temperature, whereupon the filtrate was again filtered to remove a further small quantity of coagulated manganese dioxide and precipitated starting material. The filtrate was acidified with 25 ml. of concentrated hydro- chloric acid, allowed to stand at 10° for twenty-four hours and filtered. The residue was taken up in 100 ml. of 15% ammonium hydroxide solution and a small quantity of insoluble material was removed by filtration and discarded. The filtrate was again acidified with 50 ml. of hydrochloric acid and cooled at 10° for twenty-four hours; the precipitate was removed by filtration, rinsing and pressing the 3-acetamido-4-nitrobenzoic acid as dry as possible. The damp 3-acetamido-4-nitrobenzoic acid was transferred to a 1-l., round-bottomed flask and hydrolyzed with a solution of 45 ml. of concentrated sulfuric acid in 75 ml. of water at 90° for two hours. After cooling the reaction mixture in ice water, the 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoic acid was removed by suction filtration, rinsed, and dried to give 12.5 g. (58% yield) of orange powder melting at 299-301°. Kaiser (1885) reported a melting point of 295° and Thieme (1891) reported a melting point of 290° for this sub- stance. Ethyl 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoate.—Into a 1-1. flask equipped with a condenser and drying tube were placed 200 ml. of absolute ethanol, 5 ml. of concentrated sulfuric acid and 15 g. (0.0825 mole) of 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoic acid. The reaction mixture was refluxed for twenty-four hours, after which the condenser was set for downward distillation, and 150 ml. of solvent was removed. The residue in the reaction flask was poured into 100 ml. of ice water, whereupon ethyl 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoate precipitated. The product was removed by suction filtration, slurried ten minutes SIMPLIFIED SYNTHESIS OF 3-AMINO-4-NITROBENZOIC ACID 45 with 50 ml. of 10% sodium bicarbonate solution, re-filtered, rinsed and dried to give 17.0 g. (98.3% yield) of ethyl 3-amino-4-nitro- benzoate melting at 138-189°. Kaiser (1885) reported a melting point of 139° for this substance. SUMMARY 1. 3-Amino-4-nitrobenzoic acid has been prepared in 58% yield by oxidation of 3-acetamido-4-nitrotoluene with potassium per- manganate, removing the protecting acetyl group after the oxida- tion step had been completed. 2. Ethyl 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoate has been prepared in 98% yield by the direct esterification of 3-amino-4-nitrobenzoic acid with ethanol, using sulfuric acid as a catalyst. LITERATURE CITED HSE Re he and MARTIN, E. L. 1935. A Comparison of Benzotriazole with Benzene. Journal of the Ameri- can Chemical Society 57: 1835-1939. CREEN, fy and DAY, A. R. 1942. The Tautomeric Character of the Imidazole Ring. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 64: 1167-1173. KAISER, A. 1885. Ueber Mononitroderivate der p- und m-acetamidobenzoésiure sowie deren Reductionsproducte. Berichte der deutschen chemischen Ge- sellschaft, 18: 2942-2952. MORGAN, G. T., and MICKELTHWAITE, F. M. G. 1913. The Constitution of the ortho-Diazoimines. Part III. The alpha- and _ beta-Acyl-3,4-tolylenediazoimides as Structural Isomerides. Journal of the Chemical Society, 103: 1391-1404. THIEME, P. 1891. Ueber die Einwirkung von Ammoniak und Methylamin auf nitrirte Oxybenzoésaureather. Journal ftir praktische Chemie, 43: 451-482. ULLMAN, F., and UZBACHIAN, J. B. 1903. Ueber die Verwendung von Permanganaten als Oxydationsmittel. Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 36: 1797-1807. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(1), 1954. A VEGETATIVE KEY TO THE NATIVE AND COMMONLY CULTIVATED PALMS IN FLORIDA Hucu NELSON Mozinco Florida Southern College Palms. large and small, graceful and grotesque, characterize more than any other plant family the native and cultivated vege- tation of Florida. About 14 species are native to Florida, the un- certainty being due to doubt about the taxonomic validity of certain forms. While this is a relatively small number, two species. Serenoa repens and Sabal palmetto, are so ubiquitous that it is difficult to be very far out of sight of either one. An attempt has been made to introduce into Florida a large segment, possibly as much as 25%, of the approximately 4,000 species of palms in existence. Although many such efforts have not met with success, it is probable that at least 500 different species and varieties exist in Florida at the present time. However, despite their abundance. there appears to be no availabie vegetative key to our common native and introduced forms. It was with this deficiency in mind that the following key was constructed. Eighty species are treated, including all of the valid native species recognized by Small, the commonly cultivated species, and some of the rarer forms. It is hoped that the follow- ing key, inadequate as it may prove to be, will encourage a more complete survey of this group as it occurs here. Native species are designated by an asterisk (*); the dubious native species by a double asterisk (**). la? Palmate ~Iéaved~ species) = =) i 2 ib: Pinnate leaved species ... 4. 2) = 34 2a. Stems very slender, not much over 2.5 cm. in diameter _. 3 ine Stems “stouter 0s ee ee, ne ot Se ee 4 3a. Leaves with 5 to 10 or more segments, central ones 5 to 7 ein; brOad <2 12. 2) ie Rhapis excelsa 3b. Leaves with 7 or 8 segments, usually not more than 3 cm. broad 4a. Trunk none or creeping _... _.. _._.) ee 5 5a. VEGETATIVE KEY TO NATIVE AND CULTIVATED PALMS 47 tronkrevident, usually tall) 2.2... NE ALD! Neon ct Stem with numerous long, dyer lace 8 spines ek aioe hustrix* Stem without spines fae ee 6 Petioles with spines along then TMG OMS peers Sonate 4 repens * eeRolecn WAbNOULc SPIES: @2:f 2.2.8 UN eal ea id “SLOTS: LOCC TAVES 5 SSI aia eg DEMS A eile ne aR Fe Sabal minor* Midrib extending nearly through the blade __ Sabal etonia* SPR TeSeIbe OI CLIOLES 6 eau Se ina ET ae oe 9 Spines absent on petioles. PARE MCN UE oe uleatee tow malt em emOUMCT WIE, Or Less 5 Oho Vas ee 10 Ae Be OMOVer NOU Cl: WIE) ae te Ae Gaus alts LD. Petioles armed with large, sharp spines; hee not cor- PEC MCI UINCIDAG ES Sek Tite As sy le eS eh J ete age Le Petioles armed with numerous Avall sharp spines; leaves eoreate at: the base 2.0 Serenoa repens (erect form)* Leaves rigid, rarely over 60 cm. wide; trunk rarely over imaremieh-=spimes black 2.2 95. Chamaerops humilis Leaves somewhat lax, 60 to 90 cm. wide; trunk up to 12 m. high (petioles with flat, orange, upcurved spines) —Paurotis wrightii* Most leaves between 60 and 90 cm. wide —Paurotis wrightii* ieimesmwvellvover 90 cms wide 22 1s ko MeanesmOVer yl. Me WIGe) oy bo PRLcenas eH) eerie utan Peayesmunden 6) m. wide: 2 2 bee AL Petioles lightly or heavily tomentose; Golly pale aiilk PLES [GNC SACS Ia Mice ert ee ea creme elec oem ht) NICE BUS BLOONS eM a 0 SE SIR ory Oe ee See LZ Leaves very glaucous Latanin loddigesii (juvenile form) eaves not glaucous Sia en re agi ae rik ieee OWA ah 16 Leaves light green; petiole heavily tomentose, margins Orange Wea ened Latania verschaffeltii (juvenile form) Leaves darker green; petiole lightly tomentose, margins AGC. 28) ae Latania borbonica (juvenile form) Meavesmsomevumat, KeCULVeG (0h. «2 iss air 18 WeapesmmOlTeCULVCC: 0 5) a 2 ee Sacto 20 Petioles spiny throughout their length — Livistona australis Only the lower portion of the petioles spiny 19 27 bs I8a. 28b. 29a. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lower half of the petiole with hard, brown spines, up to IMac hee il (0) 024 Memalanslalae li ced alts. ab cu sbaic re Livistona chinensis Lower half of the petiole with larger, crooked, shiny rows: Spies es tai. . Livistona ronmg@ionha Leaf segments mar pe th very numerous stiff fibers; leaves gray-green (not glaucous); petioles usually armed to the middle or somewhat beyond with stout, hooked spines; trunk very stout, not usually expanded at the base —Washingtonia filifera Leaf segments with few fibers, except when young; leaves bright green; petioles usually with spines mostly through- out their length; trunk not as stout, expanded at the base —Washingtonia robusta Leaves rigid, or only. slightly drooping 22 eee Leaves not rigid, leaf tips very obviously draowame (see also 28). 8 0 30 Leaves very glaucous on both surfaces __ Latania loddigesii Leaves not glaucous at maturity on both surfaces 23 Leat base’ cuneate 2... 15) Se 24 seal base net cuneate 22) 2 ax we J 25 heat segments about 90 = see ea Pritchardia pacifica eat seements about a0) to) o0)essaaes Pritchardia thurstonii Slender tree covered with coarse, matted root-like HDEKS Wile Ree kee ok nea el, ae Coccothrinax miraguama INO Eas Wa lo oyer ss ee J 26 Petioles; tomentose: 2222 8 ee 20 Petioles not tomentose 2 28 Leaves light green at maturity, when young, reddish or purplish; petioles heavily tomentose, margins orange —Latania verschaffeltii Leaves darker green at maturity, when young, distinctly vellowish; petioles lightly tomentose, margins red —Latania borbonica Dwart, maximum height of 2 slender petioles; leaves br@htereem Sis 20 ence ee Thrinax morrisii Taller: not as above:.2. =... 2 ee 29 Stout tree; long pliable petioles; leaves light green 2 OXO Se peste ta cee Me ROSA ic See Thrinax microcarpa* VEGETATIVE KEY TO NATIVE AND CULTIVATED PALMS 49 Slender tree; petioles shorter and stiff; leaves yellow green above tala Sneha Cae ee ea ae Thrinax parviflora* Trunk very slender, under 15 cm.; leaves silvery be- Me mentee fe ls A Coccothrinax argentata* co S'S ay ZAUENO ESE Ea ar aR elena ie, ee ee 31 Trunk slender, with a covering of coarse, black fibers; eames tori. m. wide — Trachycarpus fortunet Trunk not as above; leaves frequently larger _________ ee SY Ligule less than 12 cm. long; trunk moderately stout; FeaweseOreen == Oo I OE RAGE: oe MR Sabai palmetto* cD ES GLENS eee 2 iD ie die 33 Trunk massive; ligule usually not over 15 cm. long; leaves not glaucous, segments about 60, with abundant fibers —Sabal causiarum Trunk not so massive, frequently thickened in the middle; ligule 15 cm. long or longer; leaves glaucous, segments about 80, with fewer fibers _.... Sabal umbraculifera CELLS SUNT SAI 8 a cae ea 35 Wine eOteS (IN Aloe ee Ve ee ee 40) Leaf segments broad, wedge-shaped, apex truncate and CRESSC, Woo See eee Aiphanes caryotaefolia mesascements nOt-as abOve 2 9 36 Mameaven slender, to 4cm.. wide 2. 37 Mramnenconsicerablystouter (0) 38 Trunk 2.5 to 4 cm. in diameter; leaves dull green —Bactris major Trunk to 2 cm. in diameter; leaves gray-green — Bactris minor Spines on the petiole bases, trunk smooth after those have eNO SS rei oe ee Acrocomia hospes DLO SS | Dim. CaS eel eae rel eed eee eee 39 Trunk fusiform; leaves bluish to gray beneath —Acrocomia armentalis Trunk cylindrical; leaves green beneath ___ Acrocomia totai eankersmmoothi. or relatively so° 22 2 4] Trunk not smooth, frequently with leaf bases remaining SLDEE EG ata Aa A i a ee tt 66 seat segments cuneate or delta-shaped _. SA Beteescoments: nOtras above. 43 Leaves 1.2 to 2.7 m. long; producing suckers; stem with a Mammon diameter of 13 em; 2 Caryota mitis 50 42b. 43a. 43b. Ada. 44b. 45a. 45b. AGa: 46b. ATa. ATb. 48a. A48b. AYa. AQb. 50a. 50b. Bley olb. 2a JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Leaves 5.5 to 6 m. long; not producing suckers; stem much larger in vdiameter | ease _... Caryota urens Sheathing petiole bases forming a prominent green column atop the trunk, 200 ee 44 Sheathing petiole bases not forming a prominent green column atop the trunk (0 224) 59 Trunk slender, less than 138 cm. wide, with a characteristic swelling at the base; leaf segments erose at the apex —Ptychosperma elegans Not as above 2220 2t2 2 2) ee 45 Trunk disproportionately stout for its height; leaves 1 to 2m. in‘length 2 2 ee A6 Not as above 200) AT Trunk sometimes bulged below leaf cluster; leaf segments about 60 cm. long, 2.5 to 4 cm. wide, lateral veins not {S115 © TAL Teese a Mascarena_ verschaffeltii Trunk bulged near base, frequently constricted at the top; leaf segments 30 to 40 cm. long, 5 cm. wide or wider, with prominent lateraliyents. ).- = enema Mascarena lagenicaulis Trunk characteristically slightly bulged near the middle or-upper part 20 ee 4S Trunk not as above 2.2 = 2 50 Leaf segments with prominent lateral veins; maximum height: of 120: 13.ans74 222) Roystonea regia Leaf segments not prominently ribbed or veined _____. 49 Maximum height of 27 to 30 m.; trunk light gray —Roystonea elata* Maximum height of 9 to 14 m.; trunk darker, more promi- nently bulged near the middle ______. Roystonea borinquena Trees with slender trunks, bulged at the base; leaf seg- ments 5. to 7.5, em, wide ..0 0 2 ee 51 Trees or leat segments not as above 2. ae 52 Leaf segments with long tapering points and Retainers lateral veins: 20 ee ee Dictyosperma album Leaf segments short-pointed and with indistinct lateral veins; young leaves with orange-colored veins —Dictyosperma aureum Short, maximum height about 6 m.; trunk stout, tapering; leaves glaucous with very prominent lateral veins —Adonidia merrillii VEGETATIVE KEY TO NATIVE AND CULTIVATED PALMS 51 elailer cynndrical trunk slender or stout —..9) 2 53 Trunk slender; leaf segments ashy-glaucous beneath, sec- onary nerves quite prominent —_ Archontophoenix alexandrae NSF AS DION ER EEE ee ea BUN A ene ee eae ae 54 Longer leaf segments to 45 cm., green beneath; slender trunk more prominently ridged by leaf scars than the fol- ORD eee Archoniophoenix cunninghamiana Leaf segments in one plane, longest about 1 m.; trunk stouter, less prominently ridged by leaf scars than the anovesperectly cylindric: (20.2 Roystonea oleracea Leat segments obliquely cut and erose-dentate at the apex; Stemasssuckering, freely Actinophloeus macarthuri Leaf segments not obliquely cut at the apex. ss «56 Leaf segments relatively few (14 to 24); stems very dlenden em PmenMe GNC. ae Chamaedorea elegans Leaf segments more in number; stems over 6 cm. thick __ 57 Trunk relatively slender, not much over 6 cm. thick 58 LSESUDLS TRMOLE STING (ig aa arc as re epee 62 Trunks usually in clumps; leaves gracefully arched, yel- low green; trunk 10 to 15 cm. in diameter —Chrysalidocarpus lutescens SUE ES Bal ONS el eR ea eet esac ae Eetiole length not over 1/5 of blade length 60 Petiole length considerably over 1/5 of lel: fener ol Leaves short petioled (1/7 of the leaf), resembling Roy stonea species; mature trunk with swollen base —Gaussia attenuata Leaves longer petioled (1/5 of the leaf), somewhat arched, deep green; trunk not swollen at the base _ Heterospathe elaiu Leaves about 3 m. long; very long petioles; leaf segments Hmiremdenmitely drooping =. Howea forsteriana Leaves 2 m. long or less; petioles considerably shorter than above; leaf segments not as prominently drooping —Howea belmoreana Leaves quite erect, dark green; tall tree to 18 m. —Orbignya cohune eae Spe OLR CLC Clp ts Memes sn eu eGo) aa a 63 Pnurmiker so @lleiisim akt econ ue Ne a leben Tg 64 Trunk not ordinarily swollen JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Trunk swollen at base; leaves to 5.5 m. long, yellow STOCN. a ee oes ree ee ee Cocos nucifera** Trunk swollen near middle; leaves to 2 m. long, dark DIY 0 ce at Oe emcees PL Pseudophoenix sargentii** Leaf outline long lanceolate, segments in groups of 2 to A AlOMPATACSt 0 fer cemee tae Arecastrum romanzoffianum Leaf outline somewhat orbicular, segments not in groups alone GaehiS: ss 2S ee ee Hedyscepe canterburyana Leaves decidedly glaucous =: 9) ee 67 . Leaves not prominently glaucous, or if so, leaves not strongly recurved 0. eee 69 Tip of leaf segments cut into two narrow divergent lobes at least. 2.5 em. 0nS 96 Butia eriospatha . Tip of leaf segments not usually cut deeper than 2 cm., lobes not divergent’ "=... oe 68 . Leaves to 3 m. long; middle leaf segments about 2.5 cm. wide: trunk to 7.0m, tall.) s.r Butia yatay . Leaves to 2 m. long; middle leaf segments narrower; trunk Shorter (2.5 7 a Butia capitata Leaflets conspicuously drooping; petioles with 2.5 to 4 cm. spines; long stick-like petiole bases clothing stem —Arikuryroba schizophylla Not as above 2000 70 Leaves white-glaucous below; leaf segments erose-den- tatele VC eee cee So ee eee Wallichia caryotoides Not: as above = ae A = Heboles spiny serrate =o i Elaeis guineensis . Petioles, if spiny, with the lower leaf segments modified mto spines 22.00 2 a Safe) Trunk small and bulb-shaped, not clongated ~ === 73 .- Trunk not bulb-shaped 2.0) ee 74 Leaf segments very rigid; fascicles tending to be op- OSILG, Sere Wes eT ke Se ke Phoenix acaulis Leaf segments soft; fascicles irregularly arranged —Phoenix humilis Base of petiole very abruptly and widely flaring —Jubaea spectabilis Base of petiole becoming wider, but not very abruptly Haredy 200 en ee ue oe LES 1s VEGETATIVE KEY TO NATIVE AND CULTIVATED PALMS Do Young stem prominently covered with long, black coarse PUMICE Sn ene So NRE as on AS SN BRAN it daleduer Arenga_ saccharifera Perm ESOMCOVETEC: ts the) et ee WT ig) ere ER 7G ME MMSE TICS SOlE = = hace, vee a eee.) oe a CNT ESE MTCTILS CONC: see oe. oe el eee oe ute eh Oe We yt hh Small palm; short, nendes ean A se AR AR ei We le 78 Much larger, to 6 m. tall; leaves shiny, yellow green; leaf segments tending to be in one plane _____.. Phoenix rupicola Leaf segments decidedly drooping; trunk clothed with old clasping, persistent petiole bases Syagrus Weddelliana Leaf segments not as prominently drooping: trunk with knob-like stumps of petiole bases Phoenix loureirii Trunk short (to 1.2 m.) and stout; leaves 1.2 to 1.5 m. Senet 9 EE See Phoenix pusilla iiimunletned Weaves-not as’ above t2 3a 80 Leaf segments 17 to 25 cm. long, bright green; slender numukemsma lle to’ Gm, 6 ee Phoenix zeylanica See One eae hres oe er ee ee. ae A Ae as $1 Leaf segments sword-shaped, whitish or Healy beneath; trunk 8 to 10 cm. in diameter, 2.5 to 8 m. tall —Phoenix valudosa NOTE SS ALOIS ps eT A Pee en ee 82 Trunk slender, usually leaning, rath many suckers at the DEES a a ee eee Phoenix reclinata Trunk stouter, not usually with many suckers at the base _ 83 Leaves slender, gracefully arching; trunk massive —Phoenix canariensis Leaves stouter and shorter; trunk not so massive 84 MemmesmelimcOus = 200) te Phoenix dactyliferu eswesmmou. ClaucOMS. 2005) ie Phoenix sylvestris Acknowledgment The author is grateful to his wife, Katherine W. Mozingo, for her gracious help in the preparation of the manuscript for publication. REFERENCES AGRI (OQ) 1 DMRS Wx OF 1937. Check list OE, ee and Naturalized Trees in Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 2: 52-66. 54 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BAIBEY, 41..°H. 1934. American Palmettoes. Gentes Herbarum 3: 274-337. 1935. The Royal Palms—Preliminary Survey. Gentes Herbarum 3: 342- 387. 1936. The Butias. Gentes Herbarum 4: 16-50. 1936. Washingtonia. Gentes Herbarum 4: 52-82. 1942. Palms of the Mascarenes. Gentes Herbarum 6: 50-104 1943. New Palms in Panama, and others. Gentes Herbarum 6: 198-264. 1948. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulure. The Macmillan Co., New York. 1944. Revision of the American Palmettoes. Gentes Herbarum 6: 366-459. 1949. ._ Manual of Cultivated Plants. The Macmillan Co., New York. COKER. W, Gand“: BR. TOTELEN 1937. Trees of the Southeastern States. Univ. of N. C. Press, Chapel Hill. EICK, MARY NUNEZ TEN 1950. Florida Plant Checklist. Wife Line Prtg. & Book Co., Inc., Tampa. HARPER, R. M. 1949. A Preliminary List of the Endemic Flowering Plants of Florida. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11: 25-35; 39-57. 1950. A Preliminary List of the Endemic Flowering Plants of Florida. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 12: 1-19. MOWRY, HAROLD (Revised by R. D. Dickey and Erdman West) 1952. Native and Exotic Palms of Florida. Fla. Agric. Ext. Serv. Bull. 152. SMALL, J. K. 1933. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. The Sci. Press Prtg. Co., Lan- caster. : WEST, ERDMAN, and LILLIAN E. ARNOLD 1946. The Native Trees of Florida. Univ. of Fla. Press, Gainesville. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(1), 1954. A METHOD FOR PREPARING AND MOUNTING THIN GROSS SECTIONS OF HUMAN OR OTHER LARGE BRAINS GRANVILLE C. FisHerR, PH.D. and FREpERIC D. Garrett, PH.D. University of Miami Mechanical models of the brain have been used effectively for teaching purposes. However, they are limited by the fact that they are imitations, and never leave the serious student quite satisfied as to the true characteristics of the real object of study. The possibility of providing the student with objective study material that would enable him literally to leaf through the brain, with the sections oriented in each of the three cardinal planes, has been of interest to the authors for some time. It could be accomplished in some fashion after the manner of Polyak’s ex- cellent series of transparancies on the eye. But here again the student is not presented with the actual material. The mounting of sections of the brain in plastic has been attempted with some success. The major objection to this method has been that the thickness of the sections often left unrevealed small structures such as the mammillo thalamic tract, etc. If the sections could be no more than one-eighth or one-sixteenth of an inch in thick- ness, and mounted successfully in some plastic container, this would seem to be an ideal manner of presenting gross sections of the whole brain for study. But how can gross sections of the brain be sliced so thinly without falling to pieces or without giving rise to other difficulties? By combining information from several sources, and by putting such information to the empirical test, the authors herewith report in detail a procedure which has proved most gratifying, and leaves very little to be desired. To obtain the best specimen, one should secure a fresh brain, and allow it to remain about one month in a fifteen or twenty percent solution of formalin. An adjustable wooden mold should be constructed of %4’’ plywood, following the design of Figure i. Five C-clamps with 1%” openings will be needed. The inside dimensions may be adjusted to accommodate the brain. The C- clamps allow for its disassembling without force. When the mold is assembled, the joints should be sealed on the inside with wet 06 ° JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES potters clay. The brain may now be placed in the mold and held away from the bottom and from the sides by waste pieces of other brains. Around the brain we can now pour a supporting medium which has been prepared as follows: mix 900 gms. fine white cornmeal and 750 gms. commercial granulated gelatin in 3500 cc. water and boil until the cornmeal is well softened. The cornmeal appears to provide a consistency to the mass which ensures greater regularity in the slices which cannot be gained by use of the gelatin alone. The hot mixture is then poured slowly around the brain, covering it entirely. When the mixture has thoroughly cooled (postponing operations until the following day is a safe procedure) it constitutes a firm supporting mass. The C-clamps should now be loosened, and the walls of the form sepa- rated from the gelatin, except for the one wall parallel to the line of slicing. The gelatin should not be loosened from this form wall for reasons which we shall soon understand. The block of gelatin still attached to the one form, and with the brain embedded, is now placed on a hand-operated meat slicing machine such as is used in a butcher shop. Before the wooden forms are constructed, measurements should be taken of the slicing machine intended for use in order that the proper fit may be assured. It will be seen now that the attached form wall lends support to the gelatin mass, reducing the possibility of distortion during the slicing operation. Uniform sections down to one sixteenth of an inch in thickness can now be obtained with ease. The gelatin affords enough support to keep the brain slices intact if care is exercised in their handling after cutting. The slices may be stored indefinitely in 10% formalin prior to mounting. For mounting, %’’ plexiglas is cut on a circular saw in sizes 6” x 7” and for the separating strips at the edges); 72a 72.101 lowing essentially the method described by Farmer, Pence and Moéller. In preparation for receiving the brain specimen, a “tray is prepared by fastening %”” x %4” strips to all four sides of one 6’ x 7” sheet of plexiglas. The strips are fastened by moistening generously with trichlorethane, using an eyedropper for apply- ing, and then clamping with spring clamps for about thirty minutes. As many such trays should be prepared ahead of time as there are brain sections to be mounted. One can anticipate this by MOUNTING THIN GROSS SECTIONS OF BRAINS 58 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES measuring the brain before embedding it in the gelatin. At the time of mounting one should have at hand a supply of clear liquid gelatin and a brush about 1” in width. The plexiglas tray is painted with the gelatin on the inside, and onto this gelatin is placed immediately the brain section, the surrounding gelatin- cornmeal having just been removed. At this point the separator strips are moistened with the solvent, and a second 6” x 7’ sheet of plexiglas is pressed and clamped on as a cover. It should remain clamped for about thirty minutes. At the end of this time a hole large enough to accommodate the needle of a hypo- dermic syringe is bored in one of the corners. The syringe is filled with a 10% solution of formalin which is then injected into the interior of the plexiglas box until it is filled. The needle is with- drawn and the hole filled with plexiglas “dust” mixed with a bit of the solvent, making the box now air-tight. The specimen is now mounted and ready for use. Sections may be mounted unstained, or stained to emphasize contrast between gray and white matter. The authors have used a one per cent solution of nigrosin for this purpose. It is felt that a detailed presentation of this method will render it available to interested persons, and that it may suggest other uses to which it may be put. The authors wish to express their thanks to Dr. Robert T. Hill, Chairman of the Department of Anatomy, University of Miami Medical School, and Mr. J. Richard McElheny, Department of Education, for their support and suggestions which have made this project possible. REFERENCES FARMER, T. W., L. M. PENCE and M. MOELLER 1951. A Simple Method of Mounting Gross Biologic Material in Plastic Boxes. Science, 114(2957): 236-237: 3 figs. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(1), 1954. 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State University, Biological Sciences Olson, F. C. W., Florida State University, Oceanography Oroshnik, Jesse, 3515 Chesapeake Ave., Hampton, Va., Physical Sciences *Page, Elizabeth, 16 Columbia Way, Lakeland, Biological Sciences Page, Ralph E., University of Florida, Social Sciences Parker, Garald, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., Geology Pates, Anne L., Florida State University, Bacteriology Pearson, Jay F. W., President, University of Miami, Zoology Pearson, Paul G., University of Florida, Biology Perry, Lynn, 1924 Ferdinand St., Coral Gables, Physical Sciences Phelps, Isaac k., Rollins College, Chemistry Phinizy, Thomas B., Florida State University, Biological Sciences Phipps, Cecil G., 1106 SW 5th Ave., Gainesville, Mathematics Pierce, E. Lowe, University of Florida, Biology Pierson, William H., University of Florida, Geography Pollard, C. H., University of Florida, Chemistry Pomeroy, Lawrence, Oyster Research Lab., Bivalve, N. J. Popper, Annie, Florida State University, History Powell, Robert D., University of Florida, Botany *Powella, Emma Rita, Route 4, Box 505, Lakeland, Biological Sciences Prichard, Elmer G., 605 N. Amelia, Deland, Biology *Prouty, Charles, 923 E. Lexington St., Lakeland, Biological Sciences Rabkin, Samuel, 511 Sylvan Drive., Winter Park, Dentistry Rainwater, Clarence S., University of Miami, Physics Rappenecker, Caspar, University of Florida, Geology Ray, Francis E., University of Florida, Cancer Research Reddick, Donald, R. D. No. 5, Box 119, Gainesville. Biological Sciences Reed, Clyde T., University of Tampa, Biology *Reese, William D.. Florida State University, Biological Sciences Rehmund, John C., 23 N. 10th St., Haines City, Fla., Social Sciences Reid, George K., Jr.. 108 Kyle St., College Station, Texas, Zoology MEMBERSHIP LIST OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 67 Reinsch, B. P., Florida Southern College, Mathematics & Physics Reitz, J. Wayne, University of Florida, Biology Rethlingshater, Dorothy, University of Florida, Psychology *Rewis, Carlton, 122 E. Park St., Lakeland, Biological Sciences Reynolds, Ernest, University of Miami, Botany Reynolds, J. Paul, Florida State University, Zoology Rhaney, Mahlon C., Florida A. & M. College, Biology Rich, Charles E., Route 2, Box 335-H, Pensacola, Physical Sciences Richards, Harold F., Florida State University, Physics Richardson, James G., University of Florida, Social Sciences Riley, J. W., Florida A. & M. College, Social Sciences Rivas, Luis Rene, University of Miami, Marine Zoology *Roberts, Estella, Box 3, Florida Southern College, Biological Sciences Roberts, Leonidas H., University of Florida, Physical Sciences Robertson, Harry S., University of Miami, Physics Rogers, Robert W., Florida State University, Zoology Rogosa, George L., Florida State University, Physics Rolfs, Clarissa, Colegio Americano, 71 Porto Alegre, Rio Grande de Sul, Brasil Ross, John S., Rollins College, Physics *Rufh, Chester E., 45 6th St., Campbell, Ohio Sanders, D. A., University of Florida, Biology Sanders, Murray, M.D., University of Miami, Microbiology Saunders, Dorothy C., University of Florida, Biological Sciences Saute, George, Rollins College, Mathematics Sawyer, Earl M., University of Florida, Physics Scanlon, Sister M. Elaine, Barry College, Miami, Social Sciences Schrader, H. W., 1636 NW 7th Ave., Gainesville, Physics Schubart, Frederick C., University of Tampa, Chemistry & Physical Sciences Schultz, Harry P., University of Miami, Chemistry Schwarz, Guenter, Florida State University, Physics Scott, Col. Bruce von G., USAF, ret., 5836 SW 25th St., Miami, Physical Sciences Scudder, Delton L., University of Florida, Social Sciences Selig, Max J., 120 S. Kentucky Ave., Lakeland, Social Sciences Senn, P. H., University of Florida, Biology Sherman, H. B., University of Florida, Biology-Mammals Shippy, W. B., Route 1, Box 73, Sanford, Plant Pathology Shores, Venila L., Florida State University, History Short, Robert B., Florida State University, Zoology Shuttleworth, F. S., University of Miami, Botany Sickels, Jackson P., 541 San Esteban Ave., Coral Gables, Physical Sciences Singeltary, Mary L., 122 Emmett St., Kissimmee, Biological Sciences Sleight, Frederick W., Box 94, Mount Dora, Physical, Social Sciences Sleight, Virgil G., University of Miami, Geology Smith, Alex, University of Florida, Physics Smith, Charles U., Florida A. & M. College, Social Sciences Smith, Earl D., 2309 Coventry Ave., Lakeland, Chemistry 68 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Smith, Frederick B., University of Florida, Microbiology Smith, F. G., University of Miami, Marine Fisheries Smith, Marshall E., M.D., 418 W. Platt St., Tampa, Chemistry Smith, Reynolds B., University of Florida, Forestry *Smith, Tim Murphy, Florida State University, Biological Sciences Smyth, J. Adger, Florida State University, Marine Biology Sokoloff, Boris, Florida Southern College, Biology Soret, M. G., University of Miami, Microbiology Soule, Mortimer J., 213 E. Bldg., Gainesville, Botany Spivey, Ludd M., Florida Southern College, Sociology Springer, Stewart, P. O. Box 185, Pascagoola, Miss., Biology Steinbach, Warren H., 5834 SW 32nd St., Miami, Chemistry Stevenson, Henry M., Florida State University, Ornithology Stickler, W. Hugh, Florida State University, Biology Stifler, Mrs. Cloyd B., 315 16th St., Bradenton, Botany *Stinson, Walter S., Route 4, Box 1263, Lakeland, Biological Sciences Stoddard, Herbert L., Sherwood Plantation, Thomasville, Ga., Biology *Stoddard, Miss Jackie, 305 Coronado Dr., Clearwater Beach, Biological Sciences Stoye, Frederick H., 604 Rosemont St., La Jolla, Calif., Biology Streltzov, Leo A., Box 32, Florida Southern College, Physical Science *Strickland, Mitchell R., University of Florida, Physical Sciences Strohecker, H. F., University of Miami, Zoology Stubbs, Sidney A., P. O. Box 722, Houston, Texas, Geology Surrency, Winder H., 3600 Bay Shore Dr., Sarasota, Law Swanson, D. C., University of Florida, Physics Swindell, David E., Jr., Game & Fresh Water Fish Commission, Newport, Biological Sciences Tanner, W. Lee, Box 17, Panasoftee, Chemistry Taylor, H. M., 111 N. Adams St., Jacksonville, Otolaryngology Tchakarin, H. H., Box 4638, Coral Gables Tebeau, Carl P., University of Miami, Chemistry Tebeau, C. W., University of Miami, History Teller, Morton H., University of Florida, Curator Terry, Ruth F., 127 E. Belvedere, Lakeland, Physical Sciences *Theuer, Bert, University of Florida Thomas, Dan A., 1835 Mayfield Ave., Winter Park, Physical Sciences Thompson, Donald A., 4363 S. Lamon, Chicago, Social Sciences “Thompson, Eunice, Florida State University, Biological Sciences Thrift, Charles T., Florida Southern College, Social Sciences Tiedtke, John, Rollins College Tinner, J. C., Florida A. & M. College, Physical Sciences Tisdale, W. B., University of Florida, Botany Tissot, A. N., University of Florida, Entomology Totten, Henry R., University of N. C., Botany Toulmin, Lyman D., LSU, Baton Rouge, La., Geology Twenhofel, W. H., Route 3, Orlando, Geology MEMBERSHIP LIST OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 69 Vaughen, John V., 547 W. New York Ave., Deland, Chemistry Venning, Frank D., University of Miami, Botany Vestal, Paul A., Rollins College, Botany °Vihler, Jerry G., Box 212, Wincermere, Fla., Biological Sciences Wade, Thomas L., Florida State University, Mathematics Waite, Alexander, Rollins College, Psychology Wallace. Harold E., Florida Southern College, Biological Sciences Wallace, Howard K., University of Florida, Biology Walsh, Sister Thomas Mary, Barry College, Miami, Biology Ware, Ethan E., Florida A. & M. College, Biological Sciences Wass, Marvin L., Mullet Key Marine Museum, Pass-A-Grille, Biological Sciences Vatkins, Marshall O., University of Florida, Soils Weber, George F., University of Florida, Biology Week, Gertrude P.. 629 W. Jefferson St., Tallahassee Weiss, Dr. A. Kurt, School of Medicince, University of Miami West, Erdman, University of Florida, Botany West, Frances L., St. Petersburg Junior College, Biology Westfall, Minter J., University of Florida, Biology White, Sarah P., 186 Marlborough St., Boston, Medicine *Wilhelm, Daniel A., 10 NE 38rd St., Ft. Lauderdale, Biological Sciences *Wilkinson, David, 235 3rd Ave., S., St. Petersburg, Physical Sciences Williams, H. Franklin, University of Miami, History *Williams, John W., Jr., 24 Lake Hollingsworth Dr., Lakeland. Biological Sciences Williams, Louise Ione, Lakeland High School, Biology Williams, Robert H., University of Miami; Marine Botany Williamson, B. F., Box 17, Gainesville, Tung Oil Williamson, R. C., University of Florida, Physics Wilson, Druid, U. S. Geologica! Survey, Washington, D. C., Paleontology Wilson, Roy A., Rollins College, Physical Sciences Wilson, W. Harold, Box 2227 University Station, Gainesville, Mathematics Winchester, A. M., Stetson University, Biology *Wind, Henry, 610 E. Amelia, Tampa Winnie, W. W., Jr., Box 3505 University Station, Gainesville, Social Sciences Winsor, Herbert, Box 2847 University Station, Gainesville, Soil Chemistry Winters, H. H., Florida Geological Survey, Tallahassee, Biological & Physi- cal Sciences “Wise, David Jr., P. O. Box 455, University Branch, Coral Gables, Physical Sciences Wolfenbarger, Dr. Daniel, Sub-Tropical Experiment Station, Homestead, Biological Sciences Wood, F. G., Jr., Marine Studios, Marineland, Biology *Woodard, Jack, Route 1, Box 2, Leesburg Wright, A. Gilbert, Fiorida State Museum, Gainesville, Biological, Physical & Social Sciences Wynn, Mark F., 2716 SW 33rd Court, Miami, Biology 70 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Yates, Bernard, 901 William-Oliver Bldg., Atlanta Yerger, Ralph W., Florida State University, Zoology Yoho, Herbert, University of Florida, Geology Yothers, W. W., 457 Boone St., Orlando, Entomology Young, Frank N., University of Indiana, Entomology Young, Sadie G., Florida State University, F.iconomics Ziegler, Arthur W., 1606 Meridian Rd., Tallahassee, Botany NEWS AND COMMENTS The Council of the Academy has approved several important policy matters which should be called to the attention of the mem- bership. These policies were motivated by a desire to make the Academy a live organization even between the annual meetings so it could better serve its membership. Furthermore, it is sincerely hoped that by these new or renewed features, as the case may be, the Academy will render a fruitful service to the people of Florida. The first of these changes is the revival of the “News and Com- ments’ section. It is hoped that the membership will assist the Editor by supplying pertinent information for publication in this section. Again motivated by the desire to serve Florida the News and Comments section will carry information about the field of resource-use education submitted by the Florida Resource-Use Educational Committee. The second important new service rendered by the Academy to Florida is the radio program “The Academy Speaks.” This will be a regular monthly 15-minute broadcast over a number of stations throughout the State. The Academy is going to present the results of pertinent research to the radio audience in a form suitable to that medium of communication. The initial broadcast will be over WRUF at 8:00 P.M. May 29, 1954, at which time a forum discussion on “Florida’s Future” will be presented. At later dates other stations will carry the program. The radio program, which will be distributed from the Univer- sity of Florida in cooperation with radio station WRUF, is an Academy program and it is hoped that all institutions will partici- pate in it. The University of Miami is already in harness with Dr. W. Henry Leigh being chairman of the local subcommittee. Dr. D. R. Dyer, OF-7, University of Florida, is chairman of the Radio. Committee. Interested members should write to him con- cerning the program. Scientists all over the country are showing an increasing interest in problems involved in education for science. At the Tampa meeting in 1951 the Academy manifested its interest in the mat- ter in passing a resolution concerning education. This concern prompted the Council’s decision to approve a panel discussion on the problems of “Science and Education” for the customary Thurs- day evening opening meeting. A special call will be made to the 72 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES members for papers dealing with the practical aspects of the teach- ing of the sciences. The Secretary-Treasurer has worked diligently in the prepara- tion of an up-to-date membership list which is published in this issue. This work focused sharp attention upon the necessity of increasing the membership of the Academy. Dr. J. C. Moore, president-elect, had been appointed as chairman of the Member- ship Committee. It is hoped that all members will assist him in his task by inviting at least one qualified person to become affiliated with the Academy. In this connection, it is hoped that collegiate membership will be increased too. In order to carry out this task, the Council authorized the appointment of a committee on col- legiate membership. Any member interested in this work should contact the President. We would also like to remind the members of the Academy that the JourNaL has a section headed “Research Notes” for the publica- tion of shorter articles. INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Contributions to the JourNaL may be in any of the fields of Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings can be published only with the cooperation of the author. Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or other com- petent critics. Manuscript Form.—(1) Typewrite material, using one side of paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal mar- gins; (3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight; (4) do not submit carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) foot- notes: should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short; (8) method of citation and bibliographic style must conform to JouRNAL style—see Volume 16, No. 1 and later issues; (9) a factual summary is recommended for longer papers. InLustTRATIONS.—Photographs should be glossy prints of good con- trast. All drawings should be made with India ink; plan linework and lettering for at least 4% reduction. Do not mark on the back of any photographs. Do not use typewritten legends on the face of drawings. Legends for charts, drawings, photographs, etc., should be provided on separate sheets. 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Payment for reprints will be made by the author directly to the printer. tie ebtipthicad Eat RG wht cape eieret BUTT TOT tte Tie it de the Wend, Ma Sie Siti fib eras STN ie Oty Haque 7 a bo Pe ica atl +O ond vd Rerdrenvinfy sd’ Hy eae . | erin th mgt ach hiv, vaciaabenie! hiss Ae Yee tettited ait nate (iT paps : di Sot arises rie out Wel TY ARAEM Er: 4 40 \ Dares lis pag Pevenrthe:) Meidilita, bri) sfity) Be Te TV eer ti é ‘ my On. (2) “Mesign" Inabiaie th ae | x ae ek Pu tich > Aer FOP) Aen ie PIIO® HY SY ¢ ie ’ ~i @ ae Leary pr > a NeATAACKS Cth f Ag} 4 Pt ‘y? em he % rt fae ; 4 x ¥ ry . - . +e . ¢ - fp4)°3 ik Mos ce aa J ) Wh) i 7 y ei {ey e iygyet qf? He, wae Ts | o r 4. agi Pa as at CF 3 ; et Vey AGES ‘ ’ + = ‘ ‘ Dy Wine ;, ar i? \ PF bon mors ls ee! a A Lets 3 Bp PLE j i a4 seRe ay ‘! 3 ; it 4" ; a Te af cam a ; 5 . bt. * : ; sis : ‘ Hie: i.» - : ey 4 il | eS z : ‘ 2 . ie bi = & 4 “i e : - t & hie. oe! 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Betti fon act a Ouarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 17 June, 1954 No. 2 Contents Becker—Florida’s Resource-Use Education Problems _______ eee Nineteenth Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy of LETS ES Se ee 82 Edson and Thornton—A Rapid Colorimetric Test for Organic Seer an Certain Mineral Soils 83 Nielsen—The Multitrichomate Oscillatoriaceae of Florida ___ 87 Odum and Parrish—Boron in Florida Waters 105 Hobbs—A New Crayfish from the Upper Coastal Plain of Rewer (Decapoda, Astacidac) LO Johnson—A Suggested Inorganic Fertilizer for Use in (0 ELLE Sc Sy a aa USL 119 Vou: 17 No. 2 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. The business offices of the JouRNAL are centralized at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology. All subsequent correspondence concerning manuscripts may be handled directly between authors and associate editors: J. C. Dickinson, Jr., Biological Sciences, Department of Biology and Florida State Museum; Donald R. Dyer, Social Sciences, Department of Geography; John W. Flowers, Physical Sciences, Department of Physics. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be addressed to The Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed August 18, 1954 foe QUARTERLY JOURNAL OFTHE JuNE, 1954 No. 2 FLORIDA’S RESOURCE-USE EDUCATION PROBLEMS Henry F.. BECKER Florida State University THE NEED FOR RESOURCE-USE EDUCATION It has often been pointed out that the directives for education in any society can be discovered by consulting the needs of its people. A study of Florida reveals some interesting and highly significant facts indicative of such needs. A few of these are cited below. Population. It is generally known that Florida’s population is a growing one. During every decade since 1860 its rate of growth has exceeded that. of the Southeast and of the Nation. Between 1930 and 1940 the total population of the state grew about 29 per cent. During the same period, however, 13 counties in the state _lost people. Between 1940 and 1950 the state gained 46 per cent in population but 18 counties lost people (Figure 1). Sixteen of these 18 counties were in North Florida. Often those who leave are the vigorous, able young men and women seeking better economic opportunity elsewhere. Income. Per capita effective buying income (gross income less individual income taxes) in Florida ranks above that of the rest of the Southeast but somewhat below the national level. In 1940 the average for Florida was $475, that of the rest of the Southeast $369, and that of the Nation $692. In 1950 the Florida average was $1181, that of the Southeast $887, and that of the Nation $1311. Within the state the average per capita income ranged from a low of $90 to a high of $688 in 1940; in 1950, from $277 to $1853. Low ranking counties were again concentrated in North Florida (Fig. 2). Age of Population. North Florida obviously is poor as indicated above. And, as is usually the case with poor folks, families are AUG3 1 iyod 74 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES large. Consequently, of the 36 counties with the highest percent- age of their total population under 21 years of age, 34 are concen- trated in a solid block in north and west Florida. ‘Figure 1 PER CENT OF INCREASE OR DECREASE IE POPULATION 1940 - 1950 Increase of more than 40 Increase of less than 40 = x eee, Decrease Souree: U. S. Bureau of the Census. U, S, Cengug of Population: 1950. Vol. 1, Iphabitants, Chapter 10: Florida. U. S. overmment Printing Office, Washington, Dd. Cc ? 1951. An Interpretation. These facts and many more, together with their implications and inter-relationships concerning not only Florida but also the Southeast, the Nation, and the world, are a necessary part of the equipment of a people concerned with creating a high | level of civilization on an enduring basis. For example, behind the loss of people in certain North Florida counties for the last 10 to 30 or more years is a story of the misuse of a major natural resource—forests. In many parts of the Nation the destructive exploitation of forests was followed by farm settlement. Although all the answers are not yet in, it now appears to expert opinion FLORIDA’S RESOURCE-USE EDUCATION PROBLEMS 75 that close to two-thirds of Florida’s land should be in trees, or possibly grass, rather than in farm lands. Going back to the North Florida counties that have been losing people, one sees that following the rapid removal of the forest cover to secure naval stores and lumber, both Jand and workers were abandoned by the companies operating under a “cut out and get out’ policy. Figure 2 AVERAGE PER CAPITA EFFECTIVE BUYING INCOME, 1950" Below $850 $850 - 1149 $1150 and above State average: $1131 "Gross income less individuel income taxes Source: Saleg Management Magagine, May, 1951. For the next 10 to 20 years, a stranded white population with neither skill nor capital tried to farm land unfit for crop production. About 20 years ago there were ten million acres of idle, cut-over, burned-over, tax-delinquent land in the state. Large areas of such land had grown up in scrub oak. Similar land in widely scattered areas of North Florida was in poor, unsuccessful farms, many of which have since been abandoned. In the ill-constructed houses on these farms it was often possible to “study geology through 76 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the floor and astronomy through the roof.” Counties whose major resource consisted of such land, soon found themselves unable to secure tax money with which to finance schools and other social services for their people. Thus they emerged as Florida’s economic and educational problem number 1. It is significant that these counties are in the old part of the state; old enough to have gotten into trouble through misuse of resources. Let us hope that educa- tion can help the newer parts of the state avoid similar mistakes with reference to the use of water and other resources. Fortunately the remedy for making misused forest lands pro- ductive again is at hand. Trees can grow faster in Florida than in any part of the United States. Florida has 5,000,000 acres of potential forest land on which trees will not re-seed themselves. Since 1928 only 4 out of every 100 of these acres on which trees should be planted have been salvaged. At this rate it will take 500 years to complete the job. In 1948 there existed 17 per cent less timber in Florida than in 1934. If this rate of use continues, the end of Florida’s timber supply would be reached in 92 years. These estimates, based on the recent biennial report of the Florida Board of Forestry, are said to be conservative (Florida Board of Forestry, 1950). Much of the ten million acres on delinquent land referred to above is still unproductive. Here is a resource-use education job that needs doing and which, if done would add mil- lions of dollars of annual income in a relatively short time. Even more important than the money income would be the effect on the physical, mental, and spiritual health of people. Defeatism and loss of purpose thrive in communities where the economic strug- gle is unrewarded. Social institutions deteriorate and promising young people leave—which is where we started with this cycle. All of these trends could be reversed if everyone realized the need for reclaiming misused or unused land. Summary of Needs. What is needed by all people is more knowl- edge and understanding of the gains that have been made and of the needs and problems still to be faced. Florida’s need for resource-use education is clearly of a two-fold character: 1. Those needs evidenced in more than twenty counties of North Florida and West Florida by problems common to the rural South- east: the well-known problems of an older South which has ex- FLORIDA’S RESOURCE-USE EDUCATION PROBLEMS Til ploited wastefully its best soils and its forests, a process which finally ended in numerous maladjustments in the use of natural resources and generally low levels of living for most of the people. These people are of southern origin and outlook, people from nearby states who came in search of new land and economic op- portunity. Here, as in most of the rural Southeast, people have lived long enough on the land for the consequences of their mis- takes to catch up with them. Hence this portion of the state shares with many parts of the South such common problems of poverty as poor health, poor housing, few modern conveniences, a high rate of natural increase, and inability to finance adequate schools and other institutions. Here all too frequently are insufficient eco- nomic opportunities and an out-migration of ambitious, able, and vigorous young people. 2. Those needs evidenced in the newer, more urbanized east- ern, central, and southern parts of the state. Here in contrast io the general and subsistence farming areas of north and west Flor- ida are the highly commercialized winter fruit and vegetable producing lands with their migratory workers and their early- season appeal to the high prices of northern markets. Here both urban and rural population are for the most part recent arrivals from northern and western as well as southern states, hence more cosmopolitan and possibly more sophisticated. Although these eastern, central, and southern parts of the state share to some extent the problems of north and west Florida, their difficulties stem largely from the fact of expanding, growing population still learning how to make use of resources in a subtropical environ- ment different from that of the rest of the Southeast and the state. Here at first glance all seems to be well, but on probing beneath the facade of higher average incomes (Figure 2), larger number of better buildings, greater expenditures for schools, and larger amounts of taxable property, various problems emerge. Seasonal migration of population creates problems of education, of housing, of living costs; of temporary urban congestion, and of seasonal unemployment. Here are engendered the psychology of optimism based on catering to rich tourists who appear to come in endless streams, and the smugness which accompanies sudden and spec- tacular, if sometimes precarious, financial success. in short, here are the new parts of the State where the major problem might 78 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES well be defined as how to avoid the serious errors in use of re- sources that lead to trouble. Already there are evidences that it is high time to act to prevent serious water conservation problems from developing and to forestall soil depletion and the evils of over-drainage of wet lands. Already there are the problems of ill-housed and un-wanted migratory farm workers and of urban slums. IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION In a democracy problems cannot be solved and human needs met by experts alone. It is essential also to have an enlightened public, understanding enough to support sound programs of re- source-use. Hence, education must meet a four-fold need for: A. Better-informed citizens of all ages who understand such basic assumptions as these (Becker and Brubaker, 1949): 1. The major short-term objective of a democratic society is the achievement of better living for more people; the major long-term objective, the best possible living for all people. bo Any community (local, state, nation, world) is dependent for its living on its human, natural, and social resources. To continue permanently, a society must maintain all of its resources in productive condition. 3. The community loses when any resource is unused or mis- used. } 4. The community suffers when resources are damaged, de- pleted, or destroyed. Mistreatment of resources threatens everybody's living level and must, therefore, be everybody's concern. 5. In nature undisturbed by man there is a delicate and easily upset balance among the various factors of the natural en- vironment. It is so much easier to destroy this balance than to maintain it or to substitute a new one for it. 6. With intelligent use, renewable resources not too badly dam- ° aged can be restored to productive use. Wise use of resources helps to raise everybody's living level and must, therefore, be everybody's concern. 7. Cooperative effort in identifying and solving problems to secure group benefits is essentially democratic. Human be- FLORIDA’S RESOURCE-USE EDUCATION PROBLEMS 79 ings grow and develop through engaging in such a social process. 8. Failure to understand and act on all of the above assump- tions creates numerous complex problems. B. Specialists who can serve as foresters, soil conservationists, health officers, social workers, engineers, and the like, working directly with problems of resource-use. C. Social scientists and scientists as library and field research workers to make available sound basic data and conclusions. D. Translators and interpreters of research for use in education and action programs. This group may include persons from both groups above and, in addition, public administrators, journalists, newscasters, teachers, writers of textbooks, and many others. These people constitute a powerful force in American life. With the proper knowledge and understanding they can greatly accelerate the spread of needed facts and insights. It is here that one finds the big gap between what is known by research workers and what is used in educating school children, college students, and the public. _ Obviously the educational job just outlined is of major propor- tions and will call for assistance from all agencies and institutions equipped to give aid. This is not a new educational panacea, but a re-focusing of educational effort upon a clearly defined goal. It involves not so much new courses at various levels as the re- assessment and re-pointing of practically all courses in science and social science now in the schools toward this goal. FLoriwsa’s RESOURCE-USE EDUCATION PROGRAM Recognition by educational leaders of the kinds of problems described above resulted in a South-wide movement in what is now commonly called “resource-use education.” Florida has par- ticipated in this movement since its inception. Although several small beginnings had been made in resource- use education prior to 1943, Florida’s program like many others in the south grew in large measure out of the Gatlinburg Confer- ences sponsored by the Committee on Southern Regional Studies and Education. In its November, 1943, meeting following the attendance of several Florida representatives at the first of these 80 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Conferences, the Florida Courses-of-Study Committee adopted the following resolution: The State Courses-of-Study Committee is convinced that there is a vital need for planning for the better utilization of all resources, both natural and human, in the State and believes that the schools can contribute materially to the attainment of this objective. This body strongly recom- mends that plans be developed for bringing about the necessary reorienta- tion of the school program of the State and urges the State Department of Education to investigate all possibilities and secure a grant from the General Education Board, if possible, to assist in carrying out the projects. On March 4, 1944, the Florida State Department of Education, on behalf of itself and the Florida State Planning Board, Florida State College for Women (now Florida State University), the Uni- versity of Florida, and the Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College, made application to the General Education Board for finan- cial assistance for a three-year program to be entitled “A Proposed Program for Improving Utilization of the Human and Natural Resources of Florida Through Education.” This application was approved by the General Education Board and the program began to function on May 15, 1944, under the somewhat simpler title: “Florida Resource-Use Education Project.” Financial assistance from the General Education Board was supplemented by funds and services from the sponsoring state agencies and institutions. The Florida Program proceeded under the direction of a Co- ordinator, appointed by the State Superintendent of Education, and an Advisory Committee composed of one representative of each of the following institutions, agencies, and organizations: State Department of Education (two representatives, one for white public schools and one for Negro colleges and public schools) State Planning Board (abolished at the end of the first year of the program) Florida Courses of Study Committee Florida Teacher Education Advisory Council Florida Education Association Florida State College for Women (now Florida State University) University of Florida Florida Forest and Park Service In addition to the agencies and institutions represented on the Advisory Committee, numerous others participated in the program. These included all teacher institutions in the state, both white and Negro, and various agencies such as the Florida Forest Service, the Florida Park Service, the Florida Geological Survey, the Florida FLORIDA’S RESOURCE-USE EDUCATION PROBLEMS 81 Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, the Florida Department of Agriculture and Immigration, the Florida Advertising Commis- sion, and the United States Soil Conservation Service. During Governor Caldwell’s Administration this Committee was replaced by the Florida Resource-Use Education Committee referred to above. The following aims and policies have guided the organization and administration of the program since its inception: 1. bo To develop and spread as widely as possible the point of view which forms the basis of an effective resource-use edu- cation program. To attack the problems of resource use and resource-use education along as many fronts as possible. To secure the active participation of as many agencies, in- stitutions, groups, and individuals as possible. To aid pre-service and in-service teachers to become better equipped to carry on resource-use education. To make available needed new materials for the use of teach- ers and pupils. To provide an adequate program for Negroes as well as for whites. LITERATURE CITED - BECKER, HENRY F. and HARRY F. BRUBAKER 1949. A better living for Florida’s people? Jour. Fla. Educ. Assn., March, 1949. FLORIDA BOARD OF FORESTRY 1950. Eleventh Biennial Report, Florida Forest Service, 1948-1950. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 17(2), 1954. NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING of THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DECEMBER 9, 10, 11, 1954 FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY TALLAHASSEE, FLORIDA Meetings will be held Thursday evening the 9th, Friday the 10th and Saturday morning the llth of December, 1954. The formal call for papers will be issued and forms provided by the Secretary about October 1. These forms should be returned to the Section Chairmen by October 22 in order that the program may be mailed to the members about November 20. With “Science and the Aims of Education” as the theme for the Thursday evening Symposium, the Council invites members to present papers concerned with the practical aspects of teaching science at the other sessions of this years meeting. A RAPID COLORIMETRIC TEST FOR ORGANIC MATTER IN CERTAIN MINERAL SOILS ! Seton N. Epson and GrorcE D. THORNTON 2 University of Florida It is generally agreed that the organic matter content of the soils of the Coastal Plains area is an important factor in determining their value for economic farming. Peech (1939) pointed out that the exchange capacity of these soil was largely dependent on the organic matter content. A light sandy soil, with less than 1.0 per- cent organic matter, is considered to be low in this component and is suitable for only limited types of agriculture. On the other hand, dark sandy soils with over 2 percent of organic matter are considered more desirable for many types of crops. The color of a soil gives a rough estimate of its organic matter content; however, this may sometimes be misleading. The char- acteristic black color of organic matter in soils can be totally masked by iron stains, leading to an erroneous estimation of the organic matter content. Yet, farms are frequently bought and sold on the basis of the amount of black coloration present in the soil. A sim- ple test for organic matter has long been needed as a tool for estimating more accurately the content of this constituent in soils. The chromic acid procedure has been recognized as a standard method for determining soil organic matter (Merkle, 1940; Peech, Alexander, Dean and Reed, 1947; Purvis and Blume, 1941). How- ever, none of these workers have succeeded in simplifying the procedure so that it can be useful as a rapid test for organic matter. When the test is conducted in the conventional manner, it is time consuming and does not lend itself readily to the efforts of persons untrained in laboratory techniques. These limitations have been largely overcome by the development of a colorimetric method. This colorimetric method utilizes as a source of heat that of dilu- tion of sulfuric acid when rapidly added to soil-chromic acid mix- ture. It also embraces the use of color standards, thus eliminating the tedious titration of the conventional method. The amount of organic matter oxidized by this procedure, up to 4.0 percent, is ‘Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Jour. Series, No. 240. ° Assistant Prof. of Soils, College of Agri. and Soil Microbiologist, Agr. Exp. Sta. 84 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES proportional to the amount of chromate reduced. As reduction takes place, the characteristic yellow color of the dichromate ion changes to chrome green. Change of color resulting from this method is correlated with soils of known organic matter content. A permanent set of reference solution colors are prepared which correspond with the changes of color of the reduced chromate ion when none-1-2-3- and 4-percent organic matter content are present. Such colors are conveniently mixed from acid solutions of copper sulfate and ferric chloride (Snell and Snell, 1950). Only three test solutions, a small mortar and pestle, two small graduated cylinders, a single beam gram balance, an asbestos pad, and several 16 x 150 mm. test tubes are needed to make the colori- metric test described in this paper. The chemical reaction taking place is vigorous and rapid, re- quiring only a few seconds to complete over 95 percent of the digestion. The remaining oxidation is completed on standing for a period of 20 minutes. It is important to have an asbestos pad under the cylinder when digestion is taking place in order to insure uniform cooling. Test SOLUTIONS Concentrated sulfuric acid solution: Reagent grade H2SQOxq. 2 .N potassium dichromate solution: 98.08 gms. of reagent grade K.Cr.O; in distilled water diluted to 1 liter. 80% phosphoric acid solution: 800 ml. of H3PO, in distilled water diluted to 1 liter. 2N copper sulfate solution: 124.84 gms. of reagent grade CuSO,. 5H.2O in 1% HCl solution making total volume 1 liter. 2N ferric chloride solution: 90 gms. of reagent grade FeCl;.6H2O in 1% HCl solution making total volume 1] liter. REFERENCE STANDARDS Soil samples from Alachua County, Florida, were used as a basis for the reference standards. These soils were collected by per- sonnel of the United States Department of Agriculture and Florida Agricultural Experiment Station and analyzed for organic matter content in the laboratory by the convention] chromic acid method. RAPID COLORIMETRIC TEST FOR ORGANIC MATTER 85 Tests by the rapid colorimetric method were conducted on these soils and permanent color reference solutions were prepared to correspond with the amounts of organic matter known to be present (Table I). TABLE I Known Soil Standards and Equivalent Permanent Color Reference Solutions | Depth | Known | | Organic Soil Type | of ORNiea 2N | 2N | Matter ; | Soil Content* | CuSO..5H:O | FeCl:.6H:O | Rating | % ml. | ml. | Jo | Silica sand ___. ee epee None sol None | 15.0 | 0 Hernando f. s.___ | om 1.18 0.5 | 15.0 | i | | | Parkwood f. s. _ De | 2.02 15 14.0 | us | | | Fellowship f. s. | Di | 3.10 | 5D | 10.0 3 eee ere ie Any | 9 BO A * Recorded data from Soil Survey of Alachua County, Florida. PROCEDURE Since a representative soil sample is very important for reliable tests, approved soil sampling methods using a vertical cut to a depth of 6 inches were followed. Several sub-samples from the area were combined and the test sample drawn from the composit. After screening the air dried soil through a 20-mesh sieve, a portion of the dry soil is ground in the mortar. One gram of the crushed soil is weighed and added to a 50 ml. graduate resting on an asbestos pad. With a dropping pipette 2.5 ml. of 2 N K,Cr.O; solution are added. Ten milliliters of concentrated H2SO, are measured into a 25 ml. graduate and rapidly poured into the 50 ml. graduate containing the chromate and soil. The soil is then allowed to digest for exactly twenty minutes. The colored supernatant liquid is poured to the 1.0 ml. mark on a 16 x 150 mm. test tube and followed by the 80 per cent H3PO, solution added to the 5.0 ml. mark on the same test tube. Finally, the contents are mixed and the resultant color compared directly with the liquid color standards. 86 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES RESULTS Results obtained for the determination of organic matter in Coastal Plains Soils are demonstrated by the data in Table Il. A comparison is made with results obtained by the standard chromic acid procedure. TABLE II Comparative Values of Organic Matter Content of Some Typical Coastal Plains Soils by the Standard Chromic Acid and Rapid Colorimetric Methods. Standard Rapid Soil Type Depth of Soil Chromic Acid* Colorimetric % O. M. % O. M. Schanton sand 2) = 2 =- | Ge 3.68 4.0 Greenville f. 5... _ | Gu | 0.90** | 1.0 I eonmsand 2 koe a 5% 1.86 ies Dackernss l= 2 ee 6” : 4.06** 4.0 Scramton: fo. Shot Gr 3.90** a0 Gainesville |. f. s. | a 2.42, 25 MRK aya iareta Gk mit A | 8” 1.84 2.0 Plummer fs, 22 = | Su | 5s Lae | | | * Recorded data from Soil Survey of Alachua County, Florida. ** Recorded soils samples, College of Agriculture, University of Florida. It will be noted in these data that fairly close agreement occurs between the two methods. In all cases the difference has been within 0.4 percent, a part of which may be attributed to the fact that two individual soil samples were involved. LITERATURE CITED IMU. 15 (CG 1940. Soil Testing—Operation, Interpretation and Application. Penn. State Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 398. PEECH, M., L. T. ALEXANDER, L. A. DEAN and J. F. REED 1947. Methods of Soil-Fertility Investigations. U.S.D.A. Cire. No. 757. PEECH, M. 5 1939. Chemical Studies on Soils from Florida Citrus Groves. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. bull; INoy340: RURWASS Ey Reeeand pe Mee BIC UINEE: 1941. Truck Crops Investigation. Va. Truck Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 106. SINE, 185 IE, ayn! (TE, SINTER SIL, 1950. Colorimetric Methods of Analysis. Vol. 1. Van Nostrand Co., New YotkeuNe ey. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 17(2), 1954. THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA C. S. NIELSEN Florida State University Continued from Vol. 17, No. 1 2. Porphyrosiphon Kutzing ex Gomont. Filaments simple. Sheaths purple or peach-colored. Trichomes solitary—few within sheath; apical cell never capitate. A Trichomes never constricted at cross-walls, 4-6.6 » wide, apical cells rotund or subconical. EEA farseus AA Trichomes generally constricted at cross-walls, 8-19 « wide. Apical cell attenuate-obtuse. 2. P. Notarisii 1. Porphyrosiphon fuscus Gomont apud. Frémy. Mus. d Hist. Nat. Bull. 33: 115 (1927). Stratum thin, dark to black. Filaments variously curved and densely intricate. Sheaths firm, moderately wide, hyaline to often brownish-purple (in dried specimens), apex generally contracted, turning blue with chlor- zinc-iodine. Trichomes blue-green, never contricted at cross-walls, often moving out of sheath, 4-6.6 « wide; cells most often longer than trichome diameter, 4.4 to 9 u long, filled with indistinct protoplasmic granules. Apical cell rotund or subconical. Collier county: Marco Island, Paul C. Standley 92839, 14 Mar. 1946 (C). Escambia county: freshwater pool behind dunes, Gulf beach, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10582, 10533, 8 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Jackson county: wayside park, U. S. highway no. 90, 1 mile west of Cottondale, Drouet ¢> Nielsen 854, 19 Feb. 1949 (C, F). Jefferson county: Judge Hopkin’s camp, Lake Miccosukee, Nielsen & Crowson 967, 11 Mar. 1949 (C, F). Lee county: Bonita beach, Paul C. Standley 92789, 10 Mar. 1946 (C). Monroe county: Cudjoe key, Lawrence B. Isham 6, 1952 (C). Santa Rosa county: in a depression in sand dunes, Pensacola beach, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10578, 8 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Wakulla county: on high eroded east bank of East river, west of St. Marks lighthouse, on the Gulf of Mexico at the mouth of St. Marks river, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 11739, 2 Jan. 1949 (C, F). 88 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES P. fuscus Gom. has been found with Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gom., Scytonema figuratum B. & F. and Schizothrix longiarticulata Gardn. It was reported for the state by Madsen & Nielsen (1950). 2. Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 331, pl. 12 ez (1892), Stratum expanded, tomentose, dark purple. Filaments diversely curved and densely intricate. Sheaths purple, apex often hyaline, sometimes form- ing discolored layers, internally colored, externally hyaline, firm, finally very wide and exceedingly lamellose, apices acuminate and fibrillose, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes blue-green, generally constricted at crosswalls, 8-19 « wide; cell length equal to or to 3 times as short as trichome diameter, 4.5-12 uw long, filled with protoplasmic granules; apical cell attenuate-obtuse. Florida: W. C. Sturgis (C);-J. D. Smith, Mar esToa(G@aNee)- Alachua county: on ground in sandy places, Gainesville, Ravenel o, 7, 20; 29, 1875 (C, H, N.Y., P). Bay county:7an depression sand, pine woods beside U. S. highway no. 319, 5 miles north-west of Beacon Hill, Drouet & Nielsen 11632, 31 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Frank- lin county: on debris, washed up on sand dunes, west side of Eastpoint, Drouet & Nielsen 11658, 11665, 11666, 31 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Gadsden county: Apalachicola river at Chattahoochee, Niel- sen, Madsen & Crowson 293, 31 Aug. 1948 (C, F); barren ground in upland woods, beside U. S. highway no. 90, 4 miles east of Quincy, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10425 b, 10431, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F); Apalachicola river flood plain, U. S. highway no. 90, Chat- tahoochee, Nielsen 1433, 1440, 1441, 1443, 9 July 1949 (C, F). Gulf county: among grasses on low sand dunes, shore of Gulf of Mexico, southeast of Beacon Hill, Drouet & Nielsen 10853, 10856, 14 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Jackson county: on barren red clay banks beside U. S. highway no. 90, 5 miles east of Marianna, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10339, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F); on sand, 8 miles east of Mari- anna on U. S. highway no. 90, D. Blake 1, 2, 28 July 1952 (C, F). Lake county: on dry sand, Eustis, R. Thaxter, 1897 (D). Lee county: on log, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Paul C. Standley 73188, 73200, 73234, 73269, 73454, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Leon county: on clay bank near Ochlocko- nee river, U. S. highway no. 90, west of Stephensville, Drouet, Crowson & J. Petersen 10481, 6 Jan. 1949 (C, F); on clay bank beside Meridian road between Lake Iamonia and Ochlockonee river, THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA — 89 Drouet, Kurz & Nielsen 11261 b, 24 Jan. 1949 (C, F); in old field by magnolia woods, west of Lake Iamonia, Drouet, Kurz & Nielsen 11277, 11279, 24 Jan. 1949 (C, F); barren ground in a fallow field near north-west shore of Lake Iamonia, Drouet, Kurz & Nielsen 11280, 11281, 24 Jan. 1949 (C, F); barren ground in Blue Sink, a sink-hole in limestone beside state highway no. 61 (175) about 8 miles south of Tallahassee, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Atwood 11575, 11576, 29 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Levy county: upland and barrens in north-west part of Way key, Cedar Keys, Drouet & Nielsen 11169, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, F); barren ground in sandy open woods beside state highway no. 20, 1 mile east of Sumner, Drowet & Nielsen 11206, 23 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Liberty county: Apalachi- cola river flood plain at Bristol, Nielsen & Madsen 433, Aug. 1948 (C, F). Nassau county: near Hilliard, Paul C. Standley 92768, 18 Mar. 1946 (C). Polk county: north of Lake Wales, Paul C. Standley 92773, 16 Mar. 1946 (C). Santa Rosa county: in depres- sion and sand dunes, east of Pensacola beach, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10573, 10583, 10596, 10599, 10609, 8 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Taylor county: on bank of creek, U. S. highway no. 27, 1 mile north-west of Perry, Drouet & Nielsen 10747, 11 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Wakulla county: Spillway dam, Phillips lake, St. Marks wildlife refuge, Nielsen & Madsen 704, 5 Dec. 1948 (C, F). Wash- ington county: dry ground, Falling Waters, 4 miles south of Chipley, C. R. Jackson 1, 14 Jan. 1951 (C, F); moist stream bank, Falling Waters, 4 miles south of Chipley, C. R. Jackson 2, 14 Jan. 1951 (C, De eereeVoth, 14 Jan. 1951 (C.F). The alga may be found with Microcoleus paludosus Gom., M. vaginatus Gom., Porphyrosiphon fuscus Gom., Schizothrix purpura- scens Gom., S. longiarticulata Gardn., Scytonema figuratum B. & F. S. ocellatum B. & F., Stigonema panniforme B. & F. and Sym- ploca Kieneri Dr. The species has been reported for the state by Drouet (1939), Nielson & Madsen (1948b) and Crowson (1950). 3. Hydrocoleum Kiitzing ex Gomont. Filaments forming more or less pseudo-branched caespitose cusions, very rarely lime-encrusted, or indefinite tufts, or strata phormidioid and never caespitose. Sheaths always hyaline, cylin- drical, lamellose, more or less mucous, amorphous and becoming 90 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES entirély diffluent with age, never turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes few within sheath, often loosely aggregated; cells shorter than trichome diameter, in several species extremely short; apex of trichome straight, more or less attenuate; capitate; membrane of apical cell thickened above into a calyptra. Plants aquatic, speci- fically marine. _Plants more or less green, never red, marine. Trichomes 8-24 wide; cells very short. 1. Trichomes 8-16 ,., generally 9-11 , wide, conspicuously capi- tate, cells 2.5-4.5 » long. 1. H. lyngbyaceum 2. Trichomes 9.5-14.3 », generally 11 » wide, not conspicu- ously capitate, cells 1.9-3.8 » long. 2. H. penicillatum _ 3. Stratum never caespitose, mucous, dark yellow to yellow- green. Sheaths amorphous or entirely diffluent. Trichomes 14-21 yp, generally 17-19 » wide. 3. H. glutinosum 4. Stratum caespitose, green-violet. Sheaths cylindrical, mod- derately mucous. Trichomes 14-21 » wide. 4. H. comoides 1. Hydrocoleum lyngbyaceum Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 337, Oly WA ie Gall (use) Plant mass tufted blackish-green broadly expanded mucous stratum. Filaments joined, bases simple, above numerous appressed pseudo-branches. Sheaths wide, mucous, eroded at margins, apices acuminate or often open, occasionally entirely diffluent and agglutinated: Trichomes yellowish-green, numerous at base of filaments and spirally intricate and contorted, solitary in branches, not contricted at cross-walls, 8-16 uw, generally 9-11 mu wide; cells 3 to 6 times shorter than diameter, 2.5-4.5 « long: cross-walls granular; apex of trichomes attenuate-truncate. Var. (alpha) lyngbyaceum. Caespitose, generally epiphytic; sheaths firm. Var. rupestre Gom. Stratum expanded, muscous, sheaths entirely diffluent. Florida: Smith, Mar. 1878 (after Wolle). Franklin county: form- ing conspicuous dark turf on barnacles, whistle buoy 26, 10 miles southeast of Alligator point, H. J. Humm, 27 July 1952 (C). Levy county: on pilings, municipal wharf, Way key, Cedar Keys, Drouet ¢r Nielsen 11122, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Monroe county: irregular or rounded masses on rocks, Key West, Marshall A. Howe 1490, 28 Oct. 1902 (C). Taylor county: Keaton’s beach, Madsen & Pates 1092, 4 May 1949 (C, F). THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 91 The species has been reported for the state by Tilden (1910), by W. R. Taylor (1928) from Dry Tortugas, Drouet (1939), and Madsen & Nielsen (1950). 2. Hydrocoleum penicillatum Taylor. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 56: Shipes oh" 2)( 1929), Expanded stratum, little color, mucous but including calcareous sedi- ment or partly calcified. Filaments in fascicles usually 3 cm. tall, or up to 5 cm. and 2.0 mm. in diameter, simple or with 1-10 main branches, mucous and pale below, above increasingly pilose with dark brown-violet filaments, the ends more or less penicillate and attenuate; trichomas 9.5-14.3 u in diameter, cells 1.9-3.8 « long; trichomes with depressed rounded calyptra and pale straw color to nearly colorless; trichomes hardly capitate, slightly tapered near the apex which is nearly straight, slightly constricted at cross- walls which are inconspicuously and rarely granulated; sheaths confluent, the individual ones hardly recognizable. Monroe county: south shore near Battery and south of Old Fort, Key West, R. Thaxter, Feb. 1898 (C, H). The species was originally described and reported for the state by W. R. Taylor (1929) from the 1898 Thaxter collection. 