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¥ THE
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QUARTERLY JOURNAL
OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
EDITED BY
| THE ASSISTANT-SECRETARY OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Quod si cui mortalium cordi et cure sit non tantum inventis herere, atque iis uti, sed ad ulteriora
penetrare ; atque non disputando adversarium, sed opere naturam vincere; denique non belle et probabiliter
opinari, sed certo et ostensive scire; tales, tanquam veri scientiarum filii, nobis ‘si videbitur) se adjungant.
—Novum Organum, Prefatio.
a
,
VOLUME THE SIXTIETH.
1904.
LONDON:
: LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
: PARIS: CHARLES KLINCKSIECK, 11 RUE DE LILLE.
SOLD ALSO AT THE APARTMENTS OF THE SOCIETY,
MDCCCCIY,
Webb
List
OF THE
OFFICERS
OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
MAR RAAAKRRARARRALIISN
Elected February 19th, 1904.
PILLS LIS
w™
President.
John Edward Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Prestvents,
Prof. Thomas George Bonney, Se.D.,LL.D., | Edwin Tulley Newton, Esq., F.R.S.
HRS ESA. Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, Esq.,
Sir Archibald Geikie, Sce.D., D.C.L., LL.D., E.R.S.
Sec. B.S.
Decretaries.
Robert Stansfield Herries, Esq., M.A.
Prof. William Whitehead Watts, M.A.,
M.8c., F.R.S.
Foretqu Secretary.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Creasurer.
William Thomas Blanford, C.I.E., LL.D., F.R.S.
COUNCIL,
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Avebury, P.C.,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Francis Arthur Bather, M.A., D.Sc.
William Thomas Blanford, C.I.E., LL.D.,
E.R.S.
Prof.Thomas George Bonney,Se.D.,LL.D., |
E.R:S., F:S8.A,
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., |
E.R.S.
Prof. Edmund Johnstone Garwood, M.A. |
Sir Archibald Geikie, Sc.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
Sec.R.S8.
Prof. Theodore Groom, M.A., D.Sc.
Alfred Harker, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Robert Stansfield Herries, Hsq., M.A.
Prof. John W. Judd, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Percy Fry Kendall.
Philip Lake, Hsq., M.A.
Prof. Charles Lapworth, LL.D., F.R.S.
Bedford McNeill, Esq., Assoc.R.S.M.
John Edward Marr, Sce.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Henry Alexander Miers, M.A., F.R.S.
Horace Woollaston Monckton, Esgq., F.L.S.
Edward Tulley Newton, Esq., F.R.S8.
George Thurland Prior, Esq., M.A.
Prof. William Whitehead Watts, M.A.,
M.S8c., F.R.S.
The Rey. Henry Hoyte Winwood, M.A.
Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, Esy.,
F.RS.
Assistant-Secretary, Clerk, Librarian, anv Curator.
L. L. Belinfante, M.Se.
Assistants in Office, Library, anv fHuseum.
W. Ruperi Jones.
Clyde H. Black.
Alec Field.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Actanp, Henry Dyke, Esq. Ona New Cave on the Eastern Side
NE aU LY ie vipat odo oe ene te ows Se OAR Adee
ARNOLD-Bemrosk£, HENry Howe, Esq. On some Quartzite-Dykes
in Mountain-Limestone near Snelston, Derbyshire (Plates
MRE MORN oe hechod aia 8 58, Sa storp/e oi Ciara eS tywan Baw mw laces s+ :
Atkin, Austin J. R., Esq. The Genesis of the Gold-Deposits of
Barkerville (British Columbia) and the Vicinity ............ :
Batpwin, WALTER, Esq.,. & Wit~ttam Henry Sorcuirre, Esq.
Eoscorpius sparthensis, sp. nov., trom the Middle Coal-Measures
Ek DERE a 2 OS MISE ale ieee nr smn aeuee ke elites oh ange
Barrow, GEorGE, Esq. On the Moine Gneisses of the East-
Central Highlands and their Position in the Highland Sequence
ener a VED ole Oc a a wleik dle nme ee ok sles
BELL, ALEXANDER MONTGOMERIE, Esq. Implementiferous Sections
miineremse (OXTOPOSHITC) 2.5. fo lel edness wee cee
Bouton, Prof. Witu1amM 8S. On the Igneous Rocks at Spring
Cove, near W2ston-super-Mare......... 0.2.02. c cece eeneece oe
. The Igneous Rocks of Pontesford Hill, Shropshire (Plates
a UE OEE E 2 Ta Set RIS BOS Dole eee oe
CunnincHaM-Craic, E. Huserr, Esq. Metamorphism in the
Loch-Lomond District (Plates II-V) ..... ccc ee eee eee
Davies, Henry Natwanient, Esq. The Discovery of Human
Remains under the Stalagmite-Floor of Gough’s Cavern,
nnENS rt OE es te A aly ae cee aye Lo ASUS abe os eo 3:
Davison, Dr. CoarieEs. The Derby Earthquakes of March 24th
Page
594
SE Ea Cais Ve Si ad fcr: 2. @ ©. nae ee 21:
. The Caernarvon Earthquake of June 19th, 1903, and its
Pero wermimnoews, (Piste) fo. gel ew ew ee ac sees stae
ELspEN, JAMES VINCENT, Esq. On the Age of the Llyn-Padarn
ere et ENON Fy oi se sca d's de cate oes on es
EneuisH, Lieut.-Col. THomas. Eocene and Later Formations
surrounding the Dardanelles (Plates XXI-XXII) ..........
we
233
372
245
1V TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
FEARNSIDES, WILLIAM GrorGE, Esq. On the Occurrence of a
Limestone with Upper Gault Fossils at Barnwell, uear
Cambridge: £2). cckie seis hieatie 9s ne wesw aus, Seite ee 360
FLeTT, Dr. JoHN SmitH. Notes on the Collection of Rock-
Specimens made by Col. English in European Turkey and
SIS MMOR 6 5h 6 diet, cain wa els | ee a 276
GreEGorY, Prof. J. Watter. ix
List of Donors to the Bapraryy: 3) Sos. 25: ¢: pe tat ap ates: <> ins XIV
2 ee ee XXV
fast at Woreien Correspondents... 2.12.20 2. cece eee eee XXV1
Seer Ww ollaston Merdallisis: .. 2... ck cence cece sees Xxvli
EO XXIX
Awards of the Daniel-Pidgeon Fund ..................-005 XXX, CIX
8 SE Te nee Xxxi
I IISRECSE boon rl eate Pati edd sind @ Gs a win ws ws XXxil
LS 2 SU Xxxili
Applications of the Barlow-Jameson Fund ...............-.. Xxxill
NN I aie. ie oc Lele ds. ule-s vetoes ed ws oe wes XXXIV
Award of the Medals and Proceeds of Funds................ xi
Anniversary Address delivered by Sir Archibald Geikie ..,... xlix
tC E MINT fol an oisis ce bow d's oo ane ew o> * -s cv
Regulations as to the Admission of Visitors ............005- evi
Regulations as to Exhibits at Meetings ................4-.. exl
al TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Barrow, G., Esq. On a Striated Boulder from the Scilly Isles.
Lomas, J., Esq. Ona Piece of Faulted Slate from the Volcanic
plates of Ulpha (Cumberland) \.. 5... ©. :c0-- se se eee
Roxsarts, N. F., Esq. On Flint-Implements from Surrey ....
Warts, Prof.W.W. On British Association Geological Photo-
SMAPS! is ois Fig bases ahacd » oo os< WR tees eke
LIST OF THE FOSSILS DESCRIBED AND FIGURED
IN THIS VOLUME.
Name of Species. Formation. Locality. Page
ForAMINIFERA.
Nummulites distans, var. pl.) \ ( (
eB i | | : | 293-94.
cage at
ae aa figs.’ + Hocene '*.<....0< 4+ VeEnitee 52, <5005- 4 999-93
eee eee eee eee eee eee TEE ee eee Soe / 1 ’ , | =
a | j | | 294
—— variolaria (2?) .....c60ee J ik | 294
MADREPORARTA APOROSA.
Cladocora cf. articulata ...... . Gorgona Deré... 290
Trochocyathus, sp. .......4.40. } hee | { Vernitza ......... 290
Mapreporaria Funeipa.
sot ae ae re | Middle Eocene | Vernitza ......... 290
ARACHNIDA.
Eoscorpius sparthensis, sp.! {Middle Qoal- |}, | ey
VAG i ie | | Measures sit f ee Sees a2
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Anomia sp., pl. xviii, fig. 1 ... ) if {201
Avicula contorta .....00.cs0-00 | | | | 202-203
Cardinia concinna aff. regu-, | 1 ; |
laris, text-fig. 4 & pl. xviii, ¢ Rhectic = So re 4 Sodibary. ..-<..::. 4
oa eecainera es | | | | 204-205
Cardium cloacinum, fig. 6...... |) ki | | 207-208
: ! '
es a Be Miocene ......... | Gherme Tepé...| 282-83
TRMOUNE Sagan vanes dnlonn ee (ica aC areas 3 | Sodbury 5... ::..: 208
Corbicula semistriata, pl. xxiv, |
fea) BIA 2S. ow BOUT ie snes |‘ Oligocene ...... Masatly ......... | 287
COREE Sire acc thagee -odaebir ss J | Keshan: .....::.: | 287-88
Vill FOSSILS DESCRIBED AND FIGURED.
Name of Species. | Formation. | Locality. | Page
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA (continued).
Didacna crassa, pl. xxiv, figs. { | |
, & 2 Sh Daan cacy ag sa PHOGENE: s.u5- <0 Gallipoli ......... Uleal
Dreissensia polymorpha, pl. | |
XXIV, fig. 3 ........eeeeeeee te ee
Bes. TER en] | Mioeeme oan Teke-keni ..... 281
Ree Pr Se) ehooetic mies Callepdli hes 280
Fimbria subpectunculus ...... Middle Eocene .| Tzenguerli Deré.| 289-90
eee ee et Minoan eae oe Heraklitza, &e. .| 282
Modiola sodburiensis, Sp. nov., \ ( f
pl. xvii, figs. 3&3a ...... | | 203
Ss UINUING os.5c2sekotseceeuat nes | 204
Pect loniensis, pl. xviil,} | : | |
ie ae Ai pe be _ ee t Rheetic Seance eee 4 Sodbury... 4 209
Pleurophorus elongatus, fig. 5 . | | 205-207
Plicatula cloacina, sp. nov., |
text-fig. 3 & pl. xviii, fig. 5 .| ) \ \ 202
Prosodacna cf. stenopleura, : Seas =
pcecay ifipe: One a | Miocene alachads < Meke-kewh’ eves 281
Spondyl ubspi lela eat p ;
—e = of ee pie } Middle Eocene .| Tzenguerli Deré.| 289
ae Delesserts, (pl. xxiv, “He. | Miocene eee Potamina Deré .| 283
GASTEROPODA.
Lyrcea Bonelli, pl. xxiv, figs. | |
Sc Gi Cpe a es Eee ess ate ae De Rscene | Teke-keui ....... 281
Melania cf. Escheri, pl. xxiv,| (7 |
Care bee eee emmy cet aN | | Potamina Deré. 283
ae costata, pl. XXIV i oeene ds. ee. va: | San Stefano ..., 283
= of. fusiformis Le one Oligocene al Kesham. <2232..0: | 286-87
& oe Bia ee. = Miocene ......... | Potamina Deré .| 284
j | }
AMMONOIDEA.
Olcostephanus Pallasianus, |
var. nov., fig. 3 & pl. xii .... $ Kimeridge Clay. Chippinghurst . 60-61
| ?
Perisphinctes biplex, pl.x ... 57-58
plicatilis, fig. 1 & pl.ix. Upper Corallian| ? 50-57
y , ° ‘A
Re SRIEGUE IEE j Ampthill Clay...| Hawnes ......... 58-60
10) [eye cia Meee Serle ee |
ELASMOBRANCHEI.
Edestus minor, fig. 1 ............ |} | ( Wntdidna: 27.222. [3
triserratus, sp. nov.,) + Coal-Measures . Nettlebank ee
11 Fue 0) Be re PREC rey em | (Staffs.) ...... | segg.
Ptychodus decurrens, pl. xv &
ee Sree | Lower Chalk ...! pias ibe ee | 1383-35
5 aie ere aes
ite ny im ss
" " wins 3 ;
| ‘ th FOSSILS DESCRIBED AND FIGURED. 1x
_-‘Name of Species. | | Formation. | Locality. | Page
TELEOSTEI.
Rreeonystes marmorensis, Sp. | | a
“20%, pl. xxiv, fe. 98. ..... Miocene ........ Sarkeui ..... w..| 284-85
SAUROPTERYGIA,
Plesiosaurus cf. bibractensis a White Lias .. | * heel a | 359
UNGULATA.
eee cl. inns, pl. | \ Oligocene en Masatly ......... | ~286
Ee ee
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
PuatTE PAGE
I seen TRISERRATUS, SP. Nov., to illustrate Mr. E. \ 1
T. Newton’s paper on that forse Ree,
Microscore-Sections oF Rocks FROM THE LocuH-
Lomonp Drstrict, to illustrate Mr. EK. H. Cun- 10
ningham-Craig’s paper on pu ea ee in
GALE CRN chon en tea ta dost th as eaaceccteexe aides
LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTIONS AND PLAN
VI or Cave at Monkey's Quarry, GIBRALTAR, to 30
| illustrate Mr. H. D. Acland’s paper on that cave
Sxetcu-Map or THE GuwLACIATED AREA AROUND }
VII & VIII Mount Lyett; anp Views oF Mount Owen, =
etc., to illustrate Prof. J. W. Gregory’s paper on
the Glacial Geology of Tasmania ..............-.4.
PERISPHINCTES PLICATILIS ; PERISPHINCTES BIPLEX ;
IX-XII PERISPHINCTES VARIOCOSTATUS ; AND OLCOSTE- 5A.
; PHANUS PALLAsrANvs, to illustrate Miss Healey’s
paper on those ammonites ..........csc--ceceeeeenees
MrcroScoPE-SECTIONS OF RocKS FROM THE Phage Pe |
-
70
XIII & XIV DALE Vo.ucanic Series, to illustrate the late
EK. E. Walker’s paper on those rocks ...............
XV { Prrcuopus prcurrens, Ag., to illustrate Dr. A. 8. 133
Woodward’s paper on that fossil -..............00+.
(Map suowrne THE DistRIBUTION OF THE CARBONT- \
| FEROUS Votcanic Rocks IN THE Brisrou Dis- |
- \ Tricr ; and Microscopn-Sections oF Basatr, or
bby hi bo Asu, etc., to illustrate Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan’s f -
; & Prof. S. H. Reynoids’s aig on the above- |
Mp BEN e eth FOCI Aoi 97 o cwatuatos badedoacs iieckedennesues J
: Ruatic Lameiirrancuiata, to illustrate Dr. A.] 5
—— { Vaughan’s notes on those a eee } ath
Mar or tHe AREA AFFECTED BY THE DerBy DartH- |
XIX QUAKE OF Marcu 241, 1903, to illustrate Dr. C. 215
| Davison’s paper on that earthquake ............... |
Map or THE AREA AFFECTED BY THE CAERNARVON |
XX Eartuq@vake or June 1Yru, 1903, to illustrate | 233
Dr. C. Davison’s paper on that earthquake ...... J
xl EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE PAGE
(Guotogican Sxetcn-Mar or THE CouNTRY sUR- |
| ROUNDING THE DARDANELLES ; PROBABLE FOLDINGS
oF Lower TERTIARY, AND CoAst-Lings oF UPPER |
XXI-XXTIT{ = Tertiary Formations surrounptine THE Dar-} 248
DANELLES; and Kery-Map, to illustrate Col. T.
| English’s paper on Eocene and later formations |
\
in that-varea, <.i.-2<: teen stub tre caben eee poeta acetiee )
( TERTIARY FOSSILS FROM THE COUNTRY SURROUNDING
XXIV THE DARDANELLES, to illustrate Mr. R. B. New- $ 277
| ton’s notes on those fossils ............ EY re
>
NUMMULITES FROM THE COUNTRY SURROUNDING THE
XXV DarDANELLES, to illustrate Mr. R. Holland’s
notes.on thosestossils: ges. 6..cecu-tence eee boa ae Meme
(GxotocicaL Sketcu-Map or tun Bay oF Naptes ;
Sections Across THE Bay or Napies; and Gnao- |
LOGICAL SKkETCH-Map oF THE PuLtEGR#AN FYExDs, + 296
to illustrate Prof. G. de Lorenzo’s paper on the |
history of volcanic action in that area ........ Sei)
XXVI-XXVITI
XXIX
|
t
HoumAn SKULL FOUND IN GouGu’s Cavern, CHEDDAR, |
to illustrate Mr. H. N. Davies's paper on recent
discoveries In that -Gavern.s.c.cescacssdeceee sac eeeeeee
[ QuUARTZITE-DYKES IN Movstain-LimestoNe NBAR }
é Se NELS ERBYSHIRE); al -Suc- |
XXX & XXKI Syetston (D sHIRE); and Microscorz-Suc
TIONS OF Rocks from the same, to illustrate Mr.H. {|
H. Arnold-Bemrose’s paper on those dykes ...... |
ew Liyn-Paparn Dyke-Rocks, to illustrate Mr. J. V. 9
—— { Elsden’s paper on the age of those dykes ...... hee } ai
(Guoxtocicat Map oF THE GiLBert’s-BrivGE AREA, \
Guen Titt ; and Microscope-Srcrions or Rocks |
XXXITI-XXXVII{ From rue East-Centran Hieutanps, to illus- + 400
| trate Mr. G. Barrow’s paper on the Moine |
. . |
{| Gneisses in that area.......... so tupids (ache cewtel meee ee |
(GroLocrcaL Sxetcn-Map or Ponvtesrorp Hut; )
| SECTIONS THROUGH, AND ALONG THE LowER WEsT- |
XXXVILI-XL1II 4 me AND SOUTHERN Bianks oF, POoNTESFORD { 50)
ILL; and Microscopse-Secrions oF RHYOLITEs,
| Turrs, ete., to illustrate Prof. W. 8. Boulton’s |
| paper on the igneous rocks of that hill ............ 7
ERRATUM,
Plate XXXII, for ‘Glenmhaire’ read ‘ Glen Mhaire.’
ee ee.
PROCESS-BLOCKS AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES,
a as
boo
bo
bo
BESIDES THOSE IN THE PLATES,
PAGE
See WAGE POR MRS MENOP 5525 << owen ¢ssncestes inn -vodenechenacevases 2
Segments of Edestus triserratus, sp. nov., restored ............++ 6
Section from Aberfoil to Allt a’choinn ....................600 ceeees 13
Crystalline gneiss from Inversnaid (microscope-section)......... 20
Sketch-map of the Loch-Lomond District.......................266 25
Section at Monkey’s Quarry, Gibraltar .......... Paidacapkeenk ret: 1
Section of the floor in the cave at Monkey’s Quarry, Gibraltar. 32
Glaciated boulder from the Gormanston Moraine ............... 44
Sketch-map of North-Western Tasmania, illustrating the
range of the Pleistocene glaciation .....................:esesseeeees 50
Suture-line of Perisphinctes plicatilis.............0ccccccceececenceece 55
Suture-line of Périsphinctes variacostatus, restored ............... 58
Suture-line of Olcostephanus Pallasianus, var. nov. .....:..-..- 60
Diagrammatic sketch of an exposure north-north-west of Blea
Crag, Langstrath ........... seeeetesssestaeeettaeeeeesseesacteatetecs 72
Diagrammatic section through Rosthwaite Fell .................. 89
Banded ash and garnetiferous intrusive rock at Great Crag
On NET) ASR RRS Sg I See Se ee eee 92
Section of the cliff at the western end of Prah Sands ............ 108
Rude implement (?) made of vein-quartz ..................cseeeeeee 109
Map ot South-Western Cornwall) -... 122.52. 00200 5... yet.e..e-seecee 115
Diagrammatic section across the St. Erth Valley (Cornwall)... 116
River-valley section at Wolvercote (Oxfordshire) ....,.......... 122
Xiv
PROCESS-BLOCKS AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES.
Fic. PAGE
2. Section in the Drift at Peartree Hill (Oxfordshire) ............ 128
Oral aspect of the mandible of Ptychodus decurrens, restored . 134
1. Geological map of Middle Hope or Woodspring .................. 140
2. Westernmost exposure of the volcanic series on the shore, at
Middle Hope or Woodspringy.. 2.2 -cocuscee eee eee eee 142
3. Sketch illustrating the details of the above exposure ............ 143
4. Upper ‘part of the volcanic series at Woodspring, seeond
exposures ger-ee 5: ee yee re Peace omnia: 4
1. Lenticles of lava and tuff making up the ‘main sheet of
basalt * [at SpringiCovel 2 eesends.c5+--n0= 00° 202
4, Diagram of Cardinia concinna aff. C. reqularis .........+2-0-.00- 204
5. Pleurophorus.elongatus, Moore 0: fyecessescasrause ee smeecere ces eee 205
Gs WWardium Gloacinum. Oar. Je ccsccsutentenentet mete ees ts oe eee 207
1. Record of the earthquake of March 24th, 1903, registered at
Birmingham by an Omori horizontal pendulum ............... 22
2. Map of the Derby earthquake of May 3rd, 1903.................. 230
1. Record of the earthquake of June 19th, 1903, registered at
Birmingham by an Omori horizontal pendulum ............... 236
2, Map illustrating the area affected by after-shock / of June 19th,
NGO Baigevnisides coeesase nant eeeesaeteGr a ens cuseneee aes ecnce ye ee eee 239
1. Coast-cliffs of the Tekfur Dagh, northern shore of the Sea of
TY Fc 10) ec: ene enue tS ON 2) ge ae a PR Raber 248
Fic.
bo
PROCESS-BLOCKS AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES, p68
PAGE
Vertical Oligocene strata at Combos, unconformably overlain
by horizontal Miocene terraces .......,...,ccseseecrssseseseeseres 252
The andesitic hills of Imbros, with a distant view of Megalai
ce cos alps asp omnes Seem adae Vpeborsanenana de dian anee 254
Promontory of Megalai Kephalai, island of Imbros............... 260
Seemann OF tHe OSD T UA oo eee a csp pes 9tdcwsene=tns «Seemann oveceesss 262
Raised beach at Hora lighthouse, north-western coast of the
cia WN BR PPO PR coro, tA eed ies Sch neon ae alae = de petal nies
XXXV
Ce
a2 Th 0
ero. 's: 0
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IX. Nature of the Albite-Gneiss Metamorphism ..................08. 26
A; ROCA pI tULALONS 5 isds- chs acre a ee eee ee Te 27
I. Inrropwcrion.
THIs communication has been written, not so much with the idea of
describing any phase of metamorphism specially interesting in itself,
as of contributing to our knowledge of what metamorphism is, and
of distinguishing between different kinds of metamorphism.
The term ‘ metamorphism,’ or even ‘ progressive metamorphism,’
has so often been used in a somewhat vague sense, without any dis-
tinct specification as to whether dynamic, thermal, hydrothermal,
or contact-metamorphism, or a combination of two or more of these,
is meant, that a study of an area where each of these types can be
readily distinguished by its effects and considered separately, may
prove of interest, as indicating the nature of those problems which
workers among the Highland rocks have to investigate.
In the ‘ Loch-Lomond District’ I inciude all the Highland rocks
on both sides of the loch, as well as the area lying to the eastward,
including the Trossachs—in fact that part of the Highlands which is
embraced by Sheet 38 of the Ordnance-Survey map. The material
for this paper was collected two years ago, after four years of work
in the district, and the main conclusions will appear in the ‘ Expla-
nation of Sheet 38° by the Geological Survey of Scotland.
It is well-known that, in passing north-westward from the
Highland Boundary-Fault, the metamorphism is seen to increase in
degree. The progressive metamorphism in the Loch-Lomond district
can be considered under two heads—dynamic, and what, for want of
a better word, I call ‘constructive’ metamorphism. These processes -
* Communicated by permission of the Director of H.M. Geological Survey.
Vol. 60.] METAMORPHISM IN THE LOCH-LOMOND DISTRIC?. 11
have in all likelihood taken place contemporaneously to some extent,
or at least the duration of the latter process has overlapped that of
the former: but it is convenient, in dealing with the progressive
alteration, to consider each process separately, as they can be dis-
tinguished by their effects.
The dynamic metamorphism is, in effect, chiefly a de-
structive process as regards the allothigenic mineral-constituents
and their arrangement in a rock: it is an almost purely-mechanical
action, which sets up new structures, but may not have had the
slightest effect in the development of authigenic minerals.
The constructive metamorphism, which may be thermal
or hydrothermal, is constructive in the sense of developing
authigenic minerals; but in its effect upon structures, whether
original or produced by dynamic metamorphism, it may tend either
to emphasize or to obliterate them.
The foregoing explanation is necessary, as giving the precise
meanings of these terms as I shall use them in this communication,
meanings which do not necessarily coincide with those applied to
the same terms by other observers.
II. Dynamic METAMORPHISM.
The effects of dynamic metamorphism upon any bed depend on
(1) its lithological character, and (2) the nature and position of the
folding at the particular place where the bed is observed. If the
bed be massive, coarse, and gritty, it will be able to resist the
deforming torces more successfully than if fine-grained, less homo-
geneous, or of naturally softer material.
The effect of the nature of the folding is not so apparent, but
can be explained readily by a consideration of the physical con-
ditions in each case, on the assumption that the motive force is
a pressure tangential to the earth’s surface. It is evident that a
certain amount of shearing-movement must accompany the folding,
compression, or stretching affecting the different parts of the fold;
but so long as a bed is free to move as a whole (as in folding),
differential movement between the particles cannot take place to
any very great extent. The great shearing-movements which
have proved so effective in destroying original structures, may be
considered quite apart from the folding. They may have, and in
many cases certainly have, taken place after all folding-movement
in the immediate neighbourhood has ceased. The effect of the
nature of the folding is expressed simply in the angle at which the
original divisional planes of the rock are presented to the direction
of movement, which we assume to be a tangential pressure. The
original divisional planes in a sedimentary rock, planes of stratifica-
tion, are in fact surfaces between materials differing more or less in
physical properties, such as the coefficient of elasticity; and a force
applied from opposite sides of these surfaces must be resolved into
two components—one normal to the surface, tending to produce
compression, and one parallel to the surface, producing what in
12 MR. E, H. CUNNINGHAM-CRAIG ON [Feb. 1904,
geological parlance is called a shear. The angle at which the
surface lies to the force determines the magnitude of each com-
ponent. Thus, if a bed presents surfaces exactly normal to the
force, the shear-component is nil, and the only effect that can take
place is a compression of the bed which may cause a cleavage ;
while, if the bed lies at a lower angle to the force, the shear-
component is proportionately greater. Theoretically, I believe, the
shear-component should be greatest when the surface is inclined
at an angle of 45° to the force, but in actual fact we find that the
shearing is greatest in horizontal or almost horizontal folds. The
reason for this is not far to seek, as the flat-lving folds are
farthest from the main axis of folding, that is, they occur where the
greatest movement is possible. The effect of the folding now
becomes apparent: in tightly-packed vertical folding shear-move-
ments may be impossible, a cleavage of the finer bands of a rock
may be the only appreciable effect, and original structures may be
to a great extent preserved ; while, in a gently-inclined set of folds,
the shearing may be very great, original structures may be com-
pletely destroyed, and a high degree of schistosity induced parallel to
the original bedding. The greatest shearing-movements naturally
take place along those surfaces where there is the greatest difference
in physical properties between the beds on opposite sides of the
surface; and thus the shearing is concentrated, so to speak, in the
finer and softer beds against harder and more massive beds which
may not be greatly affected, thus causing what Mr. Lamplugh has
described in the Geological Survey Memoir upon the Isle of Man
(1903) as ‘ grit-band metamorphism.’ The shearing may have taken
place during the folding and the bending-over of the crests of the
folds away from the central axis of folding, but much of the shearing
has probably taken place at a slightly-later stage, while any sub-
sequent crust-movement may intensify the same effects. Should a
later movement, however, be checked by the presence of any massive
barrier, and should the ‘load’ or weight of superincumbeut material
be sufficient to prevent the development of a series of large folds,
puckering of the finer beds would be the result, and would be
shown by puckered folding, wrinkling of the finer and more elastic
bands, and finally by strain-slip cleavage in the laminee.
III. Consrructive MeramorpPHismM.
The effects of constructive metamorphism upon a rock depend on
(1) its chemical composition, which determines the possibility of
the formation of new minerals; and (2) the extent to which the
rock has been, or is being, affected by dynamic metamorphism.
It seems that the shearing and crushing processes, by mingling
more intimately the material from which the rock is built, afford
more favourable conditions for the segregation necessary in building
up a highly-crystalline rock under constructive metamorphism.
Thus, where original structures have been most completely broken
down, the constructive metamorphism can exert greater effect upon
Vol.60.] METAMORPHISM IN THE LOCH-LOMOND DISTRICT. 13
the crushed material, and the resulting rock may be much more
-highly-crystalline than a rock of similar composition which has
escaped the shearing and crushing to sume extent.
As the present state of any mass of rock de-
pends on the extent to which each of these pro-
cesses took effect, it is evident that the type
and nature of the folding become very
important factors in regional metamor-
phism. With these preliminary observations,
which sum up the conclusions arrived at by
other workers among metamorphic rocks, as well
as my own observations during seven years of
study of folded rocks, I may now proceed to a
description of the folding in the area in question.
S.E.
Aberfoil
LV. Narure oF THE FoLpine, AND STRATIGRAPHICAL
Rerations. (Fig. 1.)
The folding of the Leny Grits and Aberfoil
Slates, the groups lying nearest to the Highland
Border, is not very well seen, as a well-marked
cleavage has been produced in all the finer beds,
and has even affected the coarser grits to some
extent, with the result that the bedding is often
obscured. Where actual dips can be observed,
however, they are nearly always at high angles,
while the mapping out in detail of certain
grit-bands shows that the folding, though never
very deep, is somewhat tightly ‘packed.’ The
magnificent sections afforded by the slate-
quarries at Aberfoil and Luss confirm this obser-
vation. The cleavage is usually approximately
vertical, and often coincides with the bedding.
Passing north-westward and ascending in the
series, the cleavage gradually disappears, the finer
beds showing traces of it long after the more
massive beds have ceased to give any clear evi-
dence of such a deformation. A shear-structure
becomes more noticeable as the cleavage declines,
and the folding is easily recognizable. The rocks
belong to the Beinn-Ledi Group, and are chiefly
fine quartzose grits, becoming coarser in the
higher members. A compound syncline and
anticline are disclosed, formed of folds which
are practically isoclinal, with nearly vertical axial
planes. This flexuring of the massive Beinn-
Ledi Grits is a very important factor in the
metamorphism of the district, as the coarse upper
beds thrown into great vertical folds in the anticline seem to have
formed a relatively rigid barrier, against which the strata on either
Beinn Venue
Fig
Section from Aberfoil to Allt a'choinn. Length 10 Miles,
Loch Katrine
1.Green Beds. 2.Beinn-Ledi Group. 3,Aberfoil Slates. 4.Leny Grits. f. = Faults,
Cruinn Bheinn
14 MR. EH. H. CUNNINGHAM-CRAIG ON [Feb. 1904,
side have been strongly compressed. The anticline is well-marked
by the occurrence of many of the highest hills in the district, as, for
example, Beinn Ledi, Beinn Aan, Beinn Venue, and Beinn Bhreac,
which demonstrate the great resistance to denudation that these beds
present when vertically folded. A point to be noted in the belt of
country containing the anticline is that, although the folding is
isoclinal in the low ground, upon the hilltops the folds become
shallower and open out, thus showing a vertical gradation from
simple flexure to highly-compressed folding.
North-west of the anticline of Beinn-Ledi Grits comes one of the
most important structures in the area, a complex syncline of con-
siderable depth which brings down the overlying Green Beds. This
structure is traceable from Loch Lomond at Rowardennan, where
the trough is shallow, to the Trossachs, where the trough is most
clearly marked and deepest. The whole trough, which attains
a breadth of 14 miles in places, is marked by the outcrops
of the Green Beds, repeated several times—each outcrop being
essentially a minor synclinal fold. It was the mapping of these
beds, which form an easily recognizable horizon, that first made
clear the structure of the district. The folding is still distinctly
isoclinal in the lower ground, but less highly compressed towards
the hilltops; while, as we proceed north-westward, the axes of the
folds are seen to incline at successively lower angles to the south-
east. Thus, as regards the folding, but not the bedding, there
is a fairly well-marked fan-structure, which embraces the anticline
of the Beinn-Ledi Grits and the syncline of the Green Beds.
To the north of Loch Katrine this complicated syncline opens out
rapidly into a wide shallow basin, somewhat complicated by faulting
and overfolding at the south-western edge, where one lip of the basin,
as represented by the outcrop of the Green Beds, is repeated’ four
times in Glen Finglas. On the south-eastern margin of this basin
the folds of Green Beds ‘ pitch out’ towards the hilltops, and the
folding, though still sharp, becomes shallow: so that the outcrop is
represented by a few corrugated outliers, in which the folding,
though acute, is not of sufficient depth to affect the shape of the
outlier. Farther to the north-east, where the basin-shape becomes
less complicated, the folds open out still more, the strata being
flexured into large gentle domes and troughs, while each bed is
folded into small corrugated and right-angled folds; overfolds are
infrequent, and when present their axes incline to the north-west.
South-west of the Green-Bed outcrop in the great syncline the
folding is less well-marked and regular, but traces of the trough
can be made out on the western side of Loch Lomond.
The area, amounting to nearly one-third of the whole sheet, to
the north-west of the great syncline, does not afford good evidence
of folding on a large scale. ‘his is no doubt partly due to the fact
that recognizable horizons cannot be followed throughout the area,
but it is also certain that through the greater part of this area
there is little or none of the regular compressed folding charac-
teristic of the belt of country nearer to the Highland Boundary.
Vol. 60.) METAMORPHISM IN THE LOCH-LOMOND DISTRICT. 15
The north-western margin of the trough gives evidence of low-lying
_ folds which are gradually losing their sharpness, and the rocks
emerging from beneath the trough exhibit this to an even greater
extent, so that very rapidly all trace of regular folding is lost.
Rolling and puckered folding of no great depth is the rule, and con-
tinues north-westward to the neighbourhood of Ardlui at the head
of Loch Lomond, where evidence of more regtlar folding, the margin
of the great Highland fan-structure to the north, begins to appear.
The structure, then, from the great trough to the north-western
corner of the sheet, is practically horizontal, the minor flexuring
and crumpling of the beds being of little account, and the surtace
is occupied by rocks of the Beinn-Ledi Group. This fact was only
arrived at by careful examination of a great part of the area, and
the identification of outliers of the coarsest bed of Beinn-Ledi Grit
at various points : as, for example, An Garadh north of Loch Katrine,
Beinn Lomond, and Beinn Bhreae and Tullich Hill in Dumbartonshire.
Still more important were the recognition of an outlier of the Green
Beds on Cruinn Bheinn, north of Loch Katrine, at a distance of
2 miles from the margin of the great trough, and the identification
of the Green Beds again at Ardlui, in a very highly-altered state.
These points having established the stratigraphy and the general
structure by actual mapping, we are now enabled to consider the
bearing of the structure upon the general and progressive meta-
morphism of the area.
VY. PrerroGrRapsicaL DESCRIPTIONS.
A large number of microscope-slides from the area have been
examined, and in the following descriptions selected slides and
specimens from different parts of the area form the basis of the
account of the various phases of metamorphism to be considered ; a
series collected from the western shore of Loch Lomond to
illustrate the progressive metamorphism, for the Explanation of
Sheet 38 of the l-inch Geological Survey Map of Scotland, is.
included.*
(a) The Leny-Grit Group.
The Leny Grits appear to differ very little in character, from
whatever part of the area they are collected. They consist
essentially of pebbles of quartz and felspar (mostly oligoclase)
in a fine matrix which is usually more or less chloritic, and
partakes more of the nature of an ordinary clastic than a crys-
talline rock. The matrix exhibits a distinct schistosity; but
the pebbles, especially where the grit is coarse, are little affected :
strain-shadows in the quartz and peripheral granulation are often
the only signs of dynamic metamorphism. The smaller pebbles,
however, may be completely granulitized, or may show ‘tails’
* I am indebted to Mr. J. D. Falconer, of the University of Edinburgh, for
very kindly preparing the microphotographs which have been used to illustrate.
this paper.
16 MR. E, H. CUNNINGHAM-CRAIG ON. ~=——s[ Feb. 1904,
of granulitic material drawn out in the direction of schistosity.
The felspar-pebbles are either fractured or apparently unaffected,
but are often much decomposed. The matrix is also cloudy and
decomposed; it consists of granulitic quartz, a little chlorite and
sericitic mica, and iron-ores, and it has never attacked the pebbles,
even where they are somewhat ragged in outline. A slide of
coarse grit’ (8983, PL II, fig. 1) from Craignahuillie, south of
Luss, is a fair instance of the state of metamorphism attained
in this group. A finer grit from Creachan Hill, south of Luss,
shows the pebbles with ragged ends, and the complete granuli-
tization of some of them. An alkali-felspar (much decomposed)
is present in this rock, and a small patch of microcline has been
preserved in a quartz-pebble. The matrix is chloritic and sericitic.
The preservation of the microcline by being included in a fragment
of quartz is significant, as suggesting that alkali-felspar may have
been present in greater quantity in the original rock but has been
destroyed in the dynamic metamorphism, giving rise to the sericitic
mica of the matrix. Clastic micas may be occasionally detected
in the finer grits. These beds occur, as has been stated, in highly-
compressed vertical folds, and it is evident that the phase of
dynamic metamorphism is not very high, while constructive meta-
morphism can hardly be said to have commenced, its only effects
being the meagre development of sericitic mica and chlorite, which
may also be partly of clastic origin.
(b) The Aberfoil-Slate Group.
Passing north-westward, and ascending in the series, we come to
the Aberfoil Slates and slaty grits, a series of fine sediments which
are much more liable to dynamic alteration from their comparative
softness, and also to constructive metamorphism from their more
complex composition. A section of slate (2567), from the head of
Glen Fruin, shows a considerable development of more or less
indeterminable micaceous minerals, chiefly sericitic mica and
chlorite, along the cleavage-planes, which cross the bedding at
a high angle. The bedding is marked by the presence of minute
aggregates of quartz, and one distinct pebble is noticeable. How
much of the micaceous constituents can be said to be due to
constructive metamorphism it is impossible to say, but there has
evidently been no crystallization on more than a very minute
scale; the rock has been deformed, and the constituents rearranged
by dynamic metamorphism, but the constructive metamorphism is
still at a minimum.
Another section (2568) from Rowmore, Garelochhead, shows an
originally fine gritty rock assuming the character of a phyllite.
Much drawn-out phacoids of quartz and a little plagioclase-felspar
show that the rock was originally gritty, but a good deal of the felspar
has probably been destroyed, and the development of micaceous
1 The numbers are those of the slides in the collection of the Geological
Survey of Scotland.
Vol. 60. | METAMORPHISM IN THE LOCH-LOMOND DISTRICT. i ly
minerals serves to class the rock as a phyllite. The developing
schistosity 1 is along the planes of cleavage. Reconstruction of the
matrix under constructive metamorphism i is at a very low phase.
(c) The Bemn-Ledi Group.
Still proceeding north-westward, we reach the Beinn-Ledi Group
of grits, schists, and greywackés. These rocks, where folded into a
vertical isocline, have as a rule suffered little from shearing-stresses,
especially where coarse and gritty in texture and highly siliceous in
composition ; the finer and more felspathic bands, on the other hand,
present a more favourable field for the action of metamorphic
processes, and are accordingly more greatly atfected.
A specimen (3679) taken from the Trossachs, a quarter of a mile
east of Loch Katrine, shows the state of a fairly fine grit in a
vertically-folded area. The matrix is mainly composed of granulitic
quartz, with some cloudy indeterminate material and sericitic mica.
The pebbles are chiefly of quartz, though a number of small striated
felspars are visible. ‘The felspar-pebbles appear to have been frac-
tured or crushed more than the quartz, and there is a little calcite
present—an important point, which will be referred to later. There
is very little sign of shearing or orientation of the pebbles; they
lie at all angles to the planes of schistosity, but show peripheral
eranulitization and a tendency to merge into the matrix. There
iss no recrystallization of the matrix to obscure the original
planes of bedding, which coincide with the schistosity ; but much
of the granulitization may possibly be due to incipient thermo-
metamorphism. On the whole, the rock shows fewer signs of
dynamic metamorphism than the last, and very little constructive
metamorphism.
To examine the effects of metamorphism upon the rocks at
about this horizon—high up in the Beinn-Ledi Group,—a series of
specimens was collected from the western shore of Loch Lomond,
all being taken at approximately the same level, and being (as nearly
as it was possible to ascertain) from the same horizon. It has
been mentioned before that in this area, west of Loch Lomond, rocks
of the Beinn-Ledi Group occupy the surface from Luss to Ardlui.
The next specimen taken comes from Rudha Mor, beyond the belt
of vertical folding and where the folds are rapidly becoming flatter
and of small amplitude. This specimen (8984, Pl. III, figs. 1 & 2) —
shows, as might be expected, a much advanced stage in ‘the meta-
morphism. It has been a coarse siliceous grit, but now, although
the larger pebbles are still distinct, the development of planes of
schistosity has cut up the rock into elongated phacoids, with
micaceous folia separating them. Under the microscope the matrix
is seen to consist of granulitic quartz, sericitic mica, biotite, and a
few grains of sphene; the pebbles are of quartz and decomposed
felspar. The quartz-pebbles are sometimes completely granulitized
and merging into the matrix; others are only peripherally granu-
litized, but show strain-shadows and drawn-out ‘tails’ of granulitic
Q.J.G.8. No. 237. C
18 MR. E. H. CUNNINGHAM-CRAIG ON { Feb. 1904,
quartz. The felspar-pebbles are almost completely destroyed and
decomposed, and are associated with the micaceous films. The
biotite is in well-developed flakes, lying at all angles to the
schistosity, but it seldom pierces the quartz-granules of the matrix,
showing that the quartz has not been recrystallized to any great
extent. The biotite is the first clearly authigenic mineral to be
observed in these rocks, and has evidently been developed by
constructive metamorphism after the shearing-movements which
produced the schistosity had ceased.
From this point onward, as we recede from the Highland
Border, allothigenic minerals decrease in number, while there is a
corresponding increase in authigenic constituents. [am inclined to
regard the constructive metamorphism which has affected the last-
described specimen as probably a normal thermometamorphism. In
the specimens that follow we find effects, increasing to the northward,
of a different type of constructive metamorphism, the nature of
which will be discussed later.
The next specimen (8985) was collected at Rudha Dubh,
13 miles to the north-north-west. It has probably been a finer-
grained rock originally, and occurring in a locality where the beds
are lying at a low angle, schistosity has reached a much higher
stage. The rock consists of irregular grains of quartz and plagio-
clase, with folia of sericitic mica, chlorite, and green or chloritized
biotite, some calcite (probably from decomposed plagioclase), and a
few grians of sphene and magnetite. Pebbles have disappeared, but
the arrangement of lenticular aggregates of granulitic quartz suggests
that pebbles may once have been present: they may be called the
‘chosts’ of clastic grains. The quartz and felspar do not appear to
have been recrystallized to any extent; but the micas, chlorite, and
possibly sphene, are authigenic. The presence of calcite, the deve-
lopment of chlorite, and the chloritization of biotite might be
attributed to weathering. I am inclined to regard them, however,
as the first stages in the special type of constructive metamorphism,
which, from this point to the head of the loch, becomes increasingly
conspicuous.
A rock (8986) from the shore opposite Tarbet Isle, where the
strata and folding are practically horizontal, carries the meta-
morphism a stage further. ‘This is a siliceous but conspicuously-
schistose rock, with a considerable development of white mica,
which gives it a flaser-structure. Only the ‘ghosts’ or suggestions
of original pebbles are to be seen, but their shape and size point to
the rock having been originally coarser in grain than the last.
Fragments of both oligoclase and alkali-felspar are present, although
they may be in part recrystallized. The quartz is certainly
becoming authigenic by recrystallization into a larger mosaic,
the grains of which not infrequently include flakes of biotite.
Some calcite and magnetite are also present.
At this stage, it may be as well to glance at the evidence from the
area to the eastward of the loch, and approximately on the same iine
Vol.60.] METAMORPHISM IN THE LOCH-LOMOND DISTRICT. 19
of strike, both the flexuring and the strata striking from north-east
to south-west. The rocks which emerge from below the great
syncline differ very greatly, as has already been stated, from the
same rocks to the south-eastward of the syncline. The area
south of Loch Katrine illustrates this admirably. In the rolling
and crumpled folds north-west of the trough grit-beds are fre-
quently noticed, but they can never be traced far ; the normal type is
a glistening mica-schist, which apparently becomes more micaceous,
and certainly more fissile, to the north-westward, as gritty bands
become less and less frequent. The rocks invariably split along
the planes of foliation, and thus present micaceous surfaces giving
all the appearance of a phyllite; but a careful examination shows
that to call them ‘ phyllites’ would misrepresent their composition.
If a good cross-fracture (a difficult thing to obtain) is examined, it
is seen that these schists are made up of folia or elongated phacoids
composed chiefly of quartz, separated by mere films of micaceous
minerals along which the rock naturally fractures. Thus the
quantity of the micas present is apt to be overestimated at first.
In the phacoids remains of allothigenic structures may often be
observed, long after all traces of a regular bed of grit have been lost.
A specimen (3681) from the shore of Loch Katrine, three-quarters
of a mile south-south-east of Stronachlachar Hotel, is a characteristic
example of this type of mica-schist. No grits have been recognized
in the locality. The specimen consists ot alternating folia of granulitic
quartz and micaceous minerals, chlorite, white mica, and a little
biotite ; the quartz has partly recrystallized, and contains the micas.
A few large allothigenic quartzes, however, are still present, but
they are almost entirely granulitized ; and there are also several
much-iractured and decomposed remnants of plagioclase-pebbles.
Thus it is seen that, even in a locality where the rocks are typically
mica-schists, evidence of their having been grits may be obtained,
and that the grits were fairly coarse in grain may be deduced from
the size of the remnants of pebbles.
Returning to the shore-section on Loch Lomond, we find at
Inveruglas a rock (8987: Pl. II, fig. 2) in which all allothigenic
minerals have disappeared, while distinct evidence of a new and
remarkable type of constructive metamorphism, to which allusion
has been made above, is obtained. The rock consists of quartz,
recrystallized, and often leached out into veinlets following the
foliation-planes, felspar in a few small decomposed fragments, and
well-developed micas, muscovite and a little biotite, which are both
included in the recrystallized quartz. Veins of calcite point to the
removal of lime from crushed and decomposed plagioclase. But
the most important point is the development of a few small clear
blebs of albite, which are chiefly associated with the micaceous folia.
The rock shows the first stage in the building-np of an albite-
gneiss. From this point onward it is impossible to note increase
in the dynamic metamorphism, as there are no clastic structures by
the destruction of which such metamorphism can be measured ; it
c2
20 MR. E. H. CUNNINGHAM-CRAIG ON [ Feb. 1904,
is evident, however, that in the area north-west of Inveruglas the
dynamic metamorphism does not diminish, and it may have increased.
The constructive metamorphism increases rapidly.
Three specimens from the eastern side of the loch at Inversnaid
supply the next link in the chain.
The first of these (8999, fig. 2, below) is a very siliceous rock, con-
sisting chiefly of folia of granulitic quartz with biotite, chloritized
biotite, albite, and magnetite. The quartz is all recrystallized into
a coarse mosaic, and the albites are larger and more distinct than in
the last specimen ; there is also a tendency for the albite-grains to
Fig, 2.—Slide No. 8999. [Seen under a 1-inch objective. |
[A highly-crystalline gneiss from Inversnaid, showing the first appearance of
small authigenic albites and the leaching-out of quartz into lenticles.
Muscovite and biotite are also present. |
be concentrated in folia. In a more micaceous specimen (9000),
chlorite and muscovite are very abundant, being associated both
with folia of quartz and with the authigenic albites; but the
albites are hardly, if at all, more abundant than in the more
siliceous specimen. ‘The third specimen (3680) is composed chief
of flakes of chlorite and muscovite lying at all angles to the bedding,
with interstitial quartz and a few large albites. Thus, in a rock
which most closely resembles a phyllite or slate in composition, the
development of albite is little greater than in a highly-quartzose
gneiss evidently formed from a grit. The albites in these specimens
show little or no trace of idiomorphic outlines: they appear as rounded
or elongated grains. Polysynthetic twinning is never observed ;
Vol.60.| | METAMORPHISM IN THE LOCH-LOMOND DISTRICT. 21
but the albites contain numerous inclusions, chiefly of magnetite,
_ which are sometimes so abundant as to show the direction of
original foliation or bedding, as in the last specimen. The
micaceous minerals, however, are never included in the albites.
The next specimen, from Creag an Ardain (8988), shows a
still further advance: the albites are larger and more conspicuous,
and are aggregated more distinctly into folia or lenticles, while the
quartz is also to a great extent segregated out into lenticles. The
albites are associated with a large quantity of chlorite and some
white mica, while biotite is no longer present.
In the next slide (8989), from Ardvoirlich, the albites are even
more conspicuous, and the rock may be described as a typical
albite-gneiss. The association of the albite with chlorite is again
to be noted, and the inclusion of quartz, magnetite, and epidote in
the albites. The epidote is important, its occurrence pointing to the
presence of lime, derived probably from destroyed plagioclase.
Rudha Ban, from which the next specimen (8990, Pl. IV, figs. 1
& 2) is taken, has long been a famous locality for albite-gneisses.
All the rocks in this neighbourhood contain a large percentage of
albite, and when the grains of this mineral are large they weather-
out like the pebbles in a grit, giving almost a clastic appearance to
highly-erystalline rocks. The slide shows very clearly the segre-
gation of the materials into folia, quartzose lenticles alternating
with those rich in albite. The quartzose lenticles often attain a
large size, and appear as discontinuous veinlets in the matrix; but
it is quite evident that these veinlets belong essentially to the rocks
in which they occur, and the silica has not been introduced from
elsewhere.
Another slide from farther north, at Stuckindroin (8991), presents
the same characteristics in a rock of more siliceous composition :
albite and chlorite, though present in considerable quantity, being
less conspicuous than quartz and muscovite. A few small garnets
are occasionally present in these rocks, but they are comparatively
rare, and never attain a sufficient size to be conspicuous in hand-
specimens. Calcite-veins are often fairly numerous, biotite is
almost, if not entirely, absent, while chlorite is abundant.
On the whole, the rocks in this belt of country, from Inveruglas
to Stuckindroin, are remarkably constant in character; they are
all albite-gneisses produced by a constructive meta-
morphism, which reaches its maximum about the neighbour-
hood of Ardvoirlich and Rudha Ban, and does not appear to
decrease to the northward. Two points are worthy of attention:
(1) that the albites show a tendency to include all the other
minerals, with the exception of micas and chlorite; and (2) that
the albites give no indications of having been affected by movement
of any kind—in fact, the lines of inclusions not infrequently show
the minute puckering and folding which was the latest movement
to affect the rocks: thus proving that the albites have developed
since the movement ceased.
bo
bo
MR. E. H. CUNNINGHAM-CRAIG ON [ Feb. 1904,
(d) The Green Beds.
The progressive metamorphism of the Green Beds cannot be
traced in this area in detail, as there are no exposures of these
strata between Beinn Lomond and Ardlui. It is not necessary to
describe now the alteration that they have undergone, a description
which I hope to give in a future communication. It will be sufficient
to state here that the metamorphism of these well-known rocks
bears out the conclusions as to progressive metamorphism arrived
at after examination of the rocks of the Beinn-Ledi Group. On
the southern slopes of Beinn Lomond they are epidotic and chloritic
grits ; at Ardlui they are hornblende-schists, nct easy to distinguish
from hornblende-schists of igneous origin.
« VI. CnhemicaL ANALYSES.
The stratigraphicai relations of the albite-gneisses having been
proved by a study of the structure of the district, and by the identi-
fication of the Green Beds at Ardlui, we are impelled to the conclusion
that they have been formed by the action of dynamic and construc-
tive metamorphism from the Beinn-Ledi Grits, unless we are to
assume a change in lithological character and chemical composition
in the rocks of the Beinn-Ledi Group when traced north-westward.
Chemical analysis was necessary to prove whether or not such a
change existed. I was inclined to disbelieve in such a change,
but I found, after arriving at the conclusion stated above, that
Continental geologists favoured the view that albite-gneisses of
similar character had been formed by the metamorphism of phyllites
rather than grits.
Mr. Teall,in the Appendix to the Survey Memoir on the ‘ Geology
of Cowal’ (1897) p. 297, refers to the occurrence of rocks con-
taining authigenic albite in the northern border of the central zone
of the Eastern Alps. These rocks were described by A. Boehm,"
who defined the type as transitional between the old crystalline
schists and the true phyllites. Mr. Teall also refers to the albite-
phyllites of Saxony,” and of the Green Mountains of Massachusetts.°
In all these instances the association of minerals appears to be
similar: white mica, chlorite, and folia of quartz accompanying the
albite.
The suggestion is made in some, if not all, of these cases that the
albite-gneisses have been formed from phyllites, but the descriptions,
especially in the case of the Green Mountains, hardly seem to uphold
this idea. Prof. Wolff, in his description of these schists or gneisses
* «Ueber die Gesteine des Wechsels ’ Tschermak’s Min. u. Petr. Mitth. n. s.
vol. v (1883) p. 197.
* K. Dalmer, ‘ Erlaiiterungen zur geologischen Specialkarte des Konigreichs
Sachsen—Section Léssnitz’ 1881.
* Monogr. U.S. Geol. Surv. vol. xxiii (1894).
Vol. 60.] | METAMORPHISM -IN THE LOCH-LOMOND DISTRICT. 23
in Hoosac Mountain,} calls attention to the strings and lenticles
of quartz developed along the bedding-planes of the albite-schist,
as evidence of a higher percentage of silica in the rock than would
be met with in a true phyllite.
~ In the Survey Memoir on the ‘Geology of Cowal,’ also, Mr. C. T.
Clough suggests the possibility of the development of albite-gneisses
from phyllites; and two analyses (op. cit. p. 39) were made from
selected specimens—one of phyllite, the other of albite-gneiss, to
see whether these rocks were similar in chemical composition.
These analyses are tabulated below.
FE ELE. IV
Per pent Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
iE ne 43°3 63°4 69°11 77-22
_ ee ge 1-2 trace 0°83 0°59
a 181 15°78 10°07
areal \ 136 6-7 6-49 4-02
> ee not estimated not est. 0-24 0°30
ES 05 0-9 1°34 1:10
__- | Seer 38 19 1°95 Ei7
_ See 46 5p 397 2-69
_ eee 18 an 2-49 2-65
i See ae | 9.2 1-41 0°36
ae a = 0-39 0-32
> See not estimated not est. O25 O14
_ 1+ aes not estimated not est.’ O-14 at
1 eee 99°5 100:2 100°39 100°59
As the iron in I & IT was estimated as Fe,O,, and FeO was not estimated,
the total iron in III & IV is given as Fe,O, for the sake of comparison.
The percentages 4:5 & 28 in I & II respectively were ‘loss on ignition,’ and
are given as H,O & CO, bracketted ; this Joss may aiso include a percentage of
sulphur.
I. Green phyllite from Blairmore (Cowal), \ ATi ,
II. Albite-schist from Stuck Burn (Cowal), analysed by Mr. J.J. H. Teail.
III. Albite-gneiss from Rudha Ban, X 17
IV. Schistose grit from Rudha Dubh, i ered ate Sen epee
For the ‘ Explanation of Sheet 38’ by the Geological Survey,
two analyses have also been made by Dr. W. Pollard: one of a typical
albite-gneiss from Rudha Ban; the other of the coarsest and most
siliceous grit that could be obtained in the section on the western
shore of Loch Lomond, at Rudha Dubh. It must be mentioned
here that a finer-grained, less siliceous, and more micaceous speci-
men of schistose grit could easily have been selected; but in order
that there should be no forcing of the evidence to agree with the
conclusions to which I had come previously, I determined to select
the very coarsest and most siliceous grit that I could find—in fact,
what I may call an extreme case of siliceous grit, as compared with
an average specimen of albite-gneiss.
? Monogr. U.S. Geol. Surv. vol. xxiii (1894) pp. 59 et segq.
24 MR. E. H, CUNNINGHAM-CRAIG ON [Feb. rgo4,
In the foregoing table (p. 23) these analyses are set forth. It will
be seen at a glance that there is a very close resemblance between
the albite-gneiss from Cowal (II) and the albite-gneiss from Loch
Lomond (III), not only in the actual percentages, but in the ratios
of one base to another. I may here remark that the discrepancy
between the ratios of potash to soda in the two rocks may be more
apparent than real, as Dr. Pollard made three separate estimations
of the alkalis in III from different samples of the same specimen,
checking his results by an estimation of the silica, and so proving
that the analyses were absolutely correct. These analyses gave
somewhat different results, as follows :—
a. bh,
KIO) foe ae. 3°88 397 aon
INO ee ae 2°38 2°49 aa) 1
Result 6 was obtained from the largest amount of material, and
is accordingly. given in the table, but it will be seen that ¢ gives a
ratio practically the same as the ratio of potash to sodain II. If
the mean of the three analyses be taken, we get 3°70 per cent.
of potash to 3 of soda, a ratio not differing very greatly from
that in II.
The next point brought out by these analyses is the great
dissimilarity between the phy [lite (1) and either of the albite-gneisses
(II & III). The low percentage of silica, lime, and soda, and the
high percentage of alumina, iron, magnesia, and potash make this
clear at once; while if the ratios, for example, of potash to soda, be
taken, the difference becomes even more conspicuous. It is evident
that a phyllite of such composition could not possibly form an
albite-gneiss.
When we turn to the analysis of the schistose grit (LV), it does not
seem at first to resemble those of the albite-gneisses very closely,
but it must be remembered that this rock was selected as being the
most siliceous that could be obtained. Consequently, we find a very
high percentage of silica,and the other constituents are reduced in
proportion. ‘aking the ratios of one constituent to another, the
resemblance between the grit and the albite-gneiss becomes very
striking: thus the ratio of ‘alumina to lime or magnesia in the grit
approximates fairly well to the ratio of the same constituents in
the albite-gneisses, while the ratio of potash to soda is exactly
the same as in the albite-gneiss specimen from Cowal. From
these facts it is evident that an albite-gneiss could be formed even
from a highly-siliceous grit.
VII. Tue Zones or ProcresstvE METAMORPHISM.
The sketch-map (fig. 3, p. 25) shows approximately the different
zones in the metamorphism of the Beinn-Ledi Group: first that in
Vol.60.] METAMORPHISM IN THE LOCH-LOMOND DISTRICT. 25
which grits predominate, almost every rock being a fine or acoarse grit ;
then the zone of mica-schists,.in which a few of the coarser grit-bands
still survive owing to their resistance to dynamic metamorphism ;
then the zone of mica-schists, composed entirely of authigenic minerals ;
and finally the zone of albite-gneiss. To the south-west, in Cowal,
the boundaries of these zones cross, a circumstance which makes
the study of the meta-
Fig. 3.—Sketch-map of the Loch-Lomond morphism much more
district, to illustrate the zones of meta- difficult, as schistose grits
morphism. (Approaimate scale: Giniles MOY be found stratified
= inch.) with albite-gneisses : the
former representing beds
which have resisted suc-
cessfully the dynamic
metamorphism, and con-
sequently to a_ great
extent the constructive
metamorphism ; while the
latter are the beds which
have succumbed to the
dynamic, and so fallen
x an easy prey to the con-
a= eee structive, metamorphism.
= The crossing of the boun-
daries of these meta-
morphic zones probably
takes place also north of
Glen Gyle: it is demon-
strative proof that the
albite- gneisses are not
a stratigraphical group.
The Loch-Lomond dis-
trict is remarkable in
te ee. ; ing practically
[The asterisks indicate localities where speci- being practical!) free
mens of the rocks described in this paper from _ such contusing
were obtained. | complications.
ICA-SCHIS
WITH
VIII. Conract-MrramorpuismM.
One other phase of metamorphism in the district must be recorded
briefly, and that is contact-metamorphism. In the albite-gneiss
area are numerous intrusions of what are called the ‘newer granites
and diorites’; that is to say, a series of intrusions well-known
in the Highlands, and probably in the main of Old-Red-Sandstone
age, which have been intruded after the regional metamorphism.
The effect of these intrusions on the albite-gneisses is remarkable.
On approaching such an intrusion as the Beinn-Vane (Mheadhoin)
diorite or the Inversnaid hyperite, the albites are seen to assume a
red coloration, due to the oxidation of the magnetite-inclusions, while
26 MR, E, H. CUNNINGHAM-CRAIG ON [Feb. 1904,
chlorite begins to give place to biotite. Under the microscope the
albite soon appears cloudy and decomposed, and finally, as the junc-
tion is approached, vanishes altogether, while biotite and contact-
minerals make their appearance, and may become very conspicuous,
in the ‘ hornfelsed’ zone near the contact. Dr. Flett has identified
cordierite in the hornfels surrounding the Inversnaid hyperite.
A specimen (8992, Pl. V, figs. 1 & 2), which shows very clearly
what happens to the albite-gneiss witbin an aureole of contact-
metamorphism, is taken from the railway-cutting north of Ardlui,
at a distance of about 1} miles from the great Meall-Garabal
complex described by Messrs. Teall & Dakyns.! The hand-specimen
resembles very closely the normal albite-gneiss with quartz-veinlets,
but the colour is darker and the rock generally less fissile. Under
the microscope it is seen that albite and chlorite have almost
entirely disappeared, the former being replaced chiefly by aggregates
of white mica, in which a soda-mica is probably present, while
sporadically-developed flakes of biotite replace the sheaves of
chlorite. In the siliceous folia the development of biotite 1s more
regular. A few rather decomposed blebs of albite can still be recog-
nized in some parts of the slide, and in these eases a little chlorite
is generally present also. More significant of the contact-action
are groups of andalusite-granules which occur among the feathery
masses of white mica.”
IX. Nature oF THE ALBITE-GNEIss METAMORPHISM.
It is not my intention to go more fully into the contact-action of
these igneous masses. Mr. Clough, in the Survey Memoir on the
‘Geology of Cowal,’ has described the contact-metamorphism on the
Other side of the same petrographical complex. or my purpose,
sufficient has been said to show the effects of a thermal contact on
the rocks which have been previously altered to albite-gneisses.
This leads naturally to the question as to what is the kind of meta-
morphism to which the production of these albite-gneisses is to be
attributed. On this question I have to offer a suggestion, which must
for the present remain more theoretical than the other conclusions set
forward in this paper. I have had the experience of tracing the same
rocks of the Beinn-Ledi Group through a progressive metamorphism
in other districts, and more especially in the district of Aberfeldy,
where they may be traced from not very greatly-altered schistose
grits into highly-crystalline muscovite-biotite-schists or gneisses
with a considerable number of large and well-developed garnets.
The dynamic metamorphism is much the same as in the Loch-
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xlviii (1892) p. 104.
* In the andalusite-biotite hornfels near the contact with the Glen-Fine
granite, described by Mr. Clough, in the Survey Memoir on the ‘ Geology of
Cowal’ (1897) p. 98, a quantity of albite is still present, but it has probably
been recrystallized: idiomorphic outlines are not uncommon, and twinning is
frequent.
&
AS)
Vol. 60. | METAMORPHISM IN THE LOCH-LOMOND DISTRICT. 7
t
Lomond district, but the constructive metamorphism is very
different, for nothing like the albite-gneisses has been observed in
the Aberfeldy district. If albite be present at all, it is in small
water-clear granules mixed with the granulitic quartz-folia.
Chlorite is absent, and in its place occur folia of intergrown
muscovite and biotite with a considerable development of garnet.
We have been accustomed to consider this type of alteration as due
to an essentially-thermal metamorphism. I venture to suggest
that the albite-gneisses are due to a hydrothermal
type of metamorphism. The absence, or presence only in very
small number, of garnets; the leaching-out of the siliceous and
felspathic materials into separate folia ; the fact that the albites only
begin to develop after the plagioclase has been destroyed, and after
the removal of lime as carbonate (of which there is evidence) ; and
the association of the albites with a hydrated mineral, chlorite, all
point to this conclusion. The fact that a thermal contact at once
destroys the development of albite adds confirmatory evidence.
The view that we are dealing with a hydrothermal type of con-
structive metamorphism is not inconsistent with the observations
of Tschermak and other Continental geologists, who found that
albite-gneisses formed a transitional stage between slightly and
highly-altered sediments.
X. ReCAPITULATION.
To recapituiate, we are dealing in the Loch-Lomond district
with a progressive metamorphism, each stage of which can be
accurately determined, and each process of which can be studied, as
a rule, without confusing its effects with those due to another
process. In the first place, we saw rocks from the Leny-Grit Group
and Aberfoil-Slate Group yielding evidence of dynamic metamorphism
not in a high degree, and of practically no constructive meta-
morphism whatever. Then, entering a higher stratigraphical
horizon, the Beinn-Ledi Group, we saw the dynamic metamorphism
increasing, and at Rudha Mor the beginning of a constructive
metamorphism of the thermal type, which was quickly superseded
by a constructive metamorphism probably of hydrothermal type,
under which, combined with, or preceded by, the increasing dynamic
metamorphism, the rocks rapidly became more highly crystalline
until all clastic structures had been obliterated. The segregation of
like materials into folia, the total recrystallization, and the genesis
of new mineral-groupings, resulted finally in the production of
coarsely-crystalline albite-gneisses from a series of fine and coarse
siliceous and felspathic grits. Finally, we have seen the effects
of contact with plutonic igneous masses, in the obliteration of
many of the results produced by the hydrothermal constructive
metamorphism,
28 MR. E. H, CUNNINGHAM-CRAIG ON [ Feb. 1904,
EXPLANATION OF PLATES II-V.
[With the exception of fig. 2 in Pl. V, photographed under a 32-inch objective,
all the slides are represented as viewed under a 1-inch objective. |
Puiate II.
Fig. 1 (8983). Schistose grit from Craignahuillie, which shows the breaking-
down of a large quartz-pebble in a schistose but non-crystalline
matrix. (See p. 16.)
2 (8987). A highly-quartzose schist from Inyeruglas, in which allothigenie
structures have been completely destroyed. It shows recrystallized
quartz and authigenic muscovite. A vein of calcite, derived from
crushed felspar, is seen on the right. (See p. 19.)
Prats IIT.
Fig. 1 (8984). Schistose grit from Rudha Mor, showing a large quartz-pebble,
partly granulitized, in a matrix rich in authigenic biotite.
2. The same under crossed nicols. (See p. 17.)
Puate LV.
Fig. 1 (8990). A typical albite-gneiss from Rudha Ban, very highly crystalline.
It contains albite, quartz (recrystallized in lenticles), chlorite (abun-
dant), muscovite, and pyrites. (See p. 21.)
2. The same under crossed nicols.
PuAatTE VY.
Fig. 1 (8992). This shows the effects of contact-metamorphism on an albite-
gneiss from Ardlui. There is a finely-crystalline development of
biotite and white mica, with quartz recrystallized in lenticles, but
albite and chlorite are absent. (See p. 26.)
2. The same, more highiy magnified: showing the granular development of
andalusite.
Discussion.
Mr. H. M. Capertr said that the completion of this map interested
him greatly, as it had been some 25 years in progress and was
happily out at last, to the great advantage of Scottish geologists,
who had awaited it for nearly a generation. He had worked on
the western part some 18 or 19 years ago, and the Author had
worked out the structure in much greater detail and with the aid
of the microscope, which was not so much in vogue when he was
there, the consequence being that the Author had greatly modified
part of his (the speaker’s) results. He was glad of this, as geology
was, and should be, a progressive science. He would like the Author
to say what became of the limestones that occurred among the
slates south of Luss, as these passed northward into the more
highly-metamorphosed area ; also what, if any, was the nature of
the contact-metamorphism round the granite and diorite-intrusions
north of Arrochar ; and further, whether the Author knew the source
of the ilmenite which occurred in considerable quantities in that
locality.
The Coarrman (Sir Ancurpatp Gerxigz) spoke of the early work of
the Geological Survey in the Loch-Lomond district, and the difficulty
that was experienced there in making out the order of succession of
- QUART. JOURN. GEOL. Soc., VoL. LX, PL. II.
J. D. F., Photomicr. Bemrose Ltd., Collo.
SCHISTOSE GRIT AND QuUARTZOSE ScHiSsT.
QuarT. JouRN. GEOL. Soc., VoL. LX, PL. III.
Fic 1.
Fic. 2.
Codlo.
J. D. F., Photomicr.
Benirose Lid.,
SCHISTOSE GRIT FROM RUDHA Mor.
Quart. JOURN. GEOL. Soc., VoL. LX, PL. IV.
J. D. F., Photomicr. Bemrose Ltd., Collo.
ALBITE-GNEISS FROM RUDHA BAN.
Need ae =
ae AT
i. ea
S EORS: pire Ree ae Sa ee Br =
: : ca
' , a {ais -
2 Rete he
+ Jy! =p.
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i ies
!
Sea-Level¥_
At this point (1 in the section, Pl. VI, fig. 1), the lower gallery
begins. This runs almost horizontally for a distance of 180 feet,
turning to the south-west at 120 feet; then there is a sharp dip
downward, and the passage becomes so narrow that it is impossible
to proceed very far. Fig. 1 in Pl. VI shows that, as a matter of fact,
the end of the horizontal part of the gallery is a few inches higher
than the entrance, and that there is a slight rise about halfway
along, but this is probably due to the unequal filling-up of the
floor, and also to the unequal deposit of stalagmite. The mean height
of the floor above sea-level is about 164 teet, and the lowest point
reached in the descending fissure is very little, if anything, above
the level of the sea. There is no standing water here or elsewhere
in the cave, except one or two small puddles. The sides of this
fissure are honeycombed in a very marked manner, to the height of
about 10 feet from the floor. The pittings are from 3 to 5 inches
in diameter, and about 13 inches deep. The sides and roof of the
fissure, at the point where it begins to turn down, are smooth and
waterworn, but the descending part, as far as could be seen, is not
so, except the floor, which is smooth because it is covered with
stalagmite. ‘The floor has been opened at a point marked 2 on the
32 MR. H, DYKE ACLAND ON A (Feb. 1904,
section (Pl. VI, fig. 1), to the depth of 15 feet. Below is a rough
drawing of a section of it (fig. 2).
Beneath the stalagmite-floor, which varied in thickness from a
few inches to a foot or more, was a layer of fine calcareous sand.
Then came coarser sand, and then rubble down to the depth of 11
feet. Embedded in the coarse sand and rubble were angular and
subangular boulders of limestone, some of large size. A complete
change then took place, and there came a bed of hard calcareous
grit, the coarse grains of sand, small pebbles, fragments of shells,
and small stalactites being cemented together by some material
closely resembling stalagmite. This bed was several inches thick
Fig. 2.—Section of the floor in the eave at Monkey's Quarry,
¥°S 5
Gibraltar. e
Se ae ES
Sates. (as | aa > een ote
' SACHETS Ors F r CS ee EPG Sere Sea
mars AVes eee erie ih es (POTS ee ans : ree
See te ON A 8 Teg We See eae , Fine Calcareous Sand
~ * eT ee ele at ate Pi ’ 5
u t> 5 . ‘ as 1 4
= ‘ . M ee egy sian! ‘ “ z
‘ 5 Bact 4 SOR on§
- oe he PRR ica SU eae
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EL OE a RL LAPIS boas Oe osc
or, 7 4
aN Ion Scan, Beat eae Xoo, o opm oe POF Qg cB ry
tb te heya i R ‘ee are #e\l9 Mg re :
oe ar 92S EN 02° <2 Coarse Calcareous Sand
ao has
Rubble
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12 weti= 2, Calcareous Grit
ARE ks
. “<-~ 7 Stones bored by Pholades,
Oe ‘Echinids & barnacles.
es a =
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pees) SRock Floor. 5 a
Win thane I) |
where it lay between the boulders. In it and below it were numerous
well-rounded stones, some of them pierced by Pholas. There
were also a few scattered chips of angular limestone. At 13 feet
J found echinids and barnacles.
The shaft was sunk down the side of the cave, which was
smooth and waterworn, and in places there were holes apparently
bored by Pholas. At 15 feet the side sloped inward rapidly
towards the centre of the gallery, and the bottom of the shaft was
solid rock. JI have no doubt that this is the original floor of the
cave. At this point, therefore, it is about 2 feet above sea-level.
There were a few inches of fresh water at the bottom, and although
Vol. 60. ] NEW CAVE AT GIBRALTAR. 33
the rise and fall of the tide is 3 feet, the level of the water did
not seem to be affected by it.
At point 1, a small vertical cliff, some 30 feet high, is seen.
This is the termination of the floor of the upper gallery. It is much
undercut on its southern face, which forms the side of the lower
gallery, and is evidently the massif of the Rock. This cliff has
to be ascended by a ladder. The gallery has some fine stalagmites
and stalactites in it, and is 127 feet long, 20 to 25 feet wide, and
30 to 35 feet high. There is a narrow and irregular opening, about
55 feet long, from this upper gallery to the lower, on the south side
of the former. The western end is waterworn, and has no fissure
visible; it is now quite dry, there being no drip from the roof. I
opened the floor in the bay at the side, and in the centre. I found
a thin coating of stalagmite, and at the side some red soil 2 or
3 inches deep, and then reached the solid rock. In the centre,
below about 6 inches of moist and clayey earth, probably derived
from the decomposition of the limestone, there was a layer of
coarse and fine calcareous sand and pebbles, 3 to 4 inches deep
over the solid rock. ‘There was very little residuum from the sand
when I dissolved some of it in hydrochloric acid. The sides of this
gallery are not honeycombed in the same way as those of the
lower gallery are. The pittings are not so numerous, and have no
regularity.
From point 1, another gallery (if it can be so called) extends
eastward. At first the roof is a thin sheet of stalagmite, which
gradually curves over, so that in time the entrance would be com-
pletely hidden. A few feet inside the entrance the roof is seen to
be composed of breccia, the fragments being very firmly cemented
together. Some of these fragments are of large size, measuring
6 feet by 4 by 2. The floor is of the same formation, and in
places the breccia is being covered with stalagmite. It is a rough
scramble to get up the slope. Some 90 feet from the entrance
the breccia ceases to be visible, and its place is taken by rubble,
large and small. This I attribute to constant falls from the
roof, which have perhaps been assisted by the blasting operations
outside. It was not possible during my several visits to get more
than about 135 feet to the eastward. ‘This is, however, manifestly
beyond the present eastern face of the Rock, and therefore outside
what must have been at one time the main entrance to the cave,
which is now blocked by a large accumulation of breccia and rubble.
By scrambling down a steep slope to the north, at a point some
30 feet from the entrance of this gallery, the original side of the
cave can be reached, and on it honeycombing is visible for a distance
of 30 feet or so, and is then again buried under the breccia. The
highest point of the pitting is about 28 feet above sea-level. This
corresponds with the honeycombing that is visible in the lower
gallery, and is to be attributed to the same cause. At no place
could I find any evidence of the position of the solid rock in the
Q. J.G.8. No, 237. D
34 MR. H. DYKE ACLAND ON A [Feb. 1904,
floor, and it would evidently require the removal of a large amount
of rubble and breccia to reach it.
Such is a brief description of the general character of the cave.
It remains to point out one or two of its more interesting features
from a geological point of view.
Gibraltar, as is well known, has many examples of both fissure
and marine caves at very various heights above sea-level, St. Michael’s
Cave on the western side being perhaps the most famous of the first
kind, and the caves on the eastern coast-line of the second. There
can be no doubt that the upper gallery in the cave just deseribed
is wholly or partly of marine origin, from the character of the
concave and unfissured end, the sand and pebbles formed beneath
the stalagmite-floor, and the fact that the floor is horizontal. It is
equally evident that the main hall and lower gallery originated
in a fissure, and were subsequently exposed to the action of the sea.
The presence of echinids of the same species as those which still
exist in the Mediterranean makes it probable that the upper
gallery is the older, and that the Rock has been elevated since the
upper gallery received in a great measure its present form.
The band of honeycombing is evidence that the water must have
remained at the same level in the cave for some considerable time.
The edges of the pittings are so sharp that they cannot have been
exposed to the action of moving water for any lengthy period. They
are not seen in the shaft in the lower gallery below the level of
the present floor, and the side of the cave at that point has the
appearance of having been planed down by the sea. It is not likely
to have been fresh water, as it is difficult to see whence any con-
siderable stream of the latter could have come, or whither it could
have gone.
The striations on the south side of the main hall may be due to
the action of blown sand. Very similar markings of recent origin
are to be now seen on the sides of the entrance to the well-known
Monkey’s Cave, which lies a short distance to the south, and there
a heap of sand lies in the cave. If the striations in the main hall
are due to this cause, it shows that there must have been a large
opening to the cave on a much lower level than the present one.
By the kindness of Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S., and Dr. F.
A. Bather, M.A., the echinids have been identified. ‘They are Stron-
gylocentrotus lividus, a species still common in the Mediterranean.
The cave must therefore have been open to the sea at a com-
paratively-recent geological period. The bed of sand and Pholas-
bored stones in which they were found was about 4 feet thick, above
which are 11 feet of rubble, sand, and stalagmite. The rubble may
be attributed to falls from the roof.
The breccia brings us to the last page in the history of the cave
until its recent discovery. I believe its origin to be twofold. It
will be observed that the floor of the main hall slopes considerably
Vol. 60. | NEW CAVE AT GIBRALTAR. 35
inward from the entrance. The middle gallery enables us to see
that the old entrance is blocked up by breccia. That its position is
not due to the force of the waves is evident from its being breccia,
and not conglomerate. Sir Andrew Ramsay & Prof. James Geikie
in their paper’ discuss at considerable length the origin of the
breccias of Gibraltar, and they consider that ‘they belong to two
distinct stages,’ although in the map which accompanies their paper
the same sign is used for both. The discovery of the echinids in the
lower gallery tends to disprove that the later breccias, at any rate,
owe their origin to ‘cold climatic conditions.” When the tunnel was
made through the Rock, from the west near the Moorish castle, to the
catchment-area above Catalan Bay, a narrow fissure was discovered
that extended vertically from the outer air to an unknown depth.
If this went so far down as to reach the sea-level and was then
undermined, it would cause an enormous fall of rock, and if that
happened at the mouth of a cave, no doubt some of it would fail
inside and form a sloping floor such as there is in this cave. In
course of time the rubble would be consolidated into breccia.
The conclusions, therefore, that may be arrived at from the
evidence furnished by this cave are :—
1. That it existed as a fissure-cave before it was subjected to the
action of the sea.
2. That it had a large entrance open to the sea for a Jong period.
3. That during that time the Rock was elevated some 42 feet.
4. That it was closed to the sea at a recent geological period.
5. That the breccia and sand-slopes at this point on the eastern
side of the Rock, which are 150 feet wide and reach to a height of
200 or 500 feet above sea-level, date from a still more recent epoch.
In conclusion, I wish to express my obligations to the Admiral
Superintendent for allowing me the opportunity of examining the
cave; to Mr. A. Scott, Chief Civil Engineer, Messrs. L. T. Stoddard
& A. K. Peaty, Assistant Civil Engineers, and Mr. R. Taylor,
contractor’s agent; to Mr. R. I. Ingles, one of his superintendents ;
and to the Hon. F. W. D. Smith, M.P., for much courtesy and
assistance in the way of plans, photographs, ete.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE Vi.
Fig. 1. Longitudinal section of the cave at Monkey's Quarry, Gibraltar, on
the scale of 40 feet to the inch.
2. Plan of the cave at Monkey's Quarry, Gibraltar, on the scale of 40 feet
to the inch.
3. Transverse section of the same at XY.
Discusston.
Dr. A. Smirx Woopwarp expressed satisfaction that renewed
' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxxiv (1878) p. 515.
2 Ibid. p. 530.
d2
36 A-NEW CAVE AT GIBRALTAR. [Feb. 1904,
attention was being paid to the caverns of Gibraltar; and con-
gratulated the Author on his work. Although the result was
different from what might have been anticipated, he hoped that the
Author.would continue his search for ossiferous deposits in that
cave. Many interesting species of mammals had been obtained
by Brome, Busk, and Falconer, but the known. remains were so
fragmentary that more satisfactory specimens were much needed.
Dr. Henry Woopwarp said that great interest attached to the
exploration of the caves of Gibraltar, as in the earlier ones ex-
plored by Brome, Busk, and Falconer some very interesting deposits
of bone-breccia had been met with. At the time when Busk ex-
amined them but little interest was felt in the small rodentia, as
they were believed only to be common well-known forms; but
Dr. Forsyth Major, who had lately examined some specimens, had
detected Layomys and other interesting remains, and earnestly
desired to obtain more material for study, to which the Author’s
communication promised possibly to lead up.
The AvrHor replied that the bone-breccia on the western side
of the Rock was probably of a different date from the breccia on
the eastern side.
Geol. Soc. Vol. LX, Pl. VI.
= .
2 | +e a ;
aa"
“Mass i§
Floor o
Brecc
if
Quart, Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol, LX, Pl. VI.
Fig. 1. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF CAVE AT MONKEY’S QUARRY, GIBRALTAR.
——— Section on line A. B. C. D. E. F. [lower gallery] Fig.2.
Scale:- 40 feet =1 inch
105 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
EP Ls TES -
Reference to Numbers.
Point where the Lower Gallery begins.
2 Place where the floor was opened.
Massif 3-4 29 ft. Honeycombing 28 to 26 fs. above sea-level.
5 Lowest point explored in the Middle Gallery 16 ft above sea-level.
be
ia
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Rubble
Opmer Gallery
Section on line G. H.——
Massif
Breccia
Honeycombed
°5
Fig.2,. PLAN OF CAVE AT MONKEY’S QUARRY, GIBRALTAR.
Scale:- 40 feet=1 inch
I0s5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9g0 100 10 120 130 140 150 160 170
180 I90 200 feet
3
2
5
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Section X. Y. caer
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+
Vol. 60. | THE GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA. 37
4, A Conrrisution to the Gractat Gerotoey of Tasmania. By
J. Watter Grecory, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of
Geology in Melbourne University, Victoria. (Read December
2nd, 1903.)
|Puates VII & VIII.]
ConTENTs.
Page
SP RUPE HAIN Sy, y cass cies otiee heed nde strug toate nd o0a esas ote aeiics 37
II. The Geology and Topography of the Area ............... 37
Ee COW AOMS PUCOORUS in Poa cue cps cys coes adnad coe kaise Soe vwaiedesoenon 38
IV. The Glacial Deposits of the King and Linda Valleys ... 48
V. The Origin of the Kihg-River Glacier ............000...... 48
VI. The Range of the Pleistocene Glaciation .................. 49
Rae The Age of the Glaciation «..siivedcas dis dee cds cose ceatecen sae 02
I. Inrropucrion.
THe existence of Pleistocene glaciation in Southern Australia has
been so often affirmed on unsatisfactory evidence, that the assertion
of a recent glaciation in ‘Tasmania has been received with doubt.
Two years ago I read through the literature on the glaciation of
Tasmania, and came to the conclusion that, except for such traces
of high-level glacial action as those at Mount Sedgwick, recorded
by E. J. Dunn and 'T. B, Moore, and those near the summit of
Mount Ida, recorded by Officer, Balfour, and Hogg, the evidence
consisted of material that was either not of glacial origin, or was
due to glacial action at some Upper Paleozoic date. The advocates
of a low-level, recent glaciation in Tasmania were men who had
apparently received no special geological training, and who had
not written other papers by which the value of their geological
observations could be tested. ‘The professional and the trained
geologists were almost unanimous in denying the existence of signs
of recent ice-action in the lower valleys of Tasmania.
Il. Tae Greotocy anp ToroGRAPHY OF THE ARBFA.
It may be advisable here to introduce a short statement of the
geological structure and physical geography of that part of Tasmania
in which the deposits described as glacial occur. Most of them
have been recorded from the country beside the West-Coast Range,
and the western part of the Central Plateau of Tasmania. The
West-Coast Range runs north and south, at a distance of 20 to
25 miles from the western coast of Northern Tasmania. It consists
of a series of isolated masses of coarse conglomerates and quartzites,
of Devonian age. These masses are parts of a formerly-continuous
sheet, which has now been reduced to a series of disconnected
38 PROF. J. W. GREGORY ON THE [ Feb. 1904,
outhers, resting upon Ordovician rocks and upon a series of schists
which are probably Archean.
The chief peaks of the West-Coast Range, taken in ore from
south to north, are Mount Sorell, Mount Darwin, Mount Jukes,
Mount Huxley, Mount Owen, Mount Lyell, Mount Sedgwick,
Mount ‘l'yndall, Mount Geikie, Mount Read, and Mount Murchison.
West of this line is a broad peneplain composed of contorted slates
and sandstones, with some limestones, of Lower Paleozoic age. The
surface slopes westward towards an old coast-line, several hundred
feet above the present sea-level. East of the West-Coast Range,
and separated from it by the valley of the King and Murchison
Rivers, is the great Central Plateau of Tasmania. This plateau is
composed, in the main, of Silurian and Carboniferous rocks, which
are covered unconformably by a broad sheet of Mesozoic diabase,
represented on Mr. R. M. Johnston’s map of the Geology of Tasmania
as forming the surface of the main part of the tableland. The
southern part of the West-Coast Range is drained by the King River
and its tributaries. This river flows past the eastern base of Mounts
Sedgwick, Lyell, and Owen, and then cuts across the Range in a
canon between Mounts Huxley and Jukes. It bends northward
and is joined by the Queen River, which drains the western slopes
of the range from Mount Sedgwick to Mount Owen. The Linda
River, also a tributary of the King, occupies a broad valley eroded
along a fault-line ; it breaks through the West-Coast Range, between
Mount Owen on the south and Mount Lyell on the north.
A high ridge capped by diabase, and known as the Eldon Range,
runs out westward from the main Central Plateau; an outlier of
this ridge forms the peak of Mount Sedgwick. Farther north
is Cradle Mountain, a bold bluff forming the north-western corner
of the Central Plateau. The streams from this mountain flow
either directly into the Pieman River, or northward, past Mounts
Romulus and Remus, into the Mackintosh River, the upper part
of the Pieman. The country around the Mackintosh is a broad
plateau, through which the rivers flow in deep and narrow gorges
of recent age. The Pieman River flows directly into the Southern
Ocean, while the King River flows into Macquarie Harbour, near
the town of Strahan.
II]. Previous Recorps.
A brief summary of previous work on this subject will, I think, be
useful, as the literature is scattered and its interpretation in Europe
may be somewhat difficult.
The first recognition of glacial action in Tasmania was apparently
in the ‘ fifties,’ by Charles Gould, formerly the Government Geologist
of ‘Tasmania. His observations were never published; but his con-
clusions were verbally handed down, and have been referred to by
Mr. R. M. Johnston,’ who, in 1888, on the strength of this evidence,
1 «The Glacier-Epoch of Australasia’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. vol. iv, 1895
(1894) p. 92.
Vol. 60. | GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA. 39
accepted the former occurrence of local ice-sheets in the Mackintosh
Valley.
The earliest-published suggestion of the recent glaciation of
Tasmania known to me is in a report by Mr. T. B. Moore, issued
in 1883.' In this report the author refers to a boulder-deposit on
‘Painter's Plain’ in Central Tasmania, at the junction of the
Franklin River and its tributary, the Loddon; these plains are
at the height of 1220 feet above the sea. Moore describes the
bed as an
‘accumulation composed of every variety of rock, with large boulders of green-
stone strewn over the plains. These boulders are also met with cropping out
on the tops of the surrounding quartzite-hills. It is quite possible that these
masses of greenstone, occurring as they do in solitary blocks or groups, have
been brought, in the Glacial Period, from the higher lands of Mount Lyell, or
the Eldon Range, and deposited by that agency in their present resting-place.’
Further evidence was advanced two years later in a paper by
C. P. Sprent,* who claimed a glacial origin for some erratic boulders
in the Mackintosh Valley. The Mackintosh or Upper Pieman
River flows through a gorge which is said to be 1400 feet deep, and
cut through a plateau about 2000 feet above sea-level. Sprent
crossed the Mackintosh, between its tributaries the Bingham River
and the Cradle River, which flows from Cradle Mountain; hence
his locality can be closely determined, and it is clearly in the high
plateau of North-Western Tasmania.
Sprent’s most striking evidence was the discovery in the Mackin-
tosh gorge of some granite-boulders, 5 tons in weight. The
adjacent rocks were of sandstone; he could find no granite i
situ; and thought it impossible to account for the occurrence of
these granite-masses ‘except on the glacial supposition.’ This
evidence was not convincing, for the erratics might have come
either from Upper Paleozoic glacial deposits, or even from local
granite, which might have occurred in the district. Sprent asserted
(op. crt. p. 58) that
‘traces of glacial action are common all over the West Coast in locatities close
to the high mountains ’:
he gave, however, no evidence in support cf this view, and stated
that
‘it is probable that these glaciers did not extend to the low lands.’
Mr. Johnston, in his voluminous work, ‘The Geology of Tas-
mania’ 1888 (p. 164), admitted glacial action as
‘an important agent in the denudation of the immense canons or gorges
which trend away from the elevated plateau [of North-Western Tasmania]
westward.’
But he agreed with Sprent that the glaciers were local in their
' « Bxploration.— Mr. 'T. B.Moore’s Report upon the Country between Lake
St. Clair & Macquarie Harbour’ Parl. Pap. Tasm. vol. xlv (1888) no. 56,
p. &
2 ¢Recent Explorations on the West Coast of Tasmania’ Trans. & Proc.
Roy. Geogr. Soc. Austral. Vict. Branch, vol, iii (1887) p. 58.
40 PROF. J. W. GREGORY ON THE [Feb. 1904,
range, and limited to the highlands of the Central Plateau. Johnston
considered ' Sprent’s erratics
‘as due to small glaciers in alpine situations, of which there is some evidence
in the deep sub-alpine valleys of the Western Highlands of Tasmania.’
The author was emphatic * that
‘there is no similar evidence [to that in the Nurthern Hemisphere] of a severe
Glacial Period in the Southern Hemisphere.’
He repeats that
‘in ‘Tasmania a greater elevation of the land, dating from the close of the
Paleogene Epoch, result{ed] in a limited amount of glaciation in alpine regions
only.’
Further arguments in support of the view that ‘Tasmania had
suffered no severe glaciation in Kainozoic times were advanced, in
1886, by Prot. F. W. Hutton,’ on the evidence of the distribution
of Siphonalia maxima. He maintained that
‘Tasmania has not undergone a glacial epoch since S. maxima lived on its
shores.’ *
The first conclusive evidence of Pleistocene glacial action in
Tasmania was published by Mr. E. J. Dunn in 1894.’ In this
paper he showed the occurrence of an extensive glaciation in the
country around Lake Dora, to the north-east of Mount Tyndall.
Mr. Dunn’s experience as a glacial observer left no room for doubt
as to the accuracy of his observations ; but they were confined
to the evidence of glacial action on the summit of the Western
Highlands, and gave no proof of any extension of the glacial
action to low levels. Mr. Dunn also recorded the occurrence near
Mount Read, north-west of Mount Tyndall, of some glacial deposits
belonging rather to the close of the Paleozoic or beginning of the
Mesozoic Era. Their altitude is apparently about 1100 feet above
sea-level.
A further account of the glaciation near Mount Tyndall was given
by Mr. T. B. Moore in a short, but important, contribution issued in
1894.°. He described abundant traces of glacial action around
Mount Tyndall (3875 feet) and Mount Sedgwick (4000 feet); and
stated that the rocks were glaciated to within 20 feet of the summit
of Mount Tyndall, and to near the summit of Mount Sedgwick.
The eastern slopes of those mountains he described as swept bare
by glacial action. On the north-eastern side of Mount Geikie
(3950 feet) he found a well-marked roche moutonnée, which he
named after Montgomery. He gave further information as to a
glaciated rock, found by Mr. Dunn, which he called ‘Dunn’s Boss,’
' «The Geology of Tasmania’ 1888, p. 215. 2 Op. cit. p. 296.
‘On the supposed Glacial Epoch in Australia’ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.
vol. x, 1885 (1886) pp. 334-41.
+ Op. cit. p. 337.
° ‘Glaciation of the Western Highlands Taisen: Proc. Roy. Soe. Vict.
n.s. vol. vi (L894) pp. 188-38 & pl. viii.
® «Discovery of Glaciation in the Vicinity of Mount Tyndall in Tasmania’
Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. vol. iv, 1893 (1894) pp. 147-49.
te
Vol. 60. | GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA. 41
‘after the discoverer of glacial action in Tasmania.’’ Moore also
found, on the western slope of the West-Coast Range, a series of well-
preserved moraines ; some of them lay beside the western ends of the
small lakes, which lie scattered in the valleys between the chief
peaks. Beside Basin Lake he found one which he called the Hamilton
Moraine ; another he described as occurring on the northern side
of Lake Margaret ; and a third to the north of Mount Tyndall. The
ice that formed these moraines Moore estimated as being 1000 feet
in thickness. That the deposits were post-Carboniferous in age was
proved by his discovery of boulders of Carboniferous rocks in the
moraines,
As Dunn had previously recognized recent glacial action in this
district, there seemed no reason to distrust Moore’s evidence, in so far
as it related to the summit of the higher plateau of Tasmania ; but
his arguments in favour of an extension of the former glaciers to a
lower level were less convincing. In a note, published at the same
time as his paper on Mount Tyndall, Mr. Moore reported the existence
of morainic material at low levels in the broad valley of the King,
and its tributary the Linda. He stated, for instance, that a moraine
connects the eastern flank of Mount Owen to some hills in the King
Valley, known as the Thureau Hills. These localities range from
900 feet down to only 400 feet above the level of the sea.
Mr. Moore was emphatic as to the origin of these deposits, and
he had excellent sections on which to found his opinion. For he
claimed that the material worked at the old King Lyell Mine was
glacial. He wrote
‘it will be interesting for the Linda gold-mining shareholders to know that the
deep ground hydraulically sluiced on their sections is nothing but a huge mass
of morainal matter; many of the large boulders and smaller accumulations of
stones of a soft nature are beautifully scored.’
This evidence would have appeared conclusive, had not Moore's
views been opposed by geologists whose opinion carried greater
weight. Thus Mr. A. Montgomery,’ the Government Geologist of
Tasmania, in a paper published later in the same volume, treated the
occurrence of the Carboniferous fossils of Mount Sedgwick, which
Moore regarded as ice-borne erratics, merely as proof *
‘that the sedimentary strata [the Carboniferous| there too underlie the green-
stone-capping ’
of that mountain. He objects that the fossiliferous conglomerate
was not due to the action of floating ice, but
‘that it is a moraine-drift derived from the lower beds of the Carboniferous
formation, which, farther north, near Barn Bluff and Cradle Mountain, consist
mainly of conglomerates. These would supply the stones of granite, slate,
porphyry, ete., which Mr. Moore has noticed, and also the fossils’
' Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. vol. iv, 1893 (1894) p. 148.
* ‘Glacial Action in Tasmania’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. vol. iv, 1895 (1894)
pp. 159-69.
3 Ibid. p. 161.
42 PROF. J. W. GREGORY ON THE | Feb. 1904,
Montgomery adduced further evidence of glacial deposits in the
same district of Tasmania, but he adopted somewhat extreme views
as to the powers of ice. He remarked that *
‘the great lakes on the Central Plateau are almost prima-facie evidence of
glaciation,’
and attributed to ice-erosion the formation of the deep river-gorges
in the north-western plateau of Tasmania. He argued that
‘if we allow that the deep valleys at the head of the Pieman Were once occupied
by glaciers, we must admit that the ice came down to within 500 or 600 feet of
the present sea-level.’ *
Further, he remarked that the lower limit was possibly at places
which are now 500 or 600 feet above sea-level, and he considered
that the country then stood at a lower level than at the present time.
Finally, he quotes Johnston’s view
‘that there is no evidence of glacial action in the lower lying lands, and regards
the glaciers as having been of sinall extent. While inclined to believe that the
ice-covering has been more extensive than he is disposed to allow, in the main
I agree with his view, and do not think that the whole country could have been
ice-bound.’ ®
While Montgomery disputed part of Moore’s interpretation of the
deposits on Mount Sedgwick, Messrs. Graham Officer, L. Balfour,
and EK. G. Hogg denied the glacial origin of his low-level deposits
in the Linda Valley. They themselves reported the evidence of a
boulder-clay, with scratched boulders, only 1 mile from Strahan on
Macquarie Harbour.’ They described this deposit as very hard, and as
possessing that peculiar pinkish-purple colour characteristic of some
of the ancient glacial beds of Victoria. They apparently regarded
these low-level glacial deposits near Strahan as of the same age as
those of Bacchus Marsh. They carefully examined the moraines
described by Moore in the Linda and King Valleys, and disputed
their glacial origin. They described the moraine at Gormanston,
in the Linda Valley, regarding which Moore gave most details, as
‘a great accumulation of angular débris which has gravitated from the adjoining
heights. We are inclined to think that much of the morainal matter referred
to by Mr. Moore is simply this gravitated débris.’ (Loc, cit.)
They regarded it rather as a talus-heap than a glacial deposit. The
moraines reported at a still lower level in the King Valley they
also doubted, and they suggested that the greenstone-boulders found
there might have been derived from local dykes. They supported
their explanation by the remark
‘we may add that other evidence of glaciation in the form of roches mou-
tonnées and ground-moraines seemed to be quite absent.’ °
Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. vol. iv, 1893 (1894) p. 165.
Ibid. p. 164. ° Ibid. pp. 168-69.
‘ Geological Notes on the Country between Strahan & Lake St. Clair (Tas-
ania)’ Proc. Roy. Soe. Vict. n. s. vol. vii, 1894 (1895) pp. 123-24.
Ibid, p. 125,
we Ww =
=
m
an
Vol. 60. | GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA. 45
The authors of this paper were well acquainted with the Paleozoic
glacial deposits of Victoria, so that their opinions naturally carried
much weight ; and they were soon supported by Mr. Rk. M. Johnston,
in his paper on *‘ The Glacier-Epoch of Australasia.’ ’ He wrote that
‘the absence in lower levels of any evidence of ice-action confirms my opinion
as to the absence of intense glacial action during our Glacial and Pluvial
Kpocks.’
He accepted glacial deposits ‘on the 2182-to-2400 ft. Plateau
between Mount Sedgwick and Mount Tyndall; but he suggested
that even some of these bigh-level glacial beds may be of Upper
Paleozoic age. He said’:
The occurrence of what appears to be the older conglomerates, so closely
associated with newer drifts . . . . suggests doubt as to whether some of the
moraine-stuff, found on the flanks of [the] western mountains, upon whose
crests this older conglomerate rests, may not be confounded at times with the
true noraine-stuff of the more recent glacier-epoch.’
Further proof of the existence of the Upper Paleozoic glacial
beds in ‘Tasmania has been recently advanced by Mr. A. E. Kitson.’
He has described their occurrence at Wynyard, in a section which
is important, because it demonstrates that these deposits underlie
Middle Coal-Measures.
The previously-cited literature proves the occurrence in North-
Western Tasmania
(1) of Carboniferous glacial beds ;
(2) of high-level, recent glacial deposits— proved by Messrs. E.J. Dunn, T. B.
Moore, Graham Officer, ete. ; further deposits probably of glacial
origin but of doubtful age, have been remarked by Sprent, ete. ;
aud (3) its general conclusion—denied, however, by Mr. Moore, and to some
extent by Mr. Montgomery—is, that the recent glaciation was con-
fined to high levels.
LV. Tar GractAt Deposits or ton Kine anp Linpa VALLEYs.
Despite, therefore, the clearness cf Moore’s description, the
literature on the glacial geology of Tasmania led me, in 1900, to
accept Johnston’s conclusion that the last Tasmanian glaciation was
limited to high levels, and that the reported low-level
glacial deposits were either Upper Paleozoic in .age,
or not glacial.
In the railway-journey across North-Western Tasmania, from
Emu Bay to Macquarie Harbour, I saw two conglomerates, which
struck me as resembling glacial deposits ; but I had no opportunity
of examining them, and, as the train climbed slowly up to Queens-
town, I saw many coarse gravels containing quartz-boulders, so
' Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. vol. iv, 1893 (1894) p. 126. 2 Tbid. p. 99.
* *On the Occurrence of Glacial Beds at Wynyard, near Table Cape (‘Tas-
mania)’ Proce. Roy. Soc. Vict. n. s. vol. xv (1902) pp. 28-39.
‘SOUOUL JO a7vVaq
[YUL JO 9K
‘IUIDLOTT UOJsUNULOH 94) ULOLf sapjpnog paywwnjbh p—T “sly
Vol. 60. | THE GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA. 45
large that I could understand their being regarded as of glacial
origin. Absorbed in the interesting problems of the Mount-Lyell
mining-field, I had dismissed glacial questions from my mind,
especially as I found only talus-boulders at the old mine-workings,
where Moore had described a moraine. I was therefore led to
accept the view of Officer, Balfour, and Hogg, that Moore had mis-
taken coarse talus for glacial deposits. I was according surprised,
when haying occasion to cross the hill on which Gormanston is
situated, to find on its western face some beds of tough, fine, well-
bedded glacial clays, with ice-scratched boulders. Above this
deposit were beds of typical boulder-clay. One of the boulders in
the bedded clay was a foot long, and was standing on its edge; it
had compressed the layers below it, and had evidently fallen through
water from floating ice ; near it were a few scratched stones. The
boulder-clays, moreover, were clearly of recent origin, and formed
later than the excavation of the Linda Valley; they occurred as a
bank projecting from the southern side of the valley, and nearly
damming it across, like a delta. A short examination showed that
Moore was right in his view that the town of Gormanston
stands on a glacial moraine of recent geological age.
This moraine occurs now in a fan-shaped hill, a mile long by
half a mile wide; it rests against the southern bank of the Linda
Valley at the Gormanston Gap. The top of the moraine is. in
places, fairly level, and at the height of 320 feet above the Linda
Creek. For it has been planed down by the southern tributaries of
the Linda, which flows round its northern edge. The moraine
must once have extended right across the valley to the southern
foot of the ridge of Mount Lyell, where patches of it still occur.
But the moraine has been cut through by the Linda. Excellent
sections of the glacial beds are exposed in the banks of the creeks
which run from the Gormanston Gap to the Linda township, and
along the eastern side of the deposit; and also in the railway-
cuttings of the North Mount-Lyell Railway, on the northern face of
the moraine. The moraine is composed mainly of typical boulder-
clays. The bedded clays are best exposed on the western side of
the deposit, as if they had accumulated in a glacier-lake that
occupied the upper part of the Linda Valley, above the moraine-
dam.
The bulk of the moraine is formed of unstratified clay, crowded
with boulders and pebbles. The majority of the included frag-
ments are quartzites, derived from the conglomerates that form the
summits of Mount Lyell and Mount Owen. These hard materials
frequently retain their original form, but some of them show signs
of facetting, suggesting ice-action. Some of the boulders are rocks
not found in the immediate neighbourhood. ‘There are coarse blocks
of hard blue stone, exactly similar to the Mesozoic diabase which caps
the central plateau of Tasmania, and forms the crests of the Eldon
Range and the peak of Mount Sedgwick. There are also boulders
of quartzite and sandstones, probably derived from the Silurian
rocks to the east of the King River, and some blocks of hard slate
46 PROF. J. W. GREGORY ON THE [Feb. 1904,
which I found exquisitely glaciated. In the railway-cutting by Gor-
manston Station is an erratic of fossiliferous limestone, measuring
43 feet in length by 33 in width and 23 in height; it is scratched
all over, and partly polished.
The Linda moraine rises to the height of about 1200 feet above
the sea, and on the floor by the Linda Valley, near the slaughter-
yards, it is at the level of only 900 feet. A bore of the King Lyell
Mine is said to have pierced the same deposits to a depth of
280 feet, and would thus show that they occur at an altitude of not
more than 700 feet above sea-level.
That the moraine formerly extended right across the Linda
Valley is shown by the occurrence of a strip of glacial deposits on
the northern bank of that valley, immediately above the river.
But the northern side of the valley is so steep, and the Linda is
there so near to the southern foot of Mount Lyell, that but little of
the glacial deposits remain im situ. There can, however, be no
doubt that the moraine once formed a dam across the Linda Valley
from north to south, that it was cut through by the Linda River,
and that its summit has been planed down to the level of the
Gormanston Gap.
East of the moraine the floor of the Linda Valley is a level,
alluvial plain, in places half a mile wide; the glacial deposits
ean be found rising from the alluvium, on both sides, until, a little
over a mile to the east of the moraine, the valley narrows, owing
to the projection of the steep north-eastern spur of Mount Owen.
Patches of the glacial deposits can be found at intervals along the
edge of the alluvial flats on the southern side of the river. More
of the material occurs on the northern side of the valley, which is
rough and densely timbered; a railway-line for mining purposes
has recently been made round the eastern end of Mount Lyell, from
the Linda township to the valley between Mount Lyell and Mount
Sedgwick. ‘This railway crosses the eastern spur of Mount Lyell
at the height of about 1500 feet. The glacial deposits are exposed
at intervals in the railway-cutting, and they are especially well
developed in the King Valley, and along the northern foot of Mount
Lyell, at the eastern end of the Sedgwick Valley.
The North Lyell Railway shows a good section of the glacial
deposits, in the bluff above the junction of the King River and the
Linda. The railway-line has cut through an enormous boulder of
black, fossiliferous, Carboniferous Limestone. The two ends of the
boulder are exposed on the banks on each side of the line, and it
must have been at least 16 feet long.
The King River flows through a broad valley, and its floor is an
alluvial, forest-covered plain, over a mile in width. The eastern
end of Mount Lyell overhangs the valley. Mount Lyell itself is a
long east-and-west ridge, which separates the Linda Valley from a
much larger and broader valley to the north, between it and Mount
Sedgwick. The railway-cutting round the eastern end of Mount
Vol. 60. | GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA. 47
- Lyell exhibits unstratified boulder-clays, with many of the white
quartzite-pebbles and boulders from the conglomerates of the West-
Uoast Range; but the clays also contain a larger number of the
diabase-boulders than occur in the Linda Valley, as well as some
sedimentary rocks, which I did not find 7m situ on the eastern side
of the King River. Following the King River to the south, glacial
deposits can be traced for miles down the valley. [ll-health pre-
vented me from examining these deposits, except from the railway-
train; but their features are so distinct, that I have no doubt that
Moore was correct in his statement that the Thureau Hills are joined
to Mount Owen by a moraine (see p. 41), The glacial deposits in
this part of the King Valley descend to the level of less than 800 feet
above the sea.
The glacial evidence, at high levels, is in places remarkably
distinct. Mount Sedgwick consists of a peak of diabase, resting on
a ridge of the West-Coast Range conglomerates. This ridge runs
east-and-west. Well-marked roches moutonnées occur at
many points over the ridge near the highest peak, and the diabase
is glaciated in broad surfaces close to the summit. ‘The lakes to
the north, in the valley between Mount Sedgwick and Mount Tyndall,
are bordered by small, but well-preserved moraines: one of them
lies round the western side of Lake Margaret. These occurrences,
however, are of less interest, as they are at a higher level than that
at which the existence of glacial action in Tasmania has been called
in dispute.
With such abundant glacial evidence in the valleys, glacial
contours might be expected upon the hills; but this part of
Tasmania has a rainfall of over 100 inches in the year. The rain-
fall at Lake Margaret, according to Mr. Huntly Clarke, the Engineer
of Supplies to the Mount-Lyell Mine, exceeds 140 inches a year,
Accordingly, rock-weathering takes place at a very rapid rate,
while the sheltered slopes of the hills are covered with dense forest.
I had, however, been impressed with the strikingly-glaciated aspect
of the northern face of Mount Owen, before I had seen the definite
moraine-deposits of the Linda Valley. The northern face is smooth
and rounded, and it has been swept bare of all drift-deposits.
Hence, though I had not time to search this face for glacial strie,
I think that it may be fairly assumed that the northern face of
Mount Owen was ice-worn to the height of about 1900 feet. In
the King Valley, close by the confluence of the King and the Linda,
there is a hillock of conglomerate, the shape of which has been
rounded by the passage of ice across it. The ends of the con-
glomerate-spurs immediately south of the Linda township also owe
their rounded surface to glacial erosion; and a still better case of
glacial contours is shown by the eastern end of the spur, south of
the road from Linda to the Lyell Blocks Mine.
Moreover, looking down on the ridge of schists that separates the
Linda Valley from the Queen Valley, I noted that it appears to have
been glaciated. The schists weather so rapidly that no glaciated or
48 PROF. J. W. GREGORY ON THE [ Feb. 1904,
striated surfaces remain; but the aspect of the ridge, from the
crags of conglomerate above North Lyell, shows in places the vestiges
of glaciated contours. ‘The southern slopes of Mount Sedgwick, and
the valley between that mountain and Mount Tyndall, also exhibit
well-developed glacial contours.
V. THe Ortein oF THE Kine-River GLacter.
The origin of the glaciers and the direction of their movement is
clearly indicated by the nature of the erratic blocks. The King
Valley, east of Mounts Lyell and Owen, practically separates two
distinct types of country. On the east is a district made up of
Silurian and Carboniferous rocks and Mesozoic diabases. West
of the King River the rocks consist of some ancient schists, probably
Archean in age, some ‘ Middle Silurian’ slates, limestones, and
quartzites, and the Devonian conglomerates and sandstones of
the West-Coast Range. The only occurrence that I found of
Carboniferous rocks to the west of the King Valley is near Linda,
where there are a few narrow outcrops of black Fenestella-shales,
on the floor of the Linda Valley. This bed has been preserved
there by having been faulted down among the conglomerates. The
only near occurrence of diabase west of the King River, with which
I am acquainted, is on the summit of Mount Sedgwick. As the
glacial deposits include abundant boulders of Carboniferous Lime-
stone and shales, of sandstones (which are probably from the
Silurian rocks), and of diabase, the glaciers probably came from
the east and north-east. In that direction lies the great Central
Plateau of Tasmania, of which the Eldon Range is an outlier.
The upper portion of the King-River Valley consists of two
parts at right angles to each other. The uppermost part trends
east and west along the southern face of the Eldon Range: this
valley is continued westward by the broad valley, between Mounts
Sedgwick and Lyell,’ until it opens out onto the peneplain of North-
Western Tasmania. At the western end of the Eldon Range the
King River bends abruptly southward, while a small tributary
comes in from the north, between the end of the Eldon Range and
Mount Sedgwick.
The general evidence suggests that, during the time of this
giaciation, the Eldon Range and the Central Plateau formed the
collecting-ground of the glaciers. From this area the glaciers
flowed westward and south-westward. One glacier flowed down
the valley between Mount Tyndall and Mount Sedgwick : doubtless
it received tributary glaciers from those two peaks. ar
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Vol. 60. | THE GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA. 51
- erratic; and although the hole was 20 feet deep, it did not reach
the bottom of the clay.
Associated with the conglomerate-boulders are others of various
igneous rocks, belonging to the series of felsites. I pulled three
small boulders out of the clay exposed on the cutting for a culvert,
close to the biggest erratic ; two of the three boulders had glacial
scratches. The glacial clay was soft, though tough; it had the
lithological characters of a recent, and not of a Carboniferous glacial
deposit. Moreover, the northern face of Mount Black (altitude
about 3500 feet), the nearest conspicuous mountain, appears con-
spicuously moutonnée, affording further proof of recent glacial
action in this part of Tasmania.
Mr. Stirling kindly invited me to ride on the locomotive from
Farrell to Zeehan, and thus I had a better view of the cuttings
than I could have got from the rarlway-carriage. I was thus able
to notice that the glacial deposits occurred at intervals along the
line from Farrell to near Zeehan. As the train sometimes went
slowly up the steep grades, I had a fair view of the sections
exposed. The sections along the ascent from the bridge over the
Pieman River, up its left bank, show a typical boulder-clay, with
boulders 2 feet or more in length, embedded in a fine clay. The
shape of the boulders suggested ice-wearing, and they rest in places
upon the worn surface of the schists. Farther along the line there
are some finely-bedded clays, covered by a layer of boulder-clay.
Between Bobadill Creek and Chasm Creek are some more bedded
clays resting upon clay and slate, and overlain by boulder-clay.
The bridge over the Pieman is 400 feet above sea-level, while the
railway-bridge over its tributary the Ring River is at a slightly
lower level; and in both cases the glacial beds occur almost at the
level of the bridges. About Rosebery, at the level of 510 feet above
the sea, there are also some good exposures of boulder-clay ; the last
of the boulder-clays, however, were left some time before reaching
Zeehan. The boulder-clays in this area seem to occur in an irregular
sheet, descending in the deepest pre-glacial valleys to but little
over 400 feet above the level of the sea.
The glacial deposits of Farrell, Rosebery, and Dundas may be
assigned to the action of a Pleistocene glacier, which flowed north-
westward from the ice-sheet of the Central Plateau. Moreover,
the erratics found by Sprent in the Mackintosh Valley, at a locality
only some 6 miles from Farrell, may be safely attributed to the
Pleistocene, and not to the Carboniferous glaciation.
The railway-line from Zeehan to Strahan, on Macquarie Harbour,
passes through a series of cuttings in coarse boulder-deposits ; they
extend along the line for 2 or 3 miles, on the northern side of
the Henty River, between Mallana and Eden. They range in
altitude from about 50 to 350 feet above sea-level.
For an opportunity of examining one of these sections I am
indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Parry, the station-master ‘at
Zeehan, who kindly stopped the train for me. A four-minutes’
E2
52 PROF. J. W. GREGORY ON THE [Feb. 1904,
examination of one section showed that the beds are true boulder-
clays: the clay is tough, hard, and fine; the boulders range up to
2 feet in longest diameter, and le at all angles in the fine clay.
The shape of the boulders is characteristic of ice-action, most of them
having one or more flattened surfaces. The boulders, however,
are so decomposed that I could not find any indubitable glacial
scratches ; and they are so soft, that I could dig into them with
the hammer. They include boulders of Devonian conglomerates
and diabase, indicating a mixture of materials. There is no out-
crop of diabase in the immediate neighbourhood.
The boulder-clay at this locality consists of a series of patches ;
remnants, no doubt, of a iormerly-extensive sheet. This fact, coupled
with the extreme decomposition of the boulders, indicates a great age
for this material. Moreover, there is no indication of recent
glacial action in this locality. Therefore, although the evidence is
inconclusive, these boulder-clays may be provisionally
correlated with the Carboniferous Series; and the
boulder-clays of the Pieman Valley give the lowest
level (400 feet above the sea) yet proved for the
Tasmanian Pleistocene glaciers. It must be remembered,
however, that there is certain evidence of a recent uplift of this
part of Tasmania to the height of several hundred feet, so that
some ot the glaciers may have actually reached sea-level.
VII. Tue Ace or rHEe GLACIATION.
The only direct evidence as to the latest date at which the glacial
deposits of North-Western Tasmania were formed is derived from
their condition of preservation. Mr. Dunn has remarked on the very
recent aspect of some of the rock-scorings, and many of the glacial
deposits are but slightly worn and weathered. The moraine in the
Linda Valley has been simply rounded off and cut through by the
Linda River ; the moraines around Lake Margaret are still in excel-
lent preservation. The deposits of the main King Valley have been
more denuded, for the river has widencd that valley and removed
much of the old morainic material, except where it is preserved on
the flanks of Mount Lyell and Mount Owen. Some of the glacial
deposits, however, are little more altered than those of the North of
England, despite the heavy rainfall by which they are attacked.
And, so far as it is safe to judge the age of glacial deposits by their
condition of preservation, they may be as recent as some of the
later moraines of the North of England.
The maximum age of the deposits is given by their strati-
graphical relations. They are not only later than the formation of
a great peneplain, which is one of the most conspicuous features
in North-Western Tasmania, but they were formed after the dissec-
tion of this peneplain had begun; for some of the glacial deposits
in the valley of the Queen River at Queenstown are but little
above the present floor of the valley.
Vol. 60. | UPPER JURASSIC AMMONITES. 61
Dimensions :—
Diameter=72 millimetres. Thiekness=0°347 of the diameter.
Height of the last whorl=0°302 of the | Width of the umbilicus=0:487 of the
diameter. diameter.
Locality and Stratigraphical Position.—The specimen
described came from the Kimeridge Clay at Chippinghurst, near
~ Chiselhampton, 64 miles south of Oxford, and is in the Buckland
Collection, in the University Museum, Oxford. The species is the
zone-fossil of the Upper Kimeridge Clay.
Affinities and Differences.—The points of difference be-
tween this specimen and d’Orbigny’s type have already been referred
to. A specimen from Hartwell,in the British Museum (Natural
History), forms a link between the two, approaching the former
in haying three simple ribs, and the latter in having whorls which
are not depressed, and only twenty-five ribs at a diameter of 69 milli-
metres. As the shell is preserved, the constrictions behind each
simple rib are well marked.
Perisphinetes bipliciformis, Nikitin * is very closely related to it,
and so is Ammonites annulosus, Quenstedt.” It may be identical
with Am. rotundus, Sow., and if it is so, that namé has the priority :
I have not adopted it because the ‘type’ of rotundus is only a worn
fragment, upon which it is quite impossible to found a species.
In conclusion I have much pleasure in expressing my thanks to
Mr. 8. 8. Buckman and Dr. Henry Woodward for suggestions ; to
Dr. A. Smith Woodward for facilities for examining specimens in
the Natural History Museum; and especially to Prof. Sollas for help
in every way.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES IX-XII.
[ All the figures are of the natural size. ]
Puats IX.
Perisphinctes plicatilis (Sow.).
Fig. 1. Side view.
2. Front view.
This is Sowerby’s ‘ type’-specimen, and is preserved in the Buckland Collection,
at the University Museum, Oxford.
Puate X.
Perisphinctes hiplex (Sow.).
Fig. 1. Side view.
2. Natural cross-section.
This is Sowerby’s ‘ type ’-specimen, and is preserved at the British Museum
(Natural History).
? «Die Jura-Ablagerungen zwischen Rybinsk, Mologa und Myschkin, an der
oes aa ” Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersb. ser. 7, vol. xxviii (1881) no. 5,
pl. vi, fig. 52.
2 «Die Ammoniten des schwibischen Jura’ vol. ii (1886-87) pl. Ixxxviii, fig. 22.
62 MISS MAUD HEALEY ON ©: (Feb. 1904,
Puate XI.
Perisphinctes variocostatus (Buckland).
This is Buckland’s ‘type’-specimen, and is preserved in the Buckland Collection,
at the University Museum, Oxford.
Puate XII.
Olcostephanus Pallasianus (VOrb.), var. nov.
Fig. 1. Side view.
2. Front view.
This specimen is preserved in the Buckland Collection, at the University
Museum, Oxford. It is figured as an example of the ammonite which has
so long been known as Ammonites biplex.
Discussion.
The Rev. J. F. Brake congratulated the Authoress on haying
come independently, by the study of the type-specimens, to the
same conclusions as those foreigners who had studied our Upper
Jurassic ammonites. Nikitin and Pavlow had pointed out, after
their visit to England in 1888 for the International Geological
Congress, that the shell that we had been in the habit of calling
Ammonites plicatilis was what they had understood by Am. biplex,
and that what we called Am. biplex was what they knew as
Am. Pallasianus. M. P. de Loriol also had figured the latter species
under the name of Am. biplea. ,
The speaker thought that he was in a position to show that ‘the
trouble had arisen from Sowerby himself, who, to illustrate his
description of Am. plicatilis, had figured the one specimen intended
to illustrate his description of Am. biplex: while, to illustrate his
description of Am. biplew, he had figured the two specimens intended
to illustrate his description of Am. plicatilis. This (said the
speaker) was shown not only by a comparison of details, but hy
the mere fact that Am. plicatilis was spoken of in the plural, and
as occurring abundantly and in company with Am. ewcavatus in
places where the easily-recognizable specimens figured as Am, biplex
do occur in such company; while Am. biplex was spoken of as one
specimen occurring in Drift, which could not therefore be repre-
sented by two examples, though it might well be by the figure of
Am. plicatilis, which cannot be recognized as an Upper Jurassic
fossil, but whose home might perhaps be now determined, since the
Authoress had rediscovered the specimen. The use of the term
‘biplex’ for the very distinct Upper-Kimeridge form appears to
have been introduced by Fitton, who has been followed by others
until corrected by the Russians.
A curious question arises out of the mistake thus indicated. If
an author describes under the same name one specimen in the text
and illustrates another specimen in the plates, which is the type?
In the view of the speaker, if they be of different species, the name
Quart. JourN. GEOL. Soc.,
VoL. LX, Pt. XI.
PERISPHINCTES
VARIOCOSTATUS (BUCKLAND).
NAT. SIZE.
Bemrose Ltd., Collo.
ee oe
¥ ys . sf ee \
Tes « : . poe ca
wr
Quart. JouRN. GEOL. Soc., Vor. LX, PL. XIl.
Fig. 1. NAT. SIZE.
Fia. 2. NAT. SIZE.
Bemrose Ltd., Collo.
OLCOSTEPHANUS PALLASIANUS (D’ORB).
VAR. NOV.
'f.
‘
od
—
ih ee - C1]
Vol. 60. ] UPPER JURASSIC AMMONITES. 6B
belongs to the description. On this principle British geologists
have acted; but foreigners have been led by the figures.
The reference of the type of Ammonites variocostatus to the
Ampthill Clay, which represents a Corallian horizon, seems to be
correct. It appears in fragments on that horizon at Shotover, and
a fine specimen from Osmington was exhibited by the speaker. It
is the adult form of Am. plicatilis (Sowerby’s description).
Mr. H. B. Woopwarp remarked on the importance of finding
these type-specimens and of figuring them by the aid of photography.
He observed that the complexities of modern nomenclature were a
great trouble to the student, as in some lately-published manuals
different generic (or subgeneric) names were used for the same
species. With field-experience, however, one might become
familiar with the many forms of each leading species and with
the horizons which they characterized ; and the safest plan seemed
to be to identify the fossils without naming them.
Mr. E. T. Newron thought that the Rev. J. F. Blake's expla-
nations showed the desirability of publishing good figures and
descriptions of the obscure and little-known type-specimens which
formed the subject of the Authoress’s paper. The plicatiloid
ammonites were avowedly a difficult group to deal with; and a
full knowledge of the type-specimens was a necessary foundation to
work upon.
Prof. Sortas remarked that he had listened with great pleasure
to the complimentary remarks on the work of the Authoress, and
regretted that she was not present to defend before the Society
her own position in the disputed matter of nomenclature. The
Rev. J. F. Blake’s suggestion was certainly ingenious, and required
careful examination: but, whether well-founded or not, it had
always been customary to accept the evidence of so-called ‘ type ’-
specimens as conclusive. The type in the Natural History Museum
was named and figured as ‘ biplex, that in the Oxford University
Museum was named and figured as ‘ plicatilis* ; so that, unless we
abandoned our usual methods, these must be accepted as the correct
designations of their respective forms.
Postscript To THE DIscussIon.
[I am sure that Mr. Blake will be the first to abandon his in-
genious suggestion when he has seen both of the ‘types’ in
question. No one familiar with the Corallian Beds of Dry Sandford
and Marcham can doubt which of the two came from there, and
which from the Drift. But, apart from this, it is impossible to
transpose Sowerby’s descriptions, for a careful perusal of them
shows that he does not speak of Ammonites plicatilis in the plural.
The only suggestions of plurality are found in the mention of
two localities in this sentence :—
‘A sandy stratum, containing beds of sandy limestone, at Dry Sandford and
Marcham, N.W. of Abingdon, produces this shell’ ;
64 UPPER JURASSIC AMMONITES. [ Feb. 1904,
and in a reference to ‘several other ammonites’ in the following :—
‘Several other ammonites occur in the same stratum, among them is Am. con-
cavus of tab. 105; most of them have lost the shell; the present is only a
cast of the inside....’; 1
and again in a footnote referring to the said tab. 105. Further,
in the description of Am. biplee Sowerby distinctly refers to
two figures; he does not, it is true, actually mention fig. 1, but
he describes it, and says that it came from Suffolk, adding ‘ Fig. 2
is from Barrow.’* Additional evidence can be found in the suture-
line, which 1s very complicated and very clearly shown in Am. pli-
catilis, while it is only indicated here and there in Am. beplew ;
Sowerby states that ‘the septa are acutely sinuated’ in the case of
the former, and does not mention them in the case of the latter.
I hope to deal fully with Aim. excavatus at no very distant date.
It is, however, necessary to mention it now, as its occurrence with
Am. biplev has been adduced by Mr. Blake in support of his
suggestion. In one of the quotations given above, Sowerby says
that Am. concavus of tab. 105 is found with Am. plicatilis. Un-
fortunately, tab. 105 1s described as Am. ewcavatus,’ and here it
must be allowed that Sowerby has made a slip. Still, there is no
doubt that he meant Am. excavatus, as Am. concavus is an Inferior
Oolite form, and could not therefore occur in the neighbourhood of
Dry Sandford and Marcham. Now the type of Am. excavatus came
from Shotover, and we have specimens in the University Museum,
Oxford, from the Corallian, which I have identified with it ; there
is, therefore, every probability of its occurring along with Am. pli-
catilis in the neighbourhood of Dry Sandford and Marcham. Betore
accepting its recorded occurrence with Am. biplew, I should like to
see the specimens which were found together, because I am of
opinion that Am. evcavatus is confined to the Upper Oxford Clay
and the Corallian Beds, while the true Am. biplex is a Kimeridgian
form, although several species of Perisphinctes, which are related to
it, do occur in the Corallian.
There is yet another point on which I must beg to differ from
Mr. Blake, and that is in regarding Am. variocostatus’ as the adult
form of Am. plicatilis. The ribs of the inner whorls of the former
are much coarser and less numerous than those of the latter, and
the suture-line is different. At the same time, I think it highly
probable that the ribs of the adult Am. plicatilis suffered a change
similar to that which the ribs of Am. vartocostatus undergo.—M. H.,
December 5th, 1903.)
+ «Mineral Conchology ’ vol. ii (1818) p. 149.
* Ibid. vol. ii (1821) p. 168.
% Ibid. vol. ii (1818) p. 5.
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Bemrose & Sons. Ltd., Printers, Derby, London and Watford.
Fic. 1.—View of Mount Owen, THE LINDA VALLEY, AND THE GORMANSTON MORAINE, FROM THE RAZORBACK.
Fig, 2.—View oF Mount OWEN, THE GORMANSTON GAP, AND THE PLANED SURFACE OF THE GORMANSTON MORAINE. FROM THE HILL BESIDE THE Mount-LyeLt Mine OFFices.
Bonrose & Sons, Ltd, Printers, D
“|
Vol. 60. ! GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA. a3
EXPLANATION OF PLATES VII & VIII.
Puate VII.
Sketch-map of the glaciated area around Mount Lyell, including the Gorman-
ston Moraine in the Linda Valley, on the scale of 13 miles to the inch.
Puate VIII.
Fig. 1. View of Mount Owen, the Linda Valley, and the Gormanston Moraine,
from the Razorback: showing the glaciated aspect of the lower
northern slopes of Mount Owen.
2. View of Mount Owen, the Gormanston Gap, and the planed surface of
the Gormanston Moraine, from the hill beside the Mount-Lyell Mine
Offices.
Discussion.
Dr. W. T. Branrorp called attention to the fact that the Author’s
clear account of the Pleistocene glacial evidence in the Tasmanian
lowlands was an important addition to our knowledge of the
records left by the Glacial Period in the Southern Hemisphere ;
for instance, in New Zealand, in Tierra del Fuego and the neigh-
bourhood, and on the mountains of South-Eastern Australia.
Everywhere in the Southern lands the marks of ice-action resembled
those found in the Northern Hemisphere, and appeared to be of
about the same antiquity.
Mr. C. F. Hearncore said that he had been acquainted with the
district described for more than 8 years. He quite agreed with the
Author that the previous evidence as to glaciation was unreliable:
he had studied the evidence himself, and was dissatisfied with it.
The continuous rains and the extremely-close growth of the
Tasmanian ‘ bush’ made geological work on the western coast of
that island a matter of considerable difficulty, and he congratulated
those interested in the Colony on their being now able to avail
themselves of the careful record of observations which the Author
had placed before the Society.
Mr. P. F. Kenpatt remarked that it was fortunate that these
disputed points of Tasmanian geology had been studied by one so
well able to determine their merits as the Author. The phenomena
presented one peculiar feature: they indicated glaciation by ice-
sheets, not by valley-glaciers. The boulders had been brought
from great distances across a country of low relief; nor was that
* characteristic product of glaciation, boulder-clay, wanting. Glacia-
tion extending down to a few hundred feet from sea-level, in a
latitude corresponding to that of Madrid in the Northern Hemi-
sphere, was a very remarkable occurrence. Perhaps the very high
rainfall of Tasmania had something to do with it.
o4 MISS MAUD HEALEY ON [ Feb. 1904,
oO. Notes on Upper Jurassic AMMONITES, with SPECIAL REFERENCE
to Specimens iv the University Museum, Oxrorp: No. I. By
Miss Mavp Heater. (Communicated by Prof. W. J. Sotzas,
D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. Read November 18th, 1903.)
[Puates IX-XIT.]
In the course of rearranging the Upper Jurassic fossils in the
University Museum, Oxford, my attention has been called to the
large amount of misconception which exists with soe to Sowerby’s
species Amimonttes plicatilis and Am. biplev. The former is rightly
recognized in England as the zone-fossil of the Upper Corallian, but
Dr. J. von Siemiradzki? gives the name to a specimen from the
ornatus-zone. He meee! the following surprising remark with
reference to it :—
‘ Da Sowerby’s Originale nicht erhalten sind, bleibt uns nichts anderes ubrig,
als die nachst alteste Figur von Phillips als Typus der Art anzusehen.’
The original specimen is in the Buckland Collection in the Uni-
versity Museum, Oxford; but even if it had been lost, Sowerby’s
figure would have had a better right to be taken as the type than
that of Phillips, for it has the priority and there is no ambiguity
about it, while the history of the latter is very involved and the
original, so far as I can ascertain, is not preserved. The reference
which Dr. Siemiradzki gives for it is ‘Geology of Yorkshire’
(1829) pl. iv, fig. 29, that is, the first edition, in which the figure
in question is that of a keeled ammonite and is named Ammonites
solaris ; while the figure? which he gives as an example of Peri-
sphinctes plicatilis makes it quite clear that he is really referring to
the third edition (1874), in which fig. 29 on pl. iv is that of a
species of Perisphinctcs and is described in the explanation of the
plates “ as ‘Am. solaris (erased 1874), Am. plicatis (replacing Am.
solaris), but referred to on p. 265 as Am. plicatilis, Sow. It is
therefore most probable that ‘ plicatis’ was intended for ‘ plecatilis °
on p. 325; but, granted that this is so, it in no way affects the
validity of Sowerby’s ‘type.’ The second edition (1835) of the
‘Geology of Yorkshire’ is the same as the first.
Perisphinctes hiplex is, in England, generally considered to be the
zone-fossil of the Upper Kimeridge Clay, Damon’s figure * having
apparently been taken as the type instead of Sowerby’s.’ Dr. Siemi-
radzki devotes two pages of his monograph to it, and gives a figure
of the original bzplex, which is preserved in the British Museum
(Natural History). Unfortunately, he had only a plaster-cast on
1 *Monographische Beschreibung der Ammonitengattung Perisphinetes’
Palxontographica, vol. xlv (1898) p. “249,
* Ibid. pl. xxv, fig. 45.
3 «‘Tustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire’ 3rd ed. vol. i (1874) p. 325.
. ‘ Geology of Weymouth ’ Suppl. 2nd ed. (1880) pl. ix, fig. 9.
‘Mineral Conchology’ vol. iti (1821) pl. cexciii, figs. 1&2.
© Palzontographica, vol. xlv (1898) pp. 265-67.
Vol. 60. | UPPER JURASSIC AMMONITES. 55
‘which to base his conclusions, and a cast of so extraordinary a
specimen could hardly fail to be misleading. He ignores Peri-
sphinetes variocostatus (Buckland), but this I believe to be the species
which he means by P. biplewx, or at least a variety of it. The real
biplex, 1 venture to suggest, should be set aside as a freak.
Under these circumstances, it seems desirable to refigure and
redescribe Sowerby’s ‘types’ P. plicatilis and P. biplea, also Buck-
land’s P. variocostatus, and a specimen of the ammonite which has
so long been known in England (but not on the Continent’) as
Ammonites biplev, namely, Olcostephanus Pallasianus (d’Orb.).
The synonymy given here does not profess to be complete.
PERISPHINCTES PLICATILIs (Sow.). (Pl. IX, figs. 1 & 2 & text-fig. 1.)
[The ‘ type -specimen. |
. 1818. Ammonites plicatilis, Sow. ‘ Mineral Conchology’ vol. ii, pl. clxvi.
1880. Do. do. do. Damon, ‘Geology of Weymouth’ Suppl. 2nd ed.
pl. xvu, fig. 3.
Description.—tThe cast only is preserved. It is discoidal and
compressed. The sides of the whorls are flattened; the back
rounded; the cross-section is really
oblong, but it has a squarish ap-
pearance (Pl. IX, fig. 2) owing to
the weathering having followed the
backward slope of the suspensive
lobe. There are seventy fine ribs on
the last whorl; they are directed
slightly forward, and fork as they
pass over on to the back ; occasion-
ally they trifurcate, and still more
rarely they remain simple. The
back of the specimen is so much
worn that the ribs appear to have
been interrupted, and in places the
siphuncle even is exposed. There
are very faint indications of about
twelve constrictions, but they are so faint that I should scarcely
have noticed them had they not been more distinct in another
specimen, which differs from the ‘type’ in having (1) one auxiliary
lobe less, (2) fifty-four ribs at a diameter of 96 millimetres instead
of sixty-eight, and (3) the body-chamber preserved. The last-named
occupies nearly four-fifths of the last whorl.
- The suture-line (fig. 1, above) is very complex, the suspensive lobe
running back farther than either the first lateral or the siphonal.
Dimensions :—
Diameter = 107-2 millimetres; $4 milli- | Thickness of the last whorl = 0:268
Fig. 1.—Suture-line of Peri-
sphinctes plicatilis, nat.
size.
metres. | of the diameter.
Height of the last whorl = 0°321 of the | Width of the umbilicus=0°431 of the
diameter ; 0°359 of the diameter. | diameter; 0°396 of the diameter.
‘ See A. Pavlow, Bull. Soc. Imp. des Nat. Moscou, ser. 2, vol. iii (1889) p. 96;
also J. von Siemiradzki, Palzontographica, vol. xlv (1898) p. 267.
56 MISS MAUD HEALEY ON [Feb. 1904,
Many figures and descriptions of the changes which P. plicatilis
undergoes as it grows bigger have been published ; but as I have not
yet seen the form which I should feel justified in calling the adult
of this species, I must for the present content myself with a de-
scription of the ‘ type -specimen.
Locality and Stratigraphical Position.—Unfortunately,
no precise record of the locality whence this ‘type’ came has been
preserved. Sowerby contented himself with the indefinite state-
ment that it is found in a
‘sandy stratum containing beds ef sandy limestone at Dry Sandford and
Marcham, N.W. of Abingdon.’ !
It is, however, undoubtedly an Upper Corallian form, and is usually
taken as the zone-fossil of that horizon.
Affinities and Differences.—Ammonites plicatilis, as figured
by Alcide d@’Orbigny,* is more evolute and more compressed than
the type, while his figures on pl. exci are Perisphinctes biplew accord-
ing to Dr. Siemiradzki, that is, P. variocostatus (Buckl.). Dr. Siemi-
radzki regards Am. biplex as figured by d’Orbigny,’ and P. plicatilis
as represented by Waagen,* as synonymous with P. orientalis, Siem.
They differ from Sowerby’s ‘type’ plicatilis in being more evolute
and more compressed, but they are much nearer to it than the
figures in ‘ Paléontologie Francaise.’ A.de Riaz® takes d’Orbigny’s
fig. 1, pl. excii, as the type, aud consequently the specimen that he
regards as typical® is more evolute and slightly more compressed
than the real plicatilis: it is also distinguished by fewer and more
pronounced constrictions. De Riaz further states that he agrees with
Favre in his interpretation of this species; but the latter’s figures”
appear to me to be quite different, inasmuch as they have rounder
whorls, and their ribs are stronger, fewer in number, and bifurcate
sooner. De Riaz does note the last point.
Perisphinctes Martelli, Oppel, approaches our ‘ type’ very closely.
I am accepting Dr. Siemiradzki’s* views on P. Martelli, as he is
acquainted with Oppel’s original specimens. He takes fig. 3, pl. lv,
of Waagen (op. cit.), as representing it, and puts pl. exci, d’Orb. Pal.
Franc., Ter. Jur. vol. i (which Oppel” quotes as the ‘type’ of his
species), with P. biplex (Sow.). The suture-line which he delineates
differs from that of P. plicatilis (Sow.) in the character of the
terminal branches of the siphonal lobe, and in having one auxiliary
‘ Mineral Conchology’ vol. ii (1818) p. 149.
Pal. Franc. ‘ Terrains Jurassiques’ vol. i (1849) pl. excii, figs. 1 & 2.
Murchison, De Verneuil, & Keyserling, ‘Géologie de la Russie d'Europe &
des Montagnes d’Oural’ vol. ii (1845) pl. xxxvii, figs. 3 & 4.
* Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Palxontologia Indica, ser. ix, ‘ Jurassic Cephalo-
poda of Kutch’ vol. i (1875) pl. li, figs. 2@ & 2b.
° ‘Description des Ammonites des Couches a Peltoceras transversarium
(Oxfordien supérieur) de Trept (Isére)’ Lyons—Paris, folio, 1898, p. 10.
© Ibid. pl. iii, fig. 1.
* Mém. Soe. Pal. Suisse, vol. ii (1875) ‘ Description des Fossiles du Terrain
jurassique de la Montagne des Voirons’ pl. iii, figs. 1-3.
* Palzontographica, vol. xlv (1898) p. 267.
° Paleontologische Mittheilungen aus dem Museum des kgl.-bayerischen
Staates: ‘ Ueber jurassische Ammoniten’ 1862, p. 247.
1
2
3
yr -_
Vol. 60. ] UPPER JURASSIC AMMONITES. 57
lobe less. Waagen’s Martelli’ is only distinguished from plicatilis
by having fewer ribs. I very much doubt the specific value of this
distinction. P. Dunikowshii, Siem.* includes P. chloroolithicus,
Giimb., as figured by Waagen.’ Its whorls are slightly more com-
pressed than those of plicatilis, which is therefore intermediate
between it and Martelli, having the ribs of the former and the cross-
section of the latter. Am. Schilli, Oppel,* is distinguished by the
slope of its sides towards the back being much greater. It is also
slightly too involute and the second lateral saddle is different.
I do not propose to enter into the question as to how many of
these are good species, but some of them, I think, might with great
advantage be reduced to the rank of varieties.
Remarks.—This specimen is in the Buckland Collection, in the
University Museum, Oxford. It bore no label, but no one who has
compared it with Sowerby’s original figure can doubt its identity.
Sowerby’s figure is reversed, and somewhat restored: hence the
slight differences between it and a photograph of the specimen.
PERISPHINCTES BIPLEX (Sow.). (VI. X, figs. 1 & 2.) [The ‘type ’-
specimen. |
1821. Salata bipler, Sowerby, ‘Mineral Conchology’ vol. ii, pl. ccxcin,
Description.—In the first place, it is necessary to remark
that Sowerby’s two figures do not represent parts of the same
specimen, as Dr. Siemiradzki believed them to do. The smaller
(loc. cit. fig. 2) is a fragment of a cast in dark, bluish clay, with
traces of a nacreous shell still adhering to it, and may be dismissed
from our consideration at once. The larger (Joc. cit. fig. 1) looks
as though it had come out of a septarian nodule, probably from the
Kimeridge Clay. Sowerby obtained it from the Drift of Suffolk.’
It is preserved in calcite and pyrites, except the body-chamber,
which is filled with a somewhat hard, yellowish, compact matrix,
and occupies about three-quarters of the last whorl. The whole
shell is somewhat distorted. The cross-section of the inner whorls
is broader than high, but as the shell grows older this is reversed.
There are fifty ribs at a diameter of 100 millimetres. They run
slightly forward, and bifurcate just as they pass over on to the back ;
one trifurcates, and one remains simple until it reaches the middle
of the back, where it unites with both branches of the opposite rib.
The suture-line is but partly visible here and there.
The shell is broken across along the line QR (Pl. X, fig. 1)
which does not pass through the centre, and when the two parts
are put together they form what appears to be an ordinary ammo-
nite; but the cross-section (Pl. X, fig. 2) shows that this is far
1 «Jurassic Cephalopoda of Kutch’ vol. i (1875) pl. ly, figs. 3a & 3.0.
2 Paleontographica, vol. xlv (1898) p. 269.
3 «Jurassic Cephalopoda of Kutch’ vol. i (1875) pl. 1, figs. 3a & 3d.
4 ry
5
‘Jurassische Ammoniten’ [atlas] 1862, pl. Ixv, figs. 7a & 7 b.
‘ Mineral Conchology ’ vol. iii (1821) p. 168.
58 MISS MAUD HEALEY ON (Feb. 1904,
from being the case. For convenience of description, I have called
one surface A, the other B. Fig. 1 represents the B surface. On
surface A all the inner whorls are perfect; on B also they are
perfect, down to an umbilical diameter of 16 millimetres, that is
to the point O in fig. 2. On side A of the cross-section there is
revealed a small, perfect ammonite, which can be traced to a
diameter of 46 millimetres, after which it is lost in a whorl the
sides of which are those of both the A and B surfaces, the shell
having here attained a diameter of 50 millimetres. The centres of
the two surfaces correspond, and so do the inner whorls. The
back of the little ammonite shows bifurcating ribs. It does not
seem possible that it could have been forced into its present posi-
tion by extraneous means, for neither the A nor the B surface shows
signs of disturbance in the inner whorls. On the other hand, it
is very difficult to imagine it growing in its present position.
Remarks,—I have already indicated the probability of Peri-
sphinctes biplex being a Kimeridgian form, but the horizon whence
it came must remain doubtful. In cases like this, it is perhaps
wisest to abandon the name altogether, or at least to restrict it
to the abnormal specimen to which it was first attached.
I have not given dimensions, because no reliance can be placed
on them in such eases.
The specimen is in the British Museum (Natural History).
PrrIsPHINCTES vaRrocosratus (Buckland). (Pl. XI, & text-fig. 2.)
[The ‘type ’-specimen. |
1836. een variocostatus, Buckland, ‘ Bridgewater Treatise’ (no. 6) pl. xii,
1898. ee iaanies biplew, Siemiradzki, Paleontographica, vol. xlv, ‘ Mono-
graphische Beschreibung der Ammonitengattung Perisphinctes’ p. 265.
Description.—The shell is large and discoidal. The whorls
are about as high as
thick, and are orna-
mented with strong
ribs, directed slightly
forward and_ bifur-
cating with perfect
regularity as they
pass over on to the
back. At adiameter
of some 180 milli-
metres the whorls be-
come depressed, and
at the same time the
ribs become farther
apart, cease to bifur-
cate, and begin to develop wedge-shaped swellings. At a diameter
of 183 millimetres there are fifty-five ribs, and at 100 or thereabouts
(for the outer whorls prevent accurate measurements) fifty-three.
The suture-line delineated in fig. 2 (above) is restored. This was
Fig. 2.—Suture-line of Perisphinctes vario-
costatus, restored. Nat. size.
Vol. 60.] ° UPPER JURASSIC AMMONITES. a9
necessary, because the suture-line, where fully exposed, is too much
simplified by weathering to be reliable.
“A small portion of the body-chamber is preserved.
Dimensions :—
Diameter = 183 millimetres ; 215 milli- | Thickness of the last whorl=0°289 of
metres. the diameter; 0-294 of the diameter.
Height of the last whorl = 0°262 of the | Width of the umbilicus=0'502 of the
diameter ; 0°274 of the diameter. diameter ; 0°504 of the diameter.
The measurements of the height and thickness of the last whorl
are not very accurate, as the shell is absent in places and the cast
is worn.
Locality and Stratigraphical Position.—Buckland states
that this specimen came from the Oxford Clay at Hawnes,
4 miles south of Bedford, but I am of opinion that it came from
the Ampthill Clay, and for the following reasons :—
1. It is distinctively Corallian in appearance.
2. Hawnes is only 3 miles north-east of Ampthill, and is near
the edge of the band of colour indicating Lower Greensand on the
Geological-Survey maps. Further, the Geological Surveyors’ say
that
‘traced beyond Ampthill the boundary of the Oxford and Kimeridge Clays is
largely concealed for some distance by the Cretaceous rocks.’
3. It is not pyritized, and T. Roberts’ remarks that in the
Ampthill Clay
‘|fossils] are never pyritized, and on this account the clay is easily distin-
guished frum the underlying Oxford Clay,’
Affinities and Differences.—Perisphinctes variocostatus
differs from Siemiradzki’s interpretation of P. biplex (Sow.) in the
following details :—
1. It has never more than fifty-five to fifty-seven ribs to a
whorl, while P. biplex has seventy in middle-sized whorls,’ but at
a diameter of 100 millimetres it has fifty-three as against fifty.
2. Its innermost whorls are slightly more evolute.
The dimensions are practically the same, and the change in the
character of the ribs occurs in both at a diameter of about
200 millimetres. As to the suture-line, Dr. Siemiradzki speaks
doubtfully of that given by A. d’Orbigny* as belonging to his
biplex. It has a shorter auxiliary lobe than varvocostatus.
The dimensions of P. torqguatus, Sow., as tabulated by Dr. Siemi-
radzki,’ for a diameter of 157 millimetres, are exactly those of
P. variocostatus at 183 mm. ; but in other respects the two are quite
1 H. B. Woodward, Mem. Geol. Surv. ‘ The Jurassic Rocks of Britain’ vol. v
(1895) p. 138.
* «The Jurassic Rocks of the Neighbourhood of Cambridge’ 1892, p. 36.
[Sedgwick Prize Essay for 1886. |
* Siemiradzki, Paleontographica, vol. xlv (1898) p. 266.
* Paléontologie Francaise ‘ Terrains Jurassiques’ vol. i (1849) pl. exci.
° Paleontographica, vol. xlv (1898) p. 264.
60 MISS MAUD HEALEY ON [Feb. 1904,
distinct. Sowerby’s ‘type’ is a small specimen from Cutch'; but
Waagen? figures one 210 millimetres in diameter, and this shows
that the ribs do not change nearly so soon as in variocostatus, that
the back remains rounder, and that the ribs frequently trifurcate.
P. variocostatus has fewer and thicker ribs than P. Martelli or
plcatilis, and the suspensive lobe runs back at a greater angle.
P. chloroolithicus and P. Vaydelota are more compressed and more
evolute.
Remarks.—This specimen is in the Buckland Collection, in the
University Museum, Oxford. ‘ Hawnes, Bedford,’ is written in ink
on it, and it bears fragments of an old label on which ‘ Hawnes..
va’... is still legible, in the same handwriting as that found on
most of Buckland’s labels. It corresponds exactly with Buckland’s
detailed description ° and with his figure,’ although the latter is too
much reduced to be of great value.
OxcostePHANUs PaLLastanus (d’Orb.), var.noy. (PI. XII, figs. 1 & 2,
& text-fig. 3.)
1845. Ammonites Pallasianus, VOrb., Murchison, De Verneuil, & Keyserlng,
‘Géologie de la Russie d’Europe & des Montagnes d’Oural’ vol. ii, pl. xxxu,
figs 1-3.
1864. A. kimmeridiensis, K. von Seebach, ‘Der Hannoversche Jura’ Berlin, p. 157.
1873. A. biplea (Sow.), P. de Loriol et Pellat, ‘ Monographie paléontologique &
géologique des Etages supérieurs de la Formation jurassique des Environs
de Boulogne-sur-Mer’ Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Genéve, vol. xxi,
p. 269 & pl. u, figs. la-1b. f
1880. A. biplea (Sow.), Damon, ‘ Geology of Weymouth’ Suppl. 2nd ed. pl. ix,
g. 9.
1871. A. biplex (Sow.), Phillips, ‘ Geology of Oxford & the Valley of the Thames ’
p. 333 & pl. xv, fig. 17.
1895. A. biplex (Sow.), Mem. Geol. Surv. ‘Jurassic Rocks of Britain’ vol. v,
fig. 72, p. 156.
Description.—Only minute fragments of the actual shell are
preserved. The cast is discoidal; the
Fig. 3.—Suture-line of whorls rounded and somewhat depressed ;
Oleostephanus Pal- the ribs sharp and prominent, about 31 in
lasianus, var. nov, Number; all but three bifurcate as they
Wahoos pass over on to the back; these three re-
Ly main simple, and, judging from analogy
with other specimens, would each be pre-
ceded by a constriction if the shell were
preserved. The body-chamber occupies
nine-tenths of the last whorl.
Remarks.—I have identified this specimen with d’Orbigny’s
figure (loc. supra cit.) with some hesitation, caused chiefly by the
cross-section of the whorls, which is more depressed, and by the
number of the ribs, d’Orbigny’s figure showing only twenty-six,
of which six are simple. The suture-line also is slightly different.
WAY
TY
Nee
Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. v (1840) pl. Ixi, fig. 12.
‘Jurassic Cephalopoda of Kutch’ vol. i (1875) pl. liv.
‘ Bridgewater Treatise’ No. 6, vol. ii (1836) p. 62. 4 Ibid. pl. xhi, fig. 7.
eo
Quart. JouRN. GEOL. Soc., VoL. LX, PL. IX.
Fie 1. NAT. SIZE.
Fie. 2. NAT. SIZE.
+
a
Bemrose Litd., Collo.
PERISPHINCTES PLICATILIS (Sow.).
Sad
Biker aaah
Pa Poe
PL. x:
Quart. JOURN. GEOL. Soc., VoL. LX,
Bemrose Litd., Collo.
PERISPHINCTES BIPLEX (Sow.).
Vol.60.j | LAKE-BASINS BETWEEN THE JURA AND THE ALPS. 695i
6. The Ace of the Principat Laxn-Basins between the Jura and the
Ars. By C. 8S. Du Ricus Pretrur, M.A., Ph.D., A.M.I.C.E
M.L.E.E., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. (Read April 29th, 1903.)
[ Abstract. |
1. In a paper read before the Society in 1902,’ the Author
showed, on the evidence of extensive high-level deposits of Decken-
schotter in Subalpine France and Switzerland, that the principal
Swiss lake-basins could not have existed at the time when those
deposits were formed, during and after the first or Pliocene glaciation
of the Alps. In the present paper he deals with the question
reserved in the preceding one, that is, to which subsequent period
the formation of those lake-basins should be assigned. By the
light of further recent investigations in the different localities, he
first considers the conditions of the Zurich lake-valley, where the
successive glacial and fluviatile deposits are clearly defined, and
then applies his conclusions to the other principal lake-basins
lying in the same zone along the edge of the Alps.
2. The hitherto generally-accepted view that the lake-basins are
pre-Glacial in the old sense, or were formed during the first inter-
Glacial period, rests, in the main, on two arguments: (1) that the
alluvia at the lower ends of the lakes are all Glacial, not only from
their appearance, but because the materials composing them could
only have been transported thence by glaciers, which either passed
over the lakes by bridging them, or through them by completely
filling them with ice; and (2) that the zonal bending of the
Molasse along the edge of the Alps, to which the lake-basins owe
their existence, occurred before the second or maximum glaciation,
because on the hills flanking the Lake of Zurich the younger
moraine-banks are undisturbed: and, further, because at a point
in the Lorze ravine (near the Lake of Zug) the Deckenschotter
conglomerate dips reversely, that is, up the valley, while the over-
lying, younger, loose gravel dips in the opposite direction.
3. ‘The Author adduces evidence to show that the deep-level
gravel-beds in the Limmat Valley near and below Zurich are
essentially fluviatile, composed of the characteristic Alpine material
of the Rhine and Linth drainage-areas, and in all other respects
similar to the gravel carried by the River Sihl at the present day.
These gravel-beds rest upon Glacial clay of the second glaciation,
which fills the Molasse-bed of the valley to a great depth, and are
overlain by the moraine-bars and secondary products of the third
glaciation, the latter being overlain by, and mixed with, the post-
Glacial alluvia of the Sihl.
4, He further argues that it is, on mechanical grounds, difficult
? Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. lviii (1902) p. 450.
G.3,6.8. No. 237. F
66 DR. DU RICHE PRELLER ON THE AGE OF THE [| Feb. 1904,
to conceive how glaciers could either bridge, or completely fill with
ice, basins so extensive as those of the principal Alpine lakes, from
2 to 8 miles in width and from 470 to 1020 feet in depth, the
quantity of water to be displaced and expelled in the individual
cases ranging from 3500 million to 90,000 million cubic metres or
tons.
5. As regards the more recently-advanced argument of the
younger moraine-banks flanking the Lake of Zurich and of the
Deckenschotter in the Lorze Valley near Zug, the Author points
out that it is not borne out by the evidence on the ground, and
that, apart from the difficulty of differentiating the second and
third glaciation-materials in both localities, it is obviously hazardous
to deduce from purely-local phenomena of this kind the date of the
zonal bending affecting six valley-systems, and extending over more
than 200 miles along the edge of the Alps.
6. The Author’s investigations point to the conclusion that the
deep-level Limmat gravel-beds, overlain by the moraine-bars of
the third glaciation, were deposited by a river during the second
inter-Glacial period; that the lowering of the valley-floor was
initiated in the course of the third glaciation, probably when the
glacier had already reached its maximum extension, about 10 miles
below Zurich ; that the zonal subsidence continued throughout the
retreat of the ice; and that the simultaneous formation of the lake-
basin should, therefore, be assigned to the end of the Glacial Period,
after which the original basin was, notably at its upper end,
restricted to its present dimensions by post-Glacial alluvia.
7. In conclusion, the Author shows that the same arguments
apply, in the main, also to the origin and age of the other principal
zonal lake-basins, which he illustrates by longitudinal sections. In
his view, the position and depth of these basins, as well as the
intervening ground, point to the probability that the bending took
place not only along one line, but along several, more or less
parallel, not always continuous lines within the zone between the
Alps and the Jura; that the bending was by no means of uniform
depth ; and that, therefore, the Alps did not subside as a rigid mass,
but that the zonal bending along their edge merely extended
locally for some distance from the deepest points of the lake-basins
along the floors of the principal Alpine river-valleys.
Discussion.
Prof. Bonnry said that he had always felt great difficulty in
understanding how the glaciers made their way through the lake-
basins, supposing these to have been in existence at the time of the
great glaciation. But what had most impressed him was the fact
that the Zurich gravels were true river-gravels, and quite different
from deposits formed in proximity to a glacier. Of this difference
he gave details, pointing out that a stone must travel not a few
miles (much longer than the distance determined experimentally
by Daubrée) in order to become well rounded. So that neither the
Vol.60.] | LAKE-BASINS BETWEEN THE JURA AND THE ALPS. 67
Deckenschotter nor the Zurich gravels (and the same was true else-
where) could have been formed in the neighbourhood of a glacier.
He had always attributed the Alpine lakes to zonal bending, and had
long thought that there were at least two lines on the north side ;
but he was inclined to believe that there might have been slight
subsidence along the watershed of the Alps, as the higher parts of
the Alpine Rhine and Rhone valleys seemed now to be filling up.
Prof. Garwoop, in reply to a question asked by the Author, stated
that he did not think that the Fairhaven glaciers in Spitsbergen,
quoted by Martins, affected the point at issue: the observation
probably referred to an overhanging advance of the upper layers of
the ice, so common in that district; and he could hardly believe that
any of the Swiss geologists seriously suggested that a glacier could
traverse a large lake-basin in the manner indicated by the Author,
by clinging merely by its borders, and pass through unsupported in
the middle. He was interested to hear that the Author attributed
the formation of these large Swiss lakes to a time posterior to the
maximum glaciation of the Alps, on the strength of the fluviatile
character of the deposits described from theirlower end; but, what he
would specially like to know, was the age of the valleys in which the
lakes occurred. A similar problem of the origin of the Italian lakes
had occupied his attention for some years, and he did not think that a
local subsidence could alone account for these lakes on the south side
of the Alps. The Lake of Como was an especially difficult problem,
as it not only ran at right angles both to the axis of the Alps and the
strike of the limestones, but also exhibited a reversed drainage of a
very peculiar character. Why did the drainage flow from Como to
Lecco? What river or glacier-system could be pointed to at the
present day, which, after flewing as a trunk-stream, divided into two
deep branches, as must have been the case if the present drainage
of the Lake of Como represented the original direction of flow of the
valleys? It had often occurred to him that the rivers might once
have flowed northward, and not southward. It was a curious fact
that so many of the lake-branches came in from the south; and
Lugano, which is 100 feet higher than Como, might very easily have
entered as a tributary of the latter lake at Menaggio. The difficulty
in the way was the range of the Spliigen Alps. Mr. Marr had once
suggested that this uplift might have taken place since the formation
of the old valley-systems now occupied by the lakes: this would throw
back the date of these valleys to Miocene times. He had collected
for some time from the deposits of the Righi district with this idea
in his mind, but without any definite result. The more, however,
that he saw of the district, the more was he convinced of the great
age of the valleys, and the probability of the reversal of the original
direction of their drainage. He thought that the many areas of
special subsidence required by the Author for all the Swiss lakes
would require some definite proof in each case. He was glad to
find that the Author did not include direct glacial erosion among
the possible modes of origin for the lakes; although it must be
remembered that quite recently an eminent American geologist had
F2
68 THE AGE OF THE PRINCIPAL [ Feb. 1904,
stated his conviction that the Lago Maggiore was entirely due to
excavation by the Ticino Glacier during the Glacial Period.
The Rey. E. Hitt said that he could not follow the Author’s
argument against ice-filled basins, but agreed with his conclusions.
The gravels below the lakes were the proofs. A lake was a barrier
to gravel-transport more effectual than a strait to quadrupeds ; and
in a time of ice-filled basins the precipitation, chiefly in snow,
would be unfavourable to pebble-manufacture. He asked whether
there were traces of submerged channels in the lakes. Such
would be almost conclusive in favour of the Author’s views.
Dr. J. W. Evans asked whether the Author considered that the
sites of the lakes were still actually covered with ice when the
depression occurred which caused their formation; and suggested
that the cessation of river-action—as a result of great cold or
deficiency in rainfall—was a necessary condition of the origination
of lakes by earth-movements, except when such movements were
unusually rapid.
Mr. Wuiraxer enquired whether any further proofs were
available, beyond those adduced by the Author, in regard to
the fluviatile origin of the gravels. He pointed out that, in
many British river-gravels, remains of terrestrial or freshwater
organisms were occasionally found; and, if such could be obtained
from the Swiss gravels, the discovery would strengthen the
Author’s argument.
Dr. Jack asked whether the gravels in the lower portions of the
lakes, which had been referred to as fluviatile, might not be re-
arranged gravel from cones of dejection brought down by lateral
streams, subsequently to the erosion of the lakes. He confessed
that he was much surprised to hear the Author (as he understood
him) deny the former greater extension of the lakes. very lake
that he had ever seen was obviously and visibly shrinking, and it was
only a question of time when every lake on earth would be silted up.
He admitted that lakes formed ‘ cataclysmically ’ are comparatively
rare, but not unknown, even in modern times: for example, he had
seen a good many lakes which were formed in the Tarawera district
of New Zealand, during the eruption of a few years ago. One
occupied the site of the tamous ‘ pink and white terraces.’
The AvtHor, in taanking the Fellows for the kind reception
accorded to his paper, observed, in reply, that Prof. Bonney had
examined the Limmat gravel-beds with him in 1896, and had ever
since taken a kind and keen interest in the subject, and that conse-
quently his concurrence in the conclusions arrived at in the paper
was of great value, both as to the age of the lakes and the system of
flexures which produced them. Prof. Garwood’s interesting and
welcome explanation of a Spitsbergen glacier bridging the sea
(quoted by Martins in 1845) reduced that phenomenon to its true pro-
portions, namely to a probable simple overhang of the upper layers
of the glacier. With regard to the Italian lakes, he (the Author),
although knowing them well, had not yet examined them in detail,,
and therefore could not as yet express an opinion as to their age and
Vol. 6o. | LAKE-BASINS BETWEEN THE JURA AND THE ALPS. 69
origin, although there was a prima-facie presumption of these, too,
being the resuit of a lowering of their former river-floors by flexures.
In reply to Mr. Hill, he said that there were channels of consider-
able length and depth at the upper ends of the Lakes of Constance
and Geneva. With regard to Dr. Evans’s remarks, the lakes being
formed during the retreat of the ice, it followed that the glaciers
were probably still melting in the basins as these were forming
by a lowering of the floors. In reply to Dr. Jack, he said that
the only lateral torrent to which the deep-level Limmat gravel-beds
could be due (if not to the main river) was the river Sihl, the alluvium
of which was, however, entirely post-Glacial and superficial. He by
no means denied the possibility of a former, greater extension,
and, consequently, of higher levels of the lakes; but averred that
direct evidence was necessary to prove it in individual cases, for
an alluvial plain might also be formed by a meandering river. In
answer to Mr. Whitaker’s question, he said that the only fluviatile
deposits of the Glacial Period in which, to his (the Author’s)
knowledge, fossils had been found, were those of the Upper
Pliocene Deckenschotter, or alluvion ancienne, near Lyons;
while the younger inter-Glacial gravel-alluvia contained few, if any ;
but that he had reason to believe that confirmatory evidence—if
such were wanted—of the age of the deep-level Limmat gravel-
beds (second inter-Glacial period) near Zurich would be found in a
similar sequence of deposits in the Rhéne Valley near Geneva, with
which he proposed to deal on a future occasion.
70 MR. E, E, WALKER ON THE GARNET-BEARING [Feb. 1904,
7. NorEs on the Garnet-BEarinc and AssociateD Rocks of the
BorrowpaLE Votcanic Series. By the late Epwarp Eaton
Watker, B.A., B.Sc., Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge,
Geologist to the British East-Africa Protectorate. (Commu-
nicated by J. E. Marr, Esq., M.A., F.BR.S., F.G.S. Read
December 2nd, 1903.)?
[Pirates XIII & XIV—Mzicroscore-Sections. |
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
I. The Intrusive Complex of Blea Crag, Langstrath ................ Riya
TL. Jnteusions inthe Bow-F ell. Distrieg 22. -2..2.- 6 ceeee ee eee 76
III. Basic Offshoots from the Eskdale Granite ............2.............. 7
IV. The Intrusive Complex of Burtness Combe, Buttermere ......... 83
V. Other Garnetiferous Intrusions in the Lake District ............... 85
VI. Garnetiferous Rocks in the Faleon-Crag Andesite-Group ......... 86
VII. The ‘ Streaky’ Rocks of the Central Mountain-District ... ..... 89
Viti.“The* Streaky ’ Rocks of the Haweswater District: .................. 98
LX. The‘ Characters of the 'Garnets \/2....., sf Skeet ee a 101
X. Metamorphism of the Volcanic Rocks ..................c0.00+0 yates 102
I. Tue Iyrrusive Compiex oF Brea Crac, Lanesrrate.
Durine the past year I have spent the greater part of my vacations
in the study of the garnet-bearing rocks associated with the
Borrowdale Voleanic Series. Being unable to proceed further with
this work, | venture to put forward the results of my observations,
in the hope that they may be of use to those who continue the
study of these rocks. I should like, at the outset, to say how
greatly indebted I am to Mr. Marr for all the help that he has given
me; he has not only placed at my disposal his own maps of the .
area and the details of his own observations, but has always been
ready with encouragement and advice. My thanks are also due to
Mr. Harker for the kind help and advice that he has given me
during the progress of the work.
? [The manuscript of this paper was placed in my hands by Mr. Walker when
he left for Africa early in 1902, the work having been largely done in 1901. I
was requested to keep the MS. and not to communicate it to the Society,
unless it was certain that the Author could not continue the work, for he had
hoped, on his return to England, to prosecute his researches among these rocks,
especially by completing the chemical analyses, which were only partially
carried out. His sad death, occurring but a year after he went out, has
deprived our science of a most promising student, of whom his friends ex-
pected great things, and I feel that the paper, which I now have the honour of
communicating to the Society, furnishes no mean evidence of Walker’s powers.
Although the work is incomplete, it will certainly be of great value to
those interested in Lake-District geology, and also to students of the remark-
able and exceptional type of rock which is therein described.— J. E. M.,
October 1903. |
Vol. 60.| ROCKS OF THE BORROWDALE VOLCANIC SERIES. 71
The Volcanic Series runs in a broad belt, 12 or 13 miles
wide, across Cumberland and Westmorland. In order to become
acquainted with the various features of the garnetiferous rocks, I
have attempted to cover some 130 square miles of ground; and as
the greater part of this area has only been visited once, I feel some
diffidence in drawing any conclusions from so hurried a survey.
Perhaps the most interesting of these garnet-bearing rocks are
those which occur as dykes and sills intrusive in the Volcanic Series.
They are chiefly to be found in the central part of the district, in
connection with the large intrusive masses of the Eskdale Granite
and the Ennerdale Granophyre.
The most typical of these minor intrusions is to be seen in the
Langstrath Valley (75° N.W.) at and around Blea Crag. Clifton
Ward mapped this as a small laccolite: if such be the case, it is of
very irregular form, for on the west side of the valley the branches
often run at right angles to the strike of the surrounding rocks.
Ward described the rock as a diabase with felsite-veins ; there
seems, however, to be an almost infinite variety of rock, from avery
fine-grained black, through a coarse parphyritic dark-green rock, to
one containing quartz and pink felspar.
I made an attempt to put in the dividing-lines between these
various types, but found that, except for small areas, this was im-
possible—the rocks varying in composition and texture every few
yards, and shading gradually one into the other.
Some very good junctions are, however, seen in a small exposure
north-north-west of Blea Crag, and separated from it by two small
streams. This little section was visited by the members of the
Geologists’ Association in August 1900. The lines of the junc-
tion are here seen to be very sharp—the fine-grained black rock
weathering with a smooth, and the coarse rock with a pitted
surface. Where the broken lines occur in fig. 1 (p. 72) no distinct
junction is seen, but the two types shade one into the other and
give rise to a dark-green porphyritic rock. Near the junction of
the two the coarse pink rock is found with greenish aggregates,
representing, no doubt, portions of the fine-grained rock which
have been absorbed and have become more crystalline in the
process. It is possible to obtain a perfectly-gradual transition
from the fine-grained black rock, through a dark-green to the
coarse pink rock, in a single hand-specimen.
Good junctions are also seen below Blea Crag itself, where the
fine-grained rock is plastered against the coarse, and is penetrated
by veins of the latter. The junction may be followed up the
southern face of the Crag, but it is lost above.
From these sections it is evident that the fine-grained rock was
first intruded, followed by the more acid rock. The interval
between the two periods of intrusion must have been short, for the
two types have intermixed to form an intermediate one. We
have here, then, a case of the intrusion of the basic and acid portions
of an already-differentiated magma, and by the intermixture of the
two extremes intermediate types have been produced. In the face
(2 MR. E, E, WALKER ON THE GARNET-BEARING [ Feb. 1904;
of Blea Crag an intermediate rock is cut by a more acid rock—the
junctions being well defined; so it is probable that there were succes-
sive periods of intrusion and intermixture. That differentiation
went on almost simultaneously with intrusion, is well shown
by a specimen obtained from the summit of Blea Crag, in which
the black fine-grained rock encloses completely a portion of coarse
pink rock, the latter being an acid segregation. Naturally, under
these circumstances, xenoliths are exceedingly abundant and of
great. variety. Usually the xenolith is more basic than the
enclosing mass, but the reverse also occurs.
Fig. 1.—Diagrammatic sketch of an exposure north-north-west of
Blea Crag, Langstrath.
~
c.
a
a
a
i
i
a
a
a
f
YD
/
F = Fine-grained black rock.
C = Coarse pink rock.
C'= The same, with pink felspars.
G = Dark-green porphyritic rock,
with greenish-white porphy-
ritic felspars.
| = 13 yards.
The dark fine-grained rock bears a very great resemblance to the
dark-green fine ash into which these rocks are intruded; and, so
far as it is possible to judge, Ward mapped this rock as an ash.
A section (3750)! across the specimen mentioned above shows
that the pink rock is a granophyre. The structure is entirely a
micropegmatitic intergrowth of quartz and orthoclase. Oblong
sections of turbid felspar are seen to be continuous with the
felspar of the intergrowth, but it is only these idiomorphic felspars
that are altered to white mica. Sometimes they show signs of
corrosion by the granophyric material. Garnet occurs in rounded
sections, ilmenite and chlorite occurring at the border as products
of its decomposition. Chlorite-scales are abundant throughout the
' The numbers in parentheses throughout this paper refer to the numbers
on the slides which are in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge.
Vol. 60.| | ROCKS OF THE BORROWDALE VOLCANIC SERIES. 73
rock, frequently associated with a twinned muscovite. Pyrites
is common, in square sections giving a reddish transmitted light,
and is almost invariably surrounded by chlorite. Zircon occurs in
minute crystals, with the pyramid-planes developed.
Very little can be made out of the fine-grained rock. Chlorite-
flakes are scattered throughout; quartz, a few minute felspars
entirely altered to white mica, and aggregates of iron-ore also
occur in it. When this rock is taken up by the coarse rock of the
small exposure, it becomes dark-green and much more crys-
talline. A section across the two (3795) shows that the coarse
rock is @ basic granophyre, containing turbid phenocrysts of
plagioclase in a micropegmatitic groundmass. Colourless fragments
of augite-crystals occur, surrounded by a mixture of chlorite and cal-
cite produced from their decomposition. Apatite is fairly abundant.
The dark-green rock might be described as a quartz-diabase.
The same turbid felspar occurs sparingly as phenocrysts in a
matrix of plagioclase, quartz, and chlorite. Sometimes the chlorite-
patches enclose the felspar in ophitic relation. Iron-ore is more
abundant than in the coarser rock, but apatite less so.
Turning to the intermediate porphyritic types, we find
that the most basic (3752) contains quartz and felspar-phenocrysts,
with garnet and pyrites. The last-named mineral is very abundant,
and occurs in small cubes, surrounded by a zone of quartz which may
consist of radial flakes or of little grains. Garnet occurs in rounded
sections, much corroded and surrounded by a ring of plagioclase.