3. Hydrocoleum glutinosum Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 339 (1892). Stratum dark yellow or dark yellowish-green, never caespitose, mucous, indefinite expanse, or cylindrical thallus. Sheaths very irregular at margins and amorphous, occasionally entirely diffuent. Trichomes pale to dark green, noi constricted at cross-walls 14 to 21 ,, generally 17-19 , wide; cells 3 to 6 times shorter than diameter, 2.5-3.5 uw long; cross-walls granular; apex of trichome attenuate-truncate. Var. glutinosum. Stratum phormidioid, amorphous, expanded. Var. vermiculare Gom. Thallus elongate-cylindrical, pale or dark green. Monroe county: Tortugas, F. W. Hooper, about 1850, (C). St. Johns county: north of bridge on west side of Anastasia island, St. Augustine, Madsen, Pates & S. Parker 2026, 2 Jan.'1950 (C, F). 4. Hydrocoleum comoides Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 335, pl. 12, f. 3-5 (1892). Plant mass pulvinate, hemispherical, green-violet, caespitose, mucous, up to one-half cm. high. Filaments erect, tortuously and often spirally intricate-contorted below, above free, straight, rarely branched. Sheaths ample, lyngbyaceous, regular at margins, smooth, insignificantly mucous, occasionally lamellose, and fibrillose, apices generally open. Trichomes blue-green, few within sheath, solitary in upper portion of filaments, con- 92 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES stricted at cross-walls in dried specimens, 14-21 u wide; cells 3 to 7 times shorter than trichome diameter, 3-5 uw long; cross-walls granular; apex of trichome attenuate-truncate. Monroe county: Tortugas, F. W. Hooper, about 1850 (C); walls of fort, Key West, R. Thaxter, 1898-99 (C); in small rounded or ir- regular cushion-shaped masses on rocks, Key West, Marshall A. Howe 1490, 28 Oct. 1902 (C); West Summerland key, H. J. Humm 3, 2 Jan. 1946 (C); surface of intertidal limestone, West Summerland key, Overseas highway, H. J. Humm, 27 Jan. 1946 (C). Pinellas county: on old oyster shells in intertidal zone near main bridge, Campbell causeway, Tampa bay, Nelson Marshall, 18 Jan. 1953 (C). 4. Sirocoleum Kiitzing ex Gomont. Filaments elongate, caespitose, fruticulose, dichotomously branched. Sheaths firm or slightly diffluent, never colored, cylin- drical, not lamellose, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Tri- chomes numerous within sheath, often aggregated into many distinct fascicles; apex of trichome straight; apical cell conical, never capi- tate Plants marine. A Trichomes torulose, 4-5.5 » wide; cells subquadrate, or long- er than diameter. 1. S. guyanense AA Trichomes not torulose, 7-10 » wide; cells shorter than diameter. ; 2... S2 Kurzti 1, Sirocoleum guyanense Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 348, pl. WAR ie ee SO2); Caespitose, thin, dark green or dark blue-green, up to 3 em. high. Fila- ments dichotomous or fasciculate branching. Sheaths hyaline to dark yellow-green, wide agglutinated, repeated transverse corrugations and nearly squamous, not diffluent, apex closed and acuminate or open. Trichomes blue-green, few within sheath at the base of the filaments, above numerous, straight, parallel, never funiformly contorted, constricted at cross-walls, 4-5.5 u wide: cells subquadrate to 3 times trichome diameter, 3.5-12 w long, occasionally filled with large protoplasmic granules; cross-walis never granu- lar; apical cell acute conical. Collier county: Marco island, Paul C. Standley 92834, 14 Mar. 1946 (C). St. Johns county: on palmetto piers, Marshall A. Howe 1211, St. Augusine, 7 Oct. 1902 (C, D); on Cladophora, Key Largo, Ruth Patrick Hodge 2, 24 Nov. 1935 (D). THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA = 93 3. Sirocoleum Kurzii Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 349, pl. 14, f. 3, 4 (1892). Caespitose, penicillate, thin, waving, sometimes dark, other times bril- liant green. Filaments pseudo-branched, false branches appressed. Sheath hyaline, mucous, wide, smooth on outside or rough and corrugate, apex closed and acuminate or open. Trichomes pale blue-green, or violet, parallel, straight or funiform contorted, apex acuminate, not constricted at cross- walls, 7-10 u wide; cells 2 to 4 times shorter than diameter, 2-4 wu long; cross-walls frequently granular; apical cell obtuse conical. St. Johns county: on palmetto piers, St. Augustine, Marshall A. meme taht 1213, 7 Oct. 1902 (D). 5. Microcoleus Desmazieres ex Gomont. Filaments simple or here and there pseudo-branched, creeping on substrate, occurring among other algae. Sheath hyaline, more or less regularly cylindrical, never lamellose, in many species finally becoming diffluent, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine in two of the listed species. Many trichomes developing in the filaments within sheath, firmly intricate, often funiform and contorted; apex of tri- chome straight, attenuate; apical cell acute, rarely obtuse conical, capitate in one species. A Apical cell capitate 1. M. vaginatus AA _ Apical cell not capitate B. B_ Apical cell acute-conical 1. Trichomes constricted at cross-walls, 2.5-6 4 wide; cells sub- quadrate to twice the width. 2. M. chthonoplastes 2. Trichomes constricted at cross-walls, 1.5-2 » wide; cells to four times diameter in length. 3. M. tenerrimus 3. Trichomes not constricted at cross-walls, 1.8-2.2 » wide; cell length 2-4 times width. 4. M. acutissimus BB Apical cell obtuse-conical 1. Sheaths somewhat mucous, not or scarcely diffluent. Tri- chomes not constricted at cross-walls, 5-7 » wide. 5. M. paludosus 2. Sheaths mucous, diffuent. Trichomes very constricted at cross-walls, 4-5 » wide. 6. M. lacustris 3. Sheaths hyaline, wide, often diffuent. Trichomes some- what constricted at cross-walls, 3-4 » wide. 7. M. rupicola 94 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1. Microcoleus vaginatus Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 355, pl. 14, f. 12 (1892). Filaments creeping, dispersed, rarely matted, in black glistening stratum, tortuous, rarely ever in disorderly pseudo-branches. Sheaths cylindrical, more or less eroded at margins, agglutinated, apices acuminate and closed, or open and diffluent, occasionally entirely diffluent, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes blue-green, numerous within sheath, firmly intricate, generally funiform-contorted, never constricted at cross-walls, apices long attenuate and capitate, 3.5-7 « wide; cells subquadrate to one- half trichome diameter, rarely twice width, 3-7 yu long; cross-walls fre- quently granular; membrane of the apical cell thickened above into a depressed conical calvptra. Var. Vaucheri Gomont. Trichomes 4.4-6.6 « wide; cells subquadrate to half.as short as diameter. Var. monticola Gomont. Trichomes 3.5-4 uw wide; cell length frequently double the diameter. Alachua county: Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, Brannon 173, 189, 11 May 1943 (C, U); 180, 14 July 1948 (C); 183, 17 July 1948 (C, U); 224, 225, 4 Apr. 1944 (C, F); 217 a, 20 Apr. 1944 (C, U); 229, 12 May 1944 (C, U); 306, 24 Aug. 1945 (C, U). Bay county: U. S. highway no. 319, 5 miles north-west of Beacon Hill, Drouet & Nielsen 11637, 31 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Gadsen county: U. S. highway no. 90, 4 miles east of Quincy, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10413, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Jackson county: wayside park, 1 mile west of Cotton- dale, Nielsen & Madsen 857, 19 Feb. 1949 (C, F). Lee county: dried pool, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Paul S. Standley 73195, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Leon county: Oven’s woods, Magnolia hts. Tallahassee, Nielsen & Madsen 417, Aug. 1948 (C, F); open woods, west of F.S.U. campus, Drouet & Crowson 10447, 10448, 5 Jan. 1949 (C, F); on soil near F.S.U. greenhouse, Tallahassee, Drouet & Crowson 10456, 10458, 5 Jan. 1949 (C, F); state highway no. 20, 19 miles west of Tallahassee, Nielsen & Mad- sen 799, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Levy county: sandy open woods, state highway no. 20, 1 mile east of Sumner, Drouet & Nielsen 11206, 23 Jan. 1949 (C, F). St. Johns county: Hastings, Brannon 294, 28 Nov. 1947 (C). Wakulla county: wet bank, St. Marks river, Newport, — Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 10822, 13 Jan. 1949 (C, F); sulfur spring, Newport, Nielsen, 23 July 1952 (C, F); sulfur spring, Newport, C. E. Rufh, 23 July 1952 (C, F). The filaments of some of the specimens examined were not closely entangled to form a stratum, but were commenly found with such THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 95 other algae as Hassallia byssoidea B. & F., Microcoleus paludosus Gom., Phormidium tenue Gom., Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gom. and Symploca Kieneri Drouet. In others a stratum was formed, dark green to black in color. Trichome diameters averaged about 5 p and cell length varied from 2.5-3.5 p. Drouet (1948) states that M. vaginatus along with species of Schizothrix and Porphyrosiphon forms a superficial crust wherever silt has collected and ground is barren. In depressions where water remains standing for some days after rains, the trichomes move out of the sheaths and form phormidioid masses which are often con- fused with Phormidium autumnale Gom. and P. uncinatum Gom. Where such strata become desiccated in a very short time, the fila- ments almost invariably contain a single trichome. The species has been reported for the state by Nielsen & Madsen (1948b) and Brannon (1952). 2. Microcoleus chthonoplastes Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 353, pl. 14, f. 5-8 (1892). Filaments forming a dark, blackish-green stratum, ragged, a long and broad compact expanse, stratified, strata discolored, or growing sparingly between other algae, tortuous, not often branched. Sheaths cylindrical, more or less irregular and eroded at the margins, apices generally open, occasionally entirely diffluent, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Tri- chomes brilliant blue-green, short, straight, numerous within sheath, firmly aggregated into fascicles, generally acuminate apices, rarely funiform and contorted, constricted at cross-walls, 2.5-6 « wide; cells subquadrate, or to twice the diameter in length, 3.6-10 uw long; cross-walls not granular; apical cell never capitate, acute conical. Bay county: shore of St. Andrews bay, West bay, Drouet & Niel- sen 10858, 15 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Broward county: tidal mudflat, Dania beach, Drouet & Louderback 10278, 28 Dec. 1948 (C, F); on drying ground beside intracoastal waterway between Dania beach and Hollywood beach, Drouet & Louderback 10270, 28 Dec. 1948 (C, F); tidal mud flat, mangrove swamp, south of South lake, Holly- wood, Drouet 10305, 10306, 29 Dec. 1949 (C, F); wet sand, man- grove swamp, south of South lake, Hollywood, Drouet 10311, 10318, 29 Dec. 1949 (GC, F). Collier county: dried pool, Marco Island, Paul C. Standley 73396, 19 Mar. 1940 (C). Flagler county: on inter- tidal rocks, Marineland, H. J. Humm, 6 June 1948 (F). Franklin county: intertidal, on palmetto stumps, Gulf of Mexico at Lanark, 96 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Drouet & Nielsen 10852, 14 Jan. 1949 (C, F); intertidal, north shore of St. Vincent sound, 10 miles west of Apalachicola, Drouet ¢ Niel- sen 10982, 10985, 16 Jan. 1949 (C, F); intertidal, shore of Apalachi- cola bay, south-east Apalachicola, Drouet & Nielsen 11005, 16 Jan. 1949 (F); intertidal, shore of St. George sound, mouth of New river, Carrabelle, Drouet & Nielsen 11676, 31 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Lee county: on moist sand, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Paul C. Standley 73459, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Levy county: intertidal, shore of cove, northwest Way key, Cedar Keys, Drouet & Nielsen, 11149, 11150, 11151, 11157, 11160, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, F); wood work, bridge between mainland and Way key; Cedar Keys, Drouet & Nielsen 11180, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, F); intertidal on pilings, east end of bridge between mainland and Way key, Cedar Keys, Drouet & Nielsen 11184a, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, F); inter- tidal mud on shore opposite muncipal wharf, Way key, Drouet & Nielsen 11185, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Monroe county: Cocoanut Grove, R. Thaxter, 1898-99 (D); barren ground along shore near Big Pine Inn, Big Pine key, M. Alice Cornman, 2 May 1948 (C); in shallow water on ocean side of Key Largo, Tavernier, H. J. Humm, 30 Aug. 1950 (C); saline flats, south of Big Pine Inn, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip & J. Francis Macbride, Apr. 1951 (C); Big Pine key, E. P. Killip 41683, 9 Jan. 1952 (C); 41808, 22 Jan. 1952 (C); 41850, 29 Jan. 1952 (C); 41857, 31 Jan. 1952 (C); 41967, 18 Mar. 1952 (€); 42018, 19 Mar. 1952 (C); 42073, 29 Mar. 1952 (C); West Summer- land key, Lawrence B. Isham 4, 10, 1 Oct. 1952 (C); Cudjoe key, Isham 7, 1 Oct. 1952 (C); Indian key, Isham 5, 29, 30 Nov. 1952. (C). Palm Beach county: on stones at sewer outlet, Lake Worth Flagler memorial bridge, Palm Beach, Drouet & Louderback 10218, 24 Dec. 1948 (C, F). Taylor county: intertidal, confluence of Daughter creek and Steinhatchee river, Steinhatchee, Drouet & Nielsen 11217, 11220, 11221, 11221a, 11225, 23%\ameel ea eee) intertidal, shore of Steinhatchee river, south Steinhatchee, Drouet & Nielsen 11230, 11233, 11234a, 28 Jan. 1949 (C, F); mouth of Stein- hatchee river, Steinhatchee, Nielsen 2085, 2088, 1 Apr. 1950 (F); — Deckle beach, Madsen, Pates, Higginbotham & Harris 1080, 1081, 1082, 23 Apr. 1949 (C, F). Wakulla county: intertidal, shore of St. Marks river, Port Leon, Drouet & E. M. Atwood 11489, 11441, 11445, 11446, 11447, 26 Jan. 1949 (C, F); bank of East river, west of St. Marks lighthouse, Gulf of Mexico, Drouet, Madsen & Crow- THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 97 son 11728, 11749, 1 Feb. 1949 (C, F); jetties, St. Marks lighthouse, H. J. Harris, 25 Mar. 1950 (F); on rock, brackish stream along road, St. Marks wildlife refuge, Nielsen 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 4 Oct. 1951 (C, F); Hoor of channel, Shell Point, Gulf of Mexico, Nielsen 07, 7 Nov. M52; (CG, F). The specimens examined above varied from 2.5 to 3.5 » in tri- chome width, and from 4.5 to 7 » in cell length. They were fre- quently found with the following algae: Bostrychia sp., Entophy- salis crustacea (J. Ag.) Dr. & Daily, Hydrocoleum sp., Lyngbya aestaurii Gom., L. semiplena Gom., Microcoleus tenerrimus Gom., Oscillatoria amphibia Gom., O. brevis var. neapolitana Gom., O. Corralinae, Gom., O. nigro-viridis Gom.; Scytonema ocellatum B. & F., Schizothrix sp., Symploca atlantica Gom., S. laeteviridis Gom. and Vaucheria sp. The species has been reported for the state by W. R. Taylor (1929), Madsen & Nielsen (1950) and Humm 1952). 5. Microcoleus tenerrimus Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 355, pl. eee Oe (S92). Filaments densely matted into a blue-grey to blue-green stratum or mixed with other algae, simple to sparingly pseudo-branched. Sheaths wide, ir- regular at margins, apices acuminate or open, occasionally entirely diffluent, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes green-olive, more or less numerous within sheath, elongate, flexuous, generally loosely aggregated, very constricted at cross-walls, apices long attenuate, 1.5-2 « wide; cells longer than wide, frequently 3 times the trichome diameter, 2.2-6 uw long; cross- walls clear, never granulate; apical cell never capitate, very acute conical. Bay county: intertidal, St. Andrews bay at Panama City, on pil- ings and barnacles, Drouet & Nielsen 11609b, 11615, 30 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Duval county: pier pilings, 2 miles south of St. Johns river mouth, Jacksonville beach, H. J. Humm 4, 19 Mar. 1948 (C). Franklin county: intertidal, Gulf of Mexico at Lanark, shore and on palmetto stumps, Drouet & Nielsen 10848, 10852, 14 Jan. 1949 (C, F); intertidal, on docks in New river, Carrabelle, Drouet & Nielsen 10971, 16 Jan. 1949 (C, F); intertidal, north shore of St. Vincent sound, 10 miles west of Apalachicola, Drouet & Nielsen 10985, 16 Jan. 1949 (C, F); intertidal, shore of Apalachicola bay, south-east Apalachicola, Drouet ¢& Nielsen, 10993, 16 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Gulf county: intertidal, on shore, rocks and palmetto stumps, St. Joseph bay, at mouth of a tidal stream, north of Port St. Joe, Drouet & Nielsen 10933, 10937, 10938, 15 Jan. 1949 (C, F); inter- 98 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tidal, in tidal stream, north of Constitution park, Port St. Joe, Drouet & Nielsen 11643, 31 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Hernando county: on Juncus, Battery Point, Gulf of Mexico, Brannon 563, 33 Oct. 1948, (C, U). Lee county: salt flat, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Paul C. Standley 73250, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Levy county: intertidal, on wood, Way key, Drouet & Nielsen 11110, on docks, Way key, Drouet & Nielsen 11182, 11147, shore of cove, Way key, Drouet & Nielsen 11150, 11154, 11199, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Monroe county: Cudjoe key, Lawrence B. Isham 22, 1 Oct. 1952 (C). Palm Beach county: on rocks be- tween tide-marks, west shore of Lake Worth at Flagler memorial bridge, West Palm Beach, Drouet & Louderback 10196, 23 Dec. 1948 (C). Taylor county: on rope, brackish water of Daughter creek, Steinhatchee, Drouet & Nielsen 11222, 23 Jan. 1949 (C, F); intertidal, confluence of Daughter creek and Steinhatchee river, Steinhatchee, Drouet & Nielsen, 11223, 23 Jan. 1949 (C, F); on pil- ings, intertidal, shore of Steinhatchee river, Steinhatchee, Drouet & Nielsen 11241a, 23 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Wakulla county: intertidal, St. Marks river, Port Leon, Drouet & E. M. Atwood 11458, 11455, 11456, 11466a, 26 Jan. 1949 (C, F); shore of East river, at Gulf of Mexico, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 11741, 1 Feb. 1949 (C, F); salt flats, north of lighthouse. St. Marks wildlife refuge, Nielsen 7, 8, 9, 4 Oct. Gola Cae): As many as 12 trichomes were frequently observed within a common sheath. Cells were generally about 5 » in length with apical cells about 8.5 ». Trichome diameter was 1.5-2 p. The hormogonial stages of this species may easily be confused with Oscillatoria amphibia Gom. The alga is commonly found with Bostrychia sp., Calothrix scopulorum B. & F., Entophysalis crus- tacea (J. Ag.) Dr. & Daily, Lyngbya aestuarii Gom., L. lutea Gom., L. semiplena Gom., Microcoleus chthonoplastes Gom., Oscillatoria Corallinae Gom., O. margaritifera Gom., Plectonema calotrichoides Gom. and Symploca atlantica Gom. It has been reported for the state by Madsen & Nielsen (1950) and Brannon (1952). 4. Microcoleus acutissimus Gardner. Mem. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 7: pivoo, pl il, feo a927)): Filaments small and relatively straight, 400-500 uw long, 20-35 « diameter, containing 15-30 trichomes, closed at the conical tips when young, later opened and the trichomes extruding; trichomes straight, almost parallel THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA — 99 in the sheath, not constricted at the cross-walls, long and very sharply acuminate at the apices; 1.8-2.2 u diameter; cells pale aeruginous, homo- geneous, 2-4 times as long as diameter; apical cell longer and very sharp, conical; cross-walls obscure; sheath hyaline, irregular along the margin, somewhat mucous, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine reagent. Florida: Smith, Mar. 1878 (P). Alachua county; soil, Primrose St., Hibiscus Park, Gainesville, Brannon, 187, 188, 23 July 1943 (C, U); Gainesville. Brannon 307, 20 Aug. 1945 (C, U). Broward county: soil, forest south of South lake, Hollywood, Drouet 10315, 29 Dec. 1948 (C, F). Franklin county; sand dunes shore of Apalachicola bay at east end of John Gorrie causeway, west of Eastpoint, Drouet & Nielsen, 10960, 16 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Lee county: on tidal flats, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Paul C. Standley 73180, 73466, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C). Marion county: Dunnellon, Brannon 377, 20 Oct. 1946 (C). Mon- roe county: thallus green, on black mud, button-wood marsh in pine-palm woods north-west of Inn, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip 41942, 18 Feb. 1952 (C). Pinellas county: water-fall, Belleair, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 467, 19 Sept. 1948 (C, F). Wakulla county: Phillips picnic grounds, Newport, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 197, Tuly 1948 (C, F); Spillway dam, Phillips pool, St. Marks wildlife refuge, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 479, 9 Oct. 1948 (C, F); on bases of trees in St. Marks river, Newport, Drouet, Madsen & Crow- son 10815, 13 Jan. 1949 (C, F); among moss, bank of limestone - ditch, Newport, H. R. Wilson, 23 July 1952 (C, F). Average cell length was 7 ». The species was commonly found with Coccochloris stagnina Spreng., Anacystis dimidiata (Kiitz.) Dr. & Daily, Microcoleus paludosus Gom., M. vaginatus Gom., Schizo- thrix Lamyi Gom., S. purpurascens Gom., Scytonema crustaceum B. & F. and S. ocellatum B. & F. It has been reported for the state by Drouet (1939), Nielsen & Madsen (1948a), Crowson (1950) and Brannon (1952). 5. Microcoleus paludosus Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 358, pl. 14, f, 13 (1892). Filaments growing among other algae, or intricate in a black to blie- green stratum, tortuous, simple or cleft apices. Sheaths somewhat mucous, apices difluent and open or acuminate and closed, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes brilliant blue-green, parallel, straight, or funi- form-contorted, not constricted at cross-walls, 5-7 u wide: cells about as 100 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES long as diameter to double the width, 4-13 uw long; cross-walls never granu- lar; apical cell never capitate. Microcoleus paludosus var acuminatus Gardner. Member N. Y. Boer Gard 7p. ov, pl Tier o (19% Trichomes few in sheath, 5-6 » diameter, pale aeruginous, 3-5 cells at the apices tapering to a very sharp point, and in part slightly uncinate. Alachua county: in culvert, Bivens Arm to Paynes prairie, south of Gainesville, Brannon 97, 14 Aug. 1942 (C, U); Hibiscus park, Gainesville, Brannon 179, 14 July 1943 (C, U); Brannon 243, 4 Apr. 1944 (C, F, U); 221; 30 Apr. 1944 (C, F, U); 271, 18 Aug. 1944 (C, U); 361, 19 July 1946 (C, U); 377, 18 Aug, 19485 Gy Weide county: near Shamrock, Paul C. Standley 92730, 6 Mar. 1946 (C). Franklin county: sand dunes,.shore of Apalachicola bay at east end of John Gorrie causeway, west of Eastpoint, Drouet & Nielsen 10958, 10962, 16 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Gadsden county: Little river, U. S. highway no. 90, 8 miles east of Quincy, Nielsen 1432, 9 July 1949 (C, F); Apalachicola river flood plain, U. S. highway no. 90, Chattachoochee, Nielsen 1439, 1441, 1442, 9 July 1949 (C, F). Jack- son county: on bank, under Chipola river bridge, 1 mile north of Marianna, C. E. Rufh, 28 July 1952 (C, F).. eon county st. Marks river, Little Natural Bridge, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 145, June 1948 (C, F). Judge Andru’s magnolia forest, Lake Iamonia, Nielsen & Madsen 378, 379, 412, Aug. 1948 (C, F); U. S. highway no. 90, Ochlockonee river, Nielsen & Madsen 275, 31 Aug. 1948 (C, F); dried pool, open woods west of F.S.U., Tallahassee, Drouet & Crowson 10444, 5 Jan. 1949 (C, F); on roadside bank, west of F.S.U., Tallahassee, Drouet & Crowson 10449, 5 Jan. 1949 (C, F); barren ground, greenhouse F.S.U., Drouet & Crowson 10458, 10465, 10466, 5 Jan. 1949 (C, F); barren grounds, woods along Ochlocko- nee river at U. S. highway no. 90, west of Stephensville, Drouet, Crowson & Petersen 10493, 10504, 6 Jan. 1949 (C, F); along state highway no. 20, 19 miles west of Tallahassee, Nielsen & Madsen 799, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, F); F.S.U. campus, Nielsen, 14 July 1952 (C, F’). Liberty county: Apalachicola river flood plain, Bristol, Nielsen & Madsen 437, Aug. 1948 (C, F); Ochlockonee river swamp at state highway no. 20, Nielsen & Kurz 876, 877, 19 Feb. 1949 (C, F); Rock Bluff, J. E. Harmon 4, 4 Nov. 1950 (C, F). Monroe county: on black mud, saline flats along road through Matthews property, Big Pine THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 101 key, E. P. Killip 41900, 7 Feb. 1952 (C). Santa Rosa county: sand dunes, east of Pensacola beach, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10575, 8 Jan. 1949 (C. F). Wakulla county: Phillips picnic grounds, Newport, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 176, July 1948 (C, F); Log sulfur spring, Newport, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 244, Aug. 1948 (C, F); wet bank, St. Marks river, Newport, Drouet, Mad- sen & Crowson 10822, 13 Jan. 1949 (C, F); dried pool in road near St. Marks river, Newport, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 10792, 13 Jan. 1949 (C, F). The species has been found with Anacystis montana (Lightt.) Dr. & Daily, Cylindrosperum licheniforme B. & F., Microcoleus rupi- cola (Tild.) Drouet, M. vaginatus Gom., Nostoc Muscorum B. & F., N. ellipsorum B. & F., Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gom., Schizothrix purpurascens Gom. and Symploca Muscorum Gom. It has been reported for the state by Nielsen & Madsen (1948a) and Brannon (1952). 6. Microcoleus lacustris Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. p. 359 (1892). Filaments matted into a black to blue-green stratum, tortuous, simple or branched here and there with cleft apices. Sheaths somewhat thin, mucous and agglutinated, occasionally diffluent, apices often diffluent, never turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes brilliant blue-green, parallel, outside sheath straight, very constricted at cross-walls, 4-5 u wide: cells generally subglobular to three times trichome diameter, 6-12 u long, sparsely scattered globular protoplasmic granules; cross-walls never granular; apical cel! more or less obtuse conical, never capitate. Alachua county: Primrose St., Hibiscus park, Gainesville, Bran- non 172, 179, May 1942 (C, F). Gadsden county: Little river at U. S. highway no. 90, 8 miles east of Quincy, Nielsen 1427, 9 July 1949 (C, F); edge of river, Rock Bluff, J. E. Harmon 29, 4 Nov. 1950 (C, F). Monroe county: marshy places, stunted button-wood stand, west of artificial lake, Big Pine key, E. P. Killip 41911, 9 Feb. 1952 (C). Wakulla county: shallow stream, 5.5 miles south-east of Newport, St. Marks wildlife refuge, Nielsen, Madsen ¢- Crowson 44, 2 May 1948 (C, F); Phillips picnic grounds, Newport, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 192, July 1948 (C, F); sulfur springs, one-half mile north of Newport, Drouet, Crowson & Thornton 1134la, 25 jan 1949 (C;_F). The species is found with Lyngbya sp., Microcoleus rupicola (Tild.) Dr., Pithophora oedogonia (Mont.) Wittr. and Spirogyra sp. 102 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES It has been reported for the state by Brannon (1945, 1952) and Nielsen & Madsen (1948a). 7. Microcoleus rupicola (Tild.) Drouet. Field Mus. Nat. His. Bot. Series 20 (7): 167. (1943). Stratum ragged, fragile, blue-green to discolored, long delicate filaments, bases of heavy cylinders including up to 50 trichomes, above abundantly branched, solitary branches often with many trichomes included; sheath hya- line wide, either not or obscurely lamellose, eroded or corrugate at margins, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine; trichomes blue-green, 3-4 » wide, not or scarcely constricted at cross-walls, attenuate apices, cell length 142-more times the diameter, protoplasm blue-green, sometimes granular, cross-walls not granular, apical cell long and conical, apex obtuse. Alachua county: in culvert, Bivens Arm to Paynes prairie, south of Gainesville, Brannon 97, 14 Aug. 1942 (C, U); soil, Hisbiscus park, Gainesville, Brannon 219, 235, 20 June 1944 (C, F); 274, 21 Aug. 1944 (C, U); 373, 14 Oct. (C, U). Gadsden county: soil, U. S. highway no. 90, 4 miles east of Quincy, Drouet, Nielsen, Mad- sen & Crowson 10412, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F); at Little river, U. S. highway no. 90, 8 miles east of Quincy, Nielsen 1414, 1415, 9 July 1949 (C, F); edge of river, Rock Bluff, J. E. Harmon 29, 4 Nov. 1950 (C, F). Jackson county: red clay banks, U. S. highway no. 90, 5 miles east of Marianna, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10332, 10336, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F); on path of headquarters bldg. Florida Caverns State Park, Drouet, Nielsen & Madsen 10371, 10373, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, F). Leon county: St. Marks river at Little Natural bridge, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 147, June 1948 (C, F); Lake Iamonia dam, Nielsen & Madsen 411, 412, August 1948 (C, F); Nat- ural Well, 1 mile north-east of Woodville, Nielsen, Madsen & Crow- son 587, 80 Oct. 1948 (C, F). Liberty county: Apalachicola river flood plain, Bristol, Nielsen & Madsen 437, August 1948 (C, F); sandy clay bank, Apalachicola river at Rock Bluff, M. H. Voth 26, 3 Nov. 1950 (C, F); edge of Apalachicola river, Rock Bluff, J. E. Harmon 4, 4 Novy. 1950 (C, F). Palm Beach county: sand in park | at Flagler drive and 8rd St., West Palm Beach, Drouet & Louder- back 10225, 24 December 1948 (C, F). Wakulla county: Spillway dam at Phillips lake, St. Marks wildlife refuge, Drouet & Crowson S21, 14 Jan. 1949 (C, F). In the specimens examined, trichome diameter averaged 3 p, cell length varied from 4 to 7 « with apical cell length about 5 ». There THE MULTITRICHOMATE OSCILLATORIACEAE OF FLORIDA 108 were conspicuous constrictions at the cross-walls. Usually 10-20 trichomes were enclosed in a common sheath. Drouet states that where filaments have become parasitized by fungi, the sheaths are lamellose and corrugate, and simulate those of Schizothrix la- custris Gom. The following algae were commonly found associated: Fischerella ambigua (B. & F.) Gom., Microcoleus lacustris Gom., M. paludosus Gom., M. vaginatus Gom., Nostoc ellipsorum B. & F., Plecotonema Nostocorum Gom., Schrizothrix purpurascens Gom. and Symploca muscorum Gom. The species has been reported for the state by Nielsen & Madsen (1948a), Crowson (1950), and Brannon (1952). Microcoleus corymbosus Harv. reported from Key West by W. H. Harvey (1875) and by W. G. Farlow (1875, 1876) has been rede- termined as Gardnerula corymbosa (Harvey) J. De-Toni. Micro- coleus subtorulosis Gomont has been reported for the state by Wolle (1887) and by Smith & Ellis (1943). Drouet (1939) has redetermined the J. D. Smith specimen as reported by Wolle as Lyngbya putealis Mont. ex. Gom. No specimen has been preserved of the Smith and Ellis collection. The inclusion of the species in Tilden (1910) on the basis of the one Florida specimen above, makes it very probable that their alga was one of the more common soil forms. LITERATURE CITED BRANNON, MELVIN A. 1945. Factors affecting the growth of Myxophyceae in Florida. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 8 (4): 296-3038. 1952. Some Myxophyceae in Florida. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 15 (2): 70-78. CROWSON, DOROTHY E. 1950. The Algae of a Modified Brackish Pool. Fla. State Unit. Studies 1: 1-32. DROUET, FRANCIS 1937. Some Myxophyceae from the Canal Zone. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 64: 599-604. : 1939. Francis Wolle’s Filamentous Myxophvceae. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Bot. Series 20 (2): 17-64. 1943. Myxophyceae of Eastern California and Western Nevada. Field “Mus. Nat Hist. Bot. Series 20 (7): 145-176. 104 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FARLOW, W. G. 1875. List of the Marine Algae of the United States. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts & Sci. 11: 351-380. 1876. List of the Marine Algae of the United States. Report of the U. S. Fish Commission. pp. 1-28. GOMONT, M. 1892. Monographie des Oscillariees. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VII. 15: 263-368; 16: 91-264. HARVEY, WILLIAM H. 1857. Nereis Boreali-Americana. Smithsonian Contribution XIX: 1-40. HUMM, HAROLD J. 1952. Notes on the Marine Algae of Florida. I. The Intertidal Rocks at Marineland. Fla. State Univ. Studies 7: 17-23. MADSEN, GRACE C., and C. S. NIELSEN 1950. Check List of the Algae of Northern Florida II. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 18: 1-19. NIELSEN, C. S. 1954. The Non-sheathed Oscillatoriaceae of Northern Florida. Hydrobio- logia (in press). NIELSEN, C. S., and GRACE C. MADSEN 1948a. Preliminary Check List of the Algae of the Tallahassee Area. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11 (4): 111-117. 1948b. Check List of the Algae of Northern Florida I. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11 (2-3): 63-66. SMELL Be Be end oe Ro EIGIEES 1948. ieeelasfiaersy Report on the Algal Flora of some Florida Soils. Proc. Fla, Acad. Set 6 (1): 59-65: TAYLOR, WILLIAM RANDOLPH 1928. Marine algae of Florida with special reference to the Dry Tortugas. Papers from the Tortugas Laboratory (Carnegie Institution of Wash.) 2458, N2itG), TILDEN, JOSEPHINE 1910. Minnesota Algae, Vol I, Bot. Series VIII, Minneapolis, Minn. WOLLE, FRANCIS 1877. Fresh Water Algae ITI. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 6 (35): 181-189. 1887. Fresh Water Algae of the United States. Bethlehem, Pa. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 17(2), 1954. BORON IN FLORIDA WATERS Howarp T. Opum and Bruce PARRISH Dept. of Biology, University of Florida As part of a study of the factors controlling productivity of Flor- ida’s constant temperature springs, a few boron analyses were made of waters from springs, lakes and streams to determine if existing boron concentrations were limiting plant growth in Flor- ida’s aquatic communities. Boron is one of the biologically active minor elements. Boron is present in plant tissues in high concentration relative to the plants substrate (Hutchinson 1943). Like many biologically active ele- ments it is necessary in small concentrations and becomes toxic in larger concentration. (Zittle, 1951.) Water samples collected in plastic vessels were analyzed for boron with a tumeric colorimetric method modified from Naftel (1939) and Winsor (1948). We are especially grateful to Mr. H. W. Winsor of the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station for showing us his analytical methods and criticizing our results. This method which had been used with heterogeneous soil extracts seemed suitable for natural waters. Repeated analyses of the same sample of water from Silver Springs showed a standard deviation of .00311. Thus the percent error expected in 95% of the analyses ‘is less than 25%. The data on boron in Florida waters are given in Table I. These data are arranged in order of the chlorinities of the waters. Similar concentrations were found for Hawaiian waters by Tanada and Dean (1942). As shown in the graph in Figure 1 there is a correlation between the boron and chloride concentrations. This is not a chloride bias effect on the chemical analysis because the three analyses of sea water did not differ radically from the 4.7 ppm usually found by other methods in the open ocean water of chlorinity 19,000 (Sverd- rup, Johnson, Fleming, 1946). Boron can be expected to be associated with chlorides because of some similarities in the geochemical behavior of the two ele- ments. Both tend to be washed out of rock strata rapidly and to become concentrated in the ocean or in the desert lakes of arid regions. Where residual salt water is trapped in pore spaces of 106 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sediments and is entering springs and streams in the ground water, both boron and chloride may be expected to be added together. The observed correlation of boron and chloride in Florida waters is probably due to these geochemical similarities. As shown in Table I the ratio of boron to chloride in those waters which receive ground water salt is of the same order of magnitude as that in sea water. Data are given by Odum (1953) showing that the chloride content of fresh water in peripheral Florida below 25 ft. elevation can be accounted for by residual pore space salt from the ground water. lOO GREAT SALT LAK UTAH | T lO GULF~a,, B SALTY SPRINGS IN | PPM | Ol OOl i iO (018) 1000 10.000 109 Cl IN PPM In several springs, especially two Sarasota County springs, Warm Salt Springs, Little Salt Springs, the B/Cl ratio is considerably lower than that in the sea. One possible explanation is that these drain evaporite deposits. Dr. A. P. Black, Dept. of Chemistry, Univ. of Florida, suggested that the high temperature of Warm TABLE I Boron in Florida Waters. Chlorinities Determined with the Mohr Method or from Ferguson, et. al., 1947 and B/Cl Ratios Are Given. Gyeat Salt Lake, Utah, is Included for Comparison. Locality and Date Boron | Chloride | B/Cl ppm ppm xa Oe Great Salt Lake, Utah, 1950 (water furnished | | by Dr. W. Hartmann, Univ. of California) | 43.5 149,224 2.9 Sea Water | Mouth of Tampa Bay, May 30, 1953 4.4 18,700 2.3 LE, [Se MICE ye eee fe Ges | 19,000 3.3 Semmes 195322 5.4 19,000 2.8 Florida Springs, 1953 | Warm Salt Springs, Sarasota Co., June 17 3 9,350 | oO Salt Springs, Marion Co., June 14 _ Oe el 22439 8 Little Salt Springs, Sarasota Co., June 17 | ~~ .20 1,430 1.4 Blue Springs, Volusia Co., June 19 Par ames va 775 1.6 Ponce DeLeon Springs, Volusia Co., | | fener peers te |) 055 622 Sg Homosassa Springs, Citrus Co., June 6 ___ | whSGe | 970 | 3.3 Chassahowitzka Springs, Citrus Co., | | “ERS 21) Eee 024 | 33 | 4.5 Silver Springs, Marion Co., May 28 | | Boil, mean of 5 replications —.- 0154 | 8 ng: 34 mile downstream, mean of 5 RaPCAONS het et ME ee .0170 8 OAL 34 mile downstream, mean of 4 samples 015 8 19. Sanlando Springs, Seminole Co., June 19. | .0382 | 8 AQ. Magnesia Springs, Alachua Co., June 10 _ | ~~ .015 8 LQ: Orange Springs, Marion Co., June 1 ewOh9 a 27. Weekiwachee Springs, Hernando Co., Drie Gl nt ls eer 01S S| 3) 26. Ichtucknee Springs, June 9, at Rt. 27 | SIG ae aah ea a ae O17 4 42. Streams, 1953 | Orange Creek, Marion Co., June 1 _ ue ONS) 9 Palle Fenholloway River, Foley, June 9 027 4 68. Suwannee River, Branford, June 9 _. lee AOD. i he Santa Fe River, High Springs, June 9 ___ Pi sie 0247 aad 10 2. Hogtown Creek, Gainesville, Rt. 26, | wilese Sll- =< See eee eae eee ee (eat S002. | i! eve Hatchet Creek, Gainesville, Rt. 24, | Reigns i RS Be Ae O15 | as ould Lakes, 1953 | Morris Lake, Putnam Co., June 1 __..-- Pe OE ail Meroe North Twin Lake, Putnam Co., June 1 __. | .013 lie DS. Lady Slipper Lake, Putnam Co., June 1 | .016 4 4l. Lochloosa Lake, Alachua Co., June 3 tem = Oiee | 11 5s Newnans Lake, Alachua Co., May 31 _____ ee OL HRs EG. Rainwater, thunderstorm, Gainesville, June 14 | | | Sale INA ae ee eee ee ts, 2009 || 2 43. SATISLE: ING) Fee ae eee ae ee |) 2015 | E | 108 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Salt Springs in contrast to most of Florida’s springs might be due to the heat of solution. Alternatively some boron in residual salt water may have been removed from the water by the sediments. In the upland waters which do not receive so much salty ground water the boron content is low. However, the B/Cl ratio is 10 times or more larger than sea water and this raises a problem. Some of the boron like much of the chloride may come from cyclic salt. If representative, the two rainwater analyses suggest that the atmospheric derived boron might be adequate to account for the boron in upland lakes. However, this explanation of the boron content in lake waters requires a differential action in the cyclical salt transfer to account for the high B/Cl. Small amounts of the boron mineral tourmaline are found in some of Florida’s sands so that the high B/Cl ratio may alternatively be accounted for by boron received from soils. In many natural waters inorganic phosphorus is limiting to plant growth. A comparison of phosphorus with boron shows which is more likely to be used up first and thus limiting to growth. The B/P ratio in Silver Springs water is maintained at .35, but the B/P ratio in the aquatic plants (algae coated Sagittaria) is .0018. Thus if boron and phosphorus are removed from the water in the ratio found in the plants phosphorus will be used up long before boron. A trace element may affect the growth rate even when its con- centration is not so small as to be limiting. Baumeister (1943) found that .5—100 ppm B had a growth promoting effect on aquatic spermatophytes. Whether the higher boron concentrations in the more salty springs and streams contribute to fertility there is not known definitely. LITERATURE CITED BAUMEISTER, W. 1943. Influence of Boron on Photosynthesis and Respiration of Submerged Plants. Jb. wiss. Bot., 91: 242-277. Only an abstract seen (C.A. 39, 1899). FERGUSON, G. E., LINGHAM, C. W., LOVE, S. K., and VERNON, R. O. 1947. Springs of Florida. Fla. Geol. Surv. Bull. 31. HUTCHINSON, G. E. 1944. The Biogeochemistry of Aluminum and of Certain Related Elements. Quart. Rev. Biol., 18: 1-29, 129-253, 331-363. BORON IN FLORIDA WATERS 109 NAFTEL, J. A. 1939. Colorimetric Microdetermination of Boron. Indus. & Engin. Chem., Analyt., Ed., 11: 407-409. ODUM, H. T. 1953. Factors Controlling Marine Invasion in Florida Waters. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribbean. In press. SVERDRUP, H. U., JOHNSON, M. W., and FLEMING, R. H. 1946. The Oceans. Prentiss-Hall, N. Y. TANADA, T., and DEAN, L. A. 1942. Boron in Some Hawaiian Soils and Crops. Hawaii Plant. Rec. 46: 65-74. Only an abstract seen. WINSOR, H. W. 1948. Boron Microdetermination in Fresh Plant Tissue. Analyt. Chem., 20: 176-181. ZAbeELE. C. A. 1951. Reaction of Borate with Substances of Biological Interest. Advance. Enzymol. 12: Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 17(2), 1954. A NEW CRAYFISH FROM THE UPPER COASTAL PLAIN OF GEORGIA (DECAPODA, ASTACIDAE) Horton H. Hosss, Jr. Samuel Miller Biological Laboratories, University of Virginia The Advena Section of the genus Procambarus was erected by Hobbs (1942) to indicate the close affinities of six species and sub- species [advena (LeConte, 1856: 402); geodytes Hobbs (1942: 80); pygmaeus Hobbs (1942: 83); r. rogersi (Hobbs, 1938: 61); r. ochlock- nensis Hobbs (1942: 89); and r. campestris Hobbs (1942: 90)| which inhabit certain areas of the Coastal Plain in Georgia and Florida. Because the former three species are so obviously more closely allied to one another than any one of them is to the three sub- species of P. rogersi Hobbs proposed that the Section consist of two groups which he designated the Advena and Rogersi Groups. The species herein described, while resembling the members of the Advena Group more closely than those of the Rogersi Group, is so distinct that it seems advisable to erect a monotypic group for its reception. Further, the first pleopod of the male is so modified that the definition of the Section must be revised in order that this disjunct species may be included within it. ADVENA SECTION (Hosss, 1942: 73) Diagnosis —The cephalodistal surface of the first pleopod of the first form male never terminates in a ridge or knob-like prominence but in a corneous, often-reduced cephalic process; if the cephalic process is absent, then the cephalodistal surface is almost fush with the centrocephalic process of the central projection, or the terminal elements are directed distinctly caudad. The mesial process is spiniform or blade-like, and directed distad or caudad; the central projection is decidedly the most conspicuous terminal element, and is either laterally compressed or directed across the. cephalodistal tip of the appendage. The caudal element is present as a large bump or thumb- or lip-like knob. The rostrum is broad and short and without lateral spines; the areola is narrow or ob- literated; the male has hooks on the ischiopodites of the third, or on the third and fourth pereiopods; the chelae are depressed and bear a cristiform row of tubercles along the inner margin of the palm. A NEW CRAYFISH FROM GEORGIA 1 TRUCULENTUS GROUP Diagnosis.—The terminal elements of first pleopod of first form male arise from the caudal side of the distal portion of the append- age and are directed caudad; the mesial process is completely obscured in lateral aspect by the central projection. The distal portion of appendage is greatly elongated in the longitudinal plane of the body (not the appendage). Hooks are present on the ischio- podites of the third pereiopods of the male. PROCAMBARUS TRUCULENTUS,' sp. nov. Diagnosis.—Rostrum without lateral spines; areola very narrow with room for only two punctations in narrowest part; male with hooks on ischiopodites of third pair of pereiopods only; palm of chela with a cristiform row of tubercles; suborbital angle lacking; postorbital ridges terminating cephalad without spines or tubercles; no lateral spines present on carapace. First pleopod of first form male terminating in three caudally directed parts: mesial process and central projection acute; caudal knob, present immediately proximad of central projection, truncate and somewhat flattened (Figs. 1 and 5). Annulus ventralis ovate with its greatest length in the longitudinal axis of the body; sinus originates in bottom of submedian pit, runs gently caudosinistrad, then caudodextrad, again caudosinistrad to the midventral line where it turns caudad, and terminates before cutting the caudal margin of the annulus. Holotypic Male, Form I.—Body subovate, compressed laterally. Abdomen narrower than thorax (11.5- 15.9 mm. in widest parts respectively). Width of carapace slightly greater than depth in region of caudodorsal margin of cervical groove. Areola very narrow with room for only two punctations in narrowest part (punctations widely spaced in two irregular rows); cephalic section of carapace 1.6 times longer than areola (length of areola about 39% of entire length of carapace). Rostrum excavate above, almost reaching distal end of penultimate segment of antennule; margins converging, raised but not thickened; acumen indistinct; upper surface of rostrum smooth except for a single row of setiferous punctations at base of marginal ridges and two or three scattered ones. Subrostral ridges well defined but *L. trux—savage, rough, ferocious; L. lentus—tenacious. Fig. EXPLANATION OF PLATE Procambarus truculentus Figs. 1 and 2—Mesial view of first pleopod of holotype. 3—Epistome of holotype. Figs. 4 and 5—Lateral view of first pleopod of holotype. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 6—Annulus ventralis of allotype. 7—Basipodite and ichiopodite of third pereiopod of holotype. 8—Antennal scale of holotype. 9—Mesial view of first pleopod of morphotype. 10—Lateral view of first pleopod of morphotype. 11—Dorsal view of carapace of holotype. 12—Lateral view of carapace of holotype. 13.—Upper surface of distal podomeres of cheliped of holotype. A NEW CRAYFISH FROM GEORGIA 113 scarcely evident in dorsal aspect. Postorbital ridges moderately strong, grooved, and terminating cephalad without spines or tu- bercles. Suborbital angle lacking, branchiostegal spine moderately strong. No spines present on sides of carapace. Surface of cara- pace punctate and polished dorsad, granulate laterad. Abdomen shorter than carapace (27.3 - 31.7 mm.). Cephalic section of telson with two spines in the dextral and three in the sinistral caudolateral corners. Epistome (Fig. 3) subtriangular with a cephalomedian spine. Antennules of the usual form; however, no spine present on ventral surfaces of basal segments. Antennae extend caudad to second abdominal segment; antennal scale (Fig. 8) small with a strong spine on outer distal margin; lamellar portion gently rounded and broadest distad of middle. Right chela (Fig. 13) moderately strong, depressed, and studded with tubercles. Inner margin of palm with a cristiform row of seven tubercles (left chela with eight). Fingers only slightly gaping. Opposable margin of dactyl with nine corneous tubercles on proxi- mal four-fifths; between and distad of these is a single row of minute denticles. Mesial margin of dactyl with a row of strong ciliated tubercles which are progressively more squamous distad. Upper surface of dactyl with a well-defined submedian ridge which is flanked proximally by tubercles and distally by setiferous puncta- tions. Lower surface of dactyl tuberculate proximad and bearing setiferous punctations distad. Opposable margin of immovable finger with a row of six large tubercles on proximal three-fifths, and a much larger one at base of distal fourth. Outer margin of immovable finger with a distinct ridge which bears a row of ciliated tubercles proximad, the latter giving way to a row of setiferous punctations distad. Proximal, inner, lower surface with a row of five prominent tubercles; outer proximal portion with scattered tubercles, and distal portion with setiferous punctations. Median ridge on upper surface of immovable finger flanked proximally by tubercles and distally by setiferous punctations. Near tip on outer margin of immovable finger is a large punctation bearing a heavy growth of setae; a similar punctation near tip of dactyl. Carpus of first right pereiopod about 1.6 times longer than broad; a well-defined longitudinal groove above; punctate except on inner surface which bears several spike-like tubercles (two distinctly 114 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES larger ones in middle, and two large ones somewhat below and distad of these two); in addition an irregular row of seven smaller ones along upper inner margin. Merus punctate laterad and mesiad; upper surface with two very irregular rows of tubercles which are progressively larger distad; lower surface with a mesial row of eleven spike-like tu- bercles, and an outer row of eight; cephalad these two rows are joined by an oblique row of four similar tubercles. Hooks on ischiopodites (Fig. 7) of third pereiopods only; hooks large with proximal surface excavate and setiferous. Bases of coxopodites of fourth and fifth pereiopods with ventrally project- ing prominences; those on fourth large, heavy, and truncate; those on fifth smaller than those on fourth but more acute. First pleopod (Figs. 1, 2, 4 and 5) reaching base of second pereio- pod when abdomen is flexed. Tip terminating in three parts. Mesial process triangular with an elongate, acute, corneous tip; central projection corneous, short, and subtriangular; caudal ele- ment consists of a swollen and slightly compressed caudal knob lying immediately proximad of central projection. All three termi- nal elements directed caudad at about right angles to the main shaft of the appendage. Allotypic Female.—Differs from the holotype in the following respect: Sides of epistome emarginate; cephalic section of telson with two spines in the dextral and one in the sinistral caudolateral corners; inner margin of palm of chela with a cristiform row of ten tubercles; other slight differences exist in the size and number of tubercles present on the several structures described for the holotype. Annulus ventralis (Fig. 6) deeply imbedded in sternum, subovate, with the greatest length in the longitudinal axis; deeply excavate (for course of sinus see Diagnosis). (See measurements.) Morphotypic Male, Form II.—Differs from the holotype in the size and number of tubercles present on the several structures described, and while the three terminal elements of the first pleopod are present all are reduced and none corneous; the usual reduction of the secondary sexual characters is evident. (See Figs. 9 and 10, and Measurements.) Color Notes——Ground color of carapace grayish-tan; cephalic portion lighter than thoracic region, the latter dark green with a buff suffusion changing to buff along ventral margins. Cervical A NEW CRAYFISH FROM GEORGIA 115 groove, margins of rostrum, and postorbital ridges bluish-green. Abdomen grayish-buff with nondescript markings in cream and dark gray; pleura pale mauve on buff with a light greenish-gray line along base; telson and uropods with lateral portions and tips like pleura, otherwise colorless with grayish-green splotches. Ground color of chelae and pereiopods buff with greenish-blue and gray markings (particularly at joints and on upper surfaces); tubercles on chelae bluish-green as are the bases of joints of dactyls; row of tubercles on inner margin of palm greenish-blue at base but cream at tips; outer margins of chelae and lower surfaces light orange-buff with pink suffusions; tubercles on opposable margins of fingers cream. Lower portion of body and appendages whitish cream. Hair on ventral surface light gray. Measurements—(In Millimeters) | Holo- | Allo- Morpho- type type type | | | arapace weit Sas fy ee LSS a alewloe> | Wile \WAV1G Uc fy a Ce eee WS) oes) 12.4 IB como thteneeees es ha Naas eye e es ea | Sulea | 29.8 | 24.7 Prec e Width ee le 6 ui 5 Wemelagpren el oe Nee nen 12.0 RO 9.2 VOstnumin=— ace 4.7 4.5 4.2 TLAGTANGAE OY, 51 eae 2 Bie Os Veena in OAR | 471 4.4 4] Chela— Length of inner margin of palm | 7.8 7.0 5.0 Wiacleht ote allimiawss ses Pe ei) > 10:0 9.0 ell Length of outer margin of hand ___ | DEO | IG) 15.7 Leman Oe GA gla. 2k ee LAV) |) LAO) | 10.0 Type Locality—Boggy, seepage area 11 miles north of Lyons in Emanuel County, Georgia, on U. S. Highway 1. This seepage area lies on a gently sloping hill at the foot of which is a small sluggish creek. The area in which the crayfishes were found is approximately 200 feet up the hill from the creek, and probably only in rainy seasons is there any appreciable surface run-off into the stream. Conspicuous elements of the flora are pines, Nyssa sp., Hypericum fasciculatum, Sarracenia flava, S. minor, and Lycopod- ium sp. Other plants in the area are Sarracenia psittacina, Syngona- thus flavidulus, Cyanococcus sp., Erigeron vernus, Rhynchospora 116 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES oligantha, Drosera sp., Pogonia ophioglossoides, Juncus sp., Seti- scapella subulata, Panicum sp., Pilostaxis racemosa, and Helenium sp Disposition of Types.—The holotypic male (No. 95670), allotypic female (No. 95671), and morphotypic male (No. 95672) are de- posited in the United States National Museum. Of the paratypes one male, Form II, and one female are in the Museum of Com- parative Zoology; one male, Form II, and one female in the Tulane Collection, and one male, Form I, 3 males, Form II, and 21 females are in my personal collection at the University of Virginia. Range.—Jenkins, Emanuel, and Bulloch counties, Georgia. Ap- parently this species is confined to an area between the Ogeechee and Altamaha rivers in the upper Coastal Plain. Specimens Examined.—Gerorcia: Emanuel County—5.5 miles northeast of Swainsboro, St. Hy. 56 (5-445-lb, 1¢ II, 12; 6.8 miles south of Swainsboro, U. S. Hy. 1 (6-1534-1, 1¢II, 12); 11 miles north of Lyons, U.S. Hy. 1 (Type locality) (8-2337-3, 1 3 II, 62 2), (6- 940-1, 32 2), (5-2541-1, 32 2), (8-0041-1, 1¢1). Bulloch County— 14.2 miles south of Millen, U. S. Hy. 25 (4-1744-3b, 1¢1, 2¢ ¢II, 322). Jenkins County—9.2 miles south of Millen, U. S. Hy. 25 (3-2739-6, 1311, 12). Relationships.—Procambarus truculentus is probably most closely allied to Procambarus advena (LeConte), but may readily be sep- arated from it by the position assumed by the mesial process and central projection of the first pleopod of the male. The females of the two species are almost indistinguishable. While there are certain superficial resemblances of the first pleopod of the male of truculentus to that of the typical Cambarus pleopod it will be noted that in the former the mesial process is not evident in lateral aspect, whereas, the mesial process of the first pleopod of all species belonging to the genus Cambarus is always clearly seen in lateral view. Too, the prominent caudal knob is never so conspicuously evident in the latter. Variations —Considerable variation occurs among the specimens available. Particularly are the numbers of spines and tubercles on the cheliped variable; e.g., the inner margin of the palm may bear from seven to ten tubercles. The basal segment of the antennule *'Dr. A. M. Laessle of the University of Florida kindly identified these plants for me. A NEW CRAYFISH FROM GEORGIA 117 may or may not have a spine on its lower surface. The annulus ventralis may or may not show the low lateral tubercles shown in the drawing of the allotype. The mesial process of the first pleopod of the first form male from Bulloch County is broader throughout its length—not tapering as in the holotype. Remarks—In the rather small known range of Procambarus truculentus it occurs in colonies where each member apparently constructs its own complex burrow. These burrows are not unlike those described for P. advena (See Hobbs 1942: 78). Unlike some of the more astute burrowing species, P. truculentus may be attracted to the surface of the water in the burrow thus obviating the necessity for laborious digging. Most of my speci- mens were collected by opening the mouth of a burrow with a spade and vigorously roiling the water. After this was done other burrows were similarly opened. When a number of them had been so treated, upon quietly approaching the open burrows, the crayfish were often seen at the surface of the water, lying in a horizontal position with one of the branchiostegites exposed, and thus relatively easily caught with the hand. In order to determine the extent of some of the burrows they were carefully dissected, and it was found that while there were a number of passages that wound both vertically and horizontally, with several openings to the surface, there was usually only one passage which dipped much below the normal water table. Such passages were seldom more than two or three feet deep, and they usually had no more than one side branch. The soil in the localities from which most of the specimens were taken is a black, sandy muck, and supports a dense growth of wire grasses, pitcher plants, and other bog-inhabiting plants. The water table fluctuates from the surface to about two feet below it. The type locality has been visited in March, May, June, and August and in no instance was a first form male found; however, one of the males taken in August was brought into the laboratory where it moulted to first form in November. [Another second form male collected in another locality in April moulted in the laboratory during the following October.] In May more than a dozen bur- rows were examined, and all of them contained females with young approximately 10 mm. in length (from tip of rostrum to tip of telson). At this time no males could be found. 118 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Procambarus truculentus is aggressively ferocious. On several occasions individuals placed in trays of shallow water have been observed to hurl themselves above the water surface in attempting to reach an object moved across the tray at a height of one foot. A previous “teasing” period was not required to elicit this aggres- sive response. The actual height of the jump was not measured but the animals can jump above the water surface when it is as little as two inches above the bottom of the container. LITERATURE CITED HOBBS, HORTON H., JR. 1938. A new Crawfish from Florida. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 28 (2): GIEGon lence 1942. The Crayfishes of Florida. Univ. of Florida Pub., Biol. Sci. Series, 3(2): 1-179, 3 text figs., 11 maps, 24 pls. LECONTE, JOHN 1856. Description of New aaa of Astacus from Georgia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci, Philad., 7: 400-402. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 17(2), 1954. A SUGGESTED INORGANIC FERTILIZER FOR USE IN BRACKISH WATER Matcotm C. JOHNSON Marineland Research Laboratory, Marineland, Florida INTRODUCTION In July, 1952, funds were made available through the Marine- land Research Laboratory to explore the possibilities of developing a commercial brackish-water pond culture system. The economics of such a system dictate an intensive type culture. That is, the per acre yield of any given seafood item must be sufficiently large to show a profit in the face of high investments and production costs. In view of the meager unit-area production figures avail- able for saltwater ponds, it seemed highly improbable that the natural carrying capacity of coastal waters was great enough to meet this demand. Production then, had to be increased either through the addition of feed stuffs or by increasing the basic fertility of the pond water. Smith and Swingle (1938) have shown that the carrying capacity, in terms of pounds of fish, of fresh waters varies directly with the production of plankton organisms. They demonstrated further that the production of plankton algae could be greatly increased by the addition of the major plant nutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. To be properly utilized these materials had to be applied in such relative quantities as to be available in solution in the proportion in which they were absorbed by plankton algae (Swingle, 1947). Satisfactory fertilizer formulas have been ascer- tained for fresh waters in various parts of this country, the pro- portion of N:P:K varying with the relative nutrient deficiency of an area. More recently, workers in Scotland (Gross, et al, 1946; Ramont, 1947) and at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (Edmondson and Edmondson, 1947; Pratt, 1949) have correlated increased plankton crops with the addition of inorganic fertilizers to brackish- water areas. The workers at Woods Hole did not study fertilization as such. Pratt (1949) studied the nutrition of phytoplankton by the artificial increase of nutrient elements that seemed most likely to be limiting natural plankton populations, while the Edmond- 120 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sons (1947) undertook to study the general problems of productiv- ity in aquatic environments. On the other hand, pond culturists, notably Smith and Swingle (1938), Surber (1943), Swingle (1947) and Ball (1949) concerned themselves with fertilization as a means to increased fish production with little emphasis on the inter- mediate nutritive cycle. At Marineland the initial pond culture experiment was set up to give information on the carrying capacity, in terms of pounds of fish, of unfertilized esturine waters and the increase in produc- tion due to fertilization. It was therefore necessary to determine a mixture of inorganic fertilizer that contained the major limiting plant nutrients in a ratio that would give satisfactory results when applied to salt or brackish water. At that time facilities were not available at the Research Laboratory for preliminary greenhouse experiments, so a fertilizer was formulated theoretically and used throughout the experiment. The purpose of the particular study reported here was to obtain an estimate of the efficiency of the formula devised. FORMULATING THE FERTILIZER MIXTURE Potassium is present in excess in sea water and was not con- sidered a limiting factor in plankton production. Nitrate nitrogen and phosphate phosphorus are present in sea water in the constant ratio 16:1 by atoms, or approximately 7:1 by weight. These materials are absorbed and released by marine plankton algae in the same ratio (Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming, 1942). It seemed reasonable to assume that a satisfactory fertilizer for salt water would be one that delivered these nutrients in so- lution in the 7:1 ratio. Because the analysis of commercial inorganic fertilizer is ex- pressed as per cent elemental nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, it was necessary to convert the 7:1 nitrate:phosphate ratio to the N:P,O; equivalent. This gave a ratio of 1.6:0.76, which | was the relative proportion of N to P.O; desired in solution. Then, since Pratt (1949) had shown that a loss of % of the added phos- phorus might be expected, the relative P20; proportion was tripled, resulting in a 1.6:2.3 ratio, or approximately a 6-9-0 (1.6:2.3x4) analysis fertilizer. A commercial 7-9-0 fertilizer which was avail- in the Marineland area was adopted instead. INORGANIC FERTILIZER FOR USE IN BRACKISH WATER 121 Actually, except in vitro an exact fertilizer for aquatic use is purely theoretical. Any mixture that gives the desired results without large excesses of any one nutrient would be acceptable. EXPERIMENTAL UNITS Four ¥-acre rectangular ponds were excavated in alluvial mud soil typical of the tidal marsh areas of the Southeast Atlantic States. The above water portion of the dikes was composed of an admix- ture of mud, sand, and oyster shells, and was sufficiently high to prevent topping by flood waters. A twelve-inch inlet pipe was installed through one dike in each pond. The pipes in three of the ponds were fitted with automatic storm-gate valves that al- lowed water from the Intracoastal Waterway to enter the ponds whenever the pond water level fell below that of flood tide. The valves prevented the efflux of water during ebb tides. On the other pond the pipe was fitted with a stand-pipe that permitted the inflow and outflow of tidal water whenever flood tide exceeded the height of the stand-pipe. Each pond had an average depth of 3.5 feet. The mud in which the ponds were dug was extremely impervious to water. Loss of water due to seepage was not measured, but was relatively slight, since each pond lost only two to four inches in depth between one high tide and the next. The ponds are hereafter referred to by numbers | through 4. METHODS Each pond was stocked with 2,000 fingerling mullet (Mugil cephalus) per acre on December 31, 1952. Ponds 1 and 3 were fertilized, ponds 2 and 4 unfertilized during 1953. Applications of the 7-9-0 fertilizer were made at the rate of 200 pounds per acre per month, which is equal to fourteen pounds of elemental nitrogen and eighteen pounds of P2O;. On the basis of the calculated pond volume, the potential increase in dissolved N was approximately 1.48 ppm and in P,O; approximately 1.69 ppm at each application. Actually these materials do not go into solution immediately but gradually over a period of hours or days, and are utilized in whole or part by algae as they dissolve. This being true, it was considered useless to make immediate determina- tions for dissolved N and P:O;, since the concentrations indicated 122 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES would be only that part of the total nutrients that had dissolved but had not yet been absorbed by plants or bound chemically with other materials. Instead it seemed reasonable that when using guaranteed analysis fertilizer in a body of confined water that the total increase at fertilization would be the theoretical increase. The degree of balance of the mixture was determined by estimating the amounts of dissolved phosphorus and nitrogen at intervals intermediate to the applications of fertilizer. A consistent excess of one nutrient would indicate that the other had become limiting to plankton production and should be increased in subsequent ex- periments. TABLE I Nutrient Analysis of Fertilized Ponds, 1958 Rond Date of Total | | Last 7-9-0/ Dis=- 4) "Sa- | | Date | Fertil- Acre P.O; | NOs | NH. | solved | lin- pH |Temp ization | Neel atsy | | Lbs. | ppm | ae ppm | ppm 0/00 | | oe. IIa | DC | 12/6 200 | 2-10 200 | 3-7 200 | | 4-9 | 200 | | 4-29, 100 Sel) 5-9 100 0.32 | 0.00 ae 0.00 SDD BAL: 83 622) sul D-2p 100 ‘lj 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 35.4 7.8 83 6-19 6-9 100 O62" 0200717000 0.00 35.6 7.6 84 Til 6-23 100 0.00 | 0.00 | sl Al 35.0 ara 85 9-3 8-4 200 0.00 T 0.10 0.08 17.0 7.9 84 Cis | 200 | | 10-22 10-13 200 1.54 | 0.00 alt Ati | 9.6 | 126 15 Pond 3 1-12 | 200 | 1-26 200 9-10 | 200 | B27 200 | | 4-9 200 4-22. | 100 | | 5-19 5-9 100 OFS275/ 20:00 oe 0.00 33.9 Nec 83 6-2 5-5) 100 ali 0.00 | 0.00 0.00 | 34.3 7.8 §4 6-19 6-9 100 OS2 ee OL00R 20:00 0.00 35:20 84 TP 6-23 100 0.00 | 0.00 ft Bist | ali *34re vad 85 9-3 8-4 200 0.00 al T iT | 16.3 7.9 84 9-15 | 200 | | 10-22 | 10-13 | 200 T | 0.05 | a 0.01 | Sil 262k ie INORGANIC FERTILIZER FOR USE IN BRACKISH WATER = 1238 Although fertilization was begun Jan. 12, 1953, the first nutrient analysis was not made until May 19, 1953. Beginning May 19, 1953, estimates were made for dissolved phos- phorus and nitrogen in both the fertilized and unfertilized ponds between each application of fertilizer. The results of these de- terminations are tabulated in Tables I and 11 as ppm P2O;, ppm nitrogen as the nitrate and ammonia radicals and ppm total dis- solved nitrogen as N. In addition salinity, pH, water temperature and the last date of fertilization are given for each pond on the date analyses were made. TABLE II Nutrient Analysis of Unfertilized Ponds, 1953 Pond 2 ParGtale Fy 7 | Date P30; | NOs | NH: | Dissolved | Salinity pH | Temp. | N | | | ppm ppm | ppm | ppm. O00 Fs aes | | 5-19 | 0.00 iE ae ah DOR LiF oes 3 6-2 pe —| =0:00 0.00 0.00 31.7 Ore) 3 6-19 | 0.62 0.00 | 05) | 0.04 35.1 eget) 84 Pond 4 | 51951069. |. T ae T 32.1 fered eats 6-2 it 0.00 0.00 0.00 33.6 (2S aed 3 6-19 | 0.62 0.00 0.00 0.00 30.0 8.0 84 f—-21. -| ih 0.00 Je JE 34.2 = 85 9-3 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.10 8.7 7.8 84 10-22 0.23 0.05 iL 0.01 7.6 1 US * Pond 2 was drained and put in a feeding experiment on July 8, 1953. DETERMINATIONS Phosphorus: Phosphorus was estimated by adding standard am- monium molybdate-sulfuric acid, and stannous chloride solutions (A. P. H. A., 1946) to 50 ml. of the water samples and comparing the blue color that developed in the presence of soluble phosphorus with that of like portions of distilled water to which known quan- tities of phosphorus had been added. A salt correction factor of 1.35 was applied (Harvey, 1945). 124 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Nitrate Nitrogen: Nitrate nitrogen was estimated by the phenol- disulfonic acid method. This method had to be altered somewhat for use in sea water (A. P. H. A., 1946). The nitrites were oxidized to nitrates by the addition of K2MnO,. The chlorides were de- termined by titration with AgNOs, and sufficient Ago.SO, added to precipitate all but 0.1 mg. chlorides in a 100 ml. sample. The standard method was then followed and the yellow color that developed in the presence of nitrates upon dissolution in strong ammonium hydroxide was compared with like portions of distilled water to which ammonium hydroxide and known quantities of nitrates had been added. ‘The results recorded as nitrates were actually nitrites plus nitrates. Ammonia Nitrogen: Ammonia nitrogen was estimated by direct nesslerization after treating the samples with a 10% solution of ZnSO4.7H,O and raising the pH to 10 with a 50% solution of NaOH (A. P. H. A., 1946). The reddish color produced by Nessler’s reagent in the presence of ammonia nitrogen was compared with like portions of distilled water to which known quantities of am- monia nitrogen had been added. Salinity: Salinity was determined by titrating 10 ml. samples with 0.1595 N AgNOs using K.CrOy, as an indicator (Harvey, 1945). pH: The pH was determined with a model G. Beckman portable pH meter. Temperature: All temperatures were surface temperatures taken by immersing a mercurial pocket thermometer in the surface six inches of water. The methods of estimating the dissolved phosphorus, NH4° nitro- gen and NOs nitrogen limit the accuracy of the determinations, and the tabulated values should not be considered as absolute. In each case standards were prepared at intervals of 0.05 ppm, and comparisons made visually. Concentrations less than 0.05 ppm are indicated in the tables by the symbol T (trace). RESULTS The surface temperatures ranged from 75°F. to 85°F. on the days nutrient determinations were made. The low for the entire fertil- ization period was 43°F. and the high 87°F. The extremes in salinity on the days nutrient determinations were made were INORGANIC FERTILIZER FOR USE IN BRACKISH WATER = 125 7.6 0/00 in pond 4 to 85.5 0/00 in pond 1. The extremes for the entire fertilization period were 7.6 0/00 in pond 4 to 35.7 0/00 in pond 1. None of the ponds had a pH below 7.6 or above 8.1 on the days nutrient determinations were made. The lowest pH in any pond was 7.5 and the highest 9.4 for the entire fertilization period. In the fertilized ponds phosphorus was present at least in trace quantities in four of the six determinations. On October 22, 1953, there was 1.54 ppm dissolved phosphorus as P20; in pond 1. This determination was made during a period of such heavy rainfall that the salinity of the pond water was less than 10 0/00, and the previous fertilization had not resulted in any visible increase in plankton. It should be noted that small amounts of nitrogen were also present in both fertilized ponds on this date, but that in all other analyses where there was a positive P.O; determination no N was evident. Pond 2, though unfertilized, was not a good unfertilized control. It lay between the two fertilized ponds and had a lower surface level due to low stand-pipe elevation. It is believed these condi- tions were favorable for a relatively high rate of seepage from the bordering fertilized ponds. Pond 2 was drained following the June 19, 1953, nutrient analysis, but had sustained a very heavy bloom prior to that time. In pond 2 P,O; was in excess on June 2 and June 19, 1958, being 1.15 ppm on June 2. Pond 4 did not produce a visible plankton bloom, but had much the same appearance throughout the year as the surrounding natural water. The chemistry of this pond is thought to have been representative of these natural waters. In pond 4 P,O; was present at least in trace quantities in four out of six determinations. On June 19 the waters contained 0.62 ppm P2O;. On two occasions dissolved nitrogen, either as NO; or NHz, as well as dissolved phosphorus gave positive tests; on two other dates only soluble nitrogen was present in detectable amounts. DISCUSSION From the foregoing data it would seem that dissolved phos- phorus was, in general, present in the fertilized waters in quantities greater than those necessary to maintain the desired N:P.O; ratio. The need for further study is evident, and in subsequent fertiliza- tion experiments the per cent N content of the fertilizer will be 126 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES increased to yield approximately a 9-9-0 mix. This is certainly an arbitrary increase, but due to the chemical variation of esturine water exact calculation would be impossible. The unfertilized ponds contained excesses of P2O; comparable to those in the fertilized ponds. Therefore, the possibility should not be overlooked that a 6-9-0 mix may be correct as a basic salt water fertilizer requiring modification for use in any particular coastal area. That is, it would only be necessary to adjust the N:P,O; ratio according to the relative amounts of ntirogen and phosphorus derived from land drainage. Fertilizer is applied to water to increase the production of photosynthetic plants. A specific test for the benefits of fertiliza- tion would be to measure the relative amounts of these plants in fertilized and unfertilized water. Unfortunately circumstances did not permit such measurements during the experiment. However, in the mullet rearing experiments (results to be reported elsewhere) the best fertilized pond produced 276.8 pounds fish per acre, an increase of 122.4 pounds or 79.3 per cent over unfertilized water. LITERATURE CITED WP alc; Ac 1946. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage. 6th Edition American Public Health Association, New York. BALL, ROBERT C. 1949. Experimental Use of Fertilizer in Production of Fish-food Organisms and Fish. Bull. Agri. Exp. Sta. Mich. State Coll., No. 210. EDMONDSON, W. T., and Y. H. EDMONDSON 1947. Measurements of Production in Fertilized Salt Water. Jour. Mar. Res. 6: 228-246. GROSS, F., J. E. G. RAYMONT, S. R. NUTMAN and D. T. GAULD 1946. Application of Fertilizers to an Open Sea Loch. Nature, Lond., 158: 187-189. UAW BAYS El VW 1945. Recent Advances in the Chemistry of Sea Water. Cambridge Uni- versity Press, London. JORVANG EADS IDE 1949 Experiments in the Fertilization of a Salt Water Pond. Jour. Mar. Res. 8: 36-59. RAYMONT, J. E. G. 1947. A Fish Farming Experiment in Scottish Sea Lochs. Jour. Mar. Res. (Ge AUS INORGANIC FERTILIZER FOR USE IN BRACKISH WATER — 127 SMITH, E. V., and H. S. SWINGLE 1938. The Relationship Between Plankton Production and Fish Production in Ponds. Trans. Amer. Fish Soc., 68: 309-315. SURBER, EUGENE W. 1943. The Effects of Various Fertilizers on Plant Growths and Their Prob- able Influence on the Production of Smallmouth Black Bass in Hard- water Ponds. Trans. Amer. Fish Soc., 73: 377-393. SVERDRUP, H. U., M. W. JOHNSON and R. H. FLEMING 1942. The Oceans. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York. SWINGLE, H. S. 1947. Experiments on Pond Fertilization. Bull. Agri. Exp. Sta. Ala. Poly. Inst., No. 264. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 17(2), 1954. NEWS AND COMMENTS At a meeting of the Council of the Academy plans for a series of informative monthly broadcasts, entitled “The Academy Speaks,” were made. Dr. Donald R. Dyer, Assistant Professor of Geography at the University of Florida, was elected chairman of the Radio Committee in charge of the broadcasts. He will be assisted by the Editorial Board of the Quarterly Journal and by committee repre- sentatives in the several colleges and universities that are partici- pating in the series. The first program was presented over radio station WRUF. Gainesville on May 29, and is being distributed throughout the state by tape-recording. It consisted of a half-hour broadcast, a forum discussion of Florida’s future. The participating members were Dr. Sigismond deR. Diettrich, moderator, Professor Henry F. Becker of Florida State University, Dr. Charles T. Thrift, Jr. of Florida Southern College, Dr. H. G. Hamilton of the University of Florida, and Professor E. P. Martinson of the University of Florida. Subsequent programs are designed to be 15-minute length and will be scheduled monthly. The committee is anxious to present programs that will acquaint the public with important scientific research being carried on by members of the Academy, particularly in regard to Florida. Sug- gestions will be welcomed. The cooperation of schools with De- partments of Radio or Radic Guilds is being secured in order to widen participation in the tape-recorded broadcasts. Attempts have been made to organize a regular circuit of radio stations throughout the state in order to distribute the tapes to all sections. INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Contributions to the JournaL may be in any of the fields of Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings can be published only with the cooperation of the author. 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Payment for reprints will be made by the author directly to the printer. h t5, Ouarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 17 September, 1954 No. 3 Contents Argus and Agnew—Studies of Fluorene Derivatives in Mamma nemiatnerapy 8 129 Fox—The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis in Corrections__ 140 Moody—Adult Fish Populations by Haul Seine in Seven oT SLES Sea A Rene Ga Siecle anata 7 Grace—A Regional Study of the Phosphate Industry ______.__. 168 eeeeerearen Grant 8 8) Caldwell—Additions to the Known Fish Fauna in the Vicinity Paberemiey, Pioricay ch kN ote i. 182 eneewal rime) Niceting i) a 184 Vou. 17 SEPTEMBER, 1954 Nieto, QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. The business offices of the JouRNAL are centralized at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology. All subsequent correspondence concerning manuscripts may be handled directly between authors and associate editors: J. C. Dickinson, Jr., Biological Sciences, Department of Biology and Florida State Museum; Donald R. Dyer, Social Sciences, Department of Geography; John W. Flowers, Physical Sciences, Department of Physics. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be addressed to The Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed October 18, 1954 fae QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mor. 17 SEPTEMBER, 1954 No. 3 STUDIES OF FLUORENE DERIVATIVES IN TUMOR CHEMOTHERAPY ! Mary F. Arcus and L. R. C. AGNEw The purpose of chemotherapeutic studies in the field of cancer research is to discover an agent which will destroy cancer cells in the host, or so effect these cells that they become vulnerable to the host's own defense mechanisms; while at the same time in- flicting no serious injury on normal cells. Various factors have influenced the selection of chemical com- pounds for cancer chemotherapeutic studies. Because x-rays can cause the induction as well as the regression of tumors and because many chemical carcinogens have been observed to have an inhibit- ing effect upon body growth, carcinogenic chemicals have been tested as potential cancer cures; e.g., Haddow (1935, 1938a, 1938b) investigated the possible therapeutic use of a series of structurally related carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic compounds. Since cer- tain derivatives of fluorene are known to produce tumors in various sites in the animal body (Wilson, DeEds, and Cox, 1941; Bielschow- sky, 1944, 1947; Morris, Dubnik and Johnson, 1950), it was con- sidered worth while to investigate other derivatives of this molecule as possible tumor chemotherapeutic agents. Several characteristics of the sulfonamido linkage endow these substances with therapeutic potentialities. So far as could be found in the literature, the work of Ray and Argus (1951) describes the only case of in vivo hydrolysis of a sulfonamido linkage and this hydrolysis occurred to the extent of only 0.5 per cent. In addition to localizing in certain tissues (Bloch e¢ al., 1945; Stevens *A contribution from the Cancer Research Laboratory, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. This study was supported by grant C-1356 of the National Cancer Institute, U. S. Public Health Service and grant DRIR 101-33B of the Damon Runyon Memorial Fund. OCT 271552 130 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES - et al., 1950), sulfonamides have been shown to reduce the effective vitamin intake of animals by suppressing the intestinal flora, and this reduction of essential vitamins in the diet of tumor bearing mice is known to inhibit growth of tumors (Boyland, 1938). For these reasons, a disulfonamido derivative of fluorene was studied in the present work. The compound employed was fluorene-2,7- disulfonamido-2-pyridine (2,7-FDSPy) (Figure 1). Na 03S SOz Na DISODIUM FLUORENE-2,7-DISULFONATE Orie wr He: FLUORENE-2,7—DISULFONAMIDOPYRIDINE Figure 1.—Compounds tested as tumor chemotherapeutic agents. Disodium fluorene-2,7-disulfonate (2,7-FDS) (Figure 1) was se- lected for the present investigation since distribution studies with this compound labeled with sulfur-35 revealed a localization of the radioactivity in tumor tissue (Argus, 1953). MATERIALS AND METHODS Chemical Compounds: Disodium fluorene-2,7-disulfonate: Flourene, 50 gm. (0.3 moles), together with concentrated H2SO,, 69 ml. (1.20 moles) was warmed on a steam bath. After one-half hour the fluorene dissolved. The solution was warmed an additional one and one-half hours during which time a white precipitate formed. Sufficient ice was added FLUORENE DERIVATIVES IN TUMOR CHEMOTHERAPY 1381 to dissolve the product and the solution was freed of any undis- solved residue by filtering. The white disodium salt was precipi- tated by the addition of a saturated aqueous solution of NaCl. Recrystallization was carried out by dissolving the compound in a minimum of boiling water, filtering hot, adding absolute ethanol until turbid and allowing to cool. Yield, 95.42%. Sulfur analysis gave 17.23% S; the calculated value is 17.31%. The p-toluidine salt melted at 326°; the melting point of the disulfonyl chloride was 225-226°; Courtot and Geoffroy (1924) found 225-226° for fluorene- 2.7-disulfony]l chloride. Fluorene-2,7-disulfonamido-2-pyridine: Fluorene-2,7-disulfonyl chloride, 4 gm., and 2-aminopyridine, 5.15 gm., were dissolved separately in a minimum of hot benzene. The solutions were then combined and refluxed for 3 hours, during which time a light yellow precipitate formed. After cooling, the product was collected, re- crystallized from aniline and the resulting white compound washed first with benzene and then with glacial acetic acid. Yield, 95%. Melting point, 309°. Analysis gave 11.69% N and 13.27% S; cal- culated values are 11.71% N and 13.39% S. Animal Experiments: Four to five-week old, male, strain A (Bar Harbor) mice were employed as hosts for the subaxillary transplantation of a keratiniz- ing squamous cell carcinoma (Line A stomach carcinoma originally obtained from the Animal Supply and Research Units of the British Empire Cancer Campaign). A total of 82 of these tumor-bearing mice were divided into groups for three experiments as follows: Experiment A: To study the effect of a single dose of 2,7-FDS. Solutions were administered by tail vein injection. Group 1 (12 animals): Received 0.25 ml. normal saline con- taining 5 mg. 2,7-FDS, one day prior to receiving tumor transplant. Group 2 (12 animals): Received 0.25 ml. normal saline con- taining 5 mg. 2,7-FDS, immediately following tumor transplant. Group 3 (12 animals): Received 0.25 ml. normal saline con- taining 5 mg. 2,7-FDS, five days following tumor transplant. 132 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Group 4 (12 animals): Received 0.25 ml. normal saline imme- diately following tumor transplant. (Controls.) Experiment B: To study the effect of repeated doses of 2,7-FDS. Solutions were administered intraperitoneally. Group 5 (9 animals): Received five injections, each consisting of 0.25 ml. normal saline containing 5 mg. 2,7-FDS; one injection immediately after tumor transplant, and one at 4, 8, 12, and 16 days after transplant. Group 6 (9 animals): Received five injections, each consisting of 0.25 ml. normal saline at the same time intervals as for Group 5. (Controls.) Experiment C: To study the effect of repeated doses of 2,7- FDSPy. Solutions were administered intraperitoneally. Group 7 (8 animals): Received five injections, each consisting of 0.25 ml. 1% Naz,CO 3 containing 5 mg. 2,7-FDSPy; one injection immediately after tumor transplant, and one at 4, 8, 12 and 16 days after transplant. Group 8 (8 animals): Received five injections, each consisting of 0.25 ml. 1% NasCOs, at the same time intervals as for Group 7. (Controls.) Preliminary toxicity experiments with the doses employed re- vealed them to be well tolerated by the animals. Each animal was weighed twice weekly and the dimensions of the tumor measured, horizontally and vertically, with calipers graduated in millimeters. The size of the tumor was recorded on a mimeographed form with the outline of the mouse superimposed on graph paper divided 10 millimeters to the centimeter (Figue 2). Red pencil was used to indicate the areas of ulceration. This gave a permanent record of the location, growth and condition of the tumor through the duration of the experiment. The animals which had not died after 8 months, were killed by cervical fracture. A complete autopsy was performed on each mouse and the following tissues prepared for histological study: tumor, stomach, lung, liver, kidney and lymph nodes. After fixing in chilled 80% ethanol, paraffin sections, 4-6 thickness, were made and the following stains applied: Harris’s haematoxylin and eosin, Weigert’s fibrin stain, mucicarmine, and the periodic acid-Schiff technique. : FLUORENE DERIVATIVES IN TUMOR CHEMOTHERAPY 133 aan Poo 4anp SST UESBRETEGE eee - Pt TT ig a =H We BUEREESESUESSEEES fe HEATER HH aa H Fe set ao fesse O6b.9 00000 2ab0n0 & a CoCo ep". Dp H ee a Ba“, 72"= «48 SaBEED OP, PT TT Terry SEBBREr a7 < GERSS SeeSbbR8 "a PEC oa SEREESEER) .2eee "a SRR Gb UR SR BPA Pe TS TT } | n”.42 00888 ht fi a HEE H+ ) HH baa D008 SU 000 So000 SEE00R0e0o o00n8 i u Ti =H 2 SS Bee eee eee PRE E EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE Pete ee eer Sc Pett BOSCO 00085 20000 SOEs Genesee OOG0008000 BS PERSE Sees oes eee eee Figure 2.—Graph form used for recording location and size of tumor. RESULTS EXPERIMENT A: Effect of a single intravenous dose of 2,7-FDS. The compound was injected intravenously one day before trans- planting the tumor (Group 1), immediately after the transplant (Group 2), or five days later (Group 3). Control animals (Group 4) 134 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES were injected intravenously with 0.25 ml. normal saline immediately after receiving the transplant. The transplants “took” in all animals and developed rapidly. The compound had no significant effect on the development and subsequent growth of the transplants, and did not affect the weight or the life span of the mice. After a period of 3 to 6 weeks the tumors of the experimental and control animals tended to ulcerate and to expel a core of necrotic tissue; in a few cases, complete regression of the tumor occurred. Histo- logically, variable degrees of necrosis, ulceration and secondary infection were observed in those tumors that remained at the end of the experiment.. The compound did not seem to influence any of these pathological changes. Figure 3.—Section of glandular part of stomach showing two small mucosal abscesses and one large submucosal abscess. Hematoxylin and Eosin. Mag. x 165. Three well-defined lung metastases from the transplant were ob- served, one in Group 2 and two in Group 3. Figure 3 shows one of these lesions from a mouse of Group 3. Two other lung lesions, FLUORENE DERIVATIVES IN TUMOR CHEMOTHERAPY 185 less clearly defined, were regarded as possible metastases and were found in mice of Group 2. No lung metastases were observed in mice of Group 1, or in the controls (Group 4). This suggests that the 2,7-FDS administered immediately following and five days following transplantation of the tumor might have stimulated meta- stasis to the lung. This fluorene derivative, which is known to localize in tumor tissue (Argus, 1953), has detergent properties by virtue of its two sodium sulfonate groups. This could possibly have altered cohesion between the tumor cells and _ facilitated metastasis. The rapid elimination of 2,7-FDS from the animal body (Argus, 1953), could account for the absence of such influence in the mice injected previous to receiving the tumor transplant. On the other hand it should be pointed out that serial sections of lung were not made and it may well be that this lesion was also present in animals of Groups 1 and 4, because only one of the lung metastases found was grossly visible at autopsy. : ec = ey : 2 eB « * See . #3 ae ‘ coe Saat a ses 3 3 Q sea oe CH Bae ue G4 Ks - ye yeey Figure 4.—Section of lung showing metastasis from tumor transplant. Hematoxylin and Eosin. Mag. x 165. 136 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES An occasional abscess was observed in the wall of the glandular part of the stomach of experimental and control mice. Figure 4 shows an example of this lesion; two small abscesses are visible in the mucosa, and one large one in the submucosa. In one control 7 # <* Figure 5.—Section of forestomach showing sessile papilloma with well-marked epithelial “pearl” formation. Hematoxylin and Eosin. Mag. x 165. FLUORENE DERIVATIVES IN TUMOR CHEMOTHERAPY — 137 mouse, a huge liver abscess was observed that was possibly secon- dary to abscesses that were also present in the wall of the stomach. It is possible that these abscesses were originally derived from infection of the tumor transplants; as mentioned before, the trans- plants showed variable degrees of ulceration, infection and necrosis. An occasional focus of round cell infiltration, either at the base of the gastric glands or in the submucosa, was seen in experimental and control animals. Less frequently, similar foci were seen in the lamina propria of the forestomach, particularly near or at the limiting ridge. The significance of these round cell foci is not known. In the forestomach, small papillomas or small papilloma- tous outgrowths were often found in experimental and control animals. The compound did not appear to affect the liver grossly or microscopically. EXPERIMENT B: Effect of repeated intraperitoneal injections of 2,7-FDS. The results were similar to those observed in Experiment A except that no lung metastases from the transplanted tumors were observed. In the forestomach of one of the control mice (Group 6) a large sessile papilloma was found. At first sight (Figure 5), the presence of epithelial “pearls” or “cell nests” suggested a diagnosis of squamous epithelioma, but the epithelial cells did not appear malignant, nor did they infiltrate through the muscularis mucosae. Marked round cell infiltration was present in the submucosa be- neath the affected epithelium. The epithelium was acanthotic but not hyperkeratotic. This apparently benign tumor resembled fairly closely a sessile papilloma obtained by Stewart and Lorenz (1949; Plate 21, Fig. 6 B) who fed mice carcinogenic hydrocarbons in oil emulsions; hyperkeratosis, however, was a feature of their tumor. EXPERIMENT C: Effect of repeated intraperitoneal doses of 2,7- FDSPy. This compound had no significant effect on the development and subsequent growth of the transplants, or on the weight or life span of the mice. The pathological changes observed in the tumor and in the stomach were essentially those already described for Experi- ment A. No lung metastases, however, were found. In one control 138 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES mouse (Group 8) an area of forestomach epithelium showed marked hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, and an increase in size of the rete plugs; this lesion was diagnosed as a sessile papilloma. SUMMARY The synthesis of a new compound, fluorene-2,7-disulfonamido-2’- pyridine is described. Repeated intraperitoneal injections of this compound and single intravenous, or repeated intraperitoneal, in- jections of disodium fluorene-2,7-disulfonate did not inhibit the growth of a transplanted keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma, or the weight or life span of mice bearing this tumor. At least three lung metastases from the primary tumor were observed in experi- mental animals. Two sessile papillomas of the forestomach were found in control mice. Small: papillomas or small papillomatous outgrowths of the forestomach were frequently found in experi- mental and control mice, all of which bore tumors. Focal infiltra- tion of round cells and, in some cases, actual abscess formation, in the stomach wall was found occasionally in similar control and experimental animals. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors acknowledge their gratitude to Mrs. Nell Benjamine, Mrs. Virginia Paul, Mrs. Lois Sumner and Mrs. Zorada Wilkinson for their technical assistance. . REFERENCES ARGUS, M. F. 1953. Distribution of radioactivity following administration of sulfur 35- labeled disodium fluorene-2,7-disulfonate in mice bearing a trans- plantable stomach carcinoma. Brit. J. Cancer, 7: 273-278. BIELSCHOWSKY, F. 1944. Distant tumors produced by 2-amino and 2-acetylaminofluorene. Brit). Hope athe 2 oe Ae 1947. The carcinogenic action of 2-acetylaminofluorene and related com- — pounds. Brit. M. Bull., 4: 382-385. BLOCH, H: S., L. SCHIFF, D. EE. FLEMING, No SHARIR OR ang eee tl STEINBERG 1945. Gastric excretion of sulfonamides in man. II. Excretion of sulfa- pyridine. III. Calculation of theoretical concentration ratios. Gastro- enterology, 4: 421-425. FLUORENE DERIVATIVES IN TUMOR CHEMOTHERAPY 1389 BOYLAND, E. 1938. Experiments on the chemotherapy of cancer. I. The effect of certain antibacterial substances and related compounds. Biochem. J., 32: 1207-1218. COURTOT, C., and R. GEOFFROY 1924. Sulfonation of Fluorene. Comp. rend., 178: 2259-2262. HADDOW, A. 1935. Influence of certain polycyclic hydrocarbons on the growth of Jensen rat sarcoma. Nature, 136: 868. 1938a. The Influence of carcinogenic compounds and related substances on the rate of growth of spontaneous tumors of the mouse. J. Path. and Bact., 47: 567-579. 1938b. The influence of carcinogenic substances on sarcoma induced by the same and other compounds. J. Path. and Bact., 47: 581-591. MORRIS, H. P., C. S. DUBNIK and J. M. JOHNSON 1950. Studies of the carcinogenic action in the rat of 2-nitro, 2-amino, 2-acetylamino, and 2-diacetylaminofluorene after ingestion and after painting. J. Nat. Cancer Inst., 10: 1201-1213. RAY, F. E., and M.-F. ARGUS 1951. Studies on the metabolism, distribution and excretion of 2-p-toluene- sulfonamidofluorene-S® in the rat. Cancer Research, 11: 783-787. STEVENS, C. D., P. M. QUINLIN, M. A. MEINKEN and A. M. KOCK 1950. Sulfapyrazine precipitated in cancer tissue upon repeated glucose injections. Science, 112: 561. STEWART, H. L., and E. LORENZ 1949. Morbid anatomy, histopathology, and histopathogenesis of fore- stomach carcinoma in mice fed carcinogenic hydrocarbons in oil emulsions. J. Nat. Cancer Inst., 10: 147-165. WILSON, R. H., F. DeEDS and A. J. COX 1941. The toxicity and carcinogenic activity of 2-acetaminofluorene. Cancer Research, 1: 595-608. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(3), 1954. THE FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS IN CORRECTIONS VERNON Fox Florida State University The evaluation of a prison program in terms of success or failure on parole of the men who have been exposed to it is essential to effective progress in penal treatment. The presence of psycholo- gists, social workers, educators, psychiatrists, and other treatment- oriented personnel and programs in a penal setting may be justified only by a high ratio of success to failure of the men to adjust in the free community. The experiment cited in this paper began with the problem of determining the effect of a program of treat- ment. The psychological, psychiatric, sociological, and educational services were considered to comprise the “treatment program’. In order to obtain a clue as to how to proceed, casual and inten- sive interviews were held with 100 prisoners over a period of three years from 1948 to 1950, inclusive. Twenty-five of these interviews were made in Michigan’s Cassidy Lake Technical School, 25 in the conservation-prison camps, 25 in the trusty division of the State Prison of Southern Michigan, and 25 within the walls of the State Prison of Southern Michigan. The interview was unstructured to allow flexibility so that the prisoners could be put at ease and not feel constrained to emphasize the importance of the treatment program because of the interviewer's identification with it. The purpose of the interview was to identify what major influence on his thinking and adjustment the prisoner had found in his surround- ings. Specific reference was made toward the status of the treat- ment program. While the influence of the treatment program varied widely in degree of importance as regards influencing adjustment and social attitude, in no instance did it achieve primary importance. The inmates unanmiously considered the emphasis in prison treatment to be on the raw social conditioning through being forced to live with other men who had also failed to adjust themselves ade- quately in our culture. This conditioning was considered to be in the form of learning to suppress aggressive reaction to frustrat- ing social circumstances. This suggests that the frustration-aggres- sion hypothesis as presented by Dollard and his associates may be FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS IN CORRECTIONS 141 operating in the correctional processes (Dollard, 1939). The in- vestigator discussed this point with a group of ten custodial and professional personnel at the State Prison of Southern Michigan and the hypothesis received concensus. The frustration-aggression hypothesis, according to Dollard and his associates, simply holds that when a person is frustrated, he will react aggressively or find a substitute for aggressive reaction. _ Aggression is the primary and characteristic reaction to frustration. The strength of the aggression varies directly with the amount of frustration. When aggression, criminal or otherwise, is observed in an individual, its source is frustration. While frustration may also lead to responses other than aggression, the show of violence is considered as conclusive proof of the presence of frustration. Therapy in many cases may consist primarily of ferreting out the source of the frustration. Whether or not aggression results from frustration depends on the place of aggression in the reacting repertoire of the personality. Previous social experience may have modified the reacting reper- toire so that all or most of the available responses are socially acceptable and may not be overtly aggressive. Conditioning by environmental pressures may cause a frustrated person to suppress his aggressions and compensate or rationalize in order to resolve the frustrating circumstances in a manner more socially acceptable _than overt aggression. Such a person takes into account some of the expectations and demands of group living, and might be re- ferred to as a well-socialized personality. Swinging the hammer lustily in repairing the porch, deliberated whistling, or ill-concealed insults may be considered higher in the reacting repertoire than overt aggression in such a personality, so that aggression would not result from frustration. If these other responses lead to re- duction in the original frustration, the strength to aggression is thereby reduced. The forces which prevent overt aggression in these cases are threats of punishment by physical violence or social and economic pressure, that is to say, any interference in directly achieving the goal-object by overt aggression. This interference is social in nature, and may be considered a socializing medium which promotes tranquil and orderly social living. On the other hand, aggression is the most readily satisfying re- sponse to frustration, provided other serious complications do not 142 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES arise. The inhibition of aggression varies directly with the amount of punishment anticipated for the act. If an individual reacts aggressively to frustration, and no undesirable consequences ob- tain, the strength of instigation to aggression is reinforced. Simul- taneously, responses of nonaggression are reduced in strength. A successive extinction of responses of nonaggression leads to the dominance of aggressive reactions. CRIME AS AGGRESSION Aggressive action may be operationally distinguished from sub- stitute response. The substitute response may or may not be ag- gressive, and may not be pointed directly toward the object of the instigating frustration. In either case, aggression is present but may not be overt. Substitute responses merely involve the removal of the interference or the shifts of goals so that the interference may be partially circumvented. Any goal-object has two meanings for the individual. The intrinsic meaning holds satisfaction of achieving the goal-object. The symbolic value, however, becomes primary in many substitute responses, and the intrinsic meaning is relegated to secondary importance. Many crimes are the result of direct aggression. These offenses occur in persons having generally lower intelligence than the average prison inmate and being less amenable to environmental socializing influences. In the behavior of such persons, there is more direct and less symbolic behavior. In first degree murder, rape, and assaults, the goal-object has direct intrinsic value to the perpetrator. The direct expression of aggression in these instances was higher in the repertoire of responses in the individuals involved than were substitute responses. Other crimes of less violent nature are still regarded as aggressive in that they hold symbolic meanings of defiance against society's code. Thefts, narcotics violations, homosexuality, and other offenses are perpetrated by individuals with generally higher intelligence than the average prison inmate and with greater sensitivity to social standards. These persons commit non-violent offenses in an attempt to adjust their frustrations without rousing overt and violent hostility between the individuals and society. Aggressive criminal behavior of non-violent nature was higher than the so- cially accepted substitute response patterns in the reacting reper- FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS IN CORRECTIONS 143 toire of car thieves, burglars, thieves, and persons committing non-violent crimes. The need to express aggression directly varies with the individ- ual’s tolerance to frustration. Persons with low tolerance to frustration need to build up straw men upon whom they may vent their aggressions. Then the aggression can be directed toward a police system, a set of laws, or some other object. Persons with high tolerance to frustration may require severely frustrating cir- cumstances before they react aggressively. It is obvious that there is a direct relationship between tolerance to frustration and ability to live orderly with others. Persons with low tolerance to frustra- tion have frequent quarrels and fights with others. Persons with high tolerance to frustration are more patient and better socialized. Herein lies a crucial point in correctional treatment. PROCEDURE After interviewing 100 prisoners and finding that the operation of the frustration-aggression hypothesis was consciously considered to be the primary existing function of the prison program as it relates to the prisoner, the investigator searched for a method to test the operation of the treatment program. Only two of the four groups maintained similar conditions of custody and group living and had varied in their treatment programs. The Cassidy Lake Technical School had minimum-security group living as well as psychological, sociological, and educational services. The con- servation-prison camp program had similar minimum security group living, but no psychological, sociological, or educational services. Men were selected for both of these programs similarly except for age and there was considerable overlapping in this factor. Using IBM equipment, the available social factors of all the men paroled from Cassidy Lake and the conservation-prison camp program prior to January 1, 1950, were tabulated. The Cassidy Lake parolees were matched individually with men from the con- servation-prison camp program on the basis of (1) previous jail terms, (2) previous prison terms, (3) previous probations, (4) com- mitments to juvenile institutions, (5) age, (6) race, (7) length of minimum sentence, (8) urban or rural residential background, (9) marital status, (10) I.Q. within five points either way, (11) grade completed in school, (12) results of academic achievement tests, 144 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and (13) religion. While there were 521 in the Cassidy Lake group and 297 men in the camp group, only 83 men could be individually matched on all the selected social factors. These 83 were compared on the basis of adjustment or failure under parole supervision. RESULTS The results of the comparison by the chi-square method of the two groups regarding adjustment on parole show significant dif- ferences. With 26.0 men expected by chance from each group to have been successfully discharged from parole, 28 of the Cassidy Lake group were so discharged, while 24 of the prison camp group were successfully discharged. While 27.0 men from each group would be expected by chance to be still on parole, thus far success- ful, 37 of the Cassidy Lake group were still under successful super- vision, while only 17 of the prison camp group enjoyed such status. By chance, 3.5 men from each group would be expected to be on parole with minor restrictions imposed by the parole officers, the Cassidy Lake group and the prison group showed four and three men, respectively, still on parole with such restrictions im- posed. A chance expectancy would be that 18.5 men from each group would have been returned to prison as parole violators, but only 8 from the Cassidy Lake group were so returned as compared with 29 returnees from the prison-camp group. By chance, 8.0 from each group would have returned with a new sentence, but Cassidy Lake had 6 returnees with sentences while the prison camp group had 10 new convictions. A chi-square value of 21.721 shows that these differences are statistically significant beyond the .01 level of confidence. The conclusion is, then, that over and above the operation of the frustration-aggression hypothesis, the presence of a treatment program at Cassidy Lake is significantly superior to the lack of such a program in the conservation-prison camp program in terms of success or failure of their respective parolees. DISCUSSION Despite differences shown by the presence or lack of a treatment program, the fact remains that 100 prison inmates interviewed re- garded that the primary conscious effect of the prison program lay in raising the individual’s tolerance to frustration. Penal institu- tions with or without professional services apparently have much FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS IN CORRECTIONS 145 of their “rehabilitative” method based on the beneficial effects of group living. The advantage of group living is in raising the tolerance to frustration of the individuals in the group. Within the narrow confines of a small group, the conditioning effects of punishment by violence or social pressure will tend to reduce in- stigation to aggression among individuals in whom overt aggression was previously a primary reaction. In these cases, the substitute responses with greater symbolic than intrinsic meaning tend to be reinforced and raised in the heirarchy of the individual’s response patterns. Thus, the tolerance to frustration in the institutional situation is raised. The hope of the prisons’ programs is that this raised tolerance to frustration in the institutional situation can be maintained at the raised level and transferred to the civilian com- munity when the individual is released from prison. If the conditioning effect of group living in the institution could be reinforced to the extent that it would continue after the in- dividual returns to the community, the rehabilitative purpose of incarceration would have been achieved. Continuation of the con- ditioned response without reinforcement, however, tends to ex- tinguish the response. Institutional controls cannot be transferred to the community. Consequently, the prognosis for this type of treatment alone is not hopeful. The results of the tabulations and computations described in this paper support this thesis. As in - experiments in training rats to run a maze for a palatable meal or for dried sunflower seeds, it is observed that the performance of the organism is not motivated in accordance with “learning” alone, but in accordance with the strength of incentive. In addition to the operation of the frustration-aggression hypothe- sis, then, there must be incentive or reinforcement to conform to social standards. This conformity may be developed through suc- cessful participation in group activities like recreation and occupa- tional pursuits. It may be enhanced by a program of psychotherapy. The resulting social satisfactions and re-orientation may furnish the incentive that will reinforce the beneficial effects of the oper- ation of the furstration-aggression hypothesis. As previously stated, the primary value of group living is the raising of tolerance to frustration by the functioning of the frustration-aggression hy- pothesis and social conditions. In order to make this raising of the tolerance to frustration lasting, however, the reinforcement by 146 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES successful adjustment and re-orientation in the community must be present. It must be encouraged by successful adjustment in a well-rounded psychological, social, recreational, occupational, re- ligious, and educational program in the institution. The prison program must maintain adequate facilities to develop this reinforce- ment. Only by such complementary incentive can the full benefit of the operation of the frustration-aggression hypothesis in cor- rections be realized. BIBLIOGRAPHY DOLLARD, JOHN, NEAL E. MILLER, LEONARD DOOB, O. H. MOWRER and R. R. SEARS 1939. Frustration and Aggression. HYBL, A. R., and ROSS STAGNER 1952. Frustration Tolerance in Relation to Diagnosis and Therapy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 16: 163-170. ICHHEISER, GUSTAV 1950. Frustration and Aggression or Frustration and Defense: a Counter- Hypothesis. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 43: 125-129. McKELLAR, PETER 1950. Provocation to Anger and the Development of Attitudes of Hostility. British Journal of Psychology, 40: 104-114. MORLAN, GEORGE K. 1949. A Note on the Frustration-Aggression Theories of Dollard and His Associates. Psychological Review, 56: 1-8. MOWRER, O. H. 1949. Frustration and Aggression. Encyclopedia of Criminology by V. C. Branham and S. B. Kutash. PASTORE, NICHOLAS 1950. A Neglected Factor in Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: a Com- ment. Journal of Psychology, 29: 271-279. 1952. The Role of Arbitrariness in the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47: 728-731. SEARS, ROBERT R. 1951. Symposium on Genetic Psychology: 8. Effects of Frustration and Anxiety on Fantasy Aggression. American Journal of Orthopsychia- try, 21: 498-505. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(8), 1954. ADULT FISH POPULATIONS BY HAUL SEINE IN SEVEN FLORIDA LAKES Haroitp L. Moopy Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission Leesburg, Florida INTRODUCTION This study presents an evaluation and comparison of the statics of the principal adult fish populations in several of the larger Florida lakes. The data were gathered in connection with the operation of the State Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission’s rough fish control unit under supervision of the author. The lakes are analyzed qualitatively as well as quantitatively in terms of pounds of the several species available to this sampling device and taken in each of the lakes studied. The size distributions within the various species are noted and compared by means of length-frequency studies. The observed physiographic character- istics of the bodies of water are presented; and the relative yields to the net are discussed and compared. METHODS Fish were sampled by means of a haul seine varying in length from 750 to 835 yards with a constant minimum mesh size of three inches (stretched), operated by three experienced fishermen and supervised by the Commission’s biologist. Equipment consisted of a gasoline-powered launch for pulling the net, two or three fish boats, a seine boat, and the seine. The unit was provided with trucks and trailers to effect its mobility by land. Since the site of operations was often in remote localities, a tent with camping equip- ment was also included. The game fishes taken in the operations were released while catfishes were sold dressed, usually to the wholesale fish dealer bidding highest. The other rough fishes: gizzard shad, garfishes, chub sucker, mudfish, stingray, and golden shiner, were destroyed or sold to fertilizer companies. Dressed turtles and gizzard shad roe were sometimes sold to the market for food. The proceeds from the sale of the fish and fish products were used to help defray the cost of operations—three-quarters of the 148 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES total amount went to the fishermen as their pay and the remaining one-quarter was retained by the Commission to aid in paying its operational and maintenance costs. The dip-net method (Dequine, 1951) was used in estimating total populations of game fishes taken in the seine hauls. Largemouth bass were counted as they were released from each haul, and individuals were weighed at random in order to arrive at the average weight per bass. This average was used as the basis for determining the total weight of bass taken in the haul. The fish removed were weighed. As many fish as possible were measured at random as time and their abundance permitted. Measuring was done by means of a thirty-inch board graduated at half-inch intervals. The graduations were made in such a manner.as to group all measured fishes into inch and half-inch classes. For example: a fish in the 7.5-inch size class is between 7.3 and 7.7 inches total length, inclusive; and a fish in the 8.0-inch size class is within the limits of 7.8 and 8.2 inches, inclusive, etc. Water analysis was made by means of the Schleicher-Dequine Water Analysis Kit. Dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide in parts per million were determined by titration with sodium thio- sulfate and sodium hydroxide respectively, and pH was ascertained by the colorimetric method. Air and water temperatures were taken at the surface. 7 It was inevitable for varying conditions to exist in the operation of the seine, within the same lake as well as from lake to lake. Seldom were any two hauls alike. Weather conditions, bottom characteristics, state of the net, and fishermen’s vagaries were some of the factors affecting the area of the haul ground pulled and fishing success. It is believed that the circumstances which affected fishing suc- cess did not bias the data. Therefore: (1) the amounts of fish caught by the rough fish net are considered representative of the populations within the net selectivity in each lake during the period of study, and (2) the populations thus determined for one lake are compared quantitatively as well as qualitatively with those simi- larly determined in another lake at about the same season of the year. It is admitted that the comparisons may be very approximate ones, but it is felt that within the limitations of the data they are dependable. ADULT FISH POPULATIONS IN SEVEN FLORIDA LAKES 149 The lakes are summarized in terms of average pounds of fish taken per haul during the given periods, and in terms of the per- centage composition by weight of each species taken in that aver- age haul. Lake ASHBY Lake Ashby, in Volusia County, has an area of 1,192 acres or 1.86 square miles. It is a shallow saucer-shaped lake with wide sandy beaches in a pine flatwoods region. The average depths in the central area during the period of stay were five to six feet. The water stage was moderately low. Littoral areas were exten- sive, and consisted partly of sloughs and swamps. The bottom was chiefly of hard sand, although some black mud, varying in depth from about two inches to two feet, was present in a few places. Mussels were observed living on the bottom of the lake in consider- able numbers. A light plankton bloom was present in the water at the time of operations. Maiden cane (Panicum sp.) grew on the edges of the beach and some eel grass (Vallisneria americana) was found in a few areas in the lake. In times of moderately high water Lake Ashby is remotely connected with the St. Johns River by a branch of Deep Creek which flows from Lake Harney and enters Ashby from the south. This branch goes periodically dry when the River is at a low stage. On the west shore a canal drains water from adjacent low flatwoods into the lake. On July 16, 1951 at 10:25 A.M. the water temperature was 90° F. and the air 89° F., the pH 7.0, dissolved oxygen 6.8 ppm, and CO, 2.5 ppm. At the time of operations, in July 1951, available adult fish populations were low: 482 pounds constituted the average haul. The channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) was the most abundant species; it comprised 41.6 per cent by weight of the catch. The shellcracker (Lepomis microlophus) was the next most abundant species: it made up 21.0 per cent of the weight of the catch. Few gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) were taken at the time, and they represented about five per cent of the total weight caught. For other species see Table 1. LAKE HARNEY Lake Harney is in Seminole and Volusia Counties, and is part of the St. Johns River. It is an oblong saucer-shaped lake, in a pine flatwoods region, with about 8.73 square miles (5,558 acres) | Sas sopiny AI = -UON oyepoid soyqin}. 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AOC Cs AM oe es ae os AVAING JO soz, aa purs prey pues prey] | pues prey ~~ addy, u10}0g JUBUTWLOpoIg 309 1-7 ~poT 9- TOOT Oe “pte | Gees podsoamng yydeq osvioay = SoINV PIS‘ SoIOW 8GC‘G | SOLO VinsGGiltelieg) (osc cu le hes ae voly oyeurxoiddy Yat gjouluteg pure visnjoA O[OUTULIS TSE OUNG Bie ath. lad os ak CON pee ho ie a a Ayunory =i 9OIUOJY OAT AOUIV]T Ye] AGUSNPLOM Cal. tee, i Ouaa Pee SI9}VA\ JO OUTeN ‘sopduueg oulog [ney] Aq pourutrojoq] se sor1uoyy pue ‘Aourey{ “Aqusy soye'y ur suonejndog ysiy ynpy T Hav. ADULT FISH POPULATIONS IN SEVEN FLORIDA LAKES 151 of surface area. Littoral areas were large and of the same general character as those of Lake Ashby. The bottom rose gently on all sides to the conspicuous, wide, sandy beaches. At mean low water the average depth in the middle is six feet. The water was at this stage during the period of operations. The bottom was a hard sand, covered in some places by several inches of black mud. Numerous mussels were observed living on the bottom. A light plankton bloom was present in the water. Maiden cane was noted growing near the edges of the shore, and sparse growths of eel grass were found in the lake. On July 26, 1951 at 10:25 A.M. the pH of the water was 7.0; dissolved oxygen 4.20 ppm, and the tempera- ture of the water was 84° F. when the air temperature was 85° F. Low populations of adult fishes were available to the seine during the period of operations—July 26 to August 23, 1951—only 503 pounds were taken in the average haul. The predominant species found was gizzard shad, which composed 36.6 per cent by weight of the catch. Next in abundance was the largemouth bass, Microp- terus salmoides floridanus (LeSueur), which represented 21.4 per cent by weight of the catch—the highest percentage found in any of the seven lakes discussed. Channel catfish followed the bass in order of abundance, and comprised 15.6 per cent by weight of the catch. For average weights per haul and additional data see Table 1. LAKE MONROE Lake Monroe is a part of the St. Johns River and is bounded by Seminole and Volusia Counties. It is about 13.77 square miles (8,814 acres) in area, saucer-shaped and roughly circular in outline. The margins were gently sloping, with wide sandy beaches and extensive sloughs and marshes, resembling Lakes Ashby and Harney except for the bulkheaded shore on the Sanford side. The depth was fairly uniform—it averaged about seven feet in the middle. The water stage was low during the operational period. The bottom type was predominantly hard sand, but a great deal of black mud was present at the south end. No plankton bloom was noticeable in the water at the time of operations; Panicum and Vallisneria were present as in Lakes Ashby and Harney. On August 21, 1951 at 8:50 A.M. the pH was 7.0; dissolved oxygen 10.0 ppm; and the water temperature was 86° F. when the air temperature was 86° F. 152 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lake Monroe, like Lakes Harney and Ashby, yielded low adult fish populations during August 1951—615 pounds were taken in the average haul. The predominant species represented here was the gizzard shad, comprising 50.7 per cent by weight of the catch. Next in abundance, as in Lake Harney, was the largemouth bass, representing 9.6 per cent by weight of the catch. Again as in Lake - Harney, channel catfish was third and composed 7.8 per cent by weight of the catch (Table 1). LAKE JESSUP Lake Jessup is approximately fifteen miles southeast of Sanford in Seminole County. It is 12.388 square miles (7,922 acres) in size and is roughly crescent-shaped. Jessup is one of the St. Johns Chain of lakes, although it does not lie directly within the River, as do Lakes Harney and Monroe. It is connected to the River by a short channel on the eastern end. This channel-is divided by a muddy island. The lake is fed by a number of springs, some of them sulphurous, from its bed as well as from its shores. Littoral areas are very large, although the shore falls off less gently than that of Ashby, Harney, or Monroe. The margins are generally soft: sand and mud, with some shell. The entire eastern half is surrounded by a marshy margin about one-half mile in width which is composed of inlets, sloughs, and creeks. The western half has a more solid shoreline. The bottom of the lake is com- posed mostly of soft black mud, mixed with some sand, snail shells, and clay. It is not so uniform in depth as Ashby, Harney, and Mon- roe. At mean low water (the stage found during the unit’s stay) the depth varies from three to seven feet. Adjacent to Bird Island, in the middle of the lake, the bottom was of hard sand and sloped up gently to a water depth of about a foot within two hundred feet of the island. The lake was colored with a fairly heavy greenish plankton bloom at the time of operations. Luxuriant grasses and emergents grew along the shallow places near the shore, and there were numerous beds of eel grass in the lake. On September 10, 1951, at 11:45 A.M., the pH of the water was 7.5, the water tem- perature 84° F. el the air 84° F. Dissolved oxygen was 10.30 ppm, and CO, 3.0 ppm. In Lake Jessup large numbers of fishes were available to the net during the period August 29 to October 9, 1951. The average ADULT FISH POPULATIONS IN SEVEN FLORIDA LAKES 153 weight per haul was 2,318 pounds. Gizzard shad was the dominant species and comprised 48.3 per cent of the total weight of the catch. White catfish, Ictalurus catus, was the species second most abund- ant, and represented 22.2 per cent by weight. Bluegill was third— 11.1 per cent; and channel catfish, stingray, longnose gar, black bass, and black crappie followed, respectively, in order of abund- ance (Table 2). LAKE PANASOFFKEE In Sumter County about six miles north of Bushnell lies Lake Panasoftkee with an area of 7.32 square miles (4,685 acres). It is situated in a climax hammock region of many large oaks, hickories, and magnolias, and is surrounded by extensive cypress and saw- grass marshes. Panasoffkee is a kidney-shaped lake directly con- nected with the Withlacoochee River by the Panasoffkee River, which drains the lake from its west shore. The lake is relatively shallow, and at the time of operations had an average depth of about five feet (a low water stage). The bottom is composed of a deep, soft, yellowish silt. Large dense beds of eel grass were present in the lake and were especially thick and wide at its north- ern and southern ends, and on the eastern side. Personal observa- tion revealed a pronounced green plankton bloom manifested in the water through the fall, spring, and summer months. The lake supported a dense population of the snail, Vivipara g., and con- siderable numbers of mussels. The water is derived principally from springs. At the time of operations it exhibited a milky ap- pearance underlying its greenish plankton layer. Littoral areas are extensive, and large beds of giant pickerel weeds (Pontederia sp.) figure prominently in the dense vegetation. From the marshy saw-grass ringed shoreline the silty bottom slopes gently to five foot depths. On May 1, 1951 the water temperature was 78° when the air was 70° F., the pH was 8.3, dissolved oxygen 7.6 ppm, and COs, zero ppm. Lake Panasofftkee exhibited high fish populations during April and the first two days in May 1951. The average weight per haul was 3,439 pounds. The species of fish taken most abundantly was the longnose gar, Lepisosteus osseus, which represented 34.9 per cent by weight of the catch. Second in abundance was the gizzard shad, composing 30.5 per cent. Shellcracker ranked third—16.3 per cent; and bluegill fourth, comprising 5.4 per cent (Table 2). JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 154 IS6I ‘G AVIV - 9 [dy TUS pur IIS IS6T ‘OS Youre pny pure pues 27 O1-§ El 8 REN SOF SOIOY CSO'P ISULIO Jo}WINS oye] ~rg ooyPosvueg oyAv'T | | IS61I 6 ‘PO - 6% “Ssny Tus pure pny moeral dy > 'S SoIOV G66 L Q[OUTUIAS dnssof oye'T _ | OOS | | 91 | 19s isi elo sop}iny Aroyepord-u0 N | | | | + cy (ere |_08 pes ee, So) Oe petd STF rca ere | Paraen leees SHOE ISTE! | | peAaoulel Ysy Ysnor spunog | ease a ee I a SR Jae ee ADE UIN, ad ere ee (re as ee ee PRED one Mae eS ere ee | BGA PS oa ary en gs eee ee PTMON pee a Re a Cae aE RE Cie Al et lea ae A egcens cl geg nn Mil Sepa se © Ais Seeeescor gS ager ae eee IayVOIn L'0 9T SII LG ce IT \iv 68 eC tee ee ee sseq ovr[d ppd Pe eer tl near dla ese cag 2 |) ee eee eee Mom ee | Po lh g Gane eee fh mag tesa aeae Samer ysvorq poy 9T 9$ GGG 0'9 LL 969. 9S 8L 60F I Bt ce eS stddeip yorlg 6V OTT 691 V0G C9G oct G 9'GI GLG SOSH ded. wer et ee oe Tseng Ta, It OT 80 OT 16 TO 8 Ig POET i OCR TOT ONS < OTE So ee a Cr 0) G cl es SO 9 Sy a ee ROWE NK eas eee aes li. ee He 9°0 9 “yk I ST 2S Se rde aeY® T0 V 86 T0 ST (Sige eel LONE “irae Do a cae Cees gar PeodiMa “open G0 9 av T8 VOT LE6 L0 9T 166, Coe ee peoy[ng peppeds 0S 6LT 686 I ree} 901 a56° OV L8 c9¢ I tk hea ey YspeD PUM [08 L6L I 9LS GI S66 GLE LLES L&v S76 OZ620 Da aa See YsyryeD [euuey) ale G ee ie I T0 G cS Sours Uep lo rae it 9 oO V 98 T0 € 8S ; — deyongs qnyO Ute sey Cs 6L vag 6ST VOG | PSs‘T VVG 96S QUO als Se 5 eee PeYS PreZzZre) Sit ee re) all 61 921 9) II VS LIQ. ~~ Ie) ponods epioyy Ae eas A ee G9 O8 LIL LY TOL 868 T 7 ele) CSOT es ae ee te SS Oe tal eR S0 ¢ a a ee SR RUN ne ae Meee 2 | Pr tape (een lca ay ik Ses ee Mmm NP gence a | eres 2) [Geese ea oa ere eae ABISUI}S yuoolog | [neyy red | uoyey, quoolog | [nez{ ised | uoyey, qusoIeg | [nep{ iod| uosyey, Aq uorys | spunog | spunog | Aq uolIs | spunog spunog | Aq uor}Is | spunog | spunog sotoeds -oduwi0r) | osv10Ay -OduloD | 9se10AV -odutor | osei0Ay | para St, See. fe Pe | soyouy ¢ | soyouy ¢ soyouy ¢ ~ (peyojyes) Yseyy wMUTTUTY SplexX GCs | spieX Css : SPS CC ners te A ae reece euleg [Ney] fo Ysus'T OS6I “8G 9d - PG “AON IS6I ‘8G- PFI Yourw (OKIE CHG EK S (St NDING SET ABAING JO Soy pues pure pny ~~ edd], WOWOg JUPUTWIOpoIg ATSIS) 8 FEZ) Rs OI mc [ian ae ie ie RE SO a | peAeamns yideq esvisAy SOLO N75 ener aia le yet a eee ye et FF ye ae ects voly oyeultxoi1ddy SHCGs PUP ROS ULC Tyres wearers a eT gee) reese ae ee a ae AyunOD | EB eke PF LEAU IO) |, Sek | OO oes a ani al Ue A I rca cer gsc SIOJVAA JO OUIeN ‘sojdueg oulog [ney] Aq pourutiejoq sev oye suyof ut suonepndog ystq ynpy S WIGViL ADULT FISH POPULATIONS IN SEVEN FLORIDA LAKES 157 is Black Lake, about a mile to the east. It is joined to it by a canal draining a marsh between the two lakes. The seine hauls pulled in Johns Lake are separated into three groups: (1) unbaited ones made at random in the lake during the first period of operations, (2) baited ones made at a single location during the first period, and (8) random unbaited hauls made about two months later. Random hauls made during the first period yielded high fish populations—the average weight per haul was 2,156 pounds (Table 3). Channel catfish was the dominant species taken, and composed 43.7 per cent of the weight of the catch. Second most abundant was the gizzard shad, 24.4 per cent of the combined weight of populations caught. Third was the bluegill, 12.6 per cent of the total weight. Longnose gar was fourth, largemouth bass fifth, white catfish sixth, and black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) seventh. In the second period of operations, after a two months lapse of time, random hauls yielded smaller total populations. The average weight per haul had dropped to 1,280 pounds. The dominant species remained the channel catfish, but it comprised only 29.3 per cent by weight of the catch. Bluegill had become the second most abundant species—it represented 20.4 per cent of the weight taken. Third, fourth, and fifth in order of abundance were, re- - spectively, gizzard shad, white catfish, and speckled bullhead. Sixth and seventh were longnose gar and black crappie (Table 3). Johns Lake was the only lake extensively baited for catfishes in- cluded in this study. The purpose of baiting is to attract large numbers to an area. The area should be baited repeatedly so as to accustom them to come there to feed. The haul ground area selected in Johns Lake was baited every day for a week before the first haul was made, and was baited daily and fished about twice a week thereafter. All the gizzard shad, garfishes, and other rough fishes (with the exception of catfishes, no parts of which were used for bait) caught were cooked, salted, and placed in the baited area. Seine hauls were made early in the morning before the “cats” had a chance to leave after eating the bait. Baited hauls in Johns Lake proved extremely successful. The average weight per haul of all fishes was 2,230 pounds, of which 88.7 per cent by weight consisted of catfishes. The principal species 158 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES caught was the channel catfish, which represented 80.5 per cent by weight of the catch. Second was the white catfish, 8.0 per cent; third, the bluegill, 4.9 per cent; fourth, gizzard shad, 3.5 per cent; black crappie, fifth, 1.6 per cent; and black bass, sixth, 0.7 per cent by weight of the total catch. No longnose garfish were caught from baited hauls in Johns Lake (Table 3). Buack LAKE Black Lake lies about a mile east of Johns Lake and is located in Orange County. It was 0.64 square miles (408 acres) in size, and was roughly circular in shape. Littoral areas were wide, the lake was shallow—four to five feet deep in the middle; the bottom was chiefly of sand with some black mud. No plankton bloom was observed on its waters, which like those of most of Johns Lake were dark colored in appearance. Some maiden cane grew along the shoreline, together with pickerel weed and other emergents. There is a large marsh contiguous with Black Lake extending eastward approximately three miles. Black Lake is connected directly with Johns by a canal about a mile long. A single haul was made in Black Lake. Because of the lake's small size and because the haul was pulled near its central part, it is believed that the sample can be considered representative of the fish populations available to the net on March 30, 1951. The total weight of all fishes taken was 1,701 pounds: 73.5 per cent of this weight consisted of longnose gar; 13.8 per cent, of channel catfish; and 7.3 per cent of gizzard shad. Black crappie, bluegill, and black bass, jointly, represented only about 0.9 per cent of the total weight of the catch (Table 2). SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS Size distributions among the populations of the several species are summarized in Table 4. The average lengths presented were determined from length-frequency data by multiplying the number of fish measured in each size group by the total-length measure- ment of that size group, summing up the products and dividing by the total number of fish in the sample. Occasionally where average lengths were not available, average weights are presented instead, and in the few cases where data were available the average ADULT FISH POPULATIONS IN SEVEN FLORIDA LAKES 159 weight corresponding to the average length of the species in ques- tion is also given. It is regrettable that the volume of work at- tendant on the supervision of the rough fish unit precluded length- weight studies, particularly for the bass, bream, and crappie, which had to be released alive. It is believed that the size distributions presented in Table 4 may be considered representative for the populations of the lakes during the periods of study. Large samples were generally taken for analysis, and efforts were made to keep them uniformly random. COMPARISON In drawing comparisons from lake to lake it should be recognized that the abundance of fishes available to the haul seine in a given body of water is subject to “seasonal and cyclic fluctuations” (De- quine 1951) caused perhaps principally by fish movements in con- nection with spawning and feeding activities which lead them to shallow water where the seine cannot go, or even outside the lake itself (H. L. Moody, Unpublished Data). It is apparent, therefore, that bodies of water sampled at about the same time of year should be more readily comparable than bodies sampled at different times. Ashby, Harney, and Monroe are logically comparable in this re- spect; Panasofftkee is comparable with Black Lake; and, although the sampling in Jessup was done in early fall almost a year after the first period of operations in Johns in late fall, striking over-all population similarities justify their comparison. Lakes Harney and Monroe, similar type lakes in the St. Johns River, yielded nearly equal yet low average poundages of fishes to the sampling device, and there was a close similarity in their species composition. The three most abundant fishes in the two lakes were respectively, gizzard shad, black bass, and channel cat- fish. Nearby Lake Ashby, of the same bottom type as the former lakes, yielded about the same total average poundages, but yielded an extremely low shad population. Channel catfish and shellcracker were, respectively, the two most abundant species taken in Lake Ashby. Lake Panasofftkee and Black Lake are similar in two respects only: (1) the high proportions of garfishes present and (2) the high average poundages taken. The 1,320 pounds of garfishes caught in Black Lake represented 77.6 per cent of the total weight of the in the Seven Lakes. TABLE 4 Minimum, Average and Maximum Sizes of Adult Fishes Caught by Haul Seine The Lakes Are Listed in Descending Order of Abundance by weight of the Various Species in the Several Lakes. | | Sizes Average 12.84 inches 14.12 inches 17.27 inches 16.37 inches 13.36 inches 12.05 inches 7.85 inches 12.80 inches | 11.65 inches 11.59 inches 11.74 inches 10.92 inches 6.56 inches 7.88 inches 8.37 inches 8.07 inches 7.19 inches 6.56 inches ‘10.37 inches 8.26 inches 9.18 inches 9.76 inches 9.26 inches 16.26 inches 18. 46 oe 12.36 inches 12.69 inches 11.08 inches 10.96 inches Species Lake Minimum | Black bass | Panasoftkee | 7.5 inches (Micropterus | Harney 10.0 inches salmoides Johns 8.5 inches floridanus) | Jessup 10.5 inches | Monroe 10.5 inches | Ashby 8.0 inches | Black [eee | Black crappie | Johns | 5.0 inches (Pomoxis nigro- Panasoffkee | 6.5 inches maculatus) Monroe | 8.5 inches Jessup | 7.0 inches Harney | 8.5 inches Ashby | §8.5 inches di Black | eae | | | Bluegill Johns | 4.5 inches (Lepomis Jessup 4.5 inches macrochirus) | Panasoftkee | 5.0 inches Monroe | 5.5 inches | Ashby 5.0 inches Harney 4.5 inches Black [ier aes | | Shellcracker Panasoftkee | 6.0 inches (Lepomis Ashby 5.0 inches microlophus) | Monroe 8.0 inches | Jessup 5.5 inches Harney 7.5 inches Johns [reenvewes Black |p a tele | Channel catfish | Johns | 8.5 inches (Ictalurus | Black [Pak punctatus) Ashby | 9.5 inches | J Jessup | 10.0 inches | Harney | 9.5 inches | Monroe (aes Panasofikee | _____ tir oi | White catfish Jessup 10.0 inches (Ictalurus cactus) Johns | 9.5 inches Ashby 9.5 inches Harney {scan Monroe] 4) Panasofikee | _______ | Black Maximum | 6.0 inches 5.5 inches | 27.0 inches | 24.0 inches | 1.0 inches | 2.0 inches 11.5 inches 15.0 inches 18.5 inches 15.0 inches 13.5 inches 12.5 inches 10.0 inches 9.5 inches 12.0 inches 9.5 inches 9.0 inches 9.5 inches a | 14.0 inches | (3.25 pounds) 13.0 inches | 10.5 inches | 12.0 inches | 11.5 inches 0 inches A 34.0 0 inches 6.0 inches 2.0 inches 27.0 inches 9.0 pounds) .5 inches .5 inches .O inches TABLE 4—(Concluded). | Lake Species Sizes | Minimum | Average | Maximum | | | Speckled bullhead Panasoftkee | 14.5 inches | 16.21 inches | 18.0 inches (Ameiurus nebu- (2.6 pounds) | losus marmoratus) | Ashby 9.5 inches | 14.50 inches | 16.0 inches Johnse Sy jeee 14.50 inches | 16.0 inches (1.14 pounds) Jessup {Sepia eS pounds. |p | Monroe [ese eal leZOhpeunds: | ea Harney fjiowas 2.00 pounds | acs | Black [ee well eh Re | | | Longnose gar (Salack. Ye > lenhesas 11.26 pounds | pubes (Lepisosteus | Panasoffkee | OF, pounds) |= osseus) olnTis* = yee" ee = 13.99 pounds | ____. | Jessups> |. 4) Boke IES pounds: |p == Harney pee 13.96 pounds | ______ | Monroe |pemece 8.32 pounds | _____ | Ashby (eats 8_56pounds |o = Florida spotted gar | Panasoftkee | _____- [E50 pounds, aes (Lepisosteus | [LETS ae ear ie ee | oe | gerne platyrhinchus) | olaverss Ep eee wan 2.27 pounds | 26.5 inches Ashby [peccees Pp IEES pounds, [p= Jessup |aesere: 2.09 pounds | _____. Monroe [Aare PMS OL OVE GS. | | | Harney |e tt | 2.88 pounds | ___ | | | Gizzard shad [PRISSS irr etees oak fe seen oh Ss gh te nse eee (Dorosoma | Panasoftkee | 7.0 inches | 12.58 inches | 16.5 inches cepedianum) Johns | 6.5 inches} 9.07 inches | 15.0 inches | Monroe eee ok come [ores URE aes Harney | 8.0 inches | 15.71 inches | 18.0 inches | Black [satay te oir" bee ape (eer | Ashby | 9.0 inches | 12.92 inches | 18.0 inches | | | Yellow bullhead Johns |feeecsts O67 pounds: je (Ameiurus natalis | Panasoffkee | 200 spoundss |) Ashby |p ome 100pounds | => (None were caught in the remaining four lakes) Eastern chub sucker | Panasoffkee | ____ 1.74 pounds | nies (Erimyzon sucetta | Johns |e le >4 poundss |e sucetta) Ashby pect 8 IE O} pounds. |e (None were caught in the remaining four lakes) | | Mudfish Ashby [poet 4 APN MOUNTS: eee (Amia calva) Panasoftkee | ___- AO pOUNGS) |= Harney ee ALO TOTUNOGIS || Jolimngesss Glee 2730ipoundse ) a (None were caught in the remaining three lakes) Chain Pickerel liane eae ie 25 0;poundss| sees (Esox niger) Panasoftkee | _____ Sete joowoaas |p five lakes) (None were caught in the remaining 162 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES catch, while in Panasoffkee the average weight per haul of 1,299 pounds of garfishes amounted to only 37.7 per cent of the total weight. In Black Lake the garfishes greatly outweighed all the other species caught, while in Panasoffkee they represented about one-third of the total weight. Lake Jessup (August-October 1951) and Johns Lake during the first period (November-December 1950) produced about the same total average poundages of fishes to the haul. The two principal species, in order of abundance by weight, were gizzard shad and white catfish in Jessup, and channel catfish and gizzard shad in Johns Lake. In both lakes bluegill, longnose gar, and black bass rep- resented the next most important segments of the populations. The removal of 16.68 pounds of rough fishes per surface acre of water from Johns Lake (Table 3) during November and December 1950 may have accounted for the decline in the average catch per haul in March 1951, since this decline was nearly identical with the decline in the average pounds taken per haul of rough fishes, and the average weight per haul of game fishes taken showed an increase during the second period (Table 5). However, the cyclic, seasonal fluctuations of abundance previously mentioned cannot TABLE 5 Comparisons of Poundages of Fish Taken During Two Periods of Stay in Johns Lake. — November 15 - December 28, 1950 March 14-28, | Differences 1951 | | 1,280 pounds | 897 pounds Average weight per haul— | (decline) | | all fishes (includes baited and unbaited hauls) ___. | 2,177 pounds Average weight per haul— rough fishes removed: prin- cipally channel catfish, white catfish, gizzard shad, Abel GIT) oe | 1,812 pounds 894 pounds | 918 pounds ~ | | | | | (decline) Average weight per haul— game fishes taken: prin- cipally bass, crappie, blue- gill, and shellcracker _____. 3865 pounds ! | | | | 386 pounds | 21 pounds | (increase) ADULT FISH POPULATIONS IN SEVEN FLORIDA LAKES _ 1638 be ruled out, and the over-all catch decline might, on the other hand, not have been due to fish removal. A comparison of baited hauls with unbaited ones (Table 3) made over the same period of time discloses almost equal total average poundages per haul. Baited hauls, however, proved highly selec- tive for catfishes—they comprised nearly 90.0 per cent of the total weight of the catch, while less than 50.0 per cent by weight were taken from the unbaited hauls. Comparisons of the average sizes of fish in the several lakes are drawn with a recognition of their static nature. The samples were not taken concurrently, the factor of growth is ignored, and fish movements due to seasonal spawning and feeding activities are not taken into account. Nevertheless certain facts brought out by Table 4 are interesting. In Lake Panasoffkee nine of the fourteen species of fish for which measurements are available were of larger average sizes than those found in any of the other lakes discussed. Shellcracker were taken more abundantly in Lake Panasoffkee than elsewhere, and _ their average size was much greater. Black crappie, bluegill, white catfish, speckled bullhead, yellow bullhead, chub sucker, mudfish, and chain pickerel were also of larger average sizes in Lake Pana- soffkee. Seven of these nine species, viz., black crappie, shell- cracker, speckled bullhead, yellow bullhead, chub sucker, mud- fish, and chain pickerel held either first or second place in order of abundance by weight in the catches from the seven lakes. DISCUSSION Certain salient features of the data will be underlined in this section and they will be commented upon as occasion arises. The haul seine is doubtless the most efficient instrument in exist- ence for sampling adult fish populations in the large shallow Flor- ida lakes with relatively level bottoms. However, an inspection of Tables 1, 2, and 3 will reveal certain obvious limitations: (1) the seine does not yield adequate quantitative samples of the popu- lations of those fishes whose habitat is limited mainly to the pe- ripheral areas of the water—warmouth, redbreast, mudfish, and several other species; and (2) when the sampling is not carried on over a protracted period of time it is possible for dispersal or schooling to result in low or high catches which are not representa- 164 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tive of the true value of the productivity, or of the size of the populations of a given body of water. Low catches in Lakes Ashby, Harney, and Monroe during July and August 1951 could be illustrative of the latter case. It is inter- esting to note by comparison that during the period of the “Con- trolled Seining Program” in Lake Crescent (July 1952 to February 1953) the average catch per haul was similarly low in July, August, and September, but more than tripled in weight during the months of November, December, and January (Dequine 1953). It seems extremely probable, therefore, that had the sampling continued over a longer period in Ashby, Harney, and Monroe similar catch increases would have become evident. Schoolings and dispersals of fish in Florida’s fresh waters cannot be predicted since their causes are not definitely known, but directed and integrated investigation cannot fail to uncover these secrets. Tagging studies now in progress should do much to determine whether fish leave or enter lakes in large numbers, or, alternately, whether they merely move into and out of areas of availability within them. The close correspondence in average pounds per haul, and in the species composition of the catch in Harney and Monroe sug- gest that the linkage of these lakes by the St. Johns River might be the cause of a homogeneity in their populations. Interesting differences in the populations of the several lakes raise many unanswered questions. Why, for example, was the population of Johns Lake composed principally of channel catfish, when catfishes of all species were extremely scarce in Panasoffkee? Was the tremendous abundance of the hard-shelled cooter in Pana- soffkee associated with the presence of huge beds of eel-grass? Could the marsh contiguous with Black Lake be a factor contribut- ing to its large garfish population? What reason could be advanced to explain the large sizes of the fish in Panasoffkee? Why. did Lake Jessup yield large poundages of fish to the unit haul while nearby lakes in the same chain yielded low poundages? Why was the gizzard shad scarce in Lake Ashby, when in all the other lakes, with the exception of Black Lake, it came close to being the dominant species? Nearly all these lakes have an admitted past history of commer- cial seining and, in some, rumor has it continuing illegally at the time of this writing. Needless to say it is not possible to secure ADULT FISH POPULATIONS IN SEVEN FLORIDA LAKES _ 165 data from such operations. Perhaps significant changes have been brought about by large scale “manipulations” of the populations. If the past history of these and other lakes were definitely known a great contribution would have been made toward intelligent management of Florida’s fresh water fishing. Johns Lake is the only lake in this study from which rough fish were removed by haul seine where it was possible to return at a later period and compare results. After removing 45,384 pounds of rough fish (chiefly channel catfish), or 16.68 pounds per acre of total water surface (Table 3) the net left at the end of December 1950 and returned two and one-half months later. It was found that the average catch per haul was reduced to nearly one-half that of the first period, and that the combined weight of rough fishes per average haul was also reduced by about one-half (Table 5). Here the net appeared astonishingly effective in reducing the populations of rough fishes. The slight rise in average weight per haul of game fishes is probably not significant as a real increase since insufficient time had elapsed between the two periods for reproduction to occur. CONCLUSION The haul seine is a useful and efficient tool for sampling adult fish populations in shallow level bottom Florida lakes. In five of the seven lakes discussed, garfishes and gizzard shad constituted about half or more of the total weights of the populations taken. In all seven of the lakes, rough fishes, including catfishes, composed sixty per cent or more of the total weight of the catch. SUMMARY Fish population studies were made by the author in Lakes Ashby, Harney, Monroe, Jessup, Panasoftkee, Johns Lake, and Black Lake by means of a rough fish removal unit employing a haul seine of about 800 yards in length, deep enough to fish the bottom, and with a minimum mesh size of three inches, stretched measure. The minimum average water depth in which the net was used was about three feet, and the maximum twelve. The mesh size permitted no fishes smaller than those of the size of bluegills of 4.5 inches in total length to be taken. Harney and Monroe in the St. Johns River chain yielded low fish populations. Gizzard shad made up the bulk of the catch 166 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in both lakes. Lake Ashby also yielded low populations; channel catfish and shellcracker were the more abundant species. Lake Jessup, connected with the St. Johns River, was found to have high populations, but about fifty per cent of the catch was gizzard shad, and about twenty-seven per cent catfishes. Lake Panasoffkee hauls revealed high fish populations, but about seventy per cent of the catch was composed of rough fishes, principally gizzard shad and garfishes. Despite this fact the average sizes of the individuals of numerous species, particularly the shellcracker, were larger than those found in the other lakes. The hard-shelled cooter, Pseudemys, was taken in very large numbers. The fish populations in Johns Lake were dominanted by the channel catfish and the gizzard shad. Baiting a haul area for catfishes was practiced with considerable success. A check on the effectiveness of the rough fish removal here was made possible by a re-entry two and one- half months later. The catch of rough fish was found reduced by one-half. In Black Lake more than seventy-seven per cent of the total weight of the populations taken consisted of garfishes, and about one per cent of gamefishes. List oF Species TAKEN FISHES: Stingray: Dasyatis spp. Mudfish: Amia calva Linnaeus Longnose Gar: Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus) Florida Spotted Gar: Lepisosteus platyrhinchus DeKay Gizzard Shad: Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur) Eastern Chub Sucker: Erymyzon sucetta sucetta (Lacépede) Golden Shiner: Notemigonus crysoleucas bosci (Cuvier and Va- lenciennes) Channel Catfish: Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) White Catfish: Ictalurus catus (Linnaeus) Speckled Bullhead: Ameiurus nebulosus marmoratus (Holbrook) Yellow Bullhead: Ameiurus natalis Jordan Chain Pickerel: Esox niger LeSueur Warmouth: Chaenobryttus coronarius (Bartram) Shelleracker: Lepomis microlophus (Gunther) Bluegill: Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens Cope Black Crappie: Pomoxis nigromaculatus (LeSueur) Redbreast: Lepomis auritus (Linnaeus) ADULT FISH POPULATIONS IN SEVEN FLORIDA LAKES 167 Black Bass: Micropterus salmoides floridanus (LeSueur) Croaker: Micropogon undulatus (Linnaeus) Mullet: Mudgil spp. AMPHIBIANS: Mud eel: Siren lacertina Linnaeus REPTILES: Florida cooter or “Hard-shelled” Turtle: Pseudemys floridana peninsulari Carr, and other spp. Southeastern Soft-shelled Turtle: Amyda ferox (Schneider) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express gratitude to William M. McLane and Melvin T. Huish of the Florida Fish Management Division for encouragement and advice in the preparation of the manuscript, and to Eva M. Bryan, who did the typing and offered many helpful suggestions. LITERATURE CITED DEQUINE, JOHN F. 1951. Fisheries Investigations of the St. Johns River and Lake Okeechobee, 1948-50, with Recommendations for Management. Fla. Game & Fresh Water Fish Comm., 48 pp; 7 tables; 5 figs.; 1 form. (Mimeo- graphed.) 1953. Preliminary Progress Report on Florida’s Controlled Seining Pro- gram, 1 April 1952 through 28 February 1953. A Report to the Director and Members of Fla. Game & Fresh Water Fish Comm. Fla. Game & Fresh Water Fish Comm., 31 pp.; 4 tables; 6 figs. (Mimeo- graphed.) Gene jour Fin Acad. Sci. 1713). 1054. A REGIONAL STUDY OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY H. T. Grace Florida Southern College Phosphorus is necessary to support all plant and animal life. It is very alarming then to observe that the amount of phosphorus in most soils in the United States is being depleted at a far greater rate than it is being replaced. Recent calculations report that a ton of wheat extracts from the average soil 17 pounds of nitrogen, 18 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 12 pounds of potash (Jones, 1941, p. 91). Unless these nutritive elements (or materials) are replaced the fertility of the soil is decreased. To replace the an- nual loss of elemental phosphorus from crop and pasture lands (estimated at 1,365,000,000 acres) would require the phosphate from between 10 and 20 million tons of average-quality phosphate rock. The heavy demands placed upon the phosphate industry by the ever-increasing need for fertilizer production, which replenishes our depleted soil, has been one of the chief factors responsible for the rapid growth of this industry. Since 1940 the total production of phosphate mineral has more than doubled. In recent years the phosphate demands of the fertilizer industry consumed 85% of the annual production in this country. The remaining 15% is used in processing of foods, feed for animals, water softening, in chemical, textile, plastic, petroleum, and other industries (Jacobs, 1950, p. 29). In trade circles phosphate is known as tricalcium phosphate or bone phosphate of lime (B. P. L.). Over 90% of the phosphate rock used in the fertilizer industry is treated with sulphuric acid, which converts it into superphosphate or triplephosphates. The former usually contains from 18 to 20 per cent of phosphoric acid and the latter grades contain from 48 to 48 per cent. The latter concentration thus reduces the transportation costs by one-half. © One long ton of phosphate rock with 74% of bone phosphate of lime, equivalent to 33.9% of phosphoric acid, would make almost two short tons of superphosphate, containing 20% of phosphoric acid. Aside from the phosphate itself, the normal superphosphates of contemporary commerce contain such plant nutrients as potassium, REGIONAL STUDY OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY 169 magnesium, sulphur, manganese, and calcium, the latter in sub- stantial quantity. Mehring estimates that over one and a half million tons of calcium is furnished each year to the soil of this country through the use of phosphate rock (Mehring, 1948, p. 12). Almost 50% of the world’s supply of phosphate comes from one small region located in the west-central part of peninsular Florida (Fig. 1). The deposits of this region in Polk and Hillsborough Counties are well suited to the use of modern mining methods. Few mining enterprises in North America have made more techno- logical progress for the extraction of mineral resources than the large-scale operations of the pebble phosphate district in Florida. OSPHATE PLANTS ano DEPOSITS ~—_ _ _PH / ! a / LS LEGEND @ ORDINARY SUPERPHOSPHATE PLANTS LAND PEBBLE FIELDS\|% @ TRIPLE SUPERPHOSPHATE PLANTS Se PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS Figure 1. During the past decade, the discovery that Florida pebble phos- phate deposits contain small amounts of uranium was responsible for an intensive study in this region by the U. S. Geological Survey. The Federal Government has recently approved processing plants 170 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES for this valuable by-product. These new plants, estimated to cost several million dollars, have been constructed near Bartow, Polk County, Florida, by some of the largest phosphate companies of this area. No doubt the construction of these plants will stimulate greater mining activity in phosphate rock during the next few years in this region. The market fluctuations in prices of phosphate rock have followed in a general way the five major periods of economic development, being influenced partly by competition from foreign sources. Prices dropped from $8.00 per ton in 1870 to their all-time low, $2.50 per ton, in 1898. Since 1947 the price of phosphate rock has risen to an average of over $5.00 per ton. In the domestic and foreign markets the pebble phosphate of Florida usually sells for fifty cents to one dollar per ton under the same grade of Tennessee and Idaho phosphate, because of their cheaper methods of mining and slightly higher content of iron and aluminum. Export trade has formed an important part of the domestic phos- phate industry. Prior to 1900 over 40% of the total production was for export markets. The South Carolina region furnished nearly all of the shipments abroad prior to 1892. The all-time low in exports occurred in 1918 during the war period when only 6% was shipped abroad. Taking the total output into account more than 25% has been exported since 1867. In recent years, however, less than 15% has been sold in the foreign market with the pebble phos- phate region of Florida furnishing over 90% of all U. S. exports. The number of workers employed in the extraction of phosphates reached its all-time high in 1892, with a total of 9,175, of whom 5,242 were employed in South Carolina, 3,915 in Florida, and 15 in North Carolina (Wright, 1896, p. 106). The second highest period of employment occurred in 1909 when over 7,900 workers were used. With improvement in equipment, however, a rise in output per man took place alongside a long continued drop in workers employed. During the depression period of 1932, when output fell off, only 1,900 men held jobs. Even in 1954, with pro- duction at its highest level, only about 4,800 men were required. Two factors account for this rapid decline in the number of workers employed. First, the almost complete mechanization in Florida and Tennessee regions; second, the recovery of much ele per- centage of phosphate mined. REGIONAL STUDY OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY al PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES The life span of this country’s phosphate rock industry can be divided into five distinct periods. Each has its own peculiar char- acteristics, reflecting the new inventions, mining methods, economic and financial conditions, and methods of exploitation adapted to regional differences in the geologic and geographic factors dis- tinguishing the different areas. The first period, from 1867 to 1880, was one of steady growth in the amount of phosphate rock mined annually. All of the oper- ations during this period were limited to the South Carolina de- posits, where use was made of small dredges, scrapers, and wheel- barrows in mining the ore. During the second period, 1881 to 1900, the rich deposits of Florida and Tennessee were brought into competition with South Carolina operations. Land deposits came into production with the aid of small steam shovels and suction pumps, with the result that river-mining operations declined. The third period, from 1900 to 1920, ushered in further improve- ments in the mining of land deposits by hydraulic methods. The development of a deep-water harbor by the U. S. Government at Tampa, Florida, gave the rich pebble deposit a great advantage in cheap transportation for domestic and foreign export because of _ the proximity of the mining operations to a deep-water port (Fig. 2). Electrical power was used for pumping the “matrix”, consisting of clay, sand, ore-pebbles, and water to the separation plant. Dis- covery of western deposits took place during this period, and min- ing operations were begun there in 1906 on a small scale. Prior to 1900 considerable quantities of Florida phosphate rock were shipped abroad to German chemical plants, for processing into fertilizer, and was later sent back to Atlantic Coast ports for distribution to American farms. The fourth period, 1920 to 1940, saw great fluctuations in the mining of phosphate, due to alternating prosperity and depression. Extensive operations in the rich North African phosphate area, moreover, built up considerable competition in the foreign market during this period. Introduction of the electric dragline, and discovery and perfection of the oil-flotation process in later years, 172 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES resulted in much cheaper production and in the recovery of a much larger per cent of the phosphates actually mined than formerly. \ - ; Figure 2.