Pseudomorphs of chlorite and epidote after original biotite are
common. The epidote is usually developed in grains along the
cleavage. The groundmass consists of felspar-laths, quartz, and
pyrites. ;
The next type (38751: Pl. XIII, fig. 1) contains phenocrysts of a
felspar, probably an acid labradorite, enclosed by flakes of biotite.
Xenoliths consisting of altered felspar, hornblende, and ilmenite
occur, closely resembling the hornblende-porphyrite to be described
later. Large blebs of quartz are seen, much corroded, and conse-
quently surrounded by an aureole of a lighter colour than the rest
of the groundmass. A slide of this rock shows beautifully the
telspar-ring developed round a garnet. The garnet is much corroded,
and biotite occurs in the embayments; the whole garnet is sur-
rounded by plagioclase, with many prisms of apatite. Biotite is
often entirely decomposed to chlorite and iron-ore, lenticles of
calcite being developed occasionally along the cleavage.
Shde 3776 differs from the last-described in the greater proportion
of telspar-phenocrysts, of quartz in the groundmass, and the smaller
quantity of iron-ore. The felspars show albite and pericline-twin-
ning, with occasional well-marked zonary banding. Extinction-
angles point to andesine or oligoclase-andesine. Paragonite-mica
and possibly free quartz result from them; and in many cases the
crystals are completely transformed into these products, acquiring
at the same time a reddish tinge, which gives them the appearance
74 MR. E. E, WALKER ON THE GARNET-BEARING [ Feb. 1904,
of a pink orthoclase when the rock is viewed in bulk. Biotite
embraces, or hss a parallel arrangement with, the felspars, and
decomposes to chlorite and epidote. Apatite is most abundant
in this rock.
In the last three types the groundmass becomes gradually coarser,
and a gradual passage is traced from a quartz-garnet-
porphyrite with pyrites into a true granophyre. The
felspar, becoming more and more abundant, finally develops into
irregular masses and takes part in the micropegmatitic intergrowth.
Slide 3863 furnishes an example of such a granophyre, containing
aggregates of chlorite-flakes which represent original augite.
The most acid rock is seen on the precipitous face of Blea
Crag, and is also developed along the bed of Langstrath Beck, south
of the Stake Pass. It was mapped by Clifton Ward as an acid dyke,
and is undoubtedly connected with the Blea-Crag intrusive rocks,
for, like them, it shows perfect transition from fine-grained basic to
coarse acid reck. Under the microscope (5787: Pl. XIII, fig. 2)
it is seen to have a very characteristic appearance. ‘The felspar is
orthoclase, occurring either in idiomorphic oblong crystals, or in
irregular masses. It is invariably surrounded by a microspherulitic
growth of quartz and felspar. Quartz occurs in irregular blebs,
occupying the interspaces between the spherulitic growths—chlorite
nearly always accompanying it. In parallel arrangement with the
quartz- and felspar-fibres of the intergrowth, occur elongated flakes
of chlorite representing original biotite. Garnet is present in
rounded crystals much broken and corroded, and surrounded by
the spherulitic growth. We have here an association which points
to the early consolidation of the garnet from the molten mass.
Apatite occurs sparingly.
This rock varies somewhat in the relative proportions of the
constituent minerals; but, as a type, it is perhaps the most acid rock
met with in any great bulk. Xenoliths of more acid rocks do occur.
In Bull Crags a fragment of micropegmatite (3862) was found
containing quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and chlorite. The same
rock is to be seen in place as a dyke in Angle-Tarn Gill, immediately
above the little ravine.
A dark-green basic rock (3861), with abundant ferromagnesian
mineral, was found above Bull Crags. The ferromagnesian mineral
is hornblende, showing strong pleochroism, the colours being
brownish-green, brownish-green, yellow
c = b = a
The felspars are altered to white mica. Oval patches of quartz
with a nucleus of calcite may represent origiial vesicles. This rock
is a good hornblende-porphyrite.
A xenolith from the west side of Langstrath Beck (3566) shows
idiomorphic felspars with albite and Carlsbad twinning, and possibly
a microperthitic intergrowth. Small prisms of uralite, with multiple
twinning parallel to the orthopinacoid, occur with the same felspar
Vol.60.| | ROCKS OF THE BORROWDALE VOLCANIC SERIES. 75
‘in the groundmass. Epidote is abundant, partly arising from
infiltration and partly from decomposition of original minerals.
This rock bears a strong resemblance to those found at Burtness
Combe, Buttermere.
Perhaps enough has been said to give some idea of the petro-
logical character of these rocks. Their chemical relationships are
not less interesting. I have made partial analyses of four pro-
minent types, and these are sufficient to show how closely allied
the rocks are one to the other. hese analyses were carried out
in the laboratory attached to the Mineralogical Museum, where, by
the kindness of Prof. Lewis and Dr. Hutchinson, every facility was
afforded to me for the work.
A. B. C. D.
Percent. Percent. Percent. Per cent.
eg ane cs a ganess an 57°91 60-02 61°63 64°40
TiO, |
i A ee 27°56 25°36 22°34 22°38
Fe,0, j
0 ee eee 0°52 0-29 0°22 0-14
0 > MS Se Renee 6°19 3°97 4:40 2-27
cj ee Pe ee 1:20 0-91 0-98 0-60
MIRE Eon actettet dents 1-82 2°55 4-04 579
UO) Sade ecb seat 1-64 2°62 2°51 2°51
Specific gravity ......... 2°856 at 13°8° C. — 2°748at 13°49. 2°722 at 16°1°.
A= Fine-grained black rock of Blea-Crag summit. Slide 3750.
B= Quartz-garnet-mica-porphyrite in stream above Blea Crag. Slide 3751.
C= Quartz-garnet-mica-porphyrite in stream above Blea Crag. Slide 3770.
D=Granophyre from Langstrath Beck, south of the Stake Pass. Slide 3787.
A specimen of A taken close to the acid segregation gave 60°51
per cent. of silica; and a dark-green porphyritic rock with pinkisk-
white felspars, intermediate between B and C, yielded 60°49 per
cent. of silica.
A very important feature brought out by these analyses is the low
percentage of magnesia in all of them. ‘The higher percentage of
lime in C (as compared with B) is easily explained, when sections of
the two rocks are examined. ‘The former contains a large amount
of calcite which has, to a great extent, been introduced by infiltration.
In rocks that have undergone such great alteration, it is scarcely
to be expected that chemical analysis will bring out that gradation
which is so well shown in the field. With regard to the alkalies,
the preponderance of potash over soda is hardly to be looked for,
seeing that orthoclase is not found in large crystals in the inter-
mediate rocks. It is doubtless well represented in the groundmass.
The low percentage of alkalies in the dark fine-grained rock A is
remarkable, and may be explained as the result of differentiation.
A section shows concentration of iron-ore. The high percentage of
silica may be due to infiltration.
All these rocks are plentifully veined with quartz and chlorite,
or quartz and epidote. A yellow fine-grained rock is often met
76 MR, E. E. WALKER ON THE GARNET-BEARING [Feb. 1904,
with, cutting through rocks of every kind. A section shows this to
be an epidosite, or aggregate of quartz and epidote-grains. These
veins are found very commonly along slickensided surfaces, and
often give rise to considerable alteration in the adjacent rock, which
becomes lighter in colour, a result due no doubt to the infiltration
of quartz and epidote. It seems fairly certain that water con-
taiming substances in solution and at a high temperature percolated
through these rocks along lines of weakness.
Occasionally the weathered surface of these rocks shows a series
of parallel ‘streaky’ lines: these are seen to be due to the infiltration
of epidote, etc. along minute planes. One specimen which I obtained
showed a slickensided surface roughly parallel to the weathered
surface of the rock; inclined to both occurred a number of fault-
planes, rendered conspicuous by infiltrated epidote. We have in
this hand-specimen a type of structure which illustrates exceed-
ingly well the structure of the whole of the Lake District. The
slickensided surface represents the great thrust-plane, the ‘ streaky’
lines the traces of the lag-faults inclined to the thrust-plane. This
specimen is in Mr. Marr’s possession.
Again, a reticulated pattern of crossing lines producing rhombic
areas may be seen on the rock-face below Bull Crag. ‘The xeno-
liths which occur in the rock have their length along the diagonals.
This structure has been produced by movement along two planes
almost at right angles one to the other.
The dykes of the intrusive mass seen south of Sergeant's Crag
are continued (according to Ward) on the east side of the Greenup
Valley, and extend for some distance over Ullscarf towards
Thirlmere. It is very probable that the dykes mapped in the
neighbourhood of Harrop Tarn are closely associated with the
Blea-Crag rocks. Numerous basic dykes are mapped near the
junction of Angle-Tarn and Allencrags Gills, at the head of
the Langstrath. These bear a very strong resemblance to the more
basic Blea-Crag rocks, and need no further description. Farther
south, a large felsite-dyke is mapped on the Tongue between the
two gills. This comprises rocks varying from a dark-green, basic,
rather fine-grained type, through coarser rocks of a lighter colour,
to a pinkish granophyre, each of which has its representative among
the Blea-Crag rocks.
Il. Inrrvsions 1n THE Bow-Fett District.
Numerous basic dykes are mapped on the ground north of Bow
Fell. One of these runs north-north-west and south-south-east for
some distance, and shows interesting variations of rock. All types
are represented, from a dark-green fine-grained rock, with garnets
and a porphyritic ferromagnesian mineral, to a coarse rock with
garnets and pink-white felspars (5849-3853). The ferromagnesian
mineral is augite in colourless crystals, showing lamellar twinning
parallel to 100. The angle between the twinning-line and the
cleavage varies from 26° to 43°. The felspar is an oligoclase-
andesine with edges obscured by dirty matter, and often replaced by
Vol. 60.] = ROCKS OF THE BORROWDALE VOLCANIC SERIES. 7
chlorite and epidote. Quartz occurs in irregular blebs, frequently
bordered by a ring of minute augite-crystals ; pyrites is often asso-
ciated with the quartz, and encloses the augite-crystals. A striking
feature of the rocks of this dyke is the abundance of oval masses of
infiltrated quartz with a kernel of calcite. On account of this
occurrence, a chemical comparison of the different types would be
futile. In the coarser rocks, oligoclase occurs in long laths in the
groundmass ; the augite is altered to epidote and chlorite.
A large intrusion seen near Buscoe Sike, south of Bow Fell,
shows the same gradation of rocks as the dyke, and no deubt the
two are connected. One of the most basic types (85) is a true
porphyrite with phenocrysts of andesine, or an acid labradorite
showing beautiful zonary banding, Carlsbad and albite-twinning.
Garnet occurs, surrounded by a ring of felspar-crystals of the same
species: iron-ore is separating out from the garnet, and apatite is
also produced. The augite is represented by a greenish product,
plentifully charged with grains of iron-ore. The groundmass is
composed chiefly of plagioclase-laths with iron-ore grains.
Closely connected with the Bow-Fell dyke just described, is a
mass of breccia occupying a considerable area west and north-west
of Ore Gap. It contains fragments from 1 to 2 feet in diameter.
When examined carefully, these fragments are found to be exactly
similar to the varieties of the dyke-rock first mentioned. In addition
to these, fragments of ‘ streaky’ lavas and ashes are also included;
and it is from this breccia that the best example of a ‘streaky’
lava was obtained. Another curious feature of this breccia is the
abundance of quartz-blebs. Under the microscope (3768) lapilli of
an andesitic rock are extremely abundant, the lath-shaped felspars
of which occasionally show a kind of flow-structure. Fragments of
the above mentioned dyke-rocks can be recognized, containing the
ferromagnesian mineral (altered to epidote) and brownish pleochroic
chlorite. Rounded crystals of quartz with their corrosion-borders
preserved are abundant, and these are probably derived from
the north-north-westerly and south-south-easterly dyke. Garnet-
fragments, and portions of the same mineral with well-developed
faces, are not uncommon.
Since the dyke from which the breccia-fragments are presumably
derived is later than the surrounding rock, a question arises as to
the age of the breccia. So far as could be gathered from a hurried
traverse, the breccia-mass has its greatest length in a northerly-
and-southerly direction, parallel to the iron-lode and fault of Ore
Gap: consequently, it would be reasonable to suppose that the breccia
originated through crushing. There are, however, none of the
usual indications of crush-brecciation, and the mass seems to differ
in no way from an ordinary explosion-breccia. Crush-brecciation
would, moreover, hardly account for the fragments of ‘streaky’ lava.
A detailed mapping of the breccia, and a further study of
the behaviour of the few dykes that approach its margin, are
necessary before any theory of a volcanic vent can be brought
78 MR. E. E. WALKER ON THE GARNET-BEARING [ Feb. 1904,
forward. The dykes which run east and west across the Hanging-
Knotts—Bow-Fell watershed bear a marked resemblance, in the
hand-specimens, to those found on the summit of Lingmell. One
variety might be described as being intermediate between an
augite-porphyrite and a granophyre—the augite occurring
in aggregates largely altered to chlorite; uralite is probably an
intermediate product of decomposition. A similar rock runs down
the face of Hanging Knotts to Angle Tarn.
A dyke running north and south along the line of Yeastyrigg
Crags has a central zone of bluish quartz-porphyry, the mar-
gins beiug occupied by a dark-green garnet-rock. ‘This dyke gives
off an east-and-west branch which runs down to Yeastyrigg Gill.
This also is a quartz-porphyry, passing at its edges into a flinty
felsitic rock very hard to distinguish from the surrounding ash.
Passing on to the two small tributaries of the Esk which run
down from Esk Hause, we find, about 200 yards down on the west
side of the eastern tributary, one of the most interesting dykes of
the district. This dyke was not mapped by Ward: it runs almost
due east and west, across the Knotts of the Tongue.
A prominent buttress of coarsely-pitted rock stands out from the
surrounding rock, It varies in thickness from 2 to 3 yards, and
is bordered by a fine-grained, dark-green rock, with a smoother
weathered surface. In the coarse rock are usually to be seen
rounded masses, often | foot or more in diameter, weathering with
a pinkish colour: a fractured surface shows needles of a green
mineral in a pinkish felspar. Similar enclosed fragments also occur
in the fine-grained marginal rock. These included fragments are
composed of hornblende-porphyry (3758). The hornblende
is in the form of long actinolite-needles, giving coffin-shaped basal
sections ; the mineral] is strongly pleochroic. Decomposition yields
chloritic iron-ore, with occasional epidote. The pink-white felspar
shows a pretty microperthitic intergrowth, together with albite-
lamellation and Carlsbad twinning, and is therefore microperthite.
The groundmass is a granophyric intergrowth of quartz and the
same felspar. Apatite is very abundant, in long needles with
characteristic cross-fracture.
The coarse rock (3771) has augite in addition to hornblende ;
the two occurring in about equal proportions. The colourless
augite changes to uralite, the fibres of which show twinning relations
to one another with 100 as twin-plane. An orthoclase may be
present among the turbid felspar, for in one or two crystals the
turbidity is contined to irregular patches, the rest of the crystal
being comparatively clear. Quartz occurs in rounded crystals with
a dirty outgrowth. LEpidote, calcite, and chlorite are abundant.
The fine-grained marginal rock contains augite almost to the
exclusion of hornblende, and plagioclase much altered to white
mica. The rock is a quartz-augite-porphyrite. The concen-
tration of augite in the marginal portions of the dyke is interesting.
This dyke can be traced eastward towards the other tributary
Vol.60.] | ROCKS OF THE BORROWDALE VOLCANIC SERIES. 79
‘of the Esk. The coarse rock dies out, and the rounded inclusions
become more rare until, when the western tributary is reached,
only the fine-grained rock remains, and it shows banding parallel to
the containing walls.
Close to the western tributary and just below the path to Scaw-
fell Pike, a dyke 15 to 20 yards wide occurs: it is of a dark
colour, contrasting strongly with the white of the flinty ash into
which it is intrusive. Fragments of ash and basic xenoliths
weathering light-brown are not uncommon. There are, as usual,
fine-grained and coarse varieties, but all may be classed under the
head of quartz-porphyrites containing pinkish oligoclase-ande-
sine and altered ferromagnesian mineral. One section (3831) shows
a garnet with a margin almost entire and the faces well developed.
On one side corrosion has taken place, and here the felspar-crystals
are grouped round the garnet, together with apatite and a ferro-
magnesian mineral altered to chlorite, and epidote and iron-ore. The
occurrence of the felspar only on that side of the garnet at which
corrosion has taken place, seems to prove that the garnet has con-
tributed some constituent to the formation of the felspar, and not that
the garnet has simply acted as a convenient nucleus for the growth
of felspar-crystals. Ward continued this dyke in a northerly-and-
southerly direction to the junction of the two tributaries, where a
similar rock occurs. ‘T’o connect the two together in a district
where dykes are so numerous, is perhaps somewhat speculative.
III. Bastc OrrsHoots FRoM THE EskpaLe GRANITE.
In the Blea-Crag dykes every type of rock, from a basic porphyrite
to an acid granophyre, was found. I therefore wished to see whether
the Eskdale Granite-dykes yielded the same varieties of rock. Alarge
number of dykes are given off from the granite of Wastdale Head,
and may be well seen on the slopes of Great End and Scawfell Pike
to Lingmell Beck. Dropping down from the Sty-Head watershed,
excellent examples of rock bearing the greatest resemblance to Blea-
Crag rocks may be seen in Spouthead Gill.
Going up the grassy tongue between Piers and Girla Gills, a
very typical dyke is met with 200 feet below Criscliffe Knotts.
The most basic rock is a fine-grained diabase, represented in
places by a greenish rock containing quartz, chlorite, epidote, and
phenocrysts of indeterminable felspar.
The next type is a basic mica-porphyrite, with either
andesine or an acid labradorite, mica, and uralite. The section
(3855) is taken across the junction of the rock with the flinty ash.
Movement has taken place between the two, with the result that
the plagioclases are broken up into small fragments.
The next in order is a coarse purplish rock, with greenish-white
felspar (3856). It is a quartz-porphyrite with altered
andesine, mica-flakes, and rare hornblende-crystals. The felspar
is altered to epidote and white mica. The groundmass consists of
80 MR. E. E. WALKER ON. THE GARNET-BEARING [| Feb. 1904,
felspar-laths, biotite-flakes, iron-ore, and quartz. The felspar and
biotite may sometimes be seen in ophitic relation, giving to the
groundmass the appearance of a quartz-diabase. Aggregates of
uralite occur, in addition to hornblende, and these seem to show
a change into biotite. Biotite-flakes are developed at the margin
of these aggregates, and the pleochroic colours of the mica may be
seen in scattered areas within the mass of uralite-fibres.
The next type (3857) is a similar rock, but the felspars are of
a pinkish colour. Microscopically, it differs only in the fact that
quartz is most abundant, and the groundmass becomes more grano-
phyric in character. Aggregates of mica-flakes occur instead of the
uralite, and this probably indicates complete transformation of
uralite into biotite. There is a good deal of evidence for this change ;
but occasionally the appearance of the section suggests the opposite
conclusion, that is, the conversion of biotite into uralite. Apatite
is abundant in this last type, and is usually concentrated in the
more acid porphyrites. Garnet also is present in rounded crystals.
Corrosion has occurred, with the production of brown mica in
minute flakes (3833); plagioclase-laths are set at right angles to
the surface of the garnet, and give the appearance of a spherulitic
growth round the garnet. Apatite also occurs, and again seems to
be a product of corrosion. Biotite and plagioclase too have been
formed within the garnet.
The most acid rock, and that which occupies the centre cf the dyke,
is a pinkish granophyre. Idiomorphic felspars, either albite
or oligoclase-andesine with albite, Carlsbad, and Baveno-twinning,
occur in a confused intergrowth of quartz and felspar. Rounded
quartz-grains are set in the centre of rudely-spherulitic growths.
Chlorite with strings of epidote developed along the cleavage
represents original mica.
The silica-percentages of these rocks show an interesting
gradation.
Silica-percentages. Specific gravities.
Dia DASE” patsy a: Proc. Somerset. Arch. & Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. i (1851) p. 18.
138 PROFS. LLOYD MORGAN AND REYNOLDS ON THE | May 1904,
Broadfield Down near the upper terminus of Brockley Combe.” Dean
Buckland said that he was not aware that it had been recognized
by any subsequent observer. And this statement still holds true,
unless (as is probable) that, speaking from memory, when he said
‘ Brockley Combe’ he meant the neighbouring Goblin Combe, near
the upper end of which the fragmental deposits of the nature of
coarse tuffs are well seen.
In the geological map of the Bristol Coalfield by William Sanders,
which was begun in 1840, at the instance of Sir Henry Ge la
Beche, and published in 1864, the following exposures ot ‘trap’
are given :—
(1) In the Uphill Cutting, 2 miles south of Weston-super-Mare (Sheet 12).
(2) At Spring Cove, a little to the north-east of the pier, Weston-super-Mare
(Sheet 12).
(3) At Middle Hope, to the west of Woodspring Priory, 3 miles north-east of
Weston-super-Mare (Sheet 8).
(4) In Goblin Combe, 13 miles north-east of Wrington (Sheet 9). Four
exposures are marked, erroneously associated with Old Red Sandstone.
(5) Near Cadbury Camp, 3 miles east-north-east of Clevedon (Sheets 5 and 9).
Two exposures are marked.
With the exception of the last, ali these are indicated in the
Geological-Survey maps (1865). Two exposures are marked in
Goblin Combe, and the supposed association with Old Red Sandstone
is corrected.
In 1868 David Mackintosh ' noted the occurrence of the igneous
rock at Spring Cove, describing it as a conformable mass of trap.
He says that it
‘has, I believe, hitherto been regarded as intrusive. But a comprehensive
inspection will, I think, show that it isa bed which, in a fused state, must have
flowed over the limestone beneath, before the limestone above was deposited.’
In the same footnote Mackintosh states that Mr. Ravis, of Bristol,
had informed him that a similar bed of trap occurred in the lime-
stone near Sandpoint. This had, however, been previously recorded
in Sanders’s map. In the same year Ravis* described the Middle
Hope trap, apparently regarding it as intrusive, but stating that it
was probably injected during the deposition, although before the
eievation of the limestone.
Im Mr. Horace B. Woodward’s Survey Memoir on ‘ The Geology
of East Somerset,’ published in 1876, a section, by Sanders, of the
cutting at Uphill is given (pl. 11, facing p. 24),in which the igneous
rock is entered as ‘trap dyke.’ A note is contributed by W. T.
Aveline on the ‘large igneous dyke’ at Middle Hope ‘running
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol, xxiv (1868) p. 282.
_~ ‘Supplementary Notes on some of the late Movements on the Somersetshire
Coast’ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. ser. 1, vol. iii (1868) p. 89.
Vol. 60. | IGNEVUS ROCKS OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 139
- with the beds of limestone and shale and altering them above and
below’ (p. 22), and a section is given, drawn by Aveline. The
volcanic breccia at Cross Combe (Goblin Combe) is mentioned (loc.
cit.), but the occurrence of ‘trap’ is not recorded. In an Appendix
(p. 210) Mr. Rutley describes the rock from Woodspring Hill
(Middle Hope) as a much-altered basalt, to which a specimen from
Cleve Combe (Goblin Combe) is closely similar; and that from
Wrington Warren, which is not identified as part of the Goblin-
Combe exposures, as a volcanic breccia. ‘It is just possible,’ says
Mr. Rutley, ‘ that this breccia may be derived from the margin of a
dyke’ (p. 210). He had evidently not seen the rock in the field.
Figures are given of some of these rocks.
Prof. Sollas writing,’ in 1880, an account of the Geology of the
Bristol District, in connection with an excursion of the Geologists’
Association, makes passing allusion to
‘an episode of igneous activity, which has left its traces in the thick beds of
voleanic ash associated with once vesicular but now amygdaloidal basaltic lava,
to be seen interbedded in the limestone along the coast-section from Weston-
super-Mare to Swallow Cliff.
Whether this refers to Spring Cove or Middle Hope is not clear ; but
probably the latter locality was intended.
In the ‘Annual Report’ of the Geological Survey for 1896
brief allusion was made to the records of contemporaneous volcanic
activity at Middle Hope (pp. 61-62). One of us made brief reference
to them in the British Association Handbook published in 1898
(Bristol Meeting), and also drew attention to beds of volcanic ash
on Worle Hill to the east of the camp (above Kewstoke Steps).
Finally, in the ‘Summary of Progress’ of the Geological Survey
for 1898, Sir Archibald Geikie & Mr. Strahan gave the fuller
account, already mentioned, of the Northern Somerset volcanic
group.
Il. Tae Evipencre FoR tHE CONTEMPORANEOUS ORIGIN OF THE
IGneovus Rocks.
(1) At Middle Hope (Woodspring).
The evidence for the contemporaneous origin of the igneous rocks
in this locality has been so well set forth by Sir Archibald Geikie
& Mr. Strahan that little need here be added. There are four
exposures, three of which are described in the ‘Summary of
Progress * of the Geological Survey for 1898. The fourth lies
farther to the east, where the coast-line trends sharply southward
* Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. vi (1880) p. 378.
Hip vs
from St. Tho-
mass Head.
The repetition
of the expo-
sures is due to
several small
faults running
at right angles
to the coast-
line.
(a) In the
first or western-
most exposure,
bedded cri-
noidal lime-
stone, with
abundant Za-
phrentis, 1s suc-
ceeded by an
alternation of
limestone and
red or green
tufts, in which
organic remains
are frequently
embedded, and
well - marked
lapilli are abun-
dant. Then
comes the ‘ pil-
lowy, much -
altered, amyg-
daloidal basalt,
which has in
parts degene-
rated into a
brown sandy -
looking mate-
rial, wherein
little can be
made out ex-
cept the amyg-
dules. This is
followed by
further alter-
nations of
limestone and
tuff passing up
into the mas-
sive limestone,
——
« —— .
p BETA
Beds
t
{ren
roup
=
5 exp.c
Zaphr
ey
¢
~
— 2
‘
Volcanic Bed
a
&
%
a
¥
eal
_~ ;
a
Ss
aa
O;.
To)
rey:
Oolitic Beds © N
_ ae
éntis Beds
mile.
age
Group A
phr
sexp.a §
Bo
ae
3
c
€
Geological Map of
Middle Hope or Woodspring:
scale;- 3 inches =!
Za
aie
Volcanic Beds”
Toup
Vol, 60. | IGNEOUS ROCKS OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. ~ Tat
throughout the lower 7 or 8 feet of which big lapilli, reaching
a length of 2 inches, are fairly plentiful. (See figs. 2 & 3,
pp. 142-43.)
(4) In the second exposure, three-quarters of a mile farther east,
alternations of reddish-brown or green tuff, with lenticular bands
of limestone, occur. But there is here no basalt, and the volcanic
series is thinner." (See fig. +, p. 144.)
(c) The third exposure, some 200 yards still farther east, shows
brown tuffs and nodular or lenticular limestones in alternating layers.
The volcanic series is still thinner.
(7) In the fourth, and easternmost, occurrence of the tufts,
hitherto unrecorded, and lying two-thirds of a mile north-east of that
last named, they are reduced to 6 or 7 feet in thickness. But in
the lower part of the section there is no rock-exposure. Here,
however, a coarse fragmental deposit, 2 feet thick, with well-
marked lapilli, is one of the most characteristically-volcanic beds
of the whole series. The gradual attenuation of the volcanic
ejectamenta to the eastward and the occurrence of lava only in
the westernmost exposure, support the conclusion arrived at in the
‘Summary of Progress’ that the centre of volcanic activity pro-
bably lay yet farther west.
? The details of this section are as follows :—
Thickness in feet inches.
20. Thick crinoidal limestone to the top of the cliff.
19. Weathered grit, with red shale visible at the
PAREEBNGGOITION © «no 1a5e, Sok ede ca eco wine d oe via 10 0
MP PRIORETIG Wie coe Se Eee ene Sec nak accdee 12 0
rae, Na ween aatiel rer eek a cee, coca de oe cew cnn 5 tot 0
16. Sandstone, with vertical cylindrical bodies ...... 2 6
Beene AAW wsccc5 2.0L cha La pene ae ps 0
14. Lenticular limestone-band ..................ceeeeeees 0 38to6
13. Coarse ash, with highly-caleareous bands in the
lower part, numerous large fragments of lime-
stone and some of grit in the upper part......
eNO Hes ABEREM o0b Sete oot. sro dase ee anak a. ax¥e Seomes
11. Brown ash, very much decomposed and veined...
Rai RATAGMITIG oa 6e sas «ov ones sat emmacar ascaveces bee sisnans
9. Ash as above (11), the upper part containing
jen
Om Coe
numerous lamellibranchs (Edmondia) ......... pli 0
8. Reddish crinoidal limestone .....................66- 1 0)
Pee a OT Sere nD pe Lae ek ee 2 0
Gy erotinecagus limestone) 4.26.2. HiGHER Beps. < Producti belonging to the giganteus-group,
Dolomitic Beds. Y Land Athyrids of the ambigua-group (Seminula).
Oolitic beds in the >
quarry at the foot of |
che Gully. | ( Marked by the great abundance of Orthotetes
R —-\ Crone | (Streptorhynchus) crenistria, Chonetes papi-
Pele ieten tke Bee lionacea, and Ch. aff. comoides. In these beds
eh 2 Spirifer att. Jaminosus reaches its maximum.
Gully & the Black- ee
Rock Quarry. a
Upper third of —) ( Marked by the abundance of a Zaphrentid
ra Group B, ~of the cylindrica -type (Campophyllum =
the Black Boek J) resting immediately | Zaphrentis cylindrica of Edw. & Haime).}
; upon or forming the
2 Eos { Containing cornute Zaphrentids in great
Quarry. Group A. < = Pp ©
5 ¢ abundance.
( Marked by the rarity of Zaphrentids and by
He gradual increase doa of Spirifers of
Lower and middle ) the bisulcatus - group and of the glaber-type
thirds of the Black- > Lower Beps. < (Martinia);: Athyrids of the Royssii-type
Rock Quarry. J | (Cleiothyris); Orthids of the Michelini- and
| resupinata-types, Leptena analoga, and Pro-
| ductus of the punctatus- and Martini-types.
As will be seen by the sequel, the voleanic group les approximately
on the horizon of Group B, a position which accords with that
assigned to the Middle-Hope and Spring-Cove lava by one of us—
that is to say, somewhat anterior in time to the Gully oolite.
1) At Middle Hope, Woodspring.
) Pp pring
The beds below the volcanic series, which are well displayed on
the coast-line, unquestionably belong to Group A, and contain
cornute Zaphrentids in great abundance. Mr. Vaughan has identi- -
fied Zaphrentis Phillipsi, M.-Edw., Z. aff. Enniskillen, M.-Kdw.,
Z. aff. Griffitht, M.-Edw., and Z. sp, nov. ; Michelinia, sp., Leptena
andloga, Phill., Orthis Michelina, L’Eveillé, Productus punctatus var.
elegans, M‘Coy. The lower ashy beds are probably in Group B. On
the southern coast of the peninsula that terminates in Swallow Cliff
the Chonetes and Streptorhynchus characteristic of Group C occur ;
and similar beds may be found 150 feet above the more easterly
exposure of the tuffs.
* [Mr. A. Vaughan has more recently, in Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. vol. x, pt. ii,
p. 102, revived M‘Coy’s genus Caninia, to cover the Zaphrentid-group which
is typified by Campophyllum cylindricum.—March 14th, 1904.]
Vol. 60. } IGNEOUS ROCKS OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 149
(2) At Spring Cove, Weston-super-Mare.
In a red ashy bed, which marks the earliest stage of the volcanic
phase, large examples of Campophyllum cylindricum, Scouler,
indicative of the upper part of Group B are conspicuous. In the
lowest bed on the foreshore cornute Zaphrentids occur
‘together with a coral which exhibits characters transitional between those of
the Cyathophyllum- (Strephodes) and Campophyllum-types.’
Again, about 100 feet above the lava, in a mural face below the
western end of Worlebury Camp, occur in abundance the cha-
racteristic fossils of Group C. Commenting on the fossils obtained
thence, Mr. Vaughan says
‘ Streptorhynchus crenistria, Leptena analoga, Productus Martini, Pr. elegans,
and Spirifer cuspidatus leave no possible doubt of the horizon.’
The Spring-Cove volcanics, therefore, occupy approximately the
same position as those at Middle Hope. It may be mentioned,
however, that on the road through Kewstoke Woods, in a position
which seems to be well below the volcanic series, occur fossils
which unquestionably indicate a much higher level—that marked
‘Higher Beds’ in the foregoing table (p. 148). There is some
faulting which brings these beds down to their present position.
(3) Above Kewstoke, Milton Hii.
Here, again, faulting has complicated the problem. At Kewstoke
Steps the limestones are well displayed. There can be no question
that they belong to the higher beds. Producti belonging to the
giganteus-group, Athyrids of the ambigua-type, and abundant
Lithostrotion beautifully weathered-out, are conclusive. But shortly
below these rocks—assuming that the stratigraphical sequence is
unbroken—-come the volcanic ash (noted in 1894) and the scattered
fragments of lava and breccia. On the southern side of Milton
Hill, however, there are two quarries, the beds in which should,
taking dips and distances into consideration, overlie the volcanic
series. In one of these, a disused quarry, lying to the right of the
road from Milton to Kewstoke, just below the crest of the hill
on its southern side, the fossils indicate that the beds lie on the
same level as those of the mural escarpment above Spring Cove.
Chonetes, Streptorhynchus, and Spirifer laminosus, M‘Coy, occur,
and a typical Productus Martini, Sow., as also above Spring Cove.
The other quarry, which lies farther west, and is now being exten-
sively worked, does not afford conclusive evidence. But at the top
occurs a coral of the same transitional type as that noted at Spring
Cove, which, in Mr. Vaughan’s opinion, cannot occur below the
very top of the Black-Rock Quarry. In the lower beds of the quarry
occur
‘ Streptorhynchus (large resupinate var.), Spirifer cuspidatus, Martin, a small
Athyris of the seminula-group, and a rather characteristic Athyris of a transverse
Royssii type.’
150 PROFS, LLOYD MORGAN AND REYNOLDS ON THE _{ May 1904,
No cornute Zaphrentids were found, and the probability is that the
beds belong to Group B. On the whole, therefore, evidence again
points to the conclusion that the volcanic rocks here too occupy
approximately the same position as those at Spring Cove and
Middle Hope. That there is a strong fault between the Kewstoke
rocks and those in the quarries on Milton Hill, so as to thrust up
the former beds to their present position, is certain. And this
is in line with the facts already noted under the head of ‘ Spring
Cove.’
(4) At Uphill.
We have not been successful in obtaining many fossils from the
limestones above and below the ‘trap’ here. We submitted,
however, a number of fragments to the etching effect of weak acid,
partly with a view to the disclosure of any lapilli which might be,
but were not, present. Mr. Vaughan kindly examined some speci-
mens from below the ‘trap.’ He says :—
‘IT am convinced that the Uphill specimens denote beds on the level of the
upper portion of the Black-Rock Quarry, and therefore on exactly the level of
the Woodspring specimens. Zaphrentis Phillipsi, M.-Edw., a bisulcate Spirifer,
and small cylindrical crinoid-stems are the only fossils to be seen. Of these,
Z. Phillipsi ranges from the middle of Press’s Quarry (just below the Black
Rock) to the Campophyllum-beds (B) at the top of the Black Rock; but its
main development is at the top of the Black Rock (never above). Bisulcate
Spirifers in isolated examples (as here) point to the same horizon (or very much
lower, which is rendered impossible by the associated Zaphrentis).’
As before noted, there is here no distinct evidence of the con-
temporaneous origin of the ‘trap.’ But the paleontological evidence
that it occurs at the same horizon as the Middle- Hope and Spring-
Cove lava, makes its volcanic nature, as a submarine outflow at any
rate, highly probable.
(5) In Goblin Combe.
(a) Easterly exposure.—Fossils taken from a level about
100 feet above the mural exposure of breccia and tuffy limestones
contain Chonetes papilionacea, Phill., Streptorhynchus crenstria,
Phill., Athyris Royssi, L’Eveillé, and Spirifer cristatus (var. octo-
plicatus, Sow.). These, in Mr. Vaughan’s opinion, mark the lower
part of Group C, and are therefore in exactly the same relative
position as at Middle Hope and at Spring Cove. There is no ex-
posure immediately beneath the volcanic rocks; and the level of the
rocks, just west of the orchard, cannot be readily calculated, as the
dips are changing near the summit of the anticlinal arch. These
beds, which may lie 100 feet or so below the tuffs, contain
Zaphrentis Phillipsi, M.-Edw., Z. Enniskillent, M.-Edw., Z. sp. nov.
(‘the very commonest,’ says Mr. Vaughan, ‘of the Zaphrentids of
Clevedon, also found in the Avon section, Tytherington, etc., but not
yet figured or described’); also a specimen of Spirifer aff. clathratus,
M‘Coy (small and presumably uncommon). The highest bed seen
contains Campophyllum cylindricum, Scouler. These fossils point to
Vol. 60.] IGNEOUS ROCKS OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 151
' Group A and the lowest part of Group B. Here, again, therefore,
the horizon of the volcanic rocks may be assigned to the same
position as in other localities.
(6) Westerly exposure.—the only definite piece of evidence
of the position of these beds is the occurrence of a fossiliferous band,
at a level of about 120 feet above the exposure of the lava. It hes
some 200 yards south of Warren House, on the eage of the plateau
where it overlooks Goblin Combe. The fossils include Chonetes aff.
comoides, Sow., Streptorhynchus crenistria, and a bisulcate Spirifer :
all of which points conclusively to Group C. We have not, however,
succeeded in finding evidence of the underlying Zaphrentis-beds.
But little limestone is visible below the lava, which is nearly the
lowest bed exposed by denudation in the excavation of the Combe.
Such evidence as there is in this locality points again to the same
horizon as elsewhere in the district.
(6) Near Cadbury Camp.
Since the volcanic rocks are not here exposed 77 situ, we do not
attempt to discuss the question of their horizon. They seem, how-
ever, to lie in about the same position. Mr. Vaughan tells us that
in cuttings by the side of the track which follows the telegraph-
posts along the top of the ridge, that is to say, at a stratigraphical
level somewhat below the probable outcrop of the ‘trap,’ the
Zaphrentis-heds are strongly in evidence, and he has collected most
of the typical fossils of Group A.
It will be seen that in all the localities where the position can
be approximately determined, the evidence is sufficient to justify the
conclusions (1) that there is one igneous group marking a single
volcanic episode, and (2) that this occurred at a period which is
marked by the occurrence of the marine fauna indicated by Group B
in the table supplied by Mr. Vaughan (p. 148), to whom we desire
again to offer our thanks for his assistance.
LV. Tuer Perrotocy oF THE IenzEovs Rocks.
But little has been written on this subject. In Appendix I to the
Survey memoir on the Geology of the East Somerset & Bristol Coal-
Fields are descriptions by Mr. Rutley, of the Uphill and Woodspring
traps, and one of the ashes from Wrington Warren. In Sir Archibald
Geikies & Mr. Strahan’s account, the petrology is incidentally
dealt with, and a description of the Spring-Cove lava by Mr. Teall
is given. These will be again referred to in due course.
(A) The Lavas. (Pl. XVII, figs. 1-3.)
The freshest and most interesting lavas are those of Goblin Combe
and Spring Cove, and it will perhaps be best to describe these some-
what fully.
152 PROFS. LLOYD MORGAN AND REYNOLDS ON THE May 190
¥ 1904,
(1) Description of the Lavas of Goblin Combe.
The rock seen in situ at the more westerly exposure is a highly
amygdaloidal olivine-basalt. In a hand-specimen it shows pseudo-
morphs after olivine, and vesicles which may be more than half an
inch in diameter, and are sometimes empty, sometimes filled with
calcite and a green chloritic mineral. Microscopically, the most
prominent mineral is altered plagioclase, in laths having an average
length of about 0:4 millimetre and a diameter of 0°04 mm. The
spaces between the laths are partly filled up by a brown, nearly-
isotropic substance, but chiefly by green patches of serpentinized
pyroxene and by calcite. Dark rods, once magnetite, but now replaced
by the peroxide, are very plentifully scattered. The phenocrysts,
which are large and prominent, are entirely represented by patches of
a carbonate, probably calcite, and from the perfect preservation of the
form of some of these it is clear that they represent olivine-crystals.
The olivine-dolerite or basalt which occurs in blocks on the
surface of the ground near the more easterly of the Goblin-Combe
exposures is the handsomest of all the igneous rocks of the district.
It consists of fresh plagioclase-laths with a maximum length of about
0-5 millimetre; fresh brown augite, occurring in grains filling up
the interstices between the laths, and also forming phenocrysts and
polysynthetic crystals which reach a length of slightly over a milli-
metre; magnetite in long needles; and olivine, now completely
converted into green serpentine, but showing the crystalline form
excellently. (See Pl. XVII, fig. 1.)
(2) Description of the Lava of Spring or Birnbeck
Cove, Weston-super-Mare.
The lava here is a rather interesting basalt, and resembles all the
other rocks of the section in being stained a deep red. No pheno-
crysts are visible in a hand-specimen, but there are, as a rule,
numerous amygdules of calcite which reach a maximum diameter
of 3 millimetres. Hand-specimens, too, taken from certain parts of
the flow, show numerous other circular red bodies which prove,
when examined microscopically, to be varioles. The groundmass is
abundant, and is seen in section to show numerous felspar-needles ;
apart from these, it is practically isotropic, and must have been
originally, to a large extent, glassy. It is, however, much obscured
by the abundant red oxide of iron. The varioles above referred to
reach a large diameter (3 millimetres), and are very sharply defined.
They are, however, much altered, and are obscured by the iron-oxide
which is sometimes uniformly distributed through them, sometimes
forms a peculiar network traversing them, and is occasionally collected
along lines which radiate inward trom the circumference for a short
distance with extreme regularity. (See Pl. XVII, fig. 3.)
The chief phenocrysts present are a few felspars in a greatly-
altered state. The large amygdules are filled with well-cleaved
Vol. 60. | IGNEOUS ROCKS OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 153
ealcite, with sometimes in addition a brown, possibly chloritic,
mineral occurring in collections of irregular spherulites. Mr. Teall’s
description of a lava from Spring Cove, quoted by Sir Archibald Geikie
P pom »q z
& Mr. Strahan, is as follows :—
‘The lava from Spring Cove, Weston-super-Mare [E. 3212 (23)], is a fine-
grained, chocolate-coloured rock, composed of ps:udomorphs after olivine, and
probably augite, in a groundmass showing microlitic structure. The pheno-
erysts are represented by pseudomorphs in carbonate. The microlitic felspars
of the groundmass are colourless, but they no longer show their characteristic
optical properties. The groundmass is deeply stained with ferric oxide.
Although all the minerals have been destroyed, the structure has been perfectly
preserved, and there can be no doubt whatever that the original rock was an
olivine-basalt.’
Most of our sections from Spring Cove did not show the carbonate-
pseudomorphs above referred to, which are so clearly seen in the
Goblin-Combe rocks, but they were met with in one section.
(3) Summary of the Characters of the Lavas.
The rocks vary a good deal in coarseness, the coarsest-grained
being those from Uphill and from near Cadbury Camp, of the con-
temporaneous character of which there is no direct evidence. The
Goblin-Combe rocks come next in degree of coarseness, while the
finest-grained are those from Spring Cove and Milton Hill.
All the rocks are clearly basaltic in character, and consist
essentially of plagioclase-needles, laths, or phenocrysts, with pyro-
xene and iron-ore, and, as a rule, olivine. The pyroxene is
generally undoubtedly augite, but sometimes, as in the Uphill
rocks, the unaltered mineral may have been enstatite. The freshest
augite is seen in the rock from the eastern end of Goblin Combe,
where it occurs both in small grains and large plates. Plates of
fairly-fresh augite are seen in the Cadbury-Camp and one of the
Milton-Hill rocks; and serpentinized pyroxene, probably augite, is
abundant in the rock from the western Goblin-Combe exposure.
Olivine is never preserved in an unaltered state in these rocks,
though in most cases the original form of the crystals is very well
seen (Goblin Combe—eastern end, Milton Hill, Woodspring).
Sometimes the olivine is completely converted into bright green
serpentine (Goblin Combe—eastern end), sometimes a very large
amount of ferric oxide is associated with the serpentine (near
Cadbury Camp), sometimes the olivine is replaced by pseudomorphs
in carbonate, probably calcite, with which dense masses of ferric
oxide are associated (Milton Hill), sometimes it is apparently
simply replaced by pseudomorphs in carbonate (Goblin Combe—
western exposure, and some specimens of the Spring-Cove rock).
The occurrence of long needles of peroxidized magnetite is a
characteristic feature of the Goblin-Combe rocks.
The variolitic character of much of the Spring-Cove lava is an
interesting feature.
* «Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey for 1898’ p. 106.
lot PROFS. LLOYD MORGAN AND REYNOLDS ON THE | May 1904,
Some of the rocks are highly-amygdaloidal (Woodspring, Spring
Cove, Goblin Combe—western exposure, Milton Hill, and Uphill in
part). Others are not (Uphill in part, near Cadbury Camp, Milton
Hill in part, Goblin Combe—eastern exposure).
(B) Whe Tuffs.. (PL XVI, fies: Aq6;)
(1) Description of the Tuffs from Middle Hope,
W oodspring.
The prevalent type of tuff in all four exposures is a rather soft,
dull-green, much-decomposed, and earthy-looking rock, with patches
and veins of calcite and many small green Japilli, which in the
sections examined do not, as a rule, reach a greater length than
2 millimetres.
In section the lapilli are seen to consist entirely of a highly-
amygdaloidal rock, with a groundmass which is almost completely
isotropic, and must have originally formed a basic glass, now altered
into green palagonitic material. The amygdules are generally
composed of a chloritic mineral, sometimes of calcite. The matrix
in which the lapilli are embedded usually consists of well-cleaved
caleite, through which age scattered numerous minute ashy frag-
ments similar to the larger lapilli. In addition to these there occur
at certain levels, especially in the ashy limestone above the trap
at the westernmost exposure, large lapilli, frequently reaching a
length of an inch or more, of a quite different type from those
deseribed above. ‘The groundmass of these lapilli, which is ‘much
irou-stained, contains numerous felspar-needles, but apart from
them is isotropic, and shows no sign of palagonitic modification.
The vesicles are very abundant, and in one slide are filled with
well-cleaved calcite, precisely similar to that forming the main
mass of the surrounding limestone in which they are embedded.
In a second slice the only difference is that the calcite filling the
vesicles is, as a rule, granular and not well cleaved.
(2) Description of the Tuffs from Goblin Combe.
Most of the rocks are, in the main, limestones of a non-oolitic
character, but they contain a variable proportion of oolitic grains
and many quartz-grains, with ashy fragments as well. The pro-
portion of ashy fragments is far greater in some of the rocks from
the eastern exposure than in any of those from the western, but
nearly all are best described as ashy and gritty oolitic lime-
stones. Sections taken from the lowest bed in the more westerly
exposure show that angular quartz-grains are far more plentiful
than either lapilli or oolitic grains. The latter reach a diameter of
4 millimetres. Some of the lapilli are identical with the basalt,
which, as already mentioned, probably underlies the ashy limestones;
they contain the same patches of yellow chlorite or serpentine, and
Vol. 60. | IGNEOUS ROCKS OF THE BRISTOIL DISTRICT. 155
rods of peroxidized magnetite. The red calcareous ash, of the more
easterly section, is the most conspicuous of all the igneous rocks of
Goblin Combe. It varies much in coarseness and in the proportion
of oolitic grains present. Angular grains of quartz are always
plentiful. The lapilli are of two chief varieties: (1) a highly-
vesicular, glassy rock, which sometimes shows green palagonitic
alteration, sometimes is so loaded with ferric oxide that nothing
can be seen except the vesicles; (2) a basalt with felspar-laths,
patches of serpentine or chlorite, and peroxidized magnetite-rods —
resembling, in fact, the lava of the western end of the Combe.
(3) Summary of the Characters of the Tuffs.
They are all highly calcareous, and most are best described as
ashy limestones. The proportion of lapilli is very variable. In
some rocks, such as those from the western Goblin-Combe exposure
and some of those from the eastern, lapilli form less, perhaps, than
a hundredth part of the material. In others, such as some of those
from Woodspring and from the eastern Goblin-Combe exposure,
they form more than one-third. While, in some districts (as is well
known) many of the lava-fragments in the tuffs are of a quite
different type from the lavas which flowed on the surface, that is
not the case with regard to this district, as all the lapilli are basaltic
in character, like the lavas. At Spring Cove and the western
exposure of Goblin Combe the lapilli consist of the same type of
basalt as the associated lava. At Woodspring they are, as a rule,
of a green, highly-vesicular rock, like a basaltic pumice. In the ash
from the eastern end of Goblin Combe both types of lapillus are
represented. Attention has already been drawn to the abundant
quartz-grains of the Goblin-Combe rocks and to their frequently-
oolitic character.
V. ConcLusions.
The observations described in this paper support the conclusions
reached by those previous writers who have indicated the existence
of a voleanic episode in Lower Carboniferous times within the
Bristol district. They render it probable that the ‘trap’ of Uphill
and near Cadbury Camp is a product of contemporaneous volcanic
action. They have somewhat extended the number of recorded
localities in which lava or tuff is exposed. They establish the fact
that in all cases the lavas are basaltic in type, and that the lapilli
found .in the adjacent beds are of the same basaltic character.
And they show that the volcanic episode in all cases occurred
during the deposition of the upper part of the Zaphrentis-beds,
and before the strata characterized by Chonetes and Streptorhynchus
were deposited.
156 PROFS. LLOYD MORGAN AND REYNOLDS ON THE [ May 1904,
EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVI & XVII.
Puiate XVI.
Map to illustrate the distribution of the Carboniferous volcanic rocks in the
Bristol district, on the scale of 2 miles to the inch.
Puate XVII.
Fig. 1. Olivine-dolerite or basalt from Goblin Combe eastern exposure.
This shows several crystals of serpentinized olivine, surrounded by
plagioclase-laths, the spaces between which are often occupied by
grains of augite. (See p. 152.)
2. Olivine-basalt from Milton Hill, Weston (not ¢z situ). A group of
three crystals of altered clivine is seen, and with them much ferric
oxide is associated.
53. Variolitic basalt from Spring Cove, Weston-super-Mare. Several
varioles are seen, varying considerably in size; also veins and amyg-
dules of calcite. (See p. 152.)
4. Calcareous ash from Spring Cove, Weston-super-Mare (3 feet above
the lava). This shows small basaltic lapilli, embedded in an abundant
matrix of calcite.
5. Calcareous ash from the extreme top of ash, Woodspring, exposure
(0). This shows abundant lapilli of amygdaloidal basalt, embedded
in a matrix of calcite. (See p. 154.)
6. Ashy oolitic limestone from Goblin Combe, eastern exposure.
This shows abundant oolitic grains and well-marked lapilli, embedded
in a calcareous matrix. (See p. 155.)
Discussion.
Mr. A. Srrawan said that he had listened with pleasure to the
careful description of these interesting rocks. The Authors had
added much to our knowledge; for they had not only recorded
two new occurrences, but (what was more important) had deter-
mined that the voleanic rocks of the various localities occurred
at the same horizon in the Limestone. The object of the traverse
made by Sir Archibald Geikie and himself had been mainly to
complete the Cardiff sheet of the l-inch Geological-Survey map ;
and although the advisability of subdividing the Limestone and
determining the horizon of the volcanic rocks had been discussed,
no opportunity had arisen of carrying out the work. With the
assistance of Mr. Vaughan, the Authors appeared to have proved
that the tuffs all occurred at the same horizon. He (the speaker)
had suggested that the vent lay somewhere to the west, probably
under the Bristol Channel. Whether tuffs could have been so
evenly and widely distributed from one vent only was perhaps open
to doubt. He congratulated the Authors on the interesting resuits
of their investigation.
The Cuarrman (Sir ARcHIBALD Gerxiz), alluding to the description
of the voleanic rocks given by Mr. Strahan and himself, to which
the Authors had referred, said that the examination of these rocks
had been undertaken by them, not with the view of making a
detailed study of the subject, but for the purpose of correcting the
—
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IGNEOUS ROCKS From THE BRISTOL DISTRICT.
Photomicro, H. A.-B. Bemrose, Colle.
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Vol. 6o. | IGNEOUS ROCKS OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 157
erroneous interpretation which had prevailed and was expressed on
the maps of the Geological Survey. ‘The specimens first collected by
Mr. Strahan left no doubt in the speaker’s mind that the rocks in
question formed a volcanic series contemporaneously intercalated
in the Carboniferous Limestone. In order to put this question
beyond possibility of dispute, he subsequently went over the ground
with Mr. Strahan, and the description of the lavas and tuffs given
in the ‘Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey’ was the
result of that visit. His colleague and he could not attempt to
define the particular horizon in the Carboniferous Limestone on
which this voleanic intercalation lay, nor whether there were more
horizons than one. He was glad that their conclusions had been so
amply confirmed by the Authors of this paper; and especially that
the definite platform appeared to have been ascertained, on which
the records of the Carboniferous-Limestone volcanic eruptions of
the Bristol district had been preserved.
Prof. Warts enquired as to the exact method of occurrence of
the variolitic type in the lavas. Was it confined to lavas, or did
it occur in rocks the exact origin of which was unknown? Hecon-
gratulated the Authors on having determined, in this instance, that
the volcanic rocks occupied a definite horizon in the Carboniferous
Series.
Prof, Rrynotps, in reply to the last speaker, stated that varioles
were met with only in the rock from Spring Cove, of the con-
temporaneity of which there could be no doubt. The varioles only
occurred in certain parts of the rock.
158 MR. W. 8. BOULTON ON THE [May 1904,
oe
13. On the Ianzous Rocks at Serine Cove, near WerEsToON-SUPER-
Mare. By Witrtam S. Bourton, Esq., B.Sc., A.R.C.S8., F.G.S.,
Lecturer in Geology at University College, Cardiff. (Read
January 20th, 1904.)
I. Lyrropvucrion.
In the Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey for 1898
(pp. 104-11), Sir Archibald Geikie & Mr. Strahan, in a description
of a ‘ Volcanic Group in the Carboniferous Limestone of North
Somerset,’ published for the first time the evidence for the contem-
poraneity of these igneous rocks." The authors refer briefly to the
basalt and associated tuffs at Spring Cove, immediately to the west
of the town of Weston, and describe in more detail the basalt-lava
and beds of tuff interbedded with the fossiliferous limestone along
the ridge of Middle Hope, 2 miles north of Weston.
At the time of the publication of this account, I had already
made a detailed examination of these rocks in the field, and of
microscopic and chemical preparations ; but as my results seemed
in general accord with those of the authors named, especially in
regard to the rocks of Middle Hope, I felt that little or nothing
was to be gained by the publication of my work as a whole.
In the rocks at Spring Cove, Weston, however, there appear to
me to be points of considerable interest which are only briefly
touched upon, or not mentioned at all, in the account to which I
have referred, and I therefore venture to submit some additional
observations in regard to them.
IJ. Genprat Description oF THE Rocks.
The basalt at Spring Cove, immediately north of Weston Pier,
runs obliquely to the high road, and is exposed from low-water
mark along the foreshore into the face of the cliff, the exposed
length being about 150 yards. The massive beds of Carboniferous
Limestone, between which the basalt is intercalated, strike north-
eastward, and dip south-eastward (towards Weston) at about 40°.
The basalt-sheet is parallel to the bedding of the limestone, and has
a thickness of about 45 feet.
A traverse from end to end of the exposure shows clearly that
the rock varies considerably in structure and appearance, and that
it is by no means a simple basalt-lava fiow. Starting from low-
water mark, the rock is a hard, compact, red, shghtly-amygdaloidal
! In this account reference is made to the observations of previous in-
vestigators.
Vol. 60. ] IGNEOUS ROCKS AT SPRING COVE. 159
olivine-basalt, containing very occasional lumps of limestone,
from a few inches to afoot or more across. For the first 100 yards
its upper junction with the limestone cannot be seen, because of
the accumulated boulders at the foot of the cliff, while the lower
junction is covered with water, even at lowest spring-tide. Then,
a little more than halfway from the low-water end, and along to
the cliff, the basalt changes in character somewhat suddeniy. It
now contains big lumps of burnt limestone, and the whole mass
becomes broken up into a very coarse tuff or agglomerate, con-
taining great lenticular masses of highly-slaggy basalt, 5 to 6 feet
long, together with lumps and bands of limestone, often considerably
fractured, and up to 10 or 12 feet in length. About 20 or 30
yards farther on, and as far as the end of the exposure in the cliff,
the rock is more uniform in character, being a ‘ pillowy’ basalt,
though considerably brecciated and very amygdaloidal, with com-
paratively little tuff. But it still contains masses of limestone,
even larger than those in the middle of the exposure.
ee Fig. 1.—Lenticles of lava and tuff making
up the ‘main sheet of basalt.
/ (Lenyth=about 40 yards.)
The whole mass appears to consist of great lenticles of basalt, or
tuff, or both confusedly mixed, together with the included lime-
stone. The median planes of these lenticles run obliquely to the
limestone-beds above and below, so that the lenticles dip at a
steeper angle than the sheet as a whole (fig. 1). It would thus
appear that the mass is capable of being roughly divided into three
portions. Commencing at the cliff-end to the north (in which
direction the vent was probably situated), the rock for the first
30 yards is a ‘pillowy”’ basalt, with tuff and limestone often
occupying irregular spaces between the spheroids of amygdaloidal
basalt; then, for about 20 yards, the rock is mainly a coarse
160 MR, W. S. BOULTON ON THE [May 1904,
agglomerate, with lapilli and bombs of basalt and lumps of lme-
stone; while, for the remaining 100 yards or so, it is an ordinary
basalt-coulée, with very few, and always small, lumps of burnt
limestone.
III. RELATION oF THE BASALT TO THE LIMESTONE BELOW IT.
The basalt rests upon a hard bed of pink limestone, about 9 feet
thick. Immediately under the basalt the red coloration is intense,
but passes down into reddish-yellow and yellow; and the limestone,
especially in its upper portion, is markedly crystalline to the naked
eye. Below this bed is the typical, purplish-brown, fossiliferous
limestone about 25 feet thick; and this again is underlain by a soft,
pink, nodular rock, showing oblique lamination, and containing the
remains of corals and encrinites. This last bed is somewhat tuffy-
looking, but an examination of the residue, after treatment with
boiling hydrochloric acid, shows that it is an excessively-fine
red mud, without any recognizable volcanic lapilli, but probably
derived from some volcanic centre. This residue is in striking
contrast with those from the calcareous tuffs at Middle Hope, all of
which show abundant lapilli of basalt-glass, felspar-crystals, etc.
Sir Archibald Geikie & Mr. Strahan tabulate the following
succession of these rocks at Spring Cove (0p. cit. p. 105) :—
‘Massive limestone, full of fossils. The lowest 3 feet of the rock are crowded
with fine volcanic dust, which, under the microscope, is seen to consist of fine
vesicular lapilli.
‘Highly-amygdaloidal altered basalt, having a “ pillow ”-structure, and with
abundant calcareous and hematitic veins, and threads of carbonate of copper ;
about 35 or 40 feet.
‘Red: limestone, full of fine volcanic dust, and passing down into the
ordinary grey, fossiliferous limestone.’
In the limestone under the basalt I have been unable to detect
any undoubted igneous fragments, of the nature of volcanic dust or
lapilli (despite a diligent search in thin slices under the micro-
scrope), from the basalt-junction down to a depth of 9 feet in the
limestone. But the soft red rock, some 35 feet below the basalt,
may represent, as stated above, very fine volcanic dust, while a
section of the reddish-purple limestone, 8 feet below the basalt [ 23),
has a very tuffy appearance, as remarked below.
The following is a description of some of the sections cut from
this underlying limestone :—
[3| Reddish limestone, in contact with the basalt. The slice
clearly shows elliptical and rounded oolitic grains, set in a matrix
of calcite, occurring in small, irregularly-outlined crystals, and
with well-marked cleavage. As the rock approaches the junction
with the basalt, the oolitic structure gradually disappears, and the
rock comes to consist of a confused aggregate of minute calcite-
' The numerals in square brackets, throughout this paper, refer to the
numbers of the slides in the Author’s ‘ Weston collection,’
Vol. 60. ] IGNEOUS ROCKS AT SPRING COVE. 161
crystals, with no definite outlines or cleavage. With this change
comes in much reddish-brown colouring-matter, occurring in
irregular veins and fissures. In places the brown substance shows
distinct rhombohedra, sometimes with curved faces and projecting
into the vein, which is filled up with clear secondary calcite.
This brown substance, which is bright yellow and red by reflected
light, is doubtless carbonate of iron, carried down by percolating
waters from the basalt above, deposited in the limestone as chalybite,
and subsequently oxidized, giving to the limestone its pronounced
red tint, more especially for the first few feet below the junction.
[28] Another junction-specimen is a reddish-brown rock, with
the appearance of a breccia in the hand-specimen. Under the
microscope, the basalt can be seen penetrating and absorbing the
limestone. The contact has evidently much affected both rocks.
The basalt is represented at the actual junction by a host of minute,
pale-green or nearly colourless needles (? tremolite), which are
largely masked by iron-oxide. These needles are associated with
some brown and yellow glass and much secondary calcite, forming
a fine groundmass. The limestone is reddish-brown, structureless,
and polarizes faintly.
(24|] Another junction-specimen is intensely red, and shows
under the microscope the ‘ ghosts’ of the original volitic grains.
(21| A slice from a specimen taken 3 feet below the junction
shows, besides the usual reddish-brown ferruginous matter in the
spaces between the oolitic grains, which in places has a marked
superficial resemblance to fragments of palagonitized glass, a large
number of nearly colourless rhombs of dolomite, fringing cavities or
veins filled with water-clear calcite.
[23] A sample taken 8 feet below the junction, of a reddish-
purple colour, effervesces strongly with acid, and has a very tuff-like
appearance. Under the microscope it shows angular and rounded
fragments of oolitic limestone in a dark reddish-brown matrix, and
the borders of the fragments are strongly marked with the same
colouring-matter. But even here no certain igneous material was
detected, although it is possible that the highly-coloured matrix is
fine volcanic dust, and not colouring-matter brought down in
solution from the overlying basalt.
IV, Retation oF roe Basatr ro tHE LIMESTONE ABOVE IT.
The determination of the precise nature of this junction is
obviously important, as bearing on the contemporarieity or intrusion
of the basalt. In the Survey account referred to above it is stated
(p. 106) that
‘fine voleanic dust appears in the overlying limestone for about 3 feet above the
surface of the lava, and thereafter the calcareous rock assumes its usual highly-
fossiliferous character.’
I have cut and examined sections at and near the junction and for
about a foot above it, and can confirm the above observation. At
the actual junction, and for about a foot from it, lapilli of basalt, one-
Q.J.G.8. No. 238. M
162 MR. W. S. BOULTON ON THE | May 1904,
eighth to one-sixteenth of an inch across, are very numerous, often
with the typical concave surfaces, due to fracture across vesicles.
In among these lapilli, caleite-crystals occur, and round their borders
is a brown, yellow, or red ring of iron-oxide derived from the basalt-
fragments, while fringing some lapilli are clusters of small, pale-
yellow rhombs of dolomite, showing patches of bright yellow and
borders of red irom-oxide by reflected light.
V. Some Sprcian CHARACTERS OF THE BAsALt-SHEET,
The characters of this igneous flow which are of especial interest
are (a) the * pillowy’ structure, together with the tuffy or agglome-
ratic structure; and (/) the included lumps and masses of limestone,
Fig. 2.—Oval, slagyy lumps of basalt-lava surrounded by
fluxion-tuff.
Fig. 3.
Lump of basalt-lava, enclosing a lump of tuff and of lime-
stone, anil rtself enclosed in coarse fluxion-agglomerate.
Ly
7LIMEST.
The pillowy, oval, or spheroidal masses of basalt, 2 to
8 feet across, usually very amygdaloidal, especially round their
periphery, and sometimes coutaining small oval or angular cores of
a slightly different and earlier lava, are usually embedded in a tuff
made up of lapilli up to 2 or 3 inches across (figs. 2 & 3).
.
Vol. 60.] IGNEOUS ROCKS AT SPRING COVE. 163
Near the middle of the sheet, covered and underlain by massive
lava, is a band 5 to 6 feet wide, with a dip roughly parallel to the
other lenticular masses, consisting of a confused mass of coarse
tuffy material, made up of angular fragments of lava 1 to 2 inches
across, embedded in a fine red-and-green matrix, and containing
lenticular cakes of vesicular lava, phacoids (often broken and
torn) of limestone, and higher up the cliff larger spheroidal lumps
of lava. The whole band suggests forcibly the augen-structure
characteristic of gneisses. It probably represents, however, a torrent
of agglomeratic material that flowed down a slope on the surface
of an already-extruded bed of lava, carrying in among the finer
Fig. 4.—Band of coarse agglomerate
in the basalt-lava.
Linm.= Limestone.
Bas.= Basalt.
lapilli larger, irregular, and plastic masses of scoriaceous basalt-lava
of the nature of bombs, together with lumps and fragments of lime-
stone, which from their torm and broken character suggest that
they were ejected from the vent with the basaltic material (fig. +).
In all cases where the phacoidal or lenticular structure is seen,
whether on a large or on a small scale, the material forming the
groundmass is fragmental and tuff-like, while the included phacoidal
masses consist of vesicular lava, or limestone, or very occasionally
masses of coarse tuff (figs. 2, 3 & 4).
A thin slice of the typical tuffy matrix [20] shows small sub-
angular or rounded, closely-fitting, equal-sized Supe about an
mu 2
164 MR. W. S. BOULTON ON THE [May 1904,
eighth of an inch across, with little or no interstitial matter except
secondary calcite and iron-oxide. The lapilli consist of basalt-glass
crowded with felspar-microlites, and in all general characters suggest
strongly an analogy with the ‘ volcanic sand’ of the recent West-
Indian eruptions, so graphically described by Dr. T. Anderson &
Dr. J. 8. Flett.’
It is highly probable that this basaltic mass, like other pillowy
lavas containing portions of sedimentary material, was ejected under
water; and it is certain, | think, that the tuff or agglomerate was
not in the main forced into the air by an eruption and deposited in
the sea-water. ‘There is no evidence of sedimentation, or the quiet
accumulation of dust and lapilli ; all the appearances point to flow.
It might be termed a fluxion-tuff or agglomerate.
Possibly, if the vent had been situated in very shallow water, or
on the land, much of this fragmental material would have been
blown into the air, fallen in the water, and settled down quietly on
the sea-floor, as, indeed, appears to have been the case with much
of the tuff at Middle Hope, 2 miles to the north. At Weston,
however, the greater weight of water above may have prevented
this, and compelled the fragmental material to flow as lava. Or
again, as in the West-Indian examples already cited, the expansive
force of the imprisoned vapours may have been sufficient to break
up the lava within the vent, but insufficient to do more than just
force the tuff over the lip of the vent, whence it flowed along the
sea-floor in obedience to gravity, and impelled forward, in part, by
the expanding gases. L
a
One of the most remarkable features of the sheet is the abundance
of lumps and irregular masses of limestone, enclosed in the
amygdaloidal and ‘pillowy’ basalt, or occurring as phacoids and
lumps in the tuffy material.
In the accompanying diagrams (figs. 5, 6,7 & 8, pp. 165-67) some
of these masses are shown, ranging in size up to 10 or 12 feet, often
broken and torn, in part eaten into and absorbed by the basalt, and
sometimes tailing off into smaller and smaller fragments. Charac-
teristic features are the concave surfaces of the limestone, often due to
the fact that the latter occupies an irregular space between a number
of spheroids or ‘ pillows’ of the basalt, looking as if either the lime-
stone had been absorbed by the hot lava, or, more probably, squeezed
into its present shape by the distending and moving spheroidal
masses.
There can be no doubt that this limestone is not secondary, due
to the deposition of calcareous material from aqueous solution
subsequent to the outflow and consolidation of the lava; nor has it
been deposited as sediment in irregular spaces between the spheroids
after the cooling of the basalt ; but it is unquestionably part of the
calcareous floor upon which the basalt-flow rests. Many of these
included masses are oolitic, the structure being visible sometimes to
~ Phil. Trans. Roy. Soe. ser. A, vol. ce (1903) pp. 448-49.
Vol, 60. | IGNEOUS ROCKS AT SPRING COVE. 165
the naked eyc, while a microscopic examination shows the oolitic
grains distinctly, together with the remains of encrinites, ete. ; and
the basalt has penetrated, fused, and absorbed the limestone along
its borders.
Fig. 5.—Junction of the basalt and an included mass of lamestone.
A thin slice through the junction of the basalt and an included
mass of limestone [30 c| shows that the basalt, here a brown, yellow,
red, or green glass, in places distinctly variolitic, penetrates and
absorbs the limestone, which is turned yellow and red, owing to the
staining of iron-oxide; while, along the edge of the limestone at
166 MR. W. S, BOULTON ON THE [May 1904,
the junction, occur wavy bands of reddish-brown and yellow
alteration-material, reminding one of agate-structure. Here, as
Fic. 7. Limestone included in basalt.
in the limestone under the basalt, rhombs of chalybite fringe the
walls of drusy cavities and veins, the rest of the space being filled
Vol. 60. ] IGNEOUS ROCKS AT SPRING COVE. 167
in with clear secondary calcite, while limonite and hematite have
been subsequently deposited.
In some instances the limestone, more especially that occurring
as irregular lumps in the tuff, is so cracked and broken, evidently
during the movement of the flow, as to suggest that it must have
Fig. 8.—Portion of an included lump of limestone in basalt.
BASALT EE] + +. 2
ZO. CZ Ke a NE
been hard and consolidated before the extrusion of the lava, and
was probably torn from the vent and ejected with the igneous
matter.
Small oval bodies, generally a few inches long, occur in the basalt;
these, when broken, show a yellow or red shell of carbonate of lime,
168 MR. W. S. BOULTON ON THE [May 1904,
the rest being filled with pure white, secondary calcite, and in some
cases quartz ; indeed, in a few instances, rounded or oval bodies up
to a foot in length consist entirely of silica. These may be lumps
of limestone, burnt and hardened on the outside by the hot lava,
their centres being subsequently removed in solution, the hollows
thus formed serving as receptacles for secondary calcite or quartz ;
while in a few cases the whole lump of limestone has been replaced
by silica. It is possible, however, that some of them may be large
vesicles filled with secondary minerals.
But, in most cases, the general shape and behaviour of the Jime-
stone-masses, particularly between the spheroids of basalt, seem
rather to suggest that the calcareous material must have been only
in part consolidated, so that it behaved as a pulverulent or more or
less plastic substance, and got rolled in or picked up by the lava,
and was able to fit itself in between the moving and distending
spheroidal masses.
In this connection, it is interesting to compare the general shape
and appearance of these included masses with those in other
localities, as, for example, in the Arenig lavas of Ballantrae and
elsewhere, with their marked pillowy structure, so well illustrated
and described by Sir Archibald Geikie and the officers of the Geolo-
gical Survey." There the included material is jasper, radiolarian
chert, graptolite-shale, and limestone. In the memoir describing
these rocks in the Ballantrae district it is stated (op. cit. p. 452)
that
‘the calcareous matter does nct seem to have penetrated far down through °
the successive beds, being confined mainly to the surfaces of the flows.
In the case at Weston it must be admitted, as already pointed out,
that the calcareous material did not come from above,
but from the underlying floor.
In the account of these Weston rocks by the officers of the Geolo-
gical Survey, it is suggested that the vent from which the rocks of
Spring Cove were derived lay somewhere to the west, where now
the Bristol Channel lies ; but from the fact that the included masses
of limestone dwindle rapidly in size and number from north to south,
and that the lenticular sheets of lava and tuff, representing indi-
vidual minor flows, also slope from north to south, it would seem
more probable that the vent lay somewhere to the north of this
Spring-Cove exposure.
Except for the presence of lapilli of basalt in the base of the
limestone resting at once on the basalt, it might be difficult to show
that the whole is not an intrustve sheet. ‘The conditions in these
submarine flows appear to be very like those in a sill or intrusive
sheet, where, as Prof. Lapworth has suggested, we may get tufts,
lava, and included masses of sedimentary material confusedly mixed,
and drawn out into lenticles as here described.
1 Mem. Geol. Sury. (1899) ‘ Silurian Roeks of Britain’ vol. i, Scotland.
Vol. 60. | IGNEOUS ROCKS AT SPRING COVE. 169:
Discussion.
The Cuairman (Sir AncurpaLp Gerkie) remarked that, since the
publication of the joint description with Mr. Strahan, referred to
by the Author, he had had an opportunity of re-examining the fine
series of intercalated lavas in the Carboniferous Series of Fife. In
most, if not in all, of those basalts which show the pillow-structure
the materials that now fill up the interspaces between the ellipsoids
have come from above and evidently belong to the series of sedi-
ments—tuff, sandstone, shale, limestone, etc.—which followed the
emission of the lava. There is no trace of an explosive character
in the lavas themselves; and he greatly doubted the possibility of
a lava which had once escaped from the vent and flowed for some
distance, subsequently blowing itself to pieces by the expansion of
its own imprisoned vapours. No doubt, sudden contact with water
might cause some lavas to break up; yet it was nevertheless the fact
that in the case of those in question, though they had all flowed
out over the bottom of a lagoon or the floor of the more open sca,
none of them showed more than the usual irregular cracked surfaces.
He did not think that there was ever much resemblance between the
behaviour of a silland that of a submarine lava-flow. He welcomed
the additional information now supplied regarding an exceedingly-
interesting little voleanic district, and hoped that the Author might
be induced to study the other exposures in the same careful and
detailed manner.
Prof. Warrs remarked that the paper constituted a very important
contribution to volcanic geology. It enabled us to realize that con-
ditions of vulcanicity prevailed in Carboniferous times similar to the
vuleanicity of the present day. He was greatly impressed with
the suggestion that the eruption described in the paper was of the
Peléan type: the lava was blown to atoms, and the pulverized material
formed a fluxion-tuff. In the Llandeilo of the Shelve district the
speaker had formerly been perplexed how to classify a rock similar
to that described by the Author. There was no reason why lava
_ should not be blown to dust beneath the sea as well as on land, and
the pressure of the water would induce conditions reminiscent of
an intrusive sill. The Author had satisfactorily proved that most
of the sedimentary material caught up in the lava had been derived
from below, and his evidence was not inconsistent with that brought
forward by the Geological Survey from the Southern Uplands of
Scotland.
The Avuruor thanked the Fellows for their reception of the paper.
He quite agreed with the Chairman that limestone, and sedimentary
material generally, found within the body of pillowy lavas, might
have come about in different ways in different cases, and that in
some cases the material had doubtless come from above, either in
solution or as sediment; but, from the evidence at Weston, it appeared
certain that it might have come from below, ejected from the vent
or picked up by the moving lava from the sea-floor. He did not
think that it was necessary to assume a great depth of water at
Weston during the outpouring of the lava.
170 MR. A. RENDLE SHORT ON RUZETIC [May 1904,
14. A Descriprion of some Ruaztic Srcrions in the Brisrot Disrricr,
with CONSIDERATIONS on the Move of Deposition of the Rumric
Series. By A. Renpre Sxort, Esq., B.Sc., M.B., B.S. (Com-
municated by Prof. 8. H. Reynotps, M.A., F.G.8. Read
December 16th, 1903.)
ConTents.
Page
I~ Introduction’ 2. i... si0di.teesneteeeeom- at eewsun sae eaten ae eo 170
II. Description of four new Rheetic Exposures ss RRL a beads Soma 170
(A) Redland, Bristol.
(B) Stoke Gifford.
(C) Cotham Road, Bristol.
(D) Aust.
III. The Physical Geography of the Rhetic Period ............... 179
IV. The Stratigraphy of the Rheetic Series’...........2..2:02.0:2.4 + 187
M BUMMALY ssc sss paehe sen oneaseneOss anne ste acknn seo eee eee 189
Vi> Bibbosraplty san-.vcscssoss cine bb tistovae amin ada a Be enn es 120
I. Iyrropucrion,
Tus paper is a condensation of a longer memoir, the parts omitted
being chiefly lists of fossils and remarks on the same. It embodies
the results of some five years’ study of the Rheetic Series, chiefly in
the Bristol district, made easier by the fact that I reside in that
district. .
Il. DescrIPrioN OF FOUR NEW RuztTic Exposures.
(A) Redland, Bristol.
A number of exposures have been recently made here in cutting
a new road. One of these has already been briefly dealt with
in a local memoir by Mr. W. H. Wickes (46),’ and again by
Mr. Parsons (47). I give, with slight modifications, Mr. Wickes’s
classification of the beds, and his list of fossils, enumerating those
that I have found in addition. The lettering corresponds to that
used by the late Edward Wilson for the Pylle-Hill section (36).
The fossils are not obtained solely from the exposure originally
described, but from the newer exposures as well. It is imprac-
ticable to separate them, as the material thrown out has been
mixed.
Feet inches.
S. Five beds of hard, blue, 2 Sa. (In the upper two bands.)
shelly limestone, with Ammonites torus. (Am. planorbis
brown shaly partings. found, but not in place.)
}. (In the lower bands.)
LTleuromya Crowcombeia, Modiola
minima, Cardium rheticum, Pecten
Pollux, Monotis decussata (rare).
1 Numerals in parentheses thioughout this paper refer to the Bibliography
§ VI, p. 190.
Rad ia!
Vol. 60. ] SECTIONS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. ETE
Thick hard limestone ...
. Rubbly limestone.........
Ow
P. White shaly and rubbly
limestone.
O. Yellow clay-parting ...
N. Cotham Marble, a con-
tinuous band.
M. Blue and brown and
greenish clay, with white
shaly partings.
L. Thinly-bedded, siliceous,
white limestone.
K. More thickly-bedded but
fissile, siliceous limestone
(see below).
I. Dark, shelly, hard,
thickly - bedded _ lime-
stone, weathering brown,
but with a bluish-black
core.
H. Dark shaly clay .........
G. Limestone resembling I,
with a layer of fibrous
calcite (=‘ beef’) aboveit.
F. Crumbly black shales ...
Feet inches
0 5
) «
0 9
i) 13
0 8
2 0
i 0
2 0
i) 8
i) d
0 +
3 9)
c. (Precise horizon not specified.)
Ostrea liassica, O. levis, O. imulti-
costata, O. irreqularis, Lima gt-
gantea, L. valoniensis, L. het-
tangiensis, Pecten calvus, P. dispar,
Cardinia Listeri, Pholadomya gla-
bra, Plicatula intusstriata, Uni-
cardium sp.; Rhynchonella calci-
costa, Terebratula sp.; Nautilus
striatus: Cidaris Edwardsi (%)
spines; Pentacrinus ; Montlivaltia
sp.; Serpula sp.; burrows, ete.
Similar fossils to 8.
Pleuromya Crowcombeia, Cardium
rheticum, Plicatu/a intusstriata.
Modiola minima, Pleuromya Crow-
combeia, Cardium rheticum, Pli-
catula intusstriata, Pholadomya
glabra, Arca (!) Lycetti, Monotis
decussata. (Mr. Wickes records
insect-fragments. )
Modiola minima, Monotis decussata,
Chemnitzia nitid.
Plesiosaurus-yertebra; Darwinula.
( Barren.)
Naiadita lanceolata (very abundant),
Axinus cloacinus, Cardiun rheti-
cum, Pecten valoniensis (a few),
Myacites sp. ; Estheria minuta, Dar-
winula; Acrodus minimus, Hybodus
minor, Saurichthys acuminatus,
S. apicalis, bones, coprolites.
(Mr. Wickes records Pholidophorus,
Lepidotus,and Legnonotus.)
Pecten valoniensis (very abundant),
Axzinus cloacinus, A. concentricus,
A. elongatus, Cardium rheticum,
C. cloacinum, Cardinia regularis,
C. suttonensis, Modiola minima,
Pleurophorus eiongatus, Pleuromya
Crowcombeia, Plicatula tntusstriata,
Gervillia precursor, Anomia valo-
niensts; Discina Townshendi; Gyro-
lepis Alhertii, Saurichthys apicalis,
S. acuminatus, Acrodus minimus,
Hybodus minor, H. cuspidatus ;
Termatosaurus Alberti, T. cro-
codilinus, Spherodus minimus ;
coprolites, scales, spines, ete.
(Barren.)
Avicula contorta, A. solitaria, Axinus
cloacinus, Pecten valoniensis,
Modiola minima.
(Just here I have found no fossils.
The Lower Rhetic is better dis-
played in a fresh section.)
Such is the original exposure, which furnished the material for
Mr. Wickes’s paper.
172 MR, A. RENDLE SHORT ON RHZETIC [May 1904,
The next section to be opened, about a quarter of a mile or less
away, displayed upturned beds of Upper Carboniferous Limestone,
cut off flat, with the Rhetic Beds deposited on them unconformably.
The iimestone-beds are very massive, and dip at 35° south 80° east.
Between these beds little pockets of yellow clay pass down for a
variable distance, due to greater erosion along the planes of
stratification.
On the east, the Carboniferous platform gradually slopes down at
an angle of about 10°, quickly becoming steeper, beneath the Rheetic
Beds, and is lost to sight. The Rheetic Series overlying this has
been briefly touched upon by Mr. Parsons (47), who explored it
with me in the first place, but since then I have found the Bone-
Bed and many more fossils. .
Feet inches,
S. Three beds of bluelime- _..... Ostrea liassica, Modiola minima,
stone. Pleuromya Crowcombeia, Phola-
domya glabra, ete. Noammonites.
R. Thick, hard, blue lime- 0 5 (Same fossils as above.)
stone.
Q. Rubbly white limestone
(incompletely exposed).
A short distance from this, the Rhextic Series is again exposed.
N. (Cotham:Marhle:...:=... 0 4to8 Modiola minima, Monotis decussat
an insect-wing.
M. Laminated blue and 2 0 (Barren. )
yellow clay.
K, L. Naiadita-teds ...... 2 0 A very few specimens of Noiadita.
I. Inconstant black lime- 0 4to6 Pecten valontensis (abundant), Axinus
stone, weathering cloacinus, Modiola minima, teeth
brown. and scales of fishes.
H, F. Black shales, crumbly
above, bard and fissile
below ; with ferruginous
bands 5.482802 about 6 0 (Barren. )
About 3 feet down are a few nodular, red limestone-masses, con-
taining Avicula contorta, Modiola minima, and Placunopsis alpina.
Feet inches.
A. Bone-Bed ...... 0 2 Acrodus minimus (very abundant), Gyrolepis
Albertiti and Saurichthys acuminatus (abun-
dant), S. apicalis, S. listroconus, Hybodus
minor, H. cuspidatus, H. orthoconus, H. rari-
costatus, H. sublevis, Spherodus minimus,
Squaloraia (2), Sargodon tomicus, Sphenon-
chus hamatus, Termatosaurus Alberti (2),
T. crocodilinus ; various doubtful fossils
discussed later, coprolites, ribs, vertebrie,
scales, bits of bone, and Hybodus-spines.
The most interesting bed in this series is the Bone-Bed. It lies
directly upon the flat, eroded edges of the Carboniferous-Limestone
strata, and is so tightly cemented to them that, on hammering, it
nearly always breaks up instead of separating from the limestone.
Its thickness is very variable, and it is over considerable areas
Vol. 60. | SECTIONS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICY. 173
absent. Jn the clay-pockets that lie between the beds a very few
teeth may be found. It never fills up these pockets, but is only
found on the cut-off surfaces of the limestone-bands.
The Bone-Bed contains very numerous fish-remains, all except
the smallest being fragmentary. tightly cemented together by a
reddish-brown, gritty, calcareous sandstone. The whole is very
hard, and fossils are difficult to knock out entire. In addition
to the teeth, scales, and bones mentioned above, there are :—
(1) numerous coprolites, sometimes an inch in diameter ; (11) small
rounded quartz- -pebbles, with a peculiar resinous surface i in many
cases, varying in size from that of a millet-seed to that of a small
walnut; (iii) angular or subangular pebbles of Carboniferous Lime-
stone ; and (iv) well-rounded pebbles of sandstone from the Upper
Carboniferous-Limestone Series, fairly numerous, and often measuring
2 inches in diameter.
Between the two exposures above described, an extensive cutting,
displaying the Lower Rhetic beds especially, has been made; the
succession is as follows :—
Feet inches,
Q@. Rubbly limestone. 2 )
N. Cotham Marble, very O 4to6
inconstant, in patches
about a yard across, and
4 to 6 inches thick.
M. Laminated blue and 3 4
yellow clay, with white
bands.
K, L. Naiadita-beds — fis-
sile, thinly - bedded,
cream-coloured lime-
stones.
I. Hard, dark, shelly 0
to
CS
Naiadita lanceolata, ete.
Or
Pecten valoniensis (very abundant),
limestone, weathering other fossils as in the first section.
brown.
H. Shaly parting............ 0 4
G. Limestone likeI;‘beef?’ O Sto8 Avicula contorta, Pecten valoniensis,
above and below. etc.
(The shaly parting is in places absent, and G and I are then conjoined.)
F.—II. Crumbly black 2 0 Avicula contorta, Pecten valoniensis,
shales and clay, with Axinus cloacinus, A. concentricus,
siliceous bands, con- A. depressus, A. elongatus, (2) Ana-
taining Cardium rhe- tina Suessi, Cardium rheticum ;
ticum. Gyrolepis Albertii, Hybodus minor,
Saurichthys acuminatus.
I. Thin but constant
ferruginous band.
HK. Ill. Black laminated 2 0
clay.
IJ. Ferruginous band.
1. Black and green 1 0 Avicula contorta, A. solitaria, Axinus
laminated clay. cloacinus, A. depressus, Cardium
rheticum, Gervillia precursor
(young), (i ’) Anatina Suessi, Placu-
nopsis alpina,
74 MR. A, RENDLE SHORT ON RH ETIC [May 1904,
Feet inches.
D. Thickly-bedded, fissile, 1 9 Very barren; a few specimens of
hard, black shales, not Axinus cloacinus and A. concen-
crumbly: = ‘ Paper tricus.
Shales, with —shaly
concretions.
C, A. III. Bone-Bed, con- 0 2 Very few organic remains, except
taining Carboniferous- coprolites; Acrodus minimus, Saur-
Limestone and sand- ichthys acuminatus, Gyrolepis Al-
stone - pebbles; very bertit.
crumbly.
II. Green and black 0 6 (Barren.)
marl,
J. Ferruginousband 0 1
(Krvurer). I]. Brown sand- 0 Otod
stone (variable).
I. Hard,sandy,green 3 0
and brown marl-
stone, with den-
dritic markings.
This section is of interest, as showing how ill-developed the Bone-
Bed becomes when receding from the old shore ; as it is not coherent,
it is not very recognizable.
The next exposure to be considered is beyond that described
second (p. 172). Here, in laying a sewer, another interesting
succession came to light :—
Feet inches.
R,S. Blue and white 4 2, Fossils as usual.)
J .
Lias, ete.
P,. Hard, white, fine- 0O 3 Monotis decussata.
grained limestone.
O. Hard, thickly-bedded, 0 6 Modiola minima, Monotis decussata ;
black shale, crumbly on Gyrolepis Albertit.
its upper surface.
N. Cotham Marble, chiefly 0 3sto6
of the variety which I
have described as ‘ False
Cotham Marble’ (53).
M. Blue and _ yellow
rol, eee cee ee about
K, L. Natadita- beds, not
seen in place.
lo
=
SS
Instead of being cream-coloured fissile limestones, these beds are
thin, hard, sandy, argillaceous slabs, breaking into thin but large
pieces. They are grey in colour, and often sprinkled with tiny
mica-flakes. They are, moreover, extensively ripple-marked, the dis-
tance between the waves being usually about 2 inches. Exquisitely-
preserved worm-tracks, sometimes 3 inches long, are very common.
Yet another exposure remains to be described, but it is in the
Trias rather than the Rhetic. Still, it throws light on some of the
problems of the latter series. It is situated nearer Bristol, about a
Vol. 60. | SECTIONS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 175
quarter of a mile away, at a level about 20 or 30 feet below the
Black Shales. The succession is :—
About 1 yard of surface-soil.
V. Red marl: 2 feet.
IV. Celestine-bed: 2 to 8 inches.—Rather inconstant, confined to the one
horizon.
III. Red marl: 3 inches.
If. Hard typical green marl: 4 inches.
I. Red marl: 15 feet.—Contains a few calcareous plates and nodules. At
the top it is full of nodules about the size of a cricket-ball, composed
of carbonates of strontium and calcium, in the proportion of 37°63 per
cent. of the former, and 62°36 per cent. of the latter.
The celestine, IV, contains an unusual proportion of strontium-carbonate
(SrSO,=68°43 per cent. ; SrCO,=31°56), and is badly crystallized, but shows
a distinct blue colour.
The whole Rhetic Series described above dips gently east-
north-eastward at a somewhat variable angle, usually about 10°.
On the Cotham-Marble horizon the rare mineral baryto-celestine
may be found, chiefly in drusy cavities inside concretions.
Since writing the foregoing account, { have found in the Pecten-
valoniensis zone two or three ovoid, well-rounded blocks looking
exactly like charred wood. On analysis, these turn out to be chiefly
carbon and carbonate of lime, with no phosphate, so that they can
be neither bone nor coprolite, and indeed must be fragments of
drifted wood. As they measure, though very incomplete, ? by } inch,
there must have been trees or very big bushes growing near the
water, or by streams, at that time.
Messrs. Tutcher & Vaughan have described the Lower Lias and
White Lias of these sections in a paper published in February 1903
by the Bristol Naturalists’ Society (52).
(B) Stoke Gifford.
In a railway-cutting recently made in connection with{the new
line from Filton, near Bristol, to Wootton Bassett, the Rheetic has
been well exposed at Stoke Gifford, quite close to Filton.
The whole series dips at 5° towards 10° west of north.
The Lias has been described by Messrs. Reynolds & Vaughan (50),
and it is unnecessary to repeat their description, except to.add that
I found Monotis decussata in their * Ostrea-beds.’
The succession is as follows :—
Feet inches,
N. Cotham Marble, in a 0 4 Rhynchonella calcicosta ; Axinus s
continuous band. Top Monotis decussata.
not so ridged as usual.
M. III. Grey laminated 2 QO (Barren.)
marl,
II. Thin but constant 0
band of siliceous lime-
stone.
nD
her J
Or
(The thickness of the Rhetic Series here = 21 feet.)
| May 1904,
Brodieana ;
but about 10
Pteromya
Anatina Suessi, ,
Cardium
Ptero-
Pt. simplex ;
Aybodus-spine,
(Very barren.)
176 MR. A, RENDLE SHORT ON RI_ATIC
Feet inches.
I. Grey laminated 3 3. Estheria minuta, var.
marl, with mica-flakes. insects.
More _ thickly - bedded
siliceous layers at the
base, showing ripple-
marks, the ridges run-
ning north-eastward and
south-westward.
L, K II (a). Massive but 2 0 (a) Usually barren,
banded, grey, siliceous inches down are several horizons
limestone on the north of Estheria minuta.
side of the cutting.
(b) On the south (0) Natadita lanceolata on the south
side, thinly - bedded, side.
cream-coloured, fissile
limestone like the Naia-
dita-beds of Redland.
I. Greenish-black cal- 1} 0) Pecten valoniensis, Axinus depressus,
careous shales (absent on Cardinia suttonensis,
the south side). Many of Crowcombeia, Saurichthys acumi-
the fossils are pyritized. natus, Gyrolepis Alberti, Naiadita
lanceolata, and especially many
elytra of beetles and wings of in-
sects, usually fragmentary.
J-H. Black flaky marl, very O 10 LPecten valoniensis (very abundant),
fossiliferous. Avicula contorta (scarce), Axinus
(Messrs. Reynolds & depressus, A. concentricus, A. cloa-
Vaughan found here a cinus, A, eongatius,
hard black limestone - (!) Gervillia ornata,
band with Peczen). rheticum, C. cloacinuna,
mya Crowcombeia,
Gyrolepis Albertii,
Saurichthys-teeth,
G. Dark siliceous limestone. 0 3. A few fish-scales,
F. IJ. Crumbly black shale. 5 0
J. Pyritous sandstone... 0 02
K. Crumbly black shales, 2 6 Avicula contorta, Axinus depressus,
with pyritous sandstone- A, cloacinus, A. concentricus, A.
bands, 15 and 22 inches elongatus, Cardium rheticum, C.
respectively below F I. cloacinwin.
D. Hard, thickly-bedded 2 Q Axinus; Gyrolepis,
black ‘ Paper-Shales.’
‘C, B, A. (Absent.)
{ V. Grey, fine- 5 0
| grained, argil-
laceous sand-
| stone.
KEUPEES TV. Greyahales, 95 0
YUL, Redimarl... J 6
| II. Grey shales. 0 8
| I. Red marl ... 12 feet exnosed.
The principal features of interest are: the continuous well-
developed Cotham Marble; the insect-bed; the poor development.
of the Pecten-valoniensis limestone ; and, finally, the absence of the
Bone-Bed.
Vol. 60.] SECTIONS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 177
(C) Cotham Road, Bristol.
The next section to be described was exposed for a few days, in
cutting a channel in connection with the Oakfield Road Waterworks.
It is interesting as passing Cotham House, where Edward Owen
first found Cotham Marble in 1754. Although incomplete above
and below, there are features that make it well worth recording.
I may say that, as more than a few feet of the section were never
exposed in one place, the measurements are rather approximate.
Feet inches.
S. Hard blue limestone, Ostrea Tiassica, Pleuromya Crow-
weathering _yellowish- combeia, Modiola minima.
brown. (Not found in
place.)
N. Cotham Marble, poorly 0 6
developed, usually absent.
A few poor ‘landscape-
stones.’ Frequently re-
presented by concretions
(see p. 178).
M. Yellow marl .............. 1
L, K. Hard, yellow, fissile 3
limestone, like the Naia-
dita-Beds at Redland.
Lower down, it becomes
very massive, not fissile,
with a grey homogeneous
core and yellow exterior.
Usually barren, but splits
along surfaces covered with Natadita lanceolata,
There are also many Pecten valoniensis, Cardium cloaci-
bands, about a quarter of num, Cardinia regularis, Modiola
an inch thick, of brown, minima ; Acrodus minimus, Gyro-
very shelly limestone, lepis Albertii, Sawrichthys acumi-
sometimes jointed into natus ; coprolites.
tiny squaresand polygons.
The shells are arranged
horizontally parallel one
to the other, in a way
very suggestive of Pur-
beck Marble.
1. Thick, hard, shelly, non- 0 4to6 Pecten valoniensis (very abundant),
jointed black limestone. Axinus cloacinus, A. concentricus,
A, depressus, Cardium rheticum,
Modiola minima, Anomia valoni-
ensis, Monotis sp., (2) Gervillia
ornata ; Natica Oppeli ; Gyrolepis-
oO
scales.
H,G. (Absent.)
F, E. Crumbly black shales, Avicula contorta (largeand abundant),
with pyritous flakes; a A. solitaria, Pecten valoniensis (only
few thin siliceous bands. at the top), Arinus concentricus, A.
depressus, Cardium cloacinum, Myo-
phoria Emmrichi (very perfect and
abundant), Modiola (/) minima,
Placunopsis alpina; Gyrolepis
Albertti ; pyritous elytra of beetles.
D. Hard, more thickly-bed- A. few specimens of Avicula contorta
ded, black ‘ Paper-Shales.’ and Axinus.
Bone-Bed (absent).
Q.I.G.8. No. 238. x
178 MR A, RENDLE SHORT ON RHZTIC [May 1904,
The Black Shales are about 15 feet thick: the fossils in them
are the best that I have ever seen. Below come about 15 feet of
yellowish marl and then red sandstone, but this part of the section
was very indifferently exposed.
The horizon of the Cotham Marble is interesting. It is remark-
able that at the very birthplace of the name, so little good ‘ land-
scape-stone’ should be found. Instead, there are several large, flat
concretions of a texture very like that of Cotham Marble, about
13 feet in diameter and 4 to 6 inches thick, revealing cavities
in their interior, lined with calcite and containing the rare mineral
baryto-celestine, of a pale-blue colour, in which the sulphates of
strontium, barium, and calcium are all found.
The beds K & L are of considerable interest also. They are much
more massive than at Redland, and show no ripple-marks or sun-
cracks. It is remarkable how the Naiadita keeps to special
horizons containing no other fossils. Careful search failed to reveal
Estheria minuta.
Finally, we may note the apparent absence of the Bone-Bed.
(D) Aust.
It may, perhaps, be thought that on so classic a section as Aust
nothing new could have been written. For many years it has been
one of the type-exposures of the Rheetic, and Agassiz had immor-
talized its vertebrate fauna long before the Rhetic Beds were
recognized as a formation. The principal references to Aust are by
Agassiz (‘ Poissons Fossiles’), Etheridge (15), Davis (29), and the
Clifton-College Scientific Society (18). Of these, the detailed
account of the stratigraphy is given by Etheridge, whose table I
copy and supplement. Now in this table a vacancy of 13 feet was
left at the top, in a most interesting series of beds, because they
were inaccessible from below. I therefore had myself let down
from the top of the cliff by a rope, measured this gap, and
studied its contents both in place and in fallen pieces :—
No. Feet inches. Formation. Fossits.
23, Ae QO? Miblme Was) 2.5. tees Ostrea liassica, O. multicostata,
Pleuromya Crowcombeia, Pecten
Pollux.
22. 0 Sto8S Cotham Marble ............ Modiola minima, Monotis decus-
sata ; Gyrolepis Albertii, Pholi-
dophorus Higginsi, Saurichthys
apicalis, Legnonotus cothanensis,
Spherodus minimus ; insect-
wings and elytra.
A 2. ~ Yellow shaly claye..is<-- (Barren.)
20. 2 6G Hard, fine-grained, argil- Naiadita lanceolata; Lstheria
laceous limestone, cream- minuta.
coloured outside, greyer
inside ; often fissile.
19,5 Q Yellow,thinly-bedded,very (Barren.)
argillaceous limestone,
often crumbly.
Vol. 60. | SECTIONS IN THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 179
No. Feet inches. Formation. Fossits.
i 0 5 Upper Pecten-Bed, hard Pecten valoniensis, Placunopsis al-
grey limestone. Usually pina. Locally it is thinly-bedded
double, with 4 inches of and crowded with Acrodus mi-
shale intervening. The nimus, Pleurophorus elongatus,
top often covered with Saurichthys apicalis, S. acwmi-
crushed shells. natus, Gyrolepis, Hybodus-spines,
bones, coprolites, ete.; Ichthyo-
saurus, Plestosaurus, Termato-
saurus.
| pia Q Black shales, with ‘ Pul- 1 7
White argillaceous limestone: ostracods, Estheria,
TELS MB Datel ch: Oh i ee eee ee 0 a
| Deere Bite ee ns es es aay! os, ean sen o 0
White argillaceous limestone, with variable shaly
i partings and lenticular beds of hard gritty lime-
stone. Estheria minuta var. Brodieana is
| common in the white limestone ..........5....... + 0
( (ii) Black shale, often very papery. Pecten valoni-
ensis, Car dium rheticum, and Schizodus
| Ewaldi ave abundant, Avicula contorta rare :
! with them occur bands full of fish-scales,
TEPC hiy BI: WORE DEE 7 eo ons oe vnc cence eee wen «<2 6 Q
(i) Hard, black, compact limestone, sometimes
| pyritous. Pecten valoniensis and Cardiwin
Urrrer Ruetic.
Lower Ruatic
——— A
ee
—_
es
rheticum are abundant......00....s000-esesene-s 4 0
II & I. Shales ete. not well exposed for examination. -————_
(Grey or Tea-Green Marl.) 18 10
At the western end of the south side of the very wide cutting
at Stoke Gifford, the Upper (but not the Lower) Beds of the Rhetic
Series are exposed. The series is somewhat thicker than that on
the north side of the line, as is seen from the following section,
the beds on the two sides being numbered in correspondence :—
Goin Mansix Thickness in feet inches,
ERE UCM SIGNED ins eho Bet cack oe tapkrs ides bee 3 8
ieee WY bite areillaceous limestone “<2. 20.2. .2cse62 6 se 25-00 en Oy 5
| DN Gge ee POE, SRNL cei asi, iss ced essa cos lec Seaap Paes penis 4 6
IV. Thinly-bedded argillaceous limestone, with Naiadita. 2 0
1 Palo:shale to base of section, 6.0.5.chs-ivececes sesvedoosese 0 6 seen
ir | Pecten-bed, shown in a drainage-cutting at the base of
| the slope.
The most noteworthy feature of this section, as compared with
that (which will be described on p. 197) lying to the east of Lilliput,
is the complete absence of the Bone-Bed.
(6) The Lilliput or Chipping-Sodbury Section.
A section of the Rhetic occurs, overlying the Keuper, at the end
of the Carboniferous-Limestone section west of Lilliput Bridge.
The beds here were, unfortunately, already much overgrown when
we first visited them. The section is as follows :—
Compact limestone (Sun-Bed), with a somewhat ) Feet inches.
doubtful representative of the Cotham Marble.
[ browntor geoyish shales j¢c..Fevisase cae oc aed suis 2 0
: Pale argillaceous limestone..............sse-s.ssesees 0 5
ey: CFPEV IS ARIE. Nee pena passe Wanden or less. 2:2 or more.
Dimensiona Saaeaeal 3
pee , ; * {| > cs fl a ] 1 4)
Position of beak (from anterior)... Never less than oe 4 tot of length.
The other characters are the same for both, namely: small and
non-prominent beak, general oval form, rounded anterior margin,
and gently convex lower margin. Be
It is, however, just at our RKhetic forms that the above distine-
tions break down; for, in dimensional ratio and position of beak,
our form might be considered to be either a crassiuscula-like muta-
tion of concinna, or a concinna-like mutation of -crassiuscula. In
fact, any distinction based upon the numerical ratio of dimensions
is contessedly artificial; in our case, these distinctions would
separate the young form (shown by the growth-lines), as a typical
crassiuscula, from the adult form, which approximates to concinna.
It seems best to group our forms broadiy under C. concinna,
which may be considered to connote : elongate oval form, uniformly-
and strongly-convex anterior and posterior margins, and uniformly-
but gently-convex lower margin. ;
The figure which most nearly approaches our form is that of
C. reqularis, Terq. (4), pl. xx, fig. 2. which agrees remarkably well
in all respects, except that the convexity of the anterior margin is
greater (in the figure) than that of the posterior margin.
Specimens are common in the main Avicula-beds.
PrevRopHoRUs ELoNGATUS, Moore (? = Anoplophora postera, Deftner
& Fraas). (Text-fig. 5.)
There is no doubt as to the identity of our fossils with Moore’s
species (1); the general contour, and the fold which runs diagonally
backward, render recognitipn easy. There is, however, more
difficulty as to the genus.
The cast exhibits the following characters :—Upper and lower
margins nearly parallel, but
Fig. 5.—Fleurophorus elonga- slightly diverging backward: a
tus, Moore (magnified 13 prominent anterior muscular im-
diameters ). _ pression, in front of the beak.
. circumscribed by a deep furrow:
a pallial line of continuous curva-
ture, ending in a less prominent
posterior muscular impression; a
very blunt beak-region; a sharp
indentation, in front of the beak.
continuous with the deep groove
which forms the hinder boundary
of the anterior muscular impression. All these characters of the
cast, except the blunt beak-region, would apply to any one of the
genera Pleurophorus, Anoplophora, or Myoconcha.
Since Anoplophora has no teeth, and MV yoconcha only a long ridge-
like tooth, running backward from the beak close along the hinge-
. are ry. eI yy
AND STOKE GIFrORD.
ric Mounusca at SopBury
Nd
VI
‘OmMMONEST RIL
ANGE-DIAGRAM OF TIE
3 LL.—
TABLI
Lina valontens 25s.
Modiola
\IModiola so\dburiensts.
Plejurophorwus |-elongatus.
PERS ee
Calirdium ‘rheticum & C. cloacinum.
Schizodus
Pecten vailo
Avicu la
Vv
LN;
TT
minima.
tutla elo\aetna.
Huwaildt.
NMLENSTIS.
contor|ta.
Vol. 60. | RH_ETIC OF THE SOUTH-WALES DIRECT LINE. © 207
line, the cast of a specimen of either genus shows a sharply-pointed
beak.
On the other hand, Plewrophorus had a large hinge-plate, bearing
strong cardinal teeth, so that the cast should be broad and blunt
beneath the beak (as in casts of Cardinia, so common in the Lower
Lias). There seems, then, to be little doubt that Moore correctly
diagnosed the genus. Quenstedt (‘ Der Jura’ pl. 1, fig. 32) figures
a somewhat similar form, but the upper and lower borders con-
verge backward : it can, therefore, scarcely be considered as identical
with our specimen. Brauns (5) unhesitatingly refers Quenstedt’s
figure to Anoplophora postera, and only doubtfully includes Moore’s
species as a synonym. It seems, therefore, very uncertain whether
we have found the species that is so common in the bottom beds
in Germany.
Our specimen was derived from the main Avicula-beds.
CarbDium cLoactnum, Qu. (Text-fig. 6.)
Average dimensions : horizontal, 144 millimetres; vertical, 13 mm.
The largest specimen that we found measured 22! mm., vertically.
Fig. 6.—Cardium cloacinum, Qu. (magnified 33 diameters).
In the fact that the curvature of the ribs is concave towards the
front, and that they increase in breadth towards the posterior margin,
the shell has a somewhat Cardita-like aspect. But the beaks are
scarcely, if at all, turned towards the front, and the teeth are of the
typical Cardiwm-pattern. There is considerable variability in the
number and breadth of the ribs, as well as in the transversity and
convexity of the valves, :
The ribs are broad and, apparently, flat-topped, separated only
by linear grooves (exactly after the pattern of the radial ribs seen
208 PROF. REYNOLDS AND MR. VAUGHAN ON THE [| May 1904,
in Cardium rheticum). The concentric growth-lines are also well-
marked, and produce, in crossing the ribs, the facetted type of
ornament; a few of the growth-lines are much stronger than the
others (producing the frill-type of ornament).
The species is figured by Quenstedt (2), and by Oppel & Suess (8).
It seems impossible to include this form under Cardita Hebert,
Terq., as has been done by Brauns (5), pp. 326-27.
This is the commonest species at Sodbury, and ranges from the
base of the Avicula-bed up into the Hstheria-bed.
Carpium RwzTICUM, Merian.
The specimens are usually large (22 millimetres along the first
radial rib).
The hinder part of the valve is bent along a radial fold, and the
area thus formed is concave ; but there is never a ridge at the fold.
There are three or four ribs in front of the fold. The ribs are broad
and flat, and are separated by linear grooves.
Very common in the main Pecten-bed.
Scuizopus Ewatpt, Bornemann (= Awinus cloacinus, Moore).
‘specially common in the main Avicula-bed.
(6) Vertebrata, with Notes on the Position of the Bone-Bed.
ys: tise.
The vertebrate fauna of the Rheetic Bone-Bed of the Chipping-
Sodbury section is rich and varied, nearly as rich as that of Aust,
which it much resembles. The following species were met with,
the nomenclature adopted being that of Dr. Smith Woodward &
Mr. Sherborn.’
Reprint.
Plesiosaurus costatus, Owen.—'Teeth and vertebral centra occur
occasionally, but are not so plentiful as at Aust.
Rysosteus Owent, Owen.—Small, presumably reptilian, vertebrie
with the characters to which Owen applied the above name are not
uncommon. Mr. Montagu Browne * notes that, in certain respects,
these vertebree have amphibian affinities.
Coprolites and broken undeterminable bones are very common.
AMPHIBIA.
? Metoposaurus diagnosticus, Meyer.—This species, which is well-
known from Aust, might be expected to occur at Sodbury, but its
occurrence can hardly be said to be clearly established. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1894 (Oxford) p. 658.
Vol. 60. | RHZTIC OF THE SOUTH-WALES DIRECT LINE. 209
fragment of bone belonging to Mr. W. H. Wickes (to whom we
are greatly indebted for the opportunity of examining a large
collection of Rhetic Bone-Bed material from Sodbury) shows the
peculiar pustulated surface seen in a fragment of bone figured
by Meyer & Plieninger' as part of the breast-bone of a laby-
rinthodont, and also in many fragments of bone of undoubtedly-
labyrinthodont origin in the British Museum (Natural History)
and elsewhere. But, on the other hand, this character occurs in
bones labelled Hybodus in the Stuttgart collection, and in a jaw
of Saurichthys figured by Dr. Smith Woodward.” In connection
with the latter specimen, attention may be drawn to Mr. Mon-
tagu Browne’s suggestion,’ that jaws bearing teeth of two kinds,
which have been described as Saurichthys, may really belong to
labyrinthodonts.
PIscEs.
Elasmobranchii.
Hybodus cloacinus, Quenstedt.—Tecth agreeing closely with
Quenstedt’s figure* occur somewhat sparingly. The large fin-
spines, described by Mr. J. W. Davis’ under the name of Hybodus
austiensis, are fairly common, though always in a fragmentary state
and generally much rubbed. We follow Dr. Smith Woodward &
Mr. Sherborn in considering that they are best provisionally referred
to Hybodus cloacinus. Mr. W. H. Wickes obtained an example of
the curious cephalic dermal spines of Hybodus, described by
Agassiz® under the name of Sphenonchus.
Hybodus minor, Ag.—One small tooth, with a high, slender,
median cone, is probably to be referred to this species.
Acrodus minimus, Ag.—The teeth of a small species of Acrodus
occur in thousands, but always detached. They and the teeth of
Saurichthys are the two commonest fossils in the Bone-Bed at
Sodbury, just as they are at Aust and probably all the other
Rhetic Bone-Bed localities in the Bristol district. They show
a considerable amount of variability, but are at present, no doubt,
all to be included under Acrodus minimus.
Small, deeply-biconcave, vertebral centra, 4 to 5 millimetres in
diameter, occasionally occur, as they do at Aust and Emborough.
Apparently they have not yet received a name.
Dipnoi.
Ceratodus latissimus, Ag.—Ceratodus-teeth are not uncommon at
Sodbury, though less plentiful than at Aust. They are grouped in
the comprehensive species C. latissimus=C. polymorphus, Miall.
1 « Beitrage zur Palaont. Wiirtt.’ 1844, pl. ix, fig. 8.
Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 6, vol. iii (1889) pl. xiv.
Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1894 (Oxford) pp. 657-58.
‘Der Jura’ 1858, pl. ii, fig. 15.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxxvii (1881) p. 416 & pl. xxii, fig. 1.
° * Poiss. Foss.’ vol. ili (1833-48) p. 201.
Q.J.G.8. No. 238. P
uo &® | W
210 PROF. REYNOLDS AND MR, VAUGHAN ON THE [May 1904,
Teleostomi.
Sauruchthys acwminatus, Ag.—The teeth to which this name
is commonly applied occur in very large numbers, and are, with the
exception of those of Acrodus minimus, the most plentiful fossils
met with. Dr. Smith Woodward ! remarks on the close relationship
between the imperfectly-known genus Saurichthys and the better-
known genus Belonorhynchus, and tentatively suggests that the two
may really belong to the same genus. Mr. Montagu Browne,’ on
the other hand, suggests that Saurichthys is ‘a non-existent piscine
genus, and that the teeth referred to under this name can _ be
assigned to labyrinthodonts, Plescosaurus, Hybodus, Gyrolepis, and
perhaps Colobodus. The Sodbury material consists entirely of
isolated teeth, and affords no assistance in the settlement of this
question.
Sargodon tomecus, Plhen.—Small teeth with long roots and some-
what chisel-shaped crowns, described under the above name by
Plieninger,*® occur somewhat sparingly, as they do at Aust and
many other Rheetic localities in the Bristol district. With them
are found teeth which differ from them only in having knob-like
instead of chisel-shaped crowns, and have been described under the
name of Psammodus orbicularis by Meyer & Plieninger and under
that of Sphwrodus minimus by Agassiz. Pleninger suggested, and
the suggestion is supported by Dr. Smith Woodward,‘ that these
belong to the same animal as the typical chisel-shaped teeth.
Mr. Montagu Browne ® suggests that the knob-like teeth are to be
referred to Colobodus maximus (Quenstedt).
Gyrolepis Alberitt, Ag—The small striated scales of Gyrolepis
are very common. ‘They vary a good deal in size and in the state
of preservation, some being much rubbed. Agassiz recognized
several species, based on the form of the scales; but Dames °
showed that probably the form of the scale varied in different
parts of the animal’s body, and that the three forms of scale
described by Agassiz may all belong to one and the same fish.
This view is accepted by Dr. Smith Woodward.’
Notes on the Position of the Bone-Bed.
Although the extreme variability of the Rhetic Bone-Bed or
Beds in number, position, and development is well known, it may
perhaps be worth while to summarize its (or their) distribution in
the Bristol district. The typical position of the Bone-Bed
may be said to be at the base of the Black-Shale
1 Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 6, vol. 1i1 (1889) p. 302.
* Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1894 (Oxford) p. 657.
* Jahresh. Ver. vaterl. Naturk. Wurtt. vol. iii (1847) p. 165.
4 Catal. Foss. Fishes Brit. Mus. pt. iii (1895) p. 67.
Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1891 (Cardiff) p. 645.
Paleont. Abhandl. vol. iv (1888) p. 143.
Trans. Leicester Lit. & Phil. Soc. n. s. vol. i, pt. xi (1889) p. 20, and Catal.
Foss. Fishes Brit. Mus. pt. i (1891) p. 510.
I ao oe
Vol. 60.] © RHZTIC OF THE SOUTH-WALES DIRECT LINE. 211
Series. A Bone-Bed occupies this position in the Sodbury
section, at Patchway, Redland, Sedbury Cliff, Watchet, Penarth,
and Emborough. At Gold Cliff, near Newport, a Bone-Bed
underlies 3 feet of Tea-Green Marls. In several other well-known
sections it lies a short distance above the base. Thus at Aust it
lies 9 inches, at Wainlode Cliff 2 feet, and at Coombe Hill 33 feet,
above the base of the Black-Shale Series.
Although more or less isolated vertebrate remains may be met
with, no true Bone-Bed has been recorded at the Rheetic sections
of Wells, Shepton Mallet, Uphill, Pylle Hill, Saltford, Knowle,
and Stoke Gifford. At most of these sections, however, a band
of hard sandstone or tough limestone, with a smaller or greater
number of vertebrate remains, occurs at or near the base of the
Black-Shale Series, and is regarded as the equivalent of the Bone-
Bed. Thus, at Pylle Hill, a very thin and irregular seam of pyritic
grit, containing scales, teeth, and coprolites of fishes, occurs at the
base; and at Wells there is a tough bluish-brown limestone in
the same position. Similar bands occur at other horizons in the
northern part of the district. Thus, at Chaxhill, a micaceous sand-
stone, regarded by Mr. L. Richardson as the equivalent of the Bone-
Bed, overlies 7 feet of alternating shales and micaceous sandstones ;
and at Puriton, a somewhat similar bed of sandstone, passing into
impure limestone, is recorded in the vertical section of the Geo-
logical Survey, at a height of 203 feet above the base of the Black-
Shale Series.
In various sections more than one Bone-Bed is met with. Thus,
in the Penarth (Lavernock) section, while a typical but very irre-
guiarly-developed Bone-Bed occurs at the base of the Black Shales,
a second and thinner Bone-Bed is found at a height of + feet from
the base. At Aust, in addition to the well-known basal Bone-Bed,
there are indications of a second some 3 feet above the base of the
Black Shales. At Emborough the principal Bone-Bed is at the base
of the Black Shales, while a second and thinner one occurs at the
top; and a band of conglomerate with scales and teeth underlies
some 3 feet of sand and sandstone which intervene between the
Black Shales and the Tea-Green Marls.
In the coast-section to the east of Watchet, in addition to the prin-
cipal Bone-Bed at the base of the Black Shales, Prof. Boyd Dawkins
describes two thinner Bone-Beds, consisting of hard sandstone
with many fish-teeth, and occurring at a height of about 10 feet
from the base. AtSedbury Cliff, in addition to the Bone-Bed at the
base of the section, Mr. Richardson records a band with coprolites,
fish-teeth, and an ichthyodorulite, which lies at about the middle of
the Black Shales. At Garden Cliff the principal Bone-Bed occurs
at a height of about 63 feet from the base of the Black-Shale
Series. Lower down are the upper and lower bands of Pullastra-
sandstone, each of which contains numerous vertebrate remains. At
Wainlode Cliff, too, in addition to the main Bone-Bed 2 feet from
the base of the Black Shales, a second band 10 feet higher up was
noted by Brodie ; in Mr. Richardson’s recent account of the section,
P2
212 PROF. REYNOLDS AND MR. VAUGHAN ON THE [May 1904,
a limestone-band with vertebrate remains is recorded, but hardly
such a deposit as could strictly be termed a Bone-Bed.
A consideration of the geographical position of the above
localities, shows that throughout Somerset, with the exception
of Emborough and Watchet, no true Bone-Bed has been recorded.
In the district to the immediate north of Bristol—Redland, Aust,
Patchway, Sodbury, but not Stoke Gifford—there is a single, well-
marked Bone-Bed at, or very slightly above, the base of the Black-
Shale Series; while farther north, in the Gloucester district, the
principal Bone-Bed tends to lie at a greater distance from the base
of the Black Shales.
The facts summarized above seem to render it clear that the
principal Bone-Beds of the various sections in the Bristol district
cannot be regarded as the homotaxial equivalents of one another;
a conclusion to which, as already stated (p. 200), we have been
led by a comparison of the Sodbury section with that at Garden
Cliff.
The following is a list of the principal localities in the Bristol
district where a section showing the base of the Rhetic Series
occurs, with some references to the most recent, complete, or
accessible descriptions of the sections :—
Aust.—vVert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 46, no. 6; W. J. Sollas, Proc. Geol.
Assoc. vol. vi (1880) pp. 385-86 ; Brit. Assoc. 1898 (Bristol), ‘Excursion
to Aust & Overcourt, p. 5; & A. Rendle Short, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
vol. lx (1904) p. 178.
Chaxhill.—L. Richardson, Proc. Cottesw. Nat. Field-Club, vol. xiv, pt. ii
(1903) p. 175.
Coombe Hill.—Vert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 47, no.7; & L. Richardson,
op. eit. p. 148.
Cotham Road.—A. Rendle Short, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. lx (1904)
05 LTT:
Miiité ougho Lloyd Morgan & 8. I. Reynolds, Proc. Bristol Nat. Soe.
vol. ix, pt. ii (1901, issued for 1899) p. 109.
Garden Cliff, Westbury.—Vert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 46, no. 7; & L.
Richardson, op. cit. p. 154.
Gold Cliff, near Newport.—J. E. Lee, Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1872 (Brighton)
Trans. Sect. p. 116; & H. B. Woodward, Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. x
(1888) p. 538.
Knowle.—Vert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 46, no. 4.
New Clifton.—See Redland.
Patchway.—Vert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 46, no. 8.
Penarth and Lavernock.—Vert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 47, nos. 1 & 3;
R. Etheridge, Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc. vol. iii (1872) p. 39; & H. B.
Woodward, Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. x (1888) p. 529.
Puriton.—Vert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 46, no. 1.
Pylle Hill.—E. Wilson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xlvii (1891) p. 545.
Radstock (Clan Down).—W. Buckland & W. D. Conybeare, Trans. Geol.
Soc. 2nd ser. vol. i, pt. ii (1824) p. 278.
Redland.—W. H. Wickes, Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. vol. ix, pt. ii (1901, issued
for 1899) p. 99; J. Parsons, ibid. p. 104; & A. Rendle Short, Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. lx (1904) p. 170.
Saltford.—Vert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 46, no. 9.
QuarT. JOURN. GEOL. Soc. VoL. LX, PL. XVIII.
Fia. 3a.
Fia. 3.
Colla.
Bemrose,
J. W. Tutcher, Photogr.
RHATIC LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Vol. 60, | RHETIC OF THE SOUTH-WALES DIRECT LIN®. 213
Sedbury Cliffi—L. Richardson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lix (1903)
p- 390 & pl. xxiv.
Shepton Mallet.—Vert. Sect. Geol. Surv. sheet 46, no. 15.
Uphill.—Vert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 46, no. 3.
Wainlode Cliff—L. Richardson, Proc, Cottesw. Nat. Field-Club, vol. xiv,
pt. 11 (1903) p. 128.
Watchet.—W. Boyd Dawkins, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xx (1864)
p. 396.
Wells.—Vert. Sect., Geol. Surv. sheet 46, no. 14.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.
Rhetic Lamellibranchiata.—All the figures are of the natural size.
Fig. 1. Anomia sp. (See p. 201.)
Figs. 2 & 2a. Pecten valoniensis, Defr. (See p. 202.)
3 &8a. Modiola sodburiensis, sp. nov. (See p. 203.)
Fig. 4. Cardinia concinna, Sow. aff. reqularis, Terq. (See p. 204.)
5. Fragment of Plicatula cloacina, sp. nov. (See p. 202.)
{We are greatly indebted to Mr. J. W. Tutcher for the excellent photographs
from which the figures in this plate are reproduced. |
Discussion.
Mr. Srrawan testified to the great value of the observations made
by the Authors on the sections that had been opened up on the new
line of railway. He had had an opportunity of visiting the
Chipping-Sodbury cutting, and had been particularly struck with
the form of the Paleozoic floor under the Rhetic shales. In one
place a small crag, formed by a hard quartz-grit interbedded in the
Carboniferous Limestone, projected above the generally-even level
of that floor and had yielded great blocks which lay at its foot
embedded in the shales. Another projecting mass, formed by the
upper beds of the Old Red Sandstone, had formed an island and
subsequently a shoal in the earliest Rhetic sediments. Its surface,
recently cleared of the shales, showed the rounding and smoothing
by the Rhetic waves in extraordinary freshness. In strong con-
trast to this was the base of the Keuper Marl on the other side of
Lilliput Bridge, where the old cliff showed no such wave-action,
but had been littered up with a talus of rough blocks.
The earliest Rhetic sediments thinned out on the flanks of the
Old-Red-Sandstone crag to which he had referred, but the later beds
overspread it, curving gently upward and thinning as they did so.
The Authors showed the Bone-Bed as extending continuously over
the surface of the old rock, which suggested that it might be not
strictly contemporaneous, but a littoral representative of any part
of the Lower Rhetic shales. It indicated merely a sudden change
of physical conditions.
The Rey. H. H. Winwoop referred to the great interest attaching
to these Rheetic beds, at least among West-of-England geologists,
and regretted the absence of the Authors, who had done such good
214 RH#/ETIC OF THE SOUTH-WALES DIRECT LINE. [May 1904,
work in these sections. He wished to ask a few questions by way
of explanation, not of criticism. What was their definition of the
‘true Bone-Bed’? If fish-scales and teeth were any guide, he had
found both in a thin band of limestone in the Black Shales, on the
south side of Stoke-Gifford cutting. Again, it was stated that no
true Bone-Bed had been recorded in Somerset, except at Emborough
and Watchet; but he had found a fish (Pholidophorus) at the base
of the Black Shales, at Newbridge-Hill cutting, near Bath. What
evidence, moreover, was there for their division of the strata into
Upper, Middle, and Lower Rhetic? In conclusion, he drew
attention to the surface of the Paleozoic floor, smoothed and planed
down by the sea which deposited these Rheetic beds.
Qn
Vol. 60. | THE DERBY EARTHQUAKES OF 1903. 21
16. The Dersy Earruavakss of Marcon 247TH and May 3rp, 1903.
By Cartes Davison, Sc.D., F.G.S. (Read February 24th,
1904.)
[Puate XIX—Map. |
As a seismic region, Derbyshire is marked by few earthquakes,
though parts, and even the whole, of the county are occasionally
disturbed by shocks from other British centres. To find one that
will compare in strength with the principal subject of this paper,
we must go back more than a century, to November 18th, 1795,
when a shock was felt over a district reaching in one direction from
Leeds to Bristol, and in the other from Norwich to Liverpool.
The dimensions of the disturbed area are given by Dr. E. W. Gray,
F.R.S.,. as about 165 miles from north to south, and about
175 miles from east to west. ‘In this latter direction, or rather
from north-east to south-west,’ he remarks, ‘it may be said to
have reached nearly across the island.’ The area disturbed cannot
have been less, and may have been much more, than 23,000 square
miles; while, if we may judge from the places where chimneys
were wholly or partly destroyed (Derby, Chesterfield, and Ashover),
the epicentre may have coincided approximately with that of the
principal earthquake of 1903.
In another respect there seems to have been a close resemblance
between the two shocks. It is probable from Dr. Gray’s account
(op. cit. p. 365), that the earthquake of 1795 was what I have termed
a *‘ twin ’-earthquake, that it consisted of two distinct parts separated
by a very short interval of rest and quiet. That this was a charac-
teristic feature of the earthquake of 1903 was evident from the
earliest reports; and, on this account, and also since the district is
a favourable one for such investigations, I endeavoured to make an
unusually-detailed study of the shock.” If, in so doing, I have met
with any measure of success, it 1s almost entirely owing to the
kindness of the very large number of correspondents who have sent
me reports, to the courtesy of many newspaper-editors who have
given a wide circulation to my inquiries, and not least to the
invaluable help which I have received from Sir John G. N. Alleyne,
Bart., Mr. H. H. Arnold-Bemrose, F.G.S., Mr. J. E. Bolton of
Kckington, Mr. J. Darby, Hon. Secretary of the Wolverhampton
Naturalists’ Field-Club, Mr. T. Gledhill of Dronfield, Mr. E. O.
Powell, headmaster of the Grammar-School, Stafford, the Rev. C.
Price of Denstone College, Mr. A. H. Stokes, F.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Mines, Mr. P. K. Tollit, headmaster of the Grammar-School,
Derby, Dr. G. 8. Turpin, headmaster of the High School, Nottingham,
and Mr. F. W. Webb, manager of the London & North-Western
* Phil. Trans. Roy. Soe. vol. lxxxvi (1796) pp. 353-81.
2 The expenses of the investigation were defrayed from a grant received
from the Government Research Fund.
216 DR. CHARLES DAVISON ON THE [May 1904,
Railway locomotive-department at Crewe. My debt to Mr. Arnold-
Bemrose may to some extent be realized by the statement that I
have to thank him for more than 170 records, many of them the
results of personal interviews with observers, for a classified series of
newspaper-reports, for the enlargement of the seismographic record
which appears in fig. 1 (p. 220), and for information on the geological
structure of the epicentral district. Without this timely aid, the
gaps in our knowledge of the Derby earthquake would have been
more serious, as well as more numerous, than those which at
present exist.
The undoubted earthquakes were four in number, namely: |
a. March 24th, 1.30 p.m. (Principal earthquake.)
6. March 24th, about 1.45 p.m.
c. March 24th, about 5 p.m.
d. May 3rd, 9.22 p.m.
Besides these, eight other disturbances are reported, three before
and five after the principal earthquake, but the evidence is
insufficient to decide their seismic origin. They are as follows :—
March 28rd, about 1.45 p.m.: Abbotshulme (near Rocester). Two persons
felt a shock.
March 24th, about 5 a.m.: Kirk Langley. Two persons felt a shock similar
to the principal shock.
March 24th, about 10.55 a.mw.: Abbotshulme. One person felt a shock.
March 24th, about 1.50 p.m.: Tissington. A very slight shock.
March 25th, 0.30 a.m.: Fenny Bentley.
distances between the isoseismals 5, 4, and that which forms the
boundary of the disturbed area, are respectively 3:7 and 6-4 miles
on the north-west side, and 3-0 and 5:0 miles on the south-east
side. Taking account of possible error in the tracing of these
curves, it follows that the originating fault must, in the neigh-
bourhood of the focus, run about N. 25° E. and §, 25° W., hade
230 DR. CHARLES DAVISON ON THE [May 1904,
towards the north-west, and intersect the surface along a line
passing near, or a short distance to the south-east of Hognaston.
The epicentre, or the chief part of it, evidently lies between the
two epicentres of the principal earthquake (of March 24th); while
the displacement towards the east or south-east of the isoseismal lines
with respect to those of the principal shock shows that, if connected
with the same fault, the focus must have been situated much nearer
to the surface. The latter inference is also supported by the
closeness of the isoseismals, which is indicative of a rapid decline in
intensity from the epicentre outwards.
Fig. 2.—Map of ihe Derby earthquake of May 3rd, 1903.
we] -—--..
ee -~
—o—
Ai :
iheton
Hognaston
fo)
Kniveton
hbourne ;
/
4 Duffield
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SS A
oe
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Boundat
Seale of Miles
2 6
-
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Nature of the Shock.
Tn most places, the shock is described as a sudden shiver or short
tremor, its average duration being about 34 seconds. Of the 36
observers who refer to the nature of the shock, 29 distinctly state
that it consisted of only one part, and the remainder do not enter
into details. The shock was, therefore, not a twin, but due to a
disturbance within a single continuous focus.
Vol. 60.] DERBY FARTHQUAKES OF 1903. 231
Sound-Phenomena.
The boundary of the sound-area is shown by the dotted curve in
fig. 2. Towards the south, its course is somewhat uncertain, but
it probably does not deviate by more than a fraction of a mile from
the position there laid down. The boundary, as drawn, is 24 miles
long, 17 miles wide, and contains about 320 square miles. The
sound was heard by 92 per cent. of all the observers. It was
compared to passing traction-engines, ete., in 45 per cent. of the
records, to thunder in 389 per cent., wind in 6, loads of stones falling
in 3, explosions in 3, and to miscellaneous sounds in 3 per cent.
The beginning of the sound is said to have preceded that of the
shock in 47 per cent. of the records, and to have coincided with it
in 53 per cent. ; while the end of the sound is said to have coincided
with that of the shock in 58 per cent. of the records, and followed
it in 42 per cent. Twelve observers noted the time-relations of
both terminal epochs; according to six of them, the duration of
the sound was greater than, and according to the other six equal
to, that of the shock. Thus, in its nature, and in its time-
relations with the shock, the sound of this after-shock resembled
that which accompanies the typical slight earthquake.
ORIGIN OF THE EARTHQUAKES.
According to the seismic evidence, the mean direction of the
earthquake-fault must be N. 33° E. and $8. 33° W., its hade must be
to the north-west, and the fault must either traverse the village of
Hognaston or pass a short distance to the south-east of it. On the
Geological Survey-map (sheet 72), no faults are marked in the
immediate neighbourhood of this place. The surface-rocks belong to
the Yoredale Series, except for an inlier of Carboniferous Limestone
between Kniveton and Bradbourne, which terminates towards the
west in two masses of toadstone. The faults that border these
masses, according to the Survey-map, were for the most part inserted
to account for the presence of the toadstone. About a mile west of
Hognaston, a few small faults, half a mile or less in length, occur ;
but none agrees, either in direction or position, with the fault
assigned by the seismic conditions. This fault, however, is roughly
parallel to the strike of the neighbouring rocks, and either dies out
before reaching the surface or, more probably, is obscured by the
superficial covering of Drift.
From the phenomena described in the foregoing pages, the
succession of events during the recent disturbances may be clearly
realized. For many years, possibly for more than a century, there
had been no movement of any consequence along the earthquake-
fault. During the previous twenty-four hours, there may have
been a few small creeps, but the evidence on this point is inde-
cisive; and the principal slips took place at 1.30 p.m. on March 24th,
practically without any sensible preparation. It is perhaps worthy
of notice that the Hereford earthquake of 1896 was preceded by
several shocks, originating chiefly in the south-eastern focus; and
232 THE DERBY EARTHQUAKES OF 1903. [May 1904.
that the two slips of the twin-earthquake were not simultaneous,
the earlier and stronger impulse taking place in the north-western
focus. In the Derby earthquake, there was little, if any, preparatory
movement: the two impulses occurred simultaneously, and were
approximately equal in strength. The foci, the centres of which
were about 8 or 9 miles apart, were completely detached, so far as
any sensible movement in the intermediate region was concerned,
and they were probably small in their horizontal dimensions, the
amount of slip becoming rapidly evanescent towards both lateral
margins. On the same day, two other small slips took place, but
their localities are unknown.
An important result of the double slip was a sudden increase of
stress in the regions of the fault-surface within and surrounding
the margins of both foci. The portion of the fault between the
foci, being affected by movements at each end, received the greatest
accession of effective stress, and consequently, on May 3rd, forty days
after the principal disturbance, a minor slip took place chiefly er
entirely within this region, partly perhaps intruding on the nearer
lateral margins of the two foci, and extending upwards to within
a short distance from the surface.
It may be useful, in conclusion, to compare the succession of
movements along the Derbyshire fault with those which have been
the parents of other recent earthquake-series. The first Carlisle
earthquake of July 9th, 1901, was the result of slipsin two principal
foci, the centres of which were about 23 miles apart, and of a
continuous, though less, displacement throughout the whole inter-
mediate region. About 20 minutes later, there followed a slip which
resembled that of May 3rd, 1903, in being complementary to the
principal displacement and affecting the fault-surface between the
two foci.! Again, the Inverness earthquake of September 18th,
1901, was succeeded by several after-shocks, the foci of the more
important of which gradually approached the surface.” A similar
decrease in depth characterized most of the numerous after-shocks
of the great Japanese earthquake of 1891; and, as we have seen,
the focus of the Derby earthquake of May 3rd, 1903, was much
closer to the surface than those of the principal shock. The
materials at our disposal are still too scanty to allow of general
conclusions being drawn. Future shocks may render manifest
other modes of displacement; but I trust that I am not too
sanguine in thinking that the careful study of earthquakes such as
we experience in this country may, in time, reveal to us the laws
according to which faults grow.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIX.
Map of the Derby earthquake of March 24th, 1905, on the scale of about
15 miles to the inch.
1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. lviii (1902) pp. 371-76.
2 Ibid. pp. 377-79.
4 td eA Quart. vOUrN, WEOL. HOC, VOL, LA, Ci, ALA.
Wetherby o
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Vol, 60. | THE CAERNARVON EARTHQUAKE OF 1903. 233
17. The Camryarvon Karruauake of June 19rn, 1903, and its
Accessory Snocks. By Cuartes Davison, Sc.D., F.G.S.
(Read June 22nd, 1904.)
[Prats XX— Map.|
I, Inrropvuctton.
Durtye the nineteenth century, the county of Caernaryon was
visited by at least fourteen earthquakes. Seven, if not more, of these
disturbances arrived from distant centres, situated near Pembroke,
Hereford, etc.: but three or four were probably of local origin,
their epicentres being either within or not far from the boundaries
of Caernarvonshire. Ail of these local shocks, however, were of
slight intensity ; and, indeed, within the last five centuries, there
does not seem to have been a single indigenous earthquake that can
be compared either in intensity or in extent of disturbed area with
that which, on June 19th, 1903, was felt over nearly the whole of
Wales, the North-West of England, the Isle of Man, and several of
the eastern counties of Ireland.
In the investigation of this earthquake, I have, as usual, been
assisted by a large number of correspondents, to whom my best
thanks are due. In various ways, I have also received timely aid
from Mr. Edward Greenly, F.G.8., Mr. J. D. Macdonogh of
Bettws-y-Coed, Mr. W.'T. Davies of Nantlle, and Mr. W. A. Thomas
of Llantair-pwllgwyngyll. For lists of after-shocks, the value of
which it would be difficult to overestimate, I am indebted to
Mr. F.C. Carey of Bethesda, Mr. E. Davies of Bodfeirig, Mr. W.
T. Davies of Nantlle, Mr. W. Hughes of Gaerwen, Mr. W. W. Hughes
of Penygroes, and Mr. R. R. Jones of Clynnog.’
The total number of earthquakes belonging to the recent series
may amount to 15 or more, the first occurring on June 19th and
the last on June 23rd. Seven of these depend on the evidence of
more than one observer, and are distinguished below by letters and
detailed descriptions. -The remainder are recorded on the authority
of one person only ; and, although I have been careful to include no
disturbance which did not appear to me to be of seismic origin, it
is advisable, I think, to follow the usual rule, and to regard their
character as earthquakes as not fully established.
IL. Forr-SaHock.
a. June 19th, about 4.25 a.m.
Number of records, 2, from 1 place.
A rumbling noise like thunder was heard at Griffiths Crossing,
near Caernarvon.
1 The cost of the investigation was defrayed from a grant received from the
Government Research Fund.
Q. J.G.8. No. 239. R
234 DR. CHARLES DAVISON ON THE (Aug. 1904,
III. Principat EARTHQUAKE.
6b. June 19th, 10.4 a.m.
Intensity, 7; centre of isoseismal 7, lat. 538° 3"0 N., long. 4° 22:9’ W.
Number of records, 388, from 206 places; and 56 negative records from 44
places,
Time of Occurrence.
The total number of time-records (excluding those which are
confessedly approximate) is 176. Of these, 38 estimates are re-
garded by their observers as accurate to the nearest minute: the
average of 18 such estimates from places within the isoseismal 7
being 10" 8" 3° a.m. As, however, the earthquake was registered
by seismographs at 10" 5” 5° at Bidston, and 10" 5™ 56% at
Birmingham, it would seem that the majority of railway-clocks,
and of others dependent on them, must have been kept about
4 minutes fast, and I have therefore deducted this amount from
the times given for all the shocks.
Isoseismal Lines and Disturbed Area.
The continuous lines in P]. XX, broken in parts where their course
is doubtful, represent the isoseismals 7 and 6, the boundary of the
disturbed area, and those portions of the isesoismals 5 and 4 which
traverse the land. In one or two places, buildings were slightly
damaged. At Clynnog, a slab of slate, weighing more than a
hundredweight, was dislodged from the top of a chimney; and, at
Penygroes, two chimneys were thrown down. Both places are close
to the epicentre of the earthquake.
The isoseismal 7 is an elongated ellipse, 333 miles long, 15 miles
wide, and 420 square miles in area. The centre is situated in
lat. 53° 3'-0 N., long. 4° 22°9' W., that is, 4 miles west of Penygroes
church, and the longer axis runs from N. 40° E. to 8. 40° W. Of
the next isoseismal (6), little more than half can be drawn with any
approach to accuracy ; though the completed curve probably does
not deviate greatly from the path marked by the broken line. The
width of the curve is 38 miles, and its distance from the isoseismal 7
is 11:8 miles on the north-west side, and 10°6 miles on the south-
east. The isoseismal 5 is interrupted by the sea to the north of
Flintshire and in Caerdigan Bay. Its distance from the isoseismal 6
towards the south-east is 20 miles. Of the isoseismal 4, nearly half
can be drawn. It traverses the Isle of Man, and the eastern
counties of Ireland; but its course in the latter district is doubtful.
Its distance from the isoseismal 5 towards the south-east is 27
miles.
The outermost isoseismal drawn corresponds to an intensity
between + and 3. It is 185 miles in length from north-east to
south-west, 173 miles wide, and contains 25,000 square miles. The
shock was also felt at four places outside this line—at Dunmore
Vol. 60. ] CAERNARVON FARTHQUAKE OF 1903. 235
East in County Waterford, Ravensdale in County Louth, Kendal, and
Didsbury (near Manchester). The distances of these places from
the outermost isoseismal are, respectively, 22, 8, 25, and 13 miles.
If we regard the boundary of the disturbed area as passing through
Kendal and as concentric with the isoseismal, the disturbed area
would include about 40,000 square miles. The observations at the
four places mentioned were, however, made in upstair rooms, and,
with one exception, by invalids in bed. It seems desirable, therefore,
to regard the disturbed area as bounded by the outermast isoseismal,
and as containing 25,000 square miles.
Nature of the Shock.
In its general features, the nature of the shock was practically
uniform throughout the disturbed area; and the following account
from Meyllteyrn (near Nevin) may be regarded as typical for a very
large portion of the area. The shock began with a series.of tremors,
lasting 4 or 5 seconds, which merged gradually into a single series
of principal vibrations of about 3 or 4 seconds’ duration, these in
turn being succeeded by a brief series of tremors, lasting only | or
2 seconds. The movement was thus continuous, increased gradually
in intensity, and then rather more rapidly died away. At a few
places not far from the centrai area, two maxima of intensity in
the principal vibrations were detected by careful observers; and
their evidence, as will be seen, is confirmed by the seismographic .
record at Birmingham. At a great distance, at Liverpool and
Southport and in some parts of Ireland, for instance, the vibrations
between these maxima were imperceptible, and the shock seemed
to consist of two detached parts. The period of the vibrations also
increased with the distance, so that, in Lancashire, Ireland, and
elsewhere, the motion was a gentle swaying several times to and
fro. The average of 88 estimates of the duration of the shock is
62 seconds,
Seismographic Records,
The Caernarvon earthquake was recorded by a Milne seismograph
at Bidston, near Birkenhead, and by an Omori horizontal pendulum
at Birmingham.
Bidston is 60 miles from the centre in the direction E, 24° N.
Mr. W. E. Plummer, the director of the observatory, kindly informs
me that the first movements took place at 10° 5™ 5° 4.m. The
separate oscillations of the pendulum are not shown on the diagram,
but there seem, he says, to have been two distinct impulses, the
second taking place at 10" 7" 30°. The amplitude of the dis-
turbance was even less than in the case of the Derby earthquake of
March 24th, 1903.
Birmingham hes 111 miles KE. 20°S. from the centre. The record,
which is enlarged 9°75 times in fig. 1 (p. 236), gives the component
of the motion in the east-and-west direction ; and, as the movement
RZ
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Vol. 60.] THE CAERNARVON EARTHQUAKE OF 1903. 237
of the ground is magnified 15:7 times by the pendulum, it follows
that the enlarged diagram represents the actual motion multiplied by
134. The whole movement is divisible, as usual, into three parts—
the preliminary tremors, the principal vibrations, and the concluding
undulations. The preliminary tremors are first perceptible at
10® 5" 56° a.m. (Greenwich mean time), and lasted for 13 seconds.
The enlarged diagram shows hardly any trace of them; but when
the original record is examined under the microscope, they appear
as minute notches, 51 in number, on the tracé. The average period
of the tremors was, therefore, a quarter of a second. The principal
vibrations began at 10" 6" 9°, and lasted 26 seconds. The total
uumber of vibrations is 40 ; but the first 19 are, as a rule, of much
greater amplitude than the rest. They have an average period of
63 second, while that of the remaining 21 vibrations is *67 second.
In the 2nd and 19th vibrations, which are the largest of the
series, the range (or double amplitude) was ‘023 millimetre in the
east-and-west direction, or ‘024 millimetre (that is, about one-
thousandth of an inch) in the direction of the epicentre. Taking
the period of these vibrations as °63 second, the maximum accelera-
tion would be 1°3 mm. per sec. per. sec., or about one-tenth of that
of the Derby earthquake of 1903 at Birmingham. The concluding
undulations began at 10" 6™ 35°. On the enlarged diagram (fig. 1,
p. 236), twenty-seven may be seen, with an average period ot
l second; but, with the aid of the microscope, they can be detected
until 10" 7" 40°, though so obscurely in some parts of the tracc
that their exact number cannot be ascertained. The total duration
of the disturbance was thus 1™ 44°.'
Sound-Phenomena.
The boundary of the sound-area is indicated by the dotted line
in Pl. XX. It is 147 miles long from north-east to south-west,
136 miles wide, and contains about 15,700 square miles, or, say,
three-fifths of the disturbed area. In the whole of the latter area,
88 per cent. of the observers heard the earthquake-sound. In the
central district, the sound was unnoticed by very few persons,
the percentage of audibility being 100 within the isoseismal 7 ;
99 between the isoseismals 7 and 6; 98 between the isoseismals 6
and 5; and falling to 48 in the surrounding zone. The rapid
decline in audibility near the boundary of the sound-area is thus as
marked as it was in the case of the Derby earthquake of 1903.
The number of observers who describe the sound is 291. Of
these, 45 per cent. compare it to passing traction-engines, motor-
cars, etc.; 29 per cent. to thunder; 7 to wind; & to loads of stones
falling ; 1 to the fall of heavy bodies ; 7 to explosicns ; and 3 per cent.
There is no trace of the second impulse registered at Bidston at 105 7™ 305,
At the beginning of the diagram in fig. 1, there is a slight disturbance, which
was, I believe, caused by some particle of dust or roughness of the paper. It
will be noticed that the second half of the more prominent vibrations are super-
posed on a larger curve, which is due to a slight swinging of the pendulum.
238 DR. CHARLES DAVISON ON THE | Aug. 1904,
to miscellaneous types. ‘These approximate closely to the pro-
portions prevalent in strong earthquakes, the average percentages
for the different types in ten recent earthquakes being 46, 22, 10,
4,3, 8, and 6, respectively. ‘The percentage of comparisons to
passing traction-engines is 42 within the isoseismal 7; 49 between
the isoseismals 7 and 6G; and 50 between the isoseismals 6 and 5.
For thunder, ids corresponding percentages are 30, 30, and 24; and,
for wind, 3,.6, and 8: showing how the sound tends to become
smoother and more monotonous with increasing distance from the
epicentre.
The beginning of the sound preceded that of the shock in 62 per
cent. of the records, coincided with it in 36, and followed it in 2,
per cent. The end of the sound preceded that of the shock in
8 per cent., coincided with it in 49, and followed it in 43 per cent.,
of the records. The duration of the sound was greater than that
of the shock in 65 per cent., equal to it in 35, and less than it in
1 per cent., of the records.
Miscellaneous Phenomena.
A few observations were made in slate-quarries in which the
workings are continued underground. At Nantlle, the shock was
felt at a depth of from 50 to 70 yards, the workmen thinking
that a large fall of rock had taken place. It was also noticed in
underground workings at Blaenau Ffestiniog, 19 miles from the
centre.
Among the most interesting observations on the earthquake were
those made on the movement of the loose material of screes. Owing
to the very gradual creeping downwards with every change of
temperature of all stones free to move, a large part of the material
is almost in unstable equilibrium, and a very slight force is necessary
to set it in motion.’ At the time of the earthquake, Mr. W. G.
Fearnsides, F.G.S., was sitting on a slope of serees 150 yards south
of Lleyn dur Arddu and 1 mile north-west of the summit of Snowdon.
‘There were, he says, three chief shocks within about 14 minutes.
The second and strongest so affected the screes that, on turning
round, he saw numbers of stones shuffling and rolling down the
surface. Stones of all sizes were involved, blocks of felsite up to 2 feet
in diameter among them, the larger moving more quickly than the
others, and the noise caused during their motion was so great that
it finally drowned the rumbling of the earthquake. The screes
continued unstable for five minutes, and, at the end of that time,
hundreds of newly-fallen blocks were to be seen lying at the
base.”
" Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xliv (1888) pp. 2382-87, 825-26.
- A somewhat similar observation was made at Blaenau Ffestiniog, where
fragments of slate were seen rolling down the ‘ tips’ of waste slate e from the
quarry-workings.
Vol. 60. ] CAERNARVON EARTHQUAKE OF 1903. 239
TY. Arrer-SHocks.
June 19th, 10.7 s.m.: Meyliteyrn.—A very slight tremor, of intensity 3,
accompanied by a sound like that of distant thunder.
Fig. 2.—Map illustrating the area affected by after-
shock £ of June 19th, 1903. (See p. 240.)
Seale of Miles
2 4 6 ;
ewborough
———— ~
—SoNevin
Criccieth
ve
Pwliheliga
[ For ‘ Bettws Garman’ read ‘ Bettws Garmon ’.]
c. June 19th, 10.9 a.m.
Intensity, 3. Number of records, 4, from 4 places.
A slight tremor was felt at Penygroes and at Gaerwen, while a
rumbling sound was heard at the latter place and also at Bethesda
240 DR. CHARLES DAVISON ON THE [ Aug. 1904,
and Bodfeirig. The boundary of the disturbed area and the position
of the epicentre must have coincided nearly with those of the after-
shocks of June 19th, 11.8 a.m. (f) and June 21st, 8.6 a.m. (¢).
d. June 19th, 10.12 a.m.
Intensity, 5. Number of records, 2, from 2 places.
A slight tremor was felt at Penygroes, and a tremulous sound was
heard at Bethesda. ‘The epicentre probably coincided with, or was
not far distant from, that of the preceding after-shock (c).
e. June 19th, 10.16 a.m.
Intensity, 8. Number of records, 2, from 2 places.
A tremulous sound was again heard at Bethesda. At Bettws
Gcarmon, a slight tremor was felt, lasting about 2 seconds, accom-
panied by a sound like very faint distant thunder,
June 19th, 10.23 a.m.: Bethesda.—A tremulous sound.
June 19th, 10.48 a.a.: Penygroes.—A slight tremor.
f. June 19th, 11.8 a.m.
Intensity, 3; epicentre, lat. 538° 7:6’ N., long. 4° 143’ W. Number of
records, 7, from 7 places (fig. 2, p. 239).
The seven places of observation lie within an elliptical area, 20
miles long, 18 miles wide, and 219 square miles in area. The
centre of the area is 8 miles north-east of that of the principal
shock, and the direction of its principal axis N. 47° E. and. 47° W.
A slight tremor was felt at every place, accompanied at Clynnog,
Nantlle, Penygroes, and Gaerwen by a faint rumbling sound,
June 19th, 12.5 p.m. : Bodfeirig.—A slight shock.
June 21st, 5.26 a.m.: Upper Clynnog.—A shock, accompanied by a sound
like that of the tipping of quarry-rubbish.
g. June 21st, 8.6 a.m.
Intensity, 3. Number of records, 5, from 5 places.
The boundary of the disturbed area and the position of the epi-
centre were nearly the same as those of the after-shock on June 19th,
11.8 a.m. (f, fig. 2, p. 239). A slight shock was felt at Nantlle and
Penygroes, and a rumbling sound was heard at Bodfeirig, Clynnog,
and Newborough.
June 21st, about 9.6 a.m : Clynnog.—Sound heard.
June 22nd, 4.26 a.m.: Penygroes—A slight shock, accompanied by a
rumbling noise. A slight shock was also felt at Penllech during the same
morning, but the time is not given.
June 23rd, about 5,31 a.m.: Nantlle.—A very slight shock.
Vol. 60. | CAERNARVON EARTHQUAKE OF 1903. 241
V. ORIGIN oF THE EARTHQUAKES.
rom the seismic evidence, we obtain the following elements for
determining the position of the originating fault :—(1) the mean
direction of the fault must be parallel, or nearly so, to the longer
axis of the isoseismal 7, that is, it must be from N. 40° E. to
S. 40° W.; (2) the hade of the fault must’ be towards the side on
which the isoseismals are farthest apart, or towards the north-
west ; (3) the fault-line must pass a short distance, a few miles at
the most, on the south-east side of the centre of the isoseismal 7 :
so that, in the epicentral district, its course may be submarine, or
it may pass through or near Clynnog or even a mile or two farther
to the south-east; and (+) the fault must be of some magnitude,
extending about 8 miles both to the north-east and south-west of
Clynnog.
On the map of the epicentral district (fig. 2, p. 239), are shown
two faults reduced from the Geological-Survey map (sheets 75 & 78):
one traced for a distance of 14 miles from Aber to Dinlle on
the coast of Caernarvon Bay, the other for 8 or 9 miles from
Bettws Garmon to Clynnog. Of the two, the former satisfies the
seismic conditions more closely. Its average direction is N. 52° KE.
and 8. 52° W., it hades to the north-west, and, according to Ramsay,
the downthrow of the Silurian beds on that side is between 400U
and 5000 feet at Pentir (3 miles south of Bangor), and between
2000 and 3000 feet at Dinas (4 miles farther to the south-west).
If the fault, after leaving Dinlle, is continued under the sea as far
as Nevin, trending rather more to the south, it would occupy
approximately the position assigned to the originating fault. As
no other large fault is known to exist in the epicentral district, it
seems prokable that the Caernarvon earthquake was caused by a
shp along the Aber-Dinlle Fault.
The region of the fault-surface occupied by the seismic focus was
about 16 miles in length, extending from near Nevin to near
Caernarvon; and the amount of displacement was almost uniform
throughout, dying away somewhat rapidly towards both ends.
Though two maxima of intensity were observed at some places, and
were indicated on the seismographic record at Birmingham, there is
no evidence that the focus was discontinuous. The displacement
appears to have been of that simple type to which the great
majority of slight earthquakes owe their origin, and to have been
distinguished only by its great length.
The accessory shocks fall naturally into two classes. The first
includes those, six in number, that were strong enough to attract
the attention of several or many persons; the second includes six
tremors (three of them accompanied by sound) and two earth-
sounds, but all so weak that their occurrence in each case rests on
the evidence of only one observer.
The fault-slips corresponding to the former class were confined to
the north-eastern margin of the principal focus, or to its immediate
242 THE CAERNARVON EARTHQUAKE OF 1903. [ Aug. 1904,
neighbourhood. One of them occurred between five and six hours
before the great displacement, the next four within little more than
an hour afterwards, and the sixth two days later. The last two, if
they were connected with the Aber-Dinlle Fault, originated in foci
quite close to the surface.
If we may assume the disturbances of the second class to have
been of seismic origin, then small sudden creeps, rather than slips,
affected other portions of the fault, one of them occurring at the
south-western end of the principal focus, two at the north-eastern
end, and five in the central region. If, however, the originating
fault were submarine, the weakness of the tremors resulting from
the central and southern slips may be partly due to the greater
distance of the foci.
Denoting slips at the north-eastern end, centre, and south-western
end, by the letters », c, and s, and using capital letters for those
perceived by several or many observers, the distribution of the
different slips in time may be represented as follows :—
June 19th Qist 22nd 28rd
ee ee SS NS ee = eoe_er
IN, principal focus, s, iV, UN, iN, 2, 6, WV, 2, “6° Nj «> Ve" ve
Thus, as in the Japanese earthquake of 189i and the Inverness
earthquake of 1901, seismic action towards the close of the series
was withdrawn from the lateral margins of the principal focus and
was ultimately confined to its central region.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX.
Map of the area affected by the principal Caernarvon earthquake of June 19th,
1903, on the seale of 30 miles to the inch.
Discussion.
The Presipentr observed that the Author’s first paper read before
the Society discussed the movements of scree-material. Subse-
quently the Society had welcomed several papers on earthquakes
from his pen; and it was interesting to find that these very different
subjects were both dealt with in the present paper. The Aber-
Dinlle Fault, so far as he recollected, brought rocks of very different
degrees of hardness into apposition along some parts of its course.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol. LX, Pl. XX.
Kendalo
8
Caernarvon
oiChester
Seale of Miles
0-5. Tp ih 20 25 «30; 35 40
EE EE ee ee ee Ee Se ee |
AERNARVON HARTHQUAKE OF JUNE 197TH, 1903.
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Map or THe AREA AFFECTED BY THE PRINCIPAL CAWRNARVON BARTHQUAKE OF JUNE 197TH, 1903.
Vol.60.] | EOCENE, ETC. SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 243
18. Eocene and Laver ForMArions SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES.
By Lieut.-Col. Tuomas Enentsu, late R.E., F.G.8. (Read
February 24th, 1904.)
[Prares XXI-XXTIT. |
ConTENTS.
Page
Pe Ereiocene es OFMALIONS.... 6.6.0: ise sacvecttavastnde see? 243
eee MON LE UIATL 8.602). 5 «5 vas. -)scdenuseue sess mgacmnaeeanaee 244
AIT. Uppermost Eocene and Oligocene ................... 246
DV Sa Wel POPUIALY HOIGIEOS .......6.05.0000sesermdpees tenance 250
Wl omumby. V Olcantic HOCKS 05... . 6.00. och aetaee ewe ones 252
Vllehy Le MES As i ne ne ree Pc 255
OE 2 Bry ee ea A oe 261
ULL ACS DCE oS Oe i ea ier Een ae 265
EX) Summary Gf ONservations....0<...... 56. 500:00 ds. dadesageee 272
a TRIUOAT ADORE RI RUSE oo. ..:., .ccnccsssencacsecnscomayaet acs 274
I. Pre-Eocenr ForMArIONsS.
A puscrivrion of the Tertiary and post-Tertiary deposits surrounding
the Dardanelles can hardly be made clear without some reference
to the older rocks upon which they rest, but our knowledge of the
conditions under which the pre-Eocene strata in Thrace and Anatolia
were deposited and broken up is as yet very limited.
The pre-Eocene sedimentary formations are, as a rule, so highly
metamorphosed that no fossils are visible; and they are so much
dislocated that the general appearance is that of an archipelago of
old rocks in the Eocene Sea. A succession of mica- and hornblende-
schists, crystalline limestones, and marble, with occasional gneiss
or granite and serpentine, upon which the Tertiary deposits rest
uncontformably, can be traced from Olympus and Athos, along the
Thracian coast, including the island of Thasos, into the Sea of
Marmora. ‘The Eocene shore-lines and fringing coral-reefs can be
identified in some instances, but an inspection of the map (Pl. XXI)
will show the probable islands of the pre-Eocene archipelago more
clearly than any description. I shall, therefore, only refer to a few
localities hitherto unnoticed, or where some correction to previous
accounts appears to be necessary.
At Tenedos Island I found the south-eastern face for about
2 miles in length, from Cape Marmora to Oinos Point, to be formed
of white marble.
Along the southern shore of the Sea of Marmora, a
stretch of about 35 miles, from Boz Burnu to Kara Burnu, and
thence halfway up the Gulf of Artaki, shows, from west to east,
granite, schist, diorite, marble, and granite.
At Pasha Liman Island, 13 miles east of Kara Burnu, the
lowest rock visible at the south-western point is marble, and there is
an exposure of schists for a mile in length along the western shore,
244 COL. I. ENGLISH ON THE EOCENE AND [ Aug. 1904,
with a steep northerly dip. Spratt (1, p. 218) terms this island
‘volcanic,’ but near the sea-level I could find no trace of volcanic
action.
The neighbouring islands of Kutali and Afizia show schists,
granite, and syenite.
In the adjacent Artaki Peninsula marble appears near the
sea-level, covered by epidote-hornblende-schists, and diorite with
hornblende, with a steep northerly dip at the north-western
extremity, Palios Point. At Murad Bair (near Artaki town), on
the south side of the peninsula, schists and marbles are exposed
with a varying dip.
Marmora Island, separated from the Artaki Peninsula by a
channel 5 miles wide and 30 fathoms deep, is similarly formed of
alternating marble, schist, syenite, and marble, dipping steeply north-
westward.
The Devonian rocks of the Bosphorus, 120 nautical miles east-
north-east from the Dardanelles, have long been known. Their
south-western limit is usually, following F. von Hochstetter, stated
to be the Golden Horn, and Stambul is supposed to be built on
Miocene deposits (2, p. 373); but there is an outcrop, in the
railway-cutting at Old Seraglio Point, of steeply-inclined brown
schistose rocks, which are, to all appearance, older than Miocene,
and may probably be Devonian: they dip about 60° southward.
The southernmost visible extension of Devonian rocks is at the
Deserters’ Islands, off Tuzla Burnu.
For the reasons already assigned, I do not propose to enter into
any discussion of pre-Eocene foldings, and I have selected the
Eocene deposits as the starting-point of a more detailed description
of the tectonic phenomena, because they can be traced throughout
the whole district, and are perhaps more readily to be identified
than any other of the formations which are exposed thercin.
IJ. Kocenn (Lorerran).
The Eocene deposits surrounding the older rocks begin with
sandstones, conglomerates, and clays, which become calcareous and
hummulitic upwards, and then change again to unfossiliferous
sandstones and shales, with subordinate lacustrine beds. ‘These
strata are much disturbed and faulted, and are often vertical.
I have seen a section between Yenikeui and Sarkeui, on the
northern shore of the Sea of Marmora, in which hard coralline
limestone, highly metamorphosed, hes conformably upon bands of
rough conglomerate, containing pebbles of old rocks, and sandstones.
These, again, overlie purple and grey clays, the whole dipping 70°
north-westward. Similar sections exist west of Demotika and at
Bektashhi in Thrace (3, pp. 344, 351); also at Kara Deré on the
southeru shore of the Sea of Marmora (4, p. 18).
* Numerals in parentheses throughout this paper refer to the Bibliographical
List on p. 274.
Vol. 60.] LATER FORMATIONS SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 245
In other places, however, Nummulitic Limestones lie directly
upon the older rocks without the intervention of any sandstones,
conglomerates, or clay. Prof. R. Hernes says that in Samothrake
they rest immediately upon old clay-slates (5, p. 9); and F. von
Hochstetter remarks that at Sarai, Wisa, and Kirk-kilissé in the
north, they lie directly upon the gneiss, also that there is most clearly
a similar sequence in the Tundscha defile (2, pp. 383, 390, 392).
Viquesnel gives a section at Balouk-keui, near Feredjik in
Thrace, of red and green clays, with bones, and of greenish sandstone
resting unconformably on ‘terrains de transition’; then
sandy limestones with freshwater shells, Viguesnelia lenticularis
and Paludina ; and at the top, calcareous, possibly Nummulitic sand-
stone (grés calcarifere a nummulites?), with Nerinea, Pecten,
large Turritella, and club-like corals (3, p. 331). A. d’Archiac, in his
identification of the bones from this section as those of a Rhinoceros
of indeterminate species, classifies them as belonging to the Middle
or Upper Tertiary fauna, but is evidently at a loss to explain
the occurrence of Nummulitic deposits above them (3, p. 470).
I examined the beds at Balouk-keui, but unfortunately without
knowledge (at the time) of Viquesnel’s description, so that I cannot
be sure whether it was the same exposure which I saw; the upper
beds appeared to me to be distinctly Miocene, and they certainly
include naphtha-sands.
F.von Hochstetter, relying principally upon Viquesnel’s description
of this section, has concluded that there is a lower division of the
Eocene in this region, with a partly-lacustrine facies, under the
purely-marine Nummulitic Limestone-Series. He goes on to say
that he can scarcely find another place for the coal-seams known in
Thrace, at the time at which he wrote, than this lower lacustrine
division of the Eocene (2, p. 450). This, in my opinion, is certainly
erroneous, and the mistake probably arose from his classification of
_ the Oligocene strata, in which the coals reaily occur, as Primary
rocks (phy llit).
There is a section, found by Mr. White (the engineer to the
Keshan Collieries), running north and south along the Gorgona
Valley near Sarkeui, on the northern shore of the Sea of Marmora,
in which the outcropping edges of vertical and steeply-inclined
Nummulitic strata are exposed for more than half a mile, nearly at
right angles to the strike. The section continues southward for
about the same distance across the edges ot the lacustrine sandstones,
clays, and shales, which are interbedded with the upper portion of,
and then overlie, the Nummulitic Series. The measured details of
this exposure are given in Table II (p. 273), but the conditions of
the ground leave it uncertain whether the section represents only the
actual thickness of the Nummulitic Series, or whether the beds are
repeated by folding or faulting. If, as I believe, they are not so
repeated, the Nummulitic Series here cannot be less than 2000 feet
thick.
246 COL, T. ENGLISH ON THE EOCENE AND [ Aug. 1904,
Nummulitic deposits have been found in Samothrake (5, p. 9),
along the whole length of the Eocene coast-line in Thrace (3, passim),
at Vernitza,and at Teke, near Keshan (on the north side of the Gulf
of Xeros), and from Bournar Oren to Mount Elias, along the northern
shore of the Sea of Marmora. They appear also on the southern
shore of that sea at Kara Deré, west of Gueredjé, and nearly opposite
to Gallipoli (4, p. 18), and at Korou, south of Lampsaki.! The
foraminifera and other fossils collected from the Nummulitic
(Lutetian) Limestones of Vernitza and Mount Elias are described in
Appendices IT & III (pp. 288, 292),
Coralline limestones, generally harder than the Nummulitic
deposits, are frequently interstratified with them, as at Vernitza ;
and also occur separately at Saraiyik, about 4 miles east of Chanak
in the Dardanelles, and at numerous localities in Thrace.
Prof. L. de Launay (6, p. 244 & map), following Tchihatcheff (7,
vol. iii, pp. 172 et segg.), but with some reserve, shows in his
geological map, as unfossiliferous Eocene, a great belt of country
some 50 miles wide, bounded on the north by the Marmora shore
from the Gulf of Artaki to Guemlek, and sweeping round to the
south-west untilit meets the sea, from Adramyti nearly to Smyrna.
III. Uprermost Eocene and OLIGOCENE.
Immediately overlying the Nummulitic rocks is a succession,
about 3000 feet thick, of lacustrine sandstones, clays, and shales,
interstratified with volcanic rocks and containing coal-seams.
These strata represent the uppermost Eocene and the Oligocene,
and the coal-seams belong to the latter formation. They are
widespread in Southern Thrace, and are cut off to the eastward
by the falling-in of the Marmora sea-bed. They extend along
the Gallipoli Peninsula to the islands of Imbros and Lemnos, and
possibly tarther southward to Psara and Eubeea.
In the paper which I had the honour of reading before this
Society in December 1901 (9, pp. 153-55), I described the coal-
basin near Keshan, the only one the limits of which had then
been partly traced. Since that time, the existence of the same
principal seam has been proved at a number of points, notably at
Masatly and Harmanly, about 17 miles north of Keshan. The
Keshan coal-basin has also been traced eastward for about 12 miles
to a point south of Malgara, and there is every reason to believe
that it extends yet farther eastward in the direction of Rodosto,
and westward across the Maritza River.
The evidence of its age is as follows :—A lower jaw and teeth,
included in the coal itself, and now at the British Museum, were
discovered at Masatly, and have been identified as Anthracotherium,
nearly related to A. minus.
There are innumerable impressions of leaves distributed through
the sandstones and clays, yet in only one case have they been found
in a recognizable condition. Prof. Toula, in 1895, found plant-
1 Communication to the Author from Mr, F. Calvert.
Vol. 60.] LATER FORMATIONS SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 24/7
' remains on the southern shore of the Sea of Marmora, between
Lampsaki and Gueredjé (4, pp. 19-20), which were pronounced by
Dr. Fritz Kerner von Marilaun to be ferns, agreeing well with
Chrysodium (Fortisia) Lanzceeanum from Monte Promina, and from
the Lower Bagshot of Studland, the Middle Bagshot of Bourne-
mouth, and the Upper Eocene of Hordwell; also nearly identical
with Oligocene forms from the gypsum of Aix and from the Aqui-
tanian of Manosque (8, p. 26 & pls. 1-11). He moreover identified
Sterculia Labrusca, fan-palm, oak, and laurel-leaves, and considered
the beds to be not older than Middle Eocene, but not younger
than Oligocene. These plant-remains occur between Kara Deré
and Boz Burnu, in two marl-beds, in a series of sandstones with
layers of conglomerate and slaty marl, dipping 45° north-north-
westward.
At Keshan, about 40 feet above the coal, and immediately under
the band of brecciated andesite which covers it, there is a thin
fossiliferous seam in the sandstones, traceable for about a mile and
a half, containing abundant casts of Corbicula (Cyrena) semistriata
and Melanopsis aff. M. fusiformis, accompanied by indeterminable
plant-impressions. At Lalakeui, 8 miles north of Keshan, the sand-
stones contain leaf-impressions and Corbicula semistriata, which has
also been found in the coal at Masatly. Samples of soft shelly lime-
stone, found at Harmanly, 3 miles east of Masatly, contain Corbicula
semistriata and Melanopsis, with small fragments of lignite.
Three miles inland from Hora, on the nor hesn ices of the Sea of
Marmora, a boring, started in the naphtha-bearing Miocene deposits
at 400 feet above sea-level, struck the fault which cuts off the
Lower Tertiary sandstones here (9, p. 152), at about 270 feet from
the surface. The boring was continued in hard sandstones and
shales, with a very steep dip, to a depth of 1149 feet, and specimens
of (probably) Corbicula semistriata were brought up from between
1043 and 1066 feet.
Mr. White has measured a section through the Keshan sand-
stones, of which the details are set forth in Table III (p. 274), with
the result that there are at least 1230 feet of blue shales and
sandstones above the coal, and 1350 feet of brown and grey sand-
stones (with occasional shales) below the coal, before any Nummulitic
rocks appear. ‘This section agrees very fairly with the upward
continuation of the section at Gorgona Deré and Sarkeui, distant
25 miles south-east by east (see Table EY. -pe 27a where, for a
horizontal distance of 3600 feet to the southward of the highest
Nummulitic stratum yet recognized, there are vertical and
steeply-inclined brown sandstones and shales, overlain by green
sandstones and clays, containing seams of lignite and_leaf-
impressions,
On the northern shore of the Sea of Marmora, with possible
exceptions in small outcrops between Buyuk Tchekmedjé and Silivri,
these lacustrine sandstones and clays only reach the sea between
Ganos and Combos, where they form the high coast-cliffs of the
Tekfur Dagh, and have been cut off to the eastward by the fault
ae
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Cé6re ‘Lre dd aay) "LOUD fO DAY O19 fo ALOYS ULIY tou ‘ybog tnfyaT, au) {0 8 f[2p0-2sV0Q—' | “SI;
Vol. 60.] | EOCENE, ETC. SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 249
bordering the falling-in of the Marmora sea-bed. The general
appearance of the strata is shown in fig. | (p. 248), reproduced
from a photograph taken at a point near to which the soundings
show an average gradient of 1 in 3 from the foot of the cliffs
down to a depth of 580 fathoms.
On the south of the Sea of Marmora, coal-seams, clays, and
shales interstratified with andesite, occur near Tchatal Tepé, south of
Kamir. The principal seam consists of bright, bituminous coal,
similar in quality to that found at Keshan, 18 inches thick, with
a clay-floor and roof.
Since writing my previous paper, I have had an opportunity of
tracing these lacustrine deposits westward from the neighbourhood
of Examil, on the isthmus between the Gulf of Xeros and the Sea
of Marmora, where they are overlain by Miocene strata. They
appear again between Bulair and Yeni-keui, on the northern coast
of the Gallipoli Peninsula, and form the whole of this coast as
far as Cape Suvla, a distance of 25 miles, considerably disturbed in
places, and with a generally-steep south-south-easterly dip. The
coast-cliffs are apparently cut off all the way by a fault with a
north-north-westerly downthrow, and plunge immediately into the
deep water of the Gulf of Xeros. These strata form the backbone
of the Gallipoli Peninsula, and the harder rocks rise in places to
an altitude of 1300 feet. South-eastward they are overlain un-
conformably by the generally-horizontal Miocene sands and clays
which enclose the Dardanelles, the line of demarcation following
approximately the centre-line ‘of the peninsula. Seams of coal
occur at several places in the sandstones, between Buyuk and
Kutchuk Hanafart, at Taifur-keui and Kavakly.
Similar sandstones, also with thin seams of coal, reappear in
the north-eastern quarter of Lmbros, which is separated from Cape
Suvla by a channel 13 miles wide and 50 fathoms deep. They con-
tinue to show along its northern coast, until they are hidden by the
volcanic rocks which make up the main bulk of theisland. The
sandstones, with subordinate shales and clays, come into contact
with andesite about a mile south of the village of Panagia, where
they dip 30° eastward. A thin lignite-parting shows in the sand-
stones about half a mile south of Panagia. Ata mile and a half
north-east of the village, some small excavations have been made, in
order to ascertain the development of a coal-seam about 6 inches
thick, which crops out here between clay-beds. There are some
old coal-workings about 4 miles north-east of this locality, and coal
is said to crop out some miles to the west. The sandstones are
indistinguishable from those of Keshan, and the appearance of the
coals is also very similar.