—Loading phosphate at the deep water port, Tampa, Florida. The last period, from 1940 to the present time, witnessed the development of a settling-pond process, which recovered phosphates from waste slime. Mammoth electrical draglines were introduced, resulting in greater efficiency, but requiring larger investments. This was a burden which many of the smaller companies could not readily carry; accordingly, many consolidations resulted (Fig. 3). REGIONAL STUDY OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY 173 Figure 3.—The matrix (ore) of pebble phosphate in foreground with overburden removed. Since commercial production of phosphate started in the United States in 1867, over 194 million long tons had been mined by 1950. Of this amount 72% came from Florida, 18% from Tennessee, 7.5% from South Carolina, and 3.5% from the western states. The known deposits of phosphate rock that give promise of economic importance in the United States are located in Florida, South Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and Utah. The occurrence and quality of these phosphate rock deposits varies somewhat in each of the states where they have been examined. GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF PHOSPHATE ROCK “Phosphate Rock” is a general term applied by common usage to rocks of diverse origin, character and occurrence that contain phosphorus. These rocks, whether phosphatized limestone, sand- stone, or shale, may exist in consolidated or unconsolidated forms. The numerous types of phosphate rock range from soft marl and sand to hard, massive flint-like rock, varying in color from white to tan or coal-black. Because of the variable mineralogical content and the variable proportions of the minerals present, phosphate rocks do not have a uniform chemical composition. Chemical analyses show a great predominance of calcium and phosphorus present in the “matrix” 174 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (ore), usually reported as calcium oxide (CaO) and phosphoric oxide (P2O;) (Johnson, 1944). Fluorine is a constituent of all types of domestic phosphate rock. It ranges from 3 to 4 per cent in quantity, and from this source we obtain a large part of our commercial supply. The phosphate deposits of the United States are estimated to contain more than 400 million tons of fluorine. Iron and aluminum are the two most objectionable impurities. Phosphate rock containing more than 6% of these two elements is unsuitable for the manufacture of superphosphates. The phosphates of Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming occur in marine sedimentary deposits chiefly of the Permian system, but include also some rock of the Mississippian system. Most of the deposits have been subjected to intense folding, faulting, and erosion. Consequently, bands occur along the flanks of the larger and simpler folds, in the more complex crumplings in the smaller folds, and along the borders of faulted areas. In some places, the Permian phosphate formation occurs in separate layers with several feet of phosphatic sandstones and shales in between. In other areas the development of commercial deposits resulted from a favorable intervention of various geological processes. These processes concentrated the original low-grade phosphate into work- able deposits along the Atlantic Coast and the Gulf of Mexico. The subaerial weathering and leaching, as well as wave action, were the chief processes that redeposited most of these secondary deposits during the Pliocene Epoch (Cathcart, 1950, p. 6). . REGIONAL PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OUTSIDE FLORIDA Commercial production of phosphate rock in the United States started in South Carolina in 1867. This region for the next twenty- one years supplied nearly all of the United States’ output. The deposits are located about ten miles from the coast in a strip not: more than twenty miles wide in the vicinity of Charleston. They extend from the Wando River on the north to the Broad River on the south for a distance of seventy miles. The phosphate industry of South Carolina was employing 2,500 workers by 1880 and that year produced 210,000 tons of phosphate rock. Two types of phosphates were worked there—landrock and _ riverrock. REGIONAL STUDY OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY 175 The landrock occurs in a more or less irregular bed which rep- resents the undisturbed phosphatized Edisto marl of the Miocene formation. The South Carolina deposits were believed to have been deposited under similar conditions to the pebble phosphate deposits of Florida. South Carolina’s landrock deposits occur in beds, usually 8 to 16 inches thick, but in places as much as 30 inches, and are ordinarily covered by less than 15 feet of sand, clay, and marl. The river- rock is believed to consist, in part, of the original phosphatized marl and of fragments derived from land deposits and concentrated in and along the river beds. Landrock deposits were mined from 1867 to 1925, and riverrock from 1870 to 1910. The South Carolina ores were not as rich and extensive as the pebble fields of Florida. Two serious setbacks in the early part of the 1890s resulted in the ultimate loss of the industrys foreign market, which was taken over by the Florida operators. The exporting operators in South Carolina moved their operations to the Florida pebble-phosphate region due to lengthy court litigation over taxes (Rogers, 1914, p. 207). The state of South Carolina was levying a tax of one dollar per ton against all phosphate mined along the river banks. Because of this tax the Coosaw Company, one of the chief exporters of phosphate rock, became involved in 1891 in lengthy litigation and because of this litigation was forced to discontinue operation for over 12 months. Two years later, August 31, 1893, a cyclone which destroyed a large part of the plants and buildings in this area, caused approxi- mately a six-month additional interruption to operations in South Caroline (Mappus, 1935, p. 20). Taking advantage of this grave disability in South Carolina, the Florida phosphate industry gained an important position in the export market during this period. Three types of phosphate rock have been mined in Tennessee: brown, blue, and white rock. Tennessee deposits came into pro- duction in 1894 and gained an important position in the early de- velopment of the industry due to their location in the middle of a great agricultural region. Brownrock ores have furnished most of the phosphate mined in Tennessee for more than 50 years. These deposits occur in the western part of the Nashville Basin. The open-pit mining of brown rock has centered principally around Mount Pleasant and Columbia, in Maury County. Most deposits 176 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES average less than 6 feet, but sometimes occur 50 feet thick in the deeper depressions. The bluerock deposits require expensive underground methods of mining. The white rock is of too low grade to be commercially profitable. The commercial development of phosphate rock in Idaho was begun in 1906 and in Wyoming and Utah the following year. The Idaho deposits are sometimes mined by open-cut methods, but usually underground operations are required because of the thick overburden. Utilization of Montana’s deposits, which are relatively small in total reserves, has not been great. Beginning in 1921, a gross extraction of some 13.4 millions of long tons by 1950 had been shipped mainly to the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company, of Canada, Ltd., at its Trail plant in British Columbia. There it is changed into ammonium-phosphate fertilizer. Such is the occurrence of phosphate rock and its commercial extraction in this country in states other than Florida. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY IN FLORIDA Four principal types of phosphate have been mined in Florida since production started in 1887. They are: landpebble, river- pebble, hardrock, and soft phosphates. Landpebble and _hard- rock constitute the two chief sources of Florida’s production in recent years. | Landpebble deposits occur in the Bone Valley formations, rang- ing in colors from white, brown, gray, and green to black. The main landpebble field, which furnishes 95% of Florida’s phosphate, is found in Polk, and Hillsborough Counties (see map insert Fig. 1). These deposits are in the west-central part of the state, about 20 miles east of Tampa, extending in a north-south direction for some 65 miles and in an east-west direction for about 45 miles. The pebbles range in size from clay particles to small boulders over a foot in diameter. Other landpebble deposits of lower grade are known to exist in adjoining counties. The riverpebble phosphate deposits, which occur as bars and banks in stream channels and adjacent lowlands, were formed from any phosphatic material that the stream happened to cross. This type of phosphate was the first to be mined in Florida along the Peace River near Arcadia, DeSoto County, in 1887. It has not REGIONAL STUDY OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY Lbre7t been mined since 1914, due to competition of the landpebble phosphates. The main hardrock field comprises a belt, about 110 miles long and 5 to 30 miles wide, that extends southward from Suwannee and Columbia Counties to the northern part of Pasco County. Mining has been done in many other counties but at the present time the hard field operations are limited to a small area near Dunnellon, Marion County (Fig. 4). Figure 4.—Mining of phosphate in hard rock field of Florida. Note 50 feet or more overburden. Waste ponds in the hardrock district contain considerable quan- tities of soft phosphate derived from former hardrock deposits. This sediment usually yields 25% or more of P2O;, and is commonly known as collateral phosphate or wastepond phosphate. Very little commercial phosphate is produced in this manner at the present time. The mining of Florida’s phosphates prior to 1890 was similar in methods to those used in South Carolina. These consisted largely in the dredging of rivers and streams. The discovery of hardrock deposits along Florida’s west coast created one of the largest mining booms since the Pacific Coast gold rush of 1849. Numerous small towns of that section of the state in the early 1890s had all of the attributes of pioneer gold-mining towns of the Far West, 178 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES with much land speculation. Importing of Negro labor from Geor- gia and Alabama and the use of convict labor were some of the means used to meet labor shortages. Speculation in phosphate lands was stimulated to a large degree by the foreign capital invested in hardrock as well as in rich pebblerock regions. Britain, Belgium, and France were the chief sources of foreign funds invested in Florida operations. One of the companies with the largest foreign holdings was Phosphate, Ltd., of London, England, which listed its capital and assets at a million dollars as early as 1891. Other foreign operators about 1900 included the following: The French Syndicate, of New High Springs, Florida; French Phosphate Company, of Luraville, Florida; The Societe Universelle de Mines, Industrie, Commerce et Agricole, of Paris, France; and J. Buttenboch and Company, of Brussels, Bel- gium, which is the only foreign company still operating in Florida at the present time. Most of the above-named foreign holdings were sold to American interests prior to, or immediately following, the first World War. The British acquired phosphate sources in the Pacific and the French turned their attention to the rich deposits in French North Africa. The importance of the British and French production from those deposits in 1950 can be noted in a Producer's Report of The International Superphosphate Manufacturers’ Asso- ciation, London, March 7, 1951. Of the 20,237,689 metric tons of sales and shipments reported (not including an estimated 2 million tons in the U.S.S.R.), the United States supplied 52 per cent, North Africa 32 per cent, and the Pacific islands 10 per cent. RESERVES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK Having examined the development of this industry in the United States and particularly in Florida, the main producer, a check on the reserves of this country as well as those abroad is in order. A reported estimate of the reserves of the United States in phos- phate rock indicates a total of nearly 13.5 billion long tons (see Table I). Of this amount 38% is in the state of Florida, 60% in the western states (43% in Idaho alone), and limited reserves in Tennessee and South Carolina. These figures are only estimates, but they do provide some idea of the magnitude of our probable reserves and their distribution among the states. REGIONAL STUDY OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY 179 TABLE I Production and Reserves of Phosphate Rock in the United States.* (Data as of 1950) | Market Production Operations Started | (Long Tons) Estimated Reserves | Accumulative Totals (Long Tons) | South) Carolina —..__-- (1867) | 13,358,717 | 11,000,000 Soin (1887) | -126,189.871. | 5,046,409,000 Tennessee _____- cabee (1896) | 31,927,819 | 183,971,000 Western States: | Fanner (1906) | 3,196,786 | 5,734,187,000 nln (ee (1907) | 20 ae | 1,702,480,000 Verein, (1907) | 252,062 | 232,585,000 Montana (1921) | 1,764,163 | 389,946,000 Pults@ther States | 207,906 22,863,000 | | Grand Total United States __ 176,866,395 | 13,321,239,000 * Data from Minerals Yearbook, U. S. Bureau of Mines, and K. D. Jacobs, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. A better perspective as to the phosphate industry of this country can, of course, be had through a comparison with estimated known reserves in other parts of the world. Jacobs of the United States Department of Agriculture estimated the world reserves of phosphate rock and apatite in billions of metric ~tons as follows: French Morocco, 21,000; United States, 13,535: U.S.S.R., 7,568; Tunisia, 2,000; Algiers, 1,000; Brazil, 572; Islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, 182; Egypt, 179; 23 other coun- tries with a total of 670; with a grand total of 46,706. These figures do not include reserves of 16 other countries where known reserves exist because of lack of accurate data. The United States Depart- ment of Agriculture estimates that French Morocco alone has reserves about 50% greater than ours, though we do seemingly possess nearly 30% of the world’s appraised deposits. It must be recognized, however, that additional deposits of unknown magni- tude probably exist. Estimated reserves of 1 to 8 billion metric tons or more are also found in Russia, Tunisia, and Algeria. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Future production of phosphate rock is difficult to anticipate be- cause it depends on factors of diverse nature including the general 180 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES financial conditions that exist from time to time. On the assump- tion that the supply factor remains constant and the present pros- perous conditions continue in this country, the use of phosphate rock will probably increase still more, owing to the heavy demands in the fertilizer and chemical industries, as well as the use for supplementary feeding of livestock. Progress has been made in the latter by extensive research. Operations in the phosphate mines in Idaho and the Rocky Mountain region probably will be stimulated further to meet the increasing fertilizer demands of the western states, because of the high cost of transportation of phosphate from Florida to that section. Tennessee's total phosphate output will probably continue to re- main at about 15% of the domestic supply. Because of the limited reserves and low-grade deposits, South Carolina’s operations are not likely to be resumed in the near future. The rich pebble district of Florida’s west coast will probably continue for many years to furnish three-fourths of the total supply of the United States. Major reasons for this large output are: (1) the advantages in economical production because of extensive occurrence of the matrix; (2) access to water transportation for a large part of the domestic and foreign supply; (8) unconsolidated deposits permitting large-scale operations and allowing the utiliza- tion of lower-grade ores; (4) production of uranium and rare earth by-products in the future probably will further reduce total oper- ational costs. Florida, Idaho, and Utah have more than 12 billion tons of esti- mated phosphate reserves. The present rate of phosphate pro- duction in the U. S. is over 10 million tons annually. It is, there- fore, encouraging to note that domestic reserves should be ample to supply domestic needs for several hundred years. LITERATURE CITED CATHCART, JAMES B. 1950. Distribution of Uranium in the Florida Phosphate Fields. Unpub- lished report before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Tampa, Florida, May 6, 1950. CHAZEL, P.-E. 1904. The Century in Phosphate and Fertilizers. Lucas and Richardson Co., Charleston, S. C. REGIONAL STUDY OF THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY 181 JACOBS, K. D. 1950. Phosphate Resources and Manufacturing Facilities in the United States. Unpublished paper before the Soil Science Association, College Park, Maryland, August 21, 1950. JOHNSON, B. L. 1944. Economic Factors of United States Phosphate Industry. Mining and Metallurgy, October, p. 76. JONES, W. R. 1941. Minerals in Industry. New York, Penguin. MAPPUS, HELEN F. 1935. The Phosphate Industry of South Garcia. Unpublished thesis, University of South Carolina, Columbia. MEHRING, A. L. 1948. Calcium in Fertilizers. Soil Science, 65: 12. ROGERS, G. S. 1914. The Phosphate Deposits of South Carolina. Washington, Government Printing Office. WRIGHT, CARROLL D. 1896. The Phosphate Industry of the United States. U.S. Department of Labor Bulletin, 6th Special Report, Washington, D. C. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(3), 1954. A. A. A. 8. RESEARCH GRANT The annual A. A. A. S. Research Grant of $73.00 has been made available to the Academy for 1954-55. Application may be made for all or part of these funds by the members of the Academy. Please send application to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida Academy of Sciences, Geology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, for the committee. Application should be received prior to December 1, 1954, so that the announcement can be made at the Annual Meeting. Request for funds should include the following: 1. Name 2. Address 3. Research Project 4. Special purpose for which research funds are requested. ADDITIONS TO THE KNOWN FISH FAUNA IN THE VICINITY OF CEDAR KEY, FLORIDA Davin K. CALDWELL University of Florida Recent studies by Kilby (1950) and Reid (1954) have presented an essentially complete picture of the ichthyofauna of Cedar Key, Levy County, Florida. However, with the increasing interest in the biology of this Gulf coastal area brought about by the estab- lishment of the University of Florida's Seahorse Key Marine Labora- tory, the list of the known fishes of the area should be kept as complete as possible, even though the species included herein are possibly only occasional visitors to Cedar Key. For some 18 months prior to the writing of this paper, I was engaged in a detailed study of the Pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides, in the Cedar Key area. The regular pursuance of this study re- sulted in the collection and observation of many fishes other than this species. Seven of these incidental species are apparently new to the known fish fauna of the area, an eighth is confirmed, and a ninth previously unreported for some 70 years. I wish to thank Mr. Ormond Folks, of the R. B. Davis fish house at Cedar Key, for saving the specimens referred to as having been obtained from the commercial fishery. Unless otherwise indicated, all of the specimens included below are deposited in the University of Florida fish collection. Measure- ments are expressed as standard length. ANNOTATED LIST Carcharinus acronotus (Poey). Black-nosed Shark. A 335 mm. male was collected at Cedar Key by Dr. L. R. C. Agnew of the University of Florida Cancer Research Laboratory on June 1, 1953. Brevoortia gunteri Hildebrand. Menhaden. An 89 mm. speci- men, here tentatively identified as B. gunteri, was seined on June 21, 1953, in an enclosed salt marsh pond (fed by high tides) on Way Key. Anchoa hepsetus hepsetus (Linnaeus). Anchovy. A 105 mm. specimen was taken in a small otter trawl on the edge of the main ship channel near Seahorse Key on April 25, 1953. (Private col- lection of Dr. E. Lowe Pierce, University of Florida.) ADDITIONS TO THE FISH FAUNA NEAR CEDAR KEY 183 Polynemus octonemus Girard. Eight-fingered Threadfin. A 183 mm. specimen was collected from the commercial fishery on August 10, 1953. This individual had been taken in a gill net from a shallow grassy flat near one of the islands of the area. Promicrops itaiara (Lichtenstein). Spotted Jewfish. Reid (1954: 74) stated that this species is to be expected at Cedar Key, but that no definite records were available. On June 28, 1953, I identi- fied a 367 pound specimen, approximately 4% feet in length, taken on hook and line by a sport fisherman from the main pier at Cedar Key. Xyrichthys psittacus (Linnaeus). Pearly Razorfish. A 132 mm. specimen was obtained on September 1, 1953, from the commercial fishery. The specimen had been taken 15 miles west of the town in about 7 fathoms on a rocky bottom. Paraclinus fasciatus (Steindachner). Blenny. Two examples, 41 mm. and 37 mm., were trawled on the edge of the main ship chan- nel between Seahorse and Grassy Keys. These were taken on January 24, 1954, and February 7, 1954, respectviely. This is probably the “Paraclinus sp.” noted by Reid (1954: 60), a suggestion already made by him in that paper for his specimens. I wish to thank Mr. Victor Springer of the University of Texas for his positive identification of my specimens. Porichthys porosissimus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Midshipman. A 79 mm. example was trawled at night in the main ship channel just off Seahorse Key on November 13, 1953. Ancylopsetta quadrocellata Gill. Ocellated Fluke. Although this species was recorded by Jordan and Swain (1884: 234), as Para- lichthys ommatus Jordan & Gilbert, it seems desirable to include it here since it has not been recorded from Cedar Key since that time. These authors note it as “rather common’. However, I col- lected only two specimens, and it was not reported at all by Reid (1954) or Kilby (1950). My specimens were trawled from a deep grassy flat on the west side of North Key on February 7, 1954, and from the main ship channel just outside of Seahorse Key on April 10, 1954. These measured 39 mm. and 91 mm. respectively. LITERATURE CITED JORDAN, DAVID S., and JOSEPH SWAIN 1884. Notes on fishes collected by David S. Jordan at Cedar Keys, Florida. Proce Us) Nat Mus. 77/2) 250-234 184 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES KILBY, JOHN D. 1950. The fishes of two Gulf coastal marsh areas of Florida. Mss. (unpub.). Dissertation presented to the Graduate Council, Univ. of Fla., Feb- ruary,, L950) yu jo pp. REID, GEORGE K., JR. 1954. An ecological study of the Gulf of Mexico fishes, in the vicinity of Cedar Key, Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. of the Gulf and Carib., 4(1): 1-94. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(8), 1954. NOTICE OF ANNUAL MEETING The 19th meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences will be held at Florida State University, Tallahassee, December 9, 10, 11. The meeting will begin with a Symposium Thursday night on “Science and Aims of Education”. Members are urged to submit papers in the other sessions on the problems of teaching scientists. The deadline for papers is October 22nd, when all papers are due in the hands of the appropriate Chairman. Word has been received that Dr. H. Horton Sheldon, past Presi- dent of the Academy, formerly of New York and more recently Dean of the Division of Research and Industry of the University of Miami, has been appointed consultant to the Organization for European Economic Cooperation. His headquarters for the next year will be Paris, France, from which point he will visit a number of European countries. INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Contributions to the JourNAL may be in any of the fields of Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. 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Payment for reprints will be made by the author directly to the printer. 2 -FGEF63 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 17 December, 1954 No. 4 Contents Auffenberg—Additional Specimens of Gavialosuchus Ameri- canus (Sellards) from a New Locality in Florida ___.___ 185 Meee for 155 210 Beck Sradies in Stream Pollution Biology 211 Sherman—The Occurrence of Bison in Florida 228 Telford—A Description of the Larvae of Ambystoma cingu- latum bishopi Goin, Including an Extension of the Range. 233 Mergen—Anatomical Study of Slash Pine Graft Unions ______ LACT Gildea—Modern Wholesale Market Facilities 246 Fope—the Geoduck Clam im Florida... 252 Ree Corminicmts ui tor Ul 2) TCS ie DLs __. 958 Pee NOME V7 jo aa AAA 254 Vout. 17 DECEMBER, 1954 No. 4 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. The business offices of the JouRNAL are centralized at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology. All subsequent correspondence concerning manuscripts may be handled directly between authors and associate editors: J. C. Dickinson, Jr., Biological Sciences, Department of Biology and Florida State Museum; Donald R. Dyer, Social Sciences, Department of Geography; John W. Flowers, Physical Sciences, Department of Physics. Business communications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Geology. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be addressed to The Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed February 18, 1955 mae OUARTERLY JOURNAL, OF THE FEORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES \Y Oi vem | DECEMBER, 1954 No. 4 ADDITIONAL SPECIMENS OF GAVIALOSUCHUS AMERI- CANUS (SELLARDS) FROM A NEW LOCALITY IN FLORIDA WALTER AUFFENBERG Biology Department, University of Florida The fossil crocodilian Gavialosuchus americanus was first de- scribed by Sellards (1915a) on the basis of fragments of a skull and lower jaw from the vicinity of Brewster, Polk County, Florida. Additional fragments of skulls and lower jaws were described by the same author in later papers (1915b and 1916). The first fairly complete skull (AMNH 1651) was figured and described by Mook (1921a), who also used this specimen as a basis for placing ameri- canus in the genus Gavialosuchus. Lydekker (1886) had previously synonymized Gavialosuchus Toule and Kail with Tomistoma Miller. In a later paper Mook (1924) described an even more complete skull (AMNH 5663) which verified the generic validity of Gavialo- suchus. Although Sellards mentioned a few bones which probably be- longed to this species, the postcranial skeleton was still relatively unknown. Therefore, the discovery of a fairly complete specimen in a fairly well articulated state allows an adequate description to be given at the present time, and contributes materially to our knowledge of the osteology of this species. Elements of practically the entire postcranial skeleton as well as a skull and lower jaw, more complete than any previously reported, are available. Por- tions of at least eight specimens have been found at this locality. All of the specimens which have been reported in previous papers were collected from a locality near Brewster, Polk County, Florida. The formation from which they were taken is known as the Bone Valley Gravel. The distribution of this formation is nct too well known, although it seems to be somewhat restricted to a circular area centering around Hillsborough and Polk counties. 186 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES It is entirely possible that it occurs in a considerably greater area, although this has not been fully demonstrated (Cooke, 1945). The discovery of the same species of crocodilian, apparently in the same formation, in western Alachua County, Florida, is thus of con- siderable geologic interest as well. The new locality is at the village of Haile, approximately 4 miles northeast of Newberry, Alachua County, Florida (NE% Sec. 23, T. 9 S. R. 18E.). The elevation is about 84 feet above sea level (Gunter, et al., 1948). This locality is one quarter mile from an- other sinkhole containing many Pleistocene fossils (Brodkorb, 1953, 1954, and Tihen, £952). STRATIGRAPHY The fossil remains of crocodilians obtained at this locality were first discovered on the surface, where they were being weathered out of a sinkhole, formed in the Ocala Limestone (restricted). The bed was first exposed when it was practically cut in half by mining operations. The clay-filled sink is 44 feet deep. The width is 21 feet at the top and 5 feet at the bottom. The general stratigraphy is shown in Figure 1. Since Mr. E. C. Pirkle of the Department of Geology, University of Florida plans to discuss this locality in detail in a future publication, I will give only a brief description of the stratigraphy, as follows: Bed Number 6. A brownish, cross-bedded clay containing many small broken pieces of bone and limestone. In many instances the bone is polished and water-worn. Isolated shark teeth, cetacean ribs, ray plates and small fish vertebrae are common. Gar scales (Lepidosteus sp.), pieces of turtle shells (Testudo sp., Pseudemys sp., and Terrepene cf. caniliculata), mammalian teeth (Equus sp., Tanupolama cf. mirifica), and crocodilian teeth and dermal plates (Alligator cf. mississippiensis and Gavialosuchus americanus) are also commonly encountered. This certainly represents a well-mixed fauna, of Eocene, Miocene and/or Pliocene and Pleistocene time. The character of the fossils and the stratigraphy seem to reflect a Pleistocene stream bed that cut through older deposits, thoroughly mixing the faunas from each. Bed No. 5. Oe Length from tip of jaw to most ant. border of the external mandibular foramen ___- P 1335) Height of mandible at the center of the external mandibular foramen __.___- P date * fide Mook (1921a). As has been mentioned previously the postcranial skeleton of this species has never been adequately described. Sellards (1915b, 1916) mentions a few elements which he believed represented this species. However, it is not entirely certain that all of the croco- dilian remains from the Bone Valley Gravel formation should be assigned to Gavialosuchus, since the remains are never found in an. articulated condition. The following description of a large portion of the postcranial skeleton of this form follows. The measurements outlined by Mook (1921b) are given as a basis for future compari- sons among the Crocodilia. CERVICAL VERTEBAE. Only two cervical vertebrae of UF 6225 are available. Measurements indicate that they may be the GAVIALOSUCHUS AMERICANUS FROM NEW LOCALITY = 197 seventh and eighth elements, comprising the last two before the dorsal series begins. TABLE III Measurements of Cervical Vertebrae of UF 6225 (in cm.) | Nn a I Secale Searcy |r eneaulh oe Os | oS as Ss oy Sie : 2, aS =) Se | csc | | ese | ae =e —— ae oo ao Sr eeSal| coe cussmal) GONE SS 2s EUS oS BO |] OTE | OOS eal anes ae SS a oe ) AO | ROe) TO< | was wa Te won, Cervical 7 ? (Aes | Soe) ANG ee ne) z fi 3 | | | | Cervical 8 P HES Tle SOLON alk. KLOeD | LS eas} = = oe | | , | Es = a | se Es * Measurements unknown. The atlas of two specimens are available. Since one element is a surface find it is not at all certain to which individual it belongs. The other element is obviously from UF 6225 due to its position in the deposit. In shape these elements are considerably different than those of Crocodylus. This is especially true of the intercentra. When viewed from the front the articular surfaces of the neural arch pedicles and the intercentrum slope downward, rather than being raised and straight across as in C. americanus. When viewed _ from behind, a posterior, rounded, median keel takes part in the articulation with the axis, so that this lower surface is not rounded as in americanus, but together with the rib articulations on either side produces a shallow “M”’-shaped lower edge. A fragmental axis is also available for UF 6282. DORSAL VERTEBRAE. Numerous vertebrae are identified as belonging to the dorsal series. Many of these vertebrae are known to belong to UF 6225, but the presence of UF 6238, practically identical in size, plus the fact that some elements were surface finds, leaves much to be desired in assigning these vertebrae to one specimen or another. LUMBAR VERTEBRAE. Three vertebrae have been identified as lumbar elements. However, it should be noted that Mook (1921b) has shown that posterior dorsal vertebrae are sometimes very difficult to separate from the lumbar series. The fact that the neural spines are quite low, that the diapophyses extend out- 198 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ward a considerable distance, and that the length of the centrum is relatively short are all fair reasons for assigning these vertebrae to the lumbar series. TABLE IV Measurements of Dorsal Vertebrae of UF 6225 (Entirely?) in cm. reat ots g z re) ae) ogd xe) Qa one oS Ss : = a 2 Bi | o Su me SM over = we | So |e |) Bee S&2 | SHS) so $5 |) £85 | 885) B22 | BS | Bee) es HO MPO | HOt | nave | vO mae | Eo Dorsal 1 8.0 Gull 5.8 4.3 | ; 3.6 z 2 8.9 i 5.7 AT 7 4 i) f 4 8.1 O.25F Due 4.3 : 7.6 = 5 Or a 6.0 4.3 7A anil 159) 6 8.9 xe Eo x x x 3 fi 9.2 6.4 | 5.8 4.6 18.0 10.3 2 8 me ae ioe pan ae é 2) 9.5 6.6 6.3 4.8 18.4 7 : 10 9.5 S05-F 6.3 KO) Si 5 152 11 9.8 6.2 6.2 % x - i 13 | 9.3 1A 5.8 5.0 Gs i : is * Measurements unknown. SACRAL VERTEBRAE. Both sacral vertebrae are known from UF 6225. Another is known from UF 6238. Unfortunately, the ends of the sacral ribs are broken off in all of the available specimens. Measurements of Length of Centrum Lumbar 1 SO 4S eS © 7.8 TABLE V Lumbar Vertebrae of UF 6225 (in cm.) a4 & 3 : @ Peavy cache ln S oe : 3 Si] 235 bn 3 8 = TO & oe 3s > Oo 3 oe or. mr . oN A Oo & Oa See Paes | See | ae ks moa 2) ‘ ee uae | | a cs fie | COASTAL LOWLANDS MMM) centear wictanos TALLAHASSEE HILLS ! Z IMAI2IANNA LOWLAND \ x N ia << 225A WESTERN HIGHLANOS Sie WS | MAP I = Topographic Divisions of Florida Vos Be = : it 54 7 Pm Dane a a). -& | Geographic distribution of organisms is reported by topographic divisions described by Cooke (1939). Cooke (p. 14) writes: “The 218 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES part of the Floridian Plateau that lies above sea level—the State of Florida—is divisible into five natural topographic regions: the Coastal Lowlands, or more recently emerged region, which almost everywhere lies less than 100 feet above sea level; and the interior, generally higher, hilly regions, consisting of the Western Highlands, the Marianna Lowlands, the Tallahassee Hills, and the Central Highlands.” The generalized outlines of these regions are shown on map I. The tabulation of distribution of organisms in these regions showed such complete distribution that the table seemed pointless and was consequently omitted. Most of the organisms reported on in this paper are present in the streams throughout the greater part of the year and collections made during the winter months are fully as significant as are sum- mer collections. METHODS The actual mechanics in the establishment of the program in- volved sampling streams of known pollutional condition. This included streams which received no domestic or industrial wastes, as well as streams exhibiting varying degrees of pollution. It was decided that a given organism must be present in a minimum of twenty collections before any attempt would be made to examine the records with regard to the proposed classification. This was an arbitrary figure which appeared to me to be high enough to represent a significant ecological and geographical distribution and small enough to permit a reasonably lengthy list of organisms to be obtained in a short time. It should be noted that these collections were not made in any definite sequence. In other words, the or- ganisms were not collected from clean streams alone, but streams in all conditions with regard to organic pollution, as well as various rates of flow, were sampled as they were encountered. Such collections were made while I was conducting chemical or bac- teriological surveys, with an occasional short period devoted to ~ biological work alone. These collections were obtained for a period of a year before any attempt was made to develop a classification. By that time, approximately two hundred collections had been made. The present paper, with but minor revisions in the initial classification, is based on the study of five hundred collgctions and an estimated fifty thousand organisms. STUDIES IN STREAM POLLUTION BIOLOGY 219 General stream collecting methods are used in securing the biological samples. I normally use a dip net, Eckman dredge, coffee strainer, potato fork and a series of shallow, white-enamelled pans. Care must be taken that the various habitats within the area selected are examined and a representative collection obtained. It is more difficult to obtain a reliable collection from a polluted area than from a clean one because the collector must be certain that the more sensitive forms were actually lacking and not merely over- looked due to haste. This is particularly obvious when one con- siders that the methods here presented are directed toward proving that an area is clean and that inability to do so constitutes evidence of pollution. An actual survey using these methods begins with the selection of stations with regard to the actual or eventual introduction of waste materials into the stream. Such stations should also be typi- cal of the stream in general and should be readily accessible. Following careful and representative collecting at all stations in the survey, the material is separated and identified as accurately as possible by the collector. Classification with regard to organic pollution follows next. Certain organisms, tentatively identified by me, are then forwarded to specialists in the various groups rep- resented for final identification. Essentially all the material collected in these surveys is saved ‘and eventually is sent to private collectors or to museums. INDICATOR ORGANISMS As indicator organism is a plant or animal, the presence or ab- sence of which is indicative of some fact or facts with respect to its environment. When the environment is altered by organic pol- lution both the fact of pollution and the degree of pollution logically should be demonstrable by the use of indicator organisms which have been properly selected. In the classification of organisms, I decided against the use of a terminology derived from Latin or Greek (as in the Kolkwitz and Marsson system). Such a terminology must be carefully defined and would be most difficult to interpret in view of the complexity of pollution. In addition, most of my reports are submitted to engineering personnel who consider such terminology so much double-talk. 220 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In this study I have divided the aquatic invertebrates into five numbered classes, of which only the first three are important in the reporting of stream conditions. The remaining two classes are categories of convenience, as will be pointed out below. Class I is comprised of those organisms which have been found to tolerate no appreciable organic pollution, the more sensitive forms. The presence of Class I organisms is considered indicative of the fact that the water in which they are found is clean. Class II organisms are those which tolerate a moderate amount of pollution, but do not tolerate conditions approaching or reaching the anaerobic. Thus the presence of Class II organisms may be interpreted to mean that the area in question is not heavily polluted. Class III contains organisms which have been found in heavily polluted areas. It should be understood that no organism in Class III may be considered indicative of pollution. These organisms may be found in clean waters, moderately polluted waters, or grossly polluted waters. 7 Class IV includes organisms independent of dissolved oxygen— the air breathing forms. In this category are the Hemiptera, most larval and adult Coleoptera, Culicidae, Syrphidae, Tipulidae and pulmonate snails. Since the first effect of an organic waste on a body of water is a reduction in dissolved oxygen content, it seemed that these independent organisms might be placed in a separate category and the time saved could more profitably be devoted to organisms that were closely attached to the aquatic habitat. This does not mean that all the organisms in this classification would of necessity respond similiarly to environmental alteration due to or- ganic pollution. Molluscs of the genera Physa and Ferrissia are listed under Class III due to their frequent occurrence in collections and their demonstrated ability to survive high degrees of pollution. Class V comprises those organisms which have not been other- wise classified due to such factors as too few records, lack of knowl- edge of their physiological requirements, or organisms for which identifications are pending. This class is in essence the reservoir from which future representatives of the first three classes will be derived. Table I lists the number of records for each of the organisms comprising classes I, II, and III with reference to the three degrees of pollution recognized in this study. Examination of this table naturally raises the question as to the level of identification at STUDIES IN STREAM POLLUTION BIOLOGY 221 which significant indicator value is found. Certainly specific de- terminations are the most desirable. Florida, however, is still a pioneer area with regard to the taxonomy of many of the groups of organisms which I collect. The genus Asellus is an interesting example of the taxonomic problems involved. All specimens of this genus (with the exception of damaged specimens) thus far sent to Dr. Mackin have been determined to species, but there are three species for which only manuscript names are available. In the case of the stoneflies, reporting in this paper is done at the level of order, although all specimens are identified to species. Dr. Gaufin and I have been working on the nymphs of this order for the past eighteen months and the study is quite incomplete. The widely distributed mayfly genus Stenonema was used as an indi- cator organism at generic level before enough records were avail- able to make specific identifications significant. The genus then yielded three Class I species (exiguum, smithae and Stenonema spp., this last including proximum and an unknown species). In the case of the damselfly Argia, seventy-two records were available be- fore the nymph was even classified. When at least twenty records for a Class V organism are present each record is examined carefully. If the organism has been found only in clean waters, it is placed in Class I. If, however, a single record is from a moderately polluted area the organism falls in Class II, just as a single record from a heavily polluted area places the organism in Class III. During a recent discussion of this classification, it was suggested that if a single record may bring about the transfer of a species from a cleaner to a less clean class, eventually all organisms would become Class III. While the suggestion appears quite logical, there has been little in practice to indicate that such is the case. During the nearly three years that this classification has been in use, only two Class I organisms have been lowered to Class II and none from either I or II to III. It is probable that eventually a statistical scale for the classifica- tion of these organisms may be called for. A suggestion of the usefulness of such a scale may be found in Table I. Of a total of seventy records for Palaemonetes paludosus, four are from moderately polluted areas, while of sixty-eight records for Oecetis spp. only one is from a moderately polluted area. It would thus appear that Palaemonetes would more probably be found in an 222 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES area of moderate pollution than would Oecetis, and that the former is a more reliable member of Class II than is the latter. A statistical scale may be suggested as a future refinement, but does not enter into the present interpretation of results. TABLE I Pollutional Distribution Moder- ately Highly Total Clean Polluted Polluted Number Organism Water Water Water Records Class Oligochacta 22022 Seles! 191 10 9 210 Gh ASCILESS Sp ps p= see ens a 85 0 0 85 I EyalellavaZteCa, as 87 6 0 93 II Palaemonetes paludosus _ 66 4 0 70 a1 IGRiGheyoeighie) cles a 73 0 0 18: i IRleCoptenay sens eee. ae 61 0 0 61 I Stenonema exiguum ____. 58 0 0 58 I Stenonema smithae ___- 62 0 0 62 I SiEnonema. Spy === 46 0 0 46 I Gomphus pallidus ____ A8 ) 0 51 II Compliusespp = eee DT i! 0 28 II Rio com piusis pane 40 0 0 40 I MGCTONIIG Spy = ee 39 3 0 49. I VAR ELUSS Is. ee ek et ee (2 0 0 72 I Corydalis cornutus 87 0 0 87 I Oxycihiia spp. ae 36 0 0 36 I gana ptilansp ps =a Sl 0 0 BI I Macronemum carolina _. 21 0 0 DA I Hydropsyche incommoda_ 36 0 0 36 I Hydropsyche spp. 40 0 0 AO i Cheumatopsyche spp. 119 2 0 ple II Polycentropus spp. _--- We 0 0 72 I Ovcctiss spp. = a eeee 67 I| 0 68 I ieptocelouspp sae 49 2 0 ol 11 Ghimana spp) 2 76 0 0 76 I Ryralicid acy i: seen 38 0 0 38 I Simaulinclae) 2a ee 89 0 0 89 I Pentaneura nr. monilis _. 83 2 2 87 Ill Pentaneura flavifrons ___ 26 0 0 26 I Tanypus stellatus 4 2; 2 8 III Corynoneura spp. 70 0 0 70 I SPantoLonia Spp) as 35 1 0 36 rT Tanytarsus exiguus _____. 42, 0) 0 42 I Tanytarsus gregarius _____ 32 0 0 32 I Polypedilum fallax __. 28 IL 0 29 II Cryptochironomus spp. — 64 4 2 70 Ill Cryptochironomus SD bie (JOl.)) eas 2 Dy) 0 0 On| I Chironomus decorus ___- 60 5 6 il III Chironomus spp. =. 14 8 8 20 Ill STUDIES IN STREAM POLLUTION BIOLOGY 223 It should be pointed out that only organisms from Classes [, II and III have been listed in the table. Since the other two classes have little immediate importance in these proposed methods, there seems to be no reason for needless tabulation. TABLE I (Continued) Pollutional Distribution Moder- ately Highly Total Clean Polluted Polluted Number Organism Water Water Water Records Class Ceratopogonidae __..._____ 109 5 J WIS III RUSHES ieee 98 7 5 110 Ill ICHTISSIG SDP.) 22 8 WL 4 2 Wt Ill Eoniobasisispp! 45 0 0 45 I Sphnaemidae as 2. 106 5 1 ILD Ill DISCUSSION Indicator Organisms The group of organisms comprising Class III merits some dis- cussion despite the fact that the presence of these forms indicates little regarding the quality of the water. Although certain of the chironomid larvae and the tubificid worms may be passed over hastily with regard to existence under anaerobic conditions the same does not hold true for nymphs of the mayflies Callibaetis flori- danus and Caenis diminuta, nor for one unidentified damselfly nymph. Their ability to survive in waters containing no dissolved oxygen is unexplained, though real. As stated above, a reduction in dissolved oxygen is the first effect of an organic pollutant. Thus dissolved oxygen is of primary im- portance in stream quality investigations. Modifications of the Winkler method for the determination of dissolved oxygen give very accurate results for a simple and rapid analysis. There are, however, many variables which must be taken into consideration when interpreting dissolved oxygen figures. Corrections for factors such as temperature, barometric pressure and salinity may be ap- plied by use of tables or nomographs which may be found in many books and shorter publications. Factors such as algal blooms and natural pollutional effects which influence the oxygen concentra- tion must be evaluated by other methods. It will thus be seen 224 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES that dissolved oxygen may not be used as a single measure of stream condition with any reliability. Pure water is not found in streams. A stream without dissolved solids and gasses would be sterile due to lack of nutrients for the lower organisms at the base of the food chain. If one wished to take an extreme viewpoint he might consider the addition of any solid, liquid or gas to a body of water as pollution. In a sense this is true, and the concept of natural pollution must be considered in any evaluation of stream condition. It is not proposed in the present report to discuss the subject of natural pollution at any great length. Special work on this subject is being carried on at present by the Florida State Board of Health and will be reported on at a later date. It will suffice to say here that natural pollution does not interfere with the use of the methods outlined in the present report. The following excerpts are from Gaufin and Tarzwell (1952:62): “In evaluating aquatic organisms as indicators of pollutional con- ditions, great caution must be used because of several complicating ecologic conditions. First, many organisms which occur in ex- tremely polluted water may also be found in limited numbers in cleaner situations. Several species of invertebrates, such as the mosquito, Culex pipiens; beetle, Tropisternis spp.; and sludgeworms, Limnodrilus and Tubifex spp., which occurred in abundance at Stations 6.5 and 5.2 [polluted waters] also occurred in the clean- water zones. Second, many species listed in Table 2 occurred in such small numbers as to discourage their individual use as indi- cators. Third, several ecologic factors other than the presence of a pollutant may limit the distribution of certain species; for example, erosion, floods, the size of the stream, the type of bottom, the flight range of the insect, and the portion of the stream under study. It is believed that moderate abundance of single species should not be considered as biological indicators of pollution because organ- isms such as Tubifex usually associated with polluted areas are also found in clean waters. It is the complex or association of - organisms which is important for indicating clean or polluted water. All organisms present and their relative abundance must be con- sidered.” Under the first qualification in the above quotation, the four genera listed are members of Classes III and IV in the present study and need not prove deterrents to the use of indicator organisms. STUDIES IN STREAM POLLUTION BIOLOGY 225 Rare or uncommon organisms would be listed in Class V and would thus not prove misleading. The third factor listed by Gaufin and Tarzwell can hardly be answered briefly. It must be assumed that the person performing such a survey will be an aquatic biologist with a reasonable knowledge of stream ecology. A review of the literature of stream pollution biology will show that indicator organisms may be used basically in two ways—to indicate the presence of pollution or to indicate the absence of pollution. If an attempt is made to establish a program utilizing the macroscopic invertebrates and based on the concept that there are such organisms which by themselves indicate pollution, then it is my belief that the program must fail. No macroscopic inverte- brate has been found in Florida which, by itself, indicates pollution. On the other hand, an effective indicator organism program based on species which indicate absence of pollution can be developed quite easily. I am in complete agreement with Gaufin and Tarzwell when they say that the complex or association is of greatest im- portance as an indicator of stream conditions. Diversity of Fauna In the introduction it was stated that two approaches to this pro- gram were to be examined simultaneously—indicator organisms and diversity of fauna. The latter approach was abandoned for one main reason. It became apparent after careful examination of -many of the streams of Florida that diversity of fauna was pri- marily the result of one factor—the diversity of habitat. Studies of the nutrient content of Florida waters have lagged seriously be- hind studies of other factors, primarily due to the lack of accurate and simple field methods for the quantitative determination of these nutrient elements. It seems probable, however, that above certain limits, the nutrient content would exert a quantitative rather than a qualitative effect on the biotic association. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The taxonomic aspects of this study have been, and remain, com- plex. I am greatly indebted to the following people for their gener- ous assistance: Drs. C. Francis Byers and Minter J. Westfall, University of Flor- ida (Odonata); Dr. Lewis Berner, University of Florida (Ephemerop- tera); Dr. H. H. Ross, University of Illinois (Trichoptera); Dr. 226 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., University of Virginia (decapoda); Mr. Leslie Hubricht, Danville, Virginia (Amphipoda); Dr. James G. Mackin, Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College (Asellidae); Dr. Arden R. Gaufin, Public Health Service (Plecoptera); Dr. Walter G. Moore, Loyola University (Porifera). For giving generously of their time for discussions of various aspects of the present study and of stream behavior in general, I am grateful to the following: Drs. A. F. Bartsch and H. Page Nicholson, Public Health Service; Dr. Willis M. Van Horn and Mr. Robert Balch, Institute of Paper Chemistry; Dr. Ruth Patrick and her associates, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; Dr. F. C. W. Olson, Florida State University; Dr. Maurice W. Provost, Florida State Board of Health. In this study I have been dependent on the following men for aid in the taxonomy of the midges of the family Chironomidae: Drs. Willis W. Wirth and Alan Stone, United States Department of Agriculture and Dr. Selwyn S. Roback, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. SUMMARY A simplified method for the biological detection and measure- ment of organic pollution is presented. This method utilizes indi- cator values for selected macroscopic invertebrates. These values are determined by prolonged sampling of waters of known condition with regard to organic pollution. The methods herein described will enable one man to obtain significant biological data with rapidity and economy. With certain faunal revisions these methods may be adapted easily for use in other geographical or political areas. REFERENCES CITED BARTSCH, A. F. 1948. Biological Aspects of Stream Pollution. Sew. Works Journ., 20: 292-302. COOKE, C. WYTHE 1939. Scenery of Florida, Interpreted by a Geologist. Fla. Geol. Survey, Bull., 17: 1-118, illus. HERECUSONS Gs Ewerral. 1947. Springs of Florida. Fla. Geol. Survey Bull., 31:1-196, illus. GAUFIN, ARDEN R., and CLARENCE M. TARZWELL 1952. Aquatic Invertebrates as Indicators of Stream Pollution. Public Health Rep., 67: 57-64. STUDIES IN STREAM POLLUTION BIOLOGY 227 HENDERSON, CROSWELL 1949. Value of the Bottom Sampler in Demonstrating the Effects of Pollu- tion on Fish-food Organisms and Fish in the Shenandoah River. Prog. Fish-cult., 1949 (Oct.): 217-280, illus. HERRING, JON L. 1951. The Aquatic and Semiaquatic Hemiptera of Northern Florida. Part 4: Classification of Habitats and Keys to the Species. Fla. Ent., 34: MAG=LGie KOLKWITZ, R., and M. MARSSON 1908. Oekologie der pflanzlichen Saprobien. Ber. d. Deut. Bot. Gesell. 26a: 505-519. 1909. Oekologie der tierischen Saprobien. Int. Rev. d. ges. Hydrobiologie u. Hydrographie. 2: 126-152. LACKEY, JAMES B. 1941. The Significance of Plankton in Relation to the Sanitary Condition of Streams. Symposium Hydrobiology. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, Madison. 311-328. PALRICK, RUTH 1949. A Proposed Biological Measure of Stream Conditions, Based on a Survey of the Conestoga Basin, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 101: 277-841. 1953. Aquatic Organisms as an Aid in Solving Waste Disposal Problems. Sew. and Ind. Wastes, 25: 210-217. RICHARDSON, ROBERT E. 1921. The Small Bottom and Shore Fauna of the Middle and Lower Illinois River and Its Connecting Lakes, Chillicothe to Grafton; Its Valuation; Its Sources of Food Supply and Its Relation to the Fishery. Ill. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull., 18: 363-522. 1925. Changes in Small Bottom Fauna of Peoria Lake, 1920-1922. ibid., 15: 327-888. 1925a. Illinois River Bottom Fauna in 1923. ibid., 15: 391-422. 1928. The Bottom Fauna of the Middle Illinois River, 1913-1925. ibid., 17: 387-475. ROGERS, J. SPEED 1933. The Ecological Distribution of the Craneflies of Northern Florida. Ecol. Mono., 3: 1-74, illus. VAN HORN, WILLIS M. 1949. The Biological Indices of Stream Quality. Proc. Fifth Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ.: 215-222. Onent, Jou Bie, Kerk Sel, i), 154. THE OCCURRENCE OF BISON IN FLORIDA H. B. SHERMAN University of Florida Evidence that modern bison occurred in Florida is given by several authors. The expedition of Marcos Delgado encountered bison a few miles west of Marianna, Jackson County, Florida in 1686, according to Boyd, 1936 and 1937; 7, 23. Bison also occurred on Santa Rosa Island and between Pensacola Bay and the Apalachi- cola River in 1693, Swanton, 1938, 1941. John Bartram records bison from East Florida in his travels of 1773-74 according to Harper, 1943; 198. Boyd’s account, 1949, of the expedition of Diego Pena contains dates and localities where 33 bison, 18 cattle and 51 deer were killed during a journey from St. Augustine to southern Georgia and Alabama in 1716. This report shows that two bison were killed near Newnan’s Lake, Alachua County; August 13; three east of Itchetucknee Spring, Columbia County; August 20; and many bison were encountered between the Suwannee and Aucilla Rivers where 18 were killed, August 24 to 30. In the vicinity of Tallahassee and Lake Jackson, bison and cattle were abundant and eight bison were killed in these parts of Leon County, September 7 and 8. While it is thus apparent that northern Florida was a part of the geographical range of the American bison, few specimens known to belong to that species have been found in the state. Many parts of the skeleton, including teeth, of the bison are so similar to those of cattle of similar size, that it is often impossible to decide to which of these species individual bones should be assigned. The first published record of a specimen of Bison bison from Florida is that of John M. Gogin, 1951: 176, who states that at least one bison bone, a part of a humerus, was taken from an excavation at the site of Fort Pupo. This site is situated on the west bank of the St. Johns River about three miles south of Green Cove Springs, Clay County, Florida. Goggin gives reasons for. believing that this fort must have been constructed during the early part of the 18th century and it was demolished about July 22 or 23, 1740. Articles excavated here consequently apparently date from the early 18th century. The part of the humerus mentioned by Goggin was identified by me. It consists of a part of the head and shaft, including the THE OCCURRENCE OF BISON IN FLORIDA 229 deltoid tuberosity. The bone had been gnawed and most of the lateral and medial tuberosities are lacking. For this reason it is impossible to make use of the characters mentioned by Barbara Lawrence, 1951, for distinguishing the humerus of Bison from Bos. The small size and shape of the deltoid tuberosity shows that this was from a bovine animal rather than a horse. Its size indi- cates that it came from a large animal, but it was also young for the epiphysis had not fused with the shaft. It is probable that this bone cannot be from domesticated cattle for all available evidence shows that Florida cattle were small until recent years. In George H. Dacy’s “Four Centuries of Florida Ranch- ing’ 1940, p. 32, he states: “The dual purpose cows from Portugal and Spain, which were brought to Florida by way of Santo Domingo, were small in size but mighty in ability to withstand hardship.” Dacy and other authors point out that the so-called native Florida cattle were able to survive in spite of the Texas fever tick which was often fatal to improved breeds. Dacy states, p. 31, “Around 1905 ‘Sam’ Summerlin imported a carload of Hereford bulls, cows and yearlings from Texas, which he placed on his range at East Gardner, after feeding at Tampa for six weeks. ‘That shipment like the millrun of importations of the period, was sacrificed to the Texas ticks.” Dacy also states that it was not until 1924 that an effective program for dipping cattle was started in this state which has since resulted in the eradication of the Texas fever tick in most parts of the state. The size of Florida native cattle is also mentioned by John M. Scott, 1912; 63, who states: “At the present time there are about eight hundred thousand head of cattle in Florida. Perhaps 95% of these are the native Florida cattle, which are no doubt descended from the old Spanish stock, with little or no improvement. It is stated, however, that many cattle were shipped into Florida from North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama and Georgia. This influx of cattle from states further north took place from 1840 to 1850, and perhaps before then. At that time cattle must have been similar to our native cattle, as four- to six-year-old steers weighed from 350 to 500 pounds. What were probably the first efforts toward the improvement of the native cattle took place about 1845. About this time Mr. Mc- Kinnon of Walton County imported direct from Scotland a large Shorthorn bull. This bull did good service for a number of years. 230 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The improvement over the native cattle was noticeable. The size of the grade cattle was larger, the four-year-old steers weighing 450 to 750 pounds.” Food is another factor which undoubtedly contributed to the small size of native Florida cattle. Scott showed that native cattle, when well cared for and well fed weighed slightly more than crosses between native cows and hereford and shorthorn bulls. At about two and half years they weighed about 700 pounds. Scott states, p. 67: “If the calves in the foregoing experiment had been turned out on the open range to hustle for themselves, they would doubtless on March 1, 1910 have been from 25 to 50 per cent lighter than when weaned on October 28, 1909. This heavy loss in weight would be due to the fact that during the winter season the pastures are very poor, and if forage is not supplied (which is not done by the majority of stock raisers), the animals are almost starved. Under these adverse conditions our native cattle never grow and develop as they should, or as they would if supplied liberally with forage during the season when the pastures do not supply sufficient grazing.” At the time of the occupation of Fort Pupo it seems probable that cattle in Florida were no better cared for than in the early part of the 20th century, and were no larger. The Fort Pupo humerus, no. 972 Dept. Biology University of Florida (DBUF), was compared with three other humeri as follows: Female Bison bison, no. 2494, Museum of Natural History, Uni- versity of Kansas, which was taken in Beaver County, Oklahoma, November, 1888. Brahma bull, no. 2675 of the author’s collection, which was furnished me by Mr. T. A. Peeler, General Manager of Swift and Co., Ocala, Florida. Live weight of this animal was 1,040 pounds. A cow, no. 149 DBUF. This skeleton was found in the flatwoods near Gainesville, Florida. The teeth were much worn indicating that this was an old individual. The relative size of these humeri are shown in the accompanying figure, which was prepared by Miss Esther Coogle. Each sketch of the four humeri was made to show a longitudinal section of the bone in a plane through the pit at the base of the lateral tuberosity adjacent to the bicipital groove and over the greatest extent of the head. The large size of the Fort Pupo specimen leaves no reason- able doubt that this is a bison bone instead of that of Florida native THE OCCURRENCE OF BISON IN FLORIDA 231 cattle. The size of the shaft of this bone in comparison with that of the female bison leads to the interpretation that the Fort Pupo specimen was a male. 7 Z a. Flatwoods cow no. |49 h : b. Brahma bull no. 2675 / c. Female bison no. 2494 il | d. Fort Pupo bison no. 972 / / / ———— / i —————— c/ ee : 5 cm | | \ a a b 5 re Cc d d From the same excavation at Fort Pupo four carpal bones were found, 974, 975, 976 and 978, DBUF. These are larger than those of the Brahma bull mentioned above, for which reason they are considered to represent Bison rather than Bos. bo bo 3 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LITERATURE CITED BOYD, MARK F. 1936. The occurrence of the American bison in Alabama and Florida. Science, 84 (2179): 208. 1987. The expedition of Marcos Delgado from Apalache to the Upper Creek Country in 1686. The Florida Historical Quarterly, 28(1):1-27. DAGYWGHORCGE Ee 1940. Four Centuries of Florida Ranching. Printed privately. GOGGIN, JOHN M. 1951. Fort Pupo: A Spanish frontier outpost. The Florida Historical Quar- terly, 30(2): 139-192. HARPER, FRANCIS 1948. Travels in Georgia and Florida, 1773-74. A Report to Dr. John Fothergil. William Bartram. Annotated by Francis Harper. Trans. American Phil. Soc., n.s. 83, pt. 2. LAWRENCE, BARBARA 1951. Post-cranial skeletal characters of deer, pronghorn, and sheep-goat with notes on Bos and Bison. Papers of the American Arch. and Eth. Harvard University, 35(1): 9-48. SCOTT, JOHN M. 1912. Native and grade cattle-breeding. Univ. Florida Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull, 110. SWANTON, JOHN R. 1938. Notes on the occurrence of bison near the Gulf of Mexico. Jour. Mamm., 19(8): 379-380. 1941. Occurrence of bison in Florida. Jour. Mamm., 22(3): 322. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(4), 1954. A DESCRIPTION OF THE LARVAE OF AMBYSTOMA CINGULATUM BISHOPI GOIN, INCLUDING AN EXTENSION OF THE RANGE SAM R. TELFORD, JR. University of Virginia The reticulated salamander, Ambystoma cingulatum Cope, has recently been found to be considerably more abundant and wide- spread than hitherto suspected. The larva, whose pattern and coloration is strikingly different from that of the adult, has also been recently brought to light. Further data on distribution and larval forms are presented herein. There is little published information on this species. Orton (1942) first described the larva of A. cingulatum from three small preserved specimens from northwest Florida. Her identification was made by a process of elimination. Although the pattern de- scription is good, no color information is presented since the speci- mens had evidently been bleached by the preservative. Goin (1950) obtained enough adult material to describe the specimens from the western part of the range as a new subspecies, A. cingulatum bishopi. Mecham and Hellman (1952: 129) described from life the larva of the eastern race, A. cingulatum cingulatum. The writer is indebted to Mr. Robert E. Hellman for his careful criticism and advice concerning this paper. On April 14, 1954, the writer, with the assistance of Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., and Miss Jean E. Pugh, both of the University of Virginia, collected three larvae of A. c. bishopi from a roadside ditch in Newton County, Mississippi, 10.7 miles west of Chunky on U.S. Route 80. The larvae were seined from among unidentified dead aquatic plants in a ditch ten to thirty feet wide, approximately one hundred yards long, and six to twenty-four inches deep. The bottom was muddy, and the water was dark because of the presence of tannic acid. Thick grass and shrubbery border the ditch, and the surrounding terrain is fairly open pine flatwoods. This locality represents a range extension of approximately 180 miles northwest of Mobile County, Alabama, formerly the westernmost known locality for A. cingulatum. The larvae were preserved in the field in five percent formalin, and color notes were taken about three hours later. A yellow-brown 234 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ventro-lateral stripe extends from the posterior margin of the lower jaw to the region of the vent. Laterally, a similarly colored stripe runs from the base of the gills to the region of the vent, breaking up into a fairly close series of large yellow spots on the tail. There is a slightly lighter yellow-brown vertebral stripe extending from the head back along the base of the dorsal crest. The ventro- lateral, lateral, and vertebral stripes are separated by slightly wider black stripes. The dorso-lateral black stripes extend well back on the tail, but the sub-lateral black stripes break up in the region of the hind limbs. The ventral surface is dark grey, with a faint, narrow light line along the mid-ventral blood vessel. The ventral surface of the head is dark grey, well mottled with yellow-brown. The yellow-brown dorsal surface of the head is mottled in the center with dark brown. A broken stripe, dark grey in color, passes along the lower surface of the upper jaw, and a narrow, ~ black band extends from the nostril posteriorly through the eye to the anterior base of the gills. The two lateral head stripes are separated by a wide, light yellow band. The dorsal crest of the tail fin is light yellow-brown with small, dark flecking anteriorly, which darkens to black distally. There are occasional light gold flecks along the anterior part of the dorsal crest. The ventral crest of the tail fin is black and only slightly mottled with yellow. The anterior and posterior limbs are dark grey, slightly banded with yellow-brown dorsally, and darkening to black on the feet. In life, the gills are bright red. | The lateral and ventro-lateral light stripes are slightly brighter than the other yellow-brown areas on the larva, but in general the larvae are far less colorful than the Ambystoma c. cingulatum larvae reported by Mecham and Hellman (loc. cit.). This may, of course, be due to the fact that the Mississippi larvae are 20 mm. to 30 mm. shorter than the Florida larvae, or to staining action of the tannic acid in the water. Measurements and other pertinent data on the three specimens are as follows: For purposes of comparison, the same characters used by Mecham. and Hellman (op. cit: 131) were checked in these specimens. Only from specimen “A” were the third gill arches dissected out to de- termine the number of gill rakers. An attempt was also made on this specimen (the largest of the series) to count the larval vomerine teeth, but unfortunately an accurate count was impossible because of the small size of these teeth. LARVAL OF AMBYSTOMA CINGULATUM BISHOPI 235 | A B C ees: | pemlersve thy | Dll sanyo, 43.5 mm. 47.5 mm. Snout-vent length 2... 24 mm. | 2 aaataN 23.5 mm. Beemlencthie. 2 | I satan, 9 mm. 9.5 mm. | [STEEL SQUGUGIN (35) woman, || = smven. (5) mm. peaa-croi length 12 jaw, ILL ararrn. ee Seerramn Gill rakers (anterior face, third | ZINGLD)) cc eae Sees ner | [faba caliente lf Sq eas de 6-7 Costal grooves (axilla to groin, EMNMB COS) gee 5s 155 14-14 14-14 Mean ratios, determined from the above data, are presented in the table below along with comparative ratios for A. c. cingulatum, based on the data of Mecham and Hellman (loc. cit.). As may readily be seen, the two forms exhibit considerable differences in larval proportions. These results are minimized, however, by the relatively small numbers of specimens upon which they are based, and the notable size differences in the two series. Characters A. c. cingulatum | A. c. bishopi Head length/snout-vent length | 363 | 389 Head width/snout-vent length 274 314 Axilla-groin/snout-vent length | O16 496 Head width/head length | 129 .816 Number of specimens _._____-________- 4 | 3 These larvae have been deposited in the writer's personal collec- tion, and designated as SRT No. 889 A,B,C. LITERATURE CITED GOIN, COLEMAN J. 1950. A study of the salamander Ambystoma cingulatum, with the descrip- tion of a new subspecies. Ann. Carnegie Mus., 31(14): 299-321; pl. 1. 236 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MECHAM, JOHN S., and ROBERT E. HELLMAN 1952. Notes on the larvae of two Florida salamanders. Quart. Journal Florida Acad. Sci.; 15: 127-188; pl. 2. ORTON, GRACE L. 1942. Notes on the larvae of certain species of Ambystoma. Copeia, 1942(8): 170-172; 1 fig. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(4), 1954. ANATOMICAL STUDY OF SLASH PINE GRAFT UNIONS FRANCOIS MERGEN 1 Lake City, Florida, Research Center Southeastern Forest Experiment Station INTRODUCTION Incompatibility between stock and scion is often suggested as a possible explanation for graft failures. These incompatibilities might be caused by a number of factors such as the formation of an impermeable contact layer between stock and scion, anatomical differences between the tissues being grafted, or physiological ditf- ferences such as osmotic pressure of cell sap or difference in plant metabolites (Daniel, 1894, 1928; Proebsting, 1926; Bradford and Sitton, 1929; Herrero, 1951; Mosse and Herrero, 1951). These factors either separately or in combination can delay or completely prevent the formation of a union. The inherent factors which cause the failure cannot be changed. However, some of the factors which cause these failures might be primarily of a physical nature. Purely physical factors such as formation of an isolation layer might be modified by environmental changes. A study of the anatomical processes connected with the union of grafted tissue is essential for a better understanding of this phenomenon. There are many reports on callus formation in graft unions in the horticultural and pomological literature, but these reports vary so much from species to species that they are of little value in solving a specific problem with a different species. No report could be located which describes the anatomical features of a graft union in the genus Pinus. Since the morphological and anatomical processes appear to be important in grafting studies, a study of the histological features of graft unions should prove of fundamental importance in the field of grafting. * This article is based on part of a thesis entitled “Rooting and grafting slash pine (Pinus eliiottii, Engelm.) for application in forest tree genetics” sub- mitted to the Graduate School of Yale University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The author wishes to express his thanks to Drs. B. H. Paul and M. Y. Pillow of the Forest Products Laboratory for taking the photomicrographs. 238 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In this experiment, cross sections of the various stages during the knitting of slash pine graft unions were studied to find out whether past failures in grafting slash pine scions on slash pine stock failed because of inherent incompatibilities or because of faulty grafting techniques. The information obtained might reveal better grafting techniques for the resinous pines either by modify- ing the grafting techniques themselves or the environment under which the grafts are kept. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Anatomical studies of graft unions have been the object of a numbes of investigations because the effect of rootstock on scion presents one of the important problems in horticulture. Mendel (1936) and Roberts (1949) reviewed most of the outstanding works on the histology and anatomy of graft unions in horticultural plants. Roberts stated that “many theoretical questions in graftage remain unanswered. . . . Neither technical studies in botany nor prac- tical experience in agriculture have contributed a satisfactory answer to the question of how to predict a successful graft com- bination.” The histology of healing is dependent upon the type of plant materials. Different patterns of meristematic activities are asso- ciated with the various plants. The conclusions of several authors are quoted to give a perception of the diversity of results obtained in the various studies. To quote Eames and MacDaniels (1925): “The important practices of budding and grafting have as their basis the ability of the cambium of both stock and scion to develop callus and unite.” Juliano (1941), studying the callus development in graft unions of Nothopanax spp., stated that “no evidence of any notable cambial participation in the production of callus tissue was noticed, . . . callus cushions are first formed in the gap through the acivity of the parenchyma of both the bark and the pith, and the ray cells of both symbionts.” Sass (1932) working with apple - grafts found that “no proliferation occurs during the first growing season from the xylem rays . . . callus is produced exclusively by tissues outside of the xylem cylinder. Any living tissue of the bark, excluding the periderm, may proliferate.” The results of the various studies, however, revealed that the anatomical changes involved in the formation of a union are basically ANATOMICAL STUDY OF SLASH PINE GRAFT UNIONS = 289 the same; namely the formation of some type of contact layer, generation of callus tissue, differentiation of the callus, elimination of the contact layer, establishment of vascular connections between stock and scion, and the formation of a common cambium. The differences in callus referred to above are not differences in types of tissue but in the source of the callus. Working with white pine, Riker et al. (1943) emphasized the necessity of wrapping the cut surfaces of the stock and scion se- curely together to hinder the formation of a resinous barrier between them. Mirov (1940), however, looked upon the resin which exudes during the grafting as being beneficial to the success of a union. He felt that the exuded resin helped to cover the cut surfaces of the stock and scion and thus prevent drying of the tissue. Zack (1949) tested the hypothesis that the removal or holding back of the resin from the cut surfaces until stock and scion had been securely fastened would increase the number of successful grafts. The treatments tried by Zack, however, decreased the number of successful grafts. Beside holding back the resin, they probably also destroyed the meristematic tissue along the cut surfaces of both stock and scion. MATERIAL AND METHODS During the latter part of November, 1952, five 8-month-old slash pine seedlings were planted in a large clay pot. These seedlings had been selected on the basis of uniformity of size and vigor and were placed in the same clay pot to provide a uniform environment for their subsequent development. In late January, 1953, scion material from 10-month-old nursery-grown seedlings was grafted on the potted seedlings using a side-slit method. The scion and the stock were bound together with waxed nylon twine. Grafting wax was applied after binding to seal out air and water. A l-inch layer of moist peat moss was placed around the seed- lings and they were covered by a cloche to maintain a high relative humidity around the plants. The object was to permit the various grafts to develop under relatively uniform environmental conditions. At the time of grafting, the plants were 6 inches tall and .15 inch in diameter at the ground line. The unions for study were collected at weekly intervals, the first being collected one week after grafting. Formalin-acetic acid- 240 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES alcohol was used as a killing and fixing fluid. To soften the tissue, glycerin was added to the solution after the unions had been fixed for 3 weeks. The graft unions were imbedded in paraffin and the sectioning of the woody material was facilitated by treating the trimmed blocks prepared for sectioning in ice water for 24 hours. Radial sections were cut about 15-20 microns thick on a rotary microtome. Most of the mounted slides were double-stained with safranine and fast green, while several sections were stained using the quadruple stain: crystal violet, fast green, safranine, and orange G. No attempt was made to obtain differential staining between the stock and scion, but the identity of each was preserved through- out the study. Some 50 sections were mounted permanently in Permount. Only one union was sectioned at each stage to be in- vestigated but it is felt that the samples are fair representations of the various stages since very uniform stock and scion material was grafted under almost identical environmental conditions. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A UNION IN SLASH PINE The first graft was collected 7 days after establishment; therefore, no observations are available on the sequence of cell division dur- ing the first week. In the first sections examined, callus formation was already pronounced. The contact layer between stock and scion, which was formed by killed cells along the cut surfaces, by coagulated cell contents, and by oleoresin, had been eliminated in several places and transfusion windows had been formed. Paren- chymatous cells from the medullary rays, the phloem rays and the cortex were particularly active in bridging the contact layer and in forming direct connections between stock and scion tissues (Figure 1). The cut ends of some of the medullary rays of the stock appeared fan-shaped when examined in cross-section. Cell proliferation from the medullary rays had assumed a wedge-shaped pattern and started to fill the space between stock and scion. There was some activity in the cambial region, although it was not as far — advanced as in the parenchymatous tissue of the rays, phloem or cortex. The filling-in of the space between both symbionts was mostly with callus tissue derived from the medullary rays (Figure 2). This filling-in appeared to follow a systematic pattern, and after 3 weeks (Figure 2) a large portion of the cavity had been filled. ANATOMICAL STUDY OF SLASH PINE GRAFT UNIONS 241 The tissue was tender, especially where it connected with the tracheids of the cut surfaces, and was easily torn during section- ing. At some levels of the union the cavity had completely filled after a 3-week period. Some callus was derived from the scion but the stock contributed the greater proportion. Cambium of the stock and scion had united in the lower part where the lip of the stock covered the outer wedge-shaped part of the scion. Trans- fusion windows along the outer part of the union were pronounced between medullary rays and the phloem or cortex parenchyma. Callus formation around the phloem region was very extensive and progressed outward to the periphery of the cortex. The tissue formed was relatively uniform and it was difficult to distinguish between tissue derived from cambium or phloem parenchyma cells. Where the pith was exposed during grafting, heavy proliferation developed from its parenchyma cells and it proceeded to fill the cavity in the outward directions as a result of the pressure applied to the union. Five weeks after grafting, the cavity between the symbionts had been filled and some of the newly-formed tissue Figure 1.—Cross section through a 1-week-old graft union showing the early activity of a medullary ray (M). Most of the activity was from the stock (A) part. The contact layer (Cl) along the line of union (U) was formed from cells of both stock and scion (B). X58. Figure 2.—Cross section of graft union 3 weeks old, showing filler callus (P) which is derived from both stock (A) and scion (B). The callus formation is pushed into the space between the graft symbionts as a suberized layer (S) limits the outward proliferation of the filler callus. X58. 242 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES started to differentiate. Callus from the various elements had grown together and produced a compact tissue and cambium cells of the symbionts had joined in localized regions. In a lower region, where the pressure applied by the binding was not sufficient, the extensive proliferation of the pith developed enough pressure to split the scion (Figure 3). The rupture prob- ably occurred along the ray cells, and the separated parts of the scion were pushed outward by the callus tissue formed by the pith parenchyma cells. The complete elimination of the contact layer was apparent 6 weeks after grafting (Figure 4). The tissue in the filled cavities showed various stages of differentiation. Many of the callus cells had developed into cambial cells, and started to bridge the cambial ends of the stock and the scion along most of the union. The cam- bium was continuous in 8 out of 10 sections analyzed. Some of the callus cells were transformed into conducting elements. Phloem, cortex and periderm of the stock and scion had united and formed continuous layers. By this time the scion was growing very vigor- ously and had added 1 inch of height growth. pep ty ot Figure 3.—Cross section through the lower part of a union where the scion (B) was held by the lip (AL) of the stock (A). The pressure supplied © by the binding was not great enough to force the newly-formed tissue in between the surfaces of the symbionts. The extensive proliferation of the pith parenchyma cells (PP) split the scion (B) in two. This section illustrates some of the growth 5 weeks after grafting: a transfusion window (T) and differentiated callus tissue (P). As many as 12 layers of xylem cells (X) had been laid down by the stock plant since grafting. X42. Figure 4.—Radial section of 6-week-old union. The contact layer has been eliminated and the cell differentiation of the filler tissue is quite advanced. A is the stock part while B is part of the scion. X42. ANATOMICAL STUDY OF SLASH PINE GRAFT UNIONS 248 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The observations made on the newly formed graft unions sug- gest that there are no inherent factors which make slash pine scions and rootstock incompatible. Incompatibilities between graft part- ners, however, might not be apparent for some time. In some in- stances there is a complete failure to unite, while in other cases growth starts, but gradually diminishes (Bradford and Sitton, 1929). In this study, only the early behavior of slash pine graft unions was investigated, and no effort was made to obtain information on the mechanical strength of these unions after they had been estab- lished. Unobstructed contact between the two cambia was made in well-matched grafts. The space between the cut surfaces of the grafting partners became filled in by the spongy callus tissue and the pressure applied by the binding compressed the newly-formed cells until their respective origins became indistinguishable. Most of the wound tissue was the product of the stock, apparently be- cause the initial shock suffered by the stock was not as great as that of the scion. The regenerative importance of the cambium cells in grafting appears to be overemphasized in the wood anatomy literature. This study illustrated beyond reasonable doubt that wound callus is not only produced by the meristems already present at the time of grafting but that parenchymatous cells of the pith, medullary rays, phloem and cortex can assume meristematic functions. These findings corroborate the conclusions by Juliano (1941) in his study of Nothopanax unions. The contact layer, which is formed by the death and shrinkage of the cells, was most pronounced in the regions of the cortex, phloem, cambium, and pith. A thin layer of exuded oleoresin covered part of the wound; the early proliferation of the active meristematic tissues probably prevented the formation of a con- tinuous resin layer. The even pressure supplied by the binding along the smoothly-cut surfaces prevented the formation of oleoresin pockets. In his studies of graft unions between guayule and sun- flower, Artschwager (1951), observed that the thickness of the con- tact layer depended to a large extent upon the smoothness of the cut and the pressure holding the stock and scion together. When the contacting surfaces were uneven and not under pressure, the 244 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES contact layer was broad and irregular and often broke apart, leay- ing an air-filled cleft between scion and stock. The correct binding and the application of an even pressure along the cut surfaces is of great importance in the knitting of a union. The knitting process of the union was probably more rapid with the material under study than can be expected with scions from old trees. In the young pine branches, cells remain meristematic for a longer period of time than in older tissue (Delisle, 1942). However, the general pattern of union formation with scion ma- terial from older trees should be very similar to the one described if the grafting cuts are made in the current years growth of the grafting partners. Judging from these findings, there exists no reason to ascribe failures in grafting slash pines to anatomical inability to bridge the union. The failures can be caused by faulty grafting techniques, unsuitable grafting material, wrong season of the year, or by an unfavorable environment. If proper grafting techniques, together with a suitable environment, are used, a large percentage of success in grafting slash pines should be obtained. SUMMARY An anatomical study of the sequence of the knitting of a union in young slash pines showed that parenchymatous cells of medul- lary rays, phloem, cortex, and cambium, participated in bridging the space between stock and scion tissues. The stock contributed the greatest part of the wound tissue, but the scion took part in callus formation. A continuous bridge between respective ana- tomical parts of the graft partners was apparent after 6 weeks. LITERATURE CITED ARTSCHWAGER, E. 1951. Anatomical studies on graft unions between guayule and sunflower. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bul. 1040: 23-26. BRADFORD, i, G., andeb.G. SILLON . 1929. Defective graft unions in the apple and the pear. Mich. Agric. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 99. 105 pp. DANIEL, M. L. 1894. Recherches morphologiques et physiologiques sur la greffe. 2e partie.- Physiologie. Rev. Gen. Bot., 6: 60-75. 1928. Sur la formation des thylles chez les plantes greffées. Compt. rend. Acad. Sci. (Paris), 187: 58-60. ANATOMICAL STUDY OF SLASH PINE GRAFT UNIONS 245 DELISLE, ALBERT L. 1942. Histological and anatomical changes induced by indoleacetic acid in rooting cuttings of Pinus strobus L. Virginia Jour. Sci., 3(5): 118-124. EAMES, ARTHUR J., and LAURENCE H. MacDANIELS 1925. An introduction to plant anatomy. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., XIV + 364 pp. HERRERO, J. 1951. Studies of compatible and incompatible graft combinations. Jour. Hort. Sci., 26(8); 212-287. JULIANO, JOSE B. 1941. Callus development in graft union. Philippine Jour. Sci., 75: 245-254. MENDEL, KURT 1936. The anatomy and histology of the bud-union in Citrus. Palestine Jour. Bot. and Hort. Sci., 1:13-46. MIROV, N. T. 1940. Tested methods of grafting pines. Jour. For., 38: 768-777. MOSSE, B., and J. HERRERO 1951. Studies on incompatibility between some pear and quince grafts. Jour. Hort. Sci., 26(8): 238-245. PROEBSTING, E. L. 1926. Structural weakness in interspecific grafts of Pyrus. Bot. Gaz., 82: 336-338. RIKER, A. J., T. F. KOUBA, W. H. BRENER and L. E. BRYAM 1943. White pine selections tested for resistance to blister rust. Jour. For., Al: 753-760. ROBERTS, R. H. 1949. Theoretical aspects of graftage. Bot. Rev., 15(7): 423-463. SASS, JOHN E. 1932. Formation of callus knots on apple grafts as related to the histology of the graft union. Bot. Gaz., 94(2): 364-380. ZACK, B. 1949. Importance of resin in the grafting of shortleaf pine. Unpubl. M.F. Thesis, Duke Univ., 34 pp. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(4), 1954. MODERN WHOLESALE MARKET FACILITIES Ray Y. GILpEA, JR. University of Florida What causes the strong interest today concerning modern whole- sale markets? For one thing people in the field of marketing farm produce are influenced primarily by need. They are constantly faced with the problem of handling more and more produce in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. The answer appears to be to enlarge the present facilities, or better still, to build new, modern structures. After new markets have been erected, the builders then become aware of numerous benefits that were not always apparent. Thus the benefits were not the driving force to- wards new efficiency. It was an awareness of the existing confusion that has finally brought action. TABLE I Defects in Existing Wholesale Market Facilities | | | St. Louis | Miami | Norfolk _| Richmond Ro oun ee | 1,500,000 | 350,000 | 400,000 320,000 | 1946 | 1945 1947 1951 Carload equivalent | ae | Fruits and vegetables 394205 270008 9,000 e200 8 | | Defects | | Lack of rail connections __- Xx Xx | xX xX Difficulty of enforcing ECU AattOMs) eee ee xX xX X | | Lack of proper design for | efficient handling ________ | Xx x Lack of farmers’ facilities _ | xX | | bee Heavy traffic congestion __. | | | os Scattering of market aa Pacilitiess aes es see ores xX xX | Xx | Lack of platforms and | | handling equipment ___ | xX xX Source: United States Department of eae and Virginia Department of Agriculture. MODERN WHOLESALE MARKET FACILITIES 247 The Need. The evidence of the need for improvements or inno- vations is apparent. For example, a number of defects found exist- ing in the old wholesale markets of St. Louis, Missouri; Miami, Florida; Norfolk and Richmond, Virginia can be cited (Table I). All four markets lacked satisfactory rail connections. The market of each city lacked unity due to definite selling periods or incom- plete knowledge of supplies available. By establishing uniform regulations, many problems could have been solved. Three cities— St. Louis, Miami and Norfolk—reported that their markets were too crowded to promote efficient handling of produce, were in heavily congested traffic areas, contained many scattered buildings, and lacked places for farmers to peddle their produce. Miami's market had a particular problem of lacking adequate surface drain- age in the market area. The Aims. Recognizing the existing defects, what then can be done to remedy such problems? A wholesale market should be a carefully designed system of buildings, roads and parking areas which are intended to bring together all of the buyers and sellers of perishable agricultural commodities. There should be five primary aims of a modern market: 1. To bring all independent produce wholesalers to one location where all farmers can haul their produce. 2. To allow individual farmers to sell their products at one cen- ‘ter instead of transporting them from one wholesaler to another. 3. To allow farmers to collect farm produce in abundant volume in order to attract large buyers. 4. To provide parking, unloading, and maintenance facilities for truckers. 3. To reduce the price spread between the farmer and consumer by cutting down on waste and spoilage. (It has been estimated that up to % of farm produce raised today is lost in spoilage). The Site. Once the purposes of a modern market are clearly un- derstood, the next course of action is to select a site. There are four important factors to be considered in choosing a site: (1) land area, (2) location or situation, (3) cost or value, and (4) availability. Most modern markets now need on the average about 20-25 acres for the site. This figure will allow room for future expansion, a fac- tor which was generally not considered in the past. A city has also 248 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES to consider such factors as room for rail connections, and amount of land already owned by an existing market. If possible, the market should be made convenient to buyers, sellers, and dealers. It also should be located close to major trans- portation arteries. For example, it is not wise to force truckers to drive through an entire city in order to reach the market. Miami, Florida, well illustrates how careful consideration was given to the factors of land and location. Having investigated the transportation network and amount of land available, this city decided it was more advisable to expand its present site rather than move to a new lo- cation. A basic principle in estimating the maximum cost of the site is that that cost should not exceed 25% of the value of the market plus the value of the land. In determining the amount of revenue neces- sary to pay off the investment and secure a fair profit, both the con- struction costs and the land cost are the determining factors. If the proper balance between building and land values is not achieved and the land value is too high, one of two consequences will take place. Either not enough funds will be available for adequate facili- ties, or rentals will have to be raised above a reasonable level. For example, when considering a new market within the city limits of Miami, the only site containing a sufficient amount of land was the one already in use. Most important, the cost would be in line with the total value of the market. (In this case 26% of the total value). Further, to move the market would split the fruit and vegetable market, since a number of dealers owning improved property within the old site would refuse to move. Concerning land availability, let us consider the St. Louis prob- lem. The market builders were faced with several factors. Most of the suitable locations were already taken by industrial, mercantile, or residential buildings. In addition, downtown St. Louis is often confronted by the flooding Mississippi River, limiting the choice of site considerably. Also, a large portion of the city is not adequately serviced by rail facilities. After looking into these problems in | detail, the Prairie Avenue site stood out above all other locations. While this area was somewhat far removed from the geographic center of retail distribution, nevertheless, it was more accessible to out-of-town buyers and more convenient to rail connections. Fur- ther, a great deal of non-market traffic would be excluded, and the cost of the site was reasonable. MODERN WHOLESALE MARKET FACILITIES 249 The Facilities. The next step is the placement of facilities on the the selected site. What facilities must there be in order to carry out the aims and purposes previously stated? There appear to be at least ten essential ingredients for an up-to-date produce market: 1. Stores for wholesale dealers of fruits, vegetables, poultry, eggs, and other farm products. It might be stated here that the size of a wholesale unit for a modern market is generally consid- ered to be 22% feet by 60 feet. The number of units each dealer needs depends entirely upon his business volume. However, in order to build a market, 40 units (or 54,000 sq. ft.) are an absolute must. 2. Farmers and truckers’ sheds and auction blocks for the sale of local farm produce. A lack of farmers’ and truckers’ facilities has always been an important problem in the past. 3. Rail connections to stores and team tracks. This is especially important in view of the amount of bulk commodities and rail ship- ments that are handled by wholesale markets. 4. Adequate parking space. An often-neglected but highly im- portant feature. Get the cars and trucks off the street. 5. Wide, paved streets. Avoid traffic jams and market confusion. 6. Durable fences. Insure adequate protection for market prop- erty. 7. Refrigeration plant. Insure freshness, prevent spoilage, pro- mote attractive displays, and store surplus foods. 8. Public refrigeration warehouse. (Could be combined with item No. 7). This is designed for outsiders who need refrigerated storage space and for odd surplus storage by local dealers. 9. Assembling, processing, and packing sheds for fruits, vege- tables, poultry, etc. This service feature permits dealers to handle commodities adequately without working in crowded stores. 10. A central office. Promote unity, better management, and cen- tral control. Other services could well include a service station, rest rooms, and a restaurant for use by all concerned with the market. Financing. How does one go about paying for this market? There are four generally accepted methods for financing: 1. Private corporation financing, run on a profit basis. Bonds 250 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES would be floated and profit rendered on the basis of holdings. Sound financing and sound management are the keys to the permanency of this method. 2. A city or state agency participates by lending a certain per- centage of the total cost, the balance to be provided by private funds. For example, Virginia is about to pass a bill establishing a revolving loan fund to be used in building wholesale markets. The state is prepared to lend up to % of the total cost of each project in order to insure the availability of sufficient private capital to com- plete each structure. Each loan is for a reasonable period of time and carries a reasonable rate of interest. In the question of the Rich- mond and Norfolk markets, each city has set up a Market Authority that is responsible for the attraction of private capital and the re- payment of the loan. 3. A public non-profit corporation. Such a corporation would probably be administered by a city, financed by taxes, and profits returned to the public in the form of lower marketing costs and possibly better handling of food. A variation of this would be a private, non-profit organization, financed by one or several wealthy philanthropists. 4. A farmer-wholesaler cooperative organization. This associa- tion would be run on a strictly cooperative basis with profits re- turned to those participating in the form of lower operating costs. The success of this venture again depends in great measure upon sound management. It may be seen that there are numerous methods for financing new wholesale facilities. The method chosen should, of course, be tailored to fit the needs of the individual city. Benefits. Who benefits from having a modern wholesale market? People. What people? Little people and big people. The Farmer Benefits. If marketing costs can be reduced, the farmer may receive a larger percentage of the selling price for his products. Public demand for food may increase, making the © farmer produce more. In addition, farmers who use modern mar- kets will benefit from all the education and research that has gone into the establishment of such efficiency. The Wholesale Dealer Benefits. This type of individual is helped greatly. For one thing, he can supply better service at possibly less cost. He is no longer battling overcrowded conditions but now can MODERN WHOLESALE MARKET FACILITIES 251 attract more business by handling improved quality in quantity. More attractive displays and more satisfactory refrigeration facili- ties are further points in his favor. The Independent Retail Grocer Benefits. He saves time in buying and handling by shopping in one central place with efficient facili- ties. Modern markets generally offer retailers a wider selection of better quality foodstuffs. The better quality produce, in turn, will eliminate future waste and spoilage in his store. The Independent Chain Retail Grocer Benefits. He can have a ready supply of produce in large enough quantities so that he does not have to rely on out-of-state shipments. The City Government Benefits. Improvement in traffic handling is obtained when markets are located away from downtown busi- ness districts. Wider streets and adequate parking and unloading areas simplify the city’s traffic problem even further. Finally, the city is better able to enforce its sanitation codes in a new, centralized market. The Consumer Benefits. The consumer is the one who benefits most of all by having a selection of fresh, high-quality produce handled with a minimum of contamination and damage, and re- frigerated properly. By having an orderly marketing system, the consumer is paying less in marketing costs. This means that the money saved by this new efficiency goes to the farmer in the form of higher returns and to the consumer in the form of lower prices. People are realizing today that community progress demands, among other things, adequate wholesale market facilities. The adop- tion of modern market facilities will provide one important step toward modern community planning. SELECTED REFERENCES PeClOim. VW. EH. and A. B. LOWSTATER 1947. The Wholesale Fruit and Vegetable Market of Miami, Florida. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. NORFOLK CHAMBER OF COMMERCE 1952. A Wholesale Produce Market for the Norfolk Area. Norfolk Cham- ber of Commerce, Norfolk, Virginia. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, PRODUCTION AND MARKET- ING ADMINISTRATION 1949. The Wholesale Produce Market at St. Louis, Missouri. U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 17(4), 1954. THE GEODUCK CLAM IN FLORIDA A living specimen of Panope bitruncata was collected by the author in the vicinity of St. Augustine, Florida in August, 1954. This is of particular interest to malacologists as R. Tucker Abbott, in his recent book “American Seashells”, speculated on the possi- bility of the species being extinct. The habitat of this marine clam is restricted to a soft substrate covered by a hard layer of sand. The author is shown holding the Geoduck.—Verle A. Pope, St. Augustine, Florida. we 2 | } R . NTA } ? é r ip NEWS AND COMMENTS This is the last number of the JouRNaAL that will come out under the present Editorial Board. The Editor would like to take this opportunity to thank the Associate Editors, Dr. J. C. Dickinson, Jr., Dr. Donald R. Dyer, and Dr. John W. Flowers, for their help and cooperation. He would also like to express to the membership of the Academy his thanks for the opportunity of serving as Editor. As President-elect your retiring Editor will be charged with the responsibility of conducting a membership drive. Plans are being formulated and will be announced in the not-too-distant future. Think what it would mean to the Academy if every member stirred himself or herself and enrolled just one new member! Dick Edwards has been doing a wonderful job as Secretary-Treasurer. During his term of office we have come out of the “red” and into the “black.” As a result every new member on the rolls could mean an increase in the size of the JourNaL—and it certainly could stand some increasing! The new Editor has not yet been appointed by the Council. . Meanwhile, manuscripts are being received and held for the new Editor. A new marine biological station, the Cape Haze Marine Labora- tory, will be opened at Placida, Florida in January 1955. Situated on Gasparilla Sound, it offers opportunities for studying the fauna and flora of the Gulf of Mexico and will be open to investigators and students in the near future. The laboratory is the first part of a cultural center planned for Cape Haze, a development spon- sored by William H. Vanderbilt and Alfred G. Vanderbilt. A museum collection of local fishes and facilities for keeping living specimens have been started. The laboratory will be under the directorship of Dr. Eugenie Clark. INDEX TO VOLUME 17 A. A. A. S. Research Grant, 181 AGNEW, L. R. C., 129 ALLEN, HOWARD D., 19 Ambystoma cingulatum bishopi Goin, A Description of the Larvae of, In- cluding an Extension of the Range, 233 Annual Meeting, Notice of, 82, 184 ARGUS, MARY F., 129 AUFFENBERG, WALTER, 185 BECK, WILLIAM M., JR., 211 BECKER, HENRY F., 73 BELLAMY, RAYMOND F., 1 Bison in Florida, The Occurrence of, 228 Boron in Florida Waters, 105 CALDWELL, DAVID K., 182 Colorimetric Test for Organic Matter in Certain Mineral Soils, A Rapid, 83 Crayfish from the Upper Coastal Plain of Georgia (Decapoda, Astacidae), A New, 110 Crime and Social Research, 11 DANZIG, MORRIS J., 48 Ecological Classification of Organisms, A Simplified, 211 EDSON, SETON N., 83 Fertilizer for Use in Brackish Water, A Suggested Inorganic, 119 Fish Fauna, Additions to the Known, in the Vicinity of Cedar Key, Florida, 182 Fish Populations by Haul Seine in Seven Florida Lakes, Adult, 146 FISHER, GRANVILLE C., 55 Florida’s Resource-Use Education Problems, 73 FOX, VERNON, 140 Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis in Corrections, The, 140 GARRETT, FREDERIC D., 55 Gavialosuchus americanus (Sellards) from a New Locality in Florida, Additional Records of, 185 Geoduck Clam in Florida, The, 252 Geometry, Some Methods for the Treatment of Problems in Dimen- sional, 19 GILDEA, RAY Y., JR., 246 GRACE, Ho i 16s HOBBS, HORTON H., JR. 120 JOHNSON, MALCOLM C., 119 Membership List, 59 MERGEN, FRANCOIS, 237 Method for Preparing Thin Gross Sections of Human or Other Large Brains, A, 55 MOODY, HAROLD L., 147 MOZINGO, HUGH NELSON, 46 News and Comments, 71, 128, 253 NIELSEN, CYS;,.25 500 ODUM, HOWARD T., 105 Officers for 1955, Elected, 210 Oscillatoriaceae, The Multitrichomate, of Florida, 25, 87 Palms in Florida, A Vegetative Key to the Native and Commonly Culti- vated, 46 PARRISH, BRUCE, 105 Phosphate Industry, A Regional Study ot the, 168 POPE, VEREE Aw 22 Relations of People to Each Other, 1 SCHULTZ, HARRYGE 2s SHERMAN, H. B., 228 Slash Pine Graft Unions, Anatomical Study of, 237 Stream Pollution Biology, Studies in, SAUL Synthesis of 3-Amino-4-nitrobenzoic Acid and Ethyl 3-Amino-4-nitro- benzoate, A Simplified, 48 TELFORD, SAM R., 283 THORNTON, GEORGE D., 83 Tumor Chemotherapy, Studies of Fluorene Derivatives, 129 VEDDER, CLYDE B., 11 Wholesale Market Facilities, Modern, 246 INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Contributions to the JouRNAaL may be in any of the fields of Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. 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Payment for reprints will be made by the author directly to the printer. tie Ouarterly Journal of The Florida Academy of Sciences A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research J. C. Dickinson, Jr., Editor Joun D. Kizsy, Associate Editor VOLUME 18 Published by THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Gainesville, Florida 1955 DATES OF PUBLICATION Number 1—May 17, 1955 Number 2—September 9, 1955 Number 3—November 30, 1955 Number 4—May 8, 1956 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 18 NUMBER |] The Southeastern Species of Baetisca (Ephemeroptera: Beericcicae). sy Wewis BETNe? 2. 2. 2 ee i The Glossy Ibises of Lake Alice. By Dale W. Rice _...__... 20 Observations on the Ecology of the Low Hammocks of Souter! lorida. By Taylor Rx Alexander 2.2 = mil A Method of Exposing the Gastric Glandular Mucosa of Mice to Carcinogenic Agents. By Michael Klein and Mary F. AMS ca ar cc ea 28 Monogenetic Trematodes of Gulf of Mexico Fishes. Part III. LOM PerLOn US Ta 0 a ee ey ee Sy Further Additions to the Known Fish Fauna in the Vicinity of @edan Key Mlorda, By David K; Caldwell 202. = 48 The Aged Population of Florida: Number, Proportions, and Characteristics. by Iroine Webber = = 3 49 A Preliminary Survey of the Water Beetle Fauna of Glen Julia Domes Monda, By Frank N. Young 20) ee 59 A New Race of Myotis austroriparius from the Upper Missis- Sippimvalley. by Dale W: Ride 2 ee 67 Food of the Mudfish (Amia calva) in Lake Newnan, Florida, in Relation to its Management. By Frederick H. Berry __ 69 Bi emmerimmeamimniversary. = fs he ee 76 NUMBER 2. Notes on the Distribution, Spawning, and Growth of the Spot- tailed Pinfish, Diplodus holbrooki. By David K. Caldwell 73 Mowe sciliatoriaccac Il. By C. S. Nielsen 2. 84 Monogenetic Trematodes of Gulf of Mexico Fishes. Part VII. MM TCT P LOR OTS Nigel 113 Some Records of Hemiptera New to Florida. DM MOLCO iee EMUSSCU 83 We 5 eRe ee 120 Effect of a Long Shaft on the Polarization of Skylight. im Tm Cre Smith and IVE ee Viatsigi =o! Set AY ei Ve ke 123 OM kamING NEN qeeuermurn ue Nite. NU4) ta eles eT se So es 125 Oreanization for 1955 Annual Meeting.) 128 NUMBER 3 The Decapod Crustaceans of Alligator Harbor and Adjacent Inshore Areas of Northwestern Florida. By Marvin L. Wass 129 Florida Oscillatoriaceae Il, By C'S: Nielsen => =e 177 American Education and the Stone Wall. By G. G. Becknell__ 189 A List of Fishes from the Southern Tip of the Florida Peninsula. By John D. Kilby and David K. Caldwell 195 Metachrosis in Snakes. By Wilfred T. Neill and E. Ross Allen_ 207 A Biological Soil Test for Available Phosphorus by Spontaneous Growth of Soil Organisms. By James P. Flavin and Seton N.-Edson 220 2s eee 216 Hermaphroditism in a Mouse Related to Strain A. By Michael Klein... eS eee 223 AVALA.S. Research Grants 220.2) 226 NUMBER 4 Subsurface Beach Sands of Alligator Harbor. By Nei Hulings and F. C. W. Oison eee 227 Jacksonville and Miami: Urban Contrast in Florida. By Donald R. Dyer 0 Se Ee 233 Report on the Academy Conference 2225 238 A Survey of the Economic, Educational and Social Resources of Bradford County, Florida. By H. 7, Grace 239 Review of the Genus Doldina Stal (Hemiptera: Reduviidae). By Reland F. Hussey and Joe C. Eki: Ss 261 A Nest of the Atlantic Leatherback Turtle, Dermochelys cori- acea coriacea (Linnaeus), on the Atlantie Coast of Florida, with a Summary of American Nesting Records. By David K. Caldwell, Archie Carr and Thomas R. Hellier, Jr. 279 The Characteristics and Distribution of the Spotted Cusk Eel, Otophidium omostigmum (Jordan and Gilbert). By John C. Briggs and David K. Caldud — == 285 - Natural History Notes on the Atlantic Loggerhead Turtle, Caretta caretta caretta. By David K. Caldwell, Archie Carr, and Thomas R. Hellier, Jr. 222 Eee 292 Interaction of Pi Mesons with Light Nuclei. By Joseph Callaway. 3 ee 303 Ouarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 18 | Mareh, 1955 No. I Contents Berner—The Southeastern Species of Baetisca Ueaiemecroptera: Baetiscidace) eel Alexander—Observations on the Ecology of the Low Ham- Mmleneeeresouthern Florida, =.= 21 Klein and Argus—A Method of Exposing the Gastric Glandular Mucosa of Mice to Carcinogenic Agents 28 Hargis—Monogenetic Trematodes of Gulf of Mexico BIS IT) MIS la Sl a ee 33 Webber—The Aged Population of Florida: Numbers, Saepeesens and Characteristics =. 49 Young—A Preliminary Survey of the Water Beetle Fauna of eet oerings, Piorida 2 59 Rice—A New Race of Myotis austroriparius from the Upper umepmncreapeenina Meio a 67 Berry—Food of the Mudfish (Amia calva) in Lake Newnan, Florida, in Relation to Its Management _.._»_»__»_E_ . 69 Research Notes—Caldwell and Rice «20, 48 JUN: 1.195 LIBRARY A Vout. 18 Marcu, 1955 No. 1 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Editor—J. C. Dickinson, Jr. Associate Editor—JoHn D. Kirtsy Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. The business offices of the JourNAL are centralized at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor, Department of Biology. Business com- munications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, De- partment of Geology. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be addressed to The Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed May 17, 1955 fan OUARTERELY JOURNAL OF: THE peeORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 18 Marcu, 1955 No. 1 THE SOUTHEASTERN SPECIES OF BAETISCA (EPHEMEROPTERA: BAETISCIDAE)! Lewis BERNER 2 University of Florida The last complete summary of the mayfly genus Baetisca was given by Needham, Traver, and Hsu in 1935. These authors re- described the five species known at that time and mentioned the description of B. bajkovi by Neave (1934), published after their manuscript had gone to press. The discovery of two new species, B. thomsenae Traver (1937) and B. rogersi Berner (1940), brought the total of recognized forms to eight. In this paper, I am present- ing the description of two additional new species which have been collected in the southeast within the past few years. The species of Baetisca are widely distributed over eastern North America, occurring from Lake Winnepeg southward to north-central Florida. A single species, Baetisca obesa, was reported by Eaton (1883-1887) from California; no other representative of the genus has since been reported in the literature from the western part of the continent. The presently recorded distribution of the North American species is as follows: Baetisca callosa Traver—West Virginia, New York, Quebec Baetisca carolina Traver—North Carolina, West Virginia, Ten- nessee, Quebec Baetisca bajkovi Neave—Manitoba, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota Baetisca lacustris McDunnough—Manitoba, Ontario, Ohio Baetisca laurentina McDunnough—Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns- wick, Illinois, Michigan * This investigation was supported in part by a research grant, No. G-4058, from the National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service. *I am indebted to Miss Esther Coogle, Staff Artist, Department of Biology, University of Florida, for the drawings of the Baetisca nymphs and for many of the line illustrations in this paper. MAY 9 4 1955 2 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Baetisca obesa (Say)—Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, New York, New Hampshire, California, Georgia, Florida Baetisca rogersi Berner—Florida, Alabama Baetisca rubescens (Provancher)—Quebec Until the discovery of the two species herein described, there were only two representatives of the genus reported from the Coastal Plain. If I am correct in my assumptions, B. rogersi, B. escambiensis, and B. gibbera are Coastal Plain species, while B. obesa is widespread, occupying much of North America. I believe, however, that it is primarily an inhabitant of lowland streams. Baetisca carolina and B. thomsenae, synonymized below, appear to be inhabitants only of the Appalachian Mountains and the Piedmont. Although the pattern of light and dark areas of the wings of Baetisca subimagoes seems to be variable, I am presenting illustra- tions of the forewings of three species (Figs. 6, 8, 9). In these, the patterns are definitely unlike, pointing up the desirability of further investigation of this characteristic which may serve to separate the subimagoes of this genus. BAETISCA ESCAMBIENSIS Nl. sp. (Higsy"> aG2o. Oss 20) Baetisca escambiensis is entirely distinct from any of the other species of this genus. It differs in the adult stage in having the wings flushed throughout with ruby color; in shape of the penes; and it is the only species in which the eyes are known to be banded with vertical stripes. In the nymphal stage, it is completely differ- ent by reason of the unusually long genal and the very long, thin, mesonotal spines, and the lack of frontal projections on the head. Mate Hororyree: Body length 10.9 mm.; mesothoracic wings 11.3 mm.; caudal filaments 8.4 mm. Head: Eyes large, almost contiguous. A whitish area extends anteriorly over the vertex and is divided by a heavy, brown, median line. Ocelli large, deep brown at the base; color extends inward as a V-shaped mark toward the median, brown line; median ocellus lies between the arms of the V, and it, too, is extensively brown; area within the arms of the V is mottled brown. Red-brown markings present below the eyes and extending ventrally. Median carina and area below the antennae deep brown. Basal segment of antennae purplish brown; second segment and flagellum brown. Eyes with only a faint indication of a division, the lower portion slightly paler than the upper. Eyes distinctive because of the vertical banding of light and dark areas across their entire surface. The bands begin at the ventral edge of the eye and extend Fig. 1. Nymph of Baetisca rogersi Fig. 2. Nymph of B. carolina Fig. 3. Nymph of B. gibbera 4 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES dorsally becoming more distinct in the upper part; they converge toward the ventral part. Thorax: Pronotum almost completely concealed by the enormously de- veloped eyes; brownish in color; median, brown line present extending the length of the segment. Intersegmental membranes purplish and the mem- branes between the sclerites also purplish. Mesonotum brown, mottled with lighter color; deepest brown in the central area. At the base of the scutellum there are two large, submedian, oblong, brown marks; remainder pale with margins outlined in dark brown. Metanotum dark brown. Prosternal process deep brown; intersegmental membranes purplish; mesosternum shiny brown; metasternum paler brown. Legs: Forelegs brown, not darker at the articula- tions; slightly darker at the distal end of the femur and tibia. Coloration of middle and hind legs similar to that of foreleg. Wings: Entire forewing (Fig. 7) and hindwing flushed with ruby; along the costal border the coloration is considerably more intense and extends its full length. Crossveins through- out the costal border are margined with a paler coloration producing a striated appearance; this deeper color extends to the area between Ri and Re. The remainder of the membrane has a delicate flush of ruby. Very close to the base of the wing, and hardly extending beyond the bases of the main veins, there is a brownish tinge. Base of hind wing also colored with reddish-brown which extends up into the costal angle. In the hind wing, the flush of ruby extends throughout the membrane; near the leading edge of the wing and as far as the middle field, the crossveins are margined with paler areas so that there appears to be blocks of deeper ruby color between the crossveins. Longitudinal veins of fore and hindwing are dark with a reddish-brown tinge. Abdomen: Tergites dark brown; intersegmental membranes give a purplish cast to the posterior border of each of the tergites. The points of former attachment of the gills in the nymphal stage are also outlined with this purplish coloration. On tergites 2-5, there is a very faint, submedian, pale line. Tergites 6-10 with a median, deep-brown line. Adjacent to the median line of tergite 6 and in its anterior half, there are submedian, triangular, pale areas followed by a large, butterfly-shaped, brown area; in the posterior half of the tergite, there is a large, triangular area, which has its apex at the mid-point of the tergite and extends posteriorly with its base on the posterior border of the segment; it is mottled brown, being deep brown toward the middle of the segment. There are large pale blotches in the outer portions of the butterfly- shaped area. The anterolateral portion of tergite 6 is occupied by a large purplish-brown triangular area. Adjacent to the median line of tergites 7-10 there is a lighter brown area, and laterally the tergites are colored with mottled brown that extends to the margins of the segments. Sternites brownish with - a purplish tinge, more heavily colored on the lateral margins; middle portions shaded with purplish red which become more intense laterally. Intersegmental membranes purplish. On sternites 7 and 8 there is a large, pale, median, triangular area which is based on the posterior margin of the sternites and extends to about the middle of the segment. Genitalia distinctive (Fig. 20); forceps brown along their outer margins, inner margins pale; penes brown. Caudal filaments brown. THE SOUTHEASTERN SPECIES OF BAETISCA Ol Nympu: Body length of male nymphs averages 10.6 mm., of females 13 mm. Head: Genae produced into very long, flat, sharp spines; tipped with deep brown; not upturned at tip. Head mottled with brown. No frontal projections. Antennae pale except at the very tip where they become dusky. Eyes of all nymphs examined are banded vertically as shown in Figure 5. Surface of head tuberculate; however, tubercles are only conspicuous on the genal shelf. Entire margin of head bordered with long hairs. Thorax: The slightly recurved mesonotal spines, which are sharp and dark tipped, are the most prominent feature of the thorax. Thorax compressed dorsoventrally as compared with other species of Baetisca (Fig. 10). Con- spicuous, deep-brown marks present as shown in Figure 5; two lateral marks present, one close to the anterolateral corner of the mesonotum, the other somewhat posterior to the first. A third pair of dark brown marks is adjacent to the median line and forms a V-shaped marking about the middle of the mesonotum. Dorsum of mesonotum mottled. Sternum pale except in the median part where there is a brownish area on the mesosternum and in the anterior portion of the metasternum. Entire lateral border of thorax margined with long hairs. Legs: Hairy; clusters of hairs at base of each leg; especially numerous on the femora; no hairs on tibiae and tarsi. Legs pale, unbanded. Claws extremely long and thin (Fig. 15); sharp tipped and golden brown distally. Abdomen: Lateral margins of segments 6-8 expanded and flared outwards as shown in Figure 5; these segments bordered with long hairs; posterolateral angles terminate in sharp points. Lateral margins of 9 and 10 with only very short hairs; segment 9 also has short, serrate spines on margins. These serrate spines also present on other segments but are partially concealed by the long marginal hairs; serrations begin just before the mesonotal spine and continue _ posteriorly, becoming more prominent posterior to the spine. Abdominal segment 6 brown on anterior half, posterolateral portions pale; median triangu- lar section posterior to the hump is mottled brown. Tergites 7-10 have a median brown line extending the length of the segment; lateral to the median line on 7 and 8, there is a pale rectangular area; lateral to this and extending almost to the border, the segment is mottled brown; flange translucent. Posterior median portion of tergites 7-9 upturned, although not forming a distinct, posteriorly directed spine (Fig. 10). Ventrally pale; light brown mottling in the anterolateral portions of sternites 3-6. Caudal filaments light brown. Examination of half-grown nymphs shows that they are very much the same structurally as mature specimens and have similar markings. However, the genal and mesonotal spines are more accentuated, as are the posterolateral spines of the abdominal segments. The upturned posterior edges of segments 7-9 are also more exaggerated. On some young nymphs, the lateral meso- notal spine may be long and thin and half as long as the entire mesonotum; the genal spines are as long as the head. The general spinose appearance of young nymphs rivals that of some of the more bizarre species of membracids. Houoryre: Male imago (reared) preserved in alcohol. Florida, Escambia County, Escambia River. October 23, 1954. Collected by C. D. Hynes and 6 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES L. Berner. Emerged in laboratory on November 6. In the University of Florida Collections. ParATyPEs: 6 males (reared), 5 preserved in alcohol, 1 pinned. Same data as holotype. Emerged in laboratory between November 5 and 14. In the University of Florida Collections. VARIATIONS: The paratypes are remarkably constant and fit the description of the holotype. They vary only in the slight tendency toward formation of annulations on the tarsal segments of the middle and hind legs. Fig. 4. Nymph of B. obesa Fig. 5. Nymph of B. escambiensis THE SOUTHEASTERN SPECIES OF BAETISCA 7 No females were reared to the adult stage although a number of subimagoes were obtained. An examination of these immatures indicates that the color pattern of the head, thorax, and abdomen is very much the same as that of the male holotype with only minor differences. The basal segments and the flagellum of the antennae are deep brown in some specimens and in others has the same coloration as that of the male; the face is mostly deep brown. The coxae on the outer sides are colored with deep brown, and the tibiae, in their outer part, and the distal segments of the tarsi of all legs are dark brown. Whether this deeper coloration of the tarsi carries over into the adult stage remains to be deter- mined. The banding of the eyes as seen in the male adults is also present in the female subimagoes. B. escambiensis nymphs were found on a sandbar in the Escam- bia River in shallow water from four to five inches up to about one foot in depth, where they lay partially buried in the stream bed. In the area from which the nymphs were taken there was a fine layer of silty mud overlaying the sandy bottom. Where they were most abundant, there was also an admixture of clay in the sand. The current was relatively slow, and in some places there was a growth of algae over the bottom. In almost every place that the Baetisca nymphs were found, young Hexagenia were also taken. The specimens were collected by the use of a screen held by one person downstream while another kicked up the mud and sand. There was relatively little gravel in the places that the nymphs were found to be most abundant. Examination of another sandbar, where there was a slight amount of gravel mixed with sand and mud, revealed a few nymphs, but they were not as common as in the first habitat. No more than four nymphs were taken at any one time during the period of collecting on October 23; however, on August 24 they were far more abundant and many nymphs were caught with each disturb- ance of the sand. | The sandbar which was the most prolific producer of the nymphs was about fifteen feet long and five feet wide (Fig. 23). In August about 50 or 60 nymphs were taken from this bar. During the morning of October 23, in a period of about three hours of hard work, we were able to collect another fifteen mature specimens from the same sandbar. Again in the afternoon we worked an- 8 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES other two hours at the same place and found an additional fifteen mature nymphs. The Baetisca nymphs were found on the sloping sides of the sandbar where the shelving was rather steep, the grade being esti- mated to be roughly about 20 percent. The relatively slow current was deflected laterally across this shallow zone. Where the algae were dense, no Baetisca nymphs were found, but where it was sparse and the layer of silty mud overlaying the sand thin, the nymphs appeared to be common. The Escambia River was clear and colorless at the time of the October collections; the water temperature was 65° F., and was alkaline, as evidenced by the presence of large numbers of snails. The River has a very clean, white, sand bottom with a swift flow in midstream. It is a large river, being about 300 feet across and, at the time we studied it in October, its deepest point was prob- ably not more than about five feet. However, the normal water level of the stream would probably have been around ten to fifteen feet in the deeper regions. This low water level was a reflection of the extremely dry summer that northwestern Florida and south- eastern Alabama had suffered in 1954. The first collection of nymphs was made in August by my assist- ant, Mr. C. D. Hynes, who discovered them through the painful process of having the spiny insects stick to his arms as he examined material on a collecting screen. As soon as he recognized the nymphs as being those of Baetisca, he began collecting a series and was successful in taking a large number. Although we exam- ined the stream in many places in October, we were not often Fig. 6. Forewing of B. rogersi, male subimago Fig. 7. Forewing of B. escambiensis, male adult Fig. 8. Forewing of B. escambiensis, male subimago Fig. 9. Forewing of B. obesa, male subimago Fig. 10. Profile of thorax and abdomen of B. escambiensis, nymph Fig. 11. Profile of thorax and abdomen of B. rogersi, nymph Fig. 12. Profile of thorax and abdomen of B. carolina, nymph Fig. 13. Profile of thorax and abdomen of B. gibbera, nymph Fig. 14. Profile of thorax and abdomen of B. obesa, nymph Fig. 15. Tarsal claw, right hind leg of nymph, B. escambiensis Fig. 16. Tarsal claw, right hind leg of nymph, B. gibbera Fig. 17. Tarsal claw, right hind leg of nymph, B. carolina Fig. 18. Tarsal claw, right hind leg of nymph, B. rogersi Fig. 19. Tarsal claw, right hind leg of nymph, B. obesa Fig. 20. Male genitalia, B. escambiensis Fig. 21. Male genitalia, B. obesa Fig. 22. Male genitalia, B. rogersi THE SOUTHEASTERN SPECIES OF BAETISCA At. 10 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES successful in finding the nymphs in other habitats, in spite of the fact that we looked in numerous other shallow, sandy areas that resembled the sandbar from which we collected most of the nymphs. In the October collections, about 45 nymphs were taken and kept alive. These were brought back to the laboratory for rear- ing. Despite the long trip to Gainesville and the confinement of the nymphs in gallon plastic containers for nearly 24 hours before being placed in aerated rearing pans, none died. Observation of the nymphs in the laboratory showed that they lie partially covered in the soft, silty sand with only a small part of the mesonotum and a little of the abdomen protruding above the level of the sand. Most of them were so well concealed that they were not detectable until the sand was disturbed. Their coloration makes it possible for them to blend perfectly with their background. Even though flowing water was not used in the laboratory for rearing, the insects were kept alive in aerated water in rearing pans as late as November 20. By this date those that had not already emerged finally died. Those that died did so not because of lack of food or air, but simply because they were unable to emerge. Of the 45 nymphs which were kept for rearing, 25 emerged successfully and of these seven male subimagoes molted to the adult stage. When ready to emerge, the nymphs crawled out of the water onto the air hose or a stick which was kept in the pan. In emerg- ing, they crawled to a distance about one inch above the water level, where they clamped their claws firmly into the support. After several minutes to as much as an hour, the subimago appeared. Earliest observed emergence began at 9:30 a.m. and the latest occurred about 1:30 p.m. Whether this is the time of day the species emerges under natural conditions is still unknown. The average time for the subimagal stage in the laboratory, where the temperature ranged from a low of about 60° F. at night to a high of 75° F. in the daytime, was approximately 40 to 44 hours. Al- though a number of females emerged, not one was able to undergo the subimagal molt. Because I felt that low humidity might be responsible for the fact that the specimens were unable to undergo their molt, I put them in a chamber in which the moisture was high. Even so, the females were still unable to molt, although they remained alive for as long as four days after emerging. THE SOUTHEASTERN SPECIES OF BAETISCA ef The nymphs collected in August were half grown. Suspecting that this was probably a late-emerging species, my assistant and I traveled to the Escambia River on October 23 and were fortunate in finding the mature nymphs. These, when brought back to the laboratory, proved that I was correct in my assumptions. Novem- ber is an unusually late month for emergence of a species of Baetisca, especially from the northwestern part of Florida. Other species of Baetisca emerge much earlier in the year, usually from February through June. Nymphs of B. escambiensis that were taken in August were approximately of the same size; the October specimens were probably from the same brood. In addition to very young Hexagenia sp. nymphs that were taken along with the nymphs of Baetisca, nymphs of Brachycercus sp. were also collected from the mud in approximately the same place that the Baetisca nymphs were found. The Brachycercus speci- mens were also mature and ready to emerge; however, I was un- successful in my attempts to rear this species in the laboratory. BAETISCA GIBBERA N. Sp. (Figs. 3, 13, 16) A study of available specimens of the various species of Baetisca has convinced me that I have a new species of this genus repre- sented only by the nymphal stage. A comparison of my specimens with nymphs of Baetisca lacustris from Michigan, as well as with the illustrations of the nymph by McDunnough (1932), reinforces this conviction. The affinities of B. gibbera seem to lie with lacus- tris insofar as the structure of the nymph is concerned. The adult is still unknown although nymphs were brought back to the labora- tory and kept alive for a period of two weeks in an attempt to rear the species. Baetisca gibbera differs from all of the known species of Baetisca in the shape of the mesonotal spines and the lack of strongly pro- duced frontal and genal processes. The mesonotum is enormously humped; much more so than in most other species. The mesonotal spines are short and blunt, rather than being pointed as in most of the other species. Because of its distinctive body shape, I am describing this nymph as a new species. It is my opinion that a species is best described 12 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES from the form which is most readily differentiated. In the genus Baetisca, the nymphal stage is the most useful for this purpose. Hototyrpe NymMpH: Body length 7.5 mm.; caudal filaments 2.2 mm. Head: Genal projections extend only slightly forward in front of the head; broadly rounded at anterolateral corners; projections brown medially and outlined with a clear area of chitin. Frontal projections small, rounded; very slightly elongated at the anterolateral corners (Fig. 3). Remainder of head mostly brownish but deep brown anterior to the eyes. Dark area lateral to antennal base and anterior to compound eye extends out onto the genal shelf. Eyes black. Lateral ocelli just posterior to the antennal bases appear as clear, white spots on the top of the head. Antennae pale; faintly washed with brown. Entire upper surface of head covered with small tubercles. Ventral aspect of genal shelf covered with small tubercles as well as outer parts of mandibles and labrum. Mouthparts like those of other species of the genus. | Thorax: Pronotum covered with the same types of tubercles as those on the head, except that they are somewhat smaller. Mesonotum conspicuously large, being very wide and much humped (Figs. 3, 18). Entire surface tuberculate, but not as distinctly so as the pronotum. Lateral spines short and blunt. Anterior to the lateral mesonotal spines there are sinuous curves as shown in Figure 3. Anterolateral angles of mesonotum extend forward to form a cup into which the head fits and completely enclose the pro- notum. No dorsal spines present on mesonotum. On a direct line with lateral spines, there are two large, submedian, white spots and lateral to these there are two additional white spots; an irregular pattern of brownish areas over the whole mesonotum. Metanotum concealed. Ventrally the thorax is also tuberculate. Legs: Femora of all leges tuberculate. Fore femur dark in outer, basal portion; tibia dark on outer side; tarsus banded with brown in medial portion. Mid and hindleg with the coxae dark on outer side; femora dark basally becoming lighter distally; tibiae almost completely covered with brownish shading; tarsi banded medially with brown. Claws of all legs fairly long, tipped with deep amber (Fig. 16). At upper edge, each femur margined with long hairs. Abdomen: Dorsally all tergites covered with same small tubercles seen on other parts of body; these are much more prominent on posterior margin of tergite 6 than on other tergites; however, they show up well on the lateral margins of the others. No median posterior spines on tergites 7 and 8 but 9 has a short one as illustrated in Figure 13. Tergite 10 with a U-shaped excavation such as found in all other species of this genus; tips of excavation outlined in white. Median line of tergites 7-9 deep brown in anterior half, remainder a fine, white line. Anterior and lateral portions of tergites 7 and 8 shaded with deep brown, median portion lighter; tergite 9 with definite light areas and yellowish blotches. Tergite 10 stippled with brownish blotches. Sternites tuberculate; no distinctive markings. Caudal filaments light brown; median filament slightly darker than the laterials. THE SOUTHEASTERN SPECIES OF BAETISCA 13 Hototyee: Nymph preserved in alcohol. Florida, Escambia County, Escambia River, October 23, 1954. Collected by C. D. Hynes and L. Berner. In the University of Florida Collections. PARATYPE: 7 nymphs. All specimens in the University of Florida Col- lections. Florida: Clay County, Black Creek, November 26, 1951, one nymph collected by W. M. Beck; January 25, 1954, one nymph collected by L. Berner; Escambia County, Escambia River, October 23, 1954, one nymph collected by C. D. Hynes and L. Berner. Georgia: Baker County, Ichaway- nochaway Creek, November 27, 1953, three nymphs collected by L. Berner; Echols County, Alapaha River, February 2, 1954, one nymph collected by L. Berner. VARIATIONS: Lateral spines of mesonotum very short and very blunt in one specimen; however, they do form distinct lateral mesothoracic spines. One nymph about a third grown has very long spines which are twice as long in proportion to the width as those of specimens bearing the very shortest spines. The tips of the spines on this long-spined form approach being sharp pointed. Some specimens are intensely blotched with brown on mesonotum and abdomen, and the median line of the abdominal tergites is entirely deep brown. Dark shading on the tibiae is restricted on some specimens to the base just beyond the knee on the outer side. Baetisca gibbera was first taken in 1951 and reported as Baetisca sp. (Berner, 1953). This nymph was collected from Black Creek, Fig. 23. The Escambia River showing in the foreground the sandbar from which most of the nymphs of B. escambiensis were taken. Mr. C. D. Hynes is handling the screen with which the specimens were captured. 14 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a rather swift-flowing, deep, acid stream, where it was found attached to a log. I have revisited the stream and, after a con- siderable amount of work, took another nymph from a pebbly riffle about 12 inches in depth. Another specimen was taken at the Alapaha River and this nymph, too, was found clinging to the underside of a log that was anchored at the bank of the stream. The Alapaha is a deep, dark-colored stream draining the Oke- fenokee Swamp. It has a sand bottom and is approximately 100 feet in width. Baetisca obesa nymphs were found near the place where the single B. gibbera was located. Three nymphs of B. gibbera were collected at the Ichaway- nochaway Creek from a pebbly riffle near the shore where the flow was swift. The water was three to five inches deep and the pebbles were rather coarse in size. The nymphs were taken by stirring up the pebbly bottom and catching the material that was loosened as it was carried downstream. Although a careful search of the creek was made, no other nymphs were found. A second examination of this same stream in May, 1954, did not produce any of these nymphs. The Ichawaynochaway is also a fairly large, deep stream in which the water is strongly tinted. The water was alkaline and snails were abundant. The last collection of B. gibbera was made in the Escambia River in October, 1954, along with B. escambiensis. The nymphs were found on the sloping bank in about three to twelve inches of water where there was a thin overlaying layer of small pebbles. By kicking up the bottom several nymphs of B. escambiensis and four of B. gibbera were collected on a screen held downstream. Only one of the latter was carried back alive to the laboratory where it lived for about a week without emerging. BAETISCA OBESA (Say) (Rigs; 49141 Om) The specimens that I am calling B. obesa resemble the forms described by Say (1839), Walsh (1863), Traver (1935), and Burks (1953) but differ in certain minor respects. Rather than again re- describe the species, I am simply mentioning the characteristics which deviate from those of the northern form. These differences, which I do not believe to be specific, appear to be confined to the adults; I can find no significant departures in the immature stage. THE SOUTHEASTERN SPECIES OF BAETISCA 15 Male: The forelegs of the southern specimens are washed with a dusky coloration which is distinctly heavier at the femorotibial joint, and each tarsal joint is slightly shaded; the claws are brown. In the hindlegs, the femora, on the outer surface, have a faint, brownish band in the distal portion; the banding of the tarsal seg- ments is quite distinct at the articulations and the claws are deep brown. The abdominal tergites are purplish brown with some variably-shaped, white blotches. Ventrally, the abdominal sternites are purplish brown laterally but very pale medially. There is an obsolescent pair of submedian brown spots on each of sternites 2-5; these are most distinct on sternites 2-4. Genitalia are very similar to those illustrated by Traver (Needham, Traver, Hsu, 1935, Fig. 148). Caudal filaments have the basal three segments distinctly annulate at the joints; distally the annulations become very faint and in the outer “sths of the tails there is no banding. Wing length shorter than previously reported for this species, ranging from 7% to 8 mm. -Female: Legs of the female are rather heavily shaded with brown; tarsal annulations very distinct on all legs; the claws are dark. The first three segments of the caudal filaments are heavily ringed with brown; posteriorly the annulations become less promi- nent and finally disappear in the distal half. Wing length ranging from 7% to 9.3 mm. Although Baetisca obesa has been known since the early part of the last cenutry, almost nothing has been written of the ecology and habits of the nymphs. One of the few references is that of Walsh (1864) in which he says “The habits of this species are to frequent rapidly-running rivers, and to attach themselves in repose to the undersurfaces of submerged stones.” This is a totally differ- ent sort of habitat from that in which my assistant and I have been able to collect the large number of nymphs we have taken. Previously nymphs have been scarce in collections. Whenever I have collected in moss attached to submerged tree trunks at stream banks, I have found the species to be common. B. obesa has previously been reported from Georgia (Needham, Traver, Hsu, 1935) and from Florida (Berner, 1953). The nymphs almost invariably occur in very slow to almost stagnant water where they may be very common in moss or other vegetation. They have been found in some numbers in moss which is attached to the submerged trunks of cypress, willow and ash. In all of the streams from which these nymphs have been taken, the water has 16 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES been strongly colored and deep. The Withlacoochee River, which flows from southern Georgia into northern Florida and empties into the Suwannee River, has been the most prolific producer of this particular species; however, nymphs have been collected from other streams as well. The nymphs are usually found when moss is shaken vigorously into a strainer or taken out of the stream and put into a pan of water and shaken. The nymphs loosen their hold and swim about making it possible to collect them easily. Nymphs were brought into the laboratory alive on January 28. From these a number of subimagoes emerged from early March to early April. Nymphs collected from the Withlachoochee River, four miles west of Valdosta, Georgia, produced subimagoes until the end of March, when emergence ceased and the remainder of the nymphs died attempting to emerge. Emergence differs from that of other species in that the immatures do not necessarily climb out of the water. That nymphs also to climb out of the water to emerge is evidenced by the fact that on April 13 at the Strong River, Rankin County, Mississippi, a single B. obesa skin was found on a bridge piling about ten inches above the water line. The habits of this species differ entirely from those of any other species of Baetisca presently known in that they are not dwellers on the stream bottom and do not live on sand but cling to, and live deep within, vegetation masses. Other species occur where water flows swiftly; B. obesa lives in the quieter parts of the stream. This is indeed a departure from the previously described habits for this particular species, or any species in the genus Baetisca. Locality Records: Florida: Hamilton County, Withlacoochee River, February 2, 1954; March 14, 1954; Madison County, Withla- coochee River, January 28, 1954. Georgia: Echols County, Alaphaha River, February 2, 1954; Lowndes County, Withlacoochee River, March 138, 1954. Mississippi: Rankin County, Strong River, April 13, 1954. BAETISCA ROGERSI Berner (Figs. 1, 6, 11, 18, 22) Since B. rogersi was described in 1940, it has been recorded on several other occasions, but it is still relatively rare in collections. The species is now known from northwest Florida, southeastern Alabama, and from Georgia, south of the Fall Line. The habits and ecology of B. rogersi were described earlier (Berner, 1950) THE SOUTHEASTERN SPECIES OF BAETISCA 17 and will not be redetailed here. Locality records include only those previously unpublished. Locality records: Florida: Liberty County, Sweetwater Creek, April 14, 1951 (adults reared on April 26, 30, and May 5); Gadsden County, Flat Creek, April 4, 1953, nymphs; Crooked Creek, March 20, 1954, nymphs. Georgia: Decatur County, Mosquito Creek at Bainbridge Road, March 28, 1954, nymphs; Peach County, Mossy Creek, April 10, 1954, nymphs. BAETISCA CAROLINA Traver (Eigse ey) I have carefully examined the type specimens of B. carolina and paratypes of B. thomsenae Traver.? These two species were differ- entiated by Traver (1937) solely on relative differences. JI am unable to concur in her opinion that these are distinct species and am, therefore, considering thomsenae to be a synonym of carolina. It is my belief that the deviations in the characteristics used to distinguish these species are due only to local variations. All other species of Baetisca are clearly distinct morphologically in the nymphal stage, yet there are no such distinctions here. The degree of intensity of the coloration of the wings is well known to be a variable character in other species. Because the coloration has totally disappeared from the wings of the long-preserved speci- mens of both species, I was unable to utilize it in my study of these two; in spite of that, I do not feel that it is a valid character- istic for erecting a separate species for the Valle Crucis specimens. The other adult characters used by Traver, in my opinion, are not significant. In addition to Traver’s records of B. carolina from North Caro- lina, the species has been reported from Tennessee (as B. thomsenae, Wright and Berner, 1949). I have a single additional specimen also collected in North Carolina from Little River, Transylvania County, June 12, 1953, by M. J. Westfall. Kry To NyMPpHS 1 Both dorsal and lateral spines present on mesonotum. Frontal projection strongly developed (Fig. 4) —__ obesa * I am indebted to Dr. Henry Dietrich, Cornell University, for the privilege of studying types and paratypes of Baetisca carolina and paratypes of B. thomsenae. co lM bo ~ JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lateral spines only on mesonotum. Frontal projection less well developed or absent (Hig) 2) a 2 Genal spines present) (Fig. 5) 2 eee 3) Genal spines ‘absent (Fig. 3) 22°) = 2 ae 4 Genal spines much shorter than head; upturned at tip. Lateral mesonotal spines moderately developed. Postero- lateral abdominal spines incurved (Fig. 2) — === carolina Genal spines as long as head; not upturned. Lateral meso- notal spines strongly developed. Posterolateral abdominal Spines curve outwards (I¢. 5) 2a escambiensis Lateral mesonotal spines strongly developed, acuminate; anterior to these spines another lateral projection is present at margin of mesonotum; large spine-like tubercules on dorsal surface of mesonotal spines. Posterolateral angles of abdominal segments not incurved (Fig. 1) rogersi Lateral mesonotal spines poorly developed; tips blunt; no lateral projection anterior to mesonotal spines. Postero- lateral angles of abdominal segments incurved (Fig. 3)___gibbera Kry to ADULTS Wings flushed with ruby. Penes with a lateral angulation near tip (Fig, (20) 224 a eee escambiensis Wings colored only at base, or without color; penes with- out strong lateral angulation near tip (Figs. 2022) = 2 Wings hyaline 20 8 eee obesa Wings colored: basally EEE 3 Basal third of forewing and basal three-fourths of hind- wing reddish-brown; longitudinal veins amber. Abdomi- nal tergites light reddish brown; sternites yellowish white. Coastal Plain species 2 ee rogersi Basal portion of wings orange brown; hindwing tinted throughout or only for half its width; longitudinal veins brown. Sternites light tan. Appalachian and Piedmont SPECIES. 22.8 Ne ie Sl carolina REFERENCES BERNER, LEWIS 1940. Baetisca rogersi, a new mayfly from northern Florida. Canad. Ent. 62:156-160. Pl. X. THE SOUTHEASTERN SPECIES OF BAETISCA 19 1950.. The mayflies of Florida. xii + 267 p. 88 figs., 24 pls., 19 maps. University of Florida Press, Gainesville. 1953. New mayfly records from Florida and a description of a new species. Fla. Ent. 36(4):145-149. 8 figs. BURKS, B. D. 1953. The mayflies, or Ephemeroptera, of Illinois. II]. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull, Vol. 26, Art. 1, 1-2116,.895 figs. EATON, A. E. 1883-1888. A revisional monograph of recent Ephemeridae or mayflies. Linn. Soc. London Trans., Zool. Ser. 3: 1-352. 65 pls. McDUNNOUGH, J. 1932. New species of North American Ephemeroptera II. Canad. Ent. 209-215. 8 figs. NEAVE, FERRIS 1934. A contribution to the aquatic insect fauna of Lake Winnepeg. Internat. Rev. Hydrobiol. und Hydrogr. 31:157-170. 38 figs. NEEDHAM, J. G., JAY R. TRAVER, and YIN-CHI HSU 1935. The biology of mayflies. xvi + 759 p. 168 figs., 40 pls. Comstock | Publishing Co., Ithaca. SAY, THOMAS 1839. Descriptions of new North American neuropterous insects and ob- servations on some already described. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Jour. 8:9-46. TRAVER, JAY R. 1931. The ephemerid genus Baetisca. N. Y. Ent. Soc. Jour. 39:45-67. Pls. 5-6. 1937. Notes on mayflies of the southeastern states (Ephemeroptera). Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. Jour. 53:27-86, Pl. 6. WALSH, B. D. 1864. On the pupa of the ephemerinous genus Baetisca Walsh. Ent. Soc. Philas Proc., 3:200-206. 1! fis. WRIGHT, MIKE, and LEWIS BERNER 1949. Notes on the mayflies of eastern Tennessee. Tenn. Acad. Sci. Jour. 24(4):287-298. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 18(1), 1955.- 20 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES RESEARCH NOTES THE GLOSSY IBISES OF LAKE ALICE.—Eastern glossy ibises, Plegadis falcinellus, are widely distributed in the Old World, but in the New World they have only occasionally been found nesting at a few scattered localities in Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, Cuba, Florida, Louisiana, Texas and South Caro- lina. In Florida there are four nesting colonies, at King’s Bar, in Lake Okee- chobee; at Lake Washington, in the upper St. Johns River marshes; at Rabbit Island, in Lake Kissimmee; and at Lake Alice, Alachua County. In view of the rarity of these birds in the New World, these observations on the present status of the Lake Alice colony are presented. The glossy ibises which nest at Lake Alice are apparently descended from the ones which nested at Orange Lake from 1909 to 1916 (Baynard, 1913, Wilson Bull., 25: 1038-117; Howell, 19382, Florida Bird Life, p. 116); a maximum of nine pairs nested at that locality. In 1987 these ibises had moved to Bivin’s Arm, and at least 106 were present, but only 33 remained to nest (Russell, 1937, Fla. Nat., 10: 80-82). In 1941, eight pairs nested there (Mills, 1941, Fla. Nat., 14: 73-74). In 1947 only four glossy ibises were seen (Mills, 1947, Fla. Nat., 20: 44). In 1948 the glossy ibises, along with the herons and white ibises, moved to Lake Alice to nest. Karraker (19538, The Birds of Lake Alice, M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Fla.) reported about 50 glossy ibises there in 1951, and about 30 in 1952. My own observations at Lake Alice cover the years 1958, 1954, and 1955. In 1958 I first saw the glossy ibises on 14 March, when 18 arrived at the rookery with the evening flight of herons and ibises. Subsequent counts revealed that a maximum of 29 glossy ibises were roosting at the rookery in the spring and early summer. Several nests with young glossy ibises were found, but I do not believe that all of the birds nested. In 1954 I first saw glossy ibises on 25 March, when ten were present. A maximum of 18 used the rookery up until 5 May. After that date there was a steady increase in number until a peak of 59 was reached on 10 July. Many of these birds were in adult plumage, so the increase was not due en- tirely to the fledgling of young birds, although a fairly large number of nests were found that summer. The last glossy ibises were seen on 26 August. In 1955 I did not see any glossy ibises until 4 April, when only six roosted in the rookery. However, there was a sharp increase in numbers, and on 16 April 65 glossy ibises arrived at the rookery in the evening flight. Nesting had begun on 29 April. This colony, despite its small size and isolation from other colonies, seems to be maintaining itself—Dale W. Rice, Department of Biology, University of Florida. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 18(1), 1955. OBSERVATIONS ON THE ECOLOGY OF THE LOW HAMMOCKS OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA TayLor R. ALEXANDER University of Miami, Coral Gables INTRODUCTION In Florida the term “low hammock” is used to designate several types of hammock as far as floristic make-up is concerned. One characteristic seems to be common to all—their location in a low area that is usually wetter than surrounding areas. The low ham- mocks studied in this investigation are located in the extensive flat and low marl prairie that extends inland from the mangrove belt of subtropical Florida to higher soils of a different nature. This band of marl varies in width and is extensive in Dade County. Typical low hammocks of the type studied may be seen as scattered islands of trees on both sides of U. S. highway 1 south of Florida City and north of the Dade County line. These hammocks and adjacent vegetation have been studied previously by others and plant lists of the common species have been made. Harper (1927) has sections on low hammocks, Cape Sable Hammocks, and the coast prairie. Each of these falls within the scope of the present study. According to the vegetation map prepared by Davis (1943), the low hammocks studied are “tree islands, bay tree forests,” in the southern coast marsh prairies. Egler (1950) named the same hammocks “Persea tailed flat ham- mocks” and called the region the “southeast saline everglades.” The origin and ecology of these hammocks have been discussed by Egler (1950) and Davis (1940, 1943). Davis (1940) quotes Curtis as follows: “The mangrove thickets in the course of time build up a foundation for other species. It is altogether probable that the tree-covered ‘islands’ in the Everglades and Big Cypress were once mangrove thickets. . . . The mangroves will give place to species that require only brackish soil which, in turn, will be re- placed by fresh water or inland forms of vegetation.” This, in general, has been accepted by ecologists. As to the exact ecology, Davis (1943) wrote “there is probably some development from bay heads to low hammocks, and perhaps even a building up of 22 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES soils to higher almost dry hammocks. In fact the whole develop- ment of the sub-tropical hammock needs much more study.” It was to learn more of the succession of plants in this area that the investigation was undertaken. This report is the result of observations and measurements made on trips for the past decade. It gives supporting evidence as to the nature of succession involv- ing these subtropical low hammocks of the marl prairie. METHOD After surveys of the area were made two hammocks were selected as representative. The first is about one-half mile west of U. S. 1, north of the Dade County line and just north of the mangrove belt. This hammock is typical for the area lying just inside the man- grove belt. It appears to be a young, immature hammock when compared to the second selection that was obviously older and located farther inland from the mangrove belt. The second ham- mock is located about two and a half miles west of the Cape Sable road about fifteen miles south of Paradise Key. The former will be referred to as hammock A and the latter as B. Plant lists were made from data obtained by two methods—the line transect and quadrat techniques. The former was also used to establish successional aspects, particularly at the margins, and to measure changes in elevation of the soil surface. These changes between the elevation of the marl prairie and the interior of the hammock were determined along the line by use of a hand level, the marl prairie being used as “zero elevation. The soil profile was sampled with a soil auger. Samples were examined to determine their nature and were analyzed for pH with a Beckman pH meter. Soil moisture determinations were also made. RESULTS A line transect starting at the margin of hammock A and running fifty feet toward the center was used. Forty-five plants were © listed and this large number is an indication of the dense growth of these tree islands. Twenty-three species were recorded. Near the margin, Rhizophora mangle—red mangrove, Conocarpus erecta—buttonwood, Myrica pumila—wax myrtle, Ilex cassine— dahoon holly, Tamala borbonia—red bay, and Swietenia mahagoni —mahogany, were abundant. ECOLOGY OF LOW HAMMOCKS OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 23 In the lowest areas Chrysobalanus Icaco, the cocoa palm, pre- dominated. The marginal aspects of the hammock disappeared about twenty-five feet within the margin. Sawgrass, the marl prairie dominant, persisted up to this distance in spite of heavy shade. Toward the interior Eugenia axillaris and Calyptranthes were prominent as small trees under the canopy and were even more common as seedlings. Large trees of Coccolobis wuwifera, the seagrape, were found in the older parts of the hammock. A second line transect two hundred and fifty feet long was run from the center of the hammock out into the marl prairie to establish the relative differences in elevation of the soil level, and Table I gives a condensation of eight measurements. The hammock soil was highest near the center and gradually sloped to the lowest point just outside the abrupt hammock margin. This marginal low point was actually one to two inches lower than the surround- ing marl prairie. At the highest point the soil level was seventeen inches above the outside prairie. Six inches increase in elevation was sufficient to allow hammock growth of considerable size near the margin. TABLE I Edaphic Conditions for Hammocks A & B Relative Elevation | Percent Moisture pH (Inches) Soar Oe bance eens Stationers eter! A B A B A B Hammock center __ 17 28 191.0 90.4 7.9 6.3 Hammock margin _ —ll —2) 492.0 230.0 126 3.6 Outside prairie __. 0 0 106.0 81.8 8.5 7.9 Soil moisture near the hammock center and in the prairie was much lower than that in the low trough at the margin (Table I). The higher soil was composed of rather coarse organic material. The wet soil at the margin was fine textured and dark and contained a large amount of marl. The surface soil of the prairie was marl. 24 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The soil of the low marginal trough was more acid than the organic soil near the center of the hammock or the surrounding marl (Table I). Hammock B was sampled for edaphic conditions in the same manner as A, and results may be seen in Table I. When the data from these hammocks are compared, some similarity is evident. The two hammocks were sampled in different seasons and _ this accounts for the extreme differences in soil moisture. The level of the organic soil in hammock B was twenty-eight inches above the surrounding marl. Hammock B was further analyzed by the quadrat technique, using six quadrats, five meters square. This number was used regardless of the fact that measurements by Cain’s (1938) species- area curve method indicated that two such quadrats were a sufficient sample. Table II lists the species according to frequency and also gives their density. Shade tolerant seedlings of Eugenia axillaris, lancewood, spicewood, cabbage palm, and Icacorea were abundant. TABLE II Plant List of Hammock B Determined from Six, 5-Meter-Square Quadrats. Average Species Common Name Density Frequency Galypitanthes’ ZuZyeciuny, 2 ee ee 4.66 100.0 Bugenia axillaris: tenes White stopper _______- 417 100.0 licacorean paniculaia ae Marlbery) =e A117 100.0 Goccolobis launjolia’ 22a Pigeon Plum aa 1.33 83.3 SWIeLenia MmanaZon an Mahogany. == sesmes 1.00 83.3 Sabalenaliver (oa eee Cabbage Palm _____. 1.00 66.6 Lippocratea volubilis, a EEE ee Vine 66.6 Parthenocissus quinquefolia —_- Virginia Creeper _____ Vine 66.6 OciolcamcatespUana == anceywood |) =a ANT 66.6 WGC ORLA THOBG QUID, Poison wood) saa .66 50.0 Dipholis’salicifolig +22) es Bustier 3222) 1etG 50.0 Siilax) Fk @ mo = ep) 12) mo = = 2) —_ c Oo O i!) <= 1S) oS E oO —_— ep) ep = 2) Zz No. of Stomachs Gontain- JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES paulwoxy SYDDWOIS JOON 18 Re) 26 20 16 poo 4 Buluipjuoy SYDDWOJS JOON SNOSUD]| 90SI|\ S@|DIS SUIDWAY Ys! 4 + om 17 T 5 | 3 23 2 ob! i2 Dal eule sek 4 2 2 5 4 | a Ae aes e, Trot Line Hook Ajup YS1}409 suIDWaY YS!4'8 YS!}1D9 WAY YSI4'B YSI}{0D ‘yd49ad pajyoeds ) 3 2 SUIDWAY YS!4 8 yodad pajyoads Bye A\uQ Yd4aq pajyoeds Oe YysijAD19 8 Yds9dg pajyoeds Ajdwi3 SYDDWOJS JO ON or Combination of Types of Food SNO@UDI|aNSIW Ss preg an no} } re SuIDWay Us! es ee = = Nh oO Ww Op [-) wR ” @ t+ <= xs — - wo 2 = > = = > = S70) o Q S S 3 ° ° oS) = Ss — - “4 o “ c - ¥ —_ hay = a = Pyrat : a ay " - Jay > — a . 5 * - . - = F 4 - C 7 - ~~. = : °_* i af a “ wes a = = > #t, — * ' oer j » : 7 . ‘ 1 ~- = A =~ - - . ‘ . - as » *. end ' ’ . “ . f : f ’ i \ ‘ 4g : F £ * ‘ , c ¥ « . Re, f \ ' - , ax f ‘ , - % ¥ P| " “ = ‘ i 3 td " . of ’ a0: ‘ . rc f A ~ wv x, Fs - F , in } + me! ror Le ‘ os wy re Pe & ‘ ‘ «4 . ‘ t 5 ‘ e 4 7” i . rt st ’ “et _- é 3 ¥ ~ ' ‘ Line ' - CO oe Y Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Scienees Vol. 18 June, 1955 No. 2 Contents Caldwell—Notes on the Distribution, Spawning, and Growth of the Spot-tailed Pinfish, Diplodus holbrooki _.___-__..._ 78 Nielsen—Florida Oscillatoriaceae JIT 84 Hargis—Monogenetic Trematodes of Gulf of Mexico Fishes. CE ST a Sa 113 Hussey—Some Records of Hemiptera New to Florida ____ — 120 Smith and Vatsia—Effect of a Long Shaft on the Polarization bd SUSE DE Sa GRO ce 8 et eee a a RRSP ies TE Se 123 PMI Oo eee A I es 125 Organization for 1955 Annual Meeting 2 1193 Vou. 18 Jung, 1955 No. 2 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Editor—J. C. Dickinson, Jr. Associate Editor—JoHn D. Kitsy Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. The business offices of the Journat are centralized at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor, Department of Biology. Business com- munications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, De- partment of Geology. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be addressed to The Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed September 9, 1955 Pace QuouARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE AeORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vo. 18 June, 1955 No. 2 NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, SPAWNING, AND GROWTH OF THE SPOT-TAILED PINFISH, DIPLODUS HOLBROOKI Davip K. CALDWELL University of Florida Other than brief notes by Reid (1954: 46), almost nothing has been published heretofore concerning the biology of the Spot-tailed Pinfish, Diplodus holbrooki. Intensive field work, primarily concerned with a study of the biology of another member of the family Sparidae, Lagodon rhom- boides, was started in February, 1953, at Cedar Key, Levy County, Florida. Regular trips to this area continued through May, 1954, and sporadic trips have been continued to this writing, May, 1955. As a consequence, data have now been collected which constitute a contribution to the biology of D. holbrooki in that and adjacent regions. During the regular sampling period, 24 collecting trips were made to Cedar Key, with several regular collecting stations being made on each trip. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION The range of this species is generally considered to extend from Chesapeake Bay at Cape Charles City, Virginia (Hildebrand and Schroeder, 1928: 268), southward along the Atlantic coast, through the Florida Keys, and thence northward to Cedar Key on the Flor- ida Gulf coast. It has been recorded from the Tortugas by Longley and Hildebrand (1941: 133) and by Jordan and Thompson (1905: 243). Eigenmann and Hughes (1887: 72), although they note the range on the Gulf coast of Florida as extending to Cedar Key, state that specimens of this species were examined by them from Pensa- cola, Florida. Joseph (1952) does not include D. holbrooki in his list of the fishes of the Alligator Harbor (Franklin County) region of CEP 9 111055 74 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Florida, although Dr. Ralph W. Yerger of Florida State University states (personal conversation) that this species is caught on rare occasions in Gulf waters several miles off Alligator Harbor. Reid (loc. cit.) indicates that it is not common at Cedar Key, reporting it only in small numbers during May and from September through November. I found that while D. holbrooki was not abundant at Cedar Key, it nevertheless occurred there in some numbers during most of the year. This species has been reported twice in offshore trawling operations by the M/V OREGON, exploratory fishing vessel operated by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It was taken on July 14, 1952, in 4% fathoms at 29° 29’ N., 83° 83’ W. (roughly off the mouth of the Suwannee River), and again on March 11, 1954, in 15 fathoms at 28° 21’ N., 83° 38’ W. (about 60 miles south of the above locality). Other writers are probably correct in stating that Cedar Key is the northern end of the normal range of D. holbrooki on the Gulf coast, though it is apparently at least an occasional visitor much farther to the north and west on that coast. AREAS STUDIED AT CEDAR KEy Most habitats of the Cedar Key area have already been described in previous studies of the fish of that locality. The “bay” (that area extending from the outer islands shoreward to the marshes) was described by Reid (op. cit.: 3) and by Moody (1950: 151), the “marsh” by Kilby (1955: 178). It should suffice, therefore, to give only a brief description of two previously undescribed Cedar Key stations, one of which was regularly visited, and the other spo- radically sampled. The terminology for other habitat types used in this paper is that of the above writers. Edge of Channel.—The vegetation of this station near Seahorse Key consisted primarily of various forms of algae (mostly brown). This predominance persisted during the entire year, with a slight reduction in abundance during the early spring. Some manatee (Cymodocea) and turtle (Thalassia) grass was present during the late spring and all summer months, though at no time did it out- rank the algal covering. No slimy coating appeared on this vege- tation as it had on that of the cove and shallow flat stations. The bottom material is primarily muddy sand. The depth normally varies from 3% to 9 feet, with an average of about 4% feet at mean DISTRIBUTION, SPAWNING, AND GROWTH OF PINFISH 795 low tide. This habitat is very similar to the deep flats, except that it receives the stronger tidal sweep associated with the channels. “Pound Nets’.—A series of old pilings located some 12 miles from the town near the end of a long shallow sand bar known as Sea- horse Reef. The clear water of the area, approximately 15 feet deep, is frequently visited by sport fishermen. The bottom is white sand, and the vegetation near the pilings consists of scattered patches of mixed algae, manatee grass, and turtle grass. METHODS A small (15-foot mouth) otter trawl, made of 1-inch-stretched mesh, and operated at a speed of approximately 3 mph from a small inboard motor boat, was used for sampling at all stations but the “pound nets”. The net was dragged from 75 to 100 feet behind the boat, depending on the depth, and was on the bottom for 5 minutes on the flats and channel edge, and for 10 minutes in the channels. A 10- or 25-foot bag seine with %-inch-stretched mesh was also used at a cove station during the warm months. During the winter this area was sampled with the trawl. The “pound net” specimens were taken by hook and line. It should be noted that the very young of other species were often caught in the trawl and seine, becoming tangled in vegetation and detritus. Thus it could be assumed that if the young, post-larval, stages of D. holbrooki were present, at least some would be caught with this type of gear. Salinities were measured in the laboratory with a hydrometer. Most of the fish were preserved in the field in a 10% solution of formalin. Measurements are expressed in mm standard length, which is considered as being the uncurved length as measured by dividers from the tip of the snout to the base of the middle rays of the caudal fin. Most of the specimens studied are deposited in the University of Florida fish collection. Hasirat DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL MOVEMENTS Reid (op. cit.: 46) reports finding D. holbrooki at Cedar Key only on deep flats. His specimens collected in May on a sandy-mud bottom with only sparse vegetation ranged from 29 to 39 mm in 76 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES length and were taken at a mean temperature of 24.5° C., and a mean Salinity of 25.2 ppt. His fall specimens ranged from 56 to 90 mm in length. The surface temperature during this period ranged from 15.5°C. to 22.9°C., while the surface salinity was found to be from 9.7 to 28.6 ppt. My own findings show that a salinity as low as 9.7 ppt. is very exceptional in the “bay” and is usually the result of periods of heavy rainfall, causing a large dis- charge of fresh water into the “bay” by the Suwannee and Waca- sassa Rivers, the mouths of which delimit the “bay” on the north and south respectively. Crowson 492, 19 Sept. 1948 (C, D, F); St. Marks river, Little Natural Bridge, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 543, 549, 30 Oct. 1948 (C, D, F); St. Marks river, Natural Bridge, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 570, 572, 578, 582, 80 Oct. 1948 (C, D, F); in dried pool in open woods, west of F.S.U., Tallahasse, Drouet & Crowson 10444, 5 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); wet ground along Ochlocko- nee river at U. S. 90 west of Stephensville, Drouet, Crowson & J. Petersen 10494, 10497, 10523, 6 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); wet ground beside Meridian rd. between Lake Iamonia and Ochlockonee river, Drouet, Kurz & Nielsen 11252, 24 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); F.S.U. cam- pus, A. H. Johnston 1521, 18 Aug. 1949 (C, D, F); U. S. 90, 7 miles west of Tallahassee, Nielsen & Crowson 944, 946, 11 Mar. 1949 (C, D, F); on soil, Jackson Bluff, near Ochlockonee river, C. Jackson, 9 Nov. 1950 (C, D, F). Liberty county: Fla. highway 20 at Taluga river, Nielsen & Madsen 869, 19 Feb. 1949 (C, D, F); Fla. highway 20, Ochlockonee river swamp, Nielsen & Kurz 879, 882, 19 Feb. 1949 (C, D, F). Seminole county: on decaying bark, Altamonte Springs, P. O. Schallert, 10 Sept. 1951 (C, D, F). Taylor county: in shallow water of creek, U. S. 27, 1 mile N.W. of Perry, Drouet & Nielsen 94 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 10757, 11 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Wakulla county: Log Spring, north of Newport, Nielsen, Madsen ¢& Crowson, 245, Aug. 1948 (C, D, F); . Natural Bridge, Nielsen & Madsen 554, 579, 30 Oct. 1948 (C, D, F); in roadside ditch, St. Marks river, Newport, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 10808, 10814, 13 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); Spillway Dam, Phil- lips Lake, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Madsen, Drouet & Crowson 813, 821, 14 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); on wet ground beside small sulphur spring, % mile north of Newport, Drouet, Crowson & R. Thornton 11344, 25 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); Spillway Pond, Phillips pool, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 934, 939, 26 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); in depression in sand beside road to Port Leon, 1 mile southeast of Newport, Drouet, Nielsen, Crowson & Atwood 11434, 26 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); on submerged sticks in “T” pond of Phillips lake, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, % mile east of Newport, Crowson ¢& Chamberlain 32, 15 May 1949 (C, D, F); little sulphur spring, % mile north of Newport, Nielsen, 15 Oct. 1950 (C, D, F); floating, Spillway Dam, Port Leon, H. R. Wilson, 23 July 1952 (C, D, F). Many of the specimens measured 5-6.8 microns in trichome diameter and about 10 microns in cell length. They were com- monly associated with: Anabaena sphaerica B. & F., Lyngbya putealis Gom., Microcoleus rupicola (Tild.) Dr., Mougeotia sp., Oscillatoria sancta Gom., O. splendida Gom., Porphyrosiphon No- tarisiti Gom., Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kutz., Scytonema guyanense B. & F. and Zygnema sp. 4, Symploca muralis Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VAL 16:92 12S ple te LO GlSo2): Stratum black to steel blue, continuous, broadly expanded; spiniform fascicles, thick, erect, up to 2 mm. high. Filaments simple, elongate, repent toward base, very tortuous, irregularly entwined, in fascicles less flexuous, ascending almost parallel, firmly congested. Sheaths thin, firm, below somewhat mucous, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes blue- green to green, never constricted at cross-walls, apex slightly attenuate, 3.4-4 microns wide; cells shorter than trichome diameter to subquadrate, 1.5 - 4 microns long, cross-walls not too conspicuous, never granular; apical cell obtuse conical; calyptra absent. Baker county: in pine seed bed, U. S. Forestry station, Olustee, Brannon 228, May 1944 (C, D). Gadsden county: flood plain and limestone cliffs, Aspalaga on Apalachicola river, Nielsen, Madsen > Crowson 733, 12 Feb. 1949 (C, D, F). Jackson county: wayside pk., 5 miles east of Marianna on U. S. 90, Nielsen 2101, 8 Feb. 1950 FLORIDA OSCILLATORIACEAE III 95 (C, D, F). Jefferson county: Judge Hopkin’s camp, Lake Micco- sukee, Nielsen & Crowson 966, 11 Mar. 1949 (C, D, F). Lake county: on soil, Exp. Station, Leesburg, Brannon 228, 297, July 1944 (C, D). Leon county: Judge Andru’s magnolia forest, Lake Iamonia, Nielsen & Madsen 386, 396, Aug. 1948 (C, D, F); Thomas- ville hunting club, Lake Iamonia, Nielsen & Madsen 408, Aug. 1948 (C, D, F). Marion county: on bank on west shore of Orange Lake, Drouet, Brannon & McKay 11012, 19 Jan. 1949 (C, D). Mon- roe county: public beach, Tavernier, L. B. Isham 3, 1 Oct. 1952 (C, D). St. Johns county: greenhouse soil, Hastings, Brannon 297, 28 Nov. 1947 (C, D). Wakulla county: “Log” sulphur spring, New port, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 242, Aug. 1948 (C, D, F). 3. Symploca Kieneri Drouet. Amer. Midl. Nat. 29: 53 (1948). Stratum extensive, pannose, black, olive or blue-green, filaments long slender, below twisted and interwoven, above rarely joined in fascicles, erect or repent and parallel; sheath hyaline, wide, obscurely lamellose, eroded at margins, scarcely turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine or with age no reaction; trichomes blue-green or green or yellow, 4-10 microns wide, distinctly constricted at cross-walls, gradually attenuate toward apices; cells quadrate to twice trichome width, with large scattered proto- plasmic granules, cross-walls never conspicuously granular; apical cell rotund or truncate-conical, membrane obviously thickened above. Alachua county: on wet sand, Hibiscus pk., Gainesville, Brannon _ 172, 182, 11 May 1943; Brannon 249, 16 July 1948 (C, D). Bay county: in depression in sand in pine woods, U. S. 319, 5 miles N.W. of Beacon Hill, Drouet & Nielsen 11632, 11633, 31 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); Laguna beach, west of Panama City Beach on U. S. 98, Madsen, Pates, Hood & Elias 1947, 11 Sept. 1949 (C, D, F). Broward county: in depressions in old sand dunes between Dania Beach and Hollywood Beach, Drouet & Louderback 10269, 28 Dec. 1948 (C, D). Collier county: on dry sand, near Naples, P. C. Stand- ley 73381, 19 Mar. 1940 (C, D); on moist sand, Marco Island, Standley 73409, 19 Mar. 1940 (C, D). Duval county: on sand, yard area, Ortega, Jacksonville, C. Jackson 10, 5 Aug. 1952 (C, D, F). Escambia county: wet sand in depression in dunes west of Gulf Beach, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 10556, 8 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Franklin county: in depression in low sand dunes, shore of Alligator bay east of St. Teresa, Drouet & Nielsen 11680, 31 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Jackson county: on barren red clay banks, U. S. 90, 5 miles east of Marianna, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 96 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 10342, 4 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Lake county: Leesburg, Brannon 249, 28 July 1944 (C, D). Lee county: on dry sand, Bonita Beach, Stand- ley 73219, 14 Mar. 1940 (C, D). Levy county: in upland sand bar- rens, N.W. part of Way key, Cedar Keys, Drouet & Nielsen 11169, 11173, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); barren ground in open sand woods, Fla. highway 20, 1 mile east of Sumner, Drouet & Nielsen 11206, 11207, 23 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Manatee county: Terra Ceia, terres- trial, low spot in orange grove, Wm. R. Maxon 11275, 2 Jan. 1948 (C, D). St. Johns county: south of St. Augustine, Standley 92777, 92778, 18 Mar. 1946 (C, D, F). Wakulla county: barren ground in path, “Log” sulphur spring, 1 mile north of Newport, Drouet, Crow- son & Thornton 11338, 25 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); barren ground in prairie of Apalachee bay, 2 miles N.E. of Panacea, Drouet & Niel- sen 11687, 31 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); on eroded high bank of East river, west of St. Marks lighthouse, on Gulf of Mexico at mouth of St. Marks river, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 11743, 1 Feb. 1949 (C, Doi) Drouet states that when found in barren depressions in the sand S. Kieneri is very similar to S. Muscorum Gom.; however, the former develops thicker sheaths and the trichomes are distinctly con- stricted. Specimens were found with Calothrix parietina B. & F., Nostoc Muscorum B. & F., Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gom. and Schizothrix sp. 6. Symploca dubia Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. WATE IUGR Foy, EUS) (US). Fibrose-compact, broadly expanded, externally yellow, blue-green, gray- ish or reddish, internally uncolored due to empty sheaths, above fasciculate, fascicles appressed and anastomosed or erect and very twisted. Filaments wavy, entwined at base, parallel in fascicles. Sheaths wide, firm, irregular at margins, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes very pale blue- green, never constricted at cross-walls, 1.5 -2.5 microns wide; cells up to 4 times as long as diameter of trichome, 3-8 microns long, with dispersed protoplasmic granules; cross-walls inconspicuous, occasionally with two granules; apical cell rotund; calyptra absent. Gadsden county: milestone canyon, Aspalaga on Apalachicola river, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 770, 12 Feb. 1949 (C, D, F). Lyngbya C. Agardh Filaments sheathed, free, simple sometimes caespitose, sometimes entangled into a stratum either floccose or pannose. Sheaths firm, FLORIDA OSCILLATORIACEAE III a7 thin, or turning with age wide and lamellose, hyaline, more rarely yellow to dark. Trichomes in several species constricted at cross- walls, apex straight, equal or slightly attenuate; membrane of apical cell occasionally thickened into a calyptra. Plants marine, fresh-water or thermal, never terrestrial. Subgenus I. Leibleinia. Plants epiphytic, marine. Filaments at- tached at middle, erect on all sides. Sheaths thin, hyaline. Trichomes cylindrical to apex. 1. Tufts slippery, purple-violet. Filaments elongate, angularly flexuous. Trichomes 5 - 8 microns wide _... 1. L. gracilis bo Small tufts fasciculate, mucose, obscurely blue-green, Fila- ments elongate, straight, trichomes 6.5-8 microns wide ____~ onan Piri: AR a 2. L. Meneghiniana 3. Tufts fasciculate, obscurely yellow-green, variously colored upon drying. Filaments straight, semirigid. Trichomes 14-31 mi- SEFTILS WLS a SS a 3. L. sordida Subgenus II. Eulyngbya. Plants marine, fresh-water or thermal, saxicolous or free-floating, rarely epiphytic. Filaments caespi- tose, attached at base or entangled into a floccose stratum. Sheaths often turning wide and lamellose with age. 1. Plants marine or saline. A. Sheaths never turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Cells CABIRY SUNOVSCZ 28 SU We ea eae des ede eee oe OE B. B. Sheaths always hyaline. 1. Stratum extensive, black to dark to blue-green, filaments more or less wavy. Trichomes 16 - 60 microns wide, apex never attenuate-capitate; cross- Wallis mousamicnl by: eee 4, L. majuscula bo Stratum generally caespitose, yellow to black-green, filaments straight. Trichomes 9 - 25 microns wide, apex not attenuate-capitate; cross-walls granular. sass yO oe ca 5. L. confervoides 3. Stratum generally caespitose, dark or obscurely green, filaments flexuous. Trichomes 5-12 mi- crons wide, apex often attenuate-capitate; cross- Sicullsmencumilane. Susu see Nise BT 6. L. semiplena 98 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BB. Sheaths finally yellow-dark. ie Stratum ferruginous or blue-green. Trichomes slightly attenuate-capitate at apex, 8 - 24 microns wide; cross -walls granular ae 7. L. aestuarii AA. Sheaths turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine; cells sub- quadrate or up to % of diameter in length. 1. Stratum subgelatinous, yellow-dark. Trichomes 2.5 - 6 microns wide. 8. L. lutea 2. Plants fresh-water or thermal, occasionally saline. A. Trichomes 4 microns or more wide = === nae 1B}; B. Plants caespitose. ibs Tufts obscurely blue-green, filaments erect. Tri- chomes torulose, 7.5 - 13 microns wide; cells quad- rate! to 42 diameter in) length: 9. L. putealis Tufts brilliant blue-green, filaments straight, paral- lel, flexuous. Trichomes generally not torulose (rarely slightly constricted toward apex), 4-7 mi- crons wide; cells quadrate or shorter than trichome diameter, 2- 7'microns lone = 10. L. Taylorii Tufts blue-green, filaments long, straight, fragile. Trichomes never torulose, 5 - 10 microns wide; cells 3-6 times shorter than diameter_11. L. Patrickiana BB. Plants not caespitose. Jk bo Filaments forming a compact ferruginous stratum. Trichomes approximately 3 microns wide 2) 6 AU Oe 12. L. versicolor Filaments solitary, regularly spiralled. Cells 1-7 microns wide; planktonic, occasionally marine ___ Uo Ad Oe i 13. L. contorta AA. Trichomes less than 4 microns wide. 1. More or less regularly spiralled, occasionally straight. Trichomes blue-green, 2 microns wide — = bo os Aa le 14. L: Lagerheimii Filaments entwined into a yellow-brown stratum, flexu- ous, fragile. Trichomes blue-green, exceedingly toru- lose. 0/9 microns wide. 22!) eee 15. L. ochracea FLORIDA OSCILLATORIACEAE III 99 3. Filaments solitary, almost straight or subflexuous, epi- phytic on other algae. Sheath very thin, hyaline. Tri- chomes blue-green, somewhat constricted at cross-walls, IRGre OmMmIChOMSawWAGe) mer tue ee WN ees ee 16. L. infixa 4, Filaments entwined into brilliant blue-green stratum, twisted at base, straight at end. Trichomes not torulose, SL ORNICTOMSuuyal Gel tate ue 8 ee. 17. L. Diguetii 5. Filaments straight or slightly curved, individual. Tri- chomes blue-green, 1-2 microns wide, not torulose. Planktonic, ‘saline tolerant = 18. L. limnetica Subgenus IJ. Leibleinia Gomont. Filaments caespitose, attached to submerged plants, attached to middle and entwined, then ascending on all sides. Sheaths thin, hyaline, never conspicuously lamellose. Trichomes not attenuate at apex. Plant marine. 1. Lyngbya gracilis Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. WatIG=sp. 124) pl 2, f. 20) (1892). Tufts extensive, dense, floccose, slippery, purple-violet, often discolored and dark yellow upon drying, up to % cm. tall. Filaments elongate, pliable, angularly flexuous. Sheaths firm, smooth, not turning blue with chlor- zinc-iodine. Trichomes rose-colored, torulose (in dried specimens), 5 - 8 microns wide, apex never attenuate; cells quadrate to one-half of trichome diameter, 2.8-4.6 microns long, filled with small protoplasmic granules; apical cell rotund, membrane slightly thickened above. Bay county: St. Andrews Bay, east of St. Andrew, Madsen, Pates, Hood & Elias 1570, 17 Apr. 1949 (C, D, F). 2. Lyngbya Meneghiniana Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Borel NG: p., 125 (1892). Small tufts fasciculate, mucose, obscurely blue-green, to 1 cm. iall. Filaments elongate, straight, exceedingly pliable. Sheaths thin, smooth, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes pale blue-green, torulose (in dried specimen), apices never attenuate, 6.5-8 microns wide; cells from 2 - 4 times shorter than diaméter of trichome, 2 - 4 microns long, filled with small protoplasmic granules; apical cell rotund, membrane a little thickened above. Monroe county: Key West, Marshall A. Howe, 7 Nov. 1902 (eb): 100 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 3. Lyngbya sordida Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VIT 1G: 9.1265 pl. 2 ies isso) Tufts fasciculate, obscurely to darkly yellow-green, upon drying gen- erally black-violet, to 3 cm. tall. Filaments straight, semirigid. Sheaths smooth, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes olivaceous, purple on drying, blue or yellow-green, markedly torulose, apices never attenuate, 14-31 microns wide; cells from 2-6 times shorter than diameter of iri- chome, 4-10 microns long, frequently sparsely filled with large proto- plasmic granules; apical cell rotund; calyptra absent. Forma Bostrychicola.—Trichomes only 14 - 20 microns wide; cells up to 10 microns long. Wakulla county: as epiphytes on Padina vickersiae Hoyt. From rocky bottom about 4 miles ESE of St. Marks lighthouse, in 8 ft. Vielen Jele ia Jalanioti, Iwi, INOS 2(C. 1D), Je). The specimen cited was found with Entophysalis conferta (Kitz.) Die, Ge IDEM ay, Subgenus II. Eulyngbya Filaments entwined into a floccose or pannose stratum or caespi- tose, fixed at base, even free-floating. Sheaths often becoming wide and lamellose with age, occasionally yellow-dark. Trichomes at times attenuate at apex. : Plants marine, fresh-water or thermal, saxicolous, more rarely epiphytic. 4. Lyngbya majuscula Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot VIG palo ples aioe oe: Plants extensive, up to 3 decimeters long, black-blue, obscurely blue- green, dark, even yellowish-green. Filaments exceedingly elongate, more often wavy, even circinate, more rarely moderately flexuous. Sheaths hyaline, becoming very wide with age, externally rough, up to 11 microns wide, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes blue-green, dark green or bluish-gray to steel blue, not constricted at cross-walls, apex never attenuate, 16 - 60 microns, generally 20 - 40 microns wide; cells very short, 1/6 to 1/15 of trichome diameter, 2-4 microns long, densely filled with small protoplasmic granules; cross-walls never granular; apical cell rotund; | calyptra absent. Florida, W. G. Farlow 33, Noy. 1891 (C, D). Monroe county: Key West, F. W. Hooper, (C, D); Key West, Dr. E. Palmer, 1874 (C, D); Key West, Marshall A. Howe 1627, 7 Nov. 1902 (C, D); Garden Key, Wm. R. Taylor 1127, June 1926 (C, D); Bird Key, reef, very shallow water on stone, Taylor, 2 June 1926 (C, D). FLORIDA OSCILLATORIACEAE III 101 Pinellas county: St. Petersburg Beach, Paul O. Schallert 2080A, 2081, 20 Feb. 1949 (C, D); Pass-a-Grill Beach, St. Petersburg, Helen Mars. 12 May 1950 (C, D, F). The species is reported for the state by Tilden, p. 124 (1910). 5. Lyngbya confervoides Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Grey UielG: p.136, pl 3. 1.0 -6 (1892). Tufts extensive, fasciculate, mucose, approximately 5 cm. iall, dark- yellowish to black-green, occasionally becoming violet upon drying, or entangled as a pannose stratum. Filaments decumbent and entangled at base, ascending elongate, straight, almost rigid. Sheaths hyaline, becom- ing lamellose with age, externally rough, up to 5 microns wide, never turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes olive to blue-green not constricted at cross-walls, apex never attenuate, 9-25 microns, generally 10-16 microns wide; cell 1/3-1/8 trichome diameter in length, 2-4 microns long; cross-walls generally granular; apical cell rotund; calyptra absent. Bay county: intertidal on stone jetty in St. Andrews bay at Frankfort st. & Beach dr., St. Andrews, Panama City, Drouet & Nielsen 10916, 15 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Broward county: on pilings in Intracoastal waterway between Dania beach & Hollywood beach, Drouet & Louderback 10267, 10268, 28 Dec. 1948 (C, D). Dade county: Cutler, Biscayne Bay, Humm, 13 Jan. 1946 (C, D); atop concrete breakwater at foot of 50th st., Miami Beach, Humm, 14 Jan. 1946 (C, D). Duval county: pilings of pier, 2 miles south of - St. Johns river mouth, Jacksonville Beach, Humm, 19 Mar. 1948 (C, D, F). Hillsborough county: in shallow water, south side Davis Causeway near center, Tampa Bay, Humm, 11 July 1951 (C, D). Levy county: intertidal on woodwork at Municipal wharf, Way Key, Cedar Keys, Drouet & Nielsen 11108, 11121, 11142, 22 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Monroe county: Key West, W. G. Farlow, Nov. 1891 (C, D). Okaloosa county: intertidal on pilings in Santa Rosa sound, at west end of bridge on U. S. 98, Fort Walton, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10643, 9 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Palm Beach county: on submerged log, Lake Worth inlet, R. Thaxter, 1898-1899 (C, D); on sand between tide-marks in Lake Worth at Flaglar Memorial bridge, West Palm Beach, Drouet & Louderback 10194, 10195, 23 Dec. 1948 (C, D, F); near high tide-mark in jetties, ocean beach at east end of Sunset ave., Palm Beach, Drouet ¢- Louder- back 10201, 24 Dec. 1948 (C, D); in the tide pools on rocks at point north of ocean beach, Singers island, east of Riviera, Drouet & 102 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Louderback 10227, 10228, 10232, 25 Dec. 1949 (C, D). St. Johns county: on sand-covered rocks of jetty, littoral, Anastasia island, St. Augustine, M. A. Howe 1186, 4 Oct. 1902 (D); St. Augustine, north of bridge on western side of Anastasia island, Madsen, Pates d+ Parker 2024, 2 Jan. 1950 (C, D, F). Taylor county: on pilings, between tide limits on shore of Steinhatchee river in southern part of Steinhatchee, Drouet & Nielsen 11229, 28 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); Adam’s beach, Madsen & Pates 1089, 4 May 1949 (C, D, F). Wakulla county: intertidal, St. Marks river, Port Leon, Drouet & Atwood 11454, 26 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); intertidal on stones of jetty west of St. Marks lighthouse, on Gulf of Mexico at mouth of St. Marks river, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 11764, 1 Feb. 1949 (C, D, F); lighthouse jetty, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen & Crowson, 1, 2,3, 4, May 1949 (C, D, F); St. Marks lighthouse, Humm, 25 Mar. 1950 (C, D); Shell Point, Gulf of Mexico, on oyster shells in channel, Nielsen 3, 7 Nov. 1952 (C, D, F). The species is reported for the state by Tilden, Minn. Alg. I, p. 120 (1910) and by Farlow (1875) as L. luteofusca Ag. Collections contained the following species: Entophysalis conferta (Kg.) Dr. & Daily, Lyngbya infixa Fremy, Monostroma sp. and Phormidium fragile Gom. 6. Lyngbya semiplena Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VII 1G? ps 138) ple 3; £7 - 10 (sea: Tufts extensive, mucose, rarely more than 3 cm. high, generally darkly yellow-green, or obscurely green, occasionally upon drying black-violet, or entwining into a pannose stratum. Filaments decumbent and entwined at base, ascending slender and flexuous. Sheaths hyaline, submucous, with age becoming lamellose, up to 3 microns wide, not turning blue with chlor- zinc-iodine. Trichomes yellow-green or blue-green, apex slightly attenuate, capitate, never constricted at cross-walls, 5-12 microns, generally 7 - 10 microns wide; cells 1/3- 1/6 of trichome diameter in length, 2-8 microns long; cross-walls frequently granular; apical cell with a calyptra depressed- conical or rotund. Bay county: intertidal at bridge across west arm of St. Andrews. bay, West Bay, Drouet & Nielsen 10864, 15 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); inter- tidal on shore of St. Andrews bay, Cove Hotel, Panama City, Drouet & Nielsen 11610, 11611, 11614, 11617, 11623, 30 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Broward county: with Enteromorpha sp. on tidal mud-flats behind Dania Beach, Drouet & Louderback 10264, 28 Dec. 1948 (C, D); on mangrove roots in intracoastal waterway, Drouet & Louderback FLORIDA OSCILLATORIACEAE III 103 10266, 28 Dec. 1948 (C, D); between tidemarks in mangrove swamp south of South Lake, Hollywood, Drouet 10301, 10305, 29 Dec. 1948 (C, D). Collier county: in brackish pool, Marco island, Paul C. Standley 73406, 73521, 73527, 19 Mar. 1940 (C, D): 92812, 92813, 14 Mar. 1946 (C, D). Dade county: on shells, Biscayne Bay, Cutler, Humm, 13 Jan. 1946 (C, D); 30 Aug. 1950 (C, D); 1 Sept. 1950 (C, D). Escambia county: intertidal on shore of Pensacola Bay north of bay bridge on U. S. 98, Pensacola, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10622, 8 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Franklin county: between tide limits at docks in New river, Carrabelle, Drouet & Nielsen 10971, 16 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Gulf county: on rocks of retaining wall, 2 miles N.W. of Port St. Joe on U. S. 98, Madsen, Pates, Hood ¢& Elias 1510, 31 July 1949 (C, D, F). Hernando county: Battery Point, Brannon 561, Oct. 1948 (C, D). Lee county: Bonita beach, Standley 92787, 10 Mar. 1946 (C, D). Monroe county: on rock, North Key Largo, Isham 21, 1952 (C, D). Okaloosa county: intertidal on pilings in Choctawhatchee bay, east end of Santa Rosa island, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10633, 10635, 9 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); intertidal on rocks in Santa Rosa sound, west end of bridge on U. S. 98, Ft. Walton, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10641, 10643, 9 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Palm Beach county: in clam shells in shallow water of Lake Worth at Flagler Mem. bridge, West Palm Beach, Drouet & Louderback 10197, 23 Dec. 1948 (C, D); between tide-marks on jetties, Ocean Beach at east end of Sunset Ave., Palm Beach, Drouet & Louderback 10202, 10233, 24 Dec. 1948 (C, D); on rocks in tide-pools at point north of Ocean Beach, Singers island, east of Riviera, Drouet & Louderback 10230, 25 Dec. 1948 (C, D). Taylor county: between tide limits on shore of Steinhatchee river in southern part of Stein- hatchee, Drouet & Nielsen 11230, 11236, 11237, 11238, 23 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); Adams Beach, Madsen ¢> Pates 1088, 4 May 1949 (C, D, F). Volusia county: Daytona causeway (west end), Madsen & Pates 1605, 19 Mar. 1949 (C, D, F). Wakulla county: lighthouse pool, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Crowson 69, May 1948 (C, D, F); inter- tidal on east shore of East river, west of St. Marks lighthouse, Gulf of Mexico at mounth of St. Marks river, Drouet, Madsen ¢- Crowson 11729, 1 Feb. 1949 (C, D, F); in salt marsh along East river about 1 mile N.E. of St. Marks lighthouse, Gulf of Mexico at mouth of St. Marks river, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 11764, 11765, 1 Feb. 1949 (C, D, F). 104 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The Florida collection of Smith, Mar. 1878 (P, D) cited as Calo- thrix Donnellii in Wolle, Bull. Torr. Club 6: 283 (1879) and in Tilden, Minn. Alg. 1: 271 (1910) has been referred to this species (Drouet 1939). Collections contained: Amphithrix violacea B. & F., Hyella caespitosa B. & F., Lyngbya aestuarii Gom., L. confer- voides Gom. and Microcoleus chthonoplastes Gom. 7. Lyngbya aestuarii Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. WAUE IUGR ox. IA Fall, Sy sey Jha ice), Stratum exceedingly expanded, more or less very dark to obscurely blue-green, limicolous, pannose, compact, or floating and floccose. Filaments elongate, pliant, never pseudo-branched, generally tortuous and closely congested, or moderately flexuous to almost straight and loosely entangled, occasionally forming erect fascicles in areas of running water. Sheaths at first hyaline, thin, smooth, with age becoming wide, externally rough, more or less intensely yellow-dark, lamellose, with discolored layers, never turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes blue-green to olive, never constricted at cross-walls, apex slightly attenuate-capitate, truncate, more rarely subacutely conical, 8-24 microns generally 10-16 microns wide; cells 1/3-1/6 of trichome diameter in length, 2.7-5.6 microns long, filled with small protoplasmic granules; cross-walls never granular; mem- brane of apical cell slightly thickened above. Forma limicola. Stratum exundate, pannose, compact, almost thin. Filaments closely congested and generally tortuous. Forma natans. Stratum inundate, attached in mud, later floating. Filaments elongate, moderately flexuous or nearly straight, losely entangled. Forma symplocoidea. Stratum exundate. Filaments prostrate at base, entangled, above joining into dense erect fascicles. Alachua county: Sink I, Hibiscus pk., Gainesville, Brannon 9, 111, Sept. 1941 (C, D); Gainesville, Brannon 203, 5 Sept. 1943 (C, D). Broward county: intertidal mud-flats at east end of Hollywood blvd., Drouet & Louderback 10258, 27 Dec. 1948 (C, D); drying ground beside intracoastal waterway between Dania beach and Hollywood beach, Drouet & Louderback 10270, 28 Dec. 1948 (C,. D); on tidal mud-flat, Dania beach, Drouet & Louderback 10278. 28 Dec. 1948 (C, D); on drying mud-flats in mangrove swamp, south of South lake, Hollywood, Drouet 10294, 10302, 10305, 10306, 10313. Dade county: soil in salt flat near Flamingo, Everglades Natl, pk., A. J. Sharp 732, 21 Dec. 1948 (C, D). Hamilton county: Westlake, J. H. Davis, Jr., summer 1937, (C, D). Hernando county: FLORIDA OSCILLATORIACEAE III 105 in sand on log on shore of Battery Point, Brannon 578, Oct. 1948 (C, D). Lee county: on moist sand, region of Hendry Creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Standley 73459, 73252, 73204, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C, D). Leon county: mouth of drainage ditch on river bank, Jackson Bluff on Ochlockonee river, C. Jackson, 9 Nov. 1950 (C, D, F). Monroe county: Key West, W. G. Farlow, Noy. 1891 (C, D); in barren ground along shore near Big Pine Inn, Big Pine Key, M. Alice Cornman, 2 May 1948 (C, D); saline dats, south of Big Pine Inn, Big Pine Key, Killip & J. Francis Macbride, Apr. 1951 (C, D); brackish water, interior of Stake Key, Florida Bay, L. B. Isham 18, 1952 (C, D); Cudjoe Key, Isham 8, 1952 (C, D); Flor- ida Keys, mud-flats north end of Florida Bay, Snake Bight, R. N. Ginsberg, 1952 (C, D); dark green, S.W. point, on white marl, Big Pine Key, Killip 41793, 41794, 41796, 19 Jan. 1952 (C, D); saline flats, east side of bay, near Dinosaur stump, Big Pine Key, Killip 41809, 22 Jan. 1952 (C, D); grayish white, saline flats near Knight home, Big Pine Key, Killip 41818, 24 Jan. 1952 (C, D); black soil which extends downward at least 2 ft., saline flats west of lower part of road to Shell Beach, Big Pine Key, Killip 41855, 31 Jan. 1952 (C, D); dried-up sink-hole in clearing, N.E. of Watson Hammock, Big Pine Key, Killip 42017, 19 Mar. 1952 (C, D). Taylor county: inter- tidal at confluence of Daughter creek and Steinhatchee river, Stein- hatchee, Drouet & Nielsen 11221A, 23 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Wakulla county: Mounds pool, roadside ditch, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, _ Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 124, June 1948 (C, D, F); 487, 9 Oct. 1948 (C, D, F); Nielsen & Madsen 670, 671, 673, 676, 7 Nov. 1948 (C, D, F); in stream from small suiphur spring one-half mile south of Newport, Drouet, Crowson & Thornton 11351, 25 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); on shore of lighthouse pool, west of St. Marks lighthouse on Gulf of Mexico, at mouth of St. Marks river, Drouet, Madsen & Crowson 11755, 1 Feb. 1949 (C, D, F); moist earth, Port Leon, Harmon 18, 11 Nov. 1950 (C, D, F); soil, edge of Phillips Pool, Port Leon, C. Jackson 5, 6, 11 Nov. 1950 (C, D, F); on rock, brackish stream along main road, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen 1, 3, 4,5, 7, 4 Oct. 1951 (C, D, F); salt flats, north of lighthouse, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen 7, 8, 4 Oct. 1951 (C, D, F); soil, Shell Point, Gulf of Mexico, Nielsen 13, 7 Nov. 1952 (C, D, F); Nielsen, Hanks & Kurz 30, 16 Jan. 1953 (C, D, F). Collections of the species commonly contained the following algae: Coccochloris stagnina f. rupestris (Lyng.) Dr. & Daily, 106 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lyngbya semiplena Gom., L. versicolor Gom., Microcoleus chthono- plastes Gom., M. tenerrimus Gom., Oscillatoria Agardhii Gom., O. laetevirens Gom. and Schizothrix longiarticulata Gardn. The species is reported for the state by Wolle, F. W. Alg. 296 (1887) and by Farlow (1875) as L. luteofusca Ag. 8. Lyngbya lutea Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VII 16: p. 141, pl. 3, f. 12-18 (1892). Stratum subgelatinous, coriaceous, yellow-dark to olive, often black- violet upon drying. Filaments twisted, flexuous, closely entangled. Sheaths hyaline, smooth, turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine, at first thin, becoming lamellose, and up to 3 microns wide with age. Trichomes olive, not con- stricted at cross-walls, apex never attenuate, 2.5-6 microns wide; cells quadrate or up to 1/3 shorter than diameter, 1.5-5.5 microns long, filled with protoplasmic granules, generally obscuring cross-walls;. apical cell producing rotund calyptra. Bay county: intertidal on woodwork in west arm of St. Andrews bay, West Bay, Drouet & Nielsen 10878, 15 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Broward county: in intracoastal waterway, Dania beach, Drouet Louderback 10275A, 28 Dec. 1948 (C, D). Collier county: brackish pool, Marco Island, Standley 73402, 73525, 19 Mar. 1940 (C, D). Franklin county: intertidal on wood, north shore of St. Vincent Sound about 10 miles west of Apalachicola, Drouet & Nielsen 10981, 16 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Gulf county: intertidal in stream entering St. Joseph Bay by U. S. 319, north of rd. to Constitution pk., Port St. Joe, Drouet & Nielsen 11643, 81 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Monroe county: R. Thaxter, 1889 (C, D). Okaloosa county: intertidal pilings in Choctawhatchee Bay, east end of Santa Rosa island, Drouet, Nielsen, Madsen, Crowson & Pates 10633, 9 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Wakulla county: intertidal, St. Marks river, Port Leon, Drouet & Atwood 11453, 11461B, 26 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); lighthouse jetty, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen & Crowson, May 1949 (C, D, F). Specimens were found with Entophysalis deusta (Menegh.) Dr. & Daily. 9. Lyngbya putealis Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VII 16: p. 148, pl. 3, f. 14 (1892). Tufts extensive, black-green. Filaments exceedingly elongate, firm, straight, rigid upon drying. Sheaths hyaline, thin, papery, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes obscurely green, not constricted at cross-walls, apex attenuate, capitate, 8- 11 microns wide; cells 1/2 - 1/4 of trichome diameter in length, 2-4 microns long, filled with large proto- FLORIDA OSCILLATORIACEAE III 107 plasmic granules, cross-walls frequently obscured; cross-walls never granu- lar; apical cell with depressed-conical calyptra. Alachua county: Sink I, Hibiscus pk., Gainesville, Brannon 26, Aug. 1941 (C, D); Gainesville, Brannon 38, 27 Mar. 1942 (C, D); Lake Wauberg, Gainesville, J. S. Rogers 106, May 1943 (C, D); Gainesville, duck pond on submerged stick, Brannon 322, 22 May 1948 (C, D). Brevard county: pineapple field, Malabar, P. H. Ralfs, Noy. 1903 (C, D). Citrus county: Hernando, Brannon 210, 15 Apr. 1944 (C, D). Franklin county: Apalachicola bay, west end of John Gorrie bridge, Apalachicola, Madsen, Pates, Hood & Elias 1509A, 31 July 1949 (C, D, F). Gadsden county: Apalachicola river at Chattahoochee, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 277, 278, 282, 283, 285, 31 Aug. 1948 (C, D, F); Little River, U. S. 90, 8 miles east of Quincy, Nielsen 1428, 9 July 1949 (C, D, F). Hillsborough county: sulphur spring at Beach Pk., west of Tampa, J. C. Dickinson, Jr., 7 June 1939 (C, D). Leon county: submerged on limestone, Ochlockonee river at Jackson Bluff, C. Jackson, 9 Nov. 1950 (C, D, F). Marion county: Rock Springs, Mrs. F. A. Curtiss, 25 Mar. 1893 (C, D). Palm Beach county: Jupiter inlet, Mrs. G. A. Hall, Oct. 1897 (C, D). Wakulla county: limestone, Spillway Dam, Port Leon, H. R. Wilson, 23 July 1952. Specimens were found with Plectonema Nostocorum Gom. The species is reported for the state as Lyngbya subtorulosa (Breb.) Wolle in Wolle, F. W. Alg. 300 (1887). 10. Lyngbya Taylorii Drouet & Strickland. Amer. Journ. Bot. 27: 628 (1940). Tufts extensive, penicillate and radiating, up to 1/2 cm. long, brilliant blue-green; filaments elongate, straight, parallel, flexuous; sheaths at first thin later wide and obscurely lamellose, uncolored, turning very blue with chlor-zinc-iodine; trichomes blue-green, 4-7 microns wide, not attenuate toward apex, generally not constricted at cross-walls (rarely slightly con- stricted toward apex); cells quadrate or shorter than trichome diameter, 2-7 microns long; protoplasm granular, cross-walls never granular; apical cell rotund, with thickened membrane. Alachua county: Gainesville, Brannon 143, 144A, 7 Feb. 1943 (C, D); Bivens Arm, Gainesville, Brannon 9, 202, May 1943 (C, D); Lake Wauberg, Gainesville, Brannon 106, 111, May 1943 (C, D). Marion county: Dunnellon, Brannon 379, 20 Oct. 1946 (C, D). Pinellas county: Old Tidwell Place, Nielsen, Madsen <> Crowson 471, 19 Sept. 1948 (C, D, F). 108 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Drouet states the species occurs on larger water plants, rocks and wood in fresh water and sometimes is seen detached in floating tufts. The habit and filaments bear a superficial resemblance to that of Tolypothrix tenuis B. & F. The Florida specimens included plants of Lyngbya aestuarii Gom. and Oscillatoria princeps Gom. ll. Lyngbya Patrickiana Drouet. Field Mus. Bot. Ser. 20 (6): 135 (1942). Tufts blue-green, up to 5 cm. tall, slender; filaments long, straight, fragile; sheath at first membranaceous, later thicker and Jamellose, turning brilliant blue with chlor-zinc-iodine; trichomes blue-green, cylindrical, 5-10 microns wide, never constricted at cross-walls, not attenuate toward apex; cells 3-6 times shorter than diameter, cross-walls conspicuous, not or finely granular; apical cell rotund, membrane above not or scarcely thickened. Alachua county: Sink I, Hibiscus pk., Brannon 20, 84, Aug. 1942 (C, D); Gainesville, Brannon 112, 113, 6 Oct. 1942 (C, DD), 12h 6 Noy. 1942 (C, D); 287, 18 Oct. 1944 (C, D). Broward county: about 10 miles from Hollywood, on Fla. 149 about one-half block from railroad near turn, Ruth Patrick (C, D). Lee county: fresh-water pool, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Standley 73246, 11-25 Mar. 1940 (C, D). Leon county: F.S.U. botany dept. greenhouse, Nielsen 101, June 1948 (C, D). Wakulla county: Mounds pool, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen 36, 37, Apr. 1948 (C, D, F); picnic spring, Newport, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 165, 14 July 1948 (C, D, F); 488, 490, 9 Oct. 1948 (C, D, F); 668, 7 Nov. 1948 (C, D, F); Nielsen 1, 2, 15 Oct. 1950 (C, D, F). Collections included the following species: Aulosira implexa B. & F., Lyngbya versicolor Gom. and Oscillatoria tenuis var. natans Gom. 12. Lyngbya versicolor Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. Vil 16: p. 147) pl: 4. 4-5, (1s82): Stratum at first attached, later free-floating, slippery, somewhat delicate, externally ferruginous, internally darkly olive-green. Filaments clongate, - tortuous, firmly entangled. Sheaths hyaline, occasionally yellowish, slightly mucose and agglutinated, up to 2 microns wide, turning blue with chlor- zinc-iodine. Trichomes blue-green, not constricted at cross-walls, apex neither attenuate nor capitate, 2.8 - 3.2 microns wide; cells generally sub- quadrate, more rarely shorter than or double trichome diameter in length, 2-6.4 microns long; cross-walls translucent, very occasionally granular; apical cell rotund; calyptra absent. FLORIDA OSCILLATORIACEAE III 109 Alachua county: Gainesville, Brannon 112, 113, 6 Oct. 1942 (C, D); 287, 18 Oct. 1944 (C, D); fish aquarium, U. of Fla., H. E. Brant- ley 72, July 1944 (C, D). Collier county: Marco island, Standley 928387, 14 Mar. 1946 (C, D). Lake county: Griffin’s Lake, Leesburg, Brannon 253, 254, 279, July 1944 (C, D); in shallow water of Lake Harris in western part of municipal park, Leesburg, Drouet & Brannon 11061, 19 Jan. 1949 (C, D). Lee county: Hendry Creek, Standley 92766, 10 Mar. 1946 (C, D). Manatee county: on pottery bird bath, 315 16th st., Bradenton, C. B. Stifler, tall of 1945 (C, D); water reservoir, Bradenton, Brannon 360, 5 June 1949 (C, D). Mon- roe county: brackish water, interior of Stake Key, Florida Bay, L. B. Isham 18, 1952 (C, D); floating on dense mats of Ruppia sp., SE Hammock, Big Pine Key, Killip 41705, 10 Jan. 1952 (C, D). Wakulla county: Spillway Dam, Phillips lake, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Drouet & Crowson 816, 14 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F); on outlet of large sulphur spring bathing pool, one mile north of Newport, Drouet, Crowson & Thornton 11384, 25 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). The Florida collection cited in Wolle, F. W. Alg. 298 (1887) as Lyngbya obscura Wolle has been referred to L. versicolor Gom. (Drouet 1939). Collections contained Lyngbya aestuarii Gom. and L. Patrickiana Dr. 13. Lyngbya contorta Lemm. Ploner Forschber. 6, p. 202, pl. 5, f. 10 - 18 (1898). Filaments solitary, floating, regularly spiralled, with tight, nearly circular coils, 1 - 1.5 microns wide. Sheaths narrow, colorless. Cells 1-2 microns wide, 3-5 microns long, not constricted at cross-walls, with or without granules. Apical cell rounded, not attenuate. Planktonic in lakes, often also in braskish waters. Lake county: Griffin’s Lake, Leesburg, Brannon 253, July 1944 (C, D); in shallow water, shore of Lake Harris, western part of municipal park, Leesburg, Drouet & Brannon 11064, 19 Jan. 1949 (C ,D). Polk county: Lake Eagle, near Winter Haven, Nielsen 154, June 1948 (C, D, F). Putnam county: plankton of St. Johns river, opposite Welaka, FE. Lowe Pierce, 9 July 1940 (C, D). Gloeocapsa limnetica (Lemm.) Hollerb., Hapalosiphon pumilus B. & F. and Raphidiopsis curvata Fritsch were found in the col- lections. 14. Lyngbya Lagerheimii Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot.- Vil 16: p: 147, pl..4, 1: 6-7, 1892. 110 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Filaments more or less regularly spiralled, occasionally straight. Sheaths thin, hyaline. Trichomes about 2 microns wide; cells shorter or longer than diameter of trichome, 1.2 - 3 microns long; cross-walls characterized by two protoplasmic granules. Hamilton county: Westlake, J. H. Davis, Jr., summer 1937 (C, D). Monroe county: in shallow fresh-water pond on coral rock, Lower Matecumbe Key, A. M. Scott 87, 19 Oct. 1947 (C, D). Phormidium inundatum Gom. occurred with the above collections. 15. Lyngbya ochracea Gomont. Monogr. Oscill. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VII 16: p. 149 (1892). Filaments very slender, entangled into a yellow-ochraceous stratum, more or less curved, fragile. Sheaths at first thin, hyaline, finally wide and ochraceous, not turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes blue-green, frequently breaking apart, exceedingly torulose, 0.9 microns wide; cells shorter than trichome diameter, 0.6-0.8 microns long; cross-walls never granular; apical cell rotund; calyptra absent. Alachua county: on sand, Hibiscus pk., Gainesville, Brannon 192, Aug. 1943 (C, D). Liberty county: Deep Cut creek, Aspalaga on Apalachicola river, Madsen, Wagner & Pates 2072, 15 Apr. 1950 (CDE): : 16. Lyngbya infixa Fremy. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 195: p. 1414 (1932); Mem. Soc. Nat. Sci. Nat. & Math. Cherbourg AL: p, EO, pl, 30). A934). Filaments solitary or some loosely associated, semi-erect or subflexuous, considerably elongate, attached at base. Sheaths very thin, hardly visible, hyaline, never turning blue with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes in dried specimens pale blue-green; not constricted at cross-walls, generally 1.8 - 2 microns, more rarely up to 2.8 microns wide; cells usually shorter than wide, more rarely subquadrate, 1 - 2 microns long; cross-walls conspicuous, pellucid, non-granular; protoplasm conspicuously granular; apical cell neither attenuate nor capitate, with rotund non-thickened membrane above. Dade county: Cutler, Biscayne Bay, H. J. Humm 10, 13 Jan. 1946 (C, D). The Humm specimen was found with Lyngbya confervoides. Gom. 17. Lyngbya Diguetii Gomont in Hariot, Jour. de Bot. 9: p. 169 (1895). Filaments to 2 mm. long, forming a brilliant blue-green stratum, twisted at base, straight at ends, 2.5-3 microns wide. Sheath thin, turning blue FLORIDA OSCILLATORIACEAE III Ly with chlor-zinc-iodine. Trichomes not constricted at cross-walls, 2-3 microns wide. Cells nearly quadrate or more rarely shorter than wide, 1-3.7 microns long. Apical cell rotund, calyptra absent. Alachua county: Sink I, Hibiscus pk., Gainesville, Brannon 10, 29, 34, 177, Sept. 1949 (C, D). Citrus county: near Crystal river, Schal- lert 2070A, 12 Mar. 1949 (C, D). Lee county: fresh-water pool, region of Hendry creek, about 10 miles south of Fort Myers, Stand- ley 73551, 11 - 25 Mar. 1940 (C, D). Marion county: Brannon 177, 10 June 1943 (C, D). Wakulla county: shallow stream, 5.5 miles S.E. of Newport, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 82, 33, March 1948 (C, D, F); Mounds pool, roadside ditch, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 125, June 1948 (C, D, F); Little spring, Newport, Nielsen, Madsen & Crowson 184, July 1948 (C, D, F); on stones in outlet of large sulphur spring bathing pool about one mile north of Newport, Drouet, Crowson & Thornton 11400, 25 Jan. 1949 (C, D, F). Plectonema Wollei Gom. and Oscillatoria rubescens Gom. were found in the collections. 18. Lyngbya limnetica Lemmermann. Bot. Centralbl. 76: p. 154 (1898). Filaments straight or slightly curved, individual, free-floating, 1-2 microns wide. Sheath thin, hyaline. Cells 1-1.5 microns wide, 1-3 microns long, not constricted at cross-walls, with or without granules, pale blue-green. Lake county: in shallow water, shore of Lake Harris, western part of municipal park, Leesburg, Drouet & Brannon 11064, 19 Jan. 1949 (C, D). The following Florida collections have been referred as follows: (Drouet 1939): Lyngbya pallida (Naeg.) Kg. in Wolle, F. W. Alg. 298 (1887) to Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gom.; Lyngbya Naveanum Grun. in Wolle, F. W. Alg. 298 (1887) to Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gom.; Lyngbya obscura Wolle in Wolle, F. W. Alg. 298 (1887) to Oscillatoria limosa Gom.; Lyngbya vulgaris (Kg.) Kirch. in Wolle F. W. Alg. 300 (1887) te Symploca Muscorum Gom.; Lyngbya Juliana Menegh. in Wolle F. W. Alg. 301 (1887) and Lyngbya lutea (Agardh) Gom. in Tilden 114 (1910) have been re-examined by Drouet who states “that they are Myxophyceae in an unrecognizable state”. Lyngbya major Meneghini in Tilden, Minn. Alg. I: 126 112 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (1910) and Lyngbya hyalina Harvey in Tilden, Minn. Alg. I: 128 (1910) are Florida records for which specimens are lacking. Lyngbya hyalina Harvey and Lyngbya rosea Taylor have been reported from Key West and Dry Tortugas by Taylor (1928). (To be concluded in Vol. 18, No. 3) Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 18(2), 1955. MONOGENETIC TREMATODES OF GULF OF MEXICO BISHES, PAR Vil THE SUPERFAMILY DICLIDOPHOROIDEA Price, 1936 (Continued) WiLuiaM J. Harcis, Jr. The Citadel, Charleston, South Carolina This, the seventh paper of the present series treating the mono- geneids of the Gulf of Mexico, deals with several species belonging to the genus Mazocraeoides Price, 1936 of the family Mazocraeidae Price, 1936. It continues presentation of the data concerning members of the suborder Polyopisthocotylea Odhner, 1912 obtained during a recently concluded study of these ectoparasites of fishes. The organization and purpose are the same as for preceding in- stallments. All measurements were made using the ocular micrometer and are cited in millimeters. In the cases of curved structures measure- ments are of lines subtending the greatest arcs of those structures. In the descriptions given below the mean is presented first, fol- lowed by the minima and maxima in parentheses. The number of measurements used to derive the mean is usually the same as the number of individuals measured; otherwise the actual number employed appears in parentheses before the measurements. All drawings were made with the aid of the camera lucida. RESULTS Suborder Polyopisthocotylea Odhner, 1912 Superfamily Diclidophoroidea Price, 1936 Family Mazocraeidae Price, 1936 Genus Mazocraeoides Price, 1936 In addition to the new species described herein, the genus Mazocraeoides contains M. georgei Price, 1936 and M. dorosomatis (Yamaguti, 1938) Sproston, 1946. Contribution from the Biological Laboratories of the Citadel and the Oceanographic Institute of Florida State University, Tallahassee. Work aided by the Florida Academy of Science - A.A.A.S grant-in-aid for 1952. Acknowledgments and dedication of the present installment are the same as for preceding ones. 0.03 MONOGENETIC TREMATODES OF GULF OF MEXICO FISHES 115 The unusual, somewhat clavate body shape of its members is so characteristic that the genus is easily recognized. However, despite its aberrant shape, its affinities with other mazocraeid genera, @.g. genital atrium armament, clamp structure and anchors, are clear. All of the hosts bearing the known members of this genus belong to the suborder Clupeodei. M. georgei and M. opisthonema, de- scribed below, are the most closely related and occur on gills of members of the family Clupeidae. M.dorosoma, the most different one, is parasitic on Dorosoma thrissa a member of the clupeoidid family Dorosomidae. Two redescriptions of M. georgei Price, 1936 are given below. The first is of the worms taken from Brevoortia patronus from the Gulf of Mexico and the second is of the worms from several Pomolo- bus spp. from the Atlantic Ocean. This is done with the hope that future studies of the group will be facilitated. The reasons under- lying this action are: (1) the hosts belong to two different genera and occur in different localities, (2) certain small but constant mor- phological differences exist between the flukes which because of a dearth of specimens cannot now be regarded as species significant. Later studies may reveal further differences of either sub-specific or specific value. Explanation of Figures Mazocraeoides georgei from Brevoortia patronus Whole mount, ventral view. Clamp, open. Enlargement of posterior end showing anchors. Genital corona. pre) |S Mazocraeoides georgei from Pomolobus pseudoharengus 5. Genital corona, with free spine. 6. Clamp, open. 7. Anchors. Mazocraeoides opisthonema n. sp. 8. Clamp, closed, ventral view. 9. Enlargement of posterior end showing anchors. 10. Genital corona. Jibs) Baars. 12. Whole mount, ventral view. Composite drawing of the body outline of one specimen and internal organs of another. 116 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MAZOCRAEOIDES GEORGE! Price, 1936 (Figures 1-4) Host: Brevoortia patronus Goode, Gulf Menhaden, a nerito-pelagic marine clupeid. Location: Gills. Locality: Alligator Harbor, Florida. Previously reported hosts and locality: Pomolobus pseudo-harengus and P. mediocris from Woods Hole, Mass. Number studied: 9. Number measured: 5. Redescription: Body clavate, 1.1 (0.7-1.8) long by 0.4 (0.2-0.5) wide, rounded and not flattened dorso-ventrally as Linton (1940) stated, anterior portion of body long and tapered, posterior end broad and bluntly rounded; opisthaptor not separated from body. Cuticle thin, with delicate anterior striae. Prohaptor a pair of buccal suckers placed laterally in the buccal funnel; cephalic glands opening via ducts to the buccal funnel; posterior- lateral to genital atrium. Opisthaptor consisting of 4 pairs of clamps ventro- lateral in posterior half of body and slight posterior extension of body bearing 3 pairs of anchors. Clamp structure difficult to discern because most views obtained are of the open edges; however, clamps analysable on one specimen showed the following: anterior clamps slightly larger than posterior, (10) 0.037 (0.030-0.045) long by 0.031 (0.026-0.041) wide; ventral loop continuous, dorsal loop elements apparently incomplete though prominent, middle loop complete, center piece sculptured. Anchors postero-medial to posterior clamps; largest anchors lateral, 0.055 (0.047-0.061) long, with stout shafts (deep roots) and sickle-shaped ends; intermediate anchors smallest, similar to larval hooks in other form, 0.007 (0.007-0.009) long; medial anchors, 0.018 (0.014-0.022) long, roots modified giving entire anchor a more or less S-shape. Mouth subterminal. Pharynx ovoid, 0.042 (0.041-0.043) long by 0.030 (0.027-0.036) wide; esophagus broad, ramified posterior to genital atrium, extending to one-third level of body. Gut bifurcate, crura ramified, rami mostly lateral, confluent posterior to testis. Testis saccate, postequatorial, to left of midline between intestinal crura, 0.256 long by 0.054 wide; vas deferens wide, slightly sinuous, in midline. Genital pore midventral, located at about the middle of the esophagus, open- ing into an armed genital atrium. Genital corona in three pieces; central, ring-like muscular piece, 0.026 (0.023-0.030) long by 0.022 (0.020-0.023) wide, armed medially by 5 pairs of small, dorsally curved spines, 0.005 (0.004- 0.007) long; 2 laterally placed curved muscular pieces, 0.018 (0.015-0.019) long by 0.008 (0.007-0.009) wide, armed by a pair of larger, ventrally curved spines, 0.009 (0.007-0.012) long, with irregular bases. Ovary tubular, folded, © to right of midline; oviduct extending medially from median end of ovary lobe. (Ovaries and testes in these forms difficult to discern and somewhat variable in shape and extent.) Ootype dorsal to vitelline reservoir; uterus proceeding anteriorly in midline. Genito-intestinal canal apparently curving medially from the right crus. Vaginal pore irregular in outline, middorsal, at posterior end of what often appears to be a long antero-dorsal groove; vaginal duct and internal connections not observed. Mebhlis’ gland present. MONOGENETIC TREMATODES OF GULF OF MEXICO FISHES 117 Vitellaria follicular, near intestinal crura, mostly between rami, from a level posterior to genital pore to near posterior end of body; transverse vitelloducts fusing in midline to form Y-shaped vitelline reservoir. Egg not observed. Discussion: A description of Mazocraeoides georgei Price, 1936 was first published in a brief preliminary account and later redescribed and figured by Linton (1940) from the gills of two species of Pomolobus from Woods Hole, Mass. The specimens on which the present redescription is based were taken from the gills of a host belonging to the genus Brevoortia of the family Clupeidae. This pattern of parasite infection may reflect the relationship of the hosts. As mentioned above it is possible that subspecific or even specific differences exist between these Brevoortia parasites and those from Pomolobus. MAZOCRAEOIDES GEORGE! Price, 1936 (Figures 5-7) Hosts: Pomolobus pseudoharengus (Wilson), Alewife and P. mediocris (Mitchill), Hickory Shad, from Woods Hole, Mass. Number studied and measured: 38. Additional description: Body 1.9 (1.5-2.2) long by 0.7 (0.5-0.9) wide. Anterior clamps larger, (6) 0.045 (0.036-0.049) long by 0.038 (0.034-0.043) wide. Three pairs of anchors; lateral pair largest, 0.063 (0.061-0.065) long; inter- mediate anchors smallest, 0.012 (0.008-0.018) long; medial anchors, 0.015 (0.009-0.019) long. Pharynx ovoid, 0.054 (0.053-0.054) long by 0.041 (0.038- 0.046) wide. Genital corona with three muscular pieces. Center part a ring-like muscular piece, (2) 0.034 (0.034-0.035) long by (2) 0.026 (0.026-0.027) wide, armed medially by three pairs of small dorsally curved spines, 0.007 (0.007-0.008) long; two curved muscular pieces, 0.024 long by 0.008 wide, armed with a pair of large, ventrally curved spines, 0.012 (0.009-0.017) long, _ these spines apparently not terminally forked. Testis saccate, lying to left of body, 0.329 (0.243-0.425) long by 0.144 (0.121-0.182) wide. Eggs in utero appear somewhat variable in shape, generally fusiform, (1) 0.167 long by (1) 0.109 wide; some with filaments at both ends, others with none. Discussion: This study was made from several specimens- on Linton’s USNM Helm. Coll. slide No. 35623, and is given because of the lack of detail in previous descriptions. These forms differ from those on Brevoortia patronus (described herein) in the following respects: (1) spines on reniform muscular genital pieces not forked distally, (2) bases of these same spines smaller and of a different shape, (3) shape of the posteriormost spines on ring-like muscular genital piece, (4) host. These differences may later be shown to be either subspecific or specific in stature. MAZOCRAEOIDES OPISTHONEMA Ni. Sp. (Figures 8-12) Host: Opisthonema oglinum Gill, Theard Herring, a nerito-pelagic marine clupeid. © Location: Gills. 118 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Locality: Tampa Bay, Pinellas Co., Florida. Number studied and measured: 8. Holotype: USNM Helm. Coll. Description: Body elongate, clavate, 1.1 long by 0.4 (0.4-0.5) wide, narrowed anteriorly, broadly rounded posteriorly, opisthaptor not separated from rest of body. Cuticle apparently thin and smooth. Prohaptor a pair of buccal suckers placed laterally in the buccal funnel; cephalic glands postero-lateral to genital aperture with ducts leading to structures that are probably small head organs near the buccal suckers. Opisthaptor 4 pairs ot clamps ventro-lateral on the broadened posterior part of body, anterior clamps slightly larger, (4) 0.025 (0.020-0.027) long by 0.024 (0.022-0.026) wide; ventral loop continuous, dorsal loop elements incomplete, middle loop com- plete, center piece highly modified, clamp framework apparently much like that of other mazocraeid flukes though no favorable views were available. Anchors subterminal, 3 pairs; lateral anchors largest, 0.038 (0.036-0.039) long, shafts stout, ends sickle-shaped, intermediate anchors smallest, very delicate, appearing very unlike ordinary anchors in shape, 0.007 (0.007-0.008) long, somewhat like the bottle-shaped sclerites found on other monogeneids; medial anchors slightly sigmoid, 0.011 (0.008-0.018) long, with long shafts and delicate sickle-shaped ends. Mouth subterminal. Pharynx piriform to ovoid, 0.041 (0.032-0.050) long by 0.019 (0.019-0.020) wide; esophagus elongate, laterally ramified, extending to anterior one-forth level of body. Gut bifurcated, crura ramified medially and laterally, rami forked, crura apparently not con- fluent posteriorly. Genital organs somewhat variable in shape and _loca- tion, often difficult to discern. Testes large, saccate, roughly ovoid, be- tween intestinal crura postequatorially, 0.256 long by 0.094 wide; proxi- mal end of vas deferens a large tube of irregular caliber, expanding dorsal to vitelline reservoir to form a seminal vesicle, narrowing and becoming somewhat sinuous anteriorly. Genital pore midventral midway the esophagus, opening into the armed genital atrium. Genital corona in 3 parts; center part a ring-like muscular piece, 0.021 (0.019-0.022) long by 0.020 (0.019- 0.020) wide, armed medially by 4 separate pairs of small spines, 0.005 long, the posteriormost spine bearing a smaller spine on its base thus making 5 pairs of spines in all; two lateral curved muscular pieces, 0.017 (0.015-0.019) long by 0.007 (0.007-0.008) wide, armed with a pair of ventrally curved spines, 0.007 (0.007-0.008) long, with long irregularly shaped bases. Ovary elongate, folded, lying to left and dorsal to testis; oviduct running dextrally from right ovarian lobe. Ootype obliquely mesiad and dorsal to the vitelline reservoir; uterus proceeding in midline to genital pore. Genito-intestinal canal running from right crus to posterior end of vitelline reservoir. Vaginal pore middorsal to gut bifurcation, ducts not observed. Mehlis’ gland around base of ootype. Vitellaria follicular, near intestinal crura, from level posterior to gut bifurca- tion to near posterior end of body; transverse vitelloducts fusing in midline to form obliquely situated, Y-shaped vitelline reservoir. Egg in utero elliptical in outline, (1) 0.123 long by (1) 0.068 wide, no terminal filaments on one egg examined. Discussion: A study of M. georgei Price, 1936 and M. dorosomatis (Yamaguti, 1938) Sproston, 1946, the other species in this genus, indicates MONOGENETIC TREMATODES OF GULF OF MEXICO FISHES 119 that the present species is different from both, being apparently more closely related to the former. It differs from M. georgei in the following characters: (1) position and shape of ovary and testis, (2) number and arrangement of genital spines, (3) extent of vitelline reservoir, (4) host. Further study of these forms must be conducted in order to ascertain their true relationship since they are morphologically very similar. The hosts of the two American species, M. georgei and M. opisthonema, both belong to the family Clupeidae. SUMMARY This paper has presented a short discussion of the monogeneid genus Mazocraeoides Price, 1936 and its species. Mazocraeoides georgei Price, 19386 has been redescribed and discussed, and Mazo- craeoides opisthonema n. sp. described. Part VIII of this series continues presentation of the data on the superfamily Diclidophoroidea Price, 1936. LITERATURE CITED LINTON, EDWIN 1940. Trematodes from fishes mainly from the Woods Hole region Massa- chusetts. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 88: 1-172. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 18(2), 1955. SOME RECORDS OF HEMIPTERA NEW TO FLORIDA ROLAND F’. Hussey Biology Department, University of Florida These records are based on specimens in the collections of the University of Florida (UF) and the Florida State Plant Board (SPB), together with some that are in my own collection. ARADIDAE Aradus (Quilnus) niger Stal Four males were collected by me, November 21, 1953, under bark of a log in thinned-out woods beside “Falling Creek”, about 4% miles northeast of Lake City, in Columbia County. (UF). LYGAEIDAE Oedancala dorsalis (Say) The first Florida specimens of this northern species were taken July 12, 1954, by F. W. Mead (SPB), from herbage on the Apalachi- cola River flood plain at Chattahoochee. In the northern states I have found O. dorsalis on herbage in notably damper situations than those frequented by its common southern relative O. crassi- mana (Fabr.) E;NICOCEPHALIDAE Systelloderes inusitatus Drake & Harris One specimen is at hand (UF), collected by Dr. F. N. Young, March 21, 1947, about one mile south of Elfers in Pasco County and about three miles north of Tarpon Springs. This is the first new locality record for the species since it was described in 1927 from Woodville, Mississippi. As noted by its authors, this species has much more incrassate fore femora and much smaller eyes than S. biceps (Say). The eyes of inusitatus, as seen from the side, do not reach the level of either the dorsal or the ventral margin of the head, while in S. biceps | they are continued onto its under side and are almost in contact on the mid-ventral line. Also, the short, erect pilosity on head (above and below), pronotum, and scutellum is much thicker in inusitatus than in biceps. Although S. biceps is not new to the Florida list, it is worth noting that on April 3, 1955, in mid-afternoon, I found sparse SOME RECORDS OF HEMIPTERA NEW TO FLORIDA 121 swarms of this species flying in a wet woodland beside the Santa Fe River at Blue Spring, in Gilchrist County. REDUVIIDAE Gardena poppaea McAtee & Malloch One male of this species, previously known only from Texas, was taken by Dr. T. H. Hubbell, December 31, 1924, at Manatee (now incorporated in the city of Bradenton). The specimen (UF) is in fragments, but the characteristic male genitalia afford positive identification. Dr. Hubbell writes me that this emesine was col- lected at night in a subtropical hammock containing much cabbage palmetto. Ghilianella productilis Barber I collected two adults from junipers at Silver Glen Springs, near Lake George in Marion County, March 19, 1955, and I have a nymph that I took from Spanish moss at Lakeland, February 7, 1948. I have also seen specimens (SPB) from Brevard County, collected March 24, 1954, by F. W. Mead, and from Gainesville, October 1953, the latter taken on the University campus by Mr. T. W. Sistrunk. Though not new to Florida, this emesine has previously been reported only from the far southern part of the state and from Cuba. ANTHOCORIDAE Lasiochilus comitialis Drake & Harris I have identified as this species a specimen collected in Alachua County, November 21, 1953, by F. W. Mead (SPB). Described in 1926 from specimens taken on hickory in North Carolina, L. comitialis has not been reported elesewhere until now. MIRIDAE Coccobaphes sanguinareus Uhler Dr. H. V. Weems, Jr., collected two specimens of this bright red, maple-dwelling plant-bug in Highlands Hammock State Park, near Sebring, March 24, 1951. HyYDROMETRIDAE Hydrometra hungerfordi Torre-Bueno This species was wrongly identified by Herring (1949) as H. australis Say. In so doing he was misled by Torre-Bueno’s wholly 122 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES erroneous remark that in hungerfordi the ante-ocular and post- ocular parts of the head are subequal in length, though the measure- ments in the original description show a ratio of 9:5 for these parts. The name australis, according to Drake and Hottes (1952), should be used for the species referred to by Herring and others as H. myrae Torre-Bueno. Mr. Herring’s material in this genus is now deposited in the University of Florida collections. GERRIDAE Rheumatobates clanis Drake & Harris Mr. Herring has given me several specimens from a series of this species which he took on salt water on the Gulf coast at Bay- port, Hernando County, November 2, 1947, and has very kindly permitted me to publish this record together with two others which follow. R. clanis is new to the United States list, as it was known before only from British Honduras and from northwestern Cuba. Rheumatobates minutus Hungerford I collected several alate and partially de-alated specimens from a pool on the campus of Florida Southern College, at Lakeland, November 9, 1950; and Mr. Herring found this species on fresh water on Big Pine Key, Monroe County, November 11, 1947. It was known previously from Yucatan, Panama, and Puerto Rico, and a subspecies occurs in Amazonas, Brasil, and in eastern Peru. VELIIDAE Microvelia portoricensis Drake A number of specimens were taken with the preceding species by Mr. Herring on Big Pine Key, November 11, 1947. This veliid is another addition to the water-strider fauna of the United States. LITERATURE CITED IDJEVKGD,, (Gi, [Ion @tarel 18, (C, IEKOUMIOES 1952. Distributional and Synonymical Data and Description of Two New Hydrometridae. Jour. Kansas Ent. Soc., 25(8): 106-110. HERRING, JON L. 1949. Taxonomic and Distributional Notes on the Hydrometridae of Florida (Hemiptera). Florida Ent., 1948, 31(4): 112-116. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 18(2), 1955. EFFECT OF A LONG SHAFT ON THE POLARIZATION OF SKYLIGHT A. G. SmirH and M. L. VatTsta Department of Physics, University of Florida One of the authors (Smith, 1955) has shown elsewhere that a long shaft, such as a chimney, has no appreciable effect on the luminance and color of the daytime sky. Thus, there is no physical basis for the common belief that it is possible for an observer at the bottom of such a shaft to see stars during the day. While available physiological data are (as usual) less conclusive, there is a considerable volume of observational evidence which suggests that the shaft will hinder, rather than aid, the observer in achieving optimum visual adaptation. It thus appears unlikely that there is any real basis for this suprisingly widespread belief. It occurred to the writers that there is an additional important property of skylight which had been neglected in the original investigation, since it does not bear directly on the visual problem. The light of the sky, like all scattered radiation, is plane polarized in varying degrees, the extent of the polarization depending upon the angular relationship between the sun, the observer, and the area of the sky being studied. It was decided, for the sake of completeness, to undertake measurements of sky polarization from the 157-foot chimney used in the previous program. _ The instrument used in the investigation was a 3-inch zenith telescope of 15-inch focal length. The photomultiplier tube of a Photovolt Model 520-A photometer was placed at the primary focus of the telescope. Immediately preceding the photomultiplier was the analyzer, a 2-inch disc of Polaroid material. (In one of the runs the Polaroid was replaced by a large Nicol prism.) Optical bench tests showed that in the crossed position Polaroids of this type transmit only about 0.25 per cent of incident light of the spectral quality of skylight. Sky measurements were made in pairs, with the telescope set up first inside the chimney and then outside; on the average about five minutes elapsed between the two read- ings of a pair. During each of several runs the percentage polariza- tion of the zenith sky was measured in this fashion for periods ranging from 4 hours to 12 hours. Figure 1 shows the results of the run of March 11, 1955, which is typical of the data. In this figure, percentage polarization is plotted against time and against solar altitude. (The solar altitude 124 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES was computed from astronomical tables.) Since sky polarization is a maximum in the region 90° from the sun, the zenith polariza- tion is of course greatest near sun-up and sun-down. It is clear that both sets of points lie on a single curve, within the scatter to be expected from random errors, and that there is thus no systematic difference between readings taken through the chimney and those taken outside. The measurements, therefore, emphasize the fact that even a shaft as long as this one in no way alters the physical properties of the light from the sky. SOLAR ALTITUDE pe 102° 202302 402 562 56° 50° 40° 302° 202 moO 80 POLARIZATION, % (o>) oO aS (oe) ZENITH 20 7: 8 °9-: 10 W212” 12° Bo" SB a eS ee, A.M. EASTERN STD. TIME Fig. 1—Run of March 11, 1955. Circles are observations made through chimney; crosses are observations made outside chimney. LITERATURE CITED SMITH, ALEX G. 1955. Daylight Visibility of Stars from a Long Shaft. J. Optical Soc. of America (in press). Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 18(2), 1955. BOOK REVIEW A MANUAL OF THE DRAGONFLIES OF NorTH AMERICA (ANISOPTERA). (Including the Greater Antilles and the Provinces of the Mexican Border.) By James G. Needham and Minter J. Westfall, Jr. xi + 615 pp., col. front. 341 figs. Univ. of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1955. $12.50. To many people, the dragonflies are one of the most fascinating groups of living insects. Their effortless flight, brilliant colors, and complex behavior attract the attention and admiration of laymen and professional scientists alike. To judge from their book, the dragonflies have meant even more to Drs. Needham and Westfall. One is endlessly impressed by the vast amounts of loving labor which have gone into the preparation of this great volume. The minute attention to detail is matched by the completeness of the coverage and the lucid yet vivid language. Even admitting that the probable descendents of the giant protodonates of the Coal Age swamps are worth attention, the scope and perfection of this book is still amazing. The “Manual of the Dragonflies .. .” is a literary descendent, in a sense, of the now classical and almost unobtainable “Handbook of the Dragonflies of North America” by Needham and Hortense Butler Heywood (1929). It is to be completed in a proposed second volume on the damsel flies by Dr. Westfall. The amount of new material and more extended coverage dictated a number of econ- omies and precluded treatment of the entire order in one book. The result, however, is not entirely unfortunate since the Anisop- tera form a natural group very easily distinguished from the damsel- flies, and an authoritative work on their classification satisfies a very real need. The general plan is to present through carefully constructed dichotomous keys and tables of characters the means of distinguish- ing both adults and nymphs, where known, of the five families, 71 genera, and 332 species recorded from the region covered. The inclusion of the Greater Antilles and northern Mexico is an ad- vance over many manuals on other groups which persist in stopping at the arbitrary southern border of the United States. Each genus and species is discussed separately and in considerable detail. The portion on systematic classification is preceded by a discussion of characters and adequate figures so that even the amateur should 126 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES be able to use the keys with a fair promise of success. I must admit, however, that they do not work on memories, and I have been quite unable to determine the possessor of the brilliant red abdomen which I have seen so often along the canals of the Ever- glades. The most notable feature of the new book is the many fine illus- trations, both photographic and line, which were largely prepared by the junior author. With their aid, the use of the keys and tables should attain a high degree of accuracy. As to the format and printing, they are imposing. It is only to be regretted that they seem to have caused the omission of bio- logical and distributional notes which would have added greatly to the over-all usefulness of the book. To a field naturalist, who does not have time constantly to search the vast literature, the lack of summaries of previous work is at least inconvenient. The price is also discouraging. The interested reader will find a stimulating review by C. Francis Byers in the March, 1955, issue of the Florida Entomologist. Dr. Byers, who has contributed largely to our knowledge of the Florida fauna, presents many interesting aspects of the historical develop- ment of the study of dragonflies. He says in part: The pattern for the development of our knowledge of North American Odonata culminating in the Needham-Westfall volume was set in substantially its present form through the works of H. A. Hagen and the Baron de Selys- Longchamps a hundred years ago. The late E. B. Williamson and Clarence Kennedy together with Drs. P. P. Calvert, E. M. Walker, and J. G. Needham developed and extended this tradition through the early part of the 20th century. These men directly, and through their students, over the years have extended our knowledge of the North American fauna to a point where new vistas must be opened and investigations along different lines initiated. The new lines of investigation have already been begun and the new vistas are opening. A report on the fantastic mating system in Plathemis lydia by Merle E. Jacobs is promised in a forthcoming issue of Ecology, and other aspects of dragonfly behavior are being investigated both in the United States and abroad. In the develop- ment of this work the “Manual” will play an indispensable part. All in all, the “Manual of the Dragonflies of North America’ is a splendid book. It represents the apex of achievement of a syn- thesis of our knowledge on a very important group of insects. BOOK REVIEW 127 This synthesis was only possible through the “know how” of an “old master’ and the diligent cooperation of his younger colleague. It is regrettable that Dr. Needham did not live to see the publica- tion of what he must have felt was one of the justifications of his life’s work.—F RANK N. Younc, Indiana University. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 18(2), 1955. THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ORGANIZATION FOR 1955 ANNUAL MEETING AT THE UNtv. oF MIAMI Local Arrangements Committee: Dr. W. Henry Leigh,* chair- man; Dr. Alfred P. Mills, visual aids; Dr. Jackson P. Sickels, campus information; Dr. Virgil Sleight, accommodations; Dr. Ruth Clouse, banquet arrangements; Mr. Oscar Owre, exhibits. Awards Committee: Dr. Clarence P. Idyll,* Marine Laboratory, chairman; Dr. Luella Dambaugh, Geography; Dr. Harry Robert- son, Physics. Membership Committee: Dr. Howard K. Wallace, University of Florida, chairman. Collegiate Academy Sponsorship: Dr. R. S. Kiser,* Florida South- ern, chairman; Dr. Luella Dambaugh, local chairman. Junior Academy Sponsorship: Miss Louise Williams,* Lakeland High, chairman. | Conservation Committee: Dr. Benjamin B. Leavitt,* University of Florida, chairman; the Academy’s president, vice president, and all past presidents willing to serve; Mr. Robert P. Allen, Tavernier; Dr. O. Earle Frye, Jr., Tallahassee; Mr. Robert M. Ingle, Talla- hassee; Dr. Maurice W. Provost, Vero Beach. Science Fairs Committee: Prof. Clyde T. Reed,* University of Tampa, chairman; Dr. Alfred P. Mills, University of Miami; Dr. Chester S. Nielsen, Florida State University; Dr. Dan A. Thomas, Rollins College; Dr. Gerald A. Thomas, University of Florida. Florida Academy of Sciences Council (additional to those aster- isked above): Dr. Joseph Curtis Moore, president; Dr. Howard K. Wallace, vice president and master of ceremonies; Dr. Sigismond deR. Diettrich, past president; Dr. Chester S. Nielsen, past presi- dent; Dr. Richard A. Edwards, secretary-treasurer; Dr. Ralph N. Yerger, chairman, the Biological Sciences Section; Dr. Harry Robert- son, chairman, the Physical Sciences Section; Dr. Burke Vanderhill, chairman, the Social Sciences Section; Dr. Murray Sanders, chair- man, the one-year trial Medical Sciences Section; Dr. Grace Mad- sen, at large; Mr. J. P. Lesperance, at large; Dr. E. Ruffin Jones, — AAAS Academy conference representative; Dr. A. M. Winchester, AAAS council representative; Dr. J. C. Dickinson, Jr., editor of the Quarterly Journal. * Also member of Council. INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Contributions to the JouRNAL may be in any of the fields of Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings can be published only with the cooperation of the author. Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or other com- petent critics. ManuscrieT ForM.—(1) Typewrite material, using one side of paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal mar- gins; (3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight; (4) do not submit carbon copies; (5) place tables on separate pages; (6) foot- notes should be avoided whenever possible; (7) titles should be short; (8) method of citation and bibliographic style must conform to JourNAL style—see Volume 16, No. 1 and later issues; (9) a factual summary is recommended for longer papers. ILLUsTRATIONS.—Photographs should be glossy prints of good con- trast. All drawings should be made with India ink; plan linework and lettering for at least % reduction. Do not mark on the back of any photographs. Do not use typewritten legends on the face of drawings. Legends for charts, drawings, photographs, etc., should be provided on separate sheets. Articles dealing with physics, chemistry, mathematics and allied fields which contain equations and formulae requiring special treatment should include India ink drawings suitable for insertion in the JOURNAL. Proor.—Galley proof should be corrected and returned prompily. The original manuscript should be returned with galley proof. Changes in galley proof will be billed to the author. Unless specially requested page proof will not be sent to the author. Abstracts and orders for reprints should be sent to the editor along with corrected galley proof. REPRINTS.—Reprints should be ordered when galley proof is re- turned. An order blank for this purpose accompanies the galley proof. The Journat does not furnish any free reprints to the author. Payment for reprints will be made by the author directly to the printer. Quarterly Journal” of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 18 September, 1955 No. 3 Contents Wass—The Decapod Crustaceans of Alligator Harbor and Adjacent Inshore Areas of Northwestern Florida __..._.__ = tae Nielsen—Florida Oscillatoriaceae ITT — Ue Becknell—American Education and the Stone Wall... 189 Kilby and Caldwell—A List of Fishes from the Southern Tip eenenorida Penmisnla 8 2 195 Neill and Allen—Metachrosis in Snakes 207 Flavin and Edson—A Biological Soil Test for Available Phos- phorus by Spontaneous Growth of Soil Organisms ______. 216 Klein—Hermaphroditism in a Mouse Related to Strain A ____ 228 VoL. 18 SEPTEMBER, 1955 No. 3 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Editor—J. C. Dicxtnson, Jr. Associate Editor—Joun D. Kitpy Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Pepper Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. f The business offices of the Journat are centralized at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor, Department of Biology. Business com- munications should be addressed to R. A. Edwards, Secretary-Treasurer, De- partment of Geology. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be addressed to The Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries. Subscription price, Five Dollars a year Mailed November 30, 1955 PAE, OUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE PEORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 18 SEPTEMBER, 1955 No. 3 THE DECAPOD CRUSTACEANS OF ALLIGATOR HARBOR AND ADJACENT INSHORE AREAS OF NORTHWESTERN FLORIDA + Marvin L. Wass Oceanographic Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fla. The general paucity of organized information on the decapod Crustacea of the northeastern Gulf coast and the evidence that inshore waters of the area support a rich fauna led the writer to undertake this study. The work was begun in the summer of 1952 and completed a year later. Data has been gathered on the dis- tribution and habitats of the Decapoda of shallow waters in the general area of Alligator Harbor, Franklin County, Florida, and a key has been prepared to the species collected. HISTORICAL Among the earliest collections of marine Crustacea from Florida is that made by Professor H. E. Webster, reported by Kingsley (1879). Webster collected along the Gulf coast south of Sarasota. Ives (1891) lists some decapods collected between Cedar Keys and the mouth of the Caloosahatchie river in 1886. Hemphill did considerable collecting south of Cedar Keys, and Stearns, who obtained most of his material from fish stomachs, was the source of many records from Pensacola prior to 1900; both of these col- lections were reported on in part by Rathbun (1918, 1925, 1930, 1937). Offshore collections were made by the Albatross in 1885 and by the Fish Hawk in 1901 and 1902. The Pelican made some col- lections in 1939, but apparently only the shrimps of the family Palaemonidae have been reported on (Holthuis, 1951, 1952). ‘Contribution No. 37, Oceanographic Institute, Florida State University. DEC6 1959 130 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Burkenroad (1934, 1939) has made important contributions con- cerning the family Penaeidae in the Gulf, mostly off Louisiana. Schmitt (1935a) described two new species of mud shrimps from Grande Isle; both are abundant along Alligator Point. A list of the fauna of the Grande Isle region (Behre, 1950) included 69 species of decapods. Chace (1942) described two small shrimps from Sanibel Island; one of these is common in Alligator Harbor. McRae (1950) studied the xanthid crabs of the Cedar Key area. One of the few thorough studies of a decapod fauna comparable to that found in the northeastern Gulf is the survey of the species found at Beaufort, North Carolina, by Hay and Shore (1918). THE AREA STUDIED All decapods reported here were collected in water less than about 35 feet deep off Franklin and Wakulla counties in north- western Florida. In certain areas, including Alligator Harbor, the Gulf beach of Alligator Point, the bottom near whistle buoy 26 (about 10 miles southeast of Alligator Point), and the area near St. Marks Light, collecting was more intensive than it was in other parts of the region. | Alligator Harbor is a shallow bay, open only at one end, formed by Alligator Point. The salinity is essentially the same as that of adjacent inshort Gulf waters, as there are no important freshwater streams entering the bay. Salinity records usually range from 28 to 34 points per thousand. The bottom is principally muddy sand and supports extensive beds of marine phanerogams of three species, Thalassia testudinum Koenig and Sims, Cymodocea mana- torum Aschers, and Halodule wrightii Aschers. Much of the upper (eastern) part of the bay is covered by algae, often unattached, of the genus Cladophora. During spring and summer Spyridia and Chondria are abundant. Intertidal oyster bars occur along the mainland shore of the bay opposite the Alligator Harbor Laboratory. Drum Creek is a meandering tidal stream that orig- inates in a salt marsh behind Drum Point just west of the laboratory. The Gulf beaches of Alligator Point and Dog Island, about 10 miles southwest, were the source of several species not found else- where. Rocky spots in 8-10 feet of water 4-5 miles ESE of St. Marks Light were an important source. DECAPOD CRUSTACEANS OF ALLIGATOR HARBOR 131 Whistle buoy 26, about 10 miles southeast of Alligator Point in the open Gulf, marks an area of scattered sponges and coral heads in 30 to 35 feet of water where many species were collected. Much collecting was done by means of dredges, trawls, and div- ing equipment operated from aboard the laboratory motor vessels Sea Quest and Dolphin. Fish stomachs from offshore were oc- casionally examined. Burrowing species were obtained by digging and by collecting in the surf. KEY TO THE DECAPOp CRUSTACEA OF THE ALLIGATOR HARBOR AREA 2 1. General form shrimp-like; cephalothorax and abdomen usually compressed ecw couborder Natantia)) 02 265 0. z General form lobster-like or crab-like; cephalothorax and abdomen usually depressed. (Suborder Reptantia) 2. Pleura of second segment of abdomen not overlapping those of the first Scommeniamn @inibne banaveidea)) << 2a 20 ete. eS 8 Pleura of second segment of abdomen overlapping those of the first seiner - (CLE oe (GE TH 10 (ee) | emaciated a 10 3. First three pairs of legs chelate, all of the legs well developed a ree ae PENAEIDAE 4 None of the legs chelate, last two pairs small or wanting __SERGESTIDAE Lucifer faxoni 4. Integument thin; abdomen smooth, not carinate anteriorly 5 Integument rigid; abdomen more or less carinate throughout its length SHEMET ARKeG MW yIth MAETOWS 2. ee ek ee 8 5. Endopodite of first maxilla elongate and segmented; rostrum with ven- pa CPL tte ibe Hala lide bles Pty ot et tI ieee Sk a AG Bee 8 Endopodite of first maxilla short and unsegmented; rostrum without ceernaral, Geel” eee ag ee ee eee, ee Re ee gee ene eae 7 6. Dorsal carina about 2/3 length of carapace, with bordering lateral grooves about 1/2 length of carapace; flagellum of second antenna twice pRMOMELyaeTnothy, rule Wal hve) Ve ei is ae es Penaeus setiferus Dorsal carina of carapace extending from rostrum nearly to posterior margin and bordered on each side by a deep groove; flagellum of second antenna less than twice the body length _...- Penaeus duorarum 7. Rostrum with long styliform tip, five dorsal teeth near base; posterior periopods with long feeler-like tips — Xiphopeneus kroyeri * Only a small part of the material in this key is strictly original. Most of it has been compiled from keys or descriptive material published by the following authors: Anderson and Lindner, 1943; Burkenroad, 1934, 1939; Chace, personal communications; Coutiere, 1909; Hay and Shore, 1918; Holthuis, 1951, 1952; Lunz, 1937, 1945; Rathbun, 1918, 1925, 1930, 1933, 1937; and Schmitt, 1930, 1935a, 1935b. (A glossary of terms used will be found at the end of this key.) ie 12. 14. 15. 7. 18. 19: 20. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Rostrum short and bearing usually 7 (7-9) equidistant teeth above; posterior periopods not feeler-like — Trachypeneus constrictus A sharp spine on anterior margin of carapace below eye; dorsal carina of second abdominal segment not notched == == saa 9 Angle below eye unarmed; a notch in dorsal carina of second abdominal seomment <2 2b et i A A eae ee ee eee Sicyonia laevigata Dorsal carina of carapace with 3 or 4 teeth behind orbital margin, of which 3 are large and placed far behind orbit ____. Sicyonia brevirostris Dorsal carina of carapace with 2 or 3 teeth behind orbital margin, of which 2 are large and placed far behind orbit —._____ Sicyonia typica Carpus of second pam of legs annulated 222-2 11 Carpus of second pair of legs not annulated _. PALAEFMONIDAE 23 Eyes covered by the carapace —=.2 = asa CRANGONIDAE 12 Fyes not covered: py the carapace == !s same HIPPOLYTIDAE 18 Hand of large cheliped compressed; species most common in shallow water 25. 4 ee 13 Hand of large cheliped cylindrical; species usually found in deeper water {2 0 es ee ee 14 Orbital lobes forming tooth-like projections; propodus of major cheliped not notched below .-= = fj y-*) a es) a a te) > >) x S Biscayne Park (Village) ya \ Ctown Surfside TOO POM ODO INU RW x ee bee fee fs Pome Peed poe, PE 118 Indian Cree 19 District 2 Cunincorp.) 1420 District 3 21 District 1 22 District 4 JACKSONVILLE AND MIAMI: URBAN CONTRASTS 23: Ut in 1819, Jacksonville was platted in 1822 but Miami not until 1896. Jacksonville’s growth was slow until after the Civil War; but with a railway connection westward after 1868 and active river com- merce southward up the St. Johns River after 1876, its popula- tion increased to 17,000 in 1890 before Miami was born. Railway connections were made to the north by 1881 and southward to Tampa by 1885. Jacksonville's connection down the east coast of Florida extended to St. Augustine after 1885, to West Palm Beach in 1894, and to Miami in 1896. Called by many “City of Hotels” and “Winter City in Summer Land,” Jacksonville was an outstand- ing tourist city during the 1880s and 1890s. Port facilities really began to be constructed on modern lines in Jacksonville after the disastrous fire of 1901; harbor improvements made in 1906, 1916, and 1945 have successfully deepened the channel to 34 feet. Con- struction of the first highway bridge across the St. Johns parallel to the railway bridge of 1890 was completed in 1921, and by 1932 South Jacksonville had been annexed. A second highway bridge was finished in 1941, and a third and fourth recently. Although Miami was slow to start, its jolt into life with the ar- rival of the tourist-laden Florida East Coast Railway in 1896 was forceful. Counting more than 5,000 by 1910, Miami’s population jumped to nearly 30,000 in 1920 and was close behind Jacksonville with 110,000 in 1930 after the boom of the 1920s (Table 1). Taking into account only populations within city limits, Jacksonville and Miami were almost identical in 1940; however, considering also the closely-settled fringe areas of the cities, Miami exceeded Jack- sonville by about 30,000. The gap in population between the two cities was widened during the 1940s until Miami had 250,000 within the city and another 210,000 in the urban fringe areas in 1950, in contrast to 205,000 in Jacksonville city and less than 40,000 on the fringes. The Greater Miami urbanized area encompassed 18 incorporated villages, towns, and cities hugging the central city in 1950 (Fig. 1). The largest were Miami Beach (46,000), Coral Gables (20,000), Hialeah (20,000), and North Miami (11,000). The initial population contrast, then, is that Jacksonville expanded gradually and steadily absorbed fringe areas, whereas Miami ex- ploded with fringe areas being filled in rapidly between the cen- tral city and the numerous suburbs. Other contrasts in population are racial composition, place of origin, age composition, and birth rate (Table 1). First, Jacksonville’s population is about 35% colored, 236 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 Selected Data for Jacksonville and Miami Jacksonville Miami City—Urbanized Area City—Urbanized Area Population: 1900) 28,420 1,681 LOU, Sena ae 57,699 5,471 LOO eee 2s. Ss 91,558 est. 95,000 29,571 est. 32,000 LOS Osea 129,549 est. 135,000 110,637 est. 130,000 1940" aoe 173,065 est. 195,000 172,172 est. 225,000 19507 ee eet 204 a7 242,909 249,276 458,647 Non-white (1950) 35.5% 30.9% 16.3% 12.2% Foreign-born white 2d Del 10.8 10.9 Median age (1950) _. 31.0 yrs. 30.1 yrs. 35.8 yrs. 34.4 yrs. Under 5 years of age __ 10.4% pee Dh We false 8.8% Over 65 years of age __ 6.5 6.2 8.5 7.8 Birth rate (live births per 1,000 population) _ 302 20.3 Median family income . (O48) coment ees $2,676 $2,853 $3,004 $3,178 Median value of owner- occupied 1-dwelling unit SiLuctute == 2 eee _ $6,943 $10,440 Median gross monthly rent $38.69 $51.43 Labor force: Retailetrade <2 6. = ocd 19.5% 19.7% 24.6% 23.7% Wholesale trade ____ 6.3 6.5 4.8 4.7 Manutactunmne. 5 <2 e 13.4 13.0 8.0 8.0 ransportation: 2-2 13.9 oe, LEO es New residential construction ___ _ $9,957,000 $26,232,000 lefanaitly. Structures js ee 86% 56% New non-residential construction __ $8,269,000 $14,995,000 Source: U. S. Bureau of the Census. County and City Data Book: 1952. Washington, 1953. ; Miamis 16%, making Jacksonville typical of Southern cities and Miami typical of Northern cities. Second, Jacksonville’s population is largely native-Floridian with a large segment of Georgia-born persons and other Southerners. Miami's population, on the other hand, is only about one-fourth native-Floridian with large numbers of northern-born peeple. Moreover, more than 10% of Miamis population is foreign-born; Jacksonville has only 2% foreign-born. Third, Jacksonville’s population is younger than Miamis; the me- dian age is 31 and 36, respectively, reflecting the greater number JACKSONVILLE AND MIAMI: URBAN CONTRASTS 237 of retired persons in Miami, where 8'2% of the people are 65 years of age or older. Fourth, Jacksonville’s birth rate is somewhat higher than Miamis—30 per thousand versus 20 per thousand; part of this difference reflects the greater number of Negroes in Jacksonville, part represents the younger age composition in Jack- sonville. In summary of differences in populations, if one walked the streets of Jacksonville he would expect to see one person in 3 as colored, few old people but relatively numerous children, and would hear predominantly Southern accents; on the other hand, in Miami one would expect to see only one in 6 as colored, 1 of 11 of age 65 or over, relatively few children, and northern or mid- western accents—as well as frequent signs in store windows “Se habla espanol.” Economic contrasts between the two cities appear in the median family income. In 1949, the median income was $2,676 in Jack- sonville and $3,004 in Miami. Such contrast also appears in values of houses and in rental rates. The median values of owner-occupied, single-dwelling units were about $7,000 in Jacksonville and $10,000 in Miami in 1950. Median rents were just under $40 per month in Jacksonville, but more than $50 per month in Miami. Economic contrasts also appear in the labor forces of the two cities. In both instances the largest number of the employed labor _ force are engaged in retail trade; however, Jacksonville’s 19.5% is about the same as the U. S. urban average, but considerably below Miamis 24.6%. The wholesale trade, manufacturing, and transportation segments of the labor force are relatively more im- portant in Jacksonville than in Miami. In the national picture, both cities stand above the average city in wholesale trade and in transportation, but below the national average in manufacturing. Although manufacturing plants are more numerous in Miami than in Jacksonville, the average size is nearly 3 times as large in Jack- sonville. The average of the 267 factories in Jacksonville in 1950 employed 46 workers and added $244,000 in value to products; Miamis averages were 17 employees and $93,000 value added by manufacture. Finally, construction activities in Jacksonville and Miami indicate contrasting emphases. In 1950, new building in Jacksonville was distributed 55% residential / 45% nonresidential, whereas in Miami it was about 65% residential / 35% nonresidential. In other words, 238 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES emphasis has been more on business, industrial, and other non- residential uses in Jacksonville than in Miami. In the field of residential construction, marked contrast in emphasis appears in single-family structures in Jacksonville (86% of the total) and in multi-family structures in Miami (44% of total). Continued con- trasts in emphasis on apartment building will result in greater density of population in Miami as well as in larger total population. Estimates of 1955 populations of counties in Florida indicate that Duval has 397,000 and Dade 714,000. These both represent growths somewhat higher than the growth rates of 1940-1950. They indicate additions of nearly 100,000 people to Duval County and more than 200,000 to Dade County in only 5 years. Expansion is particularly rapid in South Jacksonville and across in the Arling- tion section aided by the construction of two new bridges across the St. Johns. Expansion is rapid in all sections of the Miami area, even to the point of new land dredged from the bay. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 18(4), 1955. REPORT ON THE ACADEMY CONFERENCE The Annual Academy Conference held in conjunction with the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science con- vened in Atlanta on December 28, 1955, with President Leland H. Taylor of West Virginia University presiding. Father Patrick H. Yancey of Spring Hill College Alabama is President elect of the conference and Mrs. Thelma Heatwole of Staunton, Virginia, Secretary-Treasurer. The morning business session was devoted to reports of committees and reports by delegates on the activities of the various academies. Well over half of the 41 state, re- gional or city academies were represented and some of the reports proved of considerable interest. Most of the Academies have various sections: publish proceedings, news letters or a journal at more or less regular intervals— sponsor Junior Academies, Science Talent Searches, Science Fairs and in many cases Collegiate Academies. Some reported financial problems, but it was interesting to note how many had solved their financial problems by establishing industrial memberships. Without exception those academies which have tried this type of membership reported that it was a very effective and easy method of obtaining financial support. In most instances it was started to pay for a definite project such as publications, Science Talent Search, Science Fair, etc., but very soon more money was received from this source (Continued on Page 284) A SURVEY OF THE ECONOMIC, EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL RESOURCES OF BRADFORD COUNTY, FLORIDA H. T. Grace Florida Southern College INTRODUCTION The cultural pattern of Bradford County has undergone many changes in the last century. Little vestige of the five groups of people that vied for the control of North Florida can be found today. There is little doubt that permanent settlement by the white man was delayed over 100 years by the bitter “five-way” struggle for the control of this part of Florida. Should Chief Micanopy of the Seminole Indians return to Brad- ford County today, he would no doubt be startled to find auto- mobiles and trucks speeding along paved highways. Gone are the “Spanish Trails” and missions as wells as the federal troops stationed at Fort Crabbe, Fort Van Courtland, and Fort Harlee, that helped force his people to migrate to Oklahoma or to the “land of game and gators” in the Everglades. He would miss the dense pine, oak, and hickory virgin forests that covered most of the county. Instead, he would hear the “put-put” of the tractors cultivating truck crops that have replaced the forest (Bradford County Telegraph, 1954:4). Even more strange to Chief Micanopy would be the thriving city of Starke or the towns of Lawtey, Brooker, and Hampton. In the vicinity of these towns some of his ancestors had once built palisades of logs to protect the Indian villages surrounded by their patches of corn, pumpkin, and beans. Bradford County was formed in 1861 and was divided in 1921 to form both Union and Bradford counties. It has a total area of 293 square miles or 187,520 acres and is the third smallest county in the State. The mean annual temperature is 69.1°F. with an average rainfall of 49.22 inches. The growing season averages 271 days with the first average killing frost November 26 and the last February 28 (F. S. C. C. Abstract of Florida Counties, 1944:8). Bradford, like a number of other counties of North Florida, has gone through several stages of development under the Indian and the white man. Some of the stages were fishing and hunting; 240 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES pastoral and hoe culture; subsistence and exploitive agriculture including forest products; intensive agriculture including row crops, vegetables, and fruits; and finally some mining and manufacturing. Bradford County was selected for this study because its social and economic problems are somewhat typical of a rural agricul- tural county of North Florida having very little manufacturing, a minimum of tourist influence, and a relatively high Negro popula- tion when compared with other counties. Located some 46 miles southwest of Jacksonville, the farms in the county are small in size, owned and operated in the main by farmers whose ancestors migrated from nearby Southern states. In the study of Bradford County's social and economic resources, our attention should be focused upon four major changes that have taken place in Florida since 1920: first, the shift from rural to urban residence; second, the decline in the ratio of Negro to white population; third, the increase in the size of farms and land hold- ings; and fourth, the mechanization of agriculture. Each of these will be discussed later; however, brief mention here of the increased land holdings will give some idea of the vast changes that have taken place. From 1940 to 1950 the average farm holdings in Bradford County almost doubled in size while those in the State more than doubled. In the State most of the large tracts of land in rural areas were purchased because of their suitability for four primary purposes: first, timber, pulpwood, forest products, or naval stores; second, citrus fruits; third, winter vegetables; and fourth, pastures for beef or dairy cattle. In the main, less out-of-state capital was involved in the purchase of pasture and ranch lands than was true of the forest and citrus lands. This study will explore certain influences, such as climate, soils, and labor, that have kept the farms of Bradford County small in size and will note some of the effects that land tenure and land utilization may have had upon the social and economic life of the white and Negro families. Other questions that will receive limited consideration are the following: What are some of the factors that may have influenced population changes in the county? How has the Negro fared in relation to the white man? Have the farmers of the county been able to support their families from their farm income in recent years? Do the social and economic problems con- A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 241 fronting the people of a rural county like Bradford have any im- plication for educators and social scientists? In the social and economic development of a region, man is the most important factor. He furnishes the labor, mental and physi- cal, to organize and execute the process of bringing about a change in the cultural landscape. Improved truck and rail transportation, and technological developments in farm machinery have changed the man-land ratio as well as the know-how of the people. Perhaps the 20th century has witnessed more scientific and technological changes in farming than all previous years since this country was founded. GROWTH OF POPULATION A better understanding of the population changes in Bradford County can be had by reviewing briefly some of the major popula- tion patterns of the State. In the last three decades, Florida has experienced several population changes that include: (1) an un- precedented migration to cities and resultant growth of urban district (410.0 per cent increase); (2) a decline of rural farm popula- tion (28.8 per cent to 8.4 per cent); a decline from % to % in the ratio of Negroes to whites; and (4) a high immigration from the North and the East. Almost all of the counties of peninsular Florida have retained practically all of their natural increase in population and absorbed large numbers through migration. This is in contrast with most rural agricultural counties in North Florida where the natural in- crease is high and many inhabitants are lost to other areas by migration. For example, Florida experienced a 29 per cent in- crease in population in the decade of 1930 to 1940, while thirteen rural agricultural counties in the State including Bradford showed a net decline in population. Between 1940 and 1950 there were eighteen rural counties that showed a net decline in population while the State as a whole was gaining 46 per cent. Sixteen of these 18 counties were in North Florida (Becker, 1954:73). Composition of Bradford County's Population: During the decade of 1940 to 1950 the population of the county increased from 8,717 to 11,451, which was an increase of 2,714 or 31.4 per cent. The natural increase was 2,194 or 25.2 per cent, while the net immigra- tions were 546, or 6.2 per cent. There was a decline of 1,413 or 249 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AGE - SEX PYRAMID BRADFORD COUNTY, FLORIDA PERCENT FIG | MALE AGE FEMALE : SOURCE U.S. CENSUS, 1950, FLA. PBIO PERCENT A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 243 AGE - SEX PY RAMID JACKSONVILLE, FLORIDA 244 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 26.8 per cent in the rural farm group while the city of Starke showed a gain of 1,463 or 98.9 per cent (Dietrich, 1954:11, 12). The population of the county in 1950 was predominantly white, this group comprising 75.6 per cent while the Negro population comprised 24.4 per cent. A breakdown of the county's population in the same year showed that the rural non-farm component ac- counted for 40.6 per cent. The rural farm group was 33.7 per cent and Starke, the only urban district and county seat, had 25.7 per cent (Saunders, 1953:5). A breakdown of the population for the State and Nation in 1950 revealed that 65.4 per cent and 64.1 per cent lived in urban areas, and 26.1 per cent and 20.7 per cent were in rural non-farm areas, respectively. Florida's population living on rural farms was 8.4 per cent while the Nation had 15.2 per cent in this group (U.S.D.C.. Statistical Abstract, 1954:31). Migration of Population: A salient feature of age-sex composition of Bradford County’s population as compared with the State, is the predominance of children under the age of twenty. This ratio is even more pronounced when contrasted with a large urban county of Florida like Duval, with three-fourths of its population in the metropolitan city of Jacksonville. The age-sex pyramids showing the population of Bradford County and of Jacksonville show clearly the contrast of age groups in 1950 (Figures 1 and 2). Figure 1 shows that 36.4 per cent of the population of Bradford County is under twenty years of age, while Figure 2 indicates only 25.4 per cent is under twenty years of age in Jacksonville (U. S. Census 1950, Fla. P. B-10). The natural increase in population of a rural county like Brad- ford is retarded by the out-migration of young people to urban districts for better economic and social opportunities. This is supported by the fact that the birth rate in the county in recent years has averaged 25.0 per 1,000 population, (while the State had 17.5) or 7.5 more per thousand population for the same period with little difference for the death rate for the two groups. NEGRO POPULATION The Negro population of Bradford County and Florida has not followed the trends of the South during the last two decades. Some of the trends as well as changes in the Nation’s economy are indicated in a remark made recently to a farm group: “The cotton has gone West, the cattle have gone East, the Negroes have gone North, and the Yankees have come South.” Historically, the Negroes in the United States have comprised a rural group; however, if several of the changes that have taken place in recent years in the Negro population of Bradford County and Florida are to be understood, it will be necessary to review some of the migrations of this group in the United States. | A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 245 | : PERCENT OF TOTAL POPULATION REPRESENTED BY NEGROES IN FLORIDA, BRADFORD COUNTY AND UNITED STATES PERCENT i870 — 1950 55 FLORIDA‘. 34 340 S 8.3 ~~. 25.6 265 ~~ -- — == BRADFORD COUNTY 107 UNITED STATES Igs70 =—s«188O-~—s«&189!O I9s00 861910 1920 1930 1940 1950 FIG. 3 At the time of the first census in this country in 1790, the pro- portion of Negroes to whites was one person to every five (19.3 per cent); however, by 1950 this had declined to one person in 10 (10 per cent). This is approximately a 50 per cent decrease in the proportion of Negroes to whites in the last 160 years (Figure 3). It is of interest to note that the total Negro population for the 246 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Nation increased a total of 122 per cent for the period beginning 1870 to 1950 or an annual increase of 1.5 per cent (Trenholm, 1954:22). The Negroes living on the farms in the South are usually found near the bottom of the scale socially and economically. Most migrations from the farms to urban regions in the South or North appear to be an effort on the part of the Negro to better his lot from the standpoint of income, citizenship, and social standing. The emigration from the southern states of Negroes with a naturally high rate of increase has led to a net decline in the population of Negroes between 1940 and 1950 as follows: Mississippi (8 per cent), Arkansas (11 per cent), Oklahoma (14 per cent), Georgia (2 per cent), and West Virginia (2 per cent). Some of the states with the largest gains in Negro population in this decade, were, New York (60 per cent), Illinois (67 per cent), Michigan (112 per cent), and the District of Columbia (49 per cent) (U.S.D.C. Statistical Abstract, 1954:38). It is significant that those states which received the greatest number of Negro migrations furnished a large per- centage of the white emigrants to the State of Florida. The Negro population in urban districts in the Nation increased from 49 per cent in 1940 to 62 per cent in 1950 or a change of thirteen percentage points. During this same time the Negro popu- lation in urban districts of Florida increased 38 per cent while the rural farm Negro population declined 29.1 per cent. Figure 3 shows that the Negro population of Florida was at its zenith in 1870 when over one-half of the total population (50.2 per cent) was made up of this group (Mayo, 1945:9). It was not until forty years later, in 1910, that the Negro population in Brad- ford County reached its highest point with 28.3 per cent. By 1950 this percentage had declined to 21.8 per cent for the State, while Bradford County’s Negro population showed less than 4 per cent fluctuation during this period. It is interesting to note that the ethnic trend in urbinization has followed a definite pattern in the State. In 1920 slightly more than one-third of the Negro population (36.6 per cent) and almost the the same (36.8 per cent) of the white population lived in cities. In 1950 the same relationship existed with 65.5 per cent Negro population and 65.4 per cent white being urban (Maclachlan, 1953:5). Sixty per cent of the total Negro population of Bradford County lived in the rural non-farm areas in 1950, while 25 per cent A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 247 lived in rural farm areas with only 15 per cent living in Starke. This is in contrast with 29 per cent of the white population living in Starke and 34.6 and 36.4 per cent respectively living in rural farm and rural non-farm areas. Several observations can be made with regard to trends in the Negro population of Bradford County in relation to the rest of the State that need to be borne in mind. First, there has been a shift of the rural Negro to urban districts. Second, the ratio between Negro and white population has declined in the State while the ratio of Bradford County’s Negro group to whites has remained almost constant during the past three decades. Third, Negroes average about eight years less in length of life than whites and have a much smaller percentage in the old age (over 65) of both sexes (Dietrich, 1952:22). Soi. CLASSIFICATION The Soil Conservation Department of Florida classifies 82 per cent of the land of Bradford County as “flatwoods” or a total of 153,810 acres which includes 6,089 acres under water and 10,771 acres of public land. Less than one-fourth of the soils of the flat- woods are suited to the cultivation of row crops. The Portsmouth and Leon Sands that comprise most of the soils of this group are underlaid with a hardpan which occurs from 18 to 36 inches below the surface (Sellers, 1915:225). This leaves 33,710 acres or 18 per cent that is classified as Middle and Upper Coastal Plain. Some of the most productive soils in the County are found in this classification. The Norfolk Fine and Coarse Sands comprise most of the soils of this group. The soils found along the Santa Fe River and New River are usually classified as bottom lands. There were some 80,971 acres or 43 per cent of the total area of the county in farm lands in 1950. Over two-thirds of these farm lands are devoted to pasture and woodlands. The forest lands of the County are listed at 144,300 acres or more than three-fourths of the total area of the County. Almost 40 per cent of the remaining one-fourth, i.e. 43,220 acres of the land contains soils that are too low and moist for the growing of truck crops and is better suited to pasture and grazing (Gunn, 1954:2). Figure 4 shows an improved pasture on poorly drained land. 248 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Figure 4. White Dutch Clover pasture on a beef cattle farm two miles north of Starke in Bradford County, Florida. Clover is a legume that improves the soil and produces better beef cattle. In 1930 there were 921 farms which averaged 60.7 acres per farm. By 1950 the number of farms had declined to 736 and had increased in size to an average of 105 acres. Farms in Florida during the past decade have increased in average size from 133 acres to 290 acres, almost three times the size of the average farm in Bradford County. If we examine the land in farms in the small as contrasted with the large holdings some idea can be learned as to how misleading average figures can be. One hundred and twenty-three of the County’s farms under 10 acres contain a total of only 626 acres and there are 199 farms with 10 to 29 acres with 3,416 acres. If all farms with from 30 to 49 acres be combined with the two groups above, the total of the three groups would equal 560 farms or 73 per cent of the total farms in the County consisting of only 11 per cent of the total farm acreage. In con- trast, the eight farms with over 1,000 acres each contain a total of 33,450 acres or 41 per cent of the total farm area. These eight farms contain more than four times as much acreage as the 560 farms under 49 acres (U. S. Census, 1950: Fla. V. 1-pt. 18). A number of factors have tended to keep the farms small in Bradford in comparison with the rest of the State. Climate, the A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 249 type of soils, and the shortage of labor have all played a part; however, a relatively high percentage of farm owners and the pattern of original settlement haye probably exercised consider- able influence. The establishment of two farmers’ markets in the county and technological changes in farming have helped the farmers to market their produce and has brought some relief from the difficulties arising from the shortage of labor. The number of Bradford County farm owners has increased and the number of share-croppers, tenants, and renters has declined since 1930. During this time the share-croppers and renters have declined from 209 to 54. Several conditions in the county operate against the farmer mak- ing it almost impossible for him to support his family adequately from his farm income. Late frost, poorly drained land, lack of farm machinery, and shortage of capital are all handicaps. LEVELS OF LIVING The level of living is assumed in this paper to be the status or position of people relative to others, based on their current con- sumption or utilization of goods and services, with services being broadly interpreted to include both publicly furnished and _pri- vately obtained services which contribute to well-being or provide satisfactions (Hagood, 1944:78). A study of the “Levels of Living” in Florida by Allen in 1951 (based on data for 1940) estimated the composite indices of Brad- ford County at 43.7 in which 100 was used as a base for all 67 counties of the State. Better insight as to the countys relative standing in this study can be had by considering the high for Dade County which was 149 and the low of Liberty County which was 23. The five indices included and the rating of Bradford County in Allen’s study were: (1) per cent of dwellings with radios (42 per cent); (2) per cent of dwellings with running water and private bathtubs or showers (14.8 per cent); (3) per cent of population age 25 and over who have completed high school (11.9 per cent); (4) number of passenger automobiles per 1,000 population (160.8); and (5) number of persons filing federal income tax returns per 1,000 population (10). (Allen, 1951:30). Bradford County was in the lowest quartile of number two (sanitation and housing) in this study. The average number of 250 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES dwellings in the State with private bath or shower was 54.8 per cent in 1940 which was only slightly less than the U. S. with 56.2 per cent. By 1950 Bradford had increased to 26.2 per cent for this item or a 77 per cent increase while Florida and the Nation increased less than 10 per cent on these fixtures. Bradford County was also low in number three (education) of the above mentioned study with less than 12 per cent of the population above 25 years of age having completed high school. In 1940 the average for Florida for this item was 26.2 per cent while for the U. S. it was 28.1 per cent. The number of homes in Bradford County with radios had increased to 68 per cent and privately owned auto- mobiles increased 50 per cent during the decade 1940 to 1950 (Allen, LOG CIE. 50): | A more recent study of rural levels of living in counties of the United States has been made by the Bureau of Agricultural Eco- nomics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, under the direction of Hagood (1952). Data for 1930, 1940, 1945 and 1950 were used. In this study of rural-farm operators, the four indices were based upon the following: (1) percentage of farms with electricity; (2) percentage of farms with telephones; (3) percentage of farms with automobiles; (4) average value of products sold or traded. This study also used a base of 100 for all U. S. counties for the year 1945. Bradford County scored higher in the Hagood study of 1950 than in Allen’s study for 1940 in relation to other counties of Florida. The rating in the Hagood Study for Bradford County was 37, 40, 48, 65; while Florida rated 45, 58, 76, and 105 for the years 1930, 1940, 1945, and 1950 respectively in the order named. The average for the counties of Florida was about three-fourths of the U. S. average while Bradford County scored only about one-half of the national average which was 75, 79, 100, 122 for the four dates respectively (Hagood, 1952:6, 11, 12). Education: The average educational achievement for Bradford County was two years below the State average in 1950. The migration of the youths in the county who have fiunished high school to other regions lowers the educational level of the rural farm and rural non-farm groups. For example during the last decade there was a 2 per cent decrease of those over 25 years of age who had completed high school or one out of ten. One male in twelve had completed high school in 1950 which was one-third less than females with one out of eight. This is very low when compared A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 251 with the National average (34 per cent) which showed one out of three graduated from high school. High school graduates over 25 years of age in the city of Starke were more than double the rural farm and non-farm groups in the county but were only half the national average in high school graduates with one out of every six. In 1950 there were no high school graduates in the Negro rural farm population of the County and only 15 white persons or less than 1 per cent of the total population for this group. In the rural non-farm group there were no Negro High school graduates over 25 years and 190 high school graduates among the whites or 13 per cent. Perhaps, a better picture of educational training can be had by considering the median number of years completed. The median educational achievement for the population over 25 years of age for the county was 8.1 years in 1950. The white population shows 9.1 years or 3.9 years more than the Negro average for the county with 5.2 years. The average number of years of schooling com- pleted for the Negro for Bradford County is almost two years less than the national average for this group which was 7.0 years. (U.S. Census 1950, Fla. P. B-10). Table I gives the median num- ber of years of school completed and expenditures for white and Negro pupils. TABLE I Median number of years completed in school by individuals over 25 years of age and median expenditures per pupil for white and Negro pupils in Bradford County, Florida, ten Southeastern States, and the United States for 1950. Median Number of Median Expenditures Years School per Pupil in Completed Public Schools White Negro White Negro Bradford County, Florida ____ 9.1 De 166.25 166.50 ithe State of Florida.» 10.9 5.8 196.42 136.71 Ten Southeastern States * 9.4 58) 153.60 102.50 ithesUmited: States 22.00 9.7 7.0 DANO Re oe seers Source: Trenholm, H. C., Editor, The Bulletin, Montgomery, Alabama, May 1954. U.S. Census, 1950, Fla. P, B-10. * Includes: Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia,, Kentucky, and Tennessee. ** Includes all races. 252 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Housing: According to the U. S. Census of 1950, the value of homes in Bradford County is less than one-half of the value of the average home in the State ($3,036 against $6,612). The num- ber of homes with running water and indoor toilets is less than 50 per cent of the State average for these items. Only about 25 per cent of the rural non-farm homes have any modern sanitary facilities. Negroes occupy over 60 per cent of the homes in this group, many of which are in rundown condition without screens or sanitary toilets. Lack of sanitation is reflected in the poor health of the white and Negro families. There is a shortage of hospital and medical facilities (Saunders, loc. cit.:8). There were 3,415 housing units in Bradford County in 1950 and they were 90 per cent occupied. A. breakdown of the total shows there were 1,423 rural non-farm homes, 1,000 rural farm homes and 992 homes in the city of Starke. In 1950 there were 1,469 white and 391 Negro families that owned their homes in the County while 841 white and 299 Negro families rent their homes. Sixty Negro families owned their homes in Starke and 75 rented. The assessed value of the average Negro homes is slightly over one-half that of the average white homes. (U. S. Census, 1950: Fla. H-A-10). Another insight into the cultural level can be gained by noting the number of homes with electric washing machines and electric refrigerators. In 1950 there were 2,584 out of a total of 3,415 homes in the county with electric lights and of these 2,460 (over two-thirds) of the homes had radios and 34 per cent owned wash- ing machines while 48 per cent had electric refrigerators (Morris 1953:380). This represents a 50 per cent increase over 1940 for these items. The number of trucks, tractors, and other farm machinery such as potato diggers and cultivators also increased considerably during the last decade. The almost total absence of running water and refrigerators of any kind for Negroes in the County gives some insight into the low living standards for this group of the county's population. In 1950 there were some 690 Negro dwellings, 21 with flush indoor toilets and only 34 with running hot and cold water including those in the city of Starke. Income and Employment: The median income for families of Bradford County in 1950 was $1,873 while the median for the States was $1,950. Starke families compare favorably in median income with the urban families of the State with $2,057 and $2,152 A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 253 respectively. The median rural farm family of the county had an income of $1,219 while the State’s median income for the same group was $1,629. The median income of $1,096 for the rural non-farm group of the county was about two-thirds of the State’s median (60 per cent of this group were Negroes). Three-fourths of the rural families in the county had incomes below $2,000 while over one-half of the families of Starke had incomes of more than $2,000 in 1950. The median income for Negro families was $771 for Bradford County. This was the fourth lowest in the State. By way of contrast, the median income for Negro families in the two urban counties of Dade and nearby Duval was $1,567 and $1,485 respectively at the same time. (U. S. Census 1950: Fla. P. B-10). A breakdown of the income for white and Negro families of Bradford County as compared with those of Florida and the United States will be found in Table II. TABLE II Median incomes for white and Negro families in Bradford County, Florida, and the United States in 1950. White Income Negro Income Ge median income for Bradford @ommyetammlics: 200 Se Sieomo a OL The median income for families in Florida 1,950 1,144 The median income for families of the U. S. __ 2,619 1,350 Source: U. S. Census 1950, Fla. P, B-10. In Bradford County during 1950, 28 per cent of the people were employed in agriculture, 4 per cent forestry and fishing, 4 per cent in mining, or a total of 36 per cent, while the State had less than 15 per cent in these occupations. There are several small manu- facturing establishments in Starke that employ about 8 per cent of the people. They include the following: one clothing, one furniture factory, one lumber mill, and three or four small process- ing plants of plastics and foodstuffs. The rest of the people are dependent upon trade, service, and professional pursuits except for day laborers on the farms. The farmers of the county are finding it increasingly difficult to earn their living on the farm. They or some member of their family in about 75 per cent of the homes are employed part or full time in some nearby urban district. 4 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lo OO FARMERS MARKETS State farmers’ markets were established at Starke and Brooker and they have helped in the preparation and sale of farm produce. Figure 5 shows the loading platform and packing facilities of the Farmers Market at Starke. Truck crops of fruits and vegetables have brought higher prices with this service. The farmers’ market in Brooker had sales for the year ending June 30, 1954 of $163,584 which consisted of the following primary crops named in order of highest sale values: potatoes, string beans, peppers, cucumbers, butter beans, and corn, with an average sale of $1.32 per hamper, tub or crate. Figure 5. State Farmers’ Market at Starke, Florida. This is one of two State markets for the preparation of farm produce in Bradford County. Much of the produce of Brooker and Starke is not ready for market until late spring and is sold in competition with other dis- tricts in the Southeast. For example, in 1954 cucumbers sold at the Florida State Market in Fort Myers for $3.22 per bushel in January and February, which was over four times the average price paid at Brooker about sixty days later. The farmers market at Starke had total sales of $271,523 which included sales of straw- berries amounting to $88,616 and corn totaling $81,646. (Lewis, 1954:2, 4, 20). The other important crops sold at Starke in 1954 A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 255 were cucumbers, pecans, peppers, and peas. The total sale of all farm products of the county for 1950 was $757,599 which in- cluded livestock $268,584, poultry $81,202 and forest products $55,488. (Hurff, 1952:59). The total retail sales for the county were $5,645,000 in 1948. This was over four times the retail sales in 1939 which amounted to $1,398,000 for that year. Since 1950 retail sales have been averaging between six and seven million dollars. It is of interest to note that only one rural family in three had a milk cow in 1950 which would seem to indicate the lack of milk in the diet of many families. This condition was especially notice- able in most Negro and rural non-farm families. There were also 229 farms that had no mules, horses, or tractors of their own. LAND TENURE Since the formation of Bradford County in 1861 several epochs of economic adjustment have influenced the land tenure patterns for the inhabitants. The first saw the building of railroads and the cutting of dense virgin forest which was followed by heavy migration of white farmers and Negro settlers from Georgia, South Carolina, and Alabama after the “War Between the States”. Some came to avoid the “carpet baggers’, for Florida was scarcely in- volved in the struggle. The lure of new land appealed to others. Land speculations and the planting of orange groves brought north- ern capital and settlers during the second epoch which ended with the “Big Freeze” in 1895-6. People from the Chicago area settled at Lawtey and Starke. Following the “Big Freeze”, the land was returned to the growing of cotton, corn, and peanuts during the first three decades of the 1900's. This might be termed the third epoch. The man-land ratio has undergone several major changes in Bradford County, following the depression of the 1930's, forming a fourth epoch. Citrus and general farming proved unsatisfactory and man resorted to new technological improvements to earn his livelihood from the soil. Truck farming, beef cattle, and forest products have been the latest developments in the age of commer- cial and specialized farming. The in-roads by the paper, lumber, and chemical companies is shown by the purchase, or long term lease, of large blocks of land. Few if any residences are found in these tracts of land. Most of 256 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the pulp, paper, and chemical companies operating in Bradford have home offices outside of the state. Personal interviews with local residents indicate that there is concern as to whether these corporations will continue as others have in the past to follow a “cut out and get out’ policy or use sound long range conservation programs. Corporations are often market-minded and commodity- conscious; their interests are often limited to the short runs. There is a natural tendency to think of the present profits. Frequently in the past the health, educational, and the social needs of society have been somewhat neglected by business. Will corporation management in Bradford County make wise use of conservation practices of the land for present and future forest needs? Will they use a part of their profits to help rehabili- tate the white and Negro farm families by transferring them to the more productive farm lands of the county? If so, corporation skill and capital should be a stimulation for future progress in the county. Long term leases for forest lands appear to offer better possibilities for all concerned for income to the county and population growth rather than outright sale of land and timber by farm families. IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE EDUCATION There is little doubt that the problems raised in this study have grave implications for the welfare of not only Bradford County but also for Florida and the Nation as well. The rural white popu- lation lacks the skill, education, and capital to meet the problems of education, housing, health, and poverty among themselves. The same is true of the Negro families who are even more unfortunate. Lack of planning and loss through emigration of the physically stronger and more mentally able young people to the urban re- gions offer little hope for the improvement of those left behind, in a social, econemic, physical, mental, and spiritual way. Many farm families short of income have resorted to commercial farming or the growing of cash crops, while neglecting the diet of their families. This is evident by the fact that only one out of three rural families owns a milk cow and 299 farm families own no horses, mules, or tractors but must hire or rent them. It is estimated that the typical farm family in Bradford County would need more than double the present average size farm of 105 acres to support his family adequately. This would make it A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 257 possible for him to be employed the year round on the farm and permit him to obtain a good balance between cash crops of fruits, vegetables, hay, and pasture for his livestock. This would also allow approximately one hundred acres of land to be utilized in forest on a long-range sustained-yield basis for timber, pulpwood, or naval stores. Good transportation facilities and a surplus of labor should en- courage some further light manufacturing to locate in or near Starke. Development of further tourist facilities with roadside stands of fruits and vegetables should help increase the County’s income along U. S. Highway 301. The above improvements would increase the use of the County's resources but would not solve the rural farm problems. Educational planners and leaders in governmental agencies should focus their attention and assistance upon the well-being of our white and Negro families living in rural counties like Bradford. All of our people should come to realize that much of our nation’s economy and future well being is dependent upon the health, education, and welfare of a stable farm population because it is the producer of the basic commodities upon which much of our economy is dependent. Some way must be found to impart to our rural people the knowledge, understanding, and facts now available to research workers. No doubt better planning and training of local leaders through action programs would help. To anticipate the extent, intensity and implication of problems of economic, social, and human adjustment in a rural county such as Bradford will require that specialists in education, social engi- neers, and economists undertake careful studies. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Bradford County is basically agricultural; less than § per cent of the population is employed in manufacturing, 4 per cent in fishing and forestry, and 4 per cent in mining. The farms in the county have been kept small because of the types of soil, the short- age of labor, and the types of crops grown. The high persentage of farm owners and the pattern of original settlement have prob- ably exercised considerable changes in farming. In addition, im- proved roads and transportation have made it possible for farmers to have better markets for their produce. 258 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The farmers are finding it increasingly difficult to support their families because oi the small sizes of the farm, delay in the plant- ing of truck crops, uncertain prices for produce, lack of capital, and high prices that must be paid for home and farm equipment. The high natural increase in the County's population has been offset by the out-migration of young people to urban districts for better economic and social opportunities. Emigration is especially high among the Negro young people; their families’ income averag- ing only one-half of the County’s as a whole, or 23 per cent of the national average. Conditions of sanitation, health, diet, recreation, and education are sub-standard for white rural families and are even lower for the Negro families living in rural or urban districts. Only one person in ten in the county over 25 years of age has graduated from high school. Less than 1 per cent of white people and no Negroes over 25 years of age living on the farm have finished high school. The median years of school completed for Negroes is 5.2 years which is less than two-thirds of white population with 9.1 years. Poverty, poor health, and lack of education are prime factors that are retarding further progress of the white and Negro races in the County. From the foregoing data and analysis of Bradford County it can be concluded that (1) the farm population is declining (26.8 per cent from 1940 to 1950), (2) the use of land is changing, (8) agri- cultural products of greater cash and real value are being produced. Other trends that will probably influence future developments of the county included the mechanization of agriculture, the increase of improved pasture and forest land, the reduction of acreage planted in cultivated crops, and the increase in size of farms and land holdings. The declining rural farm population suggests the need for each rural community to reappraise its economic, educa- tional, and social problems periodically. The leaders of educational institutions, civic groups and community betterment organizations in a rural county like Bradford must assume the responsibility to meet the needs of a changing population. The decline of farm population and migration to urban districts of young people from farms suggests four types of community planning: First, the cur- riculum of the secondary schools must be designed to prepare the farm boys and girls to enter non-agricultural pursuits. Second, the use of cooperative leadership by industrial management, plan- A SURVEY OF BRADFORD COUNTY 259 ning commissions and educators must provide for the transition of a declining rural farm population. Third, there is the need for immediate and long range employment of farm youth in non- agricultural pursuits. Fourth, ways must be found to help farmers to become more efficient producers and to obtain a larger share of the income from agricultural commodities produced on the farm. LITERATURE CITED ALLEN, FRANCIS R. 1951. Levels of Living in Florida Counties. Fla. St. Univ., Soci. Sci. Bul. No. 2:30, 81. BECKER, HENRY 1954. “Florida’s- Resource-Use Problems”, Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 17 (2): 73-76. BRADFORD COUNTY TELEGRAPH 1954. 75th Anniversary Ed., No. 12, Sec. 4, pp. 4-6, Starke, Fla. DIETRICH, T. STANTON 1952. Floridas Older Population, Fla. St. Improv. Com., Tallahassee, Fla., Res. Rep. No. 2:22-26. DIETRICH, T. STANTON 1954. Statistical Atlas: Florida's Population: 1940 and 1950. Fla. St. Univ.; Soci. Res. Lab., Res. Pep. No. 3:11, 12. FLORIDA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE STATISTICS 1944. Abstract of Florida Counties, Jacksonville, Fla., pp. 1-10. GUNN, COLIN 1954. Soil Conservation Service Report, Bradford Co., Gainesville, Fla., pp. 2-3. HAGOOD, MARGARET J. 1944. “What Levels of Living Indexes Measure,” Am. Soc. Rev. Vol. IX:78-80. HAGOOD, MARGARET JORMAN 1952. Levels of Living Indexes of Farm-Operator-Family of the United States, U. S. Dept. of Ag., Bur. of A. Ec., Washington, D. C., pp. 1-30. HURFF, GEORGE B. 1952. “Retail, Wholesale and Service Trades in Florida.” Bur. of Eco. and Bus. Res., Univ. of Fla., 59:3-46. ICEWAS. = Hi. 1954. Florida State Farmers’ Markets, 20th Ann. Rep., Winter Haven, Fla., pp. 1-44. MACLACHLAN, JOHN H. 1952. “Florida’s Population 1920-1950,’ Public Administration Clearing Service, Univ. of Fla., pp. 3-8. 260 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MAYO, NATHAN 1945. The Seventh Census of Florida, Dept. of Agric., Tallahassee, Fla. pp. 5-141. MORRIS, ALLEN 1953. Florida Handbook, the Peninsular Pub. Co., Tallahassee, Fla., pp. 380-385. SAUNDERS, JOHN VAN DYKE 1958. “Preliminary Report of the Bradford County Saree (unpublished), Univ. of Fla. Department of Soc., Gainesville, Fla., pp. 5-8. SELLERS, Eo He 1915. Florida Geological Survey, Tallahassee, Fla., p. 225. TRENHOLM, H. COUNCIL 1954. Ed., The Bulletin, Montgomery, Ala., 29:12-28. UNITED STATES DEPT. OF COM. 1954. Statistical Abstract of the United States, U. S. Gov. Print Office, Washington, D. C., pp. 31-62. U. S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 1950. Population Census Report, Florida. U.S. Dept. Com., Washington, D. G., P. B-10:14-60; Fla. H-A-10:10231) Bia ye Pietses ee Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 18(4), 1955. REVIEW OF THE GENUS DOLDINA STAL (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) Routanp F. Hussey! and Joe C. ELKkrns? Doldina Stal, 1859, is a new-world genus pertaining to the tribe Zelini of the subfamily Harpactorinae. Most of its species are quite similar in size and general habitus. They are slender, usually parallel-sided forms, averaging 16 to 17 mm. in length, with bodies six to eight times as long as wide, with the pronotum lightly de- clivent anteriorly, and with a porrect, more or less cylindrical head which commonly is about twice as long as wide across the eyes. In dorsal view the head gradually narrows toward the base, be- coming about one-fourth narrower there than at or just behind the ocelli; in side view it appears almost uniformly thick, with dorsal and ventral surfaces subparallel, nearly to the base where it is abruptly coarctate (especially below) to form a short neck. There is a dorsal spine at the base of each antenniferous tubercle, longer than the vertical height of an eye in one or two species, somewhat shorter in some others, and reduced almost to the point of obsolescence in a few species. The pronotum is gradually narrowed toward the front, the an- terior angles are thick and blunt, and the anterior margin between _ them is deeply, roundly emarginate. The two lobes are separated by a shallow sulcus; the anterior one is commonly smooth and more or less shining, the posterior one commonly is closely but not deeply punctate. The posterior lobe, like the abdominal margin, varies greatly in its armature in different species. Sometimes it bears a pair of discal spines and a pair of lateral spines above the humeri; in other species the discal pair alone, or both pairs, may be greatly reduced or entirely absent, but no discal spines are ever found unless lateral spines are also present. In some species mar- ginal spines occur on all the connexival segments (five in males, six in females), while in others they may be restricted to the first three, the first two, or even the first segment alone. In these latter cases the next following segment may have its apical angle acutely prominent, in the form of a small tooth rather than a spine; and * University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. * American Optical Co., Instrument Division, Atlanta, Georgia. 