In Lemnos, according to Prof. L. de Launay’s description, the
sedimentary rocks are composed exclusively of sandstones, grau-
wackés, conglomerates, and shales, without limestones, and occupy
more than two-thirds of the island, often showing traces of meta-
morphism. ‘These deposits are generally dark in colour, from brown
to green, and of very compact, fine-grained texture. with no traces
Q.J.G.8. No. 239. s
250 COL. T. ENGLISH ON THE EOCENE AND [Aug. 1904,
of organic life except indistinguishable plant-remains, generally
with very steep dips, and occasionally with reversed beds (6, p. 201).
This description might be applied, word for word, to the bulk of
the coal-bearing strata on the mainland and in Imbros.
Prof. de Launay supposes that the Lemnos rocks represent a sort
of ‘ flysch,’ either supra-Cretaceous or Eocene, and that the solution
of the question of their age may be furnished by an examination of
Imbros (6, p. 208). He evidently inclines to a supra-Cretaceous date
(6, p. 198), but perhaps the Kocene or Oligocene alternative would
have had more weight with him, had he been in possession of the
information from Imbros and the Gallipoli Peninsula which I have
had the opportunity of obtaining.
Prof. Hoernes describes, in Samothrake, above black Nummu-
litic and echinoidal limestones, a series of alternate layers of sand,
sandstone, and conglomerate, between which more or less thick
strata of greenish-blue and red to blackish-brown volcanic tutfs are
intercalated. This series includes a great part of the island, and is
surmounted by trachytes (9, p. 9).
From the abundance of Corbicula semistriata it is certain that
the coal-seams in the Dardanelles district are Oligo-
cene. All the available evidence points to the conclusion that
the strata of Lemnos, north-eastern Imbros, the southern shore of
the Gulf of Xeros, the Kuru Dagh and Tekfur Dagh in Thrace, a
great part of Samothrake, and the beds described by Prof. Toula at
Gueredjé and by myself at Tchatal Tepé (on the south side of the
Sea of Marmora), belong to the same lacustrine formation above
the Nummulitic (Lutetian) Limestones. As in the Carpathian Sand-
stones in Western Rumania, this formation appears to represent
both the uppermost Eocene and the Oligocene (10, p.79).
Farther south in the Archipelago, the evidence is more conflicting,
but, according to Prof. de Lapparent, the flora of the basin of
Kumi, in Eubeea, belongs to the Aquitanian division of the Oligo-
cene (11, p. 1509). In the island of Skyro, and in Chelidromia,
one of the Magnesian group, Prof. Philippson notices lignite-deposits,
which he considers to be equivalent to those of Kumi. He also
remarks black and yellowish clay-slates, sandstones, and limestones
above the Cretaceous, in the islands of Skiatho, Skopelo, and
Chelidromia (12, pp. 117, 127, 1380, 136). The eastern coast of
Psara, 35 miles south-south-west from the western point of Mitylene,
consists of a series of dark-blue and grey shales, interstratified
with occasional beds of yellow and reddish sandstones, all showing
a general dip of 30° to 40° south-eastward. These beds apparently
extend nearly, if not quite, to the highest point of the island.
I could see no appearance of volcanic rocks from the sea.
TV. Lower Terrrary Foipres.
Throughout the whole district surrounding the Dardanelles, the
general folding of the Lower Tertiary strata, both Nummulitic and
Vol. 60.] LATER FORMATIONS SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 251
lacustrine, is very plainly developed, and follows a north-east-by-
easterly direction through the Eocene channel between the old rocks
of Thrace and those of the Troad. The central fold can be traced.
in nearly a straight line north 60° east, for 200 miles from the
islands of Skiatho and Skopelo in the Magnesian group, through
Lemnos, Imbros, and the north-western coast of the Gallipoli Penin-
sula, until abreast of Ibridji, in the Gulf of Xeros. This direction
of folding of the Lower Tertiary strata accords with that shown
by Prof. Philippson (14, map) for the ‘fiysch’ of Thessaly, which
is described by Hilber as Oligocene and as containing coal-seams
(13, p. 621).
F. von Hochstetter considered that the higher ridges of the
Gallipoli Peninsula consist probably of clay-slate (phyillit), and
that the Nummulitic Limestone in Thrace lies generally horizontal,
showing only local disturbances (2, pp. 389, 409). These con-
clusions are not borne out by the facts which I have observed:
the Nummulitiec and Oligocene rocks are dislocated
and folded on a large scale, and form basins in which
the Helvetian and later deposits were laid down.
The Lower Tertiary lake had a coast-line in Thrace little differing
from that of the Nummulitic sea, but probably transgressing some-
what more in places over the older rocks; as, for example, in the
south-eastern part of Samothrake, where the sandstones and volcanic
tuffs le directly upon old clay-slates (5, p. 11). Its waters
reached certainly to Lemnos in the west, and to Rodosto in the
east, possibly even farther eastward, as Viquesnel mentions sand-
stones with carbonized plant-impressions from Buyuk Tchekmedjé
to Silivri, on the northern shore of the Sea of Marmora
(3, p. 310).
A reference to Pls. XXI & XXII will show that the strikes and
dips of the Lower Tertiary strata surrounding the Dardanelles
result from three main foldings, of which the northernmost
intersects the island of Samothrake, where the Nummulitic strata dip
north-westward and westward in the western portion of the island,
and eastward in the south-eastern corner. This fold forms the
eastern portion of the northern boundary of the North A®gean
depression ; thence, passing inland, it shows in the anticlinal ridge
of the Kuru Dagh. It is continued, through the Tekfur-Dagh ridge,
nearly to Rodosto, and thence eastward forms the northern boundary
of the Marmora depression. Fig. 2 (p. 252) shows the appearance
of the vertical Oligocene strata at Combos near Rodosto, with the
horizontal Miocene terraces overlying them unconformably.
The folding which follows the southern shore-line of the
Eocene channel between Thrace and the Troad enters the district
in a nearly north-and-south line at Mitylene (16, p. 428), passes
through the Troad in a north-north-easterly direction, curving
north-eastward, and skirts the old rocks at Gueredjé, where the
Lower Tertiary lacustrine deposits dip 45° north-north-westward.
From this place it runs as a fault with a north-north-westerly
downthrow along the southern shore of the Sea of Marmora, past
s2
252 COL, T. ENGLISH ON THE EOCENE AND [ Aug. 1904,
Kara Burnu, skirts Marmora Island, and, turning eastward, forms
the southern border of the Marmora depression.
Along the central fold the beds dip north-north-westward at
Skopelo Island (12, p. 130): in Lemnos they dip north-north-
westward towards the North A i .
“Be face p. 272.
Estimated |
approxte
pared with the present water-level. a
acknes. / ‘danelles, Marmora. Bosphorus. ‘4 pred
) aspian.
Feet. /
a LiVighiaee wees Sp A ois ape aS eo a
{Ch
Various Cae WO 5. ees? 5 - 2 Shs Se fai
Bo
Pane Shee so
4 to 10 lies >
Samq------ nie ai ahs aks ana enka a ?+ 650>
) |
12 |Hord-------- SE A he higatso aa
-Q------------ ---0--------->
-0------------ (ee aie See
Mor |
)
Pa |
tty ae ae 2 + 130 - ------- >
15 3 Se eee Q---|----->
Mait © <------ S19) eee >
ee a Se er Ret een
3 : | :
ay ere A le —120->|] ts | <—200>
80 | Mity Poe |
/
AN eke ee = Ese
500 |{ | | |
: + - + 800)- - ------------------- >
(2)200 | Hor a |
(2)100 | Kerl500 - - -|-------- ------------- -
i
el
|
Nieeaeceg f)
dlarshes -
Taste I,—Eocenr anv Laver Formations surrounDING
THE DARDANULLES.
_ SS Snnneeeerre e |
sandstones, and
Serian Depé; Gorgona Deré ;
Demotika.
Bitimated | Ticlative heights in feet, compared with the present water-level,
Series. Siaye. Nature of Beds. approwte Localities. Fossils, a =S 7 2 2
| Unekness. ) Kastern Northern) 77, |
| | Mediterranean. Cyclades.) “5°
ne Feet. | te oe ey
Surface-loam. 3 Deliardak, Tand-shells, === == =~ [Son ae ees ees)
OChalkidike ; Maritza Basin ; | H
Glacial. | Red clay. Various. Gulf of Xeros; Marmora ; Land-shells. eh tepamt em le erred WPeshase ois +) LO to+100---.--.-5
PenisroGENa. Marine shell-bed. Samothrake. (?) Trebizond. Ostrea Cyrnusi (lamellosa). | Hl) 50 2) aay ask een a Sree
. Ostrea edulis, |
Conglomerales: | | 12 | Hora. [ Mytilus edulis, Se eeeaapne
| BB) \\| Gattista Chione. 2 Mis
| | IMEI prneres |b sreNtba oe (I) oaonl Seen me ---0-
Sicilian. | Conglomerate ; | +1166, \- he:
> marine terrace, Morea: Kos; Rhodes. Mediterranean shells. + D5AO-- -->
and shell-beds, J | + 600 to 8U0 |
Piiocene Neritinta danubialis. ? Z
s Shell-beds. 80 il apes : (?) FF }
Speirs = Gallipoli; Horn; Cape Tschauda, Dreissensia polymorpha. ee -
Lacuatrine terrace. 1 J Didacna crassa. = B
| River-channel. Maitos. s lal
{ i] os
— : —_ --— = — = = = ——| ae
| Sandy beds. 20 | Boz Tepé. Lyreea Bonelli. a a 120 ee
| Pontian. | Preshwater lime- eore eC ; e {| Vivipara meqarensis. 5 je — 120-> <—200>
| stones and clays. | Hy) wiitinllones; Wenilanellles, 1 Bithynia. Planorkis, } a 0 | 0
{ Ridge of old rocks. Dolian Aslan. paar caked pau ve ac
| Marine limestones iy San Stefano ; Heraklitza; Meenkent : i ae i +m r | all
Miocexn. | Sannin and clays. } 500 revel Hamasitos; Demotika. } TNR CTA, | | {
UE EU inant d 2) 200 ikon IBhawllenre. (agai | | Anodonta, Melanopsiscostata. pears 3 OU a a ec eee >
reshwater sands. (2) 2! ora; Wrenkenr; Peredjik. | | Rhinoceros. Naphtha. Lignite,
Portonian | gs Gaal iat,
Z Sands and sandy Fo BAN 5 . Waane Pecten aduncus. Ostrea “
{ ae limestone, } (?) 100 | Kerteh; Eregli; Myriophyto; Kasos. { | Alectryonia Virleti. crassissima | Sense arias ean ies ~ + 1466 | to 1500 - --|-------- foe a >
| Helvetian: o | ee: ey J 4 ‘ | | | |
Aquitanian.! youstrine sand- | ( Ganos; Gorgona Deré ; Corbicula semistriala. | | |
Geers Statese a Hae | Dehatal Depé ; Gueredjeé ; Anthracotheriun. |
Onigocenn. ~ Wath lave er wale 38000 Keshan ; Gallipoli Peninsula; Coal. | (2) e---e- - - Marshes -|- ----- > (?)
| ? Behe GERE i Samothrake ; Lmbros ; Chrysodium Lanzeanum. | | |
\ Lemnos. | |
| | bel! |
— ee = = : ——— -- — -— — — —. / - — ae a
| Dimestanes vara | Mount Wlias; Gorgona Deré ; | Fimbria subpectunculus, i | | |
Tnletian : Canc se ate = 2000 Vernitza ; Feredjik ; Nummulites Dufrenoyi. | |
g 8 sip = Samothrake ; Demotika ; Cladocora cf. articulata, | (2)} <--- ss ~ Archipelago -) - - = - - - >| (2)
onglomerate | pee
Wocenn. RS S: Troad. Cycloseris Perezi. } |
Conglomerates, | | |
|
|
clays.
Vol. 60.] LATER FORMATIONS SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 2793
10. There have been considerable oscillations of the water-level in
the Sea of Marmora since the advance of the Mediterranean
through the Dardanelles. A beach with recent Mediterranean
shells occurs at Hora, at 405 feet above sea-level, and there
are numerous shell-beds along the shore-lines of the Dardanelles
and the Sea of Marmora, up to 100 feet.
11. Glacial or post-Glacial red clay, formed at the expense of the
surface-soil of a land-area, has been widely spread to a height
of 1000 feet, and contains scratched and striated boulders.
Dr. J.S. Flett has furnished a description, in Appendix I (p. 276),
of the more important rock-specimens; and Appendices II & II1
(pp. 277, 292) contain detailed accounts, by Mr. R. Bullen Newton
and Mr. R. Holland respectively, of the fossils which I have
collected. ‘To each of these gentlemen I desire to tender my most
sincere thanks.
Taste LI,
MEAsuRED SECTION OF STRATA AT GoRGONA DERE, NEAR SARKEUI.
Southern end of section (beds in Measured horizontal
descending order). distances in feet.
SMM RENIN ATIC CloPVS! wade cccuse-0cec- 2s dese tvwsssacecdexee nado vueaes stones 180
Green sandstones and clays with earthy coal-outcrops, brown sand-
stones with leaf-impressions, greenish-brown sandstones, dark
leafy clays, nodular coaly shales, thinly-bedded sandstones and
RI ehh eee eae Ae ana se divnn ss teh det hens che spherke 491
= tiga SSRIS oT ee Bet ip ee a Bi 516
Brownish-grey sandstones with leaf-impressions, in vertical beds... 40
ee Ae ne A aa eae akc dads doen sence Rune ag avid eee ease 156
REE AIR VCDU HELIS acne sunbiee store vdeo cenene odes se exsedeadwen Sees 18
Brown calcareous sandstones, interbedded with shales .................. 379
Thickly-bedded brownish-grey sandstones and shales ................+. 23
PILI CNISEUTNY PO? LOCWOTECAL Gigoce\er ssc scsi voce cwanseweessessecaed dotus 1380
Brown sandstones, clays, and shales, dip 80° northwar ad sicyemee 240
Brown sandstones, thin shales, and conglomer co ARR 2 ie Mare scrt et 12
Sandstones and conglomer ates, Nummulitic sandstones, grit, and
Nummulitic beds, vertical and dipping southward, ..:0..c:.enc-0srer 465
Conglomerates, brown and green sandstones with coaly leaf-
Ee NORM CERN Bric RP Eo 5s oh chin a aia yoec gbaanrantidane w2eTtSewaete ates 420
Brown and blue sandstones and shales ................csseeeecasececeeeees 255
PPrCMOPED: BY CTAVOL, GCs 2522) ciane. conssnnsnefo> + idelsde -dedaceamenees Hace 525
Brownish-blue sandstones, green sandstones with pebbles, dark-
coloured sand and prey sandstones: .......4..esccsisceessannoces sedon devas 116
Pebbly green sand, dip 45° north-westward ..........5.....scsseseseseeses 81
peeelreeereth and. Gari BARC $5.3 604.5 .0sdccpnsaedsatdade ss canny anewtahaeko 114
Dark clay, blue and brown sandstones and shales ...............000eeee 90
Green sandstones and green clays, vertical beds....................000000 78
Thin limestones, Nummulitic, dip 45° northward ..................66566 192
‘Thin sandstones and shales, vertical and inclined to south ............ 120
Nummulitic sandstones and conglomerates, vertical and inclined to
WYRE cee ener ee A MRI ot IT: Cec VOR TED Mee dge tnt boot tea seams 180
Limestones, sandstones with green and purple pebbles, and dark
UR one gees ee ee ea ed rat RL LM aniad ssehee vd gh Mahan ae 190
Sandstones, limestones, and conglomerates, Nummuliticand coralline,
gritty sandstones, shales and conglomerates, dipping northward... 234
Northern end of section.
COL. T.-ENGLISH ON THE EOCENE AND [Aug. 1904,
TasuE ITT,
MEASURED Secrion oF STRATA NEAR KesHAN, ABOVE AND BELOW THE COAL.
North-eastern end of section (beds Thickness of each
in descending order). formation in feet.
Blue shales.
Soft blue‘shales ‘in ‘thim layers” 22. sj. /asecorecpco ss es: aeumeeeaewrees \ 240
Nodular sandstones: .-k4 cot: daskeins tase nes soca et ra eena ten eee 6
Soft:blue shales in/ thin Tayerss .. cs :tn.qoecsugetconcs« saeeee eats | t& 300
Greenish sandstones, with thin layers of shale ...................0. | 40
Sandstones and shales in thin layers .....................ceceeeeeeees & 2500
Soft ‘blue shales. in:thim, layers vc.. ccreenascuens scoae ete cate | A. -132
Sandstones, with thin layers of shale.................. Por ys eer . 106
Grey, thickly-bedded, nodular sandstone ...............0.00ceeeeees \
Li ¥
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OAdramyti
Key-map,
giving the names of the localities
referred to in the text.
Approximate Localities of some of
the Deposits of Red Stony EN oe
with heights in feet thus... ... *\
[For ‘ Abydus’ read ‘Abydos’; for ‘Herak .. itza’ read ‘Heraklitzn’; and for ‘ Huva’ read * Hora’.)
vee oe err tiy) Repairer pee Rhein: son fall o Magra 2
eee See se pi eae
Pad” me
of
Mite POR gs
ALIS ae AOR
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Vol. 60.] LALER FORMATIONS SURROUNDING THR DARDANELLES. 2795
(13) Hinper, V. ‘ Geologische Reise in Nordgriechenland & Makedonien’ (1893 &
1894) Sitzungsberichte d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, vol. ciii, pt. i (1894)
pp. 575, 616.
(14) Puitrppson, A. ‘La Tectonique de l Egéide’ Ann. Géograph. vol. vii (1898)
p. 112.
(15) Sugss, E. ‘La Face de la Terre’ | transl. E. de MARGERIE] vol. i (1897).
(16) Suzss, E. ‘La Face de la Terre’ | transl. E, de MARGERIE | vol. iii (1902).
(17) Drtter, J.S. ‘ Notes on the Geology of the Troad’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
vol. xxxix (1883) p. 627; & Preliminary Report. ;
(18) Anprussov, N. ‘ Ueber das Auftreten der marin-mediterranen Schichten in
der Krim’ Verhandl. d. k.-k. Geol. Reichsanst. (1884) p. 190.
(19) Buxowsx1, G. ‘ Der geologische Bau der Insel Kasos’ Sitzungsberichte d. k.
Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, vol. xcviii, pt. i (1889) p. 653.
(20) Bureersterin, L. ‘Geologische Untersuchungen im siidwestlichen Theile der
Halbinsel Chalkidike’ Denkschr. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, vol. xl
(1880) p. 321.
(21) H@rnzs, R. ‘Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss fossiler Binnenfaunen ’ Sitzungs-
berichte d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, vol. lxxiv, pt. i (1876-77) p. 7.
(22) Straso. ‘Geography’ [trans]. Tardieu} Paris, 2nd ed. (1894). Fragments
of Lib. VII.
(23) Gonrz,— von DER. Karte der Umgegend von Constantinopel. Berlin, 1897.
(24) Anprussov, N. ‘La Mer Noire’ no. xxix; & ‘ Environs de Kertch’ no. xxx,
Guide des Excursions du VII®™® Congrés Géologique International (St.
Petersburg) 1897.
(25) TretieR, Fr. ‘Geologische Beobachtungen auf der Insel Chios’ Denkschr.
d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, vol. xl (1880) p. 340.
(26) AnpRussov, N. ‘ Die Schichten von Cap Tschauda’ Ann. d. k.-k. Naturhist.
Hofmuseums, vol. v (1890) p. 66.
(27) Ea@tnir1s, D. ‘Le Tremblement de Terre de Constantinople’ Ann. Géograph.
vol. iv (1895) p. 151.
(28) Warton, Str Witiram. ‘Report on the Currents of the Dardanelles &
Bosphorus’ Admiralty, London, 1886.
(29) Canvert, Fr., & Neumayr, M. ‘ Die jungen Ablagerungen am Hellespont ’
Denkschr. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, vol. x1 (1880) p. 357.
(30) PrREstwicu, Sir Josrpu. ‘On the Evidences of a Submergence of Western
Europe & of the Mediterranean Coasts, &c.’ Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. ser. A,
vol. clxxxiv (1893-94) p. 903.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXI-XXITI.
Prats XXI.
Geological sketch-map of the country surrounding the Dardanelles.
Prats XXII.
Probable foldiugs of Lower Tertiary, and coast-lines of Upper Tertiary
formations surrounding the Dardanelles.
Fig. 1. Sarmatie and Pontian.
2. Upper Pliocene.
Pruate XXIII.
Key-map of the Aigean & Marmoran area, giving the names of the
localities referred to in the text, and showing the approximate localities of
some of the deposits of red stony clay. Approximate scale: 40 miles=1 inch.
[For the Discussion, see p. 295. |
276 DR. J. 8. FLEYT ON ROCK-SPECIMENS FROM ! Aug. 1904,
APPENDIX I.
Nores on the Cottecrion of Rock-sprcimEns made by Cor. ENeLisH
in Evropean Turkny and Asis Minor. By Jonn Suivi Fert,
MzA. | DScGs:
Tne collection of specimens submitted to me by Col. English, though
not very large, included representatives of many different kinds
of rocks—sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. The most
numerous, however, were the recent lavas, which ranged
from rhyolites and trachytes to very basic augitites. Many of the
specimens, having been collected in the course of hurried traverses
through difficult regions, were not so fresh as might have been
desired. Yet it was possible, in nearly all cases, to form a definite
opinion regarding the nature of the rock and the group to which it
was to be assigned.
The clastic sediments and organic limestones of the Tertiary Series
require no special description, but mention may be made of the
occurrence of red, baked, and hardened, nodular shales,
which had been contact-altered apparently by lava-flows that
covered or enveloped them. None of the advanced stages of thermal
alteration were found in any of the rocks sliced. Trachytic(?),
andesitic, and basaltic tuffs were numerous, but call for
no detailed treatment.
The assemblage of crystalline, igneous, and metamorphic rocks
was on the whole very similar to that which has been described by
J.S. Diller from the adjacent district of the Troad.’ With the
exception of the nepheline-basalts, practically all the rocks
described by him were present also in Col. English’s series ; and
there were only one or two classes the occurrence of which was not
already known from Mr. Diller’s paper.
Rhyolites were certainly few, although they are reported
as abundant in the Troad; only one good specimen was collected,
at Boz Tepé, west of Keshan. It may be remarked, however, that
many of the more felspathic ‘ andesites’ were both decomposed and
much silicified, so that often it was uncertain whether originally
they might not have had the characters of rhyolites. Trachytes
were equally rare, in fact it was doubtful whether they were
represented at all.
Most of the lavas were andesitic, and hornblende-andesites
preponderated, though biotite-andesites were also common. A
pale-green pyroxene was practically always present in these latter
rocks, and in some of them tiie biotite was so intensely corroded and
so inconspicuous, that a peculiar type of pyroxene-andesite
was developed, in which the essential constituents were a pale- green
(sometimes pleochroic) augite and highly-zonal plagioclase-felspar.
Its abnormal character raised suspicions as to its true nature; and,
on further examination, it became clear that these felspathic augite-
' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxxix (1883) p. 627.
Vol.60.] | THE DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 277
andesites were merely unusual varieties of biotite-andesite.
The groundmass is commonly pilotaxitic, less frequently hyalo-
pilitic. The best example of these came from the White Cliffs
(Dardanelles). An excellent biotite-andesite was collected on
the south-eastern slope of the watershed above Panagia (Imbros) ;
it contained, in addition to large hexagonal plates of biotite, a little
much-corroded hornblende and porphyritic green augite.
Five specimens from the island of Strati were all hornblende-
andesites (containing a little dark-brown biotite), and were
exceptionally fresh and good examples of this class of rocks.
Typical hypersthene-andesites, much decomposed, occur at
Korou.
Olivine-basalts were found on the Kuru Dagh and near
Keshan: from the latter locality some peculiar rocks were obtained.
One of these resembled an augitite; another consisted of olivine,
brownish augite, biotite, plagioclase, and orthoclase-felspar, with
an abundant clear glassy base.
In the Serian-Tepé district, examples of serpentine, amphi-
bolite, epidote-amphibolite, and serpentine-schist occur.
The serpentines include weathered dunites and harzburgites.
AppEnpDIx II.
Norrs on the post-Terttary and Tertiary Fossits obtained by
Cor. Enexisu from the Disrricr surrounding the DARDANELLES,
By Ricuarp Butien Newron, Esy., F.G.S.
[Pate XXIV.]
ConsIDERABLE interest may be attached to the fossils collected by
Col. English in a number of localities surrounding the Dardanelles,
since many of the specimens rank as fresh records for this part of
South-Eastern Europe. One of the most important results accruing
from an examination of the coilection has been the fixing of the
age of the coal-deposits at Masatly, which can now be
referred to the Stampian or Middle division of the
Oligocene System, on account of the discovery of Corbicula
semistriata in those beds at that locality, in association with
Anthracotherium-remains,
The specimens are scheduled under the following formations :—
Post-PLIOcENE.
Priocens (Sicilian).
f Pontian.
Miocene / Sarmatian.
| Vindobonian (Helvetian--Tortonian).
{ Aquitanian.
| Stampian.
Eocene... Lutetian.
OLIGOCENE
The whole of the collection has been generously presented to the
British Museum (Natural History) by Col. English.
278 ' MR. R. B, NEWTON ON FOSSILS FROM [Aug. 1904,
Post-Pliocene.
Marine mollusca found in the region of the Dardanelles have
been identified with existing Mediterranean species. Hence, the
deposits containing them may be recognized as of post-Pliocene
age, and probably of contemporaneous origin with those found in
Cyprus (as known to us through the researches of Prof. Gaudry),
and in the Hellespont by Calvert & Neumayr.
(A) List of marine shells from the coast-cliffs west of Gallipoli,
40 to 100 feet above sea-level.
GASTROPODA. LAMELLIBRANCIITA,
Murex Brandaris, Linneus. Ostrea edulis, Linneeus.
Murex trunculus, Linneeus. Cerastoderma edule (Linnzeus),
Cerithium vulgatum, Bruguiére. Pullastra pullastra.
Gibbula adriatica (Philippi). Petricola lithophaga (Retzius).
Gibbula ef. Biasoletti (Philippi). Loripes lacteus (Poli).
Osilinus turbinatus (Born). Tapes Calverti, sp. nov. (= Tapes ef.
Lhane, Locard).
(B) A marine shell from Gallipoli Ovassi, about one mile north-east
of Gallipoli, in a loamy clay-bed 20 feet above the sea.
Ostrea Cyrnusii, Payraudeau.!
(C) List of marine shells from the other side of the Dardanelles
opposite Gallipoli, about 1 mile inland from Tchardak. The
beds containing this fauna are of a sandy character, and nearly
50 feet above sea-level. The exact section measures about
10 feet in thickness, and is capped by a loamy soil full of
recent terrestrial shells.
GASTROPODA. LAMELLIBRANCHTA,
Tritia reticulata (Linneus). Ostrea edulis, Linneeus.
Gibbula adriatica (Philippi). Chlamys opercularis (Linneeus).
Chlamys varia (Linneeus).
Cerastoderma edule (Linnseus),
Mytilus edulis, Linneeus.
Gastrana fragilis (Linnseus).
Loripes lacteus (Poli),
Tapes Calverti, sp. nov. (= Tapes
cf. Diane, Locard),
The specimens of Tapes cf. Diane, which occur both at Tchardak
and Gallipoli, agree with Calvert & Neumayr’s shells from the
(Quaternary deposits of the Hellespont which are similarly identified.”
1 Ostrea Cyrnusii was originally*described by Payraudeau (‘Catalogue des
Annélides & des Mollusques de I'Ile de Corse’ 1826, p. 79, pl. iii, figs. 1 & 2)
as living off Corsica. lt is narrowly-elongate in form, and furnished with an
extensive ligamental area. The more modern figure, published by Reeve in
his ‘Conchologia Iconica’ vol. xviii (1878) pl. xvii, fig. 37, of the lower valve
of this shell agrees in every way with the specimen collected by Col. English.
It may be mentioned that this species is generally united to O. lamellosa, as
one of its synonyms.
* Denkschr. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, yol. xl (1880) p. 366 & pl. ii,
figs. 7-8.
Vol. 60.} THE DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 279
‘This form of Tapes is not only extinct, but it differs sufficiently in-
proportions and contour from Locard’s original 7, Dianw, which
was obtained from the Miocene of Corsica,’ as to necessitate another
name: that of Tapes Culverts is therefore proposed for it.
(D) List of shells from Paulo Liman, occurring in a surface-clay
about 20 feet above the sea.
GASTROPODA. LAMELLIBRANCHIA,
Cerithium vulgatum, Linneus. Cerastoderma edule (Linnzus).
Murex Brandaris, Bruguiere. Cardium rusticum( =tuherculatum)
Linnzus.
(E) List of shells from a disintegrated beach of clay and stones
about 10 feet above sea-level, occurring at Mavris Island (Sea
of Marmora).
LAMELLIBRANCHIA.
Chione gallina (Linneus).
Cardium rusticum (=tuberculatum) Linneus.
Chlamys unicolor (Lamarck).
This deposit and the preceding (D) are of a later post-Pliocene
age than those of Gallipoli and Tchardak.
(F) List of terrestrial shells found in a loamy soil capping the
marine beds at Tchardak. They were associated with fragments
of pottery, and are of very recent age.
GASTROPODA.
Helix pomatia, Linnzus.
Helix cineta, var., Miller.
Buliminus Lewitt (Philippi).
Pomatias elegans (Draparnaud).
(G) Marine shells found in a conglomerate at Hora, about 400 feet
above sea-level and 1000 yards inland from the lighthouse at
this locality.
GASTROPODA, LAMELLIBRANCHIA.
Osilinus articulatus (Born). Ostrea edulis, Linnzeus.
Mytilus edulis, Linnxus.
Callista Chione ( Linnzeus),
(H) A sandy conglomerate forming a raised beach, containing recent
Mediterranean shells, from near Kayak Deré.
LAMELLIBRANCHIA.
Ostrea edulis, Linnzeus.
Anomia ephippium, Linnzus.
Chlamys opercularis (Linnzeus).
Amussium cristatum (Bronn).
In connection with the determinations of the recent mollusca
\ ‘Description de la Faune des Terrains tertiaires moyens de la Corse’ 1877,
p- 190 & pl. vil, figs. 1-3.
280 MR. R. B, NEWTON ON FOSSILS FROM {[Aug. 1904,
in the foregoing lists, the writer desires gratefully to acknowledge
the assistance given to him by his colleague at the British Museum,
Mr. Edgar Smith, 1.8.0.
Phocene (Sicilian).
The Pliocene shells of this collection, chiefly obtained from the
Gallipoli Conglomerate, are of lacustrine habit and bear the Caspian
facies. Admiral Spratt’ was one of the earliest geologists to call
attention to the lacustrine or freshwater deposits skirting the
margins of the Grecian Archipelago, the Sea of Marmora, and the
Black Sea, all of which he thought were indications of the former
existence of an ‘Oriental Lake’ extending over those areas to the
Sea of Azov. Two of the more frequent shells found in the Marmora
beds resembled a Mytilus and a Cardiwm, and were long recognized
as marine forms; but, on examining the fauna of Lakes Kattabug
and Yalpuk, Spratt ascertained that the so-called Cardium (= Didacna)
was living there in fresh water, and differed from the marine genus
in having two syphons. He had also recognized the same shell in
the Kertch deposits and in the Gallipoli Conglomerate, where it
was associated with the Mytilus-like shell, or Dreissensia of modern
conchologists ; hence he concluded that these freshwater mollusca
péloneeas to his great ‘ Oriental Lake-Period.’
In the British Museum (Natural History) are some excellent
examples of this Cardiwm-like shell, now determined as Didacna
crassa, &@ species originally described by Eichwald from the Caspian
Sea. These specimens, forming part of Admiral Spratt’s collection,
were obtained from sandy marls underlying red, earthy drift-deposits
at Babel, on the eastern coast of Yalpuk Lake (Bessarabia), and
were presented by Col. F. T. N. Spratt-Bowring, R.E., in 1892.
Prof. Andrussoy,? who has studied the fauna of the Gallipoli
Conglomerate, regards it as of Upper Pliocene age, and synchronizes
it with the T'schauda Beds of the Kertch Peninsula, since both
deposits contain Didacna crassa, Kichwald* (Pl. XXIV, figs. 1 & 2),
Dreissensia polymorpha, Pallas (Pl. XXIV, fig. 3), and Dr. T'schaude,
Andrussov (Pl. XXIV, fig. 4).
Besides these shells from the Gallipoli Conglomerate, the present
collection contains examples of a nearly-identical conglomerate from
Hora, 130 feet above sea-level, exhibiting lacustrine conditions.
Although Dreissensia Tschaude is not identifiable in this rock, the
other two lamellibranchs are recognized, besides Neritina fluviatilis
1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Svc. vol. xiii (1857) pp. 72-83; ibid. vol. xiv (1858)
pp. 208-19 ; & dbid. vol. xvi (1860) pp. 281-92.
2 See ‘Environs de Kertch’ Guide des Excursions du VII’™* Congrés Géol.
Intern. (St. Petersburg, 1897) no. xxx.
8 Didacna crassa is recorded as occurring still farther eastward, in the
district of the Caucasus between Cape Bailov and Baku, by Prof. N. I. Lebedev,
in Dr. Gustav Radde’s ‘ Die Sammlungen des Kaukasischen Museums’ vol. iii
(1901) p. 160 & pl. iv, figs. 713 a0.
Vol. 60.] HE DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 281
and fragments of Mytilus edulis. The appearance of the last-
named among lacustrine species need not be wondered at, as it has
been recorded as living in the Caspian and Black Seas by S. P.
Woodward‘ and other authorities.
(A) List of lacustrine shells from the Gallipoli Conglomerate.
LAMELLIBRANCHIA.
Dreissensia polymorpha (Pallas).
Dreissensia Tschaude, Andrussov.
Didacna crassa, Eichwald.
(B) List of lacustrine shells from the Hora Conglomerate (130 feet).
GASTROPODA. ' LAMELLIBRANCHIA.
Neritina fluviatilis (Linnzus). Dreissensia polymorpha (Pallas).
| Didacna crassa, Eichwald.
Mytilus edulis, Linnzeus.
Miocene (Pontian).
The collection contains a few lacustrine mollusca, which prove
the presence of Pontian deposits in the region of the Dardanelles.
Prof. S. Stefanescu > appears to be the principal authority on the
Pontian and the succeeding Sarmatian groups of rocks, especially
im connection with Rumania, his latest researches being summarized
in a ‘ Thesis’ containing valuable faunistic lists, comparative tables,
and a comprehensive bibliography.
By this it is evident that Dreissensia rimestiensis and Prosodacna
ef. stenopleura (both collected by Col. English) are characteristic
Pontian shells; while an equally-typical shell of this stage of
the uppermost Miocene is the gastropod, Lyrcwa Bonelli, which
Dr. Brusina’ has recorded from Hungary and Servia.
Species of Pontian age :—
( Lyrcea Bonelli, Brusina. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 5 & 6.)
Dreissensia rimestiensis, Fontannes. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 7 & 8.)
} Prosodacna cf. stenopleura, 8. Stefanescu. (Pl. XXIV, figs.
9 & 10.)
Locality.—Found in beds occurring above the Nummulitic Limestone,
| at a brook north of Teke-keui.
| Neritina. Dreissensia.
; Prosodacna.
| Locality.—Keshan (Kara Kaya Deré).
Planorbis. Anodonta.
Melania. Prosodacna.
| Locality.—Near Keshan (Hafus Hassan Tehiflik).
1 «A Manual of the Mollusca’ 3rd ed. (1875) p. 69. ©
2 These présentée a la Faculté des Sciences de Paris: ‘Etude sur les Terrains
tertiaires de Rowmanie’ (Lille, 1897) pp. 124-26. See also Fontannes, ‘ Faune
malacologique des Terrains Néogénes de Roumanie’ Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat.
Lyon, vol. iv (1887) pp. 322-61 & pls. xxvi-xxvii.
3 *Jeonogr., Moll. Foss. Tert. Hungarix, &c.’ 1902, p. 7 & pl. v, figs. 29-32.
Q. Ji G. S. No. 239. U
282 MR. R. B. NEWTON ON FOSSILS FROM [ Aug. 1904,
Miocene (marine Sarmatian).
Marine Sarmatian shells have been obtained from the limestones,
etc., of San Stefano, Heraklitza, Dohan Aslan (near Keshan), Mal-
gara, etc., the most important being Mactra podolica and Cardium
protractum. M, podolica is a typical Sarmatian species, while the
Cardium is found in the Crimea in beds of similar age.
Macrra poporica, Kichwald. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 16-18.)
Mactra podolica, Eichwald, ‘ Naturhistorische Skizze von Lithauen, &c.’ 1830,
>)
Race ee & M. biangulata, Abich, ‘Geologie d. Kaukasus’ Mem. Acad.
Imp. Sci. St. Petersb. ser. 6, vol. ix (1859) pp. 531, 582, figs. 1-4 (p. 514) &
pl. viii, figs. 4a & 46.
Mactra podolica, Hoernes, ‘ Foss. Moll. Tert.-Beck. Wien’ Abhandl. d. k.-k. Geol.
Reichsanst. vol. iv (1859) pt. i, p. 62 & pl. vii, figs. 1-8.
Good specimens of this shell occur in a reddish siliceo-caleareous
rock at Heraklitza, showing external and internal features in every
way agreeing with the figures published by A. d’Archiac in
Viquesnel’s ‘ Voyage dans la Turquie d’Europe’ (1868) pl. xxiv,
figs. 1 & 2.
Further examples of the species are observed in another reddish
rock from Charkeui, in the same neighbourhood, and obscure e¢asts
are present on a white limestone from San Stefano, near Con-
stantinople. Beside these, matrix-casts, of various sizes and of
somewhat rounder form, occur abundantly in a reddish rock accom-
panied by an indeterminable Cardiwm, at Yailah. Similar natural
casts are frequent ina grey formation of marly character at Malgara,
while a very different rock from this also comes from near Malgara,
which is full of a small, globulose, thick-tested shell, probably
representing the younger stage of the species(P1. XXIV, figs. 17 &18).
Abich has figured some very rounded forms of Mactra podolica (under
the names of JM. deltowes of Lamarck and I. biangulata of Pusch),
from the Middle Tertiary deposits of Russian Armenia, which,
although of larger size than the present specimens, may bear a
relationship to them. ‘These globulose specimens from Malgara
have highly-crystalline tests, which prevent any development of
internal characters, sothat the dentition is not exposed. A moderate-
sized example has the following dimensions :—Height =12 milli-
metres; length =13; maximum depth with closed valves =11.
One of the samples of this rock shows indistinct traces of a
Cardium.
Horizon.—Miocene (Sarmatian).
Localities.—Heraklitza ; Charkeui ; San Stefano; Yailah ; near
Malgara ; and Dohan Aslan.
Carpium prorractum, Eichwald. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 19.)
Cardium beso Eichwald, ‘ Zoologia Specialis,’ vol. 1 (1829) p. 283, pl. v, fig. 9
W. H. Baily, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xiv (1858) p. 144; A. tae
in Viquesnel’s ‘ Voyage dans la Turquie d'Europe’ vol. ii (1868) p. 480;
P. Fischer, ‘Faune Tertiaire Moyenne’ in Tchihatcheff’s ‘ Asie Mineure:
Paléontologie’ (1866) p. 356 & pl. vii, fig. 3.
This species is represented by a few well-preserved casts having
Vol. 60.] THE DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 283
a variability of contour, some being more transverse than others.
It is of frequent occurrence in the marly rocks of Ghermé Tepé,
Yailah, etc. Originally it was described from Podolia, but since then
the species has been identified by Baily from the Crimea (specimens in
the British Museum), by A. d’Archiac from Turkey, and by Fischer
from the neighbourhood of the Bosphorus (between Yerlukeui and
the fort of Kilia).
Horizon.—Miocene (Sarmatian).
Localities.—Yailah; north-west of Keshan (the Potteries) ;
Ghermé Tepé, near Keshan ; Yailah-Ghonué; and from a brook east
of Teke-keui.
Miocene (lacustrine Sarmatian).
Sarmatian freshwater deposits occur in the neighbourhood of
Kerassia, and have yielded the following fossils :—
Planorbis cf. cornu, Brongniart.
Limnea.
Melania cf. Escheri, Merian.
Bithynia, in association with a large flattened Anodonta (indet.).
Neritina, accompanied by the casts of a small trigonal Unio
(= Unio cf. Spratti, Calvert & Neumayr).
Anodonta, a large, somewhat crushed form, in a grey marly
matrix, which appears to be intermediate between the
A. cygnea of modern European rivers and the A. helles-
pontica from the Sarmatian deposits of the Dardanelles.
The other species of Sarmatian age are as follows :—
if Planorbis cornu, Brongniart.
Melanopsis incerta, Férussac. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 12 & 13.)
Melanopsis buccinoidea, var., Férussac.
4 Melania ct. Escheri, Merian. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 11.)
Unio Delesserti, Bourguignat. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 14.)
| Unio sp.
( Locality.—In a drab-coloured marly clay, Potamina Deré.
Planorbis cornu, Brongniart.
Unio cf. Spratti, Calvert & Neumayr.
Limnocardium.
Corbicula.
Cypris.
Locality.—In drab-coloured marly clays, from near Arabli.
Halitherium ? (a lumbar vertebra, determined by Dr. C. W.
Andrews).
Diplomystus marmorensis, sp. nov., A. S. Woodward (see
p- 284).
Unio cf. Delesserti (impression of valve).
Limnocardium associated with Cypris (ostracoda).
A _-, ———H—
\ Locality.—Gorgona Deré (southern end) near Sarkeui (Sea of Marmora).
The fauna here tabulated contains certain species which have been
already noticed by Calvert & Neumayr,’ Prof. R. Hoernes,’ etc.,
1 P. Fischer in Tchihatcheff’s ‘Asie Mineure: Paléontologie’ (1866) p. 549
& pl. vi, fig. 2.
2 Denkschr. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, vol. xl (1880) p. 374.
3 Sitzungsberichte d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, vol. lxxiv (1876-77) pt. i,
pp. 7-34.
v2
284 MR. R. B. NEWTON ON FOSSILS FROM [ Aug. 1904,
as occurring in the Sarmatian deposits of the Dardanelles or of
its immediate neighbourhood, Among these may be mentioned :—
Planorbis cornu, Melania cf. Escheri, Melanopsis buccinoidea, var...
M. incerta, Unio Delesserti, U. cf. Spratti, ete.
A freshwater deposit occurs beneath the marine Mactra-limestone
at San Stefano, from which Col. English has obtained some excellent
specimens of Melanopsis costata (P1. XXIV, fig. 15), associated with
fragments of an Unio. This alternation of marine and non-marine
conditions in the Sarmatian Series has already been alluded to by
Prof. Hoernes ’ in connection with the same locality. Prof. Gaudry *
has recorded the occurrence of Melanopsis costata in the lacustrine
Miocene of Attica, which would suggest the contemporary deposition
of these two sets of beds.
Pisces.
DIPLoMYSTUS MARMORENSIS, sp. nov. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 28.)
The type- and only-known specimen of this new species is
preserved for the most part in impression, but exhibits many of its
essential features. Its total length to the extremity of the caudal fin
must have been originally about 58 millimetres, while its maximum
depth in the abdominal region would be 12mm. The length of
the head with the opercular apparatus is about 15 mm. The jaws
are not observable; and the large orbit is the only distinct feature
in the head. The slender, constricted vertebral centra are shown
in longitudinal section, and seem to have been pierced by a
persistent remnant of the notochord. There are about twenty-four
vertebre in the abdominal region, and fourteen in the caudal region.
The ribs are moderately stout, and clearly meet the large ridge-
scutes at the ventral border. ‘here are also indications of numerous.
inter-muscular bones. The small pectoral fins are exhibited; and
one of the pelvic fin-supports shows that the pelvic fins were inserted.
immediately behind a point opposite the origin of the dorsal fin.
The dorsal fin is comparatively small, but comprises at least twelve
rays: the distance between its termination and the caudal fin is
slightly less than that between its origin and the occiput. The
anal fin arises slightly behind the posterior end of the dorsal, and
is not more extensive than the latter fin: its rays probably number
12. The ventral ridge-scutes, about 20 in the series, are uniform
in size, and each is produced behind into a slender point. The
dorsal ridge-scutes immediately behind the occiput are only seen in
imperfect impressions, which appear to indicate that each was
longer than broad. There are no traces of ordinary scales.
Among known species, Diplomystus marmorensis agrees most
closely with D. humilis, from the Eocene Green-River Shales of
Wyoming (U.S.A.), and with D. vectensis, from the Lower Oligocene
Osborne Beds of the isle of Wight. It is essentially identical with
* Verhandl. d. k.-k. Geol. Reichsanst. 1875, p. 174.
> *Animaux fossils & Géologie de l’Attique’ 1862, p. 406 & pl. lxii, figs. 7-15.
Vol. 60.] THE DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 285
both these species in the number of vertebre ; and it also agrees
with D. humilis in the characters of the ridge-scutes and the
extent of its median fins. In these species, however, the head is
smaller, and the dorsal fin farther forward than in the new form ;
while D. vectensis is also easily distinguished by the greater extent
of its anal fin, which comprises sixteen or seventeen rays.
[ A. Sarra Woopwarb. |
Formation.— Miocene (lacustrine Sarmatian). The matrix
is a light-coloured calcareous sandstone.
Locality.—Found on the surface of the ground at the southern
end of Gorgona Deré, near Sarkeui (Sea of Marmora.)
Miocene (Vindobonian = Helvetian-Tortonian).
The oldest marine Miocene shells that have been determined
belong to the Helvetian-Tortonian Period, or Vindobonian (of
Depérét), and were obtained from Eregli and Fakirma in the Gulf of
Xeros ; from near Myriophyto Deré, about 700 feet above sea-level ;
and from Tzenguerli Deré.
Those from Eregli include :—_Alectryonia Virlett, Deshayes ; Ostrea
lamellosa, Brocchi; Pecten aduncus, Eichwald; Anadara diluvii,
Lamarck, which is also found at Fakirma.
From Myriophyto Deré, 700 feet above sea-level :—Ostrea cras-
sissima.
From Tzenguerli Deré :—Ostrea gingensts (Schlotheim).
These are species characteristic of the Vindobonian (= Helvetian-
Tertonian) rocks of countries skirting or near the Mediterranean,
such as Egypt and Northern Africa, Greece, Persia, etc. The
specimens of Pecten aduncus, Eichwald, are well interpreted by
Fuchs’s figures of examples from Egypt.’
Oligocene (Aquitanian & Stampian).
‘Some light-brown to drab-coloured sandstones have been obtained
from north-west of Beyendi-keui and south-east of Lala-keui,
showing dicotyledonous leaf-impressions, one of which appears to
resemble Myrica lignitum, as identified in the British Museum
(Natural History), a form common to the Parschlug Beds of Styria,
and of Aquitanian age. It is, therefore, probable that these plant-
remains belong to the same horizon.
The presence of Stampian Beds (or Tongrian of older authors) at
Masatly and north-west of Keshan, ete., is much more certain,
however, as the characteristic shell Corbicula semistriata (= Cyrena
subarata, Bronn) has been determined, associated with Melanopsis
ef. fusiformis and Anthracotherium-teeth (of small size, and possibly
related to A. cf. minus, a form characteristic of the Hempstead or
Stampian Beds of the Isle of Wight). The Anthracotheriwm-remains
1 «Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Miocanfauna gyptens, Xe.’ in ‘ Palzonto-
graphica’ vol. xxx (1883) p. 54 & pl. xix, figs. 1-5.
286 MR..R. B. NEWTON ON FOSSILS FROM: [Aug. 1904,
are found actually in the coal-beds at Masatly accompanied by
Corbicula semistriata, thus fixing the age of the coal as Middle
Oligocene, or the Stampian stage of that Period.’
A single imperfect specimen of what is considered to be Corbicula
semistriata was obtained by Mr. Claude Warner, when boring for
petroleum 3 miles inland from Hora, at a depth of rather more
than 1000 feet from the surface.
MamMALIA.
ANTHRACOTHERIUM cf. minus, Cuvier. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 20.)
Anthracotherium minus, Cuvier, ‘Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles’ 2nd ed.
vol. iii (1822) p. 403, & vol. v (1824) pt. ii, p. 528.
Anthracotherium ct. minus, Lydekker, ‘Catal. Foss. Mammalia Brit. Mus.’ pt. ii
(1885) p. 242.
Remains of Anthracotherium associated with Corbicula semi-
striata have been found embedded in a sample of coal from Masatly.
These consist of anterior molars and premolars belonging to both
sides of a mandible, which are of much smaller size than those
characterizing either A. magnum or A. alsaticum, being probably
related to A. cf. minus occurring in the Hempstead Beds of the Isle
of Wight, and provisionally identified as such by Mr. R. Lydekker
from material in the British Museum (Natural History). It may
be stated that Dr. C. W. Andrews agrees with this determination,
and, like myself, experiences some difficulty in analysing any
differences that may exist between the teeth from Hempstead and
those from the Turkish locality.
Horizon.—Oligocene (Stampian).
Locality.—Masatly.
Motiusca—GAsTROPODA.
Metanoprsis cf. FustForMis, J. Sowerby.
Melanopsis fusiformis, J. Sowerby, ‘ Mineral Gonchology’ vol. iv (1822) p. 35 &
pl. cecxxxii, figs. 1-7; J. Morris, in Forbes’s ‘Isle of Wight’ Mem. Geol.
Surv. (1856) p. 156 & pl. vi, fig. 7.
The specimens referred to this form of .Welanopsis agree remark-
ably well with Morris’s figures published in Forbes’s ‘ Isle of Wight.”
The narrower and more elongate aperture appears to separate the
1 Anthracotherium is essentially a genus of the Oligocene Period, not having
been found, so far as can be ascertained, either below the Sannoisian or above
the Aquitanian stages of that group of rocks. It occurs, ameng other European
localities, in lignites of Lower Tongrian age near Gran in Hungary, as recorded
by Hébert & Munier-Chalmas, associated with Corbicula semistriata, C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. lxxxv (1877) p. 184 ; and Prof. Heernes reports it, without
however the sbell, in the coal-formation of Transylvania, Verhandl. d. k.-k.
Geol. Reichsanst. 1878, p. 146; while the present discovery at Masatly forms
the most south-easterly point in Europe for this genus.
As the Hempstead Beds of England are correlated by Prof. Renevier,
Prof. A. de Lapparent, and others with the Middle or Stampian (=Rupelian)
stage of the Oligocene, it is considered that the palxontological evidence is
in favour of the Masatly beds belonging to the same horizon.
Vol. 60.] THE DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 287
species from those figured by A. d’Archiac in Viquesnel’s work * as
M. incerta, Férussac, var. Melanopsis fusiformis is characteristic
of the Headon Beds of England.
Locality.—Keshan Colliery, associated with Corbula and in-
determinable plant-remains.
Horizon.—Oligocene (Stampian) greenish marls,
MotiuscAa—LaMELLIBRANCHIA.
CoRBICULA SEMISTRIATA, Deshayes. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 21-23.)
Cytherea (?) convexa, Brongniart, in Cuvier’s ‘Recherches sur les Ossemens
Fossiles’ 2nd ed. vol. 11 (1822) pt. ii, pp. 282, 284, 458, 462, 612 & pl. vii,
tigs. 7 a—7 b (insufficiently defined for adoption).
Cyrena semistriata, Deshayes, ‘ Encycl. Méthod.’ vol. ii (1830) pt. i, p. 52.
Cyrena subarata, Bronn, ‘ Lethea Geognostica’ 2nd ed. vol. 11 (1838) p. 958 &
pl. xxxviii, fig. 2.
Cyrena semistriata, J. Morris, in Edw. Forbes’s ‘ Tert. Fluv. Marine Formations
of the Isle of Wight’ Mem. Geol. Surv. (1856) p. 148 & pl. iti, fig. 2.
The specimens representing this species exhibit the variations of
contour referred to by John Morris in 1856. Some of the valves
are more equilateral, others being more obliquely produced on the
posterior side; the dentition is solid, strong, and prominent, and
the concentric sulcate structure is rather more pronounced on the
anterior than on the posterior side of the shell.
This is a very characteristic species of the Oligocene Period, having
been collected in England and in many Continental countries, such
as France, Germany, Hungary, Galicia, etc. At Fontainebleau,
nearly 40 miles south-east of Paris, it is abundantly found in beds
which Prof. A. de Lapparent and others recognize as Middle
Oligocene, or the so-called Stampian part of that system. Vacek *
records its occurrence in the Menilit-Schiefer (=Stampian of A. de
Lapparent) near Alsd-Vereczke, on the confines of Galicia, in
association with Meletta sardinites, and considers that the beds
should be synchronized with the Lower Oligocene of Schilag, in
Transylvania, as described by Dr. K. Hofmann.’ Hébert &
Munier-Chalmas* recognized the shell in the Hungarian lignites
of Gran, and Dr. E. Fournier’ records it from the Central Caucasus.
Lastly, it is well represented in the Hempstead Beds of England.
As a fossil from the region of the Dardanelles, it is now known for
the first time.
Horizon.—Oligocene (Stampian).
Localities.—Masatly ; Harmanly; north-west of Keshan; and
3 miles inland from Hora.
CoRBULA sp.
A small trigonal form of Corbula makes up very largely the green
marly rock found at Keshan. The specimens are difficult to diagnose,
‘Voyage dans la Turquie d’Europe’ vol. ii (1868) pl. xxiv 4, figs. 4 & 5.
Jahrb. d. k.-k. geol. Reichsanst. vol. xxxi (1881) pp. 200-202.
® Verhandl, d. k.-k. Geol. Reichsanst. 1881, p. 16.
C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. lxxxv (1877) p. 184.
° These présentée 4 la Faculté des Sciences de Paris: ‘ Deser. Géol. Caucase
Central’ (Marseille, 1896) pp. 184, 186.
yb »
cs
288 MR. R. B. NEWION ON FOSSILS FROM [ Aug. 1904,
as they are embedded in the matrix, and there are no clean isolated
examples for examination. A large anterior tooth can be seen in
one of the right valves, followed by a triangular cardinal cavity ; and
the external sculpture is certainly of an unequal concentric character.
A. d’Archiac described C. Saulcyz* from Mal Tepé, which is larger
than the present species, but in contour shows a resemblance that
would suggest the possibility of the new specimens being young
examples of the same.
Locality.—Keshan.
Horizon.—Oligocene (Stampian), associated with Melanopsis
cf. fustformis and indeterminable plant-remains.
PLANT-REMAINS.
Plant-remains, in the shape of dicotyledonous leaf-impressions,
have been collected in a brook lying north-west of Beyendi-keui and
south-east of Lala-keui. The matrix is a sandstone varying in
colour from light-brown to drab, but the specimens themselves are
not determinable, and consequently they are of little use for hori-
zonal purposes. One of them resembles Myrica lignitum, Heer, as
represented by specimens in the British Museum (Natural History),
from Parschlug in Styria: consequently, it is probable that these
plant-deposits belong to the Aquitanian stage of the Oligocene.
Horizon.—Oligocene (Aquitanian ?).
Indeterminable plant-remains are found associated with Me-
lanopsis cf. fusiformis and Corbula sp. in the green marly rock.
They are merely impressions, one having a stem-like character.
These specimens bear no affinity with the sandstone plant-impressions
containing the supposed Myrica lignitum.
Locality.—Keshan.
Horizon.—Oligocene (Stampian ?).
Eocene (Lutetian).
The following fossils, belonging to the Middle or Lutetian
stage of the Eocene Period, have been determined as occurring at
Tzenguerli Deré, Gorgona Deré, Vernitza, and Teke-keut.
Mou.vsca. ! FORAMINIFERA.
Spondylus subspinosus, D’ Archiac. | Nummulites Dufrenoyi, D’ Archiac.
Fimbria subpectunculus (D’Orbigny). Numimulites cf. distans, Deshayes.
Locality.—Tzenguerli Deré. | Nummutites (probably) variolaria
| (Lamarck),
ACTINOZOA. | Nummulites (probably) Heberti,
; : : D’Archiac.
Cladocora cf. articulata, Abich. | Discocyclina (probably) papyracea
Locality.—Gorgona Deré. | (Boubée).
Trochocyathus sp. | Discocyclina (probably) dispansa
Cycloseris cf. Perezi, Haime. (J. de C. Sowerby).
Locality.—Vernitza. _ Locality.—Vernitza.
* See Viquesnel’s ‘ Voyage dans la Turquie d’Europe’ vol. ii (1868) p. 478 &
pl. xxv 0, fig. 13.
Vol. 60.] THE DISTRICT SURROUND ING THE DARDANELLES. 289
ForaMINIFERA (continued), ForaMInIFera (continued).
Nummulites (probably) like those from _Globigerina.
Vernitza. Rotaline forms.
Discocyclina, : Locality.—Mount Elias.
ao” © oo Rock-specimen containing Vummu-
: 3 ee | lites
Alveolina (near to) oblonga, D’Orbigny. ;
= eee ) a — | Locality.—Teke-keui.
Biloculina. For fuller information respecting
Polymorphina. _ the Foraminifera, see Mr. R. Hol-
Miliolina. land’s Report, Appendix ITI, p. 292.
Motivusca— LAMELLIBRANCHIA.
SponpyLvs susspinosus, D’Archiac. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 24 & 25.)
Spondylus subspinosus, D’ Archiac, ‘ Descr. des Foss. du Groupe Nummulitique,
&c.’ Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 2, vol. iii (1850) pt. ii, p. 437 & pl. mili, fig. 1.
Represented by a single valve showing a regular convexity.
The surface is ornamented with rounded ribs of considerable
strength, separated by deep and prominent grooves, the sides of
which, as well as the ribs, are covered with extremely-fine transverse
striations. The specimen is imperfect on the right side, so that the
exact number of ribs cannot be ascertained, but about nineteen
can be counted ; in all probability, therefore, the original number
was about 23, that for the type-specimen being from 21 to 23.
No auricles are preserved, and the ribs have been subjected to
some eroding influence, as their summits are frequently smooth and
not striated. Occasionally, short and thick spines are observable
on the ribs, especially near the sides of the valve. The dimen-
sions exceed those of the type, as the following comparison will
illustrate :—
Col. English’s specimen. Type.
SONG 5 0b ss2550 60 millimetres. 45 mm.
Wiep tae erie. ee cen-ee 52 mm. 39 mm.
Except in size, therefore, the specimen from Turkey appears to
correspond with the type described and figured by A. d’Archiac from
the Nummulitic rocks of Biarritz.
Dr. E. Fournier reports its occurrence in the Middle Eocene
deposits of the Central Caucasus.’
Horizon.—Middle Eocene (Lutetian): matrix containing num-
mulites.
Locality.—Tzenguerli Deré.
Frsris suBPEcTUNCULUS, d’Orbigny.
Corbis pectunculus, Lamarck, ‘ Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert.’ vol. v (1818) p. 537;
Deshayes, ‘ Descr. Cog. Foss. des Environs de Paris’ vol. i (1824-35) p. 87 &
pl. xiii, figs. 3-6.
Corbis subpectunculus, D’Orbigny, ‘ Prodrome Paléont. Strat. Univ.’ vol. ii (1850)
p. 387.
Fimbria subpectunculus, Deshayes, ‘ Descr. Anim. sans Vert.’ vol. 1 (1860) p. 607.
Corbis subpectunculus, D’Archiac, in Viquesnel’s ‘ Voyage dans la Turquie
d’ Europe’ vol. ii (1868) p. 459.
Represented by a fragmentary right valve, showing the
These présentée a la Faculté des Sciences de Paris: ‘ Descr. Géol. Caucase
Central’ (Marseille, 1896) p. 182.
290 MR. R. B. NEWTON ON FOSSILS FROM [Aug. 1904, —
characteristic sculpture of this robust shell. The species was
originally described from the Middle Kocene of France, and it was
recognized by A. d’Archiac as occurring in the Eocene deposits
of Sarikaia (Rumelia) and in the Crimea.’
Horizon.—Middle Hocene (Lutetian).
Locality.—Tzenguerli Deré.
Actinozoa (CoraLs).
Crapocora cf. AarTicuLATA, Abich.
Cladocora articulata, Abich, ‘Ueber das Steinsalz & seine geologische Stellung
im russischen Armenien’ Mem. Acad. Imp, Sci. St. Petersb. ser. 6, vol. ix
(1859) p. 96 & pl. vin, figs. 1 a-1 6.
Specimens showing cylindrical tubes measuring 5 millimetres in
diameter, which are externally covered with granulose longitudinal
cost ; in these and their septal characters, so far-as can be ascer-
tained, they appear to be related to the Cl. ariwculata, as described
by Abich, from the Nummulitic rocks of Russian Armenia.
H orizon.—Middle Kocene (Lutetian).
Locality.—Gorgona Deré, near Sarkeui.
TROCHOCYATHUS sp.
Small turbinate coral resembling the genus T'rochocyathus.
Diameter =15 millimetres; height =30 mm.
Horizon.—Middle Eocene (Lutetian).
Locality.—Vernitza.
CyctosEris cf. PErrzi, Haime. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 26 & 27.)
Cyclolites Borsonis, Michelin, ‘ Iconographie Zoophytologiqué’ 1840-47, p. 266 &
pl. 1xi, fig. 2 (won Michelin, pl. viii, tig. 4).
Cycloseris Perezi, Haime, in D’Archiac, ‘ Histoire des Progrés de la Géologie’
vol. 111 (1850) p. 229.
Cycloseris Perezi, Bellardi, ‘Catal. raisonné des Foss. nummulitiques du Comté de
Nice’ Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 2, vol. iv (1852) pt. ii, p. 288.
Cycloseris Peresi, Haime, in D’Archiac & Haime’s ‘ Description des Animaux
foss. du Groupe Nummulitique de ? Inde’ vol. i (1853) p. 193.
There are three specimens belonging to the genus Cycloseris
which are related to C. Perez, a Lutetian species recognized from
France and India (Scind). The calyx is subcircular, with a
diameter ranging from 30 to 40 millimetres, the height of the coral
being about 10 mm. The specimens are nummiform above but
turbinate below, and the septa are probably more tortuous than
straight (as originally described), although they are equally thin and
numerous, being well exposed marginally, finely dentated, and
minutely granulated on the lateral surfaces. The slightly-turbinate
basal region is covered with a thin concentric epitheca, through
which the costations are seen; while its central area forms a
rounded horizontal section of about 9 millimetres in diameter, ex-
hibiting a series of thickened septa, the chief of which extend to a
papilla-like columella.
Horizon.—Middle Hocene (Lutetian).
Locality.—Vernitza.
' «Histoire des Progrés de la Géologie’ vol. iii (1850) p. 259.
.— 2 —_—
=
= ee ro
7 hides le ee
vee wt One
2 —
——s
b To
\
Quart .Journ.Geol. Soc Vol. LX,P1.XXIV.
F.H. Michael del.et Lith, Le MinternBros.imp.
TERTIARY FOSSILS FROM DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES.
( Nat. stxe, ecccopt where otherwise marked
Vol. 60.] HE DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES, 291
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIV.
[Ali the figures are drawn of the natural size, except where otherwise stated.
The specimens are preserved in the British Museum (Natural History). |
Didaena crassa, Kichwald. (See p. 280.)
Pliocene (Sicilian): Baschesmé Bay, Gallipoli.
Fig. 1. External view of right valve.
2. View showing umbonal summit and dentition of the same valve.
[L. 13661.|
Dreissensia polymorpha, Pallas. (See p. 280.)
Pliocene (Sicilian) : Gallipoli.
3. External aspect of a left valve—the specimen is attached to a con-
glomeratic matrix filling the interior of a valve of Didacna crassa.
[L. 13661. ]
Dreissensia Tschaude, Andrussoy. (See p. 280.)
Pliocene (Sicilian) : Gallipoli.
4, Outer view ofa right valve. [L. 138662.]
Lyrcea Bonelli (Sismonda), Brusina. (See p. 281.)
Miocene (Pontian): from above the Numimulitic Limestone
at a brook north of Teke-keui.
5. Front aspect, showing aperture.
6. Dorsal view of the same shell.
Dreissensia rimestiensis, Fontannes. (See p. 281.)
Miocene (Pontian): from above the Nummulitic Limestone
at a brook north of Teke-keui.
7. External view of a right valve.
8. Inner view of a left valve, belonging to another specimen. X2.
Prosodacna cf. stenopleura, 8. Stefanescu. (See p. 281.)
Miocene (Pontian): from above the Nummulitic Limestone
at a brook north of Teke-keui.
9. Interior of a right valve.
10. External view of the same specimen.
Melania cf. Escheri, Merian. (See p. 283.)
Miocene (Sarmatian): Potamina Deré.
11. Fragmentary specimen, exhibiting sculpture-characters closely
resembling this species.
Melanopsis incerta, Férussac. (See p. 283.)
Miocene (Sarmatian) : Potamina Deré.
12. Apertural view.
13. Dorsal view of the same specimen.
Unio Delesserti, Bourguiguat. (See p. 283.)
Miocene (Sarmatian): Potamina Deré.
14. External view of a right valve.
This determination is according to D’Archiac’s interpretation of
Bourguignat’s species from Palestine: see Viquesnel’s ‘Voyage [dans
la Turquie d'Europe’ vol. ii (1868) p. 479 & Atlas, pl. xxiv, fig. 1a.
Melanopsis costata, Olivier. (See p. 284.)
Miocene (Sarmatian): found beneath the Mactra-
Limestone at San Stefano.
15, Front view of a specimen showing the characteristic sculpture of this
species.
292 MR. R. HOLLAND ON NUMMULITES FROM [| Aug. 19¢4,
Mactra podolica, Eichwald. (See p. 282.)
Miocene (Sarmatian): Heraklitza, and near Malgara.
Hig. 1
_~
5. Limestone-cast of a right valve, showing pallial and muscular scar-
impressions (Heraklitza).
17. | Two views of an example of the small globose form which may re-
18. { present the young condition of this species (near Malgara). x13.
Cardium protractum, Hichwald. (See pp. 282-83.)
Miocene (Sarmatian): Ghermé Tepe.
19. Natural cast of right valve.
Anthracotherium cf. minus, Cuvier. (See p. 286.)
Oligocene (Stampian): Masatly.
20. Coronal aspect of what is probably a 2nd molar tooth belonging to
the left ramus of a mandible. [M. 8246.]
Corbicula semistriata, Deshayes. (See p. 287.)
Oligocene (Stampian): Masatly.
21. External aspect of the right valve of a specimen with closed valves.
22. Dorsal view of the same, showing the summits, ligament-area, &e.
23. Interior of a right valve of another specimen, exhibiting dentition,
lateral sockets, ete.
Spondylus subspinosus, D’Archiac. (See p. 289.)
Eocene (Lutetian): Tzenguerli Deré.
(The matrix of this specimen contains nummulites.)
24. External aspect of valve, showing the strong longitudinal ribs with
oceasional short thick spines.
25, Magnification of sculpture-striations observed on the ribs of the left
lateral region, which has been less subjected to eroding influences
than other parts of the specimen.
Cycloseris cf. Perezi, Haime. (See p. 290.)
Eocene (Lutetian): Vernitza.
26. Upper surface of calyx, showing the crowded and dentated character
of the septa.
27. Basal view of another specimen, exhibiting the fine costations through
the thin epitheca; the dentated margin; and the central area
with the thickened septa,
Diplomystus marmorensis, sp. noy. (See p. 284.)
Miocene (Sarmatian): Gorgona Deré (southern end).
28. Left lateral aspect.
Apprenpix III.
Notes on NumMutites in the TurKisu Rocks described by
Cox, ExetisH. By Ricuarp Hortanp, Esq.
[Prare XXV.]
There appear to be at least three species of nummulites (giving
six forms) in the rocks from Vernitza. These are :—
1. (Pl. XXYV, figs. 1-3.) A large nummulite having a width of
from 45 to 50 millimetres, and a thickness of from 5 to 10 mm.
It is microspheric, and there are eleven to twelve turns of the spiral
Vol. 60.] THE DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 293
inaradiusof3mm. The filets cloisonnaires are sinuo-striate
Height 24 im,
Wadthin 5h ay
septal angle is about 45°. The spire is irregular after the first
few turns, and the line of the spiral duplicates and coalesces
occasionally.
This nummulite is identified as Nummulites Dufrenoyi, D’Archiac,
form B.’ De la Harpe refers V. Dufrenoyi to the N. complanata
of Lamarck. It undoubtedly belongs tothe complanata-group ; but
it is quite sufficiently distinct, as D’Archiac has shown, and the
true JV. complanata nowhere occurs in these rock-specimens. More-
over, the ‘companion’-form of the species differs from NN. Tchiha-
tcheffi, D’Archiac, which is the ‘companion’ of JV. complanata.
2.(P1.XXV,fig.4.) A moderate-sized nummulite varying in width
from 8 to 10 millimetres, and having a thickness of about 5 mm.
Megalospheric, with six turns of the spiral in a radius of 3 mm.
Filets cloisonnaires sinuo-striate and rather coarse. Spire
Height 4 3
Width 5’ 3°
Surface non-tuberculate, but the ‘pillars’ are visible as white
specks on a varnished surface. Septal angle = about 50°. This
nummulite occurs in great abundance in the main Nummulitic
rock at Vernitza. It agrees fairly in dimensions with WV. Tchiha-
tcheffi, D’Archiac, but differs considerably in the general appearance
of its horizontal section. It is identified as V. Dufrenoyi, D’Archiac,
form A.
3. (Pl. XXV, fig. 5.) A microspheric nummulite, measuring
about 15 mm. in width, and rather thin. Filets cloisonnaires
sinuo-radiate. Delicate in its characters. The dimensions are not
given, because very few specimens have been secured sufficiently well
preserved for accurate measurement, and no specimen from which
the thickness could be properly measured. On the other hand, a
varnished specimen has furnished a fairly-good photograph of the
spire, except the first few turns. This nummulite is provisionally
identified as a variety of NV. distans, Deshayes, form B.° :
4, (Pl. XXYV, fig. 6.) A megalospheric nummulite, rather smaller
than No. 2, varying in width from 5 to 8 mm. and in thickness from 3
to4mm. The spire is regular at first, and gives seven or eight turns in
a radius of 3 mm.; it then frequently becomes more or less irregular.
The filets cloisonnaires are sinuo-striate, and more delicate
Height 2
Widen — 1 "apes
angle = about Although in external appearance this num-
mulite and No. 2 are somewhat similar, the spiral characters are
strikingly different. This No. 4 is provisionally identified as a
variety of NV. distans, Deshayes, form A. A goodly number of
and delicate. The chamber-ratio is irregular:
fairly regular. The chamber-ratio is rather irregular:
than in No. 2. The chamber-ratio is regular:
io
1 D’Archiac & Haime, ‘ Description des Animaux fossiles du Groupe Nummu-
litique de l’Inde’ 1853, p. 89 & pl. i, figs. 4a—4e.
2 Deshayes, ‘ Descr. Foss. rec. en Crimée, &c.’ Mém. Soe. Géol. France, vol. iii
(1838) p. 68 & pl. v, figs. 20-22 ; D’Archiac & Haime, ‘ Descr. Anim. foss. Groupe
Nummulitique de Inde’ 1853, p. 91 & pl. ii, figs. La-c, 2a, 8a, 4a, 54, & 5b.
294 MR. R. HOLLAND ON NUMMULITES FROM [Aug. 1904, _
specimens have been examined, but it does not occur in profusion
in the rock.
5 & 6. Two very small nummulites, about 3 or 4 mm. in width.
These occur in the rocks in great profusion, but they are very
difficult to deal with, because of their minute size and crystalline
condition. It has not been found possible hitherto to obtain good
split specimens. Several have been ground down and then varnished,
but they have not furnished results such as to justify the identifica-
tion of the species. It is thought that there are two forms—one
microspheric and one megalospheric; and roughly they resemble
N. variolaria, Sowerby,’ and WN. Heberti, D’Archiac.?
All these nummulites are highly crystalline. Nos. 2 & 4 split
readily under the usual treatment, though the process spoils nearly
50 per cent. of the specimens operated upon. When they are split
the crystalline condition entirely masks the internal structure, but
this is fairly well brought out by the use of a varnish of Canada
balsam dissolved in benzol. Nos. 1 & 3 split with very great
difficulty, and, in fact, to obtain the spiral characters of No. 3 it has
been necessary to grind a specimen down to the median plane and
then use varnish. In spite of the intractable nature of the speci-
mens, Mr. H. W. Burrows, F.G.8., has kindly attempted to get some
micro-photographs ; and he has succeeded (by the use of the acetylene-
light) in securing from opaque varnished specimens results which are
highly satisfactory in the circumstances.
Associated with the nummulites in the rocks are numerous
Orbitoides. It has not yet been found possible to separate out any
good specimens, but a transparent section of the ‘ black’ rock shows
a few of the chambers of the median plane in one of the Orbitoides.
These chambers are clearly rectangular, and the Orbitoides are
Discocyclines. It is probable that the species Orbitoides ( Disco-
cyclina) papyracea and O. (D.) dispansa both occur.
Other Nummulitic rocks from the neighbourhood of Mount Elias
have also been examined. Some of them contain nummulites and
Orbitoides in outward appearance not unlike those from Vernitza,
but it has not been found practicable to isolate specimens good
enough and numerous enough to examine them properly for
purposes of identification.
Three transparent slides cut from the rocks of Mount Elias have
been examined. These contain, in addition to Nummulites and
Orbitoides, Orbitolites (probably O. complanata), Alveolina (near
A, oblonga), numerous Teuvtilarve, Biloculina, Polymorphina, Miho-
lava, and several Globigerine and Rotaline forms.
1 Thomas Brown, ‘Illustrations of the Fossil Conchology of Great Britain ’
1849, p. 37 & pl. xxvi, figs. 8-5; and D’Archiac & Haime, ‘ Description des
Animaux fossiles du Groupe Nummulitique de l’Inde’ 1853, p. 146 & pl. ix,
figs. 13a-13q.
* D’Archiac & Haime, op. cit. p. 147 & pl. ix, figs. 14a-14g, 15, & 1lda.
Quart. JourRN. GEOL. Soc. VoL. LX, PL. XXV.
Bentrose, Collo.
DARDANELLES.
Hl. W. B., Photogr.
NUMMULITES FROM THE COUNTRY SURROUNDING THE
Paid
Rik ™
Vol. 60. ]
THE DISTRICT SURROUNDING THE DARDANELLES. 295
‘It is deduced from other paleontological evidence that these beds
are of Lutetian age. There appears to be nothing in the forami-
niferal evidence to conflict with this view.
Fig. 1.
to
He = OO
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV.
Nummulites Dufrenoyi, D’Archiac, form B. External view, showing the
pW.
‘Gonchusious(s. esci2lscckssssmecenas eee peewee e oe beldee 314
I. InrRopUCTION,
Tue scene that discloses itself to the observer who enters the Bay
of Naples by the so-called Bocca Grande, presents three parts,
each characterized by distinct features. On the right, masses of
calcareous pink and white rock rise up into the Island of Capri
from the foam-flecked waters of the Mediterranean, and stretch
through Sorrento and Amalfi to the cloud-capped Apennine. On the
left, a vast succession of undulating ridges of tawny-coloured tuff
begins, first at the Island of Ischia, and then, extending through
Vivara and Procida, spreads out into the gentle declivities upon
which Naples is built. In the central background looms grand
and solemn the smoking peak of Vesuvius.
Just as these three components of the landscape are diverse in
aspect, so too are they diverse in geological origin and constitution.
The island of Capri and the peninsula of Sorrento are made up of a
gigantic pile of dolomitic and calcareous deposits of Upper Triassic
(Hauptdolomit) and of Cretaceous (Urgonian-Turonian) age.
Upon these rest in places a few insignificant patches of Eocene-
Miocene Flysch. Vesuvius is a typical volcano of concentric
accumulation (vuleano a recinto), almost entirely built up of
leucotephritic, fragmental, and lava-form materials. Between
Naples and Ischia les a vast and complex assemblage of extinct
craters, which have erupted much fragmental material but little
lava, generally of a trachy-andesitic character, though excep-
tionally the crater of Vivara has disgorged a basaltic magma.”
This region, more especially that portion of it lying between
Naples, Cuma, and Miseno, received from the early Greek colonists
the name of the Phlegrean Fields. These men, as they beheld
the titanic warfare between the subterranean volcanic forces and
the calmer agencies of the atmosphere, pictured it as a great battle
1 Translated by the Assistant-Secretary.
> G. de Lorenzo & C. Riva ‘Il Cratere di Vivara nelle Isole Flegree’ Atti
R. Accad. Sci. Napoli, ser. 2, vol. x (1901) no. 8.
Vol. 60. ] VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGRZAN FIELDS, 297
between the giants and the gods, terminating in the ultimate victory
of the latter.
In the month of March 1903, 1 made some memorable excur-
sions in this region with Sir Archibald Geikie, who urged me to
give a summary of the results of my researches into its volcanic
history, which might be submitted to the Geological Society of
London. In now complying with this request, I am not unmindful
of the many errors and omissions to which the student of so
complicated an eruptive area is liable, an area wherein every
new excursion propounds fresh problems and suggests unsuspected
mysteries.
In order to trace this volcanic history with most satisfaction, it
is desirable, first of all, to understand the geological structure of
the great basin of the Bay of Naples, in which the eruptions have
taken place.
Il. Origin oF THE Bay oF NAPLES.
The same rocks as those which form the backbone of the Apennines
constitute also the fundamental skeleton of the Neapolitan area:
that is, Upper Triassic dolomites, Cretaceous dolomites and lime-
stones, Flysch (Eocene-Miocene) sandstones and marls. These
strata, the combined thickness of which is some 3300 feet, have
been dislocated and fissured by the post-Eocene orogenic uplift of
the Apennines.’ While this upheaval contorted the softer deposits
of the Flysch into innumerable narrow folds, or left patches of
them imprisoned within and pinched into the fissures opened up in
the underlying Mesozoic formations, the rigidity of these last-
named rocks formed a sufficient obstacle to their plication into
tightly-packed folds. Consequently they were slightly curved into
broad domes and large basins, which in their turn were fractured
by dynamic agencies, and the dismembered masses slipped along
the fracture-planes, step-faults, etc. being thus originated.
One of these fractured basins is precisely the great calcareous
hollow which, sweeping round from the Island of Capri and the
Peninsula of Sorrento past the hills of Nola, Caserta, and Capua,
and projecting again into the sea at Massico, embraces, as within
one colossal amphitheatre, the entire Campania Felice. In Capri
and Sorrento the strata dip north-westward, at Caserta westward,
and at the Monte Massico south-westward. Thus they form a
synclinal depression, the major axis of which, trending north-west
and south-east, is some 434 miles long. The entire rim of this
great basin is broken by huge longitudinal fractures, striking
sensibly parallel with the Apennines (from north-west to south-
east); and by transverse fractures perpendicular to the first-
mentioned, and therefore trending south-west and north-east.
But the present configuration of the Apennine country is no
longer such as it was broadly outlined by the post-Eocene uplift.
1 For this and the subsequent observations, see G. de Lorenzo ‘ Studii di
Geologia nell’ Appennino meridionale’ Atti R. Accad. Sci. Napoli, ser. 2,
vol. viii (1897) no. 7.
Q.J.G.8. No. 239. x
298 PROF. G, DE LORENZO ON THE HISTORY OF ([ Aug. 1904,
That uplift, towards the end of the Miocene Period, raised our
mountains to a level probably higher than the present one, and
thus exposed them to long-continued denudation. In this way
there gradually disappeared from the summits of the great broken
calcareous massifs every trace of the softer Eocene and Miocene
sediments, which nevertheless remained sheltered in the wide and
deep synclines, and were mantled over by later deposits.
After the great uplift, this region was subjected in Pliocene
times to another depression, and the sea flowed in again over the
mountains. Thus itis that we find the great Pleistocene terraces
carved out on Aspromonte up to an altitude of 4265 feet above the
present sea-level, and in the remainder of the Apennines up to
3280 feet and more.
But when the Pliocene age came to an end, a fresh uplift
marked the beginning of the Pleistocene, an uplift which is still in
progress, and has been and is accompanied by seismic phenomena
and by the active vulcanicity of the Southern Apennines. To
such vicissitudes also the fundamental structure of the Bay of
Naples has been subjected.
Confining ourselves to that portion of the area which les nearest
the volcanic formations, that is, to the Peninsula of Sorrento and
the Island of Capri, we find there (as before stated) dolomites and
limestones of Triassic and Cretaceous age. The Tertiary deposits
have been all but completely swept away by the long-continued
post-Eocene denudation, a mere patch of Eocene-Miocene Flysch
now surviving on the highlands between Amalfi and Castellamare
di Stabia; while another, rather larger patch, lies amid the low-
lands of Sorrento and Massa, in the hollows formed by depression.
Not a remnant is now left among these hills of the Upper Pliocene
or the marine Pleistocene; but the blocks thrown up from the old
crater of Vesuvius * and the artesian wells dug in Naples (at the
toyal Palace and on Piazza Vittoria) prove that such deposits,
containing shells nearly all of which are identical with species
now living in the Bay, occur at the very bottom of the basin,
beneath the deposits of volcanic material, at little more than
650 feet below the present level of the sea. We may, then, conclude
that the volcanic eruptions of the Neapolitan area
began somewhere between the end of the Pliocene and
the beginning of the Pleistocene Period, upon the
bottom of a great synclinal basin, resembling those to
be seen elsewhere in the Apennines, but in part
drowned by the sea.
The southern rim of this basin now projects above the waters,
in the shape of the Island of Capri and the Peninsula of Sorrento.
But, just as the various elevations and depressions of both island
and peninsula are primarily due to the transverse and longitudinal
fractures, which have broken up the calcareous massif into so
1H. J. Johnston-Lavis ‘The Ejected Blocks of Monte Somma’ Trans.
Edin. Geol. Soe. vol. vi (1893) p. 314.
Vol. 60.) VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGR#ZAN FIELDS. 299
‘many fault-blocks, subsequently sculptured by atmospheric agencies:
so do the Island of Capri and the Peninsula of Sorrento themselves
in reality form part of a single great calcareous mass limited by the
submarine contour of 3280 feet, and measuring at least 7870 feet
from top to bottom, of which thickness only about 4590 feet now
emerges from the waves (see Pl. XX VI).
This great mass is followed on the north-west by a second, which
rises from the 3280-foot submarine contour to about 650 feet
below sea-level (see Pl. XXVI & Pl. XXVII, section) ; and this
is divided from the first by an embayment, which in all probability
corresponds to a valley of transverse fracture, analogous to all the
others known elsewhere in the Apennines. The character of the
contours, more precipitous on the south and more gentle on the
north, suggests the inference that in this submarine massif, just as
in the Peninsula of Sorrento, the strata dip from south-east to north-
west, and are cut off by a great fracture on the south-east. . In this
second mass the marine Tertiary and Quaternary sediments have
been naturally better preserved, because they were more protected
from erosive agencies. The blocks ejected from Monte Somma
have furnished abundant evidence in favour of this conclusion.
To sum up then, the bottom of the Bay of Naples, originally
moulded by the orogenic post-Kocene folding and by the post-
Pliocene uplift, is chiefly composed of two great masses of lime-
stone and dolomite, intensely fractured and dislocated, the con-
stituent strata of which dip en masse towards the foci of eruption.
This synclinal dip of the strata towards the volcanic centre, obsery-
able also in the Monte Vulture,’ and at other localities, is doubt-
less favourable to eruptive phenomena, perhaps for the reason that
it carries deeper down the dislocated material, which then becomes
subject to powerful thermal agencies with the consequent produc-
tion of an igneous magma. This hypothesis is, to some extent,
confirmed by the fact that in the neighbouring Gulf of Salerno,
where dislocations are both more considerable and more numerous
than in the Bay of Naples, but in which the arrangement of the
strata is anticlinal, there is not the faintest trace of eruptive
phenomena. Whatever may be the origin of the deep-seated
magma, certain it is that the Pleistocene submarine eruptions
emerged above the sedimentary masses, dislocated and folded into
a basin, in the Bay of Naples. First came those of Ischia and of
other crateriform vents, which built up the whole Campanian
plain with sanidine-bearing materials, which are also found
heaped up at Sorrento and Capri, and along the range of the
Southern Apennines. These discharges were followed by a less
widespread phase of vulcanicity, represented by the trachy-andesitic
rocks of the Phlegrean Fields and the leucotephritic material of
Vesuvius. While, however, at the Vesuvian vent the eruptions
have discharged fragmental and lavaform materials from one single
1 G. de Lorenzo ‘Studio geologico del Monte Vulture’ Atti R. Accad. Sci.
Napoli, ser. 2, vol. x (1901) no. 1.
be
300 PROF, G. DE LORENZO ON THE HISTORY oF =[ Aug. 1904,
persistent chimney, in the Phlegrwan Fields, on the other hand, a
long series of outpourings and explosions took place from many
different funnels and vents. It is the object of the present paper
to show that in the latter case these phenomena followed a definite
order of succession, both in space and in time.
III. THe Eruptions 1n THE PHLEGRHAN FIecps.
Taking account of its aspect and its lithological characters, as
also of its stratigraphical succession, the eruptive material of the
Phlegreean Fields may be divided into three principal categories,
which in their turn include evidence of several secondary eruptive
phases. The middle division of the three, and the most easily
distinguishable, is represented by the well-known characteristic
yellow tuff of Posillipo, which forms the main framework of
the entire Phlegrzean area. The lower division consists of all the
various materials which underlie the yellow tuff, and are visible
only to a very small extent. Lastly, the upper division comprises
all the deposits of later formation than the yellow tuff. This
threefold distinction, of petrographical and stratigraphical relations
in the series of voleanic rocks in the Phlegrezan Fields, points to
three main epochs of volcanic activity. It is needless to add that
at no single point is the series to be found complete and in the
exact order of superposition. Just as the eruptive vents varied in
their output, and the subsequent activity of denuding agencies
varied also: so too, both in quality and quantity, the representative
products of each particular period are seen to be diverse. We may
consider, however, that a nearly complete type-section is available
in the artesian well of the Royal Garden at Naples, sunk in 1847
at an altitude of 79 feet above sea-level, and going down to a
depth of 7013 feet below sea-level, traversing therefore a thickness
of 7804 feet of deposits. The section, neglecting minor details, is,
in descending order, as follows :—
Feet
1. Humus, drift-material, pozzolana, and grey lapilli ... 64
2. Compactiyellow and greenish tuff... 02. ic... snctsene nee 264
3. Pozzolana, sands, sandy tuffs, pumice, volcanic breccias
and conglomerates, intermingled with clays and marls
made up also of volcanic constituents of a trachytic
FACIES}. 53, 28 sd crab waicadone destiny deinen ft SaPeERR ee oe eee netee 319
4. Pipernoid grey tuff, similar to that of Sorrento and
OAS OT ai io enc yeu eae cas gee ee ee Aa eee 88
5. Pleistocene clayey sands, with marine shells similar to
species now living in the Bay of Naples .................. 453
7803
Of the formations enumerated in the foregoing section, those
included in No. 5 most probably represent the sedimentary platform
upon which rest all the eruptive deposits of Campania. The
various and complex constituents of 3 and 4 are records of the First
eruptive Period, anterior to the yellow tuff. This last, included
Vol. 60. ] VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGR#XAN FIELDS, 301
under 2, is the representative of the Second Period; and those
eruptive materials which are in situ, included under 1, mark the
Third Period.
We will now examine how the materials belonging to these
three successive periods are visibly represented in the Phlegraean
Fields.
(1) First Period.
The products of this period may be divided into two great
categories, corresponding to two different eruptive phases: the one,
more ancient, represented by the well-known piperno and the grey
pipernoid tuffs of Campania; the other, made up of alternating
beds of pumice, lapilli, sands, breccias, and other volcanic accumula-
tions. It will be well to bear in mind the distinction between
these two categories.
(a) Phase of the Piperno and Pipernoid Tuff.
All the broad plain of Campania and all the valleys of the neigh-
bouring calcareous massif of the Apeninnes, from those of Capri
and Sorrento to the far-off vales of Salerno, Avellino, Caserta, and
Capua, are filled, to a greater or less thickness, with a grey trachytic
tuff, in which are scattered small black scoriz, resembling in
appearance the well-known piperno, and consequently termed
‘pipernoid tuff In its present situation this pipernoid tuff is the
outcome of the heaping-up and consolidation, not only of detrital
eruptive material, transported by aérial, and perhaps also marine,
currents far from the original vents and laid down where it now
lies, but likewise of such material as was, both contemporaneously
and subsequently, washed down from the mountain-tops by running
waters and accumulated in the valleys.
The detrital constituents of which these tuffs are made up (capable
of being carried by high winds 30 miles or more away from their
origina] source), must have been so rich in hydrofluoric, hydrochlorie,
and sulphurie acids, that, helped by the action of percolating waters,
they acted upon the limestones against which they rested, and upon
such limestone-blocks as were embedded in the tuffs, inducing
extreme metamorphism therein, and thus originating the famous
fluor-bearing blocks which have been studied by A. Scacchi.!
These tuffs, as the well-sections and the natural exposures demon-
strate, rest almost directly upon the sedimentary rocks of the
Campanian basin, and consequently represent the first products of
eruption of that part of Campania. ‘They were ejected from
volcanoes and craters, which have been completely obliterated by
later geological vicissitudes, but must have been at one time
concentrated especially in the area of the Phlegrzan Fields.
See, in this connexion, Report of the Committee appointed for the Investi-
gation of the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius & its Neighbourhood, drawn
up by H. J. Johnston-Lavis, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1890 (Leeds) p. 397.
Also W. Deecke ‘ Zur Geologie von Unteritalien: § 3. Der sogenannte Cam-
panische Tuff’ Neues Jahrb. vol. ii (1891) p. 286.
302 PROF. G. DE LORENZO ON THE HISTORY oF [ Aug. 1904,
In that area, the work, both destructive and constructive, accom-
plished by later vulcanicity has been so manifold and extensive,
that it is no easy task to trace the equivalent of the pipernoid
tuffs. Nevertheless, a great mass of them has been found, as
before described, in the artesian well sunk in the Royal Garden at
Naples ; and less considerable remnants are traceable in the depres-
sion that lies between the hills of Vomero and Posillipo. Also at
Monte di Cuma, immediately above the great dome of trachyte
which forms the base of the historic acropolis, and is perhaps
contemporary with the piperno presently to be described.
Instead of the pipernoid tufts, we find exposed in the Phlegraean
Fields as their representative the celebrated piperno. This forms
the base of the Hill of the Camaldoli, and, interrupted here and
there, by later deposits of yellow tuff and grey pozzolana, may
be traced from the spurs of that hill for about a mile and a quarter
eastward into the basin of Soccavo, and for other two-thirds of a
mile northward into the basin of Pianura, divided into two beds or
layers by an intervening band of breccia.
The controversy has been a lengthy one, as to whether the
piperno should be regarded as a metamorphosed tuff or as a lava,
and even now geologists are by no means unanimous on the point.
It appears to the present writer, however, that both the geological
conditions and the petrographical characters of the piperno are
in favour of the conclusion that it is a trachytic schlieren-lava,
the dark stripes of which are made up of such minerals as augite,
egyrine, and magnetite, while the lighter groundmass is of fel-
spathic nature (anorthose), with a spherulitic structure and tiny
microliths of egyrine and augite. It is not claimed, however, that
a sharp dividing-line can be drawn between the dark schlieren
and the light groundmass.
The occurrence of the piperno at the base of the Hill of the
Camaldoli leads to the supposition that this locality, which is
practically in the very centre of the Phlegrean Fields, is also the
site of one of the principal vents from which was ejected the
pipernoid tuff of Campania. This supposition is strengthened by
the fact that at that very same spot great explosive eruptions took
place at a later period, to which the superposed bands of breccia
bear emphatic witness, not to speak of a considerable ejection of
yellow tuff. So abundant indeed was the accumulation of eruptive
material, that it served to build up the present Hill of the Camaldoli,
which, ‘despite successive demolitions and degradations, still forms
the most conspicuous elevation in the Phlegrzan Fields.
(>) Phase of the Conglomerates and Breccias.
Above the piperno and the pipernoid tuffs comes a succession
of strata diverse in character, it is true, but predominantly con-
glomeratic, and bearing visible traces of the flow of sea-currents
and of marine deposition. Whence it may be inferred that, equaliy
Vol. 60. ] VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGRZAN FIELDS. 303
perhaps with the piperno and the pipernoid tuffs, they are the
products of submarine eruptions.
The series consists of ashes, sands, lapilli, and trachytic pumice,
often intermingled with shell-bearing clays and marls, while inter-
calated among them and overlying them are conglomerates and
coarse breccias of a thickness which varies with their proximity to,
or distance from, the vents whence they were erupted. These
breccias, to which Dr. Johnston-Lavis has applied the name of
Museum Breccias, are made up of blocks of all sizes, torn indis-
criminately from the underlying rocks, and therefore of extremely
diverse character. Among them may be noticed, as especially
abundant, blocks of obsidian, pumice, and scoriaceous trachyte ;
hardly less numerous are the fragments of leucitic and of meta-
morphosed calcareous rocks. Taken as a whole, they bear a
remarkable resemblance to the breccias of the islands of Procida
and Vivara,’ and date probably from the same period as these.
In fact, we find these deposits of sandy and clayey tuff, of
conglomerates and breccias, sometimes intercalated with deposits
of rusty-black cinders or scoriz, most typically developed in that
part of the Phlegrzan Fields which is nearest the above-mentioned
islands—that is, along the entire western base of the Monte di
Procida, and on the north-western flanks of the Monte di Cuma.
Another remarkable deposit is that which occurs below the
Camaldoli, in the shape of picturesque, precipitous, ruddy crags,
seen from afar off to be clearly based on the piperno and capped
by the yellow tuff. Noteworthy also is the great mass of these
strata, about 330 feet of which were pierced through in the
artesian boring of the Royal Garden at Naples. Finally, traces of
them have been met with below the Vomero Hill, in the course of
excavations made for the cable-railway from Montesanto to
Vomero.
It need scarcely be added that exactly-similar deposits, overlying
the pipernoid tuff, are found in the valleys of Capri, Sorrento, and
other localities in Campania. But in this paper we are concerned
only with those which lie near their source of origin, in the
Phlegrean Fields. Here, indeed, they are exposed only at a few
points, being elsewhere mantled over by the eruptive masses of the
Second and Third Periods.
(2) Second Period.
Overlying the breccias and conglomerates of the Camaldoli, of
Monte di Cuma, and of Monte di Procida, are the masses of the most
widespread and most characteristic geological formation to be seen
in the Phlegreean Fields—the yellow tuff. This tuff, characterized
by a fine cream-coloured or straw-coloured yellow tint, is a well-
compacted aggregate of ashes, lapilli, and small pumice-fragments
of trachytic nature. Scattered through this uniform matrix are
1 G. de Lorenzo & C. Riva ‘ I] Cratere di Vivara nelle Isole Flegree* Atti
R. Accad. Sci. Napoli, ser. 2, vol. x (1901) no, 8.
304 PROF. G, DE LORENZO ON THE HISTORY OF [| Aug. 1904,
fairly-numerous fragments of other tufaceous rocks and lavas, with
a few infrequent fragments of felspar and pyroxene-crystals.
Among the rock-fragments, the most prevalent is a greenish tuff,
very similar to the Epomeo tuff, which has also been met with, in
place, below the yellow tuff in the artesian well of the Royal
Garden. Trachytic black scoriw, too, are scattered abundantly
through the yellow tuff, diminishing in size as the distance of the
exposure from the vents whence they were erupted increases, and
being therefore smallest at the outermost periphery of the volcanoes.
The yellow tuff, like similar volcanic deposits, is invariably
stratified in very well-marked thin bands, coinciding with the
tectonic structure of the volcanic mass of which they form part.
This coincidence often helps the observer to reconstruct hypo-
thetically more than one volcanic edifice, which later cataclysms
have in part destroyed, or perhaps swept entirely away. The
layers, uniformly yellow, are sometimes intercalated with paler
grey bands, or, where they have been exposed to surface-alteration,
are sometimes covered with a sort of grey film. Asa rule, however,
the picturesque masses of yellow tuff stand out from afar off, and
being fissured by vertical joints, form rugged and precipitous crags,
such as may be seen, for instance, below the Camaldoli and at the
headland of Posillipo.
The eruptions of ash, lapilli, and pumice whence these masses of
yellow tuff, of an average thickness exceeding 300 feet, were
derived, were generally of an explosive character. But it seems
probable that lava-eruptions, though of rare occurrence, were not
entirely wanting ; and the products of such outbursts may well be
represented by the trachytic masses, met with in the tunnels of the
Cuman Railway and of the great Cloaca, which run beneath the
Vomero Hill.
These eruptions, like those of the First Period (pipernoid tuff and
piperno), must also have taken place under the sea. This may
be inferred from the extreme and uniform compactness of the tuff,
and from the non-remanié or unaltered shells of Ostrea, Pecten, and
other marine organisms which occur sporadically buried in the tuff,
On account of the great uniformity of this deposit, it does not
seem possible to map out any order of succession for the different
eruptive vents whence the materials of which it is built up were
derived. Geologically speaking, we may regard these eruptions as
contemporaneous manifestations of one great phase of vulcanicity
which affected the entire area of the Phlegreean Fields.
It is true that some of the volcanoes built up of yellow tuff are
better preserved than others, some of which are barely recognizable.
But this greater or less degree of preservation is not due so much
to difference of age, as to diversity of the accidents to which the
voleanoes have been subjected since their formation. Some of
them were sooner upheaved above the sea and to a higher altitude,
and were consequently exposed to longer and more destructive
atmospheric erosion. Several were broken up, or eviscerated, or
overwhelmed by later eruptions, while their neighbours escaped.
Vol. 60.] VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGR2XAN FIELDS. 305
For these reasons, in the following rapid enumeration of the
various volcanoes built up of yellow tuff, it is thought best to
adopt a topographical arrangement.
The Volcanoes of Yellow Tuff.
The ashes, lapilli, and pumice of which this tuff is composed,
as they were erupted from various orifices scattered about the
Phlegrzean area, were heaped up around these vents in obedience
to the laws of projective energy and gravity, forming therefore sc
many cones, rather broad and flat than otherwise, with wide and
deep craters. In these cones, the material, being uniform in
character, accumulated in Jayers, the major portion of which
coincided in inclination with the external slope of the cone; while
the remainder was stratified conformably with the internal crater-
slope. This structure is in accordance with the law of the
formation of detritic voleanoes, whereof Monte Nuovo is a notable
example.
After their formation, these cones of yellow tuff, together with
the underlying rock-platform, were upheaved above the waves of
the sea, and each in turn fell a prey to the destructive agencies of
the atmosphere, which proved to be more relentless in their attack
at some points than at others. Moreover, within the area of the
Phlegrwan Fields later vents of eruption opened, (with which IL
shall deal when describing the Third Period), and by their explosive
energy rent and dislocated such of the cones of yellow tuff as lay
in their way, and overwhelmed and covered them with fresh erupted
material. Thus it is that what we now behold are the mere frag-
mentary ruins of the volcanoes of yellow tuff, and yet they form
the most important and conspicuous feature in the scenery of the
Phlegrzan Fields.
The southernmost, perhaps, of these volcanoes of yellow tuff
still submerged beneath the sea are represented by the two shoals of
Mezzogiorno and Penta Palummo, which, at distances of
1; and 22 miles respectively from Cape Miseno, rise from a depth
of some 300 feet to within 164 and 98 feet respectively from the
surface of the sea, and betray by their conical form their volcanic
origin. But we may pass on from these to the consideration
of those unmistakable volcanoes which rise above the waves.
First among them is the little Islet of Nisida, which attains a
height of 330 feet or so above the sea, while the roots of the
voleano certainly go down to at least an equivalent depth below
sea-level. The crater, into which the waves flow by a narrow
breach open to the south-west, is 360 feet deep, measures 1312 feet
round its upper rim, and +90 feet round its lower orifice. These
dimensions are almost identical with those of the crater of Monte
Nuovo, which it also resembles most strikingly in shape. The
typical yellow tuff of which it is built, is unmistakably stratified
with a quaquaversal dip along the external slope of the cone and
along the inner declivity of the crater. The tuff is crowded with
306 PROF. G, DE LORENZO ON THE HIstory oF [Aug. 1904,
big black scoriz, as is always the case in the neighbourhood of the
eruptive vents, and is mantled with a thin covering of pozzolana
and grey tuff, the products of the later eruptions of the Third
Period. The volcano of Nisida, being the smallest and the best
preserved of all those that were built up of the yellow tuff, may be
regarded as a type and a model for pursuing the study of the
remainder.
Practically joined to Nisida by small skerries of yellow tuff, the
fine hill of Posillipo towers above the sea with its perpendicular
walls some 500 feet high, and its long picturesque summit-ridge
stretching inward to Naples. This hill, as has been shown else-
where,’ represents the lateral remnants of two contiguous volcanoes,
the craters of which opened on the flats of Bagnoli and Fuorigrotta.
The western flanks of these volcanoes were demolished by later
eruptions (probably from Agnano), while their eastern slopes have
survived to form the ridge of Posillipo. In this ridge, the strata
of yellow tuff dip outward or towards the south-east. Its crest,
like that of every other Phlegrzan hill, is crowned with soft grey
tuffs and pozzolana, the varyingly-conformable and uncon-
formable superposition of which upon the yellow tuff may be well
observed in the great cuttings, and in the caves situated at Piedi-
grotta and at the outermost extremity of Posillipo, at Coroglio.
Separated from that ridge by a gentle syncline, the hills of the
Vomero, Capodimonte, and Poggioreale rise on the north-
east: they, too, are fundamentally built up of yellow tuff. The
original forms of these volcanoes, however, are not easily made out
in this case, as they have been masked by later eruptions and
demolitions, It may be that their craters corresponded more or less
to the existing curved shores of La Marinella and the Riviera di
Chiaja, and that they were divided one from the other by the crest
which even now (though in part demolished) projects from the
Vomero into the promontory of Ecchia or Pizzofalcone, and thence
into the rock-shelves and skerries of Castel dell’ Ovo, which like-
wise consist of yellow tuff. Amid the yellow tuff of the Vomero,
the excavations made for the tunnels of the Cuman Railway and
tor the great storm-water drain, have reveaJed a considerable mass
of trachyte, which bears witness to the probability of lava-erup-
tions, if not during that period, at least during the immediately-
preceding age.
The neighbouring Hill of the Camaldoli (1502 feet high),
forming the most elevated summit of the Phlegrzan Fields, is
manifestly made up, for the greater part, of yellow tuff. This is
seen on every hand below the loose grey tuffs and the pozzolana,
where these rocks have been laid open in the gullies and channels
which seam the northern flanks of the hill. The eruptive vents of
this yellow tuff were evidently situated in the two basins of Soccavo
and Pianura, which preserve to this day an unmistakable crateri-
form aspect.
" G. de Lorenzo & C. Riva ‘Il Cratere di Astroni nei Campi Flegrei’
Atti R. Accad. Sci. Napoli, ser. 2, vol. xi (1902) no. 8, p. 72 & fig. 5.
Vol. 60.. VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGR2AN FIELDS. 307
On the other hand, it is no easy matter to trace the original
vents or apertures whence were derived the outcrops of yellow
tuff which are to be observed around the Piano di Quarto up
to its extreme northern boundary (where this is cut by the Via
Campana); or those which crop up here and there along the beach
from Bagnoli to Pozzuoli. Subsequent geological changes have
obliterated every vestige of the original craters.
Between the shore and the Piano di Quarto, however, the
voleano of the Gauro, the finest in the Phlegrean Fields, and one
of the best-preserved of those built up of the yeilow tuff, towers to
a height of 1082 feet above the sea. The cone, unbroken on the
north, was torn open on the east and west by two subsequent
outbursts, and has been worn down on the south by the rains, the
winds, and the waves of the sea, which beat against it at the time
of its emergence. If we ascend the slopes of this great cone, we
see on reaching the summit a vast crater yawning below us (hence
the epithet, which Juvenal applied to the mountain, of Gaurus
imanis), nearly 5000 feet wide and more than 650 feet deep. In
dimensions and majesty it challenges comparison with the later,
neighbouring crater of Astroni.
Of uncertain origin, again, are the outcrops of yellow tuff which
occur along the western portion of the Phlegrzan Fields, at Arco
Felice, Bacoli, ete. up to the Monte di Cuma, near the so-called
Temple of Apollo, and to the Monte di Procida, the eastern
shoulder of which is capped by them.
On the other hand, the crateriform character of the Porto di
Miseno and Cape Miseno is sufficiently obvious: they are both
made up of yellow tuff, overlain by pozzolana and scorie of
later eruption. The crater of Porto Miseno is all but drowned
by the sea, its upper rim only emerging in part. Cape Miseno, long
famous for its internal structure, laid bare on its broken-down south-
western flank, emerges to the height of 544 feet above the waves,
while its roots plunge down to 330 feet below them. Thus,
both in dimensions and in form, it is strikingly similar to the
crater of Nisida, which may be regarded as the other southern
outpost of the Phlegrean Fields.
Moreover, the form of Miseno and Nisida is paralleled by that of
Monte Gauro and the other yellow-tuff volcanoes, and this paral-
lelism of form is associated with similarity of structure and petro-
graphic composition. All of which fits in to a certain extent with
their common mode of origin, namely, submarine eruptions
taking place almost simultaneously over the entire
Phlegrean area.
A much greater, though not perhaps an extreme, diversity is
found among the later volcanoes, which arose at different points
and at different times, and almost all on land in the open air.
(3) Third Period.
It would seem that the eruptions of yellow tuff which had
fashioned almost the entire framework of the Phlegrwan Fields
308 PROF. G. DE LORENZO ON THE HISTORY oF [ Aug. 1904,
were immediately succeeded by an uplift of the whole region, and
this by a somewhat lengthy period of erosion; for the later
materials are everywhere, not only deposited (some-
times conformably, sometimes unconformably) upon
the eroded surface of the yellow tuff, but are evidently
derived on the whole from subaérial eruptions.
Thus, we no longer find in these later deposits that uniformity
of composition which characterizes the yellow tuff, although they
also consist predominantly of fragmental materials of a trachy-
andesitic character. They show, however, both macroscopically
and microscopically, a certain diversity, according to the particular
eruptive vent from which any given material was derived.
Moreover, we are no longer dealing with contemporaneous
eruptive vents, scattered, with some approach to regularity, over a
vast area, as was the case with the vents whence issued the
materials of the yellow tuff; but we can trace a distinct succession,
both in time and space, with a progressive limitation and a slow
diminution of vulcanicity, all preluding the moribund stage or
perhaps final extinction of voleanic activity in the entire Phlegraan
area.
In the succession of eruptive vents here, as is the general rule
with volcanoes, a primary big vent is followed by one or more of
progressively-diminishing size, a diminution accompanied by a
slight shifting of the axis of eruptivity. This shifting has been
sometimes confined within the circumference of the original crater-
rim, and we get as a result a system of concentric craters, or
crateri a recinto, as, for example: Agnano—Astroni—and the
internal craters of Astroni. At other times, the shifting has been
excentric, instead of concentric; and this has resulted in a series
of parasitic cones on the outside of the first, as, for example,
Astroni—craters of Campana; or Astroni—Cigliano. In other
cases, finally, the shifting of the axis of eruptivity has been so
considerable, as to leave no point of contact between the new and
the old voleano, and to give rise to entirely-different systems, as,
for example, Astroni and Monte Nuovo. I propose to enumerate
these different volcanic systems of the Third Period, beginning
with the oldest and ending with the most recent; and, wherever
possible, to show an order of succession between widely-distant and
often mutually-independent eruptive vents.
Around each such vent the generally-fragmental material was
heaped up in the same manner as that described in connection with
the vellow-tuff volcanoes. That is, crateriform girdles were built
up, wherein the layers dipped centrifugally outward, and in part
centripetally inward. The materials of these cones have a
generally greyish tinge, and are much looser in texture than those
which constitute the yellow tuff, from which they are therefore
easily distinguishable. On the other hand, it is not easy to
distinguish, one from the other, the products of the various volcanoes
of the Third Period. Consequently, at those localities which are at
Vol. 60. | VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGRAsAN FIELDS, 309
some distance from the eruptive vents, and where the material has
been spread out and distributed uniformly by the winds and the
dynamic force of the outbursts, it is only possible to speak of ashes,
lapilli, pumice, and tuffs as promiscuously derived from the central
volcanoes. In a few instances only, as, for example, in the case of
a small layer of manganiferous purplish ash, which occurs on the
summit of the Hill of the Camaldoli and at some other localities in
‘the Phlegrzan Fields, can it be said that this particular deposit has
been derived from the Astroni eruptions: the evidence for this
identification being the existence, in the walls of the Astroni crater,
of a thicker band of the same ash.’ In the same manner, we may
conclude that the loosely-textured grey material which almost every-
where caps the hills of yellow tuff (and is known to the quarrymen
as mappamonte) is no product of disintegration or aqueous
erosion, but is on the whole directly derived from the central grey-
tuff volcanoes of the Phlegrzean Fields.
Not always, however, did the eruptive vents of the Third Period
discharge a quantity of material sufficient to build up true crateri-
form cones, on the type of Agnano, Astroni, Cigliano, Monte
Nuovo, etc. Sometimes the outbursts merely rent asunder the
ancient deposits of yellow tuff, forming in them ‘craters of
explosion, round the rims of which the scanty products of the
outburst accumulated. Such are the circular or semicircular cavities
which occur dispersedly in the Phiegrzan Fields. Thus, from the
colossal example of the Piano di Quarto, with a maximum
diameter of 24 miles, we may pass to the Piano di Torre
Poerio (north of Astroni and east of the Craters of Campana), to
the Piano di Teano (south-west of Monte Gauro), and thence
to yet others, until we reach Avernus, the most typical of all
these craters of explosion. This too, almost alone among those
of the Phlegrean Fields, has furnished, besides the authigenous
material erupted from it, scoriz and blocks of leucotephrite which
now form a small band among the layers of fragmental material
on its northern flank.
Of course, pari passu with the shifting of the axis of eruptivity
the craters of accumulation have occasionaJly alternated with those
of explosion. Consequently, if we endeavour to establish a chrono-
logical sequence among the central volcanoes of the Phlegraan
Fields, we must take account of both categories. A sequence of
this kind, as I have said before, can only be determined with a
comparative amount of relative certainty. One series, for instance,
is exemplified by the contemporaneous craters of Posillipo, Soccavo,
or Pianura, with which are successively and concentrically asso-
ciated the craters of Agnano and Astroni, and the internal cone of
the latter.
Another sequence, concentric also, may well be represented by
the crater of Pianura, the explosion-crater of Torre Poerio, the
1 G. de Lorenzo & C. Riva ‘Il Cratere di Astroni nei Campi Flecrei’ Atti
R. Accad. Sci. Napoli, ser. 2, vol. xi (1902) no. 8, pp. 22-28.
310 PROF. G. DE LORENZO ON THE HISTORY oF ([ Aug. 1904,
crater of accumulation of Astroni and its internal cones. A third
sequence, in part excentric and in part concentric, is furnished by
Monte Gauro, the explosion-crater of Teano, and those of Avernus
and Monte Nuovo. Excentric sequences, on the other hand, are
exemplified in the crater of Astroni, as well as in the volcanoes of
Ciglhano and Campana which have arisen on its shoulder; and
similarly in the volcano of Monte Gauro, with the subsidiary cones
of Concola and Fondo Riccio, which are placed parasitically on its
western flanks.
All these concordant sequences demonstrate, not
only that eruptive activity was gradually diminish-
ing, but that it was in general contracting towards
the centre of the volcanic area; or rather, that it was
shifting southward and seaward, receiving from the
waters of the ocean the kinetic factor, steam.
But, leaving aside these theoretical considerations, it may be well
to describe as briefly as possible the chief among the latest voleanoes
of the Phlegrean Fields.
The Volcanoes of Grey Tuff.
The greatest and most ancient of the third series of the volcanoes
of the Phlegreean Fields is that of Agnano. Its broad and deep
crater, about 137 miles across, is all but intact on the east, but is
partly demolished and partly masked on the west by later outbursts,
such as those which have originated the successive volcanoes of
Astroni and the Solfatara. The materials of which Agnano is built
up, like those of the later volcanoes, consist mainly of layers of
pumice, ashes, lapilli, and soft grey tuffs, among which, on the
eastern and southern flanks (Monte Spina), are also intercalated
beds of scorize. With this voleano we may too, in all probability,
associate the great mass of trachy-andesitic lava of Caprara,
which, torn asunder and then mantled over by the later eruptions
of Astroni, 1s now involved in the eastern flank of the last-named
voleano. From the internal eastern flanks of Agnano thermal
mineral springs well forth in great abundance. These are now
canalized, and debouch by artificial channels into the sea. But
about fifty years ago they united to form at the bottom of the crater
a broad and shallow lake, wherein was deposited the detritus carried
down from the slopes by rainwash. It was in consequence of the
occurrence of these thermal springs, and of the exhalations of steam
and gas associated with them, that the ancient Romans created here
great baths, which might be successfully restored.
West of Agnano arise the volcanoes of Astroni and the
Solfatara, the relative antiquity of which it is at present
impossible to determine. The materials of the Solfatara have been
completely altered by copious gaseous exhalations. Now, as such
altered materials are seen underlying those of Astroni, it may be
reasonably argued that the earlier eruptions of the Solfatara were
Vol. 60. ] VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGRHAN FIELDS, 311
perhaps anterior in date to those of Astroni. Whereas, however,
the great cone of Astroni was thrown up, as it were, with one
spurt and finished off in a single gigantic though brief spasm of
eruptivity, followed by a few ejections of ashes and scorie, and by
one scanty outflow of lava in the central portion of the crater:
the voleano of Solfatara, on the other hand, remained active
throughout a long period, giving rise to small outbursts of lava
within the crater itself, and to great trachytic flows which coursed
down its southern flanks as far as the sea, there forming the
Monte Olibano. In the Middle Ages incandescent lava was still
to be seen in the crater of Solfatara, and even at the present day
its temperature is higher than that of any other eruptive vent in
the Phlegreean Fields. To this long continuance is due the intense
alteration, which the gases customarily occurring in fumaroles have
induced in the materials of which the volcano is built up, in such
wise that it forms an unique instance in the Phlegrean area. The
very persistence of this activity, primarily eruptive and subsequently
solfataric, leads to the inference that a local magmatic basin, larger
_ than those of the neighbouring vents, exists beneath the Solfatara.
This supposition is confirmed by the relatively-greater quantity
of lava ejected from this vent than that poured out from the
other voleanoes of the Phlegrean Fields, which are, indeed, pre-
dominantly built up of fragmental materials. Generally speaking,
volcanoes of detritic or of tufaceous type represent the
outcome of rapid and violent explosive action, and hence
they have a much shorter life than volcanoes of the type which is
mainly lavaform or mixed.
On the external north-western slopes of the great crater of
Astroni two small adventitious or parasitic volcanoes are to beseen:
Cigliano and Campana. The first-named is a simple cone,
with a crater eroded on the south by the action of winds and rains
upon the friable material of which the cone is wholly built up (ashes
and small pumice). The volcano of Campana, on the other hand,
belongs to the concentric type (vulcano a recinto), being made
up of three practically-concentric rings, within the innermost of which
is a small but most beautiful crater, rent on the east by a deep and
narrow fissure known as La Senga. ‘These three ‘girdle-craters’
of Campana consist of but little ash and lapilli, with a vast mass of
scoriz and bombs, red and black, of trachy-andesitic character, and
increasing in quantity inwards in such wise that the latest crater.
called the Fossa Lupara, may be said to be entirely composed
of blocks of lava. It seems probable that the rending-open of the
fissure of La Senga was brought about by the settling-down and
cooling of these blocks.
Of practically the same type as Cigliano, that is, almost wholly
built up of ashes and pumice, with a few infrequent scorie, is 2 tiny,
barely perceptible vuleanetto, known as Santa Teresa, which
lies on the plain of Bagnoli, south-east of the outer slopes of Agnano,
Here, too, as on Cighano, the rain-laden southerly winds have
312 PROF. G. DE LORENZO ON THE HISTORY oF . [ Aug. 1904,
broken down and swept away the southern wall of the crater,
only the northern part remaining as a crescent-shaped ridge.
Little tufaceous hillocks, like that of Santa Teresa, occur at other
localities in the Phlegraean Fields, as, for example, the Hill of the
Crisci, between Cighano and Campana. But they have been so
greatly denuded that it is no longer possible to determine whether
they are the outcome of single eruptive outbursts, or represent
remnants left from the erosion of neighbouring craters.
Volcanic deposits of the same type as those of the Campana craters,
that is, made up chiefly of red and black scori# and bombs, inter-
mingled with fragments of pinkish-yellow tuff, are found dispersedly
in the Phlegrzean Fields. They invariably overlie the yellow tuff, and
underlie the series of grey ashes, lapilli, and tuffs. These deposits
are typically massed on the western and northern slopes of the
Gauro volcano, forming the so-called Concola and the little
voleano of Fondo Riccio. They constitute also the great fan
of red and black scoriz which occurs on the Cleft Mountain
or Montagna Spaccata, where the ancient Via Campana runs
through a deep cutting into the Piano di Quarto. Again, they are
found north-east of the city of Naples, on the eastern slopes of
Capodimonte, and at Santa Maria del Pianto and the
Ponti Rossi. Yet although, as I have already pointed out, these
deposits are lithologically very similar indeed to those of the
Campana craters, they must be of much greater age, as is indicated
by their structure and by their invariable infraposition below the
grey tuff. At La Concola and the Fondo Riccio, the form of the
crater from which they were derived may still be traced; on the
other hand, not a vestige of it remains among the scoriaceous masses
of Santa Maria del Pianto and the Ponti Rossi. The scoriz of the
Montagna Spaccata must have been either contemporaneous with, or
of but little later date than, the explosions which gave rise to the
great basin that lies east of Monte Gauro, which was _ possibly
anterior to the crater of Astroni and to that of Agnano.
It is no easy matter, however, to determine the precise strati-
graphical and chronological relations either of these scoriaceous
volcanoes, or of the tuff-voleanoes which range in a direct north-
and-south line, west of Monte Gauro and Monte Nuovo, from
Monte Ruscello to Bacoli.
The northernmost eminence along this line, Monte Ruscello,
is followed southward by a crater-ring known as Monte Grillo,
which encircles the later explosive crater of Avernus, this again
engirdliing Monte Nuovo, the latest voleano of the series and of
the entire Phlegrean Fields. South of Baia is yet another little
crater of grey tuff, known as Fondi di Baia.
Naturally, the most important of the whole of this series is the
crater-lake of Avernus, not only because of its dimensions and
depth, but because, alone among the volcanoes of the Phlegrean
area, it erupted, besides the customary ashes, lapilli, pumice,
scoria, and blocks of the underlying yellow tuff, small scoriz of
senses ssenneneeeeneneee
/
Vol. 60.| VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGRHAN FIELDS, 313
-leucotephrite, with fine crystals of leucite, which now form a thin
stratum in the upper part of the northern flank of the crater.
Up to a height of about 130 feet the crater of Avernus is filled
with fresh water, which one day perchance percolating below ground
fed the thermal springs of Tripergola, and there in September 1538
initiated the outburst of Monte Nuovo. This eruption, with its
ejectamenta of ash, lapilli, pumice, and lastly phonolitic scorie,
forms for the present the closing chapter in the history of vul-
canicity in the Phlegrean Fields. With a certain amount of
hesitation and uncertainty I may, perhaps, venture to summarize
that history in the following table :—
ScHEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF VULCANICITY IN THE PHLEGRHAN FIELDs.
|
i
i
T
Q.J.G.8. No. 239. ¥
|
|
.
Piperno. Trachyte of Coma. |
a. Ss S Eruptions of ash, lapitli, ‘Kraptins dp
SS & | i pumice, and other iaists aid oie
ae | a | detritic materials. ,
- ae ae :
| Monte have Phonolitic scoriz of Monte
Nuovo. )
) —_— —
| | 2
: | Fondi di Baia. [ =
1 | | | | Se
a i ———. —— S
° ee | 23.2 D2
ee | ; | Avernus. |} Sa 8e5|/38S S ; ;
= | a | | B°%E=S)/ 22 « Leucotephrite of Avernus.
oP S| Bgsde| 575 2 ee ee
aad + foB°seo!] So ws
= | = | Monte Grillo. | 2:5 22-2 | 22° & | Lavas and scorie of Monte |
= = 23 20 |S £ | Ohbano, of the internal cones |
= = | Monte Ruscello| =4£22|2.2 5 | of Astroni, and of the craters |
~ =n }acle14h°8 S | of Campana.
2 oe | ‘= oo
= | = | Ancient lavas of | are
= | Formation of the external A pee oes |S
=, girdle of Astroni. € Solfatara. eo
oa Jas Scoriz of Monte Spina oS
r=) aS:
Se Gt ee EAS | and trachytic mass) == =
| Detritic eruptions of Agnano. | of Caprara. Ae
es oe
ae eae e ., | Seoriaceouseruptions S25
| Outbursts of Fuorigrotta, Soccavo, | “or Santa Maria del Eee
| Pianura, Quarto, Teano, etc. | Pianto, Ponti Rossi. =="
oe? | | yeah ee Pelee oe
' !
| Yellow tuff of Nisida, Posillipo, | (?) Trachytic masses
ao Vomero, Capodimonte, the Camal- met with in the
a5 doli, Gauro, Pozzuoli, Quarto, | various tunnels
oy po Monte di Cuma, Procida, Porto | under the Vomero
Bs Miseno, Capo Miseno, etc. Hill.
ma”. | cient
Sis .
alley Breccias and conglomerates of the | Scoriaceous lavas and scoriz |
ais : Camaldoli, Cuma, Monte di Pro- | of Monte di Procida, Monte |
n= $= cida, Monte Santo, etc. | di Cuma, ete.
= S |
|
314 PROF, G. DE LORENZO ON THE HISTORY OF [ Aug. 1904,
LV. ConcLvusIons.
We have seen that, in the Bay of Naples, towards the end of the
Pliocene and the beginning of the Pleistocene Period, while the
Apennine chain was in process of uplift, eruptive phenomena which
were then happening beneath the waves of the sea, over an area
of local dislocation, laid the foundation of the volcanic districts
that now encircle the city of Naples.
In that part of the region which is known as the Phlegrean
Fields, we now behold a continuous succession of voleanic forma-
tions, the lowermost of which bear unmistakable signs of a
submarine origin, while the upper deposits are just as undoubtedly
of subaérial origm. The earlier deposits bear witness to phe-
nomena of a more widespread character and of more grandiose
dimensions; the later testify to a gradual diminution, both in
extent and intensity, of volcanic activity.
The lowermost of these deposits of the Phlegreean Fields are the
lavas and pipernoid tuffs which may be correlated with the grey
tuffs that constitute the entire platform of Campania. These are
followed by a series of breccias, conglomerates, and layers of
scorie ; and the whole of this earlier submarine series is overlain
by the great masses of yellow tuff, which form the framework of
all the hills between Naples and Cuma.
The eruption of yellow tuff was followed by an uplift, and by
prolonged denudation. Later began a series of subaérial eruptions,
the products of which were chiefly ashes, lapilli, and pumice (more
or less loosely compacted to form grey tufts), and also a few lavas
of trachy-andesitic character.
These subaérial eruptions took place over a more limited area,
internal to, and shifted more southward and seaward than, the
earlier eruptions. Not only was there this distinction, but the
several volcanoes of the second series diminished gradually in
intensity and extension, although this diminution was fitful rather
than regular. They began with the great outbursts of the enor-
mous ancient crater of Agnano, and died out in the paroxysm of
Monte Nuovo.
In this manner the volcanic fires which, towards the beginning
of the Pleistocene Period, glowed with such intensity over the
entire Phlegrsean area, are now confined to a few localities on its
southern shore-line ; and eruptive energy has shifted its centre a
little farther southward, to Vesuvius. Volcanic action, which is
always associated with orogenic movements, has in this case also
followed upon the uplift of the Apennines: an uplift which,
beginning in the north, has been subsequently prolonged and
slackened off southward. ‘Thus the subterranean fires which first
kindled the volcanoes of the Tuscan Maremma and the Agro
Romano, passing on by the Islands to the Phlegreean Fields and
Vesuvius, have now travelled farther south, to the flaming A¢olian
Isles, and snowy Aitna, the pillar of heaven.
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Vol.60.] | VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE PHLEGRHAN FIELDs, 315
EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXVI-XXVIII.
[Altitudes and soundings are expressed in metres. ]
Piate XXVI.
Geological sketch-map of the Bay of Naples, on the scale of 1 : 500,000.
Priate XXVIII.
Sections across the Bay of Naples, on the scale of 1: 500,000; and sections
across the Phlegrzan Fields, on the scale of 1 : 100,000.
Prate XXVIII.
Geological sketch-map of the Phlegrzean Fields, on the scale of 1 : 100.000.
Discussion.
The PrestpEnr said that he was glad to find that, owing to the
application of modern methods of research, as carried out in this
paper, and notwithstanding the increase of our knowledge of
vuleanicity derived from such eruptions as those of Krakatoa and
Tarawera, these only supplemented and did not supersede the
teachings of the classical areas of the Mediterranean, including the
Phlegrwan Fields. It was a graceful act of the Author to send his
paper to the Geological Society of a country, the geologists of
which—notably Sir Wiliam Hamilton and Sir Charles Lyell—had
contributed so much to our knowledge of the Phlegrzan Fields.
Sir ARcHIBALD GeErkKIe stated that, during the spring of last year,
he had had an opportunity of making a number of traverses of the
Phlegrzean Fields with the Author, and had been so much impressed
with the minuteness and breadth of his knowledge of the volcanic
history of the district, that he urged him to prepare a succinct
statement of this history which could be communicated to the
Geoiogical Society. The paper read this evening was the result of
this request. It was a grievous loss to science when Prof. Carlo
Riva, who had been associated with the Author in the preparation
of two admirable detailed memoirs on portions of the Phlegrzean
Fields, met his tragic death two years ago. But it was hoped that
Prof. De Lorenzo would himself continue the work which had been
so auspiciously begun. The speaker pointed out the interesting
similarity, between the sequence of volcanic events in the Neapolitan,
and that in the Roman Campagna. In the latter area, the earliest
eruptions, as shown by the remarkable sections laid open by the
side of the Tiber to the north of Rome, took place in the Pliocene
sea, probably from many submarine vents; while the latest were
all subaérial, and piled up the huge cones of the Alban Hill and
Bracciano. While rambling over the Roman Campagna, he (the
speaker) had not been able to trace out three periods of volcanic
activity, and had not found any satisfactory equivalent of the yellow
tuff which makes so conspicuous a feature in the Neapolitan region.
Two periods of eruption, however, submarine and subaérial, were
well-developed, and possibly more detailed investigation and com-
parison might show the parallelism between the two areas to be
even closer than it appeared.
¥2
316 DR. C, S. DU RICHE PRELLER ON THE (Aug. 1904,
20. PHENoMENA bearing upon the Aan of the Laxe of Guneva.
By C. 8. Du Ricut Pretize, M.A., Ph.D., A.M.LC.E., M.LE.E.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.8S. (Read May 11th, 1904.)
[ Abstract. }
Fottowrne up his investigations concerning the age of the
principal Alpine lake-basins, the Author has, during a recent
prolonged stay on the Lake of Geneva, examined the low-level
gravel-beds and other alluvia in the Rhone Valley, from Geneva
to the Jura-bar near Fort de l’Ecluse, as well as the high-level
gravel-beds of La Cote above Rolle and of the Jorat district above
Lausanne, and, further, the rock-formations on both sides of the
lake, in view of evidence of flexures as the primary cause of
the formation of the present deep lake-basin.
After describing the phenomena around the Lake of Geneva, and
comparing them with those around the Lake of Zurich, he is led to
the following conclusions :—
(1) The low-level gravel-beds of the Rhone Valley near Geneva,
overlying the Molasse and underlying the glacial alluvia,
are, like the deep-level gravel-beds of the Limmat Valley
near Zurich, fluviatile deposits of the second Interglacial -
Period, and were formed before the present deep lake-basin
came into existence.
(2) The high-level gravel-beds of La Cote above Rolle and of the
Jorat district above Lausanne are, like the corresponding
deposits of the Uetliberg near Zurich, and of the Dombes and
of Lyons, true Deckenschotter. Hence the term alluvion
ancienne should, in its proper acceptation, only apply to
the high-level deposits.
(3) The formation of the present deep lake-basin of Geneva was,
like that of Zurich, primarily due to the lowering of the
valley-floor by flexures of the Molasse and its contact-
zones, posterior to the maximum glaciation, as evidenced
more especially by the reverse dip of the old erosion-
terraces between Lausanne, Vevey, and Clarens.
The Author holds that the concord of evidence in the two cases
strengthens the conclusion, already arrived at by analogy in his
previous paper, that the Lake of Geneva, together with the other
principal zonal lakes between the Alps and the Jura, was formed
under similar conditions and at the same time as the Lake of
Zurich, that is, towards the close of the Glacial Period ; indeed, the
' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lx (1904) p. 65.
~
Vol. 60. } AGE OF THE LAKE OF GENEVA. 317
phenomena in support of that view are, in the case of the Lake
of Geneva, on a grander scale, more striking, and, if anything,
even more conclusive.
Discussion.
Prof. Cart Scamipt remarked that the parallelism claimed by the
Author as existing between the Lakes of Zurich and Geneva was
not very clear to him: the formation of the first-named lake, at
right angles to the strike of the Molasse-country, was easier to
explain than that of the last-named lake. In his opinion, the
structure of the Lake of Geneva might be more nearly compared
with that of Lucerne: the development of the glacial formations
was very similar in the two cases. He pointed out the increasing
difficulty experienced in distinguishing the three formations of
Schotter as one approached the Alps, and he agreed with Lugeon,
Schardt. and other observers in regard to the uncertainty which
attended this question. He commented on the fluctuation of opinion
concerning the flexures of the Molasse, and observed that there
seemed to be nowadays a tendency to revert to the older theories.
Prof. Bonney thought that the comparison of the Jakes in the
same Alpine zone could not fail to bring about valuable results.
He had examined, in August 1891, the section below Geneva, to
which the Author referred, and now read some extracts from notes
written on the spot. At that time he was thinking more about the
hypothesis of glacial excavation for the lake, than of the date of its
formation. What he then saw, as these extracts showed, had con-
vinced him that the gravels on either side of the Rhone must have
been formed by that river and not by the Arve alone; that ice had
subsequently passed over them, without any appreciable disturbance ;
and that the pebbles were too much rounded to have been formed
by torrents flowing from the end of a glacier near at hand,—they
must have travelled at least several miles. Since that date he had
examined, sometimes under the Author’s guidance, the gravels and
morainic deposits in the Limmat Valley and elsewhere, with the
result that the late date of the Alpine lakes had been gradually
forced upon his mind. He realized, as plainly as any one could do,
that this was a startling conclusion, but we must remember that the
North American lakes showed that there had been considerable
movements in comparatively-recent times, and this was not the only
instance which might be quoted.
Posrcript To THE DiscussIon.
(The AvrHor, not having been present at the discussion, wishes
to point out that Prof. Schmidt’s opinion that the structure of
the Lake of Geneva may be more nearly compared with that of
Lucerne than with that of Zurich, is invalidated by the physio-
graphical fact that the Lakes of Zurich and Geneva each lie in
318 THE AGE OF THE LAKE OF GENEVA. [Aug. 1904,
one continuous, previously-eroded river-valley; whereas the Lake
of Lucerne lies in two transverse valleys composed of four different
troughs, and therefore exhibits, not unlike the Lake of Lugano, a
far more complicated structure than other lake-basins within the
same zone. The Author fully agrees with Prof. Bonney that the
bulk of the low-level gravel-beds underlying the post-Glacial and
Glacial alluvia near and below Geneva is derived from the drainage-
area of the Rhone Valley: apart from the pebbles of crystalline
and sedimentary rocks, as well as of Nagelfluh, of that watershed,
this is evidenced more especially by the striking abundance of
the Valais gabbro and serpentine (from the Bagne and Saas Valleys),
as well as of the green (Tavayanaz) sandstone of Diablerets ; that is,
of material transported and deposited, not by the Arve, but by the
Rhone.—May 21st, 1904. |
Vol. 60.] THE VALLEY OF THE TEIGN. 319
21. The Vattey of the Teten. By Atrrep Joun Jukes-Browne, Esq.,
B.A., F.G.S. (Read March 9th, 1904.)
Tue problem of the Teign Valley attracted my attention soon
after I came to live in Devonshire; and I have lost no opportunity
of considering it from different points of view, both in the study
and in the field. The following pages are the outcome of this
consideration, and constitute an attempt to explain the peculiar
course which the river takes in passing from its sources on Dart-
moor to the sea at Teignmouth.
The Teign Valley is, in fact, one of the most remarkable in the
British Islands, because it is not a simple transverse valley, nor a
longitudinal one between more or less parallel ridges, nor does it
take such a course as the general slope or gradient of the country
below its sources would suggest. On the contrary, although the
earlier part of its course is in accordance with this general gradient,
it afterwards takes a curve which leads it to run at right angles to
its primary direction, and to traverse a depression which has the
aspect of a longitudinal valley. From this it debouches into a
plain; and in this plain it again turns at right angles, to pass
through a gap which is clearly a transverse valley excavated out of
the ridge that borders the seaward side of the longitudinal valley.
This gap is now occupied by the estuary of the Teign.
As might be imagined, a valley which exhibits so curious a
succession of changes presents also a variety of physical features,
different parts of its course contrasting strongly with one another
in this respect. The head-waters of the river are called the North
Teign, and have their sources in the north-eastern part of Dartmoor,
among the characteristic scenery of that district. From the high
level of this area (above 1200 feet), it descends through a gorge into
what has been called the Chagford Basin. Though not exactly
a basin, the valley here widens out in a peculiar manner. In its
eastern part, the contour-line of 600 feet recedes for some distance
on both sides of the river, along a depression which crosses the
valley from north-west to south-east; while the rim of the area is
from 800 to 1000 feet above the sea, except at one place. The
river, however, does not escape from this depression at the point
where the rim is lowest, but through one of the highest parts
of the rim and opposite the point where it enters. Here, also,
the river leaves the granite, and has cut a deep gorge through the
band of indurated Culm-Measures which borders the northern side
of Dartmoor.
The gorge of the Teign runs in an easterly direction for about
34 miles, and the river descends about 160 feet in this distance,
that is, from about 430 to 270 feet. The gorge then bends to
the south-east and continues for another 2 miles, the stream falling
another 64 feet in that distance. Emerging from this deep and
picturesque ravine, the river takes another short turn to the east,
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Vol. 60. | THE VALLEY OF THE TEIGN. 321
and then bends southward to pursue a course which brings it
between the outermost granitic ridge on the one hand, and the
Haldon Hills on the other hand. Its valley here is broad and
open.
oiicac Chudleigh Knighton the Teign enters the plain of the
Bovey Eocene deposits, and flows over this to Newton Abbot,
where it receives the waters of the Bovey and the Lemmon; but,
instead of continuing to run southward into Tor Bay, as the present
features of the country would lead everyone to expect that it would
have done, it turns abruptly to the east, and enters the gap in which
its estuary now lies.
Such are the facts which have to be explained; and the problem
is certainly not to be solved from a mere study of maps, nor from a
cursory examination of the physical features of the district. It
does not take long to perceive that the gap of the Teign estuary is
very probably part of an ancient river-valley, excavated before the
present physical features of the surrounding country had been
developed. It may also be surmised that such a transverse cut
is not likely to have been made by the Teign, if that river has
always pursued its present course; but it is not so easy to
determine what river or rivers can have made the valley of the
Teign estuary, or how the modern Teign came to take the erratic
course above described. The problem is also complicated by the
local crust-movement which produced the Bovey Basin, although, as
will be seen in the sequel, I do not think that the synclinal trough
of this basin is so local as it appears to be.
This problem of the Teign Valley has interested many local
geologists and observers, but has not yet received what appears to
me a satisfactory explanation.
In 1867 G. W. Ormerod noticed some of the peculiarities of the
Teign Valley in the pages of this Journal’; he recorded the
presence of ancient gravels with granite-pebbles along the upper
valley, and for a short distance within the gorge of the Teign
(as far as Wootton Castle above Clifford Bridge), and he com-
mented on the absence of any such ‘old gravels’ along the further
course of the river. His explanation of the facts was that the
whole gorge of the Teign was of comparatively-recent formation,
and that the original course of the river was through the gap in
the rim of the Chagford Basin, which I have already mentioned.
His theory was, therefore, that the present valley of the Wray
Brook (see fig. 1, p. 320) is the ancient valley of the Teign, and
that the gorge of the Teign was opened subsequently by some
‘disruption of the Carboniferous rocks since the gravels were
deposited.” The idea of such a disruption is not in accord with
modern methods of interpretation ; and Ormerod’s theory can
hardly be adopted now, because if the river ever followed such
a course as he suggested, one cannot see any reason why it should
2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii (1867) p. 418.
19) t .
322 MR. A. J. JUKES-BROWNE ON (Aug. 1904,
have abandoned it, and consequently the hypothesis fails to account
for the deeply-cut gorge of the Teign.
A theory exists that the Teign once flowed southward by Kings-
kerswell into Tor Bay, and it has been attributed to Mr. J. H. Key;
but this appears to be a mistake, for Mr. Key only pointed out’
that, if the Bovey deposits were formed in a lake on the site of the
present basin (as he supposed they were), the overflow of this
lake must have been in the direction of Torquay. William Pengelly
made a similar statement in 18637; but thought it far more likely |
that the overflow was through the present valley towards Teign-
mouth. Neither of the writers just quoted said anything about the
River Teign ever having run into Tor Bay, and I think that the
idea of its having done so is in the highest degree improbable.
In the years 1901 and 1902, Mr. A. Somervail published several
short notes on the valley of the Teign,* and in the last of them
he concludes that ‘the river Teign, or the Teign as we now
know it, had not its present course marked out until long after the
Oligocene’; but he does not discuss its ancient course. He refers
to, and dissents from, the theory that the Teign once flowed along
the Tor Valley into Tor Bay.
Still more recently, Mr. H. J. Lowe has written on ‘The Teign
Valley & its Geological Problems.’* He describes and discusses
the curious basin-like depression through which the river flows
between Chagford and Hunts Tor, considers but rejects the idea
that it has ever been a lake, and attributes its formation to a more
rapid local decay and disintegration of the granite; he dissents
from Ormerod’s view that the Teign originally ran out of this
basin by Moretonhampstead, and concludes that its exit has always
been in the direction which it now takes. He remarks :
‘If the river has, for the most part of its existence, followed in the main its
present course, it is necessary to assume that it originally took this direction
because the head-waters found a natural discharge this way along the most
available slope to the sea. But this must have been many hundreds of feet
above the level at which it at present runs.’
With this remark I cordially agree, and I think that, if Mr. Lowe
had followed out this line of thought, he would probably have come
to the conclusion that the course which the Teign now takes beyond
this gorge is not likely to have been its original one.
It is certain that, before we can arrive at any satisfactory
explanation of the facts, we must consider the probable conditions
of the ancient surface out of which the present surface has been
developed, to what extent the older rocks around Dartmoor may
then have been covered by newer deposits, and what changes have
been (or may have been) accomplished between that time and the
present.
1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xviii (1862) p. 16.
2 «The Lignite of Bovey Tracey ’ 1863, p. 19.
3 Trans. Devon. Assce. vol. xxiii (1901) pp. 517 & 521; and ¢bid. vol. xxxiv
(1902) p. 528. 4 Ibid. vol. xxxv (1903) p. 631.
Vol. 60. | THE VALLEY OF THE TEIGN. 323
For the date of our ancient surface we need not go farther back
than the close of the Eocene Period, because it is evident, from the
manner in which the Teign crosses the Eocene of the Bovey Basin,
that its valley is of later date than the Kocene Period. We may
reasonably conclude that it was at the beginning of Oligo-
cene time that the present river-system of Devonshire
was initiated.
I will next endeavour to picture the probable aspect of the
surface of this part of England in Eocene and Oligocene times, and
to estimate the extent to which it was then covered by Neozoic
deposits. It is not necessary for our present purpose to consider
how far the Jurassic rocks may have extended over Devonshire,
because we know that they were subsequently truncated and over-
stepped by the Cretaceous strata ; but these latter have certainly to
be considered.
We know that the sea of the Selbornian Sands (=‘ Upper Green-
sand’) covered what are now the Haldon Hills, and must have
stretched to the borders of Dartmoor. The deeper sea of the
Upper Chalk must have covered a still larger area, and would have
covered the greater part of Dartmoor, unless the relative levels
of Dartmoor and the Haldons have been greatly altered since
Cretaceous time, a contingency which is very probable. At the
close of the Cretaceous Period, the West of England appears to
have been raised above the sea-level, and the whole of Devonshire
must have been subjected to the detrition of subaérial agents
during the time represented by the break between the Cretaceous
and the Eocene and by the duration of the Lower Eocene Epoch.
That the granite of Dartmoor was then exposed we know, from the
frequent fragments of granite and tourmaline-rock in the Haldon
gravels.
The Eocene subsidence at length carried the lacustrine area
of the Bournemouth Beds westward over the whole of Eastern
Devonshire and over the Haldon Hills, which rise to more than
800 feet above the sea. Mr. H. B. Woodward has recorded the
existence of deposits which closely resemble those of the Bovey
Basin between Axminster and Lyme Regis, at an elevation of
400 feet." They consist of rough flint-and- “chert gravel, fine white
sand, with white and mottled clays, and they are most probably of
Eocene age. Similar gravels and tracts of stony clay (mapped as
Clay-with-Flints) cap 4he tops of the many ridges which lead up
from the coastal cliffs to the Blackdown Hills, and they occur also
on these hills at levels of between 800 and 900 feet. Mr. W. A.
E. Ussher informs me that some of the patches of clay at such
levels near Otterford, Churchstanton, and Burnworthy not im-
probably include remnants of Eocene beds in situ.
A plain prolonged westward from the summits of the Blackdown
Hills would pass over all the central part of Devonshire between
Dartmoor and Exmoor; and as part of such a plain still remains
* Summ. Progr. Geol. Surv. for 1901, pp. 53-59 ; and Rep. Brit. Assoc.
902 (Belfast) p. 601.
324 MR. A. J. SUKES-BROWNE ON (Aug. 1904,
on the Haldon Hills, we may reasonably conclude that the Kocene
deposits did cover this central area. ‘There is indeed some positive
evidence, as will be mentioned on a future page, that this was the
case. :
As no patches of Chalk remain on the Blackdown or the Haldon
Hills, and as the Eocene gravels there rest directly upon the
Selbornian Sands, it is evident that most, if not all, of the Chalk
had been removed from this central area during Lower EHocene
time; so that the Eocene deposits were laid down partly on the
Greensand and partly on the older rocks to the westward, the
flints remaining from the destruction of the Chalk being spread out
as a basement-gravel below the Bovey and Bournemouth Beds.
Here we are confronted with the difficulty created by the curious
position of the Bovey Beds. This position does not seem to be
explicable by faults. The beds have apparently been bent down
into a deep syncline by post-Eocene movements; and as the gravels
can be traced from the basin up the slopes towards the Haldon
Hills, it is evident, from the map of the Geological Survey, that they
here passed across the outcrops of the Selbornian and Permian on to
the complex of Carboniferous and Devonian rocks which borders the
granite of Dartmoor.
This transgression appears to have taken place within so short
a space, that we can only suppose that the surface which is now a
downward slope was then either a level floor or had a slight upward
slope towards the west. Thus the space between the present
termination of the Eocene gravel on Great Haldon and the similar
gravel west of Ideford is only a mile, yet in this short distance the
gravel has passed across the Greensand and the Permian, descending
through a space of about 300 feet. It is the same on the western
side of Little Haldon, where the boundary of the gravel is at about
700 feet, and the lower edge of the patch of gravel at Lindridge
(resting there upon Devonian Limestone) is at about 370 feet, the
space between being about a mile.
The gravel could not have overstepped the boundary of the
Permian on a level surface, unless the dip of the Permian rocks
was sufficient to bring in a thickness of more than 300 feet in a
mile. Now, along the southern base of Little Haldon, the base of
the Permian does fall through 250 feet in the space of a mile, so
that the dip favoured the transgression, but is not quite enough to
account for it. We must therefore assume, either that the gravel
thickened in this distance by the amount of 80 feet, or, as is more
probable, that there was a gentle upward slope where there is now
a downward slope: and if we take the difference betweef 330
and 250 feet (that is, 80 feet in a mile), the slope comes out as
Lin 66.
Assuming this to have been the average slope of the ground
between the plain of the Haldon Hills and the granite-ridge by
Elstord, north-east of Lustleigh, a distance of 53 miles, we find
that in Eocene times this ridge would have been 440 feet higher
than the level at which gravel was being spread out over the
Vol. 60. | THE VALLEY OF THE TEIGN, 325
Haidon area. We know, too, that the Bovey Beds extend as far as
Pullabrook, about a mile south of Lustleigh, and are there about
440 feet above the sea. In Kocene time, this place may have been
some 500 feet above the level of the Haldon area; and this will
account for the rapid increase in the thickness of the Bovey depasits
to the eastward, and for the great thickness that they attain at
Heathfield, where a boring traversed 520 feet without reaching
their base.
I think, therefore, that we may imagine the surface-conditions of
the Upper Eocene Epoch in Devonshire to have been as follows :—
An extensive lake or lagoon, very little above the surface of the
neighbouring sea, extending over the whole of Eastern Devonshire
and across the central parts of the county north of Dartmoor; then
steep slopes formed of Palzeozoic rocks, up to a hill-region composed
partly of such rocks and partly of the Dartmoor Granite. The sub-
sidence of Upper Eocene time seems to have carried the lacustrine
area some 600 feet or so below the level at which it stood to begin
with ; but probably deposition kept pace with depression, so that
the water was always shallow. By this subsidence the flanks of
Dartmoor were partly submerged, but the area of highland was
hardly diminished.
Kocene time closed with a general upheaval of the whole British
area, the greater part of England becoming dry land, and the
water-space being contracted to a comparatively-narrow sea lying
_ over parts of Hampshire, Dorsetshire, and the EnglishChannel. ‘his
upheaval would leave the greater part of Devonshire covered with
a mass of Kocene beds banked up against the highlands of Dartmoor
and Exmoor.
As the only Oligocene sea that we know of lay to the east of Devon-
shire, it 1s reasonable to suppose that the prevalent slope of the
western land was easterly. It is possible, indeed, that the
uplift of Oligocene time was somewhat unequal, being greater
in the west than in the east, so that a general easterly tilt was thus
early given to the Eocene beds all over England. We cannot yet
Say positively when the Bovey Basin began to be formed; but I
know of no special reason for connecting it with the early Oligocene
upheaval, and it seems much more likely to date from a later epoch.
I conclude, therefore, that we may safely assume that when the
country arose from the Eocene sea, the streams running eastward
off the watershed of Dartmoor began to excavate channels through
the Eocene deposits which flanked that area; and that these streams
were tributaries of a great river which flowed eastward into the
Oligocene sea, over a tract of land which has long since vanished
and has become part of the English Channel. It follows that the
streams which now run from north to south were then insignificant,
and were only represented by short tributaries of the eastward-
flowing rivers,
The courses of the rivers of Southern England seem to indicate
the influence of two slopes, one prevailing at one time and one at
326 MR. A. J. JUKES-BROWNE ON | Aug. 1904,
another: the one slope was easterly, and the other was southerly ;
the latter is now the dominant slope, and consequently I think that
it is of later date than the other. This brings us to consider the
question of the courses which the ancestors or precursors of the
Teign and other Dartmoor streams are likely to have taken.
We shall begin with the Upper Teign. That part of its course
which lies through the granitic area of Dartmoor was doubtless
marked out at a still earlier period, and was only being more
deeply incised during Oligocene time. In all probability, also,
the further part of its course, which is now stereotyped as the
deeply-cnt ‘gorge of the Teign,’ was initiated in Eocene time,
and at a level far above that of the existent parallel ridges. But
somewhere this high-level surface of Paleeozoic rock passed beneath
a superjacent, gently-sloping mass of Eocene deposits. So far as
my argument is concerned, it does not matter whether the mantle
of Eocene beds spread on to the granite, or whether it thinned out
at lower levels: at some point in its upper course the precursor of
the Teign left the surface of the older rocks and passed on to that
of the Eocene beds; and the general trend of this surface we believe
to have been towards the east.
We arrive therefore at the conclusion, that beyond the confines
of Dartmoor the drainage-system of Oligocene time was established
upon the surface of the Eocene beds, and consequently that this
drainage-system was afterwards transferred from the Eocene
to the Paleozoic surface. We can also see that the courses of
the rivers may have been profoundly modified in the process of
transfer, not only by their encountering rocks of varying hardness
in the Paleozoic complex, but also by the influence of powerful
earth-movements.
If, then, the Teign continued its course over Eocene beds, and if
their surface sloped eastward, it is not likely that the river at that
time followed its present anomalous course ; it is probable that it
took a much more direct line towards, and possibly across, the
valley of toe Exe. The general direction of the Upper Teign,
including the North Teign as the main tributary, is from west-
south-west to east-north-east; near Sandy Park it changes to
nearly east; while at Clifford Barton it bends to the south-east, and
passes into what may be called the Lower Teign at Dunsford.
My theory is that at this early period the valley of the Lower
Teign had no existence, but was part of the plain which sloped
gently eastward from Dartmoor across what are now the Haldon
Hills, and that there was nothing to prevent the Upper Teign
from continuing its easterly course; so that it may have joined
or received the Exe (then a much shorter stream) somewhere about
the position of Exeter.
The country to the north and south of the Teign gorge, between
Sandy Park and Clifford Barton, maintains a high level, rising to
over 1100 feet on the south side and to nearly 900 feet on the
north side: while the highest parts of the country, between Clifford
Vol. 60. | THE VALLEY OF THE TEIGN. SOL
| ‘Barton and Exeter, do not reach so much as 700 feet (see fig. 2).
Consequently, if present altitudes are any guide to the general slope
of the more ancient surface, the ancient Teign could easily have made
its way over the country which now forms the watershed between
the;Lower Teign and the Alphin Brook. This I believe to have
Fig. 2.— Map of the neighbourhood of Dunsford.
(ae ©
4
Gap WV eeke ‘Barton @
x
YK I// |
A/a] ae
yw Leigh-Cross
ARS
~
S af
f
[Scale: 1 inch=1 mile. Contours indicated in feet. The double broken lines
show the probable course of the ancient rivers. |
been its course, until certain changes took place which led to the
capture of its waters by a tributary of the river that was forming
the valley of the Teign Estuary. }
The next point that calls for explanation, is the formation of
the valley now occupied by the Estuary of the Teign. The length
of this, from near Kingsteignton to Teignmouth, is about 4 miles;
and its direction is from west to east, the land on the north side
328 MR. A. J. JUKES-BROWNE ON [Aug. 1904,
rising to over 800 feet, and that on the south side to about
500 feet. Mr. H.J. Lowe has suggested’ that this valley is that of a
stream which formerly ran from east to west and was a tributary
of the Lower Teign, which river he supposed to have then run
southward into Tor Bay; but he offers no explanation of the
manner in which the slope of such a valley could have been
reversed, and have become an outlet for the waters of what he
regards as the main stream.
In my opinion, it is much more probable that this estuary is part
of a very ancient valley, formed by a stream which ran from the
eastern part of Dartmoor over the eastward-sloping plain of
Kocene deposits in Oligocene time. The present Bovey Plain
is a locally-depressed portion of this ancient plain, and I regard
the Bovey River as a comparatively-recent development ; but there
is another stream which debouches into the Teign at Newton
Abbot, exactly opposite to the opening of the Teign estuary. ‘This
is the Lemmon, the higher tributaries of which rise on Haytor and
Bagtor Moors at a level of about 1200 feet above the sea. It is
obvious that a stream rising at so high a level, and flowing east-
ward, could take a course that was likely to have initiated the
valley of the Teign estuary, even if this valley was commenced on a
plain which was coextensive with that of Little Haldon (800 feet).
Moreover, there is some reason for believing that the Lemmon was
a more powertul stream in Oligocene and Miocene times than it is
now, and that its head-waters included those of the stream called
the Yeo, which now runs through Ashburton to join the Dart.
About 23 miles west of Newton Abbot, the Lemmon receives a small
tributary stream called the Kester Brook, which runs through a
well-marked valley, but is now a small and insignificant brook. It
seems to be merely a rivulet, fed partly by rainwater and partly by
small springs on each side of the valley as far west as Alston Cross
and Mead Farm, about a mile and a half west-north-west of Ash-
burton. But the valley continues beyond this point, and 1s fairly-
well defined by the lines for the 400-feet contour on the 6-inch and
1-inch Ordnance maps (see fig. 3, p. 329). The actual watershed at
the head of this valley appears to be about half a mile west of Mead
Farm, and only about 15 feet higher than the centre of the valley
at Mead Cross near that farm.
In the opposite direction, that is to the south-west, this col or gap
opens into the valley of a little stream which joins the Yeo in
Ashburton. On the west side of this stream is a shallow depression,
which looks like a continuation of the Kester-Brook valley ;
and this opens into the Valley of the Yeo at Cuddaford Bridge.
My suggestion is, that the valley of the Kester Brook is really
the ancient valley of the River Yeo, which in early times continued
the curve of its present course above Cuddaford Bridge, so as to
pass through the above-mentioned depression, and thence eastward
through the col at the head of the Kester-Brook valley.
' Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. xxxv (1903) p. 645.
Vol. 60. } THE VALLEY OF THE TEIGN. 329
J
Of course, the existing depression and dry valley must belong to
the very latest stage of this ancient course of the Yeo, just previous
to its capture by a tributary of the Dart. No one could indicate
precisely the course of the stream which drained the area north of
Ashburton in Miocene and Oligocene times; but my contention is
that the drainage of this district (which is now carried into the
Dart by the Yeo) was in more ancient times directed along the line
of the Kester Brook, and helped to swell the volume of the river
which made the Teignmouth Valley. It is also noteworthy that the
Fig. 3.—Map of the neighbourhood of Ashburton.
SeoLonpmnipny
»
<4 '
‘
%
\[Bowdley
SF 3 = |
Welstor] 7 eee S Wehieae 5 evry Gis |
= 622 or
i
j
(3) :
/ Y
f ee teld
[Scale: 1 inch=1 mile. Contours indicated in feet. The double broken
lines show the probable ancient course of the Yeo. |
Hen
Yeo rises on Dartmoor at a level of about 1200 feet, and may in
ancient times have drained a larger area of the moor than it does
at present. So also may the Lemmon.
We now come to the consideration of the changes which must
have greatly modified the system of drainage, and, as I think, led
to the diversion of certain rivers from an easterly course to a
southerly one. These changes were partly regional, and partly
local.
The regional change was that which greatly augmented
the elevation of the Wealden anticline, and caused or increased the
Q. J.G.8. No. 239. Zz
330 MR. A. J. JUKES-BROWNE ON [ Aug. 1904,
general southerly inclination of Salisbury Plain, of the Dorsetshire
Downs, and of the Blackdown Hills. Judging from the elevation
of the Older Pliocene deposits in Kent, this change did not take
place till later Pliocene time.
The local change was, of course, the formation of the Bovey
syncline ; and there is nothing to tell us exactly when this was
formed, whether in Miocene times during the general elevation
of the Anglo-Gallic region, or whether it was coweval with the
uplifts of later Pliocene time. I may here point out that I do not
regard the synclinal flexure as confined to the Bovey Basin, but think
that this basin is only a local downward bulge in the course of a
much longer synclinal axis. ‘The curious plain or depression in the
granitic area around North Bovey and Moreton Hampstead, where
over a tract of about 6 square miles the average level is only
800 feet above the sea, and the communication between this and
the still lower basin near Chagford, of which mention has previously
been made (p. 319), are in a line with the Bovey Basin, and their
existence can be understood if they are regarded as due to a north-
westerly extension of the Bovey syncline.
Still farther to the north-west, between Hatherleigh and Marland,
there is a tract of clay, sand, and gravel unconnected with any
modern river-valley; and Mr. W. A. E. Ussher informs me that these
deposits bear a strong resemblance to the Bovey deposits. They
may, therefore, be of the same age; and it is a curious fact that a
prolongation of the north-western axis above indicated would
include this tract. It is also noteworthy that such a line is roughly
parallel to the watershed which runs across Devonshire, from a
point south of Hartland on the north-west to Tor Bay on the south-
east.
Returning now to the Valley of the Teign, let us consider the
effect which the general tilting and the local flexure might have
had upon the streams that we have supposed to exist in Oligocene
times. Neither change could have had much effect upon the course
of the Upper Teign flowing eastward from Dartmoor to the Exe;
but both changes would have a strong effect upon all streams which
ran from north to south, for, by increasing the fall of the ground,
they would increase the velocity and the erosive power of the
streams.
Such would be the case with the stream which I have called the
Lower Teign, and have supposed to be a tributary of the river
that flowed eastward through the Teignmouth Valley. This little
stream was doubtless carving out a valley between the Haldon Hills
and the granitic area west of Christow and Hennock throughout
Oligocene and Miocene times. The gradual sinking of the Bovey
Basin, and the increasing slope thus given to its watercourse,
would cause it to deepen the higher part of its valley, and its upper
tributaries would cut back deeply into the watershed separating it
from the valley of the Upper Teign.
If that portion of the Teign Valley which lies between Dunsford
Vol. 60. | THE VALLEY OF THE TEIGN. ae
and Clifford Bridge was originated by one of these tributaries
running off the slope of a ridge then connecting Mardon Down
with East Down, it seems quite possible that by the gradual
detrition of the country this ridge might be reduced to a low col or
pass leading from the tributary of the Lower Teign to the valley of
the Upper Teign, the latter river flowing at a considerably higher
level than the former. Under these circumstances a temporary
obstruction in the valley of the Upper Teign, such as might be
caused by a landslip, or a sudden rise of the river caused by heavy
rains, might easily send its waters over the col and into the Lower
Teign ; and whenever this happened, the new course would probably
become the permanent one, because it led down io a lower level.
Such a method of ‘ capture’ has been accepted as an explanation of
alteration in the course of the Trent and in many other cases.
If the valley of the Teign Estuary was solely the work of the
Lemmon and its tributaries, including the Bovey and the above-
mentioned Lower Teign, they would be quite equal to the task of
keeping it open, provided that the production of the Bovey syncline
was accomplished slowly, so that the rate of river-erosion could
keep pace with that of the relative vertical displacement.
As stated on p. 328, it is probable that the volume and power of
the Lemmon was materially augmented by the accession of the river
Yeo, then flowing along the line of the Kester Brook; for this
would add another head of water from the high ground of Dart-
moor. If this was so, then the diversion of the Yeo into the Valley
of the Dart is a much more recent event than the diversion of the
Upper Teign into its present course ; for, what seem to be the latest
stages of its accomplishment still remain well marked on the
geography of the country, and thus afford an illustration of the
manner in which the Lower Teign may have captured the Upper
Teign.
West of Ashburton the Yeo now passes through quite a narrow
cut between two hilis which are higher than any of the surrounding
land, one of them rising to over 500 feet; and these hills look as if
they were remnants of a ridge that once extended right across the
Ashburton Valley from north-west to south-east. It is certain, at
any rate, that if the high ground south-east of Ashburton were
united to Dartmoor by such a ridge at the present time, and if its
lowest part were not less than 400 feet above Ordnance-datum, the
River Yeo would at once be diverted into the valley of the Kester
Brook (see fig. 3, p. 329). There is, consequently, some ground for
the remark that the present features of the district harmonize very
completely with the theory that the head-waters of the Yeo have
been transferred from one valley to the other.
Let us imagine the Yeo flowing as I have supposed, and the Dart
running more or less in its present valley, and of course cutting
down to a much lower base-level than the Yeo. So long as the
general slope was easterly no change would be likely to occur, and
the Yeo would continue to deepen the valley through which it ran,
the final form of which now remains in that of the Kester Brook.
Zz 2
332 MR. A. J. JUKES-BROWNE ON [ Ang. 1904,
When, however, the easterly slope was modified and dominated by
the southerly tilt given to the country, as I suppose, in late
Pliocene time, then every eastward-flowing stream would impinge
with greater force on its southern banks and would cut deeper
curves out of the southern side of its valley; at the same time,
the erosive power of every little rivulet which flowed from north to
south would be increased. That part of the valley of the Yeo
which lies to the south of Ashburton was doubtless initiated by a
tiny tributary of the Dart; and during the gradual detrition of the
country, it would naturally encroach upon the watershed which lay
between its head and the valley beyond. This process, even without
the aid of any earth-movement, is likely to have resulted in the
trenching of the dividing ridge; and as the Yeo would be cutting
away the northern side of this ridge, it is hkely that a time would
come when it only required a flood in the valley of the Yeo to make
its waters overflow into that of the little stream to the south.
The basis of this theory, by which I have tried to explain the
peculiar course of the Teign and the origin of the Teignmouth
Valley, is the double assumption that the country had first a genera!
inclination to the eastward and was subsequently given a tilt to the
southward; but both these assumptions are in accord with geological
facts in other parts of England. They agree also with geological and
geographical facts in Devonshire: the drainage-system of Dartmoor
is likely to be older than that of the surrounding country; and the
biggest rivers of Dartmoor rise near its western border, as they
would do if the slope of the Eocene and Oligocene land was towards
the east. On the other hand, the long courses of the Tamar and
the Exe seem explicable on the supposition of a southerly slope,
which has enabled them to extend their system of drainage towards
the north. In this connection, I think that an examination of the
possible relations between the head-waters of the Exe and the Tone
might lead to interesting results.
I suspect that everywhere throughout Devonshire and Western
Somersetshire the extension of southward-flowing rivers at the
expense of eastward-flowing streams may be invoked to explain
the present somewhat-complieated system of drainage. I desire,
however, to guard myself against being understood to suggest that
either or any of these earth-movements produced a continuous regular
slopein one direction. Its quite possible that the general easterly
tilt given to the whole region in Oligocene time was interrupted
by undulations striking from north to south, and that, while the
principal or primary rivers cut across these incipient ridges, local
drainage might in some districts be directed into north-and-south
lines at an earlier date than that which I have suggested.
The series of domes and basins which now exist in the South of
England—lI mean such as the basin of Beer and Axmouth, and the
dome of the Vale of Marshwood—may have been produced by the
intersection of two series of flexures, an earlier series running from
north to south, and a later series from west to east; for we know
Vol. 60. | THE VALLEY OF THE TEIGN. 333
that in the Hampshire Basin the east-and-west axes are of post-
Oligocene date.
At the same time, I do not think that the flexures which may
have crossed the Oligocene plain were more than broad undulations;
and if the Beer Basin marks the site of one of these broad Oligocene
synclines, I think that its western limb may have been a continuous
slope up to the Dartmoor watershed. If this was the case, it is
obvious that the existence of such a shallow syncline would not
invalidate the explanation of the Valley of the Teign which has been
suggested in the preceding pages.
I have thought it desirable to limit the scope of this paper to the
Valley of the Teign and its tributaries, and to exclude the con-
sideration of other rivers; but I wish to point out the possibility
that the valley of the Teign Estuary may have been the work of the
River Dart. It is a fact that the general course of the Dart across
Dartmoor is such as to bring it to a point due west of Newton Abbot.
and consequently opposite to the entrance of the Teign Estuary. The
Dart now makes its way off Dartmoor through a deep gorge, like
that of the Upper Teign ; but when it was flowing over the high-
level surface out of which this gorge has been cut, there is no obvious
reason why it should not have continued its easterly course and have
initiated the Teignmouth Valley. In sucha case, the Lemmon would
have been merely a tributary of the Dart, and the latter would have
to be regarded as the head-source of the main Oligocene river, just
as the Dorsetshire Frome was, at a later date, the head-water of the
Solent River.’
Discussion.
The PrestpEnt said that he was glad to find that the Authors of
this and the preceding paper” were apparently inclined to refer the
principal surface-features of a county chiefly composed of ancient
rocks to the Tertiary Period.
Mr. H. B. Woopwarp remarked that papers on river-development
were most difficult to follow; they reminded him of old-fashioned
chess-problems where you had to mate in fifty or a hundred moves.
He had read the paper, but had not had time to comprehend it fully.
When he (the speaker) resided at Newton Abbot many years ago,
he thought that the Lower Teign Valley had been started by overfiow
from the lake in which the Bovey Beds were formed. Since then,
Mr. Clement Reid had seen evidence for the extension of the Eocene
strata over the Haldon Hills, now in places 800 feet above sea-
level ; and the aspect of the subject had greatly changed, owing to
the earth-movements which had to be taken into consideration.
The Author, who had asked Mr. Whitaker to act as challenger, and
read the paper, had desired him to be the defender and reply to
criticisms, and he asked permission to read a few notes from the
Author, if they were required, later on.
' See A. Strahan ‘ Geology of the Isle of Purbeck’ Mem. Geol. Sury. (1898)
p- 230.
[? C. Reid ‘ On the probable Occurrence of an Eocene Outlier off the Cornish
Coast’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. Ix (1904) p. 113.]
334 THE VALLEY OF THE TEIGN. [ Aug. 1904,
Dr. A. E. Savrer enquired whether the Author had studied the
various superficial deposits in the area which he described, in order
to ascertain whether their constituents were of such a character as
to favour his views. ‘These evidences of past fluviatile action often
afforded valuable corroboration to such a hypothesis as that which
had been put forward by the Author.
Mr. H. W. Moncxvon said that he had noticed a reference to the
effect of a tilt of the ground, and he ventured to remark that mere
tilting of the surface need not of necessity alter the direction of the
drainage, for as the tilting proceeded the streams would deepen
their channels—that ts, when a drainage-system was once established.
No doubt the inclination of the ground would affect the direction of
streams before a drainage-system was established.
Mr. Waurraxker said that all would agree with the previous
speaker’s remarks ; but very big and rapid earth-movements might
alter the drainage of a region. Gravel-beds might be carried off
by later erosion. There had certainly been too great a tendency to
consider the surface-features of a particular district ancient, because
the rocks which cropped out there happened to be old. He welcomed
a paper such as that under discussion, because of its suggestiveness
and its usefulness in promoting further investigation.
Mr. H. B. Woopwarp read the following extract of a letter sent
to him by the AurHor :—
‘Some one may perhaps say that the Bovey Basin may have been formed in
Oligocene time, and that the formation of this basin was enough to deflect the
river southward. My reply would be that there is absolutely no evidence
of strong earth-movements in Oligocene time, that those in the Isle of Wight
are obviously post-Oligocene, and that the Bovey syncline is comparable with
them. Further, the axis of this syncline does not run north and south, but
north-west and soutb-east, and, as I believe, it crosses the granitic area.’
Vol. 60.] | HUMAN REMAINS IN GOUGH’s CAVERN, CHEDDAR. 335
22. The Discovery of Human Rematys under the StaracMite-FLoor
of Govucu’s Cavern, CoEeppar. By Henry Naruanter Davies,
Esq., F.G.S. (Read April 13th, 1904.)
[Prats XXIX.]
Goven’s Cavern is an extensive and much-branching subterranean
waterway, which opens at the base of the cliffs on the south side of
a picturesque gorge in the Carboniferous Limestone of the Mendips,
Fig. 1—Plan of part of Gough's Cavern, Cheddar.
a
a= Entrance. b=Vestibule. g= Descending fissure, in which the
c= Limestone-block. human skeleton was found.
d=Cave-earth left in position. | l=Lowest part of the main passage.
e= Projecting rock, much rubbed 2-z2=Line of section of fig. 2, p. 336.
and polished. vr and f mark the position of dome-
f, k, k=Ascending side-fissures. shaped vents (fig. 3, p. 338).
near the village of Cheddar. For many years the proprietor,
Mr. R. C. Gough, has worked the cavern, clearing out without much
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Vol, 60.] | HUMAN REMAINS IN GOUGH’S CAVERN, CHEDDAR. 337
method the accumulation of ages, in order to make a comfortable
and easy access for visitors to the principal chambers ; and quite
recently the grandeur of the vaulting and the beautiful stalactites
in the more inaccessible parts have been revealed by the introduction
of the electric light.
In carrying out these necessary improvements, beds of stalagmite
and cave-earth, blocks of limestone, pebbles and sand have been
removed from the entrance and passages ; and the bones and teeth
of extinct and existing animals, with human relics (prehistoric and
histeric) have been brought to light, and are now to be found crowded
together in a small museum near the entrance. The objects prove
that the caves were the alternate resort of extinct animals and
man. ‘The cases contain jJawbones and teeth of the cave-hyzna,
cave-bear, cave-lion, woolly rhinoceros, boar, horse, deer, Irish
elk, etc., which have at various times been taken out of the cave-
earth during the excavations ; but they were never sound in large
numbers, while flint-flakes, knives, scrapers, borers, and chips were
plentiful, and bone and horn-borers, needles, and pins were some-
times met with. From the talus at the base of the cliffs, which
rose high enough almost to block the entrance to the cavern, a
bronze celt of the plainest type and a looped lance-head of later
date have been taken, which seems to indicate that the cavern had
become choked before the Bronze Age. I have found it quite
impossible to locate the position in the cave-earth in which any of
the above-mentioned bones and teeth were found. Some, I know,
of the cave-specimens were found in the adjoining chamber, or Old
Cave, by the father of the present proprietors; but the stock has
been considerably added to since the clearing out of the present,
or New Cave, was begun in 1892, although it is to be regretted
that no record has been kept of the dates, nature, or position in the
cave-earth of the finds.
No kuman bones had ever been found in this cavern until
December 1903, when the workmen struck a human skull and
other bones of the skeleton under circumstances that suggested their
great antiquity.
When the work of clearing out the New Cave was begun, the
entrance was only 2 feet high. Great quantities of talus and wash
had to be removed before access could be gained to the vestibule
(6, fig. 1, p. 335). Banks of mud and stone have been left in
some places, to show the original height of the floor before it was
lowered to its present level. There was no calcareous crust on the
top of the thick deposit which filled the entrance-passage. The
rock-floor was found to dip steeply inward for some yards, after
which a more gentle incline led to the point marked (/) on the plan
(fig. 1, p. 335), which is the lowest point of the central passage.
From this spot the ascent is gradual until a large chamber is entered,
when it becomes steep and sudden.