262 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sometimes individuals are not symmetrical in this respect on the two sides of the body. The front and hind legs are long, the middle ones notably shorter, and though the femora are not spinose beneath, they all are armed with a small but distinct apical spine on each side. The middle legs often have both femur and tibia lightly curved down- ward, and the front femora of one species have a slight bisinuous lateral curvature. The front femora and tibiae are provided with short, dense pubescence on the entire length of the ventral surface. In addition, all the legs, the antero-ventral part of the prothorax, the sides of the head (especially behind the eyes), and the first antennal segment bear much longer pilosity whose density differs in the various species. | In generic keys Doldina is coupled with Ricolla Stal, as they are the only American Zelini whose femora are spined at the tips. This is a rather superficial character, and the true relationships of Doldina may possibly be elsewhere. The species of Ricolla are more robust and less elongate, with the abdomen more definitely widened behind the middle, and the head in side view tapers gradually toward the base. There is some resemblance between Doldina and Debilia Stal, but the latter has a shorter and differently formed head, the costal margin of the corium is concavely sinuate (which is rarely seen in Doldina), and the post-scutellum is separ- ated from the scutellum: Debilia possibly is closer to Lindus Stal and Socius Champion. Some species of Heza, too, superficially resemble Doldina, but they are at once distinct by possessing the small mesopleural tubercle characteristic of members of the tribe Harpactorini. A comprehensive study of the entire tribe Zelini will be necessary to determine the phylogenetic relationships of Doldina and its allies with any certainty. The more robust form of Doldina lauta (Stal) and its somewhat more declivent pronotum may perhaps have been among the factors which led Stal (1862) to erect the genus Hygromystes for it, though in subsequent keys (1866) he used only the spinose or non-spinose nature of the pronotum to separate Doldina and Hygromystes. In his last work on American Reduviidae (1872), he treated these two taxa as subgenera, employing the junior name Hygromystes for the combined genus. Bergroth (1913), approving this con- solidation, restored the senior narne Doldina, and described a new species which he stated to be “exactly intermediate in structure REVIEW OF THE GENUS DOLDINA STAL 263 between the subgenera.” Fracker and Bruner (1924), overlooking Bergroth’s paper, redescribed this species under another name and proposed a new subgenus Ceballum, in Hygromystes, for the inter- mediate category. Blatchley (1926) quite properly rejected all subgenera in Doldina. In our opinion the characters on which they were based have no more than specific value, and indeed they vary somewhat even within some of the species. Wygodzinsky (1949) catalogued seven species of Doldina. Two of these are here synonymized with others, and two new species are described. The species are predominantly neotropical in their distribution. In the North American material examined we can recognize only a single species, most common in the Gulf states but ranging northward along the coast at least to North Carolina (to Maryland, according to Van Duzee, 1917) and southward to Cuba, Isle of Pines, and Honduras. Little has been published regarding the habits of Doldina. Blatchley (1926) found D. interjungens “frequent on tall dead grasses along the borders of ponds, lakes, and the sloughs of the Everglades,’ and certainly the type of this then undescribed species was one of the two specimens of “Hygromystes sp.” that Torre- Bueno and Engelhardt listed as taken on sedges back of the beach at Roanoke Island, North Carolina. Barber and Bruner (1937) said this same species was taken in Cuba by sweeping coarse, dry grasses in old fields. Also, they listed it from one locality more than 2,500 feet above sea level, but it seems to be primarily a lowland species. Elkins (1951) said that in Texas it is “abundant along the Gulf,’ though occurring elsewhere in the state, some- times being found on trees; and in Texas and Louisiana it has been reported as coming to lights (Elkins, 1951; Sibley, 1951). Dr. T. H. Hubbell, Director of the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, has most kindly furnished us field data on numerous specimens of D. interjungens taken by him in Florida and Louisiana. Most of them were collected from grasses in or bordering salt marshes, often at night, when they were found by sweeping or by searching with a head-light. Others came from grasses and sedges bordering fresh-water lakes or from fresh-water marshes, and a few were swept from grasses in palmetto-scrub fields at night or were taken at lighted sheet. Some specimens of Doldina bicarinata from Panama, in the U. S. National Museum, are labelled “sweeping around cornfields,” others 264 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES “from grass and cowpeas. Dr. Wygodzinsky, when he visited Florida in 1955, told us of having found Doldina commonly on marsh grasses near Rio de Janeiro. We wish here to express our thanks to the several individuals and institutions who have loaned us material or have furnished us information regarding specimens in collections under their care. These are Dr. R. I. Sailer (U. S. National Museum), Dr. H. Ruckes (American Museum of Natural History), Dr. H. Dietrich (Cornell University), Dr. H. V. Weems, Jr. (State Plant Board of Florida), Dr. G. E. Wallace (Carnegie Museum), Dr. T. H. Hubbell (Uni- versity of Michigan Museum of Zoology), Dr. E. S. Ross (California Academy of Sciences), Dr. S. von Keler (Museum of the Univer- sity of Berlin), Dr. J. Maldonado Capriles (University of Puerto Rico), Ing. F. Valdes Barry (Estacion Experimental Agronomica, Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba), and Dr. R. Malaise (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseum, Stockholm). We are especially indebted to the last- named for the privilege of examining (ye material of two species described by Carl Stal. Genus Doldina Stal Doldina Stal 1859: 366 [in key] and 368 [diagnosis] [monobasic; haplotype D. carinulata, new species]; Stal 1866: 292 and 296; Stal 1872: 78 [as sub- genus of Hygromystes|; Bergroth 1913: 263; Van Duzee 1917: 266 [cata- log]; Blatchley 1926: 567 and 580 [diagnosis, erroneous in part, based on one North American species]; Readio 1927: 168 and 202 [translation, erroneous in part, of Stal’s original diagnosis]; Wygodzinsky 1949: 38 [catalog]. Hygromystes Stal 1862: 75 [monobasic; haplotype H. lautus, new species]; Stal 1866: 292; Stal 1872: 68 and 78; Fracker and Bruner 1924: 172 [subgenera characterized]; Bruner 1926: 71 [in key]. Ceballum Fracker and Bruner 1924: 172 [as subgenus of Hygromystes] [mono- basic; haplotype Hygromystes (Ceballum) armatus, new species]; Bruner 1926: 71: Blatchley 1926: 580, note 70 [as synonymous with Doldina]. 1. Doldina cubana Barber and Bruner Doldina cubana Barber and Bruner 1946: 56, figs. 2-4 [¢; Veguita, Oriente Province, Cuba; type in U. S. National Museum]; Wygodzinsky 1949: 38.4. The characters used in the key below to separate this species from D. bicarinata are drawn from the original description and the figures given by the authors. D. cubana is known only from the type specimen, and it is the only species of Doldina that we have not seen. Ut REVIEW OF THE GENUS DOLDINA STAL 26: 2. Doldina bicarinata Stal D[oldina]. bicarinata Stal 1866: 296.1 [@; “Brasilia borealis,’ in Stockholm Museum]; Barber and Bruner 1946: 58; Wygodzinsky 1949: 38.2. H[ygromystes]. (Doldina) bicarinata, Stal 1872: 78.1. This species shows the highest development of spines that we have seen in the genus. The post-antennal spines are longer than the vertical height of an eye, the pronotal spines (both discal and lateral) are longer still, and all the connexival segments bear spines which commonly decrease in length posteriorly, the last pair being less than half as long as the first pair. Pilosity of the body parts is relatively thin and short, few of the hairs being longer than the dorsal width of an eye. The specimens we have seen range from 14.6 to 17.3 mm. in length. Male. Ventral rim of the genital fossa turned outward at pos- terior apex (Fig. 1), forming a slight, blunt prominence beyond dorsal apex and foreshadowing the condition figured by Barber and Bruner for D. cubana; median process of hypopygial margin subvertical, slender, very slightly tapering from base to middle, thence subparallel, extreme tip reflexed. This is a common species in Panama, judging from the number of specimens examined, and it ranges southward as far as Paraguay. We have seen material from the following localities: PaNAMA: Juan Mina Citrus Plantation, 3¢, 32; Flat Rock Plantation, Chagres River, 1 mile above Juan Mina, 3¢, 32; Limon Plantation, 2¢, 12; Barro Colorado, 12; Tabernilla, 1¢ (U.S.N.M.). “Panama, 1? (Carnegie Mus.). CotompiaA: Palmira, Dept. Valle del Cauca, 3 exx. (Maldonado Capriles coll.); Palmyra, 12, “Colombia,” 12 (U.S.N.M.). Brasit: Corumba, Mato Grosso, lowland, March, 1¢, 32; Rio Purts, Hyutanahan, 1¢ (Carnegie Mus.). Peru: Tingo Maria, 2200 ft., 12 (Amer. Mus. N. H.). Paracuay: Villeta, 1¢ (Carnegie Mus.). 3. Doldina carinulata Stal D[oldina]. carinulata Stal 1859: 368.1 [@, “Brasilia,” in Berlin Museum]; Stal 1866: 296 [comparative notes]; Barber 1923: 28 [as “D. carinulatus”|; Wygodzinsky 1949: 38.3 [catalog]. H[ygromystes]. (Doldina) carinulatus, Stal 1872: 78.2. 266 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Doldina antiguensis Barber 1923: 28 [NEw Synonymy] [¢; Antigua, in American Museum of Natural History]; Barber and Bruner 1946: 58 [as “D. antiquensis;” comparative notes]; Wygodzinsky 1949: 38.1 [catalog]. Dr. S. von Keler, in correspondence, informs us that the unique female type from which Stal’s original description was drawn is not now in the Berlin Museum. However, we have received a male from the Stockholm Museum whose pin bears the following items: (1) a label with the word “Amazon” in faded handwriting; (2) a printed label, “Stevens;” (3) a label with “carinulata Stal” in Stal’s handwriting; (4) a printed label, “T'YPUS,” on heavy red paper; and (5) a pink label with the printed number “173” and a handwritten number “53.” Except that it is a male, and that all four pronotal spines are equally long, this specimen conforms well with the original description. Since the holotype of D. carinulata seems no longer to be extant, this male may be accepted as neotype of the species. This is another wide-ranging species, occurring from the Lesser Antilles to Paraguay. It agrees in size with D. bicarinata, but is readily. separable from that species by the shorter cephalic spines (only half to two-thirds as long as the height of an eye), by the presence of spines on the first three connexival segments only, and by the terminal structures of the abdomen, among other char- acters. There is a strong tendency for individuals of this species to become suffused with red, particularly on the legs, antennae, dorsum of head, and to a much lesser degree on the corium; and the dorsum of the abdomen often has conspicuous bright red longitudinal streaks. The costal margin of the corium is more distinctly sinuate than in other species of Doldina. The thoracic spines vary greatly in D. carinulata. The lateral spines are well developed as a rule, though shorter than in D. bicarinata, and the discal spines may be as long as the lateral ones. Often, however, they are somewhat shorter. The greatest reduc- tion we have seen is in a Venezuelan specimen whose lateral spines are as small as in many D. interjungens and whose discal spines are subhorizontal, concolorous, and so small as easily to be over- looked. Such specimens can be separated from interjungens by the more widely depressed postero-lateral margins of the pronotum and the lobulate posterior angles, by having spines on three con- nexival segments instead of two, and by the genital characters. As the specific name indicates, the pronotal carinulae are usually REVIEW OF THE GENUS DOLDINA STAL 267 more distinct here than in other species, with one on the lateral margin of the posterior lobe and two each side on its disk an- teriorly. Dr. Herbert Ruckes has very kindly compared for us the type of Doldina antiguensis Barber with a male which we had identified as carinulata by comparison with the neotype. He reports that antiguensis is at most only a minor variant of the present species, with the posterior lobe of the pronotum a trifle longer, its carinulae somewhat less conspicuous, and with all three connexival spines equally long, but with genitalia apparently identical. Male. Genital capsule with a narrowly thickened posterior mar- gin, the hind edge transverse; posterior median process a slender spine, slightly triangularly widened at very base, extreme tip re- flexed, barb-like; claspers relatively short and thick, their tips (in posterior view) separated from median process by less than their own thickness. Female. Pygidium subvertical, bent backward on apical half, apex not or very slightly caudad of the lightly produced apex oi Sth tergite. The material before us is from the following localities: Wesr InprEs: Dominica, B.W.I., 22 (U.S.N.M.). BritisH Guiana: Plantation Drill, 12 (U.S.N.M.). VENEZUELA: Tacariqua, Mérida State, 1¢ (U.S.N.M.). Puerto Cabello, 16 (Calif. Acad. Sci.). Brasiz: “Amazon,” ¢ neotype as noted above (Stockholm Mus). Santarem, State of Para, 1é (Carnegie Mus.). State of Sao Paulo, Ilha Seca, 1¢, and Onda Verde, Fazenda Sao Joao, 1¢ (exchange from Instituto Oswaldo Cruz). Chapada, State of Mato Grosso, 3¢, 32 (Carnegie Mus.). Paracuay: Horqueta, 16, 12 (Van Duzee collection in Calif. mead. Scl.). 4. DOLDINA LIMERA, new species Length, ¢, 15.8 mm., humeral width 2.1 mm. Pale testaceous; membrane hyaline, with numerous rather large fuscous spots inside closed cells and some faint brownish mark- ings outside them; hind femora lightly spotted with brown; con- nexival segments, above and below, with a small piceous spot in outer apical angle, spots of last two segments becoming linear; 268 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES abdominal dorsum with a broad brown median stripe, interrupted at most segmental incisures, with irregular longitudinal lines of black and red each side of median stripe, and with a submarginal row of large, round, brownish spots, one at middle and one at hind margin of each segment. Male genital segment with a few blackish spots. Head, including neck, slightly longer (257:246)* than its humeral width, and about two-fifths as wide anteriorly (87:209) as across humeri. Posterior margin transverse before scutellum, posterior angles obtusely rounded, not at all produced backward as lobules, postero-lateral margins not sinuate; supra-humeral spine minute (0.07 mm. long), discal spines represented by minute black conical tubercles. Scutellum much longer than wide (140:96), its Y-shaped tumid area triangularly impressed at about mid-length of scutellum. Outer apical angle of first connexival segment with a small, blunt- tipped, digitiform spinule, second segment with only a small callose node, both of these piceous-brown. Median posterior process of hypopygial margin (Fig. 2) horizontal, directed forward, spatulate, a little broader at middle than at base, very plainly grooved on upper surface, extreme tip reflexed. Internal genitalia not dis- sected. Female unknown. Holotype, ¢, Bonito Province, Pernambuco, Brasil, 2-4-83, in the P. R. Uhler collection, U. S. National Museum. Readily separated from all known species of Doldina by the maculations of the membrane, the hind femora, and the connexival angles, as well as by the position and form of the male hypopygial process. No other Doldina has been seen with such greatly re- duced spines on the first connexival segment. 5. Doldina lauta (Stal) Hygromystes lautus Stal 1862: 75.1 [¢, 92; Rio de Janeiro, in Stockholm Museum and Stal collection]. H. (Hygromystes) lautus, Stal 1872: 78.8. Doldina lauta, Wygodzinsky 1949: 38.6 [catalog]. This seems to be an uncommon species, as there are only four specimens in the material we have examined, one of these being ° Unless otherwise stated, all measurements are in hundredths of a milli- meter. REVIEW OF THE GENUS DOLDINA STAL 269 Stal’s female cotype. It is larger and more robust than the other Doldina species (though some females of D. interjungens are quite as long), the pronotum is slightly more declivent, and the anterior femora show a slight but distinct bisinuous lateral curvature in both sexes. The post-antennal spines are small, the pronotal disk is unarmed, and only one specimen (the male) has as much as a small tubercle at the site of the lateral spine. The first two con- nexival segments are spined. The hemelytra slightly surpass the abdomen. Male. Genital capsule about one-fifth narrower than the fossa formed for its reception by the seventh sternite, unique in Doldina in having a deep, linear, median, longitudinal impression from base to about the middle, also with a shallow transverse impres- sion shortly before the apical margin. Median process of hypo- pygial margin directed obliquely forward and upward, its sides subparallel on basal three-fourths of its length, then curved back- ward so that the apical portion is nearly vertical, postero-dorsal side shallowly grooved at base; claspers very short and _ thick, failing by nearly their own length to reach the median process. Female. Pygidium flat, vertical, not reflexed on apical half, overhung by 8th tergite whose posterior margin is roundly and broadly produced very distinctly caudad of apex of 9th tergite. We have seen the following material: Brasiz: Rio de Janeiro, 12 (cotype of Stal, in Stockholm Mu- seum). Lassance, Minas Gerais, 12 (U.S.N.M.). “Entre Rios, Brazil,” 1¢; Rio de Janeiro, 1, multilated (Carnegie Mus.). Several places in Brasil formerly were known as Entre Rios. Since this male bears the same accession number as specimens taken at Chapada and Corumba; the locality in question would seem to be the one now known as Rio Brilhante, in the state of Mato Grosso not far north of the Paraguayan border. 6. DOLDINA PENALEA, new species Length, ¢, 16.4 mm., humeral width 2.0 mm. Pale yellowish testaceous or stramineous; head with a faintly reddish vitta behind each ocellus, reaching base of head; front lobe of pronotum with lateral margins lightly embrowned; a broad longitudinal stripe on corium and sides of venter sometimes lightly suffused with reddish; membrane hyaline, unspotted; apical 270 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES fourth of posterior femora either lightly infuscated or slightly tinged with reddish; abdominal dorsum with a brown median vitta, more or less interrupted at segmental incisures, and with a narrower sublateral vermilion streak each side. Head, including neck, about four-fifths as long as pronotum on median line (239:274) and more than twice as long as its own transocular width (239:104); posterior lobe one-seventh longer (128:112) than anterior lobe measured to tip of tylus; eyes less than half as wide in dorsal view (25:54) than minimum distance between them, ocelli slightly nearer to one another (49:54) than the inter-ocular distance; pre-ocular length of head, seen from side, to tip of tylus two-thirds the post-ocular length (76:113) and one-half greater than length of eye (76:50), tylus surpassing an- tenniferous tubercles by about thickness of first rostral segment. Cephalic spines small, triangular, subconical, not longer than diam- eter of ocellus. -Lengths of antennal segments I:II:III = 772:205: 528, fourth segment approximately twice as long as second, first segment one-fourth longer than head, pronotum, and scutellum combined, with thick erect silvery pilosity, hairs on basal fifth twice as long as thickness of segment, becoming progressively shorter and somewhat more oblique on distal part, those near tip shorter than thickness of segment; second segment much less pilose, third with short, semi-appressed pilosity only. Head, except gula, with short, sub-appressed pilosity, and also (except dorsum ot posterior lobe) thickly clothed with long, often curved, silvery hairs, some of which are nearly as long as distance between eyes. Pronotum one-third longer on median line than its transhumeral width (274:204); anterior lobe two-fifths shorter than posterior lobe (102:172), impunctate, with a short, deep, median longitudinal im- pression behind middle; posterior lobe closely concolorously punc- tate, median longitudinal groove broad, shallow, almost obsolete, extending forward to transverse sulcus and there bordered at each side by a short, low carinula which extends to posterior fourth of anterior lobe; discal and lateral spines entirely wanting; posterior margin virtually straight, transverse, posterior angles minimally extended backward, postero-lateral margins straight, oblique; inter- lobular sulcus tri-sinuate on each side of median line, interrupted only by the paramesal carinulae. Scutellum 5/7 longer than wide at base (120:76), lightly depressed basally at middle between arms of a Y-shaped subcallose ridge; extreme tip not recurved. Heme- REVIEW OF THE GENUS DOLDINA STAL 271 lytra nearly reaching apex of abdomen (2) or very slightly sur- passing it (¢). Front femora nearly one-third longer (650:500) than head and pronotum conjoined, one-half thicker than middle or hind femora, slightly longer than front tibiae; middle femora one-third shorter (500:675) than hind ones; all femora and tibiae quite thickly set with erect silvery hairs about as long as thickness of front femora, front legs also with very short, dense, erect pubescence beneath as in other species of Doldina. Male. Median process of hypopygial margin, seen from behind, a very slender erect spine (Fig. 3). Internal genitalia: basal plate moderately robust, with anterior bridge (Fig. 5); aedeagus when retracted mostly covered by basal plate (Fig. 7); everted endosoma (Fig. 6) with two club-like small conformities at dorsal mid-portion, these and several posterior areas of endosoma with many tiny spines on surface. 2 Female. Eighth tergite broad, twice as wide across base (in- cluding connexivum) as its median length (Fig. 4); apex of abdomen with rather long pilosity, partly or largely concealing the oblique pygidium. Holotype: ¢, Rio Paulaya, El] Dorado (Departamento Colon), Honduras, April 16, 1923 (T. H. Hubbell), in University of Michigan Museum of Zoology; collected from a rather small, dry, sedge marsh in an open forest of Caribbean pine and oaks. Paratypes, 2 6, taken with the type, in University of Michigan Museum and Hussey collection. Other paratypes as follows: Honpuras: 1¢, Rio Clauro, Depto. Colon, April 18, 1923, taken beside a trail through lowland selva forest (T. H. Hubbell); Puerto Castilla, March 23, 1924 (J. Becquaert); both of these in Univ. Mich. Museum. British Honpuras: Punta Gorda, Feb. 1931, 12 (J. G. White), in Elkins collection. Ex Satvapor: Porillo, Santa Cruz, July 9, 1953, 16 (Salazar); samcmocality. Dec. 21 [953° (M. S: V.), 26: mU. S. National Museum. Nicaracua: Corinto, Jan. 26, 1930, 12 (T. O. Zscholke), in Cali- fornia Academy of Sciences. Ecuapor: Guayaquil, 1941, 2? (C. L. Fagan), in U. S. Nationai Museum. 272 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES EXPLANATION OF FIGURES Doldina bicarinata, male, apex of abdomen, ventral aspect. . limera, male, hypopygial margin and median process, dorsal aspect. . penalea, male, apex of abdomen, posterior aspect. penalea, female, eighth abdominal tergite. . penalea, basal plate. . penalea, everted endosoma, dorsal aspect. . penalea, retracted aedeagus. . interjungens, male, apex of abdomen, posterior aspect. . interjungens, female, eighth abdominal tergite. See 9 ID MW See SeSsees REVIEW OF THE GENUS DOLDINA STAL 273 This species most closely resembles D. bicarinata in the struc- ture of the male genital segment, both species having the apex of the last tergite rather deeply notched above (Fig. 2), and both have quite similar spine-like median processes on the hypopygial rim; yet these two species represent the two extremes as regards the development of body spines within the genus. D. penalea lacks all thoracic spines, the connexivum bears spines on the first segment alone, and the cephalic spines are extremely small. Also, the present species is probably the most pilose of them all, with the long erect hairs of the hind tibiae quite thickly placed on its basal two-thirds, with the first antennal segment much more pilose than in most Doldinas, and with a more pronounced comb of long hairs, many of them curved, on each side of the head behind the eyes. The individuals seen range from 15.8 to 17.2 mm. in length. 7. Doldina interjungens Bergroth Hygromystes sp., Torre-Bueno and Engelhardt 1910: 150 [listed, Roanoke Island, N. C.]. Doldina interjungens Bergroth 1913: 263 [@; Roanoke Island, N. C., coll. by Engelhardt, in Torre-Bueno collection]; Wan -Duzee 1917: 267.794 [catalog]; Blatchley 1926: 580.555 [redescribed; D. praetermissa Bergroth as new synonym]; Readio 1927: 203 [Bergroth 1913 quoted in full]; Bruner and Barber 1937: 188 [with D. armata (F.&B.) as new synonym]: Brimley 1938: 73 [listed only]; Wygodzinsky 1949: 38.5 [catalog]; Sibley 1951: 92.44; Elkins 1951: 409. Doldina praetermissa Bergroth 1913: 264 [¢@, Charlotte Harbor, Fla. (Mrs. Annie Trumbull Slosson), and @, Belize, British Honduras (C. F. Baker)]; Barber 1914: 506; Van Duzee 1917: 267.793 [catalog]; Barber 1923: 29; Blatchley 1926: 581 [as synonym of D. interjungens]; Readio 1927: 203 [Bergroth’s original description copied]; Wygodzinsky 1949: 38.7 [cata- log]; Sibley 1951: 92.43 [listed from Louisiana]; Elkins 1951: 409 [listed from Texas]. Hygromystes (Ceballum) armatus Fracker and Bruner 1924: 172 [é, Ceballos, Camagiiey Province, Cuba; disposition of type not stated]; Bruner 1926: 80.27; Blatchley 1926: 580, note 70 [as probable synonym of D. inter- jungens|; Bruner and Barber 1937: 188 [as new synonym of D. inter- jungens |. [Hygromystes flaccidus Uhler MS], in Heidemann collection, Cornell Uni- versity. This is another variable species, ranging in length from 14.6 to 19.0 mm., and in humeral width from 1.65 to 2.13 mm. The largest females rival D. lauta in length but are at once distinct by the 274 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES narrowly tapering abdomen which is not widest behind the mid- dle and by the much shorter hemelytra. No discal spines occur on the pronotum of D. interjungens, and commonly the lateral spines are reduced to tiny spinules; often they too are entirely absent, yet rarely (in Cuban specimens) they are well developed. The cephalic spines are small, as in D. penalea. Commonly the first two connexival segments bear spines; some- times the third is acutely prominulent but is never distinctly spined. Hemelytra of the males usually reach only to the apical third of the seventh tergite, but sometimes they attain or barely surpass the abdominal apex. In females too the hemelytra fail to reach the base of the eighth tergite; and since the eighth segment (Fig. 9) is more narrowly elongate than in other species, the females of interjungens have a distinctive habitus which is approached only by females of D. bicarinata. Bergroth described Doldina praetermissa from two female speci- mens, flatly refusing to name either of them as type. One of his cotypes, from British Honduras, has not been located. The other, which was listed first under the description, was from Charlotte Harbor, Florida. Mrs. Slosson gave this specimen many years ago to Mr. H. G. Barber, according to information received from him, and it is now deposited in the U. S. National Museum. We hereby designate it the lectotype of Doldina praetermissa Bergroth. The only differential character given by Bergroth to separate his two species was the presence of supra-humeral spines in inter- jungens and their absence in praetermissa, but Barber (1923) noted that this character did not hold good in topotypic specimens of praetermissa collected by Mrs. Slosson. We cannot find that two distinct species of Doldina occur in the United States, and agree with Blatchley that praetermissa should be placed as synonymous with interjungens. We have considered the possibility that Bergroth, when describ- ing praetermissa, had females of two species before him, the one from Belize perhaps being referable to the common Honduranian D. penalea, just described above. But D. interjungens also occurs in Honduras; and the females of these two species are so different in habitus that a hemipterist of Bergroth’s wide experience would surely have recognized penalea as distinct from the species occur- ring in Florida. | REVIEW OF THE GENUS DOLDINA STAL 275 Through the courtesy of Ing. F. Valdes Barry we have seen the two female specimens standing as D. armata (F. & B.) in the col- lection of the Estacion Experimental Agronémica at Santiago de las Vegas. They were collected several years after the species was described, and were among the specimens reported by Bruner and Barber (1937) when they synonymized armata with interjun- gens. As noted by these authors, the supra-humeral spines are much better developed in these Cuban examples than in any we have seen from North America, but they alone are not sufficent to warrant recognition of a Cuban species distinct from interjungens. Male. Median process of hypopygial margin (Fig. 8) much wider than in any other species, most commonly broadly triangular as seen from behind, rarely with sides less strongly convergent on basal than on apical half. Claspers very slender, long, distinctly surpassing median hypopygial process when seen from side. Female. Eighth tergite (Fig. 9) little more than one-third wider at base (including connexivum) than its median length, apex pro- duced somewhat beyond base of pygidium; apex of abdomen quite pilose, hairs partly concealing the oblique pygidium whose tip is only slightly caudad of apex of eighth tergite. The specimens we have seen are from the following localities: FLoripa: Manatee, Cortez Beach, Paradise Key (Royal Palm Hammock), Cape Sable, Ocala National Forest in Marion County, _ Leesburg, and Cedar Key (Univ. Mich. Mus.); Fort Myers, Fort Lauderdale, Palm Beach, and Paradise Key (U.S.N.M.); Key Largo and Martin County (Fla. Plant Board); Enterprise and Biscayne (Cornell Univ., ex Heidemann); Dunedin and Atlantic Beach (Calif. Acad. Sci., ex Van Duzee); Lutz (Hillsborough County) (Car- negie Mus.). Georcia: Tybee (Calif. Acad. Sci.); Tybee Island (Cornell Univ.). Lourstana: Lake Charles (Univ. Mich. Mus.); Baton Rouge (Elkins coll.). Texas: Galveston and other Gulf coast localities; Huntsville (Elkins coll.). Honpuras: Without definite locality, intercepted at New Or- leans (U.S.N.M.). Cusa: Santiago de las Vegas, Habana Prov., and Jaronu, Cama- guey Prov. (Estac. Exp. Agr. Cuba). IsLE oF Pines: Nueva Gerona, on lemon (U.S.N.M.). I Lo JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Key to the Species of Doldina Stal Distinct spines present on apical angles of all connexival seg- ments (5 in male, 6 in female) = = eee 2 Distinct spines present on not more than three proximal seg- ments of connexivum 4... eee 3 Head about one-sixth shorter than pronotum; first antennal seg- ment. subequal to or slightly shorter than head and pronotum combined; male pygidium produced behind as a narrow, short, obtusely pointed process _________ cubana Barber and Bruner Head as long as or slightly longer than pronotum; first antennal segment as long as or longer than head, pronotum, and scutel- lum combined; postero-lateral submargins of pronotum very plainly depressed below margins, posterior angles lightly produced backward as small lobules; male pygidium seen from below (Fig. 1) obovate, without a short, narrow apical PIOCOSS = ..2 622 ee ee bicarinata Stal Hind lobe of pronotum either distinctly 4-spined, or with a supra-humeral spine (usually well developed) or spinule plus a small spine or tubercle * each side on disk ______________ 4 Hind lobe of pronotum either wholly unarmed, or with a small supra-humeral spine or tubercle only, the disk unarmed _. 5 Membrane, connexivum, and hind femora without fuscous spots; first three connexival segments spinose; post-antennal spines at least half as long as vertical height of an eye; discal spines of pronotum most commonly well developed, seldom much shorter than lateral ones and most rarely reduced to small tubercles; postero-lateral submargins of pronotum depressed below the sub-callose margin, posterior angles produced back- ward as small lobules (slightly larger than in bicarinata) ___ fae Dee LE ee See carinulata Stal Closed cells of membrane with numerous fuscous spots and dashes, hind femora lightly spotted with fuscous, connexival segments above and below with a blackish spot in apical angles; a small piceous digitiform spinule on first connexival segment only; post-antennal spines very small; lateral spines of pronotum minute, discal spines (always?) reduced to small * Not infrequently one or both discal spines may be broken off close to the pronotum, so that the remaining basal portion appears like a small tubercle. If supra-humeral spines are broken, this usually occurs farther from their bases. REVIEW OF THE GENUS DOLDINA STAL 277 tubercles not higher than their own diameter — on cece: SARE EN Se OS A ed a limera new species 5. Front femora, seen Fon above, with light but distinct bisinuous lateral curvature; larger species, more robust, more than 18.5 mm. long, pronotum about one-tenth longer than wide, its posterior and postero-lateral margins lightly sinuate —____ NNN eso Sy Sale oon hey oe a NO ae lauta (Stal) Front femora straight; smaller, more slender species, usually less than 18 mm. long, pronotum at least one-fourth longer than wide, its posterior and postero-lateral margins straight BeMISGREEUI CNEL Oates Baris IEE Ne ie ee ere 6 6. Meso- and metapleura concolorous, not striped with fuscous, front lobe of pronotum commonly embrowned toward sides above; first antennal segment, legs, and sides of head with rather dense, long, silvery or concolorous pilosity; pronotum wholly unarmed; hemelytra very nearly (2) or quite (¢) deems apex. Of abdomen == =2 2 penalea new species Meso- and metapleura with a broad dark-brown vitta, often extended back onto sides of abdomen and sometimes also (in darkest specimens) forward on sides of head below eyes; antennae, legs, and sides of head more shortly and less densely pilose; pronotum without discal spines, the supra-humeral pair sometimes absent, rarely well developed, most commonly present as minute, usually concolorous spinules; hemelytra most rarely (in some males only) surpassing apex of seventh “SER ENGS wos ele ee ee ee interjungens Bergroth LITERATURE CITED BARBER, H. G. 1914. Insects of Florida. II. Hemiptera. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hust. 33(31): 495-535. 1923. Report on Certain Families of Hemiptera-Heteroptera Collected by the Barbados-Antigua Expedition from the University of Iowa. Univ. Iowa Stud. Nat. Hist. 10(3): 17-29. BARBER, H. G., and S. C. BRUNER 1946. Records and Descriptions of Miscellaneous Cuban Hemiptera. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 41(2): 52-61, 5 figs. BERGROTH, E. 1913. On some North American Hemiptera. Ent. News 24(6): 263-267. BLATCHLEY, W. S. 1926. Heteroptera or True Bugs of Eastern North America. 1116 pages. ‘Indianapolis: Nature Publ. Co. 278 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BRIMLEY, €. S. 1938. The Insects of North Carolina. 560 pages. Raleigh. BRUNER, S. C. 1926. Sipnosis [sic] de los Redtividos de Cuba (Hemiptera-Heteroptera). Mem. Soc. Cubana Hist. Nat. “Felipe Poey” 7(1-2): 65-82. BRUNER® S:(G> and H..G, BARBER 1937. Additional Notes on Cuban Reduviidae (Hemiptera-Heteroptera). Mem. Soc. Cubana Hist. Nat. 11(8): 181-190. ELKINS, JOE C. 1951. The Reduviidae of Texas. Texas Jour. Sci. 1951(8): 407-412. FRACKER, S. B., and STEPHEN C. BRUNER 1924. Notes on some Neotropical Reduviidae. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 17Q): 168-174. READIO, P. A. 1927. Studies on the Biology of the Reduviidae of America North ot Mexico. Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull. 17(1): 5-291, 21 pls. SIBLEY, LONNIE M. 1951. A Study of Reduviids in Louisiana. Proc. Louisiana Acad. Sci. 14: 88-93. SHALL OG: 1859. Till kannedomen om Reduvini. Ofv. Vet. Akad. Foérh. 16: 363-385. 1862.° Bidrag till Rio Janeiro-traktens Hemipter-fauna. K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl. 2(7): 1-84. 1866. Bidrag till Reduviidernas kannedom. Ofv. Vet. Akad. Férh. 23(9): 235-302. 1872. Enumeratio Hemipterorum, 2. K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl. 10(A4): 1-159. de la TORRE-BUENO, J. R., and G. P. ENGELHARDT 1910. Some Heteroptera from Virginia and North Carolina. Canadian Ent. 42(4): 147-151. VANE DIU ZIGE, oboe. 1917. Catalogue of the Hemiptera of America North of Mexico, excepting the Aphididae, Coccidae and Aleurodidae. Univ. California Publs., Techn. Bulls. Ent., Vol. 2. xiv + 902 pages. WYGODZINSKY, PETR 1949. Elenco sistematico de los Reduviiformes americanos. Inst. Medic. Reg., Univ. Nac. Tucuman, Monogr. No. 1. 102 pages. ° Stal himself and most later writers have given 1860 as the date of this publication. The copy before us, with the original paper cover bound in, bears the date 1862. Perhaps separates were issued in 1860, but under the Régles this would not constitute publication. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 18(4), 1955. A NEST OF THE ATLANTIC LEATHERBACK TURTLE, DERMOCHELYS CORIACEA CORIACEA (LINNAEUS), ON THE ATLANTIC COAST OF FLORIDA, WITH A SUMMARY OF AMERICAN NESTING RECORDS ! Davip K. CALDWELL, ARCHIE Carr, and THoMaAS R. HELLIER, JR. University of Florida Carr (1952: 451) pointed out that there has been only one reliable record of the nesting of the Atlantic Leatherback turtle, Dermo- chelys coriacea coriacea (Linnaeus), on the North American mainland beaches during the last 100 years. The case referred to was an emergence in June, 1947, on Flagler Beach, Flagler County, Florida. The evidence given below is thus apparently the second instance, reported by a zoologist, of a leatherback or trunkback, nesting on a North American shore in recent decades; and though the turtle itself was not seen by us, the data seem clear enough to be con- sidered valid. An account of a third such emergence which re- cently occurred in south Florida is now being prepared for pub- lication by Mr. Wilfred T. Neill of Ross Allen’s Reptile Institute. On the night of July 22, 1955, in company with several other persons, two of us (Caldwell and Hellier) were tagging female Loggerhead turtles, Caretta caretta caretta (Linnaeus), as they came out to lay on Hutchinsons Island, Martin County, Florida, opposite the town of Jensen Beach. We were met by Mr. Newt Chase, local officer of the Florida State Board of Conservation, who informed us that a trunkback had nested near the south end of the island about a week or ten days before. The officer did not see the turtle, but it was reported to him by a person who had witnessed the event. He went to the spot with the witness on the next night and found that the tracks, which he measured to be nine feet between the outermost marks of the flipper tips, were still plainly visible. The witness told him that the eggs had been about the size of baseballs. The white sand beach is fairly steep at this point and the nest site was located about 75 feet above normal high water, just at the edge of a line of rather high dunes. *Field work supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant G-1684,. University of Florida (Principal investigator, Archie Carr), a project on which Caldwell was Research Assistant during the summer of 1955. 280 TOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENC KS Figure 1. (upper and lower). Dorsal and ventral views of a hatchling Atlantic Leatherback turtle from Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Note umbilical scar on ventral side. Specimen now UF Accn. No. 16. (Photographs by Leonard Giovannoli.) NEST OF THE ATLANTIC LEATHERBACK TURTLE 281 We returned to the spot on the 22nd in company with Chase, and found that the tracks were still visible, though partly destroyed by the wind. Even at this late date they were about seven feet across, much too wide for a loggerhead or any other species of sea turtle. The disturbed nest area measured about 12 by 15 feet. Figure 2. Carefully excavated nest of an Atlantic Trunkback turtle at edge ef Ipornea zone on beach near Toco, noithern coast of Trinidad. The diam- eter of the opening is thought to correspond closely with the mouth of the original excavation. The stick, which was 49 inches long, rests on what seemed clearly to be the bottom of the nest as dug by the turtle. (From a Kodachrome by Archie Carr.) The next morning we returned to the site armed with shovels, but were unable to recover any eggs, though we dug holes and trenches to a minimum of 3% feet over the visible nest area. While it is well known that the large size of this species permits it to bury its eggs quite deep (Carr, 1956: 77), we felt that we should have discovered the top of the nest, though as it is further pointed out (Carr, 1952: 391; 1956: 99), it is often astonishingly hard to find the eggs of even smaller species of sea turtles after they have been covered, even if the entire laying process has been watched. Unfortunately, sea turtle eggs are much in demand by pastry 282 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Figure 3. (upper and lower). Eggs from the nest in Figure 2. The extreme range in egg size is characteristic of trunkbacks, both Atlantic and Pacific. The coin shown is an English half crown. The big egg in the graded series was 2 1/16 inches in diameter and most of the eggs in the nest were, with the wooden calipers used, not measurably different. There were 8 undersized eggs in the clutch of 50. (From Kodachromes by Archie Carr.) NEST OF THE ATLANTIC LEATHERBACK TURTLE 283 cooks, and it is of course quite possible that the witness took the eggs, refilled the hole, and failed to report this to the conservation agent. Mr. Chase stated that though he had never seen one himself, two or three trunkbacks are reported nesting in this area each summer. American nesting records for the Atlantic Leatherback are as follows: Frorma: Flagler Beach, Flagler County, June 6, 1947 (Carr, 1952: 451); Hutchinsons Island, Martin County, (see above). Jamaica: West end (Negril Bay), March 30 and April 10, 1846 (Gosse, 1851: 306). Costa Rica: Tortuguero, May, 1953 (Carr, 1954: 138); Tortuguero, June, 1954, several old nests; Tortuguero, July 12, 1955, a single hatchling taken by Leonard Giovannoli (see Figure 1)—with measurements as follows: Carapace length 64 mm (2.56 in.); carapace width, 42 mm (1.68 in.); weight, 44.9 gms (0.099 Ibs.). TRinmap: Near Toco (northern coast), three nests, August 29, 1953 (Carr, 1954: 138; 1956: 98; see Figures 2 and 3); in the Royal Victoria Institute, Port of Spain, there is a photograph of a _trunkback with the notation that it had been taken on the beach at Manzanillo (eastern coast) near the mouth of the Oropuche River, where it had laid 150 eggs the night of May 29, 1937. Toxsaco: August, 1953, old nest (Carr, 1954: 138). Schmidt (1916: 9) named the islands of St. Croix and Tortola, in the Danish West Indies, as sites of nesting emergence, and Audubon (1926: 196) said that trunkbacks nested on the Florida Keys. Honduras, Nica- ragua, the Bahamas, and Brazil have also been noted on the basis of old or word-of-mouth accounts as breeding localities (Carr. 1952: 451). LITERATURE CITED AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES 1926. Delineations of American Scenery and Character. G. A. Baker and Co., New York, pp. 194-202. CARR, ARCHIE 1952. Handbook of Turtles. Comstock Publishing Associates, a division of Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. pp. xv + 542. 1954. The zoogeography and migrations of sea turtles. Year Book of the American Philosophical Society, 1954, pp. 138-140. 284 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1956. The Windward Road. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. pp. xvi + 258 + viii. GOSSE, P. H. 1851. A Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica. Longman, London. pp. xxiv + 508. SCHMIDT, J. 1916. Marking experiments with turtles in the Danish West Indies. Med- delelser Kommissionen Havundersogelser, Ser: Fiskeri, 5: 1-26. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 18(4), 1955. (Continued from Page 238) than was needed for the particular project and some could be diverted to other activities. The Academy Conference and the Council of the A.A.A.S. agreed on a new basis for the distribution of the small research fund which the Academies receive each year from the A.A.A.S. Grants are to be made for the support of outstanding research projects with consideration being given to applicants in the following order: First, High School students (for projects of the type which are entered in the National Science Talent Search); second, under- graduate students and third, graduate students and faculty members. In each category special consideration is to be given to applicants from the smaller institutions with limited budgets, and none of the money is to be used for prizes or rewards. The afternoon and evening sessions of the Academy Conference were devoted to a series of discussions on two topics. The first of these was The Role of Academies of Science in the A.A.A.S. Science Teaching Improvement Program. Among the suggestions made along this line were: continued and increased activity by the Senior Academies in establishing and supporting Junior and Collegiate Academies, Science Fairs and Science Talent Searches; and the appointment of Special Academy Committee(s) to make recommenda- tions for improvement in the training of science teachers and especially to help with the establishment of inservice training programs, and to examine existing science curricula in the high schools and try to improve them, especially from the laboratory standpoint. The second topic of discussion dealt with Science Fairs as an Academy activity. The importance of stimulating an interest in science among students at the Junior High level was discussed and the value of Science Fairs in help- ing to promote such an interest was pointed out. The Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies has some very interesting publications in which this matter is discussed at some length. The Conference concluded with the annual dinner on Wednesday evening. E. RuFFIN JONES Academy Conference Representative THE CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPOTTED CUSK EEL OTOPHIDIUM OMOSTIGMUM (Jordan and Gilbert) Joun C. Briccs and Davin K. CALDWELL University of Florida The authors recently had the privilege of observing five living specimens of a rare cusk eel at Marineland, Florida.1. Two addi- tional individuals were later examined, one from Cortez Beach, Florida,” on the lower Gulf coast, and the other from Cedar Key, Florida, about 120 miles further north on the west coast. Since only two specimens had previously been reported (each described as a separate species), both the morphology and the behavior of these individuals were investigated with considerable interest. Otophidium omostigmum (Jordan and Gilbert) Genypterus omostigma Jordan and Gilbert, 1882: 301-302 (Pensa- cola, Florida). Otophidium omostigma Jordan, 1887: 914. Goode and Bean, 1895: 345, fig. 305 (Pensacola) Jordan, Evermann, and Clark, 1930: 485 (Pensacola snapper banks). Otophidium omostigmum Jordan and Evermann, 1898: 2490 (Snap- per banks off Pensacola). Otophidium grayi Fowler, 1948: 1-4, fig. 1 (Marineland, Florida). DESCRIPTION The initial values given in the text are the arithmetic means of all specimens measured; the values included in parentheses are the -extremes. A robust species, probably attaining a larger size than the other members of this genus. Body depth (taken at dorsal origin) 6.0 (5.2-6.3) and head length 4.1 (3.9- 4.6) in standard length. Head width 1.8 (1.6- 2.1), snout 3.5 (3.2-3.9), eye diam- eter measured horizontally 4.4 (4.0- 4.8), and bony interorbital ‘We are indebted to the directors of the Marine Studios, Marineland, _ Florida, and to their Scientific Curator, Mr. F. G. Wood, for furnishing both facilities and specimens. * Obtained as a loan from the University of Miami through the courtesy of Mr. Luis R. Rivas. 286 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES space 6.0 (5.1 - 7.1) all in head length. Eye diameter measures 1.3 (1.0- 1.5) in snout. Mouth slightly inferior; maxillary slopes a little downward from front of snout and reaches to a point under the posterior edge of the pupil. A pair of inconspicuous nostrils on each side, the anterior nostril close to the tip of the snout and the posterior about halfway between the tip and the anterior edge of the eye. A broad band of villiform teeth in both jaws. Teeth on vomer larger, blunt, rounded, extended along the palatines in two or three rows. The gill rakers are large and each is provided with many minute, sharp spines; 4 (4-5) on the lower limb of the first arch, the lower three somewhat flattened and elongated; 7 (6 - 8) on second arch, knob-like. The head is naked, the skin on the top being compressed into a series of very fine, parallel wrinkles. Scales small, thin, cycloid and imbedded in groups at irregular angles; 20 (17-24) in the predorsal series and approximately 160-185 along the lateral line to the caudal base. The lateral line can be seen as a small tube which disappears somewhat in front of the caudal base; it opens to the exterior through two series of pores, one above the line and another below. The median rays were extremely difficult to count, since they are delicate and the fins are quite thick and fleshy. About 117 - 126 dorsal rays were found, about 85 - 95 anal, and 8-10 caudal. Pec- toral rays 20 (19 - 22) and ven- tral rays 2; the outer ventral ray about twice as long as the in- i, CSS ner; this entire ventral apparatus borne on a movable pedicle which projects from the chin (Figure 1). The genus Otophidium is still in a most confused state. How- ever, evidently four other west- ern Atlantic species should be Figure 1. Profile of head showing recognized, O. marginatum (De- the ventral pedicle bearing the fila- Kay), O. schmidti Woods and ments. Kanazawa, O. welshi Nichols and Breder, and O. holbrooki (Putnam). O. omostigmum is imme- diately distinguishable by its unique color pattern which, fortun- ately, does not easily fade in alcohol. In fact, the only one of the \ THE SPOTTED CUSK EEL 287 other four that possesses distinct markings on the body is O. welshi, but these are in the form of four longitudinal lines and could not be easily confused with the large, irregular blotches of O. omostigmum. LIvE COLORATION Though the color in alcohol has been adequately described by Goode and Bean (1895: 345), and Fowler (1948: 2), its coloration in life has not been previously reported. Base color a light brown with a very definite pinkish cast, with dark, chocolate-brown blotches; somewhat darker above than be- low, though the above general colors persist, varying only in degree of intensity. The dorsal, anal, caudal, and pectoral fins edged in dark brown, with the exception of a chalk white area (persisting after preservation) on the edge of the dorsal, extending approximately 1/10 the length of the fin, beginning at a point about 1/4 the fin’s length from its origin. MATERIAL EXAMINED University of Florida number 4572; five specimens from St. Augustine, Florida (three of these will be deposited elsewhere, at the U. S. National Museum, Stanford University, and the Chi- cago Natural History Museum). University of Florida number 4458; one from Cedar Key, Florida. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia number 71737; one (holotype of Otophidium grayi) from Marineland, Florida. University of Miami (not catalogued); one from Cortez Beach, Florida. REMARKS As is shown by Table 2, plus a comparison with available data on the holotype, certain ontogenetic changes in proportion are noticeable: the body depth becomes relatively greater, the inter- orbital space greater, and the snout longer. However, the changes which occur in the air bladder as the result of both growth and sexual maturity are the most interesting. Jordan and Gilbert (1882: 302) found a large posterior foramen in the air bladder of the holotype (a small specimen of only about 90 mm.). In all of our specimens (160 mm. to 293 mm.) the air bladder is entire and, also, a remarkable type of sex dimorphism is demonstrated. In the two 288 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES females this structure is more or less heart-shaped from a ventral view (Figure 2), but in the five males (the largest specimens) a prominent posterior projection (Figure 3) is developed. This pro- trusion is hollow and covered by a membrane at the distal end. Furthermore, this membrane is very elastic and presumably can extend a considerable distance into the coelomic cavity when pres- sure is exerted upon the comparatively rigid air bladder. Harry (1951: 32) first called attention to the widespread occurrence of this type of sexual dimorphism in the Ophidiidae. Its discovery in this species serves to further indicate it may be a fundamental characteristic of the entire family. CC =< Figure 2. Outline of air Figure 3. Outline of air bladder in bladder from a ventral view; same position as Figure 2. Male. anterior end to the right. Female. We consider Otophidium grayi Fowler to be a synonym of O. omostigmum (Jordan and Gilbert), because the original description of the latter plus the figure drawn by Todd and published by Goode and Bean (1882, figure 305) reveal no well-defined differ- ences that could not be attributed to the juvenile state of the holo- type. TABLE 1 Measurements in Millimeters of Seven Specimens Cedar Key Cortez Beach Specimen From Marineland, Florida Specimen Standand Jlensth === 160 215... 2bo5 225d 2 oe oe 293 Bodydeptht ses aa DY 35.0. 425). 44:0. AGSIRe Ase 56.1 Headelenctihy «28.22% 34.8 53.5 62:0. GIG. (GGlomeGors 65.6 leads wacthtas 2 16.4 30.0 38.4 382 384 39.8 39.6 SITOUE fee eee Dees Se Or S50 1A:6" LS 7 1633 AS iSiael oan 19.8 Hye diameter 2-2 8.7 12.6. 13:05 13:25 Toyieetors 13.6 Interorbital ss eee 3.3 1.53 AZT 1078 lO seats? al Miaxalllaiy > 4 eee es 13.8 210° 24.2" (95:0) . 27ers 28.8 Longest ventral ray ___. 16.2 24.2, 264° 289 28He ees 25.4 THE SPOTTED CUSK EEL 289 RANGE From Pensacoija, Florida, in the Gulf of Mexico, around the peninsula to St. Augustine, Florida, on the Atlantic Coast. TABLE 2 Measurements as per cent of standard length Cedar Key Cortez Beach Specimen From Marineland, Florida Specimen Hoawecdepthy. 2 15.8 WG WG WS © WO UGG 19.1 Mead lensth— 2 21.8 DA ArS Ae OeAee 22.4 edeunyidths.-2 2. 10.2 140) WSL UO) ES) its 13.5 SOT Dt eS 5.6 GUT alle Tos IS} 6.8 Eye diameter 5.4 SO Ra BOF GID nae 4.6 mteronoitale. 2855 3.3 Bui Ay A) a aS 4.1 Wekeacillenye ho 8.6 Oi Oi O43 Os O38 9.8 Longest ventral ray ______ 10.1 Wages NOE AEs Uae OE 7 8.7 HABITAT At the Marine Studios this is not now considered a rare form, since individuals seem to be generally available during the cooler parts of the year. The east coast specimens were all taken on _ November 23, 1954, by an otter trawl over a mud bottom at 35 - 40 feet, about one mile off the beach at St. Augustine. The Cedar Key specimen was taken on March 10, 1953, in a shrimp net at 18 feet, about 8.5 miles west of the town of Cedar Key. The Cortez Beach individual was found dead, presumably killed by the red tide outbreak of December, 1953. OBSERVATIONS ON LivE INDIVIDUALS Observation of five live specimens at Marineland showed that the habits of this species have much in common with those of a Pacific cusk-eel (O. taylori) as reported by Herald (1953: 381). Though O. omostigmum never displayed the “tail standing” habit described for O. taylori, it did exhibit other habits noted for the latter species. Individuals quickly buried themselves tail first on their sides, often until only the very tip of the snout protruded, though some- times the burial was only partially completed. They burrowed in the open sand on the aquarium bottom, under flat rocks, and, on one occasion, beneath a small flounder which was itself buried 290 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in the sand. Sometimes they would lie on their sides completely exposed, either prone or partially curled (Figure 5). In all cases of burial, partial burial, or exposed “side lying”, the animals ap- peared dead, and considerable stimulation was usually needed in order to make them resume a swimming position. This sluggish- ness may account for their apparent rarity, since a trawl or other net might easily pass over one and fail to frighten it out of hiding and into the net. Figure 4. Live specimen in swimming position. O. omostigmum shows a negative phototrophism, moving away from a strong artificial light and also away from a patch of sun- light in the aquarium. The ventral fins are highly movable and apparently have an important tactile and perhaps an olfactory func- tion; they are kept in continuous motion as the fish swims along just off the bottom. Food was not accepted until after it came in contact with these ventral filaments. Figure 5. Live specimen in resting position. THE SPOTTED CUSK EEL 291 LITERATURE CITED FOWLER, HENRY W. 1948. Description of a new cusk (Otophidium grayi) from the east coast of Florida. Notulae Naturae, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, No. 204: 1-4, 1 fig. GOODE, GEORGE B., and TARLETON H. BEAN 1895. Oceanic ichthyology, a treatise on the deep-sea and pelagic fishes of the world. Smithsonian Contrib. to Knowledge No. 981; xxxv + feaboeat2oypls., 417 figs. HARRY, ROBERT R. 1951. A new cusk-eel of the genus Ophidion from California, with notes on the genus. Stanford Ichthy. Bull., 4(1): 30-35, 5 figs. HERALD, EARL S. 1958. Spotted cusk-eel, the strange fish that stands on its tail. California Fish and Game, 39(8): 381-384, 3 figs. JORDAN, DAVID S. 1887. A catalogue of the fishes known to inhabit the waters of North America north of the Tropic of Cancer, with notes on the species discovered in 1883 and 1884. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, 1885, 138: 789-978. _ JORDAN, DAVID S., and BARTON W. EVERMANN 1898. Fishes of North and Middle America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 47(3): xxiv, 2183-3136. JORDAN, DAVID S., and CHARLES H. GILBERT 1882. Notes on fishes observed about Pensacola, Florida, and Galveston, Texas, with description of new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 5: 241-307. JORDAN, DAVID S., BARTON W. EVERMANN, and HOWARD W. CLARK 1930. A check list of the fishes and fishlike vertebrates of North and Middle America north of the northern boundary of Venezuela and Colombia. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish., 1928 (2): 1-670. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 18(4), 1955. NATURAL HISTORY NOTES ON THE ATLANTIC LOGGERHEAD TURTLE, CARETTA CARETTA CARETTA Davip K. CaLpWELL, ARCHIE CARR, and THomas R. HELLIER, JR. University of Florida During a general study of the Atlantic forms of American sea turtles,! centered chiefly upon the Atlantic Green turtle, Chelonia mydas mydas (Linnaeus), and the Atlantic Ridley, Lepidochelys kempi (Garman), a number of notes on the Atlantic Loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta caretta (Linnaeus), have accumulated. While sketchy and inconclusive, they nevertheless add something to our remarkably incomplete knowledge of an animal that is familiar to most of the inhabitants of the Gulf coast and the southern Atlantic seaboard. | Thirty-seven loggerheads were marked during the summers of 1953, 1954, and 1955. All were females, taken when they came out to lay. Two kinds of inscribed tags were used. The earlier was a l-inch circular monel metal disk, the later version an ap- proximately 2- by 1%-inch oval. In each case the tag bore a num- ber and was inscribed, in Spanish and English, with instructions for its return. Most of the work was done on the east coast of Florida (Figure 1) from Fort Pierce (Indian River Inlet) south to Jupiter Inlet, a distance of about 40 miles. Some turtles were tagged at Cocoa Beach near Cape Canaveral and at Daytona Beach. A single individual was tagged on St. Vincents Island, near Apalachi- cola, Franklin County, Florida (northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, not shown on Figure 1) in 1955. . Of the marked turtles only one has been retaken. This, un- fortunately, was an individual tagged by a student from the Uni- versity of Florida who volunteered to help with the tagging pro- gram and then failed to turn over his notes to us when he was drafted into military service. We know only that the tag was put on late in June, 1955, at Fort Pierce. It was recovered when the turtle was retaken July 15, 1955, by a shrimp trawler off Day- tona Beach. The shoreline distance traveled by the turtle was about 130 miles (Figure 1). ‘Field work supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant G-1684, University of Florida (Principal investigator, Archie Carr), a project on which Caldwell was Research Assistant during the summer of 1955. ATLANTIC LOGGERHEAD TURTLE 293 JACKSONVILLE El PIERCE GULF aF ) ATLANTIC MEXICO \\ one Figure 1. Map of peninsular Florida showing the areas where nesting female loggerheads were tagged during the summers of 1953, 1954, and 1955. The approximate path taken by a tagged individual before recovery is also shown. 294 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES NESTING BEHAVIOR An interesting and unexplained aspect of the group behavior of sea turtles on a nesting beach is the tendency for emergences to clump, in time or about particular sections of beaches. Such a tendency has been noted at the green turtle rookery in Costa Rica, and notes made there during the summer of 1955 will be discussed elsewhere (Carr and Giovannoli, Ms.). Observations possibly bear- upon this tendency in the loggerhead were made by Caldwell and Hellier on July 22-23, 1955, at Hutchinsons Island, opposite Jensen Beach, Martin County, Florida: Nesting loggerheads were extremely common on this beach on the night of the 22nd. Seven and a half miles of beach were patrol- led with a jeep, and this distance was covered twice. The evening was clear with little wind, the moon dark, weather warm, and the tide had just turned from flood to ebb, though the water was still fairly high during the 3% hours spent on the beach. Nine turtles were tagged, another seen, and the fresh tracks of at least 25 others were observed. From our past experience on the beach and from conversations with Mr. Newt Chase, the local officer of the Florida State Board of Conservation, who had been on the beach every night during the season, this seemed, and still seems an exceptionally heavy emergence. The next night we spent about the same time on the same stretch of beach at the same stage of the tide (thus, somewhat later in the evening) and saw only one fresh crawl and no turtles other than the one to be commented on below. Though Mr. Chase did not accompany us, we saw him during the evening and found that he had not seen any turtles or tracks except that one seen by us, and it might be added that he had covered an even longer stretch of beach than we had. Weather conditions were identical with those of the previous night with the one exception that there had been a high wind during the latter part of the previous night (after we left the beach) which had continued throughout the day, and partly into the second night. Perhaps as a result of this, there was a strong undertow and a heavy surf during the day and on the night of the 23rd. There had been practically no surf on the first night and conversation with the lifeguard on a part of the beach maintained by the county as a park proved that there had also been no undertow during the first day (the 22nd). The under- ATLANTIC LOGGERHEAD TURTLE 295 tow had cut away a portion of the beach so that there was a definite step or low bluff (up to 12 inches) about midway between high and low water lines. This step was not present the night of the 22nd, nor did we remember its presence on any previous visit to the beach when turtles had been relatively plentiful. Just as we were about to give up on this second night we glimpsed a turtle emerg- ing from the surf. We immediately turned off all lights and waited for her to come out. She continued to move up the beach until she came to the step, which was now about 30 feet from the water's edge. On encountering the rise she unhesitatingly turned and went back to the water. After she had gone, we examined her path and found that she had made no serious effort to get over the step obstruction which was about 8 inches high at this point. A further walk of % mile revealed no more tracks or turtles. Though the above data are scanty, it seems probable that the undertow (or related factors) and the step, when the water lowered enough for it to become a barrier, combined to discourage nesting that second night. The possible deterrent effect of steep-cut banks, and their relation to the Caribbean cocopalm fringe, is discussed by Carr (1956: 114-115, 122). CuBAN NESTING RECORDS There is apparently a dearth of reliable nesting records for the _ Atlantic loggerhead for localities outside the southern United States. On November 16, 1954, two of us (Caldwell and Carr), while visting the Marine Laboratory of the Banco de Fomento Agricola e Industrial de Cuba at Playa Baracoa, 15 miles west of Havana on the north shore of Cuba, were presented with two live baby loggerheads which had been taken a few weeks before, after hatch- ing on the beach near the laboratory. These were preserved and are now in the University of Florida herpetology collection (UF 6817). Other Cuban nesting records were established in the summer of 1955 when one of us (Carr) found shells of eight individuals along two miles of Varadero beach (Atlantic coast, province of Matanzas). Tracks and disturbed nests indicated that the shells were the remains of females that had been killed and butchered where found nesting. 296 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Farther east on the Atlantic side of the island at Gibara, there is a commercial hawksbill, Eretmochelys imbricata imbricata (Linnaeus), fishery, and individuals connected with this stated that while hawksbills nest in abundance there in May, June, and July, loggerheads emerge only rarely. As far as can be determined, the Playa Baracoa record is the southernmost definite nesting locality for the Atlantic loggerhead in America. Fishermen and turtle hunters questioned by Carr at points distributed throughout the Caribbean know the logger- head as a member of the fauna, but in every case they name either the hawksbill or the green turtle, or both, as the only species regu- larly nesting in their area. In Trinidad and Tobago all fishermen questioned said flatly that loggerheads do not nest there. Else- where, nesting was said to occur sparingly—one or two emergences in a season. The nearest approach to a definite record is the statement by one of the men hired for the green turtle operation at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, that a loggerhead had come up on his section of beach during late July, 1955. Since he had been em- ployed to turn only green turtles, he failed to turn the loggerhead. Whatever the extremes of nesting range of the loggerhead may be, it seems evident that it is essentially a temperate zone breeder. The possible evolutionary implications of this divergence from other sea turtle species at the critical nesting time, when on good beaches nesting space can become the basis for strong competition, are of interest and probably of significance. INCUBATION PERIODS Although hatched under somewhat unnatural conditions, we have accurate incubation periods for two batches of loggerhead eggs to add to the scant data in the literature. In both cases, the eggs were taken as they were laid, moved to a spot where they could be watched conveniently, and reburied in the same type of sand in which they had been originally laid. One batch was laid July 9, 1955, at Fort Walton Beach, on Santa Rosa Island, Okaloosa County, Florida and then reburied, two days later, back of the open beach near the second series of dunes. Most of these hatched on September 7, after an incubation period of 57 days. ATLANTIC LOGGERHEAD TURTLE 297 The second batch was taken on July 22, 1955, at Hutchinsons Island, was transported in sand back to Gainesville, along with a supply of beach sand, and was reburied in a sunny yard there on July 25. These hatched September 30—an incubation period of 68 days. Only about one-third of these eggs hatched, possibly due to jolting on the trip back or to unnatural drainage or illumi- nation factors in the new incubation site. GROWTH OF HATCHLINGS Two hatchling loggerheads were kept under artificial and some- what confining conditions for a short period, during which they fed regularly. Measurements of the growth of these are presented in Table 1. Another group of young turtles (Table 2) was measured and weighed at the Gulfarium, The Living Sea, at Fort Walton Beach. Although no exact record had been kept of the ages of the turtles, and individuals from several hatchings were in the same tank, the 48 mm individual was measured about 2 weeks after hatching; those 53 to 71 mm were approximately 11 weeks old; and the one 81 mm was about 13 weeks. Since none of the turtles were marked, on being placed in the community tank, we cannot be certain that an occasional individual was not added to the group from a still different hatching; but the resident aquarists, J. B. Siebenaler and Winfield Brady, believe the above approxi- - mate ages to be essentially correct. There is apparently a considerable variation in growth rates of individual young loggerheads (also noted by Hildebrand and Hatsel, 1927, and Parker, 1926, 1929), since most, if not all, of the 53 to 71 mm group above were from the one hatching of September 7 (see section on incubation periods). As may be seen in Tables 1 and 2, growth is quite slow for the first ten days or so and little weight is gained. This is undoubtedly due to the absorption of the yolk and accompanying fasting of the hatchling. After the hatchlings begin to eat regularly, a marked rise in rate of increase in length and weight occurs. While it is probable that our captive Reno tlines veceivedl ane tin naturally steady and abundant food supply, other factors possibly tending to make theirs an unnatural growth, such as the confine- ment factor, the unvarying temperature, lack of “choice” in feed- ing, etc., are difficult to evaluate. So long as young sea turtles 298 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES continue to disappear from view after hatching, however, it is hard to see how early growth can be studied under more natural conditions. TABLE 1 Growth of two juvenile loggerhead turtles hatched at Fort Walton Beach, Florida on September 7, 1955, and kept in captivity. Age Carapace Length Carapace Width Weight (days) (mm) (mm) (gms) Specimen A pa ae ee oe LE Eve REL: 46 38 17.8 (Se, AD ORE I, Meee Sd cS 46 38 18.3 Dee ctr AES ee See ete 46+ 38+ 19.0 TORS. SSS Pes BRS SEER eS Pee 46.5 39 19.9 1h ge eee a ne Gee See LS pee bee 47 40.5 20.1 | 2 em race 9B te Bin Sa we SE A7.5 41 19.7 iL Blin RR REN Sees See i eee £4 A7.5 — 20.2 | hg: gee esa a RS Sel ey Pe ils Se 48.5 — 21.3 NG Bees ge ee ee a a rau Re 49.5 — 22.7 IT fea esearch See Skee 49.5 — 23.1 Specimen B sp eee ie Se Sr ea OS Ee 46 37 18.8 ts Ni sens 16, Seo Zp Bak A a gb 46+ 37.9 19.7 NOS peo) Ee ee ee 46.5 38+ 20.5 BIE ae Se 5 heen ety ene 46.5+ 38+ 21.1 | (ps ee Mie Ae BS 22 Wine Ween) AT 42 21.1 Sse eS 9) uri oe Sees 48 — 21.8 AG ieee aa tea 2 ace et EES 48.5 — 22.6 [Geese a CE eb tet nl ee Tee 49+ — 23.6 sy te aaaeare Ie Dae EN ent en 49.5 — 23.3 2) | sen ae Pann Seat sty ig 50.5 — 25.9 RELATIONSHIP OF CARAPACE LENGTH TO CARAPACE WIDTH Though we have only a small sample, some idea of the variation in the length-width relationship of the carapace of adult female loggerheads can be gained from Figure 2. Unfortunately, no com- parable measurements are available for adult males. Carr (1952: 386) noted that adult males appear narrower than the females, or at least the carapace appears to be more elongate and tapering behind than in females. Unsexed hatchlings or slightly larger loggerheads exhibit only a slight variation in this relationship (Table ATLANTIC LOGGERHEAD TURTLE 299 2) and the variation shown in the larger sized turtles must be a dual function of age within a sex and of difference between the sexes themselves. TABLE 2 Measurements of loggerhead hatchlings and very young Carapace Carapace Width Weight Length (mm) (gms) Number of (mm) Mean Range Mean Range Specimens Hatchlings (Eggs from Hutchinsons Island, Florida) La) ee ae 35 34-35 18.4 17.4-19.4 5) 2D). a 35 34-36 WU Ae © AU ollelTst 2 ANG) cS aoe einai 35 -——- 19.6 - ] 217, = Ses i 36 35-37 18.9 18.8-18.9 2 Very young (Eggs from Santa Rosa Island, Florida) kept in captivity 4i0) ee 40 -—— 20.1 - ] 50). ee 44 43-45 25.7 23.9-27.9 3 eens Sd 45 44-46 27.4 24.2-29.0 5) D0 eee 47 -——— 32.9 - 1 50) 47 46-48 29.7 28.0-31.3 5) Diep ee en 49 48-50 32.2 931.2-34.2 3 Dig), Lice ae eee 50 49-50 33.2 31.2-35.1 2 Sg). Lois eens 50 = 49-51 36.0 34.0-38.5 4 C0)" ae 51 49-52 38.4 36.2-40.8 4 Ol: ee 52 51-54 39.3 38.2-40.7 3 Ope 53 52-53 41.3 40.4-42.2 2 53) 2 54 53-56 42.9 40.1-44.6 7 OA eee 54 -—— 45.7 - 1 Ce eee 56 -—— 44.6 - ] O16): eee 55 -—— 52.0 - 1 Ore 58 57-58 48.7 48.3-49.1 2 Co) eee 60 -—— 54.6 - 1 (1) ks ea 61 -—— 55.4 - 1 Wee 60 59-60 60.3 59.9-60.6 2 (hi ar 57 = -—— 63.9 - 1 O)l ce re 68 -—— 95.8 -——— ] Carr and Caldwell (1956) showed that variation in the length- width ratio in Atlantic Green turtles and Atlantic Ridleys, while interesting in itself, is also an important factor in determining the relationship of length to weight in turtles of commercial size. This can be important in making decisions or recommendations in fish- ery work since two individuals of the same sex and length, but of different widths, may have greatly varying weights. 300 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF HATCHLINGS AND VERY YOUNG Though we have no weights for adults, we do have accurate data on the weights and carapace lengths of hatchlings and slightly older juveniles, the latter having been maintained in captivity since hatching. These data are presented in Tables 1 and 2. (INCHES) WIDTH 34 35 36 37 #38 #39 #40 LENGTH (INCHES) Figure 2. Relationship of carapace length to carapace width in nesting female loggerheads from Hutchinsons Island, Florida. RANGE-HABITAT One of the important gaps in the knowledge of sea turtles is a lack of understanding of the range-habitat complex of the several species. In the case of the loggerhead, we know that (1) its breed- ing range has the greatest northern and least tropical extent of ATLANTIC LOGGERHEAD TURTLE 301 any of the species and (2) that the non-breeding adults range widely, as solitary individuals (and perhaps peripherally as waifs and strays) throughout the warm and temperate seas of the world. The mainly carnivorus, largely crab-eating, but somewhat omnivor- ous, habit makes for relatively unrestricted habitat relations, and the willingness to accept nearly any invertebrate food would seem to allow a range extension to limits set naturally only by cold water. One observation pertinent in this connection was contributed by Dr. E. Lowe Pierce of the Department of Biology, University of Florida. He has noted that in searching for the submerged rocks where he fishes in the Gulf of Mexico at Cedar Key, the blowing of a loggerhead often marks the site of a submerged out- crop. The more tropical elements in the fauna group about these rocks and the communities there presumably include aggregations of crustaceans attractive to the loggerheads. It is of interest that when no loggerheads show up, Dr. Pierce can often locate the 3 to 6 fathom rock bottom by the crackling sound of snapping shrimp under his boat. Another significant note is that of aqua-lung divers in the Panama City-Pensacola, Florida area who have repeatedly observed logger- heads poking about the old wrecks around which they do their spear fishing and some of which are under as much as a hundred feet of water. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to thank the many people who furthered our studies by supplying information, physical aid, and encouragement. Some of these are: Winfield Brady, Jose A. Suarez Caabro, Marjorie Carr, Thomas Carr, Newt Chase, Edward Crittenden, Jule Gay, Evelyn Hellier, Mary Ann Hellier, Thomas R. Hellier, Sr., A. A. Hendry, Sr., A. A. Hendry, Jr., Phil Hopkins, John D. Kilby, John H. Odum, Larry Ogren, E. Lowe Pierce, the St. Vincents Island Company, J. B. and Marjorie Siebenaler, and Jay A. Schuler. LITERATURE CITED CARR, ARCHIE 1952. Handbook of Turtles. Comstock Publishing Associates, a division of Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. pp. xv + 542. 1956. The Windward Road. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. pp. xvi + 258 + Viil. 302 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CARR, ARCHIE, and DAVID K. CALDWELL 1956. The ecology and migrations of sea turtles. I. Results of field work in Florida, 1955. Amer. Mus. Novitates, in press. HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F., and C. HATSEL 1927. On the growth, care and age of loggerhead turtles in captivity. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 18: 374-377. PARKER, G. H. 1926. The growth of turtles. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 12: 422-424. 1929. The growth of the loggerhead turtle. Amer. Nat., 63: 367-373. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 18(4), 1955. INTERACTION OF PI MESONS WITH LIGHT NUCLEI Joseph Callaway University of Miami Information on the interaction of Pi mesons with light nuclei comes from two sources: (1) thedisplacements of the energy levels in Pi mesic atoms from the values predicted by the Klein-Gordon equation for a cou- lomb potential, and (2) the scattering of these mesons. The displacements of the ls level in Pi mesic atoms have been measured for six elements from the energies of the x-rays corresponding tothe 2p-ls transitions. ’ The results indicate an effective repulsion between the Pi meson inthe ls state and the nucleus. Predictions of these displacements in rough agree- ment with experiment have been made, based on the Observed scattering amplitudes for Pi -p SCAG: The experimental data are not suffi- ciently accurate to permit determination of the level width caused by the finite lifetime of the meson inthe ls state. This discussion has the pur- pose of determining the magnitude of the effective repulsive potential and of relating it to the scattering of mesons by light nuclei. Since the energy level displacements are reasonably small compared to the energy of the 2p-1s transition as predicted from the Klein-Gordon Equation, the magnitude ofthe repulsive potential canbe computed by first- order perturbation theory from the observed displacement. In this calcu- lation ordinary Schrodinger wave functions can be used because relativis- tic corrections are small in light elements. If we assume that the inter- action can be represented by a square barrier having the radius of the nu- cleus and of height Vo we find easily: 3 Bie 2S) Saye (1) ce) 3 000'S| 6l oos‘zI 000'0! 00S‘Z 000'S ? oos‘2 1A 91 ASW 9'°9 = A 9 SS “Aa 9°g = CA AO} T UOTyeNbe Jo UoTO[pead 9yy ST eUTT zYHTeI}s BUL ‘“SUOT}TEUIWIZejep TeJUeWIZedxe 94} JUueSetder sieq [edT} -I0A UL, “SWO}Y OluoseyWT Id Ul syueweoedsiq TeAeT Absougq *T eanbhty ) C Ol S| 02 G2 Cee ASH 3V S¢ Here the radius of the particular nucleus is assumed to be ro al/3: A E is the levelshift, and a, isthe meson Bohr radius (1.938 x omasems A graph of A E against ZA for the six elements Tie Be’, ect Nee oo ao can be fitted by a straight line within the large experimental uncer- tainty. The slope of this line gives Vo = 6.6* 0.5 mev. for ro £1.25 x fe Soin: If we use the treatment of reference 3, we find approximately WG 6.1 mev. for this choice of Yo: To take account of the finite lifetime. of the meson, we may add an imaginary part to the potential which could be determined from the width of the 2p-ls x-ray line when measurements are more precise. The estimate of reference 3 would suggest an imagi- nary part of the potential perhaps one tenth the real part. The differential cross section for the scattering of Pi mesons by 5] carbon has been measured at 62 and 125 mev. This data has been an-~ alyzed in terms of the optical model, yielding an attractive potential Vze-18-9i (mev) at the lower energy and a deeper potential atthe higher enemy. In order to reconcile the scattering measurements with the result from the Pi mesic atom, we may assume that the potential is attractive in p states of the meson about the nucleus while repulsive ins states. A similar situa- tion apparently occurs in Pi -p scattering. The optical model potential proposed by Byfield, et al. is then some average of these interactions. Scattering experiments at energies sufficiently low for Pp wave scattering to be small, if feasible experimentally, should test this hypothesis. It is possible that part ofthe energy dependence ofthe optical model paraneteree may be explained in terms of differing importance of the various angular momentum states as the energy Of the incident meson is varied. Thes wave part of the cross section for the scattering of Pi mesons on carbon can be computed from the repulsive potential previously mentioned. A jeast squares fit to the cross section at 62 mev was made with a function of the forma+bcos@te ey and the constant a waS compared with the one calculated. The calculated value is somewhat lower than the ex- perimental result although there is a large experimental uncertainty, and would require a stronger interaction than suggested by the mesic atom; perhaps 10 or 15 mev. In addition, there is some indication that the phase shifts for s and p waves have opposite signs, as required by this hypothe- sis. In conclusion, we find that observed energy level displacements in light elements can be approximately accounted for by a repulsive square barrier interaction of the meson in the ls state and the nucleus. This as- Sumption is at least qualitatively consistent with present scattering data. Iam indebted to Dr. Roger D. Woods for valuable discussions. LITERATURE CITED 1) M. B. Stearns, M. Stearns, S. De Benedetti; and L. Leipuner, Phys. Rev. 96, 804 (1954). 2) M. B. Stearns, M. Stearns, S. De Benedetti; and L. Leipuner, Phys. Rev. 97, 240 (1955). 3) S. Deser, M. L. Goldberger, K. Baumann, and W. Thirring, Phys. Rev. 96, 774 (1954). 4) H. Byfield, J. Kessler, and L. M. Lederman, Phys. Rev. 86, 17, (1952). 5) J. Kessler and L. M. Lederman, Phys, Rev. 94, 689, (1954). Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 18(4), 1955. INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Contributions to the JouRNAL may be in any of the fields of Sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the amount and character of new information and the form in which it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, and those containing tabular material and/or engravings can be published only with the cooperation of the author. Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or other com- petent critics. 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