The upper stalagmite.—After the surface-accumulation
(4, fig. 2, p. 336) had been removed, the upper stalagmite (c, fig. 2)
338 MR. H. N, DAVIES ON THE DISCOVERY OF [ Aug. 1904,
was exposed. The deposit is chalky, soft, and laminated, the
average thickness of the laminae being ‘V8 mech, and that of
the whole mass from 5 to 12 inches. ‘There is a considerable
mixture of fine sand with the calcareous matter, the residue, after
treatment with strong acid, being nearly 40 per cent. of the weight
tested. Then beds of a harder and semi-crystalline porous character
are found in shallow pockets in the cave-earth in some parts of
the cavern, notably near i (fig. 1, p. 335).
Curious dome-like masses of granular and semicrystalline material,
from 6 to 18 inches in height, occur in two spots marked +
and f, fig. 1. They appear to be growths of calcareous mud,
such as may form around the
Fig. 3.—Dome-like mass of granu- mouths of springs from which
lar and semicrystalline material. waters highly charged with
i carbonate of lime were issuing.
The presence of such springs
in the cave might explain the
occurrence of the beds of
travertine - like deposit which
are found, as stated above, at
various levels in the cave-earth.
That these beds, and the upper
stalagmite-floor, are a deposit
from such slowly-flowing water,
=
Height: 6-33 inches _ dammed up for a time in the
a—Pipe; )—Calcareous layers: deeper parts of the cavern, and
c= Floor of cavern. not a drip-formation, is certain.
This latter is indeed found in
the cavern, and gives rise to some beautifully-formed stalactites and
stalagmites, but these are of a different character altogether from
the layers of chalky deposit of the upper floor and the dome-like
vents.
The cave-earth.—This is a deposit of reddish mud from 3 to
8 feet deep, containing angular masses of limestone, large and small,
which have at various times fallen from the roof; and boulders
of the same rock, well-rounded at the edges, evidently transported
by flood-waters. Bedding is distinctiy marked in some parts of the
deposit, and the thin bands of crystalline stalagmite occur in small
areas and at various depths in it. In portions of the mass, the
calcareous deposit has penetrated from tep to bottom, and the whole
thickness has been cemented into a calcareous breccia. The upper
stalagmite-bed covers the cave-earth as a continuous sheet, and the
underlying bed, to be next described, forms the floor upon which it
rests: there, being no break in the continuity of the
deposit in those parts of the cavern which have been opened out.
It thins out rapidly in fissure g, until the upper and lower beds of
stalagmite rest one upon the other at a distance of about 25 feet
from the mouth of the fissure, where the floor is cut transversely by a
Vol. 60.]. HUMAN REMAINS IN GOUGH’S CAVERN, CHEDDAR. 339
. deep rent, at the bottom of which is a backwater of the subterranean
stream that now flows out a few yards west of the entrance to
Gough’s Cavern.
Before leaving this part of the subject, two interesting stones in
the vestibule should be noted. The one marked ¢ (fig. 1, p. 335)
is a rectangular block of limestone resting horizontally upon an old
surface in the caye-earth, about 34 feet below the upper calcareous
deposit. When the earth was cleared away from it the workmen
found a large number of flint-chips embedded in the earth at its
base, and some still resting on its upper surface. The tabular block
had apparently served as a tool-bench to some cave-dwelling worker
in flint.
Near by, on the left-hand side of the entrance, to the vestibule, is
a projecting stone which has been rounded at its edges, rubbed
smooth, and polished in a striking manner. Buckland,’ referring
to stones similarly polished in the German caves of Zahnloch and
Gailenreuth, quotes the opinions of Goldfuss & Rosenmiiller, that
the rubbing and polishing are due ‘to friction from the skin and
paws’ of the animals (bears) which in remote ages frequented the
caves.
Fig. 2 (p. 336) illustrates the mass of successive deposits which
have been cleared out of the entrance and vestibule down to the level
of the line g, which marks the present floor; the darker shading
shows what still remains.
The lower bed of stalagmite.—tThis floor, upon which the
cave-earth rests (f, fig. 2), is a hard crystalline deposit. It covers
the rocky floor of the vestibule and passages in some parts, but in
others, and especially in fissure g (fig. 1, p. 335), it has some inches
of sand and pebbles beneath it.
The lateral fissure (g, fig. 1), in which the human remains were
found, may now be described. Until quite recently it remained
absolutely choked with rock-débris and earth. But as the waters
that entered the cavern from the fissures on the south side of the
cave drained backward towards the low level marked / on the
plan (fig. 1), the chambers and passages were often flooded ; and this
state of affairs causing great loss to the owner, he determined to
clear out the lateral fissure g (fig. 1), and drain off the flood-waters
into it: thus, as it afterwards appeared, imitating Nature's own
method of getting rid of them. It was while this project was
being put into execution that the discovery was made.
The sections (figs. 4 & 5, pp. 340, 341) will give an idea of the
succession and proportional thickness of the deposits that had to be
cut through. It was found that a sudden drop of a few feet occurred
at the mouth of the fissure, and this brought the accumulation to a
*Reliquiz Diluviane’ 1823, pp. 130-37.
340 MR. H. N. DAVIES ON THE DISCOVERY OF [ Aug. 1904,
depth of over 12 feet. The deposits of the main cavern passed into
this branch without break, but they took a downward inclination,
Fig. 4.—Zongitudinal section of the deposits in the lateral fissure g
(in fig. 1, p. 335),
(The bones shown are still 27 sé¢w, and x marks the position in which the
skull was found. |
a= Recent accuniulation of earth and stones: 6 inches.
= Upper bed of stalagmite: here 5 inches thick.
c=Cave-earth, with encrusted boulder (¢) and blocks of limestone and
an intermediate band of calcareous deposit (¢): 34 feet.
Ff=Lower bed of stalagmite: 6 inches.
g=Bed of sand and pebbles of Carboniferous Limestone and Old Red
Sandstone: 8 to 12 inches.
h=Carboniferous-Limestone roof and floor.
maintaining a certain parallelism with the floor and roof. A space
only just high enough to enable a man to crawl in, existed between
the upper surface of the drift and the roof at the entrance. About
12 feet within the fissure a smaller rift in the right-hand wall was
Vol. 60.] HUMAN REMAINS IN GOUGH’S CAVERN, CHEDDAR. 34]
“discovered (p, fig. 1, p. 335). It is very narrow above, but widens
to 3 feet at the lower end.
Fig. 5.—Transverse section through the lateral fissure g
(in fig. 1, p. 335.)
a = Recent accumulation of earth and stones: 6 inches.
b = Upper stalagmite-bed : 5 to 14 inches.
c = Cave-earth, containing blocks of limestone: 33 feet.
d = Lower (crystalline) stalagmite: 5 inches.
é = Bed of sand and pebbles: 8 to 12 inches.
x shows the position of the human skeleton: 1=Skull ; 2=Pelvis ;
3—=Femurs; 4=Tibia ; 5=Humerus.
The skeleton was found at the junction of these two fissures. The
surface-accumulation had been removed, the stalagmitic crust—here
342 MR. H. N. DAVIES ON THE DISCOVERY OF [Aug. 1904,
5 inches thick—had been cut through ; and a large quantity of cave-
earth and great blocks of stone from the central part of the fissure
had been cleared away in making a deep trench for the drain-piping,
when 2 feet below the under-surface of the stalagmite, the human
skull (Pl. X XIX) was brought to light. It was taken out in pieces,
but so carefully that there was no difficulty in putting it together
again. The rest of the skeleton was then unearthed ; and the bones
of an arm and a leg, some ribs, and a part of the pelvic girdle were
removed.
Fortunately, it occurred to Mr. A. G. Gough to allow the other
bones to remain in situ, so that the section (as in fig. 4, p. 340) is now
preserved for future reference. One shin-bone touched the bottom-
layer of the stalagmite and was encrusted ; the other bones were in
the earth. The skull was lying in a slightly-lower position than
the pelvis and lower extremities, at the spot marked x in fig. 4.
The legs were drawn up, one of the arms bent so as to bring the
hand to the back of the head, and the whole position of the skeleton
such as would have been assumed by the body of a drowned man
swirled into its last resting-place by a rushing torrent.
Immediately below the head is another bed of stalagmite, more
crystalline than the top-bed, and about half the thickness, but this
is not continuous. The blocks of limestone seen in fig. 4 rise out
of this; some are rounded, others angular, and one is completely
encrusted with a thin coating of granular calcareous deposit. At
the bottom of the section, and beneath a lower bed of stalagmite, is
a thick bed of sand and large well-rounded pebbles.
I have made a careful examination of the human remains. The
cranium is of medium size, the sutures intricate, the roof of excep-
tional thickness (9 millimetres). The left malar bone and the nasal
bone are missing ; there is a big hole on the same side, which has
removed a portion of the parietal and temporal bones ; the front
portion of the upper maxillary has disappeared, carrying with it the
incisors. The lower jaw is perfect, with the exception of an injured
condyle and a missing molar ; it is very wide, measuring 11°65 centi-
metres from one condyle to the other, and is powerfully formed.
The frontal is receding, though not sufficiently so to make it an
important character of the face; and as a portion of the supra-
orbital elevation is gone, it can only be said to have been con-
siderable.
It will thus be seen that the face is much mutilated; but the
cranium certainly occupies a much higher plane than the Neander-
thal or Spy specimens, approximating very nearly to the form of the
Tilbury head described and figured in Owen’s ‘ Antiquity of Man’
1884, pp. 4-9 & pls. 1-11, and now exhibited in the Natural History
Museum, South Kensington.
The measurements, as correctly as they can be made, are:—
Maximum length=185 millimetres, maximum width=130 mm.,
giving a cephalic index of about 73. The extreme thickness of the
Vol. 60.] HUMAN REMAINS IN GOUGH’S CAVERN, CHEDDAR. 343
frontal bone (9 millimetres) has been already mentioned. The
amount of prognathism cannot be determined, but from the form of
the lower jaw it must have been a marked feature of the face. The
nasal aperture is narrow, the orbits large, and the general shape of
the skuil oval. The molar teeth are worn on the right side, but
the cusps remain well-preserved on the left. The lower canines
are much worn and rounded. Two of the phalanges have found
their way into the cranium, and are now cemented to the base of
the frontal bone at the back of the orbits.
The femur measures 173 inches in maximum length, and the
humerus 123 inches; and, using Dr. Beddoe’s formule, we obtain
from either of these measurements a height of a trifle over
© feet 5 inches.
The tibia has a peculiar section, fig. 6, no. 2(p.344). The angular
portion is very acute, the sides flat, and the widest part about
three-fourths back from the ridge. Its antero-posterior diameter is
38 millimetres, and the diameter at right angles to this, drawn
from the interosseous ridge, 20 mm.; so that the latitudinal index
is 526, which is exceedingly low. With the kind permission of
the Council of the Royal College of Surgeons, and the very valuable
help of Prof. Charles Stewart, F.R.S., I have been able to obtain
sections of the Tilbury tibia, an Andamanese, and anormal English
tibia. They are shown, together with the section of the tibia from
Cheddar, in fig. 6 (p. 344); and their measurements are set forth
in the following table :—
Transverse
| aes: |
| Palin ee diameter from Latitudinal |
I: yy tnterusscous index.
diameter. :
ridge.
| _ millimetres. millimetres. |
| Cheddar cave-earth ......... 38 20° fi eee
Tilbury fluviatile deposit ... 36 21 O83
| Andaman Islands, recent ... 26 17 653
|
| Normal English ..............- 31 24 | ‘Ti4
From the foregoing measurements it will be seen that the Cheddar
tibia is an extraordinary bone, being flatter and more platyenemic
than the Tilbury specimen, which is the next most extreme type
that I have seen, and is classed in the National Collection at South
Kensington, with a query, as Palzolithic.
The flint-flakes taken from the cave-earth of the vestibule 4
and the fissure g (fig. 1, p. 335) are beautifully patinated. Some
have only a central ridge; others have two, three, or even four
ridges. Many are rounded at one end, some at both ends; others
are pointed, but not by secondary working. Two appear to hive
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Vol. 60.] HUMAN REMAINS IN GOUGH’S CAVERN, CHEDDAR. 345
been intentionally serrated, but on the whole there is an absence
of distinct traces of secondary chipping or dressing. The flakes
must, many of them, have been more than 4 inches long. If
the form and workmanship of the implements shown in fig. 7 be
Fig. 7.—Flint-blades, borers, and scrapers, found in association with
human remains in the cave-earth of Gough’s Cavern.
k
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compared with those figured by G. & A. de Mortillet in their ‘ Musée
Préhistorique* 1881, pl. xix, figs. 120, 122, & pl. xxi, figs. 135-37,
139; with some blades from Kent’s Cavern shown in the British-
Museum Collection; and with a set obtained from Bryan Cave,
Torquay, shown in the British-Museum (Natural History) Collection
(all of which are classed as Paleolithic), their striking resemblance
to all these examples will be apparent.
Q.J.G.8. No. 239. 2%
346 MR. H. N. DAVIES ON THE DISCOVERY OF [ Aug. 1904,
The animal-remains found in the cave-earth of fissure g
belonged entirely to the horse; and all the hollow bones had
been splintered for the marrow. The proprietor assures me that
the bones and teeth of extinct mammals now placed in his col-
lection were found in the cave-earth of the vestibule. These
include Ursus speleus, Hyena spelea, Felis spelea, Rhinoceros ticho-
rhinus, Cervus megaceros (?), Equus caballus, etc. As, however, i
is impossible to fix the exact position of these finds in the cave-
earth, and as they were not met with in fissure g, I feel that the
mammalian remains must not be relied upon to determine the age
of the human remains found in another part of the cavern.
The leading features of this interesting discovery may be thus
summed up :—
1. The skeleton was found embedded in the cave-earth near its
upper surface.
2..A bed of stalagmite of a chalky and laminated character
covered the cave-earth, and both the cave-earth and
covering stalagmite of the fissure are identical '
and continuous with those of other parts of the
cavern.
3. Above the stalagmite-floor, which covered the cave-earth,
a more recent accumulation of earth had been formed.
4. Beneath the skeleton another bed of stalagmite. of a harder
and semicrystalline character, was found; and underneath
this a bed of sand and well-rounded pebbles.
5. The skeleton was in a cramped position, such as would be
assumed by a drowned man.
6. The fissure is narrow, and was completely choked with the
cave-earth and its under and upper beds of stalagmite.
The latter had never been disturbed, so that interment is
out of the question.
. The bones belonged to a man about 5 feet 5 inches in height,
with an exceptionally-thick dolichocephalic skull, slightly-
prognathous jaws, and rather prominent superciliary ridges.
8, Flint-knives, scrapers, and borers are plentiful in the cave-
earth of the vestibule and of fissure g.
9. Bones and teeth of the horse only were found in the cave-
earth of the fissure; but the proprietors show teeth and
bones of extinct mammals, which they assert were taken
from the cave-earth in other parts of the cavern.
10. On comparing the form and workmanship of the flints and
the position in which they were found with those
figured by G. & A. de Mortillet in their ‘ Musée Préhistorique ’
1881, and classed by them as Solutréen and Magdalénien ;
and with specimens of undoubted Pleistocene age exhibited
in the British Museum, both at Bloomsbury and South
Kensington, as referred to previously : noting also that the
skeleton and implements were found in caye-earth under a
~J
Quart. JouRN. GEOL. Soc. Vot. LX, PL XXIX.
HUMAN SKULL FOUND IN GOUGH'S CAVERN, CHEDDAR.
Bemrose, Collo.
Vol. 60.) HUMAN REMAINS IN GOUGH’s CAVERN, CHEDDAR, 347
bed of calcareous deposit from 5 to 14 inches thick, I
conclude that the human remains are probably of late
Paleolithic age (Magdalénien of Mortillet), and that in
them we have a valuable addition to those of perhaps earlier
date found at Tilbury and Bury St. Edmunds, and the
undoubted Neolithic skeletons buried in the Perthi-Chwaren
caves or the barrows of Yorkshire and Wales.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIX.
Human skull found beneath the stalagmite-floor of Gough’s Cavern.
Fig. 1. Right side. Showing the prominent supra-orbital ridge and the
receding forehead ; also the peculiar forward direction of the mastoid
processes, which would seem to indicate that the neck was short and
thick.
2. Front view. The face is much mutilated, and filled with a concrete
of cave-earth and calcareous. cement, This view shows well the
regularity of the teeth in the lower jaw, and its extreme width.
3. Left side. The thickness of the frontal bone is well shown. Parts of
the cranium are still encrusted with calcareous and earthy material.
The lower jaw has become slightly twisted in this view,
DiscussIon.
The Rev. H. H. Wixwoop, while alluding to the value of such
discoveries as that so carefully described by the Author, gave his
reasons for doubting the great antiquity of the human remains.
In the first place, evidence of the association of the bones of the
extinct animals found in the cave-earth with the skeleton was
lacking ; secondly, he enquired whether the friable bed of carbonate
of lime overlying the bones, so friable that it crumbled at the
touch, was stalagmitic in the usual accepted sense ; and thirdly,
the flint-flakes found in the earth with the remains were (in his
opinion) of a distinctly-Neolithic type, and similar to many that he
had found on the surface of the neighbouring hills.
Prof. Boyp Dawkins said that the Fellows were extremely
indebted to the Author for putting on record the facts of this
interesting discovery. But it involved no more evidence of the
precise antiquity of the deposits than that brought forward from
many other caverns. Indeed, it was impossible to explore any
series of caverns in any part of this country without finding human
remains. Stalagmite was of practically no value as evidence for
age. In 1877 he (the speaker) examined the stalagmite of
Ingleborough Cave, previously examined by Prof. Phillips in 1845,
and he was able to determine the rate of accumulation of stalagmite
as being three-tenths of an inch per annum. It was true that
the flint-flakes exhibited appeared to be Neolithic, but such
implements were in use as late as the Bronze Age. The tibia
shown by the Author was, after all, but slightly platyenemic, and
platycnemism had no relation to race; it implied merely the free
use of the foot, confined at most in moccasins. The great majority
of Neolithic skeletons possessed a platycnemic tibia. Nor was the
Za Z
348 HUMAN REMAINS IN GOUGH’S CAVERN, CHEDDAR. | Aug. 1904,
’ He 5
skull older in type than Neolithic, and the stature inferred by
the Author was very near the normal stature of the Neolithic
Iberic population of this country. Statements in regard to the
antiquity of man must always be scrutinized with the narrowest
possible criticism.
Mr. W. Date said that, as a collector of flint-implements for
many years, he naturally gravitated towards those on the table as
soon as he entered the room, and at once made up his mind that
they belonged to the Neolithic Age, and late in that period. Indeed
some of the long and skilfully-struck flakes were exactly similar to
those often found associated with relics of the Bronze Age.
‘The: AurHor thanked the speakers’ for their criticism ofvhis paper.
In reply to Mr. Winwood, he referred to the mass ‘of ‘calcareous
deposit of travertine-like nature, which ‘lay ‘on the table, and which
the Author had himself suggested to have been more rapidly;formed
than the lower true stalagmite.: The’ flints might. be» Neolithic
in appearance, although they were certainly not surface- flints, but
found in the cave- earth, of whatever age that might be. Reply’ ing
to Prof. Boyd Dawkins, the ‘Author agreed that. platy cnemism was
not a characteristic of race, and that well-struck flints might be of
late Neolithic Age; but, referring again to their presence in the
cave-earth under. a stalagmitic floor, ad to their close resemblance
to the’ blades and borers found under the same conditions ‘and
classed by Mortillet and others as Magdalénien, he thought that his
suggestion of a late Paleolithic or very: early Neolithic date for
these flints was more agreeable’to the facts ;and,.if that were so,
the human remains found with them must be of the sameage.
Vol. 60.] | NON-SEQUENCE BETWEEN KEUPER AND RHXTIC. 349
23. The Evipence for a Non-Sequence between the Kuvprr and
Ruztic Serres ix Norru-West GLovucestERSHIRE and WoRcEs-
TERSHIRE. By Linspatt Ricwarpson, Esq., F.G.8S. (Read
June 8th, 1904.)
[Mar on p. 350. ]
Duvriné my investigations of the Rhetic Series in Worcestershire
and North-West Gloucestershire, the results of which are in part
chronicled in the ‘ Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field-
Club’? and in the ‘ Geological Magazine, * two facts were most
noticeable. The first was that above a particular bed in the Rheetic
Series the remaining component deposits were remarkably per-
sistent ; while the second was that below that stratigraphical
horizon such persistency was not found. The stratigraphical horizon
referred to is that of the well-known Bone-Bed of the sections at
Aust and Garden Cliffs, and of the less-known Bone-Beds at Wainlode
and Sedbury.
The stratigraphical details may be dealt with first. In most of
the sections in Worcestershire a massive bed of sandstone is the
equivalent of the thin pyritic Bone-Bed which is so crowded with
vertebrate-remains at Garden Cliff, and the contemporaneity of
these deposits might be at first doubted. Wainlode Cliff, however,
furnishes the clue to the whole question, for in that cliff-section
may be observed the change from a thin pyritic stratum (only
an inch or so thick) to a micaceous sandstone-bed, usually
devoid of vertebrate-remains, and about a foot thick. The latter
development, however, contains in some abundance those equivocal
easts to which the name of Pullastra arenicola has been so trequently
applied; and also a broad form of what appears to be Modiola
minima—but only as obscure casts. The point, however, to which
attention is particularly directed is the gradual transition between
the two varieties of the Bone-Bed. Below, and separating the
Bone-Bed from the ‘Tea-Green Marls’ of the Upper Keuper, is
a deposit of Black Shale 2 feet thick. The line of junction of
the shale with the Keuper Marl may be described as sharply
defined, and only very rarely is there an extremely-thin deposit of
arenaceous matter intervening between the two formations. At
Norton, about 14 miies to the south-east by east of Wainlode, there
is a section in a lane-cutting 300 yards north-east of the church,
in which the Bone-Bed is seen as a stratum 15 inches thick,
with a few fish-remains and an occasional small quartz-pebble.
Black Shales, with a thickness of 16 inches, separate this bed
from the ‘Tea-Green Marls’: the line of demarcation between
the two being again sharply defined.
* Vol. xiv (1903) pp. 127-74, 251-56.
* Geol. Mag. 1903, pp. 80-82.
| A
Droitwich
Map |
to show the relationship f=
of the anticlinal & synclinal flexures {D unhampstead
noticed in this paper, to those —See—
of which there is evidence in the SC
Inferior-Oolite Series. : =
Worcester
+ > = : =
Croome D’Abitot:
R)
Bourne Bank
Q Upton-on-Severn
Pes Feath Hill
Berrow Hi!! oy =
R
Tewkesbury ————— ——
= == =
Coomb Hill- —
$ Lassington—— —Cheltenham-
Gloucester—
Vol. 60.] | NON-SEQUENCE BETWEEN KEUPER AND RH2XTIC. Bal
At Coomb Hill, near Cheltenham, the Bone-Bed is difficult to
find, but I have succeeded in discovering a typical development.
From the writings of H. E. Strickland also, it is known that the
lithic and faunal characters of the stratum here are similar to those
which may be noted at that end of Wainlode Cliff which is farthest
from the Red Lion Hotel; for, to quote that author, it
‘rarely exceeds an inch in thickness, and frequently thins out in short
distances to one-fourth of an inch or less. It consists chiefly of a dense mass
of scales, teeth, bones and sinall coprolites, cemented by pyrites, the golden
colour of which contrasts beautifully with the jet-black of the animal-remains.’*
The fragments, Strickland noticed, ‘have evidently been subjected
to a gentle mechanical action,’ as they often present ‘broken and
worn surfaces.’
In the shallow cutting through which the Tewkesbury-and-
Ledbury road passes at Sarn Hill, near Bushley, the Bone-Bed-
equivalent is a massive stratum of yellowish micaceous sandstone,
14 inches thick, and is separated by 2 feet 8 inches of Black
Shale from the ‘Tea-Green Marls,’ with a sharply-defined line
of junction.
At Bourne Bank, near Defford (Worcestershire), the Bone-Bed-
equivalent resembles that at Bushley, but is here 2 feet thick,
and is devoid of vertebrate-remains. In a ‘ Postscript to the
Memoir on the Occurrence of the “‘ Bristol Bone-Bed ” in the Neigh-
bourhood of Tewkesbury,’ Strickland brought forward evidence to
show that an ossiferous development of this Bone-Bed-equivalent
was passed through by a shaft sunk on Defford Common, about
half-a-mile to the east of the escarpment.* Pieces of this bed
brought to the surface yielded to Strickland his ‘ Pullastra
arenicola, and teeth, scales, and coprolites of fishes. The actual
junction of the Keuper and Rhetic Series cannot be seen at Bourne
Bank; but, in a road-cutting about 2% miles to the north, the
deposit intervening between the Bone-Bed-equivalent and the
Keuper Marls is seen to be 2 feet 10 inches thick. The Bone-Bed-
equivalent here is similar to that at Bourne Bank, and is exposed
for a thickness of 13 inches, but that is not its total thickness; the
section then becomes obscured, and the details are doubtful.
The most important section now open in Worcestershire is at
Crowle. Here, instead of the sequence, ‘Tea-Green Marls,’ Black
Shale, Bone-Bed-equivalent, we have, in ascending order, ‘ Tea-
Green Marls,’ Sandstone (with a little shaly matter intercalated
near the base), shales, and Bone-Bed-equivalent. The deposit of
sandstone above the ‘ Tea-Green Marls’ is therefore an addi-
tional deposit, and has come in between this locality and the
section near Croome D’Abitot. Indeed, it has come in between the
farm called Muckenhill and Croome D’Abitot, for in the farm-
yard it is seen resting upon the ‘Tea-Green Marls,’ and similar
phenomena are to be observed at Churchill Wood, near Spetchley.
? [Sir W. Jardine] ‘ Memoirs of H. E. Strickland ’ 1858. p. 155.
* Ihid. p. 160.
302 MR. RICHARDSON ON NON-SEQUENCE BELWEEN [ Aug. 1904,
It may be as well to mention here that had the term ‘ Bone-Bed’
been applied to any bed yielding vertebrate-remains, then in the
Crowle section the series of sandstone-layers alternating with
shale, and 20 inches above the Bone-Bed-equivalent, would have
had to have been thus denominated. But the deposit (Bed 15)
is frequently seen to be of ‘Bone-Bed’ nature, especially at
Denny Hill, near Gloucester, and in places in the Garden-Cliff
section.
The section in the railway-cutting at Dunhampstead shows
the same sequence of deposits as the Crowle exposure, together
with higher beds; but from the account of this section given
by Mr. W. J. Harrison, F.G.S., and my own observations, there
seems to be little doubt that the Rhetic rocks are thicker
here than at any other locality in Worcestershire; this
is certainly the case with the beds that are visible. The Bone-
Bed-equivalent at Dunhampstead is a massive bed, with a maximum
thickness of 30 inches.
About 7 miles across country, in a south-easterly direction, is an
exposure at Abbots (Hob) Lench, where it is important to note
that, instead of a sandstone-bed resting upon the ‘ Tea-Green Marls,’
the Bone-Bed-equivalent itself (14 inches thick) is seen to be
separated by a deposit of shale, only about 28 inches thick, from
the Keuper Marls. This means that the sandstone-bed, which at
Dunhampstead was seen resting directly upon the Keuper Marls,
is absent here. As I have elsewhere stated,’ this Bone-Bed-equi-
valent partakes of the nature of a true Bone-Bed in this village ;
for, from a well sunk here, were obtained pieces of typical pyritic
rock charged with fish-scales and some other vertebrate-remains.
At Marl Chiff, on the borders of Worcestershire and Warwick-
shire, a thin layer of sandstone (with a few fish-scales, and but
an inch thick) is the Bone-Bed-equivalent, and is separated from
the ‘ Tea-Green Marls’ by 2 feet of Black Shale ; a state of affairs
somewhat similar to that noted at one part of Wainlode Cliff.
Concerning the Bone-Bed of Worcestershire, Strickland wrote :
‘It appears, however, that this stratum, which in East Devon, Somerset, and
Gloucestershire is so highly charged with organic remains, loses its ossiferous
character when we enter Worcestershire. Its identity, however, is not lost ;
and when it is considered that from Axmouth on the south to Dunhamstead
on the north is a distance of about 112 miles, we have a remarkable instance of
the continuity of a very thin stratum over a great distance.’ *
Proceeding now from Wainlode Cliff in a more or less south-
westerly direction, the first section to be noted is in the railway-
cutting at Lassington. This section is now so much overgrown that
very little, and nothing definite, can be made out. W. C. Lucy’
stated that the ‘ Bone-Bed’ and ‘ paper-shales’ of Westbury are
absent, while the Rheetic Beds are represented by a band of
stone 6 inches thick, in which Pseudomonotis decussata occurs.
' Geol. Mag. 1903, p. 81.
* ‘Memoirs of H. E. Strickland’ 1858, p. 157.
3 Proc. Cotteswold Nat. F.-C. vol. viii (1886) pp. 216, 225.
Vol. 60.}. THE KEUPER AND RHZETIC IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE, ETC. ddd
- These details he observed when the cutting was in the course of
excavation. Mr. H. B. Woodward,’ however, states that ‘ dark
shaly marls,’ belonging to the Rhetic, are faulted against the
Keuper. The phenomena noted by Lucy, and explained by that
author as being due to the absence of certain deposits, may, of
course, be the result of a fault with some overthrust. I refrain
from mentioning the section further, than to express the hope that
if any sections of these beds are opened the fact will be at once
made known.
At Denny Hill, distant from Lassington a little over 4 miles, the
Bone-Bed is seen resting directly upon the ‘Tea-Green Marls.’
This section has been recently described in the ‘ Proceedings of the
Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field-Club’,? and from that record it will
be noticed that the several deposits there visible above the Bone-
Bed agree closely with the equivalent beds at Garden Cliff. The
absence of the well-known ‘ Pullastra-Sandstones’ of Garden Cliff
is at once apparent; and, since at Denny Hill the Bone-Bed rests
directly upon the marls of the Keuper Series, it follows that 6 feet
5 inches* of Rhetic deposit—as seen below the Bone-Bed at
Garden Cliff—are absent here, and this thickness is, of course,
considerable when it is remembered that the true English Rheetic
seldom exceeds 35 feet in thickness.
At Chaxhill, about 2 miles south-west by west of Denny Hill,
the ‘Pullastra-Sandstones ’’ are present; the total thickness of the
deposit below the Bone-Bed and above the Keuper Marls is 7 feet
2 inches*; a slight increase really upon the Garden-Cliff section,
because of the more equal thickness of the several beds.
As the late Robert Etheridge, F.R.S., has written, it is probable
that
‘this chief Bone-Bed [No. 15 in my sections] was synchronously deposited over
the area it now occupies in the West and South-West of England.’ °
This ‘ chief Bone-Bed ’ is seen at Sedbury Cliff on the Severn, near
Chepstow, resting upon the ‘ Tea-Green Marls,’ with included rolled
fragments of that rock. The Aust and Sedbury sections, however,
are outside the district under consideration, and, moreover, it is
probable that a barrier of Palaeozoic rocks intervened between them
and the Garden-Cliff section. That such a barrier, more or less
continuous, must have existed in early Rhetic times is shown by
the Rhetic Beds resting upon the Carboniferous Limestone in
Tortworth Park,® and evidence of land in the same epoch is to be
had in the railway-cutting at Lilliput, near Yate. If, then, as
seems most probable, a Paleozoic barrier separated the Aust gulf
from the stretch of water about Garden Cliff, it may supply an
answer in the affirmative to Etheridge’s statement that the strata
* Mem. Geol. Sury.: ‘The Jurassic Rocks of Britain’ vol. iii (1893) ‘The
Lias’” p. 141. ’
2 Vol. xiv (1903) p. 254.
3 Maximum, 7 feet 9 inches. * Maximum, 7 feet 8 inches.
> Proc. Cotteswold Nat.-F.-C. vol. iii (1865) p. 224.
® Tbid. p. 234. ie ck ;
do4 MR. RICHARDSON ON NON-SEQUENCE BETWEEN [ Aug. 1904,
now exposed in the sections at Aust and Westbury ‘must have
been deposited in a different area, and open to another sea or
estuary.’ !
In the foregoing record of certain stratigraphical details, frequent
reference has been made to the Bone-Bed or Bone-Bed-equi-
valent. That term has been employed for the want of a better.
By the use of this denomination I do not imply that the stratum is
necessarily crowded with vertebrate-remains : it happens to be so at
Garden and Wainlode Cliffs and Coomb Hill in the district under
review ; hence the reason why it has been made use of to indicate
the equivalent deposit in other localities, even if that equivalent
does not contain vertebrate-remains. J am inclined to think that
this Bone-Bed (15) was accumulated slowly. At Aust and Sedbury
Cliffs it is conglomeratic, and might at first sight appear to have
been formed somewhat rapidly, but the deposit at these localities
is a littoral accumulation. In the Black Shales which were laid
down during the contorta-age, fish-remains as a rule are not
abundant ; and I am inclined to agree with Strickland’s idea that
‘this great continuity of extent [of the Bone-Bed], combined with the pro-
digious abundance of organic remains in some parts of this stratum, render it
probable that a much longer period may have elapsed during its deposit than
in the case of an equal thickness of the less fossiliferous clay-beds above and
HelOW.u. Ste ie Generations of fishes and saurians may have added their remains
to the common mass, while from the clearness of the water, or from the
existence of a gentle current which prevented the deposit of muddy particles,
scarcely any mineral matter was added to the bottom of the sea.’ ”
Now, as a rule, the fish-remains in the Bone-Bed at Wainlode Cliff
occur in regular layers, and are very evenly distributed: the rock
being fissile, and in all respects resembling a deposit which was
formed slowly. But the bed, which is about an inch thick at one
end of Wainlode Cliff, took the same time in its formation as the
30 inches of sandstone at Dunhampstead.
Accumulations of vertebrate-remains or ‘ Bone-Beds’ occur at
different horizons in the Lower Rhetic Stage; for example, the
‘ Bone-Bed’ at Crowle, near Worcester, is Bed 13; at Wainlode
Cliff and Coomb Hill, Bed 15; at Denny Hill, Bed 13; while at
Garden Cliff there are at least four deserving of the name. More-
over, the Pecten-Beds (7 & 55) are often full of vertebrate-remains,
so much so that the bed distinguished in my record as 56 at
Wainlode Cliff was noticed by Strickland as ‘a second ossiferous '
bed.’ The stratum which has been distinguished as 15 in com-
munications made to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field-Club, and
that dealing with Sedbury Cliff to this Society, may at first sight
appear to occupy different horizons, but this is only if the several
sections be studied from the base upward.
There is always some difficulty in correlating the various sections,
because of the want of fossils known from investigations over large
1 Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc. vol. iii (1870-71) pt. ii, p. 47.
>
> «Memoirs of H. E. Strickland’ 1858, pp. 157, 158.
Vol. 60.] THE KEUPER AND RHA&TIC IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE, ETC. 355
_ tracts of country to characterize definite horizons ; but the Estheria-
and Pecten-Beds are fairly persistent; and it is best in correlating
the sections to find these horizons first, and with their aid it will
be seen that down to Bed 15 the sections admit of satisfactory
correlation. In some sections the Bone-Bed does not occur at all,
possibly because the surface of the Keuper Marls, or the rock
composing the land-surface at the time of its formation, was not
sufficiently submerged.
Down to Bed 15, then, the various sections can be correlated
almost bed for bed, and the contemporaneity of deposits which
admit of such exact correlation seems most probable. But below
Bed 15 we have in one locality no Rhetic deposit, in another as
much as between 7 and 8 feet.
The writings of our foremost geologists on questions of historical
geology show that the Keuper ‘Epoch closed with a scene of arid
wastes and an inland sea reduced to slowly-shrinking lakes ; lakes
with surrounding land which, I think, was once formed under the
waters of the more extensive Keuper sea. Then, as Mr. A. J.
Jukes-Browne has written,
‘the epoch of the Avicula-contorta zone marks the time when the depression had
proceeded so far as to submerge the lowest tract of land which lay between the
great salt-lakes and the widespreading southern ocean.’?
Now, may not the same forces which caused the depression in the
south-east have affected the Keuper rocks and thrown them into
slight anticlinal and synclinal flexures? A few lakes would still
remain, but with their outlines somewhat modified by these earth-
movements.
Mr. 8. 8. Buckman, F.G.S., has indicated the axes of certain
anticlines and synclines in the Inferior-Oolite Beds of the Mid-
and North Cotteswolds among other regions. Such flexuring caused
the Bajocian Denudation, and there is moreover evidence to show
that flexuring along practically the same lines of weakness took place
about the middle of the Harpoceratan Age or in early Ludwigian
times (post-Lilli, pre-scissi). Also earth-pressures were at work
during the hemera concavi. It seems reasonable to suppose that
the Liassic rocks might have been similarly affected long before the
epoch in which the Inferior-Oolite Beds were laid down: indeed,
Mr. Buckman has remarked that the Lias in the Dundry area ‘ was
laid down on a constantly-moving surface.’ *
Certain of the anticlinal and synclinal axes noticed by Mr. Buck-
man in his description of the causes and effects of the Bajocian
Denudation may be now mentioned. The most important anticline
is along the Moreton Valley, and if the line of elevation be produced
in a northerly direction it will be found to coincide with the Pennine
axis. A synclinal.axis is noticeable at Cleeve Hill; an anticline
at Birdlip; and a syncline again between Stroud and Painswick.
* «The Building of the British Isles’ 2nd ed. (1892) p. 222.
* Proc. Geol. Assoc. voi. xvii (1902) p. 153.
396
MR. RICHARDSON ON NON-SEQUENCE BETWEEN
[Aug.1904,
Church Lawford—where the Rhvetic Black Shales, according to
.—NSection showing the relationship of the Rhetic deposits below the Bone-Bed to the Keuper Marts.
)
12.
F
S.E.by E.
N.N.E.: N.W.by W,
S.S.W.(approximate)
JID FPIN-----
yous] s3oqqy----
yueg ouimog----
JID epoyure p----
ao
o oo
uoyVIng x
he
% O
is]
~
>A
‘ %
Whats
l \
1 N
l \
lin be aay
! re
Il 3
i —
i—
I!
HES
tm
Ley)
o
x
BND so
-
-
Paleozoic Rocks
sa
ee a) ee aR
Horizontal Scale, 1 inch
-
10 miles (about).
Mr. H. B. Woodward, are absent
—is situated near the Moreton-
Pennine anticline ; Dunhamp-
stead ana Crowle—where the
- greatest thickness of the Rheetic
4 feet.
Vertical Scale, % inch
Series obtains in Worcestershire
—are situated on a continuation
of the Cleeve-Hill synclinal axis
(see map, fig. 1, p. 350); and
the Birdlip anticlinal axis makes
in the direction of Lassington.
This is remarkable, but, as
already stated, it is not desirable
that the Lassington section be
discussed forthe present purpose:
the Denny- Hill section, however, ©
shows for certain that there is
an anticline in this neighbour-
hood. Again, between Pains-
wick and Stroud a synclinal
flexure is noticeable in the
Inferior-Oolite rocks, and, what
is more, it will be observed that
it follows somewhat closely upon
the Birdlip anticline. Such is
the case in the Rhetic also
at Denny Hill there is evidence
of the proximity of an anticline,
while at Chaxhill—but 24 miles
distant—there is very striking
evidence of a syncline.
To sum up, then, it will be
noticed that — confining our
attention to the rocks of
North-West Gloucestershire and
Worcestershire — there is evi-
dence to suggest that there were
earth-pressures at work at the
close of the Keuper Epoch, which
caused the deposits to be thrown
into shght synclinal and anti-
clinal flexures. In the depressed
areas the earlier deposits of the
Rhetic were laid down, and
successive overlap on to the marls
seems to have taken place (fig. 2).
Unfortunately, the products of
the Rheetic Beds that are of economic importance are not numerous:
Vol. 60.}] THE KBUPER AND RHZTIC IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE, ETC. 397
consequently, sections by quarrying and mining are few in number:
river-cliffs, railway- and lane-cuttings afford the best exposures.
If there were anything like half the number of sections that are
obtainable in the Inferior Oolite of the Cheltenham district, this
theory, I venture to think, would have had more facts to support
it. At one time I was inclined to believe that—allowing, of
course, for unequal deposition—the several beds of the Rhetic
Series seen below the Bone-Bed had been deposited over the greater
part of England; but that subsequent to their deposition they had
been thrown into slight synclines and anticlines, and that after
the anticlines had suffered erosion the Bone-Bed was deposited non-
sequentially over the whole. This view I now consider improbable.
In my opinion, the evidence obtainable suggests that it was the
Keuper_deposits which were thus affected ; and_in immediate pre-
Rheetic times. According to. my theory, when the Rhetic ocean
gained ¢ecéss ‘to’ the British area~it-spredd over an undulating ex-
panse of Keuper Marls. In some areas, however, it has been stated,
lakes probably existed, and it would be in these areas that the
complete sequence from the Keuper to Rheetic deposits should be
looked for. The section of depositsformed under the conditions stated
would be essentially of transitional nature, as at Watchet ; but where
the Rhetic ocean spread over the surrounding ground a non-sequence
would result. Thus, at the present time, the junction-line would
appear sharply defined; there would be no transitional signs, and
practically no erosion. As the area sank gradually the Rheetic ocean
slowly encroached upon the land-surface, and successive overlaps and
oversteps resulted. The lower deposits of the Rheetic Series now ex-
posed at Garden Cliff and Chaxhill appear to have been laid down in
a relatively much-depressed area between the Paleozoic barrier and
the anticline, somewhere in the Denny-Hill and Lassington district.
If sufficient sections had been obtainable between Chaxhill and
Denny Hill, this successive overlap should have been observable.
It seems probable that it was during the formation of the Bone-
Bed that the greatest overlap took place. In the sections at New
Clifton (Bristol), and again in the railway-cutting at Lilliput, the
Bone-Bed is seen to encroach considerably upon what was, at one
time in the Rheetic Epoch, land composed of Paleozoic rocks. The
‘Tea-Green Marls’ of Sedbury Cliff do not appear to have been
submerged until the time when the Bone-Bed was formed; and
such would appear to be the case with many sections in the Bristol
district also. The Keuper Marls of Gold Cliff, near Newport, may
have been submerged about this time, for into their fissured surface
J. E. Lee noted that Bone-Bed material had been washed.' A
certain amount of littoral action is shown by the formation of a
conglomerate such as that at Aust and Sedbury Cliffs. At Denny
Hill the Bone-Bed contains small pieces of derived marl.
There is one other point to which I would direct attention. At
1 Rep. Brit. Assoc. (Brighton, 1872) Trans. Sections, p. 116; and ‘ Note-book
of an Amateur Geologist ’ 1881, p. 72 & pls. elxxi-elxxii.
358 NON-SEQUENCE BETWEEN KEUPER AND RH TIC. [ Aug. 1904,
those localities where the distribution of the infra-Bone-Bed
deposits indicates elevation of the Keuper Marls in immediate pre-
Rheetic times, it is noticeable that there is a non-sequence at the
base of the Lias, At Sedbury Cliff, a locality where the Keuper
Marls were not wholly submerged until Bone-Bed times, a bed of
conglomerate separates the basal Liassic deposits from the Rhetic ;
at Lassington there is a remanié-bed ; and in Warwickshire—in a
region affected by the movements along the Pennine-Moreton anti-
clinal axis—the ‘ Guinea-Bed’ points to a non-sequence. Indeed,
to quote Mr. H. B. Woodward, near Church Lawford
‘Tt is not improbable ... . that there was some irregular overlap of the
Rhetic Beds, accompanied by reconstruction of some layers, during the
changing conditions that ushered in the Lower Lias.’
1 Mem. Geol, Surv. ‘The Jurassic Rocks of Britain, vol. iii (1893) The
Lias’ p. 15).
Vol. 60. ] PLESIOSAURUS FROM WESTBURY-ON-SEVERN. 359
24. On a sMALL PLESIOSAURUS-SKELETON from the WuHitTE Liss of
WESTBURY-ON-SEVERN. By Winrour FRepDprick GWINNELL,
Esq., F.G.S. (Read June 8th, 1904.)
[ Abstract. |
THE remains described were found on the Severn beach at Easter
1904, and had evidently fallen recently from the cliff above, which
is there made up of the Upper Rheetic Beds, including the Lstheria-
Bed and the White Lias Limestone. The matrix of the specimen
corresponds with the White Lias in colour, texture, and material,
and it is similarly traversed by fissures often coated with dendrites.
The remains are in excellent preservation, ueither pyritized nor
appreciably carbonized, as is so usual in ‘ Bone-Bed’ specimens.
They include more than twenty small dorsal vertebra, with spinous
and transverse processes, lying in natural sequence. Pseudomorphs
in calcite of the spinal cord and intervertebral cartilages occur also
in relative position. Several slender ribs, and indications of other
bones (probably from the pectoral or pelvic arches), also occur in the
slab, but are not yet worked out. Hitherto only single vertebre
or fragmentary bones of Plestosaurus have been recorded from the
Rheetics in Britain, and these only from the bone-beds below the
White Lias. At present, it has not been found possible to assign
the fossil to any existing species, but the characters most nearly
approach those of Plestosaurus bibractensis.
The specimen has been presented to, and accepted by, the British
Museum (Natural History).
360 MR. W. G. FEARNSIDES ON UPPER GAULT [Aug. 1904,
25. On the OccuRRENCE of a Limestone with Upper Gavtt Fossits
at BARNWELL, neav CamBripee. By WitiiaAm Grorcr Frarn-
sipEs, Esq., M.A., F.G.S. (Read May 25th, 1904.)
In the course of a recent examination of the great Gault-pit worked
by the Cambridge Brick Company, Ltd., at Barnwell, my atten-
tion was drawn to an unusual and inconstant hard bed which is
occasionally met with in the lowest part of the pit.
On examination, the hard material was found to consist largely
of comminuted Jnoceramus-fragments, with occasional ammonites
and other shells, and a careful search in this and the adjoining
clay proved them to be quite fossiliferous. Unfortunately, the
specimens obtained are only fragmentary, but as they seem to
indicate a horizon higher than any yet recorded from the Cam-
bridgeshire Gault,’ they may perhaps be worthy of record.
The section now seen is as follows, in descending order :—
Thickness
in feet.
(1) Surface-soil, with gravel and Chalk-Marl, disturbed in the former } 1hiode
working of the Cambridge Greensand. ° ;
(2) Dull leaden-grey clay, which on drying becomes more creamy \
and very pale. This is generally almost devoid of determin- |
able fossils except Plicatula, but contains a few scattered } 39
phosphate-nodules, marcasite-concretions, and pieces of car- |
bonized wood. y
(3) Compact, well-jointed, homogeneous clay of a distinct ig
colour, containing large but undeterminable ammonites of
the rostratus- or Bouchardianus-type; also occasional sharks’ {
teeth and lamellibranch-shells. |
(4) The Hard Band, with numerous specimens of Jnoceraimus,
Schlenbachia varicosa, Terebratula biplicata, sharks’ teeth, + Oto 1
and many phosphate-nodules.
(5) Very blue, well-laminated clay, with abundant fragments et ee
fossils and many pale phosphate-nodules.
oo
Of these, the three lowest divisions are the most interesting, and
nearly all the fossils come from the beds (4) and (5). The Hard
Band (4) is extremely variable in thickness. It occurs in a series of
flattened lenticles, generally a few yards in diameter and up toa
foot in thickness. It is largely made up of broken shells and
phosphate-nodules, with a few bone-fragments and extraneous
pebbles of mud, and is harsh to the touch. Some of the ammonites
and Inocerami are very large, and specimens of the latter 3, 4, and
even 5 inches across are not uncommon.
Petrologically, the Hard Band is best described as a somewhat
muddy shell-limestone. It contains abundant phosphate-nodules,
1 See Mem. Geol. Surv. ‘The Cretaceous Rocks of Britain, vol. i (1900)
The Gault & Upper Greensand of England’ p. 287.
Vol. 60. j LIMESTONE AT BARNWELL, 361
of which at least three types occur: these we may distinguish as
the green, the pale, and the dark-brown.
The green nodules are more or less irregular, subcylindrical
lumps of phosphatized mud. They enclose no obvious shell-frag-
ments, and never contain more than about 10 per cent. of calctum-
phosphate. They seem to represent mud-pebbles deposited among
the shells, and have probably become phosphatized in situ.
The pale nodules (which are sometimes yellow, sometimes
brown) are yery similar in structure to the green, but contain a
much greater proportion of calcium-phosphate, generally about 35 to
40 percent. ‘They are very irregular in shape, but are never obviously
rolled. A few seem to be the internal casts of shells now destroyed.
The dark-brown nodules are less common; they differ from
the others in that they have well-rounded shapes, and appear to have
been derived from older beds. They are much richer in phosphates
than any of the others, analysis showing something more than
50 per cent. of calcium-phosphate. ‘They are often bordered with
material like that of the pale nodules, and contain no determinable
fossils.
Under the microscope, the rock * is seen to be made up of more or
less recognizable shell-fragments. About one-half of it consists of
the fibrous calcite-prisms characteristic of Jnoceramus. Forami-
nifera are also very abundant, and many forms occur. Globigerina,
Miliola, Nodosaria, and Textilaria are the most prominent genera.
As usual, they have the chambers filled with calcite, which is in
erystalline continuity with the test, and so shows the usual black
cross exceedingly well. Characteristic fragments of various other
lamellibranchs, brachiopods, small gasteropods, echinoids, and
crustacea are recognizable, but form only a small proportion of the
whole. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. liv (1898) pp. 175 & 174, thin slice No, 431.
2 Ibid. pp. 169 to 182.
Vol. 60. | QUARIZITE-DYKES IN MOUNTAIN-LIMESTONE. 307
IIL. Srzica PRESENT IN TWO ForRMs.
From the foregoing description, it appears that the silica is present
in the limestone in two forms, which have had an entirely-different
origin. The one, similar to that in the quartzose limestone previously
described by me as occurring in various parts of the Mountain-Lime-
stone area of the county ; and the other associated with felspar and
mica, sometimes forming a calcareous grit, at others a quartzite.
In the former case, the quartz occurs in isolated crystals and crys-
talline aggregates and in small veins or strings in the limestone ;
in the latter, it occurs in dyke-like masses, which mainly consist of
detrital and angular grains.
It may be convenient to refer briefly to sandstone-dykes which
have been previously described. The references to them have been
obtained from Sir Archibald Geikie’s ‘Text-Book of Geology,’ 4th
ed. vol. i (1903) pp. 665-67 :—
(z) In Ross-shire narrow rifts or cracks in Lewisian Gneiss have been filled
with Torridonian conglomerate and sandstone.
(4) Dykes of hard fossiliferous sandstone traverse the Neocomian clays of
Alatyr, in Russia. These clays are supposed to have been rent open by a
submarine earthquake, and filled up with deposits from the sea-floor.
(¢) InColorado a series of sandstone or quartzite-dykes traverse a pre-Cambrian
granite. Mr. W. O. Crosby suggests that the fissures were formed at the time
of the production of the great fault of Ute Pass, and that they were filled
with sand from the overlying Potsdam Sandstone.
(dZ) In Northern California Mr. J. S. Diller found dykes of impure quartzose
sandstone intersecting Cretaceous sandstones and shales along lines of joint,
and suggested that they represented earthquake-fissures filled in with sand
rapidly injected from below. .
(¢) Mr. E. Greenly described some sandstone-pipes in limestone in Anglesey,
descending from a bed of sandstone into a limestone.
LV. OrreIn oF THE QUARTZITE-DYKES IN THE
Livestone-LNiier.
The detrital form of the quartz-grains and the slight traces of
bedding seen in one of the dykes indicate that the quartz, mica,
and felspar were introduced into the limestone-fissures from above.
According to the Geological-Survey Map, the Keuper Mar! rests upon
the limestone in the neighbourhood of the quarry. The sections seen
in the quarries seem to indicate that this mapping is correct. In
trying to find an explanation of the origin of these quartzite-dykes
in the limestone, I examined the neighbourhood of the quarry for
sections of Keuper rocks in the year 1901. At Marston-Common Farm,
1200 yards south-west of the quarry, I found that a well was being
sunk for water. It was started in Keuper Marl, went through 8 or
10 yards of it and 21 yards of a very hard grit or quartzite, which
was sometimes in thin laminz and at others contained small pebbles
of quartzite. At the time of my visit, the work had just been
abandoned, because of the absence of water. The information and
measurements were obtained from one of the men who were engaged
in the work. I made a selection of specimens of the quartzite from
the sinking, and examined several thin slices.
=
368 MR. H. H. ARNOLD-BEMROSE ON [Aug. 1904,
The rock is similar to the quartzite that occurs in the dykes in
the quarry. Shdes 1238 & 1239 consist of quartz in a mosaic of
granitic structure, with a small quantity of mica and pebbles
of microcrystalline quartz (see Pl. XXXI, fig. 5). The laminated
quartzite (1249) shows the laminations better in a hand-specimen
than under the microscope, and contains more mica than 1238 &
1239. A thin slice of Nuneaton quartzite, compared with Marston
rock, was found to contain larger grains of quartz, but in other
respects to have a similar structure.
The failure to find water was probably because the sandstone-
grains were cemented by secondary silica, which had rendered the
rock impervious to water.
About 800 feet south of Marston-Common Farm is an old sand-
stone-quarry, on ground mapped as Keuper Marl by the officers of
the Geological Survey. From its position and from the fact that
the ground-surface is lower than that at the farm, we may infer that
the sandstone-beds are probably on the same horizon as the quartzite
found in the well. Two thin slices of this rock were examined
(1319 & 1820). They are similar to some of the quartzite-dykes in
the quarry. The rock consists mainly of an aggregate of quartz-
grains, with a small quantity of mica, and perhaps of felspar.
Some grains consist of microcrystalline quartz. (See Pl. XXXI,
fig. 6.)
VY. Concrvsions.
The Snelston inlier consists of massive beds of limestone with
occasional nodules of chert, and is unaccompanied by shales; 1t must,
therefore, belong to fhe main mass of the Mountain-Limestone,
though separated from it by a large synclinal basin. The quartzite
in the dykes is similar to the Keuper Sandstone in the immediate
neighbourhood of the limestone-inlier. It requires no great stretch
of imagination to suppose that the limestone, traversed by joints and
fissures, was covered by water in which the Triassic sandstones were
jaid down. ‘The angular and rounded grains of quartz, with the few
felspars and fragments of mica, were probably deposited in these
fissures, and solidified as dykes of sandstone. At a later period, the
silica was introduced which cemented these sandstone-dykes and
the sandstones at Marston-Common Farm into a quartzite, and
impregnated the limestone in such a way as to form a quartzose
limestone similar to the quartzose limestone near Bonsall, Castleton,
Ashover, and in other parts of the county.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXX & XXXI.
Puate XXX,
Quartzite-dykes in Mountain-Limestone near Snelston (Derbyshire).
Fig. 1. Four-inch dyke of quartzite, passing through the limestone in a vertical
direction near the centre of the figure.
2. Larger dyke of quartzite, 10 to 12 inches in diameter. The quarry-face
is aslickensided surface.
[Both figures represent an almost vertical face of the quarry-wall. |
QuaRT. JOURN. GEOL. ‘Soc, VoL. EX; “Pi. XXX:
ee % s
Hi. i B., Photo. | ae Derby.
QUARTZITE-DYKES IN MOUNTAIN-LIMESTONE,
NEAR SNELSTON (DERBYSHIRE)
*- ey ve
Ls aii a
A be
in iP
: 4
Quart. JOURN. GEOL. Soc. VoL. LX, PL. XXXI.
Fic. 1 x 50. Fig. 2 x 50.
Fic. 6 x 50.
¥Nign
H.A.B., Photomicro
| ; Bemrose, Colla
QUARTZITE IN MOUNTAIN-LIMESTONE AND KEUPER SANDSTONE.
Vol. 60.] QUARIZITE-DYKES IN MOUNTAIN-LIMESTONE, 369
PLATE XXXII.
[The figures were photographed by the Author from the microscope, under
polarized light with crossed nicols, and enlarged 50 diameters. |
Fig. 1. Thin slice (1316) from the 4-inch dyke shown in Pl. XXX, fig. 1.
See p. 365.
2. Thin slice (1318), showing the formation of secondary silica in optical
continuity with the rounded quartz-grains, from a second dyke. See
p. 565.
5. Thin slice (1285), quartz and felspar cemented by calcite, from a third
dyke, See p. 365.
4. Thin slice (1086), quartz and felspar, from a fourth dyke. See p. 365.
5. Thin slice (1238) from Marston-Common well: quartzite. A piece of
mica is seen near the centre of the figure. See p. 368.
6. Thin slice (1319) from the quarry south of Marston-Common Farm :
sandstone. See p. 368.
Discussion.
The Caatruan (Mr. H. B. Woopwarp) remarked that the subject
of sandstone-dykes had not been brought before the Society, except
incidentally, for more than 60 years—-when Strickland called
attention to the remarkable dykes of calcareous grit in Cromarty.
It was difficult to'say whether those particular dykes were filled from
above, or by hydrostatic pressure from below, as they were seen
only in plan and not in section. In some cases wind-drifted sand
might have filled fissures.
Prof. Jupp referred to the case in Cromarty which was supposed
by Murchison to be a ‘ trap-dyke’, but was afterwards shown by
Hugh Miller to be composed of sandstone and actually to
contain fossils. He suggested that the fissure might have been
formed by earth-movements or solution, subsequently to the
deposition of the Keuper Sandstone, but before its consolidation.
As the fissure was opened, the sand from above might gradually
find its way downward, and would at last be converted by soluble
silica, traversing the mass, into quartzite.
Mr. Srrawan remarked that he had described veins of quartzite
in the limestone of Flintshire.’ In the Talargoch Mine some of the
veins contained an impalpably-fine siliceous sand, which passed in
its unweathered state into a quartzite resembling that described by
the Author. Such deposits tended to fill any fissure or cavity
in the limestone, and might be derived from any overlying sand-
stone, whether a bed interstratified with the limestone or, as in
the case referred to, from the chert-beds of the Millstone-Grit. At
Talargoch there was no Keuper Sandstone overlying the limestone,
and he was not satisfied that the material described by the Author
had been derived from that formation.
The Rev. H. H. Wiywoop said that he was much interested in
the description of the ‘dykes’, a formation with which he was very
familiar in the Mendip district, where the joints in the Mountain-
Limestone were filled up by Liassic and Triassic deposits: these,
' *Geology of Rhyl, &.’ Mem. Geol. Surv. (1885) pp. 47-48.
27) MR. H. H. ARNOLD-BEMROSE ON [Aug. 1904,
being less easy to work than the adjoining limestone, were left by
the workmen in quarrying, standing out like walls. There could
not be any doubt that these joints had been filled in from above.
In a quarry near Chipping Sodbury these infillings assumed
a columnar form, and consisted of sandstone with white quartz-
pebbles, probably the result of the denudation of the Triassic sand-
stones which once covered the district and were washed in and
finally consolidated.
Mr. H. W. Moncxron complimented the Author on the beautiful
photographs of rock-faces shown upon the screen. He then referred
to the curious bands of hard calcareous sandstone which run through
the Kimeridge Clay at Ethie near Cromarty, and appear to be of
much the same nature as those described in the paper. The ‘ dike’
at Ethie is harder than the shale, and stands well above it on the
shore. It is probably an infilled crack or fissure in the shale ; for,
as the country-rock is (in that case) shale, the space occupied by
the ‘ dike’ cannot have been due to solution. The speaker thought
that the infilling had probably come from above, although he could
quite understand that such a ‘ dike’ might be formed by infilling
from below, somewhat on the principle of creep in coal-pits. He
did not think that the word ‘ dike’ should be confined to bands of
rock of igneous origin, for the word was a common one, and
in Scotland usually meant a wall. He thought that it was a good
term for the bands of rock in question.’
Prof. W. W. Warrs asked whether the Author had considered
the possibility of the dykes being of Millstone-Grit age. He had
examined examples of Millstone-Grit in which the secondary
growth of quartz was precisely similar to that described in the
paper. Prof. Sollas’s observations in Funafuti had shown that
the reef-limestone was seamed with deep fissures admitting sea-
water, and if the Carboniferous Limestone was formed under similar
circumstances, the oncoming Millstone-Grit would find the requisite
hollows for the formation of steep dykes such as those described by
the Author. The speaker had seen dykes of this nature, not only in
soluble rocks, but in quartzites like those of the Lickey Hills, and
in this case the dykes frequently contained Llandovery fossils.
Mr. Tratt referred to the dykes and veins of sandstone in the
Lewisian Gneiss of the North-Western Highlands, and pointed out
that they occurred at or near the junction of gneiss and Torridon
Sandstone. They were similar in petrological character to the
sandstone, and had no doubt been filled in from above.
Mr. J. Atten Howe remarked that, a few miles north of
Snelston, near Brassington, large pipes and fissures existed in the
limestone, containing a mixture of sands and clays of Keuper,
Bunter, Millstone-Grit, and possibly of Glacial origin. He asked
the Author whether the dykes described in the paper were in
any way related to the above deposits, an occurrence which seemed
not unlikely, considering their proximity to Snelston. The sand in
2 See, in confirmation of this, John Brand’s ‘Hist. of Newcastle’ vol. ii.
(1789) p. 679, note d.
oO,
Vol. 60. ] QUARIZITE-DYKES IN MOUNTAIN-LIMESIONE. O71
the pipes was frequently re-crystallized, and flakes of mica were
abundant. There was no doubt that the pipes had been filled
in from above. There were, however, certain features in the
Snelston outlier which appeared to present a parallelism to those
dyke-districts described by Diller, Crosby, and others, in which the
dykes had been filled by hydrostatic pressure from below; then,
Snelston was very near a minor earthquake-centre, and had clearly
been subjected to pressure resulting in a fracturing or buckling
of the strata. He suggested that the Author might notice whether
the mica-grains were lying parallel to the sides of the dykes, or at
right angles to them ; for it had been indicated by the American
investigators that the former position was characteristic of dykes
filled from below, while the latter position was the rule in dykes
filled trom above.
The Avruor thanked the Fellows for their reception of his paper.
He thought it more likely that the sandstone had been introduced
from above, than through several thousand feet of limestone from
below. Although the sand might possibly be of Millstone-Grit age,
the presence of Keuper Sandstone in the immediate neighbourhood
of the limestone-inlier probably indicated the true source of the
sand.
The pits in the limestone filled with sand, shale, and Bunter
pebbles, mentioned by the previous speaker, were very different
from the dykes or veins described by the Author. He hoped that
the facts described in his paper would one day be useful to some
geologist, who would be able to explain satisfactorily the origin
of sandstone-dykes in sedimentary rocks.
oi2 MR. J. V. ELSDEN ON THE AGE OF [Aug. 1904,
27. On the Age of the Liyn-Paparn Dyxes. By James VINCENT
Espen, Esq., B.Sc. (Lond.), F.G.8. (Read May 25th, 1904.)
[Puatn XXXII—Mrcroscorn-SEcrions. |
Il. Lyrropucrion.
Tne characters of the basic sills of Caernarvonshire have been
described in detail by several writers, notably by Mr. Harker in his
well-known essay on the Bala Volcanic Series. There is a marked
absence of dykes in association with the outbursts of this period,
aud the numerous basic dykes of this area have generally been
assigned to a later series of eruptions. The evidence upon which
this assumption rests is, however, not always satisfactory ; and
although Mr. Harker is inclined to favour their post-Carboniferous
age, he does not conceal the uncertainty of this conclusion in
several cases, and he adduces evidence which seems to point, at
least in some instances, to the possibility of the existence of more
than one group of these intrusions.’ Dr. C. A Matley, also, finds
that in Northern Anglesey at least two groups of dykes occur, of
which the earlier are pre-Silurian and the later post-Ordovician.”
But Mr. E. Greenly maintains that the later dykes of Anglesey,
including those of the Menai Straits, are certainly post-Carboni-
ferous, and may possibly be even of Tertiary age.’
With regard to the Llyn-Padarn dykes, with which this paper is
chiefly concerned, no very detailed description appears to have been
published, although several authors have incidentally referred to
them, as will be mentioned hereafter. It appears to have been
generally assumed that these dykes are of the same age as those of
the Menai Straits, to which they are supposed to bear a general
resemblance, both in petrographical character and in direction.
With regard to the former, however, this is by no means the case.
In the present paper it is proposed to examine this question in
detail, and to produce evidence which seems to suggest that the bulk
of the ‘ greenstone -dykes of this area belong to an earlier period
of eruption than has been generally assigned to them, and there is
proof that some of these ‘greenstones* may even be older than the
quartz-felsite of the Llyn-Padarn ridge. The greater part, however,
if not actually of Bala age, seem to have been intruded before
the great post-Bala crust-movements, which produced the folding
of the Lower Cambrian rocks of Llanberis, had entirely ceased.
At the same time, the evidence does not exclude the possibility that
some of the intrusions may be of a later date.
The evidence upon which these conclusions rests is based mainly
* On some Anglesey Dykes’ Geol. Mag. 1887, p. 409; & chid. 1888, p. 267.
~ ‘Geology of Northern Anglesey’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lvi (1900)
p. 249.
* *On the Age of the Later Dykes of Anglesey’ Geol. Mag. 1900, p. 160.
—
Vol. 60.1] THE LLYN-PADARN DYKES, 373
upon the signs which the intrusions exhibit of having been con-
siderably modified by earth-pressures, more especially in those
portions which protrude into the Cambrian strata. Petrographical
considerations, also, make it impossible to separate these rocks from
the diabase-sills of Bala age occurring farther to the south and
south-west of this area; and there is a strong presumption that
they represent the last residuum of the magma from which the Bala
sills were derived.
II. Fiecp-Evivence.
The greater part of the basic dykes of Llyn Padarn have a south-
easterly strike, and several of them penetrate both the older ridge
and the later Cambrian strata which abut upon it. Mr. Harker
has given very strong reasons for supposing that the ridge stood up
as a more or less firm buttress, against which the Llanberis Slates
and Grits were forced by the great south-easterly thrust which took
place after the commencement of the eruption of the Bala diabases.*
The duration of this thrust is uncertain, but there does not appear
to have been, in this area, any later movement of a magnitude
sufficient to cause such a structural alteration as these rocks exhibit
in certain parts.
A careful examination of these dykes discloses the fact that
whereas the north-western portions, which are enclosed in the older
rocks of the ridge, are comparatively free from dynamic meta-
morphism, this character gradually disappears as the dykes are
followed into the more yielding Cambrian grits and slates, where
they become structurally deformed, and often so highly sheared as to
become with difficulty recognizable as portions of the same dyke.
This feature is not confined to a few instances. It is shown in every
case that has come under my notice. Taking, for example, the long
dyke shown in the map (p. 376) south of Cwm-y-glo, this rock
preserves the character of a typical ophitic diabase, until near Gallod
it emerges into the Cambrian sediments. Here its course changes,
and it shows a curve concave to the south, as it winds upward to the
summit of Y Bigil. At the same time, the appearance of the rock
alters, its original structure being altogether obliterated by crushing,
and its sheared end has acquired an almost siaty cleavage.
Accompanying this structural alteration the mineralogical changes
are no less pronounced, as will be more fully detailed in another
section of this paper.
Similar features may be noticed in tracing the other dykes in
the two areas east and west of Llyn Padarn. The dykes in the
ridge on the western side of the lake show only the effects of
slight shearing and pressure-metamorphism, while those in the
sediments on the eastern side, about Fachwen and Yr Alt Wen,
are crushed almost beyond recognition. Not a single example of
the many exposures of ‘greenstones’ in the Cambrian sediments,
1 «Bala Volcanic Series of Caernarvonslire’ [Sedgwick Prize Essay for
1888] 1889, p. 114.
37 MR. J. V. ELSDEN ON THE AGE OF [Aug. 1904,
examined by me, failed to exhibit this character in greater or
less degree. It is, in fact, so distinctive, that specimens can often,
by the unaided eye, be at once assigned to one or the other of
these two regions.
An interesting exposure exhibiting these conditions has quite
recently been opened up at Llanberis, where blasting has taken
place in connection with an alteration in the road, about a quarter
of a mile to the south-west of Plas Coch. This occurs at the top
of the hill a little beyond the smithy, where a small ‘ greenstone ”-
intrusion, about 5 yards wide, is to be seen near the base of the
Lingula-Flags. (The same rock is visible in the bed of the Afon
Goch close at hand, but the course of the dyke is not visible
for any great distance.) Apparently the outcrop of this dyke runs
nearly parallel to the strike of the Zingula-Flags, which here
dip almost vertically ; yet, whether the intrusion is a dyke or sill
is not quite certain, although the evidence seems to favour the
former interpretation. It is here manifest that the igneous rock
has been powerfully affected by the crush which folded the sedi-
mentary rocks. ‘The southern side has been much broken and
faulted against the flags, while the northern contact is cleaner and
less crushed, a circumstance which might be expected when the
southerly direction of the thrust towards the north is borne in
mind. The whole mass of the igneous rock is greatly sheared,
becoming in places almost schistose, the fissures and shear-planes
thus produced being strongly marked by veins and coatings of silky
asbestos, some of which are nearly 2 inches wide, the asbestos-fibres
being arranged transversely to the walls of the fissures. The rock
itself is of a light greenish-grey colour, spotted with dark patches
of a chlorite-mineral. There is also much secondary calcite, with
fan-shaped bundles of epidote in the more weathered portions.
A quartz-epidote vein about 18 inches wide traverses the rock in
its lower portion near the road-level on the northern side. The
rock contains a good deal of pyrites, and the flags at the junction
are filled with cubes of this mineral, many of which have been
weathered out, or replaced by chloritic pseudomorphs. The petro-
graphical features of this rock will be referred to later.
The exposure in the Afon Goch is exactly similar to the foregoing,
and need not now be enlarged upon. There can be no sort of doubt
with regard to the age of this intrusion, which must have preceded
some part of the earth-movements connected with the post-Bala
folding. Previous observers have already called attention to the
effects of intense pressure upon the rocks on the southern margin
of the quartz-porphyry ridge. Sir Archibald Geikie describes basic
dykes near Llyn Padarn which have been converted into a slaty
rock by pressure.’ Similar sheared diabases have been noticed by
the Rev. J. F. Blake *; consequently, there appears to be cumulative
evidence that these ‘greenstones,’ if not actually intruded before the
period at which the curvature and compression of the region took
1 « Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain’ vol. i (1897) p. 162.
2 «On the Felsites & Conglomerates between Bethesda & Llanllyfni’ Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xlix (1893) p. 441.
—_—_
Vol. 60. | THE LLYN-PADARN DYKES. 375
place, were certainly injected before these great earth-movements
had died away.
To sum up the field-evidence on this point, we find in these
dykes unmistakable signs of dynamic metamorphism and de-
formation. It would not be expected that those portions of the
dykes which were firmly held in the Llyn-Padarn ridge would be
so profoundly affected by the post-Bala movements as those enclosed
in the more yielding sedimentary strata towards the south, and this
agrees precisely with what appears to have taken place. The pro-
gressive examination of these dykes from one extremity to the other
firnishes many interesting examples of the effects of varying degrees
of pressure- -metamorphism, to certain of which attention will shortly
be drawn.
It must not be supposed, however, that highly-sheared and altered
‘ greenstones’ do not.occur in the Llyn-Padarn ridge. I have found
several instances of these, and it is suggested that they may belong
to a still older group.
I do not prepose to reopen the controversy with regard to the
stratigraphical succession in this district, but taking ee conglo-
merates on either side of the Llyn- Padarn ridge as the base of Be
Cambrian, the evidence for the existence of pre- -Cambrian greenstones
will now be considered. Previous observers have called attention
to the occurrence of fragments of basic igneous rocks in the con-
glomerates, and have expressed some difficulty in refering these to
their origin. The Rey. J. F. Blake has described the occurrence at
Bryn Efail, on the north side of the Llyn-Padarn ridge, of felsite
intrusive in a rock which he believed then to be a slate,’ but
Miss Raisin has since shown this to be a sheared ‘greenstone’.* It
should perhaps be mentioned that the latter observer failed to see
any vidence of the intrusion of the felsite into the ‘ greenstone ’.
W ithout, however, entering into the discussion of the Bry n-Efail
section, hod whith a great deal has been written by the above-
mentioned authors, the following fact appears to the present writer
to furnish independent proof Fiat there is in the Llyn-Padarn ridge
a ‘ greenstone’ older than the quartz-felsite.
Passing along the road which runs from the bridge at the lower
end of Llyn Pedars along the eastern shore of the lake, near the
point where this road crosses the slate-railway (marked A on the
sketch-map, p. 376), there is an exposure of ‘ greenstone’ which
appears to have been opened up by blasting comparatively recently.
To all appearance, this rock resembles the ordinary basic dykes which
penetrate the quartz-felsite in this locality, but it has evidently
been much sheared.
1 T. G. Bonney & C. A. Raisin, ‘On the Relations of some of the Older
Fragmental Rocks in North-Western Caernarvonshire’ Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soe. vol. 1 (1894) p. 578.
2 ‘On the Cambrian & Associated Rocks in North-Western Caernarvonshire '
Ibid. vol. xliv (1888) pp. 283, 284.
3 «On the Lower Limit of the Cambrian Series in North-Western Caer-
naryonshire’ Zhid. vol. xlvii (1891) p. 337.
Sketch-map of the Llyn-Padarn district.
376 MR. J. V. ELSDEN ON THE AGE OF [Aug. 1904,
The contacts with the felsite on each side look fairly clean and
regular ; but, near the centre of the exposure, which is about 10 feet
wide, the ‘ greenstone’ is penetrated by a tongue of felsite, about
2 inches broad near the upper exposed part, and tapering to a
point at the lower extremity. The length of this tongue is about
2 feet.
1 mile.
SCALE:
_ Bigil
inches
Spy tty
NH
WHT
HTT
MUNNII(I Hag
it HAIN UH
| UT | |
| } WHI
{ WH} WT |
WH
| }
| |
»
Fachwen
represent dykes.
A thin slice of this rock, if examined beneath the microscope,
presents the appearance of a quartz-felsite, and resembles in all
essential features the descriptions given by Prof. Bonney of the
felsites of this area.' The section shows irregular subangular
blebs of quartz, giving somewhat undulose extinction, and
* 'T. G. Bonney, ‘On the Quartz-Felsite & Associated Rocks at the Base of
the Cambrian Series in North-Western Caernarvonshire’ Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soe. vol. xxxv (1879) pp. 311 et seqq.
Vol. 60.] THE LLYN-PADARN DYKES. 377
enclosing portions of the cryptocrystalline groundmass. The latter
is granular, and appears to consist almost entirely of quartz, and
possibly some felspar. There are also numerous laths of a greenish,
strongly-pleochroic mineral, with slightly-oblique extinction, which
may be microliths of hornblende. There is much opaque granular
matter, and some chloritic patches occur. The rock is apparently
modified slightly by contact with the ‘ greenstone.’
The ‘ greenstone’ in thin section shows abundant laths of felspar,
mostly replaced by micaceous aggregates, yet here and there
retaining the optical characters of a plagioclase. Augite is fairly
abundant, mostly altered to an opaque brownish substance, but
occasionally giving bright polarization-colours. There is also a
good deal of opaque leucoxene, resulting from the decomposition of
titaniferous iron. Calcite and chlorite-eyes are abundant, although
there is apparently no secondary quartz. The rock was originally
somewhat like the ordinary ophitic type of dyke-rocks in the Llyn-
Padarn ridge, the structure having been obliterated by shearing,
crushing, and alteration.
Although it would perhaps be going too far to generalize from this
single occurrence of an acid intrusion in the ‘greenstone,’ yet the
fact remains, and there does not appear to be any escape from the
~ conclusion that we have here a pre-Cambrian basic rock. There
are certain other highly-sheared and altered ‘ greenstones’ in the
Llyn-Padarn ridge, which may also belong to this group. A rock
from the locality marked C on the accompanying sketch-map (p. 376)
is so like the one described above, and differs in so marked a degree
from the unsheared rock in the neighbouring dyke south of Cwm-
y-glo, that it seems certain that it has been subjected to stresses
which have not influenced the Cwm-y-glo intrusion. Unfortunately,
I have not been able to discover any but outcrop-exposures of this
rock ; it is not unlikely, however, that when this district comes to
be mapped on the 6-inch scale, additional proofs will be forthcoming
that some of these highly-altered basic rocks are older than the
main dykes of the Llyn-Padarn ridge.
II], Perroeraputcat EvipENcr.
In considering the petrographical evidence as to the age of the
main portion of the Llanberis dykes (excluding those of pre-
Cambrian age), I shall now attempt to show that it is not possible
to separate these rocks from the Bala diabases upon general mine-
ralogical grounds; and that there are indications that these two
groups of rocks were in all probability derived from the same
magma-basin. At the same time, it must be remembered that, if
this supposition be correct, the low horizon at which the Llanberis
rocks occur might be expected to disclose certain divergences,
resulting from such a differentiation as might take place in the case
of the latest phase of an eruptive sequence. Although this point is
of the greatest interest, in view of the differentiation-theory put
forward by Mr. Harker to account for the sequence of the Bala
Q.J.G.8, No. 239. 20
378 MR. J. V. ELSDEN ON THE AGE OF [Aug. 1904,
rocks, it is also one of extreme difficulty ; and conclusions, based
upon such evidence, can only be drawn with very great caution.
In considering this portion of the subject, it will not be
advisable to recapitulate previous observations any further than
will be necessary to compare these rocks with the Bala diabases on
the one hand, and the post-Carboniferous dykes on the other. With
the former group Mr. Harker has already made us familiar.’
With all the more important features shown by the diabase-sills of
the eastern part of Caernarvonshire, these rocks agree down to the
smallest detail; though certain points, notably the frequent occur-
rence of secondary sphene and asbestos, but rarely exhibited in
Mr. Harker’s specimens, become very prominent in some of the
Llanberis dykes. The latter rocks are also sharply separated from
the post-Carboniferous dykes of Anglesey described by Mr. Harker,*
Mr. Greenly,* and Dr. Matley,* all of whom agree that the latter are
not very basic in character, possess no appreciable titanic acid,
have two distinct generations of felspar, and show no conspicuous
signs of pressure-metamorphism. The pyroxenes, also, in these
younger rocks belong to a later stage of consolidation, and are
apparently of a different chemical composition from those about to
be described.
It will be convenient to consider the minerals in the order of
their consolidation, and to divide the area into two parts, in
accordance with the previously-described differences shown in the
field-examination. These will be designated the dynamic or
crush-zone of the more yielding sedimentary rocks, and the static
or pressure-zone of the Llyn-Padarn ridge. These terms are used
for convenience of description only, for it is evident that a crush-zone
must also be a pressure-zone of greater intensity. Prof. Bonney
has called attention, in his paper on the crystalline schists of the
Binnenthal,° to the necessity for differentiating direct pressure from
shearing crush ; and he has proposed the term catathlastic for
structures produced by the former, in contradistinction to the
mylonitic structures produced by the latter. The former term,
however, does not appear to have been seriously contemplated, and
the distinction is not always easy to make, seeing that both structures
will be found together. In the present paper, the distinction
referred to above is only intended to mark the effects in the
rocks described, which are produced by the different kind and
degree of pressure In a soft, yielding mass and in the hard
resisting buttress against which the forces acted. Perhaps the
terms dynamic and static metamorphism, as suggested by
Prof. Judd,° might be sufficient to describe these two kinds of force
exerted upon a rock-mass by great earth-movements. Structurally,
all the rocks examined are, or once were, ophitic diabases. They
* «Bala Volcanic Series of Caernarvonshire’ 1889, pp. 75 e¢ seqq.
? Geol. Mag. 1887, p. 409 & ibid. 1888, p. 267.
* Ibid, 1900, p. 160.
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lvi (1900) p. 247.
° Ibid. vol. xlix (1898) p. 104.
® Geol. Mag. 1889, p, 243.
ee ee ee
Vol. 60.] THE LLYN-PADARN DYKES. 379
do not, in their unaltered state, show any sign of a second
generation of felspar; but in the crush-zone this structure, as
might be expected, is obliterated, the ophitic pyroxene becoming
granulitic, while the parts which have experienced the most
intense shearing have become almost schistose. In some parts,
albitization has gone on to such an extent, that the broken
pyroxenes are completely enclosed in large secondary felspars,
causing a complete reversal of the original structure, the pyroxene
then having the appearance of being the first-formed mineral.
The general inference from all the slices is that consolidation
took place very slowly, probably under a thick cover of rock,
which may possibly explain the rarity of very marked sahlbands,
and certain cases of local enrichment in felspar, such as might
result from the concentration of this mineral, in accordance with
Soret’s principle, owing to a prolonged duration of the liquid state.
This condition is still further indicated by the phenomena presented
by the augite, as will be more fully described later.
The mineral-constituents of the rocks will now be described in
turn.
Apatite.
This mineral is present in conspicuous proportion in many of the
rocks of the Llyn-Padarn ridge area, but I have only occasionally
recognized it in the crush-zone. Mr. Harker mentions its general
occurrence in the Bala diabases. The capricious distribution of
this mineral in igneous rocks, and its usual immunity from any
marked effects of dynamic metamorphism, render it of little value
as an index to the amount of alteration which a rock containing it
may have undergone. For present purposes, therefore, it assumes
little or no petrographical importance.
Tron-Ores.
It will be convenient to consider the iron-ores next, although
these constituents did not entirely separate at any definite stage.
Some are idiomorphic, but they are also very commonly moulded on
the felspars and included in the augites. Generally speaking,
they agree so closely with Mr. Harker’s description,’ that it will
not be necessary to recapitulate these points. Titanic acid, how-
ever, appears to be more abundant in al! the specimens from the
Llyn-Padarn dykes, and secondary alteration has resulted in a
large quantity of sphene-granules, in addition to amorphous
leucoxene. Mr. Harker noticed granular sphene in the Bala
diabase in one locality only, namely, at Pant-Evan, Tremadoc,”
although he records its presence in some quantity in the
Llangwnad1 rock, where the intrusion is presumably on a somewhat
lower horizon. On the other hand, no titanic acid was recognized
in the hornblende-picrite of Penarfynydd. It is also notably
absent in the later dolerite-dykes. In the light of these facts, the
* * Bala Volcanic Series of Caernarvonshire ’ 1889, p. 80.
2 Ibid, p. 81.
380 MR. J. V. ELSDEN ON THE AGE OF [Aug. 1904,
plentiful occurrence of compounds of titanium in the Llanberis
rocks is of considerable interest.
Still more important is the evident connection between the altera-
tion of ilmenite and the amount of dynamic metamorphism which
the rocks have undergone, as Mr. Harker has already noticed in the
diabases of Eastern Caernarvonshire. Dr. Teall, also, has found the
mineral of great service in tracing the origin of certain schists from
sheared diabases.'_ These phenomena are well illustrated in the
Llanberis dykes, where every stage in the alteration of ilmenite may
be traced as the dykes are followed into regions of increased dynamic
influences. An interesting example of this alteration is seen in the
production of rutile from ilmenite, as previously described by Prof.
Cathrein.* This mineral occurs in one of the slides, in the form of
abundant hair-like microliths, associated with fragments of still opaque
leucoxene. Sphene in distinct granules, as well as the translucent
variety usually associated with leucoxene, is abundant. A notice-
able feature, however, of many of the yellowish-brown granules is
that they do not possess the high double-refraction of sphene, but
transmit only a feeble light between crossed nicols. A similar
appearance was noticed in the kimberlite of Kentucky by Mr. J. 5.
Diller,’ and by Dr. G. H. Williams in the serpentine of Syracuse,
in which cases chemical tests showed these grains to be perowskite.
It would not be possible to say definitely that these feebly double-
refractive granules in the Llanberis rocks are perowskite, merely
on account of their optical anomaly; but the possibility suggests
itself that a part of the rutile liberated from ilmenite has combined
with lime to form this mineral. A similar occurrence of this
presumed perowskite has been noticed by me in the diabase of
the Santon complex in the Isle of Man. It is, of course, not
necessary to assume that this mineral has been derived from ilmenite,
as its marked association with chlorite-areas might also suggest a
derivation from a pre-existing titaniferous pyroxene.
All the phenomena exhibited by the titanium-compounds in
these dykes, both as evidence of a richly titaniferous magma and as
proving extensive dynamic metamorphism, are highly characteristic.
It is, indeed, possible to trace the kind and degree of pressure-
alteration in the successive portions of these dykes by observation
of the titanium-minerals alone.
With regard to other iron-ores, such as magnetite and pyrites,
these present the usual characteristics, as described by Mr. Harker
in dealing with the Bala diabases, and they do not require further
description in this paper.
Felspars.
The felspar is always triclinic, and occurs usually in idiomorphic
crystals, with well-marked albite-twinning. Pericline-twinning 1s
| “British Petrography ’ 1888, p. 238.
* Zeitschr. f. Krystallogr. vol. vi (1882) p. 244.
° Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv No. 150 (1898) p. 294.
Vol. 60. | THE LLYN-PADARN DYKES. 381
seen in isolated instances. A prevalent combination shows one
half of a Carlsbad twin simple, and the other half with the albite-
lamellation. The usual form is in long laths, and in the uncrushed
parts the extinctions are sharp. On sections oriented in the zone
100 on 001 the extinction-angle generally exceeds 20°, indicating
a predominance of the anorthite-molecule. This is significant, as
the post-Carboniferous dolerites have usually a rather less basic
felspar, and generally show a second generation of a more acid
species, with zonary banding. In the rocks that I have examined
from this area, two generations of felspar are apparently not
present, and zonary banding is rarely exhibited. This fully agrees
with the characters shown by the felspars in the Bala diabases.
In proportion to the amount of crushing that the rocks have
undergone, characteristic changes are noticeable in the felspar, the
most striking of which are the secondary felspars, often conspi-
cuously present in large water-clear crystals, with ill-defined outlines,
and sometimes showing shadowy twin-structures. Where such
‘albitization ’ has taken place, the remnants of the older felspars
are easily distinguished by their extensive saussuritization, bent
outlines, corroded margins, undulose extinction, and by being often
included in the later secondary crystals. The secondary albites
also include epidote, viridite, and broken pyroxenes, while here and
there the characteristic ‘ felspar-mosaic’ of Lossen is exhibited. It
is difficult to measure the extinction-angles of these secondary
felspars, suitable crystallographic planes being wanting. In some
cases, however, it is possible to compare by Becke’s method the
refractive index of the felspar with that of an adjacent crystal of
secondary quartz. The result agrees with the refraction of albite.
All these characters are very typical of sheared diabases, and
indicate considerable pressure-metamorphism. Their importance
in the present discussion lies in the proof which they afford that
the rocks have been subjected to extensive earth-move-
ments. They are not, so far as I am aware, the characters
usually exhibited by the felspars of the later dykes of Caernarvon-
shire; neither does Mr. Harker mention them as occurring in the
Bala diabases. But the specimens described by him were apparently
not so much crushed, and were collected from areas more remote
from the Llyn-Padarn ridge.
The saussurite and other alteration-products of the felspar show
no unusual features. The large quantity of pale epidote and caicite-
dust is an additional evidence of a considerable lime-percentage ;
and all the phenomena go to show that the original magma was
of a typically-basic composition, and that the separating felspars
belonged to the lime-end of the albite-anorthite series. The original
composition of such a felspar, however, may be easily obscured by
secondary changes leading to the break-up of the anorthite-mole-
cules, and their replacement by epidote, calcite, and quartz. Such
changes may be traced along the course of these dykes, isolated
specimens of which, if taken from the crush-zone, would seldom
give an adequate clue to their original composition. As before
382 MR. J. V. ELSDEN ON THE AGE OF (Aug. 1904,
mentioned (p. 379), in certain of these crushed rocks secondary albite
has completely enclosed fragments of unaltered augite, causing a
total reversal of the original structure.
Pyroxenes.
It seems clear that there were two distinct generations of
pyroxene, causing an apparent deviation from the ordinary type of
the Bala diabases on the one hand, and from the post-Carboniferous
dykes on the other. It is true that Mr. Harker did find two
generations of pyroxene, in a rare instance near Llanrwst ; but im
the Llanberis dykes this occurrence is more frequent, although the
evidence is usually indirect, owing to the ease with which the
earlier form has yielded to processes of alteration, where it survived
the corrosive action of the magma. In a few instances, however,
comparatively-unaltered fragments of the earlier pyroxene are pre-
served as corroded remnants, included in the ophitic plates of the
second generation. More often these remnants are represented only
by rounded chloritic and serpentinous inclusions in the ophitic
augite. here is no sign of crystalline continuity of the two genera-
tions, and the circumstances seem to point to a complete change of
phase, the first-formed pyroxene being reabsorbed to a large extent
before the crystallization of the later variety, pointing to very slow
cooling, during which the conditions of equilibrium in the magma
underwent considerable change. The precise variety of the earlier
form is uncertain, but the fact that the included fragments are not
in crystalline orientation with the later variety would suggest the
possibility that the earlier forms were rhombic. In other similar
cases, such as the sahlite-diabase of Sweden,! the diabase of
Connecticut,? and in the Whin Sill,’ the earlier pyroxene is of a
paler colour and more easily altered than the later form. In any
case, the rounded serpentinous and chloritic inclusions in the ophitic
augites of Llanberis are more probably to be referred to an earlier
pyroxene than to olivine, as has been suggested by some observers.’
Coming now to the ophitic augites, there is evidence that during
their crystallization the magmatic conditions were not stable. Their
pale colour when fresh and the comparatively-low cy extinction-
angle indicate a variety near malacolite. They very commonly
possess the peculiarity (noticed also by Mr. Harker in the Lleyn
diabases) that the crystals, although apparently homogeneous, are
seen between crossed nicols to be polysomatic. ‘The separate areas
are crystographically continuous, but possess different extinction-
angles, This structure has been explained as a modification of the
hour-glass structure, for which the explanation of L. van Werveke”
' H. O. Hovey, Tschermak’s Min. u. Petr. Mitth. n.s. vol. xiii (1893) p. 218.
* J. 8. Diller, Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv. No. 150 (1898) p. 268.
3 J.J. H. Teall, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xl (1884) p. 653.
* A. Harker ‘ Bala Volcanic Series of Caernarvonshire ’ 1889, p. 94: see also
J. M. Clements ‘ The Crystal-Falls Lron-bearing District of Michigan’ Monogr.
U.S. Geol. Surv. xxxvi (1899) p. 201.
° * Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Limburgite’ Neues Jabrb. f. Min. 1879, p. 481.
Vol. 60.] THE LLYN-PADARN DYKES. 383
is often accepted. Neither this theory, however, nor that of Blum-
rich,’ seems quite adequate to account for the phenomenon, which
appears rather to be a modification of zonary banding, and points to
a sequence of different phases during the formation of the crystal,
owing to changes in the conditions of equilibrium. In some cases
the lines of separation of the different portions correspond to lines
of crystalline growth, indicating mere pauses in growth, the next
accretion consisting of a new member in the series of isomorphous
mixtures. Generally, however, there was more than a pause.
Resorption began; the salient angles of the last growth became
rounded off, and in some cases even greater corrosion took place,
before the crystalline growth was resumed in accordance with the
fresh conditions of equilibrium, which had, in the meantime, been
established. The difference in the extinction-angles of contiguous
areas reaches to as much as 10°, but is generally less. The
phenomenon is a very interesting illustration of the application of the
phase-rule in geology ; and if we accept Dr. Roozeboom’s explana-
tion of the formation of mix-crystals,? it is possible that we may
find in this structure a proof of consolidation under variable
pressure, such as might occur in the case of a magma cooling
under the influence of earth-movements. The same
structure has been noticed in the Holyhead Main Dyke and in the
olivine-dolerite of Port Newry,’ and I have also observed it in the
diabase of the Santon complex in the Isle of Man.
The chief difference observed in the augites of the crush-area is
the development of mylonitic structures, the ophitic plates being
broken up into fragments, round which secondary albite has
erystallized. The fragments, however, exhibit the same poly-
. somatic character, and have inclusions of the earlier pyroxenes as
described above. An intermediate condition, observed in some of
the specimens taken from the Llyn-Padarn ridge, near the southern
margin, has led to a very pronounced polysynthetic twinning in the
augites, often displaying two sets of twins crossing nearly at right
angles, and recalling similar strain-phenomena produced in metals.'
Such a difference in the effects of pressure upon the dykes enclosed
in the quartz-felsite and upon those in the sedimentary area is
very interesting, and resembles similar differences obtained
experimentally by Prof. F.D. Adams & Dr. J.T. Nicolson in marble
compressed under various conditions.°
Another effect of pressure-metamorphism, apparently related to
the above, is accompanied by a passage into amphiboles and
chlorites, to be described moré fully under these headings. |
I pass over the phenomena caused by simple weathering, as these
present no unusual features, and have no bearing upon the points
under discussion. I may, however, point out that this factor must
1 «Ueber die sogenannte Sanduhrform der Augite’ T'schermak’s Min, u.
Petr. Mitth. n. s, vol. xiii (1893) p. 239.
2 Zeitschr. f. physikal. Chem. vol. xxx (1899) p. 385.
3 Geol. Mag. 1888, pp. 269 et segg.
4 J. A. Ewing & W. Rosenhain, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. ser A, vol. exciii
(1900) p. 353.
° Ibid. vol. exev (1901) p. 363.
384 MR. J. ¥. ELSDEN ON THE AGE OF [ Aug. 1904,
not be lost sight of when utilizing the optical constants for the
determination of augites. For, even an incipient weathering may
lead toa change in the position of the optical axes. So far as I can
see in the specimens examined, weathering may produce (1) a
lowering of the cy extinction-angle; (2) a reduction in the value
eae see
of y—a; and (3) an increase in the value of - 3
Amphiboles.
In only a single instance have I found a small fragment of an
apparently-original hornblende, but secondary amphiboles are
represented in a large number of the specimens, more par-
ticularly in certain areas where the rocks have been subjected
to a particular kind or degree of pressure. Amphibolitization
commonly takes the form, in the first instance, of uralite-fringes
round the augites, thus bringing these rocks into close agreement
with the sills of the eastern part of Caernarvonshire, as described
by Mr. Harker; whereas the Lleyn diabases never exhibit this
structure. Uralitization is generally associated with pressure-
metamorphism,’ and it is difficult to escape from the conclusion
that the same pressure to which the uralitization of the eastern
sills was due also operated in the case of the Llanberis dykes.
That uralitization is independent of weathering processes pure and
simple seems abundantly clear, for the polarization-tints on the urali-
tized crystals are often high; while in the same slide, other crystals,
more weathered and showing lower tints, have no trace of uralite-
fringes. In partly-weathered crystals, also, uralite is equally well
developed on the freshest portion. It may, however, be mentioned
that the development of uralite is apparently checked wherever the
crystals have secured molecular relief from the effects of pressure,
either by the acquisition of strain-slip cleavage, or by mylonitiza-
tion. I do not know how far other observers have noticed this
feature, which is very well illustrated in these dykes, subjected as
they have been to varying kinds and degrees of stress.
More pronounced alteration of the augite leads to the develop-
ment of a pale actinolite and tremolite; and in some cases fissures
and cracks, varying from 3 to upwards of 2 inches in width, are
filled with tremolite or asbestos, which also coats shear-planes and
slickensided surfaces. Under the microscope, these features recall the
examples of ‘gewanderte hornblende’ described by E. Cohen,”
Bergt,’? and Doss.‘ The connection of asbestos with mechanical
movement in the containing rock has been already enlarged upon
by G. P. Merrill’ and Van der Bellen,° the latter maintaining that a
certain plastic elasticity is necessary for its formation. Direct passage
of augite into asbestos has been described by J. R. Blum‘; but in the
1 J. J. H. Teall ‘ British Petrography ’ 1888, p. 161.
2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min. vol. i (1883) p. 202.
* 'Tschermak’s Min. u. Petr. Mitth. n. s. vol. x (1889) p. 356.
* Ibid. vol. xi (1890) p. 46.
> Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. (Smiths. Inst.) 1899, p. 296.
* Chemiker-Zeitung, vol. xxiv (1900) p. 284.
7 © Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs’ 1843, p. 165,
Vol. 60.] THE LLYN-PADARN DYKES, 385
present case it appears to be derived from uralite or tremolite, as
stated by Dr. Hintze.’ The exact nature of the change is at pre-
sent only a matter of supposition. It is not a paramorphic change,
since some hydration takes place; in fact, all the phenomena
connected with amphibolitization in general point to
the effects of dynamic metamorphism.
In connection with this portion of the argument, it may be well
to recall the observation of Prof. Grenville Cole & the late A. VY.
Jennings on the northern face of Mynydd-y-Gader,*? where the
intrusive diabase also shows a great deal of actinolite and tremolite,
with greenish asbestos in the clefts, pointing in their opinion to a
magma rich in alumina and lime, rather than to magnesia and iron.
The occurrence of asbestos in such quantity as is found in
some parts of the Llyn-Padarn dykes, notably along the Afon Goch
and on the western shore of the lake, near the mouth of the tunnel,
seems to me to have an important bearing upon the separation of
these intrusions from any eruptions of post-Carboniferous age in
this part of the country.
Biotite.
This mineral is very sparingly represented. Several of the less-
altered specimens contain a few shreds partly altered to chlorite.
In the crushed rocks no trace of it appears to be left. This fully
agrees with the character of the Bala sills, and it seems unnecessary
to dwell further upon this point.
Chlorite.
The chlorite-areas seen in these rocks have a well-marked
relation to the amount of shearing which they have undergone,
and are in inyerse proportion to the remaining augite. More
than one variety of the chlorite-family appears to be present, and
they present the following characters :—(1) green, radial, fibrous
scales, with parallel extinction and marked pleochroism, possibly
representing pennine or ripidolite; (2) granular aggregates ;
and (3) isotropic, structureless patches: these may be delessite and
chloropheite respectively. The first variety would, therefore,
belong to the true chlorites, and the two latter to the saponites
of Dr. Heddle’s classification.’ It is possible, however, that the
saponites are only more hydrated forms, and may be derived from
the chlorites by simple weathering processes. In the more highly-
sheared varieties the chlorites are drawn out into distinct lenticles,
showing a passage into flaser-diabase (the early stage of a chlorite-
schist) as has been already pointed out by previous observers, as
the result of the metamorphism of diabase by earth-stresses.*
1 Handbuch der Mineralogie, vol. ii (1897) p. 1195.
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xlv (1889) p. 452.
3 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xxix (1880) p. 55.
* See J. J. H. Teall, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xli (1885) p. 183; T. G.
Bonney, iid. vol. xlix (1893) p. 94; T. G. Bonney & C. A. McMahon, ibid.
vol. xlvii (1891) p. 489; 8S. Hyland, Geol. Mag. 1890, p. 205; and F. Zirkel,
‘Lehrbuch der Petrographie’ 2nd ed. vol. ii (1893) p. 730.
Q.J.G.S. No. 239, sh
386 MR. J. V. ELSDEN ON THE AGE OF [ Aug. 1904,
Other Secondary Minerals.
An abundance of quartz, epidote, and calcite would be expected
to occur in rocks of this character. In the highly-sheared or
crushed rocks, as, for example, at Y Bigil, the quartz-grains have
almost the appearance of a clastic origin; but their secondary
character is proved by their sharp extinction when rotated between
crossed nicols. With regard to epidote, it may be mentioned that
Mr. Harker found this mineral to be restricted to the eastern portion
of Caernarvonshire. It is not certain, however, that we can regard
this mineral as a normal result of the pressure-metamorphism of
diabase. As might be expected, also, both quartz and epidote are
not confined to the dykes themselves, but have invaded cracks and
fissures in the neighbouring rocks. Very beautiful examples of these
quartz-epidote veins occur in the neighbourhood of the crush-area.
Calcite-eyes are everywhere abundant, and by weathering-out often
give the ‘ greenstones’ quite a vesicular appearance. It does not
seem necessary to dwell upon these phenomena, which are a direct
result of the mineralogical changes described in the foregoing pages.
General.
Summing up the above results, these rocks exhibit very varied
effects of dynamic metamorphism. In their least-altered parts the
minerals are comparatively unchanged, with the exception of
alterations produced by simple weathering. Coming nearer to the
crush-area, we find, first of all, the eftects of molecular re-
arrangement under pressure without movement. Then the influence
of shear begins to appear, with mylonitization and re-crystallization ;
and lastly the whole rock becomes more or less cataclastic, with
partial or complete obliteration of its original structure. It is not
generally possible to draw a sharp line of distinction between these
different phenomena, but viewed as a whole the results are suffi-
ciently characteristic. Moreover, the gradual appearance of these
features, as the dykes are traced from the quartz-felsite into the
sedimentary strata towards the east, is a proof that the deforming
agency operated from an easterly direction.
IV. Conciuston.
In view of the phenomena described in the foregoing pages, it does
not seem possible to escape from the conclusion that we have in the
Llyn-Padarn dykes a result of the deep-seated conditions prevailing
during the latest stage of the Bala eruptions. These dykes appear to
have been filled with a magma rather more basic than the Bala sills.
The mineralogical evidence seems to point to a larger proportion
of titanic acid, and toa greater amount of lime and magnesia. The
somewhat-remarkable chemical analysis by Dr. Veelcker,' of a rock
' Geol. Mag. 1868, p. 125.
Quart. JouRN. GeoL. Soc. VoL. LX, PL. XXX.
Benirose, Collo.
Photomicro, J. V. Elsden.
LLYN PADARN DYKE-ROCKS.
Vol. 60. | THE LLYN-PADARN DYKES. 387
from a ‘greenstone’-dyke in the Penrhyn Slate-Quarry, supports this
view ; but a large number of analyses of the Caernarvonshire rocks
would be necessary before Mr. Harker’s differentiation-theory could
be adequately tested on chemical grounds. ‘This theory is virtually
an application of Gouy & Chaperon’s principle,’ which, it is true,
receives some support from physical chemistry and from observa-
tions in the case of certain alloys.”
With regard to the exact time of the intrusions, it is certain that
the fissures were not open before the crush began, because there is very
little evidence of displacement in the dykes themselves. The Clegyr
dyke alone shows any marked sign of deflection. Mr. Harker,
however, mentions the occurrence of local thickening of some of the
dykes in the slate-quarries * owing to the effects of the thrust. It
might also be urged as an objection to the view that these fissures are
a result of the south-easterly crush, that their direction is approxi-
mately at right angles to the axes of the folds. Ina perfectly-
homogeneous rock, pressed by uniform forces against an immovable
buttress, the maximum shear should be at an angle of 45° to the
direction of thepressure. These conditions, however, did not exist.
The strata were not homogeneous, the pressure was probably by
no means uniform, and the buttress almost certainly yielded more
or less. It is therefore quite conceivable that the buttress cracked,
and thus determined the direction of the fissures in the sedimentary
strata.
The assumption that these dykes are of post-Carboniferous age
would involve two very unlikely conclusions: namely, that the later
magma was almost identical in its composition and in its mode
of consolidation with the basic injections of Bala age; and also
that earth-movements of sufficient intensity to cause structural
deformations of parts of these dykes have operated since the great
south-easterly crush which folded and cleaved the slate-rocks of
Llanberis. Of this there is no evidence, so far as I am aware; and
if such were the case, we should even then have to explain the
phenomena with which this paper chiefly deals, that is, that those
portions of the dykes which were protected by the ridge have
largely escaped the deformation to which their more easterly parts
have undoubtedly been exposed. On the other hand, all the facts
appear to agree with the suggestion that the Llyn-Padarn
fissures were injected with the last dregs of the Bala
magma before the effects of the post-Bala crush had
entirely ceased.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXII.
[All the figures are magnified about 30 diameters. |
Fig. 1. Composite augite-crystal, showing crystallographic continuity, but
extinguishing in irregular areas. Crossed nicols: 1-inch objective.
«Sur la Concentration des Sear par la Pesanteur’ Ann. de Chimie
& de Physique, ser. 6, vol. xii (1887) p
> See A. Findlay “The Phase-Rule? 1902 chap. xiv.
3 ‘Bala Véloanie Series of Caernaryonshire’ 1889, p. 115.
388 THE AGE OF THE LLYN-PADARN DYKES. [Aug. 1904.
Fig. 2. Composite augite-crystal, similar to that seen in fig. 1, but showing
regular zones of crystalline ¢ growth. The section is parallel to the
orthopinacoid, and ther efore extinguishes simultaneously throughout.
Crossed nicols.
Augite-crystal showing secondary cleavage along glide-planes. Crossed
nicols.
4, Crushed diabase, showing secondary Palgpart enclosing broken frag-
ments of augite. Crossed nicols.
o. Sheared diabase, showing abundant development of epidote and chlorite.
Ordinary light.
(i, The same, showing feebly double-refracting granules, presumably
perowskite, enclosed in chlorite. Ordinary light.
CG:
DISCUSSION.
The Presipent, while admitting that many arguments might be
brought forward in favour of the post-Bala age of the movements
referred to, also saw difficulties in this view as to their age. Among
these was the smallness of the unconformity between Ordovician and
Silurian rocks in the area to the south-east of that described by the
Author; and the evidence of cleavage in the Wenlock Beds of the
Corwen district, comparable in many ways with that of the Cambrian
and Ordovician rocks of Caernarvonshire.
Prof. Warts pointed out that the dykes described by the Author
resembled in many respects the sill-rocks of Shropshire and Mont-
gomeryshire. These rocks were probably derived from the same
magma as the Bala lava-flows, but they were certainly intrusive
into the base of the Silurian of that district as well as into the
Ordovician, for the basal Silurian rocks were often metamorphosed
at the contact.
Mr. Frarnstpes said he thought that the rocks exhibited had
many features in common with the basic sills which occurred
among the Llandeilo and Bala rocks about Tremadoc. About
‘'remadoc many of the sills had come up along small thrust-planes,
and seemed to have baked rocks which, though already somewhat
crushed by the faulting, were still uncleaved. ‘This being so, the
sills at Tremadoc must be considerably newer than the Bala Beds,
and should be referred to the period of Silurian and post-Silurian
earth-movements rather than to the pre-Silurian.
The AurHor, in reply, said that, while he quite realized the
difficulty in assigning an exact age to the intrusions, he felt that
the greater the interval assumed to exist between the age of the
dykes and that of the sills, the more difficult became the explanation
of the facts adduced in the paper. The protective influence of the
Llyn-Padarn ridge, also, might be expected to become less marked
as the Cambrian sediments became more indurated, and it would
then prove less easy to account for the differential deformation of
the dykes.
—
Vol, 60.] GENESIS OF THE GOLD-DEPOSITS OF BARKERVILLE. 389
28. The Genusts of the Goip-Deposirs of BarkeRvILLE (British
Cotumpra) and the Vicrnity. By Austin J. R. Arkin, Esq.
(Communicated by the Secretary. Read April 27th, 1904.)
THe gold-bearing area of Cariboo is roughly confined within a
radius of 20 miles of Barkerville, to the band of varied crystalline
rocks known as the Cariboo Schists.
These rocks show evidences of fragmental origin, notably below
the mouth of Stouts Gulch. They represent in all probability the
silt and detrital matter deposited in a deep ocean lying off the
shores of the ancient Archean ridge, and are generally assigned
to the Lower Paleozoic age.’ They seem to have a tendency
towards fracture in a north-easterly direction, owing to pressure
exerted at right angles to their trend.
The steep northerly escarpments of the mountains are to be
attributed to the inclination of the beds, favouring the erosive
action of adjacent streams.
The whole schist-belt, with the exception of the mountain-tops,
is thickly covered with detritus of Glacial age and origin, which
obscures many features important to a thorough understanding of
the phenomena connected with the distribution of gold in this
district.
The quartz-veins, exposed in those places where Glacial débris
have not covered the original rocks, are all of one general type,
although two systems of fracture traverse the country. Most of
these fissures are infilled with veins, the richness of which has
contributed to the wealth of the placers below. The most striking
feature of a district in which the placers are so rich is that the
reefs at the heads of the gulches and along the sides
are of very low grade. ‘This has led to much speculation as to
the site of the original deposits from which the gold was derived.
The chief characteristics of the reefs of both systems are :—
(a) The veins follow the strike, but not as a rule the dip, of the enclosing
schists : an exception being the Forrest Reef on Proserpine Mountain.
(6) The gangue is similar to that found with the nuggets in the creeks—
lustreless, milky-white quartz, sometimes sugary.
(c) The mineralization is sulphide of iron, distributed in coarsely-crystalline
bunches throughout the reef. A little galena, low in silver, is sometimes
found; but rarely copper-pyrites, or blende. The average contents of
sulphide do not exceed 6 per cent.
Some of the sulphides are of good value, but others are quite worthless.
Their quality cannot be determined, except by assay. Galena has not been
found to exert any beneficial influence on the gold-values of the reefs.
(d) All the reefs show very little oxidized ore, some none at all: which goes
to show that the present outcrops are recent exposures, and cannot have
been the original surfaces presented on the tilting of the schist-bed.
1 The age of these rocks was determined by Mr. A. Bowman, of the Canadian
Geological Survey.
Q.J.G.S. No. 240. Qk
390 MR. A. J. R. ATKIN ON THE GENESIS [Nov. 1904,
The origin of the gold in the reefs is probably the same as the
origin of the reefs themselves. Both were deposited in fissures
formed by strains during the upheaval of the schists. There is
evidence that some of the veins are accretions formed in gradually-
widening fissures, and were not deposited in one gaping chasm.
This is especially apparent in the B.C. ledge, where thin films of
graphitic schist appear as partings in the vein on the hanging-wall
side, giving the reef a banded appearance. These may be taken
as part of the original wall which broke away with the early
accretions of silica, and became enveloped in the subsequent de-
positions as soon as the fissure widened again sufficiently for the
ascending waters to deposit a fresh crust of mineral salts. At
present, the parting on the hanging wall consists of a soft gangue
of frictional débris, among which the acid mine-water may still be
depositing mineral wealth.
These reefs, deposited by waters ascending from profound depths,
holding in solution their minerals dissolved under conditions of great
heat and pressure, would have a tendency to increased richness,
at the depth where the gradually-lessening conditions of their
solubility favoured the precipitation of mineral salts.
As most probably this rich zone is still intact, and awaits the
advent of deep-mining for its discovery, another source must be
looked for in trying to solve the problem of the occurrence of the
gold in the placers.
While all the reefs carry gold in greater or less quantities, none
have been found the richness of which would account for the placer-
gold; yet it is a well-known fact that rich outcrops exist in most
quartz-veins, unless removed by weathering of the enclosing rocks.
This greatly-enriched zone above the water-level must be con-
sidered as of purely-secondary origin: a concentration, in fact,
from the rock-masses of the reef above.
This concentration takes place in two ways. The first by
leaching of the pyrites, while the less soluble gold is left in the
honeycombed quartz, whereby the vein-matter is made lighter
while not reduced in bulk, which so becomes the richer per ton.
The second method is purely chemical, and is an actual enrichment
by precipitation.
The key to this secondary enrichment is found in the solubility
of gold in solutions of ferric sulphate, as pointed out by Le Conte
and Wurtz. The ores of these reefs are such that, on their decom-
position, quantities of this substance would be formed from the pyrites
present. While the pyrites furnishes the solvent for the gold, it acts
also as a precipitant for the same ; and the two processes of solution
and precipitation are going on at the same time, and are taking
place at the present day.
The area of the reef in which these forces come into play is
limited by the level of the circulating surface-waters, which remove
the dissolved gold and carry it down to a lower level, where, coming
into contact with undecomposed pyrites, it is again precipitated.
This process, going on continually—for although Nature works with
Vol. 60.] OF THE GOLD-DEPOSITS OF BARKERVILLE. 391
very dilute solutions, their volume is large and time is unlimited,—
in the course of ages produces a zone of great enrichment in the
neighbourhood of the permanent water-level.
The writer has seen specimens of gold showing the impress of the
pyrites upon which the gold had been precipitated, clearly proving
the order of deposition to have been, first, the pyrites in the reef,
and, secondly, the gold on the pyritic nodule.
While the enriched zone was being formed, the weathering of the
surface continually removed the leached outcrop and constantly
exposed fresh surfaces to the atmespheric influences : these, having
become more active than the solution and precipitation, in time
overtook the latter agencies and wore down the enclosing rocks
until what had been the permanent water-level became a very rich
outcrop.
To the weathering of such outcrops we may assign the rich
placers.
While the comparatively-recent removal has not left time for
another bonanza to be formed, it is only a matter of time when
the present exposed outcrops will become honeycombed gossans,
indicating rich zones below.
With the exception of the Perkins ledge on Burns Mountain, no
free-milling ore has been encountered which in any way adequately
accounts for the splendid placers of Williams’, Lowhee, Lightning,
Grouse, and many smaller creeks.
The gold found in all these placers is of purely-local origin, and,
being to a great extent associated with quartz, must have come from
reefs not far away. Indeed, some of the nuggets show no signs of
attrition, and would seem to have been derived from ledges in their
immediate vicinity. As no such ledge has been discovered in the
creek-bottoms, and any washing, such as a theory of transportation
from up stream requires, would have broken up the delicate
filaments of gold, some other explanation must be looked for to
account for these unwashed grains.
The most probable and satisfactory one is that these nuggets were
brought to their present place in a soluble matrix, and in the course
of time the matrix dissolving away left the gold in the condition in
which we now find it. This matrix was most probably calcite, as
nuggets have been found with limestone attached to them, and
many large beds of limestone traverse the schist-belt.
The origin of the quartz-bearing nuggets is easily accounted for
when we consider the conditions of the country in middle and later
Tertiary times. By the former date the hills now existing had been
swept clear of the pre-Tertiary gravels, and the deep channels
eroded to their present depth. After the hills had been exposed to
the action of frost and weather for many ages, the soft schists
were decomposed and gradually washed into the present creek-
bottoms, together with the gold set free from the rich surfaces of
the quartz-veins that we now see on the mountain-tops; and with
the gold from many others hidden under the Glacial and _ post-
Glacial gravels.
2E2
392 MR. A. J. R. ATKIN ON THE GENESIS | Nov. 1904,
Towards the end of Tertiary times a greatly-increased rainfall
took place, which washed the last remains of the decomposed
quartz-reefs and surrounding rocks into the valleys, together with
the last of the Tertiary gravels, which are at the present day
found associated with the gold in the lowest-known placers.
The present filled condition of these deep cuts is due to deposition
of material in later Glacial and Pleistocene times. In the open
workings of lower Williams’ Creek there is an interesting section
of these formations. Above the old drift-workings is a streak of
flat schist-pebbles, separated from the Tertiary gravels by a seam
of Glacial clay. This streak, about 2 feet thick, indicates a reces-
sion of the ice, and was deposited while Williams’ Creek brought
down the waters from the melting ice-caps on the surrounding
mountains, together with the rock-detritus from their sides.
It would be interesting to know whether this streak carried
much gold farther up. This would be likely, as the upper part of
the creek must have had very little gravel in it at this time, and so
would offer facilities for the gold being washed down on to the first
stratum of Glacial sediment. The auriferous upper streaks some-
times found along this creek are to be attributed to slight reces-
sions of the ice-cap: their limited extent showing merely a short
duration of the period when the creek was bringing down material
from its higher reaches.
Although, viewed in the above light, the occurrence of surface-
bonanzas is unlikely, it must not be forgotten that the reefs
which originated the placers still exist. Deeper exploration will
probably show an enriched zone deposited by the deep ascending
waters which gave the reefs birth, in no way connected with the
secondary enrichments which have made the placers famous, and
are in most gold-veins of doubtful continuity.
Discussion.
Mr. H. W. Moncxron asked whether goid had ever been found
in a calcite-reef.
Mr. Breprorp McNerit remarked that the paper was a very
interesting example of the generally-accepted theory of ‘ secondary
enrichment’ as applied to a particular ore-occurrence. Naturally,
one would have preferred to have visited the locality before dis-
cussing the paper. Our present views were mainly the outcome of
the comparatively-recent work of Posepny and others; but, given
low-grade auriferous iron-pyrites and given descending oxidizing
waters, there was no doubt that the chemical changes alluded to did
take place. In this connection, the experiments mentioned by Mr. T.
A. Rickard,’ as having heen commenced by Daintree in 1871 in
Dr. Percy’s laboratory at the Royal School of Mines, should not be
overlooked. A number of small bottles, each containing solution of
chloride of gold, were taken, and to each a crystal of the more common
metallic sulphides was added, such as pyrites, galena, blende, etc.
1 Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. vol. xxii (1893) p. 313.
Vol. 60.] OF THE GOLD-DEPOSITS OF BARKERVILLE. 393
At the time when Daintree died, a few years later, no results could
be discovered; but one of the bottles was removed to Dr. Percy’s
private laboratory, and there in 1886, or 15 years after the
commencement of the experiment, a cluster of minute crystals
of gold was discovered upon the smooth surface of the iron-
pyrites.
In the case of the New Guston and adjacent mines in Colorado,
with which the speaker was connected some 12 years ago, the ore-
occurrence presented at that time many points of great obscurity,
but, as since pointed out by Emmons, Rickard, and others, if the
theory of secondary or zonal enrichment were applied, these diffi-
culties largely disappeared. As regarded the New Guston mine—
galena was most abundant from the surface down, say, to 300 feet,
the ore carrying 8 to 50 per cent. of lead, 9 to 30 ounces of silver
with a trace of gold. Ata depth of about 180 feet copper-pyrites
with stromeyerite came in, and continued down to about 700 feet,
the assays being : copper 5 to 15 per cent., 25 to 700 ounces of silver,
one-tenth to 3 ounces of gold. At about 600 feet solid bodies of iron-
pyrites were discovered, which continued to the deeper workings,
carrying | to 3 per cent. of copper, 4 to 20 ounces of silver, and two-
tenths of an ounce of gold. Bornite was met with between 700
and 1200 feet, carrying 18 to 25 per cent. of copper, 60 to 175 ounces
of silver, and a quarter to 14 ounces of gold. Free gold, which
was never seen above the 700-foot level or in any other instance,
was found associated with the bornite below the 700-foot level.
The workings were suspended at about 1500 feet.
With reference to the previous speaker’s remark, it might be
stated that calcite was not unknown as a matrix of gold; and
A. G. Lock had stated that most of the rich quartz-reefs at Gympie
(Queensland) contained abundance of calcite in strong veins and
patches, often richly impregnated with gold. A fine specimen from
these showed actual veins of fairly-large gold specks, irregularly
distributed through white opaque calcite.
394 MESSRS. BALDWIN AND SUTCLIFFE ON | Nov. 1904,
29. EHOSCORPIUS SPARTHENSIS, sp. nov., from the Mippie Coat-
Measures of Lancasnire, By Watrer Barpwiy, Esq., F.G.S.,
and Wrirt1am Henry Svrcrirre, Esq., F.G.S. (Read April
27th, 1904.)
ConrTENrs.
Page
I. Locality and Horizon of the Type-Specimen ............ 394
If. Description of the’ Type-Specimen -0y... ic. 7. + .c D -
8 ne appendage is well pre-
* itt Served and is long,
3 slender, and chelate, and
yoy aay = mo xX ) ’
of: 8 free from tubercles.
Zz The hand is long and
ay slender (17 millimetres
in length by 4 in
breadth), and the biting-edge is free from denticulation. The
396 MESSRS. BALDWIN AND SUTCLIFFE ON [ Nov. 1904,
finger is, however, missing. Of the right second appendage, the
coxa only is preserved,
; 4 : : On the left side
Fig. 2.—Koscorpius sparthensis, sp. 0. —_ nortions of the second,
(Natural size.) third, and fourth legs
are preserved. The
fourth exhibits a
chelicera longitudinal crest,
and the segments
appear to be stout.
On the right side
the cox of the first,
second, third, and
fourth legs are clearly
seen, but the legs them-
selves are missing.
Pre-abdomen. —
The anterior seg-
ments of the _pre-
abdomen are short,
each succeeding seg-
ment gradually be-
coming longer, so
that the sixth as a4
little more than twice
the length of the
2, first. The dividing-
Pee line between the
We carapace and _ the
first segment is in-
[The shaded portion shows what is actually seen: determinate, because
chela}coxa of
sy
the dotted portion is restored. | of the crushing of this
portion.
MEASUREMENTS IN MILLIMETRES.
Length. Breadth.
Hirst see Mens \ os. se. ne: 2°5 (?) 10
Second segment ............ 30 1
Third seoment, 22.22.50 «sos: 30 11
Fourth segment ............ 4-0 12
Fifth segment ..............- 4°25, 12
Sixth segment’ J....).2..005< 4°25 12
These are all sub-ovate in shape, and have a smooth articular
border dividing them. The seventh is sub-trigonal in form, and
narrows so rapidly that its posterior border is only half of the breadth
of the anterior border, which is as broad as the posterior border of
the sixth segment. The anterior border is 8 millimetres in length,
the posterior border 4, while the segment is 5 millimetres long.
The whole surface of the animal appears almost smooth to the
naked eye, but when viewed through a lens it is seen to be granular,
with more pronounced granules on the seventh segment.
Vol. 60.] = ZOSCORPIUS SPARTHENSIS FROM LANCASHIRE. 397
A dark stain is observed next to the abdominal portion of the
animal, and probably represents the soft portions which have
been squeezed out by pressure.
Fig. 3.—Abdominal segments of Eoscorpius sparthensis, sp. nov.
(Enlarged 2 diameters. )
1 = First seginent of post-abdomen.
2 = Third segment of post-abdomen.
3 = Sixth and seventh segments of pre-abdomen.
The post-abdomen lies sideways, with the right side upper-
most. The dorsal and lateral keels are well marked on the first
four segments. Nearly all the segments seen are flattened. The
first is 5 millimetres long, 5 mm. broad, and shows a row of
granules on the left lateral keel. The second is 5 mm. long and
4mm. broad. The third and fourth segments are 6°5 mm. long
by 4 mm. in breadth respectively. The fifth segment is only partly
preserved, but may reasonably be inferred to ‘have resembled the
fourth. The tail-spine or sting is absent.
The following are some of the measurements of the specimen :—
Millimetres.
Greatest length of cephalothorax ..................... 10
Greatest breadth of cephalothorax ..................... 10
Total length of pre-abdomen ............... 0.022.605. 26
Greatest breadth of pre-abdomen ................... - 12
Total length of post-abdomen preserved ....... on th
Length of chela of second appendage ............... 18
Greatest width of chela of same ................+0-.. 4
III. CompaRisoN WITH OTHER SPECIES.
It is unfortunate that the carapace is not better preserved, so as
to show the median and lateral eyes, for these are the organs on
which generic classification proceeds. Although deprived of the
chief aids to generic distinction, the general form of the animal
leaves no doubt that it belongs either to Hoscorpius or to Eobuthus.
In appearance, it is almost identical with Lobuthus rakovni-
censis, Fr.,1 though in measurement it differs slightly from that
species. The whole animal is shorter, being about 74 millimetres
when extended, whereas Eobuthus rakovnicensis measures 75 mm.
' Fritsch, ‘ Palzeozoische Arachniden’ 1904, pp. 73, 74, & pl. xii.
398 MESSRS, BALDWIN AND SUTCLIFFE ON [ Nov. 1904,
on stone. ‘The pre-abdomen is shorter and narrower, while the
segments of the post-abdomen are each respectively shorter.
It is upon the length and breadth of the hand that we rely
principally for distinction, and this, too, we find to be slightly less
than that of HKobuthus rakovnicensis, which measures 19 mm. by 5.
The hand also is sufficient to distinguish it from Hoscorpius anglicus,
Woodward,’ /. glaber, or E. euglyptus.” It is longer than that of
i. glaber, and shorter than that of L. euglyptus, but is of almost
the same length as #. anglicus, although it differs in shape from any
of them. The remaining joint of the second appendage is devoid of
tubercles, and differs in this respect from the corresponding joint
of E. glaber or E. euglyptus.
The sculpture on the pre-abdominal segments of F. carbonarvus °
and Hy. tuberculatus * at once distinguishes them from this specimen.
What is preserved of the carapace is sufficient also to distinguish
it immediately from E. inflatus.’
Taken generally, the present specimen differs from all previously-
described Carboniferous species in possessing a more graceful form
and proportion.
At the suggestion of our colleague, Mr. W. A. Parker, of Rochdale
(who has devoted over 20 years to a study of the geology of the
district, and has very kindly brought the specimen before the writers’
notice), we have named the specimen Hoscorpius sparthensis,
the specific name being suggested by the place of its disinterment.
IV. GrotocicaL BEARING OF THE DISCOVERY.
In the eyes of geologists such a discovery has a special interest,
because it not only gives some slight indication of the zoological and
climatic conditions of this Palzeozoic land, but serves to mark roughly
the probable position of an old land-surface, since this scorpion 1s
too well preserved to have been borne far from its original habitat.
Dr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S8.,° writes :—
‘It may be that, as recent scorpions feed extensively on the eggs of various
invertebrates, the Silurian species also visited the shores for the eggs of animals
left bare by the tides, among which . . . the eggs of . . . the Eurypterids (if
the latter had the habits of their near relation, the recent king-crab) would form
a bonne bouche. If this suggestion should prove to be well founded, we
may suppose that it was this habit of frequenting the shores that led the present
specimens to be embedded in marine strata.’
The association of Hoscorpeus with the king-crabs in the beds at
Sparth Bottoms appears to prove that Dr. Peach’s suggestion is
well founded, and that the Carboniferous scorpions, hke the recent
ones, fed extensively on the eggs of various invertebrates.
‘ H. Woodward, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxii (1876) p. 58 & pl. viii.
~ B. N. Peach, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xxx (1882) pp. 400-402.
* Meek & Worthen, Geol. Surv. Llinois, vol. iii (1868) pp. 560-62.
' B. N. Peach, Trans. Roy. Soe. Edin. vol. xxx (1882) p. 398.
> Lbid. p. 408.
° * Ancient Air-breathers,’ in ‘ Nature’ vol. xxxi (1885) p. 298.
Vol. 60.] | #OSCORPIUS SPARTHENSIS FROM LANCASHIRE. 399
So interesting an addition to the numerous forms of arthropoda
from the Upper Carboniferous rocks of England deserves to be made
known as widely as possible, in order to stimulate a greater number
of geologists in the neighbourhood of coalfields to pay more attention
to splitting clay-ironstone nodules, by which means they may perhaps
increase our knowledge of the terrestrial air-breathing animals of
the Carboniferous Period.
In conclusion we should like to express our thanks to Dr. B. N.
Peach, F.R.S., for his kind examination of the scorpion; to Dr. A.
Smith Woodward, F.R.S., and Dr. F. A. Bather, whe allowed one
of us every facility to compare personally the specimen with
Eoscorpius anglicus and Eobuthus rakovnicensis in the British
Museum (Natural History); to Mr. R. I. Pocock, who gave much
valuable advice on the partial restoration of the animal; and to
Mr. 8.8. Platt, F.G.S., for particulars of the strata cut through
by the Sparth-Bottoms Colliery-shaft, which enabled us to show
more detail in the section (fig. 1, p. 395) than we otherwise could
have done.
Discussion,
Dr. Barner congratulated the Authors on their find of an
interesting and well-preserved fossil. He would be glad to hear
on what characters they relied for their statement that it was
distinctly a new species. The other fragments exhibited appeared
to belong to arthropods, possibly Merostomata.
Prof. P. F. Kenpatt, in adding his congratulations to those of the
previous speaker, complimented the Authors on the careful manner
in which they were working up these deposits, which were shown
to include three arthropod-horizons. Heasked whether the Authors
had studied the beds above the Arley-Mine seam in other localities,
and cited an exposure of beds of similar age in the Irwell Valley
where air-breathing arthropods had been found.
Mr. Batpwin thanked the Fellows, on Mr. Sutcliffe’s & his own
behalf, for the kind way in which they had received the paper.
In reply to Dr. Bather, he said that the Authors relied principally
on the dimensions of the hand and post-abdominal segments in
describing the scorpion as a new species. The new species, viewed
as a whole, was of a more graceful and slender build than any of
the other Carboniferous species. Replying to Prof. Kendall, he said
that the beds at Sparth Bottoms were the only beds in the district
that were being properly worked by the Authors, in which they had
found remains of arthropoda ; they had no doubt that at other places
on the same horizon arthropodan remains would be discovered, as
specimens of Merostomata had been obtained at Glodwick, near
Oldham. He was not aware that arthropoda had been found near
Bury, in Lancashire.
400 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES _[ Nov. 1904,
30. On the Moinr Gwnetsses of the East-Centrat HigHianps and
theix Postrion m the Hiaatanp Seeuencre.' By Grorce
Barrow, Esq., F.G.8. (Read March 23rd, 1904.)
[Puates XXXIII-XXXVII.|
ConrTENTS.
Page
1. Introduetiony 5c. eet satte tee eee ee ee 400
IT, We. Mone :Giueisses: 5.4-. °5.22 1 Peete rt ee 400
ITI. Mode of Ending-off of the Moine Gneisses.................4+++ 415
LV” Appendix, 3 atc Batic asd eeaethe ack 2 eee eee eee eae 4492
I. Inrropvuction.
Tue object of this paper is: First, to describe the Moine Gneisses in
Perthshire and Aberdeenshire, and to show that in their mode of
occurrence and field-characters, as well as in their composition and
microscopic structures, they are identical with the Moine Gneisses of
the North-Western Highlands.
Secondly, to trace the mode of ending-off of these gneisses, and
to show that, while retaining their characteristic parallel banding
they pass into a smail zone of rocks, locally known as the
Honestones, which, in varying phases, lie persistently for miles
on the white margin of the Central-Highland Quartzite. The
parallel-banded Moine Gneisses are, in fact, simply
the flaggy margin of this Quartzite.
Thirdly, to phew, that in this special area, as the flaggy rocks
thicken, there is usually a small hiatus in the succession, owing
either to the contemporaneous erosion of the finer material that
should lie next them, or to its non-deposition. When this parallel-
banded material, however, attains a certain degree of fineness, this
erosion rarely occurs, and then the other limit of the group is the
Little Limestone. In fact, when the succession is complete, the
Moine Gneisses can be shown to pass laterally into the rocks of
the Honestone Group, and to lie between the white margin of the
Quartzite and the Little Limestone.
Whether these flaggy rocks lie above or below the Quartzite is at
present a matter of dispute. The view here taken is that they come
above the Quartzite, and the evidence for that view will be given
in detail.
The area examined extends from the River Garry, between Blair
Atholl and the summit of the Highland Railway, in a north-easterly
and easterly direction to Glen Girnoch, east of Balmoral in
Aberdeenshire, a distance of some 50 miles.
II. Tae More Gnetss&s.
The district over which the undoubted Moine Gneisses occur may
be divided into three parts: (a) the Struan area, which lies to the
* Communicated by permission of the Director of H.M. Geological Survey.
Vol. 60. ] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 401
west of the great Glen-Tilt igneous complex; (>) the area lying
between the Glen-Tilt complex and the great Cairngorm mass of
granite ; and (c) a tract which forms a small portion of the ground
to the south-east of the latter intrusion. ‘These masses of granite
are chosen to fix the position of the areas, simply because they are
shown on most small-scale geological maps, and are easily
recognized.
(a) The Moine Gneisses of the Struan Area.
This area is bounded on the west by the River Garry, and, as
the sections are easily accessible, it will be convenient to begin
with a description of the gneisses there exposed, and to use this as
a standard of reference in describing the gneisses elsewhere.
The Garry Section.—Since the days of McCulloch, the River
Garry above Struan has been famous for the sections of flag-like
rocks which are exposed in its bed and banks, from Struan, almost
without interruption, to the summit of the Highland Railway. Its
most striking feature is the extraordinary simulation of a normal
sequence of enormous thickness, the dip being apparently persistent
in one direction (the south-east), at an angle of from 20° to 30°.
As seen from a distance, almost the whole sequence consists of
well-bedded flags, the component bands varying in thickness, the
average of which is about 6 inches, or perhaps less. It will be
shown later that thicker bands predominate at one portion of the
series, and thinner at another.
The imitation of a sequence of enormous thickness, and the perfect
preservation of the parallel banding, together with their highly-
crystalline condition, enable these rocks to be easily identified.
Since the days of McCuiloch, many observers have noted the extra-
ordinary resemblance of the rocks to the flaggy gneisses of the North-
Western Highlands, now known as the Moine Gneisses. Further,
the mapping of the Highlands has progressed far enough to leave
no reasonable doubt that the Struan Flags and the Moine Gneisses
are one and the same group of rocks, and it is consequently
advisable to recognize this identity in describing them. Additional
facilities for their study have been afforded by the cuttings
recently made in widening the Highland Railway above Struan, by
means of which fresher material can now be obtained for
microscopic examination. (See figs. 2 & 3, pp. 404 & 405.)
The Grey Gneiss.—The dominant member of the Moine
Gneisses in this area is an evenly colour-banded and markedly-
granular, acid gneiss, containing a variable, but often considerable,
amount of brown mica. White mica is frequently present in
the typical gneiss, but as a rule in smaller quantity than brown,
while it is in many bands absent altogether. Though the amount of
brown mica varies incessantly, taking the group as a whole, it is for
the most part evenly distributed through small thicknesses of the
gneiss, varying from a fraction of an inch to sometimes as much as
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Vol. 60.] MOINE GNEISSES OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 403
2 feet, or even more. This increase and decrease, in different bands,
of evenly-disseminated brown mica imparts different shades of grey,
pale-grey, or pinkish-grey to the banded gneiss, and is the principal
cause of the evenly colour-banded aspect, which is its most
characteristic feature. The bedded aspect of the series is often
intensified by the arrangement of the individual crystals of
biotite parallel to the colour-banding. But it is still further
accentuated by the presence of films of felted dark mica, which
are always rigidly parallel, and appear on a cross-fractured surface
as fine black lines.
These films decompose more readily than the rest of the rock,
and give rise to planes of diminished coherence, so that when
fragments become detached from a scar-face they break away along
those parallel surfaces. Further, this decomposed material weathers
out, leaving a series of minute paraliel grooves that have the
appearance of dark lines when seen from a distance of a few feet.
It is, indeed, to the presence of these films that the flaggy weather-
ing of the Moine Gneisses is essentially due; and when the gneisses
occur in thicker bands, or the films are much farther apart, the
flaggy character is partly lost. It will be shown later that the
presence of these films is of the utmost importance in tracing these
rocks when they thin away to the south-east.
That these rocks are altered sediments, and that the colour-banding
is coincident with the original bedding, is, in many cases, perfectly
clear from their chemical and mineralogical composition; but, if
any further proof were wanted, it is to be found in the small cross-
cleaved, highly-micaceous bands, originally more of the nature of
shales, that occur at intervals throughout the whole of the
Struan section. This cleavage of the original shale-material
obviously took place prior to any crystallization, and, as a rule, it
ends abruptly against the colour-banded rocks, which, frem their
present composition, must have been of a more sandy nature
originally, and would not cleave. The phenomenon is identical with
that observed so often in cleaved and folded Silurian rocks, although
the latter have not since been crystallized. Equally important, from
this point of view, is the occurrence in the deep cutting at the
Perth 42-milepost of a special type of grey gneiss, in which there
is scarcely any parallel banding; even the parallel arrangement of
the biotite in the rock is not well marked, and the felted films of
biotite are entirely absent. This rock differs from the more common
type of gneiss in its mode of weathering, and on open ground forms
rounded blocks of massive aspect, somewhat resembling a very fine
granite. The absence of any indication of the original bedding
suggests that the material was deposited under somewhat different
conditions from those of the parallel-banded gneisses. It may be
here noted that no thick band of such material ever oceurs near
the south-eastern margin of the Moine Gneisses, or in the ground
where they end off.
It may not be out of place, in concluding this account of the
macroscopic character of these gneisses, to draw attention to the
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Fig. 3.—Typical scar formed of Moine G'neisses, showing the resemblance
to unaltered sandstones : on the River Garry, near Clune, 2 miles
north-west of Struan.
Q.J.G.8. No. 240. 2F
406 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES ___[ Nov. 1904,
fact that their highly-crystalline character is shown, not by the
quartz or felspar, but by the persistently-large size of the micas,
when these are present in notable quantity. Years of study have
proved that this is by far the most sensitive test by which to judge
of the degree of crystallization in altered sediments, such as were
originally normal sandstones and shales.
Microscopic Characters of the Gneisses in the Struan
Area.—Great light is thrown on the structure and composition of
these gneisses by the aid of the microscope. ‘Taking first the
prevalent type—the parallel-banded rocks, we find that they
are essentially felspathic gneisses, the felspar being usually in excess
of the quartz, and in some cases occurring almost to the exclusion of
the latter. As the quartz decreases in amount it tends to assume a
rather rounded form, embedded more or less in the felspar, and con-
stituting ‘quartz-bleb structure.’ It may, when present in very small
quantity, occur as minute globules in the felspar, imitating exactly
the micropoikilitic structure of igneous rocks. The felspar is of two
kinds— microcline, for the most part fresh and showing the typical
cross-hatching; and plagioclase, usually much decomposed. It is
almost impossible, in many cases, to be certain of the nature of the
plagioclase-felspar, but in some instances it is clearly oligoclase.
The relative proportion of microcline to plagioclase in the gneisses
of the Struan area varies greatly. In the lighter-grey varieties
plagioclase seems to be, as a rule, slightly in excess ; in the darker-
grey varieties, microcline often exceeds the other in amount. When
the gneiss weathers with a distinctly-pink edge, the microcline seems.
usually to be the dominant felspar in this area; and it is, at
times, more abundant than plagioclase aud quartz taken together.
A good idea of the general structure may be obtained by selecting
a specimen in which the quartz, microcline, and plagioclase are
present in nearly-equal proportions.’ It will be seen that the
grains are, on the whole, evenly distributed, as if they had been
first mixed in a pepper-pot and then shaken out. This granular
arrangement of the component grains may be described as a
‘granulitic structure*; but it cannot be too clearly understood
that it is unlike the granulitic structure of many of the schists
of the Southern Highlands. The microcline usually retains this
granular mode of occurrence, even when present in large quantity,
and it rarely helps to bring out the foliated character or parallel
structure of the rocks. But, if the plagioclase increases in pro-
portion, it assumes irregular forms, and tends to occur in much
larger and often elongated patches that help to define the parallel
structure. The quartz in the latter case frequently appears
embedded as ‘ blebs’ in the felspar, a mode of occurrence that can
often be made out by the aid of a hand-lens.
The foliated aspect, in hand-specimens, of a single band or flag
' See Pl. XXXTV, fig. 1 (No. 88). The low numbers refer to photographs in
the possession of the Geological Survey; the high ones (10,422) to the micro-
scopic rock-sections,
Vol. 60. | OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, 407
of the gneiss is mainly due to the parallel arrangement of the
micas ; and microscopic sections show that, as a rule, these are so set
in the rock as to interfere only to a small extent with the granular
structure shown by the quartz and felspar. It is only when mica
is present in sufficiently-large quantity to impart an almost-tissile
character to the rock, that its influence appears in the rock-
structure. In that case, almost continuous films of biotite or biotite
and muscovite separate well-defined parallel strips of quartz-felspar
material. The edges of the grains in contact with the mica are now
distinctly flattened, and, moreover, the grains within the parallel
strips tend to assume a somewhat quadrangular form (Nos. 85, 89,
& 9V).
ae Struan and adjacent areas, the biotite of the Moine Gneisses,
when fresh, is always of the normal haughtonite-type—that is,
when seen in cross-section and rotated under a single nicol, it
changes in colour from brown to a watery-black. Inclusions with
more or less pleochroic halos occur in the biotite, although they are
not a marked feature of the mineral. Chlorite is present in many
of the rocks, more particularly in the micaceous gneisses. It is very
difficult to say whether this is a replacement-product after brown
mica or not. It is too often forgotten that lime, though in small
quantity, is an essential constituent of normal biotite; and, in many
cases, the more or less chloritic original material from which these
rocks were produced did not contain sufficient lime to form even
biotite when metamorphosed, and then the chlorite is the direct
product of thermal metamorphism. Pleochroic spots are common
in this chlorite. The white mica presents no feature of importance,
except in its mode of occurrence. It does not conform to the
foliation so closely as the biotite, and in some of the rocks it is set
with the basal plane at right angles to the foliation.
In addition to the minerals just enumerated, small crystals of
sphene are common in some of the specimens, and present in almost
all. They are often pointed, elliptical in shape, and are frequently
coated with a film of iron-oxide. They have usually the aspect of
metamorphic sphene, and are never strictly original. Apatite occurs
occasionally, as also zircon. The latter is not nearly so common
as might have been expected in such rocks, which clearly originated
from fine felspathic and micaceous sands. Small garnets occur in
certain dark blotches in one band of very pale gneiss, but the
mineral is not common in this area.
Taking the grey gneisses as a whole, they are remarkable for the
amount of microcline present, and, in this respect, they differ from
the grey gneisses of the areas farther to the north-east (to be
described later), where microcline is less common, despite the close
external resemblance between the rocks in the two areas.
The Pink-edged Gueisses.—In addition to the dominant
grey-banded gneisses, there are also present some that weather with
a pink edge, even though they are grey on a freshly-fractured face.
These pink-edged varieties are especially interesting, because they
2F2
408 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES [| Nov. 1904,
serve, more than any other members, to correlate the Moine Gneisses
of different areas despite local variations of character. It has
been found in the Struan and adjacent areas that these rocks
are especially rich in microcline. Moreover, when the pink colora-
tion is well marked, they asually contain in addition some calec-
silicate, which is most commonly epidote or zoisite, but at times
hornblende is present. Typical examples of the epidote-bearing
variety are abundant in the second cutting above Struan Railway-
station. ‘The most interesting example of this pink type, however,
occurs in the bed of the Garry, immediately in front of Dalnacardoch
Lodge. Like all the rocks close by, it splits into comparatively-thin
slabs, owing to the presence, at short intervals, of the thin films of
felted biotite already mentioned. Between these films the rock 1s
not particularly fissile; indeed, it is rather tough, and shows a
mottled red-and-green coloration, on a cross-fractured surface. A
section shows that it is composed mainly of the typical cross-hatched
microcline. This forms a kind of groundmass, in which are set a
number of aggregates of green mica, the long axes of which are
parallel to, and, indeed, serve to mark, the foliation of the rock.
A small amount of plagioclase (in irregular patches) and a little
white mica are also present. Apatite is fairly common, and occurs
in much the same manner as the quartz. ‘This latter mineral is
present in very small quantity, and most of it is found as tiny blebs
in the microcline, affording a perfect example of micropoikilitic
structure. The occurrence of this rock, so rich in alkali-felspar, is
especially interesting, as it tends to recur again and again over a
very large area, and apparently at a definite horizon.’
The highly-micaceous Gneisses.—These rocks are charac-
terized by abundant white mica and biotite or chlorite. For the
most part they are cross-cleaved, as already stated ; but where only
a very thin parting occurs, the gneiss is at times ‘ rodded,’ that is,
the micas are all elongated in a definite direction, and there is no
specialiy-marked plane of schistosity. This variety serves to show
that the originally-softer parts of the series have often suffered
considerably from dynamic action prior to crystallization.
These micaceous bands possess a somewhat different structure
from that of the other gneisses. In the cross-cleaved variety there
is a tendency to form lenticles, free from mica, as in the true
schists, but the lenticular structure visible in the hand-specimen is
not nearly so obvious under the microscope. Comparatively-little
microcline is present, and only a moderate amount of felspar.
Quartz, on the other hand, is more abundant than would have been
suspected. Apatite is much more common than in the parallel-
banded rocks. The abundance of quartz explains, what is specially
noticeable, the total absence from the micaceous gneisses of silicates
of alumina, such as sillimanite, cordierite, andalusite, etc. Clearly,
' See Pl. XXXVI, fig. 1 (No. 84). Further investigation has shown that
this is the ‘ Pink Felspathic’ rock described on p. 416, and marks the top of
the Moine Gneisses.
Vol. 60.] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, 409
after the formation of the micas, there was not an excess of alumina
sufficient to form such minerals, and the microscope confirms the
inference that the shale was originally somewhat gritty and impure.
Other Exposures in the Struan District.
The flaggy gneisses just described cover a large area on both sides
of the Garry, above Struan. On the open ground, however, good
exposures of them are not numerous, because the flanks of the hills
are much obscured by Drift, and the crests of the hills are frequently
covered by a somewhat angular rubble, which is due to the dis-
integration of the rocks. About the Dalnacardoch area, and for
some distance eastward, the massive grey gneiss is especially
abundant, where it weathers in the form of rounded blocks.
Owing to its greater power of resisting decomposition, it is often
seen in situ. Excellent sections are exposed, however, in the
streams that drain into the Garry, and these are often continuous
for considerable distances. Microscopic examination shows little
variation in the type-rocks ; while the appearance of a continuous
dip is at times even more marked than in the Garry section.
In the area between Struan and Blair Atholl, the gneisses undergo
a slight change, becoming, on the whole, more micaceous, and in
many cases rather more fissile. The latter character is shown by
microscopic sections to be due to the parallel arrangement of the
white mica, as well as of the brown, the two being often in contact.
Good examples of this type occur in the cutting near the Manse,
north-west of Blair Atholl, where the rocks appear to contain rather
less microcline than usual. Around the igneous complex of Glen
Banvie, and for some distance to the south-east, the gneisses are
rather more quartzose than usual, becoming at times almost quartzites.
A typical example of the latter is essentially a granular mosaic of
quartz and felspar, with a little brown and white mica, but it differs
from the Central-Highland Quartzite in the large amount of micro-
cline present. Farther down the Banyie Burn greyer-banded types
occur, well shown in the quarry under the road at the western end
of the Whim Plantation. One of these (10,422) contains many oval
crystals of microcline, within which are numerous poikilitic grains
of quartz, as well as minute flakes of mica and grains of garnet and
epidote. Most of the grey bands, with parallel biotite, contain
much microcline, but when the biotite is abundant it begins to show
a reddish-brown tint.
ates ae
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Pe BRC a
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EXPLANATION Little Limestone ---
———————— Dark Schist
Alluyivm Main Limestone and-=————4
Quartzite-= == === ee Cale -Flintas --~---- pt
Folded Passage -Rocks Granite and
& edge of Quartzite Quartz-Porphyry ---
Vassage-Rocks with In- ; Epidiorite and
folds of Dark Schist &e._ Hornblende-Schist..-
Vol. 60.| MOINE GNBISSES OF THE BAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 423
(e) The Succession in the Braemar Area.
The Sequence.—One of the most striking features of the
scenery of the EKast-Central Highlands is the great chain of quartzite-
mountains that stretches from Beinn y Ghlo, near Blair Atholl, to
Mor Shron, close to Braemar. Parallel to this are minor chains,
composed of the same material. While the quartzite is intensely
hard, and resists denudation, the rocks associated with it, and
in particular a bed of limestone, are much softer, and yield readily
to erosion. ‘These beds, in consequence, have weathered away to a
great depth, and hence much of the district is characterized by an
alternation of high ridges and deep valleys; the trend of which is
determined by the strike of the outcrops of the Quartzite. It is
with the composition and order of succession of the rocks forming
this special type of scenery that we have now to deal. The locality
selected for the purpose lies 2 miles south of Braemar; but other
parts of the district will be referred to, for the purpose of aiding the
investigation.
The succession in this group of rocks, in this area, whether
ascending or descending, is as follows :—
1. The Central-Higbland Quartzite.
2. The Parallel-Banded Series; Honestones, ete. (passing into Moine
Gneisses).
3. The Little Limestone.
4, The Dark or Leaden Schist.
5. The Main Limestone.
6. The altered, parallel-banded Calcareous Shales (Calc-Flintas).
1. The Central-Highland Quartzite.—The Quartzite was
originally a bed of sandstone, more felspathic in some parts than
others, that has been intensely folded on itself, so as to build up
enormous masses of highly-quartzose rock. It is conveniently
called a ‘ quartzite, because, however much recrystallized, it almost
always retains the angular weathering of an ordinary quartzite.
Often there is no sign of the mechanical deformation usually met
with in the other members of the series ; and it is clear that it was
altered to a quartzite, not only before the crystallization of the
Highland rocks took place, but prior to their crushing. Over almost
Note on the Map, fig. 4, p.422.—In this map the sequence is built up. Here,
again, the stream and scar-sections are mostly clear, but the flatter ground is
greatly obscured by thin peat and Drift; owing to the intense folding, there is
often no sharp junction between the different rock-groups. Starting from the
margin of the Quartzite, we sometimes see, first the edge of the Quartzite
repeatedly folded with the Passage-Beds, then the Passage-Beds folded with the
Little Limestone and Dark Schist, and, finally, the Dark Schist only. There
is, however, in many cases, a fairly-sharp junction with the Quartzite. The
line separating the Passage-rocks from the Dark Schist often implies simply
that one rock is the dominant component on one side of the boundary, the
other rock on the other. The outcrop of the Little Limestone is so narrow as
to be often untraceable. The quartz-porphyry outcrop, shown west and north-
west of Newbiggin, also extends to the east of the burn, immediately north of
the Main Limestone.
262
424 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES __ [{ Nov. 1904,
the entire area, the Quartzite varies little in appearance and com-
position, and can be divided up into three parts, as follows :—
(a) The fine white edge of the Quartzite, characterized by its
whiteness and its generally-fine grain, and usually containing but
little felspar. ‘There is often present, however, a considerable
amount of unevenly-distributed pyrites, which, on decomposition,
imparts a rusty-brown aspect to this portion of the rock, and this
rusty aspect is even more characteristic than the unaltered white
colour. It cannot be too clearly understood that this is the only
margin of the Quartzite ever met with in the whole of the area under
discussion ; the reverse side, whether the top or the base, is never
seen.
(6) The Quartzite, with dark lines of heavy minerals.—This part
contains a little more felspar than the last, although still practically
white. ‘The fine dark lines in which the heavy minerals occur
ndicate the bedding; at times they show that the rock was
originally false-bedded.
(c) The porous Quartzite—This portion of the rock, which
commences some 6 or 8 feet from the outer margin, must have been
coarser originally, and contains more felspar; at times it is
markedly felspathic. Owing to the indestructible nature of the
quartz, the felspar in an exposed face weathers out completely,
leaving a number of small holes in a homogeneous mass of quartz,
and imparting to this weathered face its typical porous aspect.
The white edge of the Quartzite can be recognized in almost
every clear section, south of Braemar, where the junction with the
other members of the series is exposed. In what may be con-
veniently termed the type-locality, it occurs close to the roadside
north of Coldrach. ‘The other parts of the bed may be seen
by ascending almost any of the quartzite-mountains in the neigh-
bourhood.
2. The Parallel-Banded Series.—Immediately next the
white edge of the Quartzite is a rock composed of a few thin,
yellowish, quartzose bands, separated by pale, cross-cleaved,
micaceous films: obviously a passage-rock. This is succeeded by
greyer material, still in alternating layers of more siliceous’ and
more micaceous composition, the latter again often cross-cleaved.
In addition, the face of the micaceous bands is often covered with
small spots or projections, proved in many cases to be minute
garnets. As we recede from the main Quartzite, the micaceous
material darkens in colour, and becomes more like the Dark Schist
above; moreover, it exceeds the grey siliceous material in amount.
The section here seen differs trom the typical Honestones in
the greater proportion of shaly material between the more
siliceous bands in the original rock. Moreover, this softer material
contains much of the dark dust and clastic chlorite characteristic of
the horizon next above. The parallel-banded or passage-rocks are
seen in part near Coldrach, and in the low ground between Glen
* See Pl. XXXVI, fig. 2 (No. 136).
Vol. 60. | OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 425
Clunie and Glen Callater, continuing a short distance up the latter.
Two other exposures occur in the neighbourhood : one in the nose
and crest of the hill overlooking the junction of the two streams ;
the other along the crest of the southern face of the corrie behind
Coldrach. It is easily seen that these passage-rocks, before they
were folded, could not have been more than a few feet thick.
3. The Little Limestone.—The typical form of the Little
Limestone, as seen in Glen Callater and Glen Clunie, is a remarkable
rock, the origin of which becomes clear only after the bed next to it
has been examined. ‘The latter shows conclusively that the Little
Limestone was originally an admixture of calcite, very finely-divided
clastic chlorite, and marcasite, with possibly a small portion of car-
bonaceous material. When raised toa high temperature, an unusual
combination of elements took place, resulting in the production of a
glass-white hornblende (tremolite), in which hme and magnesia are
mixed in equal parts, the iron-ore being rejected. The latter being
dusted through the rock, which is essentially of massive habit,
imparts to it an almost black colour, although the dominant
constituent is glass-white. Occasionally yellowish films, mainly
composed of epidote and zoisite, occur in it. In some cases there
was slightly more lime than was necessary for the formation of the
tremolite, and this is now scattered through the rock in small
grains of crystallized calcite. The rock often bears a close resem-
blance to an epidiorite, and has to be carefully examined in order to
place its identity beyond dispute. So long as the Dark Schist, to be
described next, is of constant composition, the Little Limestone
retains this aspect, and has been recognized as far away as the
neighbourhood of Ben Vrackie, near Pitlochry; but, if the Dark
Schist changes in composition, the Little Limestone changes too.
The rock is met with in Glen Callater at the first small rapid above
the bridge, though another and more interesting outcrop occurs at
the sharp bend farther up, a little beyond the quarry, in the flagg
hornfels. The total number of outcrops in this neighbourhood is
almost incredible, and shows conclusively the intense and com-
plicated folding of the rocks.
4. The Dark Schist, with the ‘twinned-chlorite-rock’
and the ‘felspar-rock.—In a type-area, such as that south
of Auchallater, where the Dark Schist attains its full development,
it is characterized by the presence of an excessive amount of mag-
nesian silicates, due to the existence in the original rock of an
extraordinary quantity of finely-divided clastic chlorite. This
material attained its maximum in the film of rock next the
Little Limestone (the Twin-Chlorite Rock), and this is now seen in
the form of abundant twinned crystals of chlorite. From this zone
upwards, the clastic chloritic material steadily diminishes, on the
whole, attaining its minimum close to the Main Limestone,
where the most characteristic aluminous silicate is kyanite, or
more rarely audalnsite. containining no magnesia, As we descend,
426 MR. G., BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES i Nov. 1904,
staurolite appears, and twin-chlorite and other magnesian silicates
steadily increase in amount. Where the metamorphism is more
intense, the same phenomenon is shown by the greater abundance
of cordierite in the lower part of this bed, while andalusite is more
abundant in the upper.
Another characteristic of the zone a little above the Twin-
Chlorite Rock, is the presence in large quantity of a felspar proved by
Dr. Teall to be of the oligoclase-andesine group, containing curving
lines of dark dust (the ‘Felspar-Rock’). It occurs, to a small extent,
through most of the bed, but appears to be abundant only towards
the lower part. Its distribution seems to be the same as that of
the tremolite-rock ; the two, so to speak, go together, and have been
recognized as far away as the neighbourhood of Druid Farm,
north-west of Ben Vrackie (10,777). The dark dust that occurs in
this felspar is met with throughout the whole of the Dark Schist in
the Braemar area, but as a rule is most abundant about the T'win-
Chlorite Rock. Here, a small portion of it is undoubtedly graphite,
though, in most cases, very little of this material is of that nature.
The dark dust seen under the microscope is often in part leucoxene,
but by far the greater portion of it is iron-ore; its real origin was
suggested by Mr. A. Dick’s examination into the cause of the blue
colour of unweathered London Clay. ‘This proved to be the pre-
sence of a large number of minute spheroids of marcasite, and there
can be little doubt that the dark dust of these rocks had a similar
origin. ‘The iron-ore in these rocks is slightly magnetic, and, if
a specimen be ground to very fine powder, the greater part of the
rock can be picked up with a magnet, owing to the even dissemination
of the iron-ore throughout it.
5. The Main Limestone.—the typical Main, or Blair-Atholl
Limestone, is well seen at the southern end of the corrie opposite
Newbiggin in Glen Clunie, where it possesses the characteristic pale
bluish-grey colour and crystalline aspect. The Clunie area shows
well the tendency of the rock to become more impure as it approaches
the belt along which the Moine Gneisses set in; or where there
is a hiatus in the succession, and parts of the beds are missing,
As a rule, however, only the basal portion is markedly impure,
and as (in many cases) it is this part repeated by folding that is
really seen, it gives the erroneous impression that the whole bed is
impure.
6. The Calc-Flintas, or Parallel-Banded Calcareous
Shales.—This bed consists of thin lamine alternately richer and
poorer in lime. ‘The peculiarity from which it takes its name, is
its more or less persistent flinty aspect, due to the presence of a
variable number of bands composed of quartz, biotite, calcite,
pyrites, and leucoxene. These originally contained much quartz
and clastic chlorite in a fine state of subdivision, which, when
heated, form a kind of hornfels at a specially-low temperature
and this hornfels is so intensely hard, that it resisted shearing
Vol. 60. ] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 4
movements anterior to the main crystallization of the Highland rocks.’
Associated with the flinty bands are much paler, almost white,
layers. The dominant constituents of these are white pyroxene and
calcite. Other pale bands rich in epidote occur. All these phases
may be found in the Cale-Flintas associated with the Main Lime-
stone at the corrie opposite Newbiggin. They also show another
feature of the rock: here and there special bands occur, differing in
type from the normal. At this locality, g few bands have an almost
micaceous aspect, owing to the presence of a great number of small
parallel crystals, determined by Dr. Flett to be pale hornblende.
he proportion of the more flinty material is small here, but the
parallel banding is well shown. A very small infold of the pyroxene-
bands is associated with the limestone in the bed of the Clunie at the
southern end of Auchyndrine (Braemar).
(f) Further Evidence of the Succession.
It has already been shown that the Quartzite is succeeded by the
Parallel-Banded Rocks; the best locality for ascertaining the nature
and succession of the zones above the latter occurs in Glen Callater,
at the bend of the stream above the quarry in the flaggy hornfels,
above the bridge at Auchallater. At this bend, when the water is
low, we see first the Little Limestone (tremolite-rock, S091); next
this comes the ‘l’'win-Chlorite Rock (8092) of a characteristic
dead-black, due to the presence of graphite ; while next this again
come the various portions of the Felspar-Rock (8094, etc.), often
known as the Felspar-Hornfels” of Glen Callater. At the southern
edge of the quarry (see map, fig. 4, p. 422), in the daggy horntels,
we see again the Felspar-Rock, with its glistening crystals of felspar
rendered dark by the presence of the dark dust, which serves to fix
the horizon of the recks within the quarry. These are characterized
by a flagey habit, the splitting-faces being coated with bronzy mica
and, at times, with small spots. The different bands vary in colour
and compactness. ‘The darkest have a somewhat flinty cross-fracture,
and contain a great quantity of fresh andalusite showing the typical
pink pleochroism. Except on the splitting-face the amount of biotite
present is small, but there is a considerable quantity of shimmer-
aggregate material replacing some alumina-silicate. Quartz is sub-
ordinate in amount, and a small quantity of felspar is present. The
typical dark dust is abundant, and the structure of the rock is
essentially that of a hornfels. A band, in which the flinty cross-
* The hornfels-like aspect of this rock, traceable over half the breadth of
Scotland, is due to the fact that, after induration, it usually escaped crushing
owing to the plasticity of limestone at a high temperature (as proved by the
experiments of Prof. Adams & Dr. Nicolson). ‘The limestone next the flintas gave
way readily and relieved the latter from the crushing stresses. Many other
rocks must have been similarly indurated, but possessing no such yielding
margin they have been since crushed.
> See SIV, p. 442, at the end of which the bearing of this rock on the absence
of metamorphism due to the neighbouring mass of granite is discussed.
428 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES ___[{ Nov. 1904,
fracture is not so marked, contains less andalusite but far more
shimmer-aggregate material. The most micaceous part of the rock,
with numerous spots on the splitting surface, shows marked parallel
structure under the microscope, and is composed of abundant pale
biotite associated with quartz, a little felspar, and some andalusite.
The elongated micas sweep round small patches in which no parallel
structure is seen, and these are probably eyes of material that have
been indurated anterior go the main crystallization of the mass,
and have thus escaped crushing.
Now, the rock so rich in andalusite is seen again close to the Main
Limestone, both at the head of the corrie about a mile to the north-
north-east of Auchallater, and 2 miles to the south-south-west, in
the corrie opposite Newbiggin. It is thus clear that there is not
much more rock present in the whole of the Black Schist than the
few bands above described, and it cannot have been much more
than 15 feet thick originally. This will be understood by following
up Glen-Cailater Burn as far as the ford; there, except the
granite, nothing is seen but the Felspar-Rock and the closely-
adjacent material, repeated incessantly by folding. A difficulty
arises from the different phases of metamorphism ; for, when the
material was considerably heated anterior to the main meta-
morphism and indurated so as to escape subsequent crushing, it is
found, in this area, finally to crystallize as an andalusite-hornfels; but
generally, if much crushed, it finally assumes the form of a kyanite-
schist. In both cases, it will be noted that it is a non-magnesian
silicate that is so abundantly developed in the highest band. In
some cases, the andalusite appears as a number of minute laths that
in their mode of occurrence simulate kyanite, and in other localities
are replaced by kyanite. This gradual diminution in the amount of
clastic chlorite present in the original shales has been noted over a
wide area, and suggests continuous deposition or an unbroken
sequence from the Little Limestone to the rock rich in kyanite or
andalusite next the Main Limestone.
For the purpose of building up the sequence the most valuable
evidence, however, 1s obtained from the association of the Main
Limestone with the Calc-Flintas, or altered, parallel-banded, calcareous
shales. The accumulated experience of years of detailed mapping
makes it certain that in these two rocks we have a record of con-
tinuous deposition, or a portion of an original and unbroken sequence :
no other bed in the series can intervene between them, and in any
account of the succession they must always be taken together.
Again, experience has shown that, with very rare exceptions, the
calcareous shales always overlie or succeed the main bed of Lime-
stone. Now these Calc-Flintas occur in most of the broader valleys
over a very large area, especially where the beds between the
Quartzite and the Main Limestone are wholly missing. It must be
remembered that in the former case it is not merely the original
thickness of the beds that is missing, but the great mass of rock
built up by their intense folding; a large gap is consequently left
Vol. 60. ] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 42%)
to be filled up by the folded higher beds. This happens along
almost the whole length of the south-eastern side of the Ben-y-Glioe
Mountains, which rise from comparatively low ground to a height
of more than 3600 feet above sea-level. The gap to be filled up is
exceptionally large, and in consequence the largest known outcrop
of the Cale- Flintas occurs here, and we see in addition a small
number of thin infolds of the altered dark shale originally above the
Calc-Flintas. But over the whole of the rest of the country, the
rock on the reverse side of the flintas to the Main Limestone is
never seen; and the flintas must in all other cases be either the
highest or lowest rocks in this part of the South-Eastern Highlands,
and the evidence is conclusive that they are the highest.
This view, that there is a descending succession from the Main
Limestone to the Quartzite, is greatly strengthened by the frequency
with which a hiatus occurs at the margin of the Main Limestone, a
good example of which is shown on the map (fig. 4, p. 422) in the
corrie opposite Newbiggin. Sometimes the whole of the Dark Schist
and the Little Limestone are missing, sometimes portions only; but
as the investigation proceeds, it will be seen that the line of erosion
at the base of the Main Limestone is not by itself sufficient to
explain all the phenomena met with.
(g) Meaning of the Patches of Dark Schist and Proof that
the Sequence is incomplete in the Glen-Tilt Area.
The meaning of the patches of Dark Schist in the Gilbert’s-
Bridge and Banvie-Buarn sections can now be investigated.’ Below
Gilbert’s Bridge, close to Crombie Burn, one of these patches inter-
vening between the limestone and the Moine Gneiss is a kyanite-
garnet-stauroiite-schist, obviously well above the bottom of the
dark shale, but almost certainly a little below the top. There are
several other smal] patches below Gilbert’s Bridge, and these appear
to be approximately at the same horizon. Nearer Gilbert's Bridge
a film of tough schist occurs between the Limestone and the Pink
Felspathic Rock. This (10,549) is a highly-micaceous rock, built
up of alternating films of quartzose and micaceous material ; the
latter consist largely of white mica and chlorite, often env eloping
large cracked and decomposed garnets. Jron-ore is abundant, both
in good-sized grains and as fing dust, and it is often embedded ina
clear, almost glassy material, which is known to be plagioclase
although it here shows no striation. There can be little doubt
that this is a siliceous modification of the Felspar-Rock, and it
illustrates a difficulty that oceurs repeatedly. As the area is
approached where the more sandy material, now forming the Moine
Gneisses, was deposited, the Dark Schist tends to become slightly
more siliceous, and differs slightly in appearance from the rocks of
the type-area. If the siliceous material increases beyond a certain
point, the zone can, of course, be no longer identified. So far as is
‘ See Map, Pl. XXXIII.
(OGRA Oe WF ‘Tu ay) U0 x* YSLAIISD UD hig payowrp St gods au, ) ‘ab poy a1qQ40
mojag ‘BUT, Wayg § awopsoumryT winyy ay? fo asng ay} ay sassiauyy auropy aux wi Uorso.? fo DWT —"G “SLT
Vol. 60. | MOINE GNEISSES OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 431
known at present, this increase is more marked in the lower part of
the Schist than in the upper.
Of all these patches of Dark Schist, the most interesting is that
which lies apparently on the top of the Limestone in the river-
bank at the first bend below Marble Lodge. (See fig. 5, p. 430.)
Here the Limestone is shown resting in an eroded hollow of the
attenuated Parallel-Banded Rocks into which the Moine Gneisses
have slowly passed, while lying apparently above the Limestone
is the patch of Dark Schist now mentioned. It is a dark, somewhat
massive rock, evidently rich in biotite, but containing a number
of very minute lenticular films of quartz, suggesting that, as
we approach an area of more sandy deposition, the Dark Schist
Fig. 6.—Diagraim showing the Dark Schist and Parallel-Banded
Rocks apparently on opposite sides of the Limestone, while in
reality they ave on the same side.
A B
Sante bh yw howe ke Ul el on Ltzzezestarse
“eon on uv ie) et aT
on ee ey at gO) a 0 gam Darl Schist
ee
—
———
SS
—
After folding, so that the point A lies directly
over the point B.
has become more quartzose (10,421). The rock contains much
granulitic quartz, which represents the minute lenticles referred to,
and a great quantity of more or less aggregated crystals of red
biotite ; the typical felspar with much dark dust, like the Glen-
Callater hornfels, is abundant, and there is one crystal of andalusite.
Itis clearly a slightly-siliceous phase of the upper part of the Felspar-
Rock. ‘The occurrence of the Felspar-Rock above a thin band of
Limestone, with the Parallel-Banded Rocks below it, seems, at first,
conclusive evidence that the limestone must be the Little Limestone.
In reality it is an ideal example of the kind of deception so often
produced by folding of a slightly-vague succession in the Central
Highlands. If we consider carefully the meaning of the sporadic
occurrence of lenticular patches of Dark Schist below Gilbert’s
Bridge, it becomes obvious that the folding may so involve one of
432 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES [ Nov. 1904,
these patches, as to make it appear that it is on the opposite side of
the Limestone to the Parallel-Banded Rocks, while, in reality, it is
on the same side. ‘The foregoing diagram (fig. 6, p. 481) shows
clearly both the deceptive structure and its explanation.
Similar patches of dark schist occur in Glen Banvie, and of these
the most interesting lies next the small mass of hornblende-schist
100 yards above the lower bridge, in the Whim Plantation. It
consists of two parts: one very dark, with a dead-black film, and a
fine grey siliceous schist or granulite. Three microscope-slides were
made of the dark portion (10,551-10,553), and these show that part
of the rock contains much dark dust, rich red biotite, while epidote
and zoisite are abundant along certain lines in an adjacent portion.
Another is tougher and darker, intensely chloritic, containing
decomposed garnets and a little andalusite ; a third is composed of
felted white mica and pale chlorite. The dead-blackness of part
of this rock, along with the occurrence of epidote and zoisite along
certain lines, suggest that we may have here a representative,
though very thin, of the Little Limestone; for the Little Limestone
will be shown later to pass into an epidote-zoisite rock, containing
much dark dust, before its outcrop is finally lost. It is the only
known occurrence of this dead-black material within a short
distance of the actual Moine Gneisses. The rock next it is very
fine in grain, and composed of white and dark mica arranged
parallel in a fine granular matrix of quartz and felspar. It can
be very closely matched from the Honestones and, by its texture,
shows how rapidly the rocks become finer in grain as we cross the
belt of decreasing crystallization.
The examination of these patches of schist clearly shows that they
belong to different horizons; not only is there a hiatus at the base
of the Main Limestone, but there is also liable to be one at the top
of the Moine Gneisses, or the Parallel- Banded Rocks into which they
pass. It seems as though, in an area where the originally-coarser
material of the Moine Gneisses was deposited, the currents were
strong enough, either to prevent the deposition of the fine mud, or
to wash it away after it was deposited. Owing to the shifting
nature of the currents, patches of the fine mud were, however, left,
and these lie at different horizons. The finest material of all was
probably that which formed the Little Limestone and the Twin-
Chlorite Rock, and this is the portion of the sequence that is most
persistently missing. But, as already stated, the total thickness of
the Dark Schist was quite small, and the hiatus is of no great con-
sequence. In connection with it, however, we note a remarkable
fact: it is succeeded by a limestone, very impure and very variable
in composition. Now, at the top of the Upper Lias in East York-
shire a similar sifting-away of the fine mud took place, followed
by the deposition of a very impure and very variable limestone, now
altered to ironstone, the Dogger or base of the Lower Oolites.
Proceeding in one direction, the succession beneath this impure
limestone becomes complete at Blea Wyke, on the coast south of
Robin Hood’s Bay. Proceeding in the opposite directicn—inland—
Vol. 60. | OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 433
the sifting-away occasionally takes a stronger form, and large holes
were dug in the soft dark mud, one of which occurs at Bilsdale
(nearly 100 feet deep), the other near Rosedale Abbey; in both
cases, the eroded hollow was filled up with impure limestone.
No further evidence, bearing on this investigation, is met with
till the northern end of the long straight portion of the Tilt Valley is
reached. Here, just above the junction with the An Lochan, a
section occurs closely resembling that at the sharp bend in the Tilt
at Crombie Wood, below Gilbert’s Bridge: the Pink Felspathic
material being again present. Ascending the river-bed from this
point, when the stream is low, the Honestones can be seen to pass
gradually into fine Moine Gneisses. This part of the river is some-
what obscured by numerous small protrusions from the Glen-Tuilt
complex ; but the passage can be well seen a little above Pool Tarf,
along the bed of the Tilt, and in the first small stream south
of the Tarf. Here, the passage of the Honestones into the Moine
Gneisses is practically unbroken. ‘This is due to the lucky accident
that only the less markedly-siliceous part of the Honestones is
present; a single infold of the more markedly-siliceous portion
would have broken the continuity of a gradual change.
On looking at the map, the reason why this gradual change can
be traced becomes at once obvious. As in the Gilbert’s-Bridge
section, the Tilt once more makes a Jarge bow. As before, one end
of the bow lies at one side of the belt of decreasing alteration, the
other almost at the opposite side; it does not quite do so, and this
is why, in addition, the small burn has to be ascended in order to
see the full change.
(h) The Falar Area.
Considerable light is thrown on the present investigation by the
clear, continuous sections in the deep gorges that characterize the
Falar portion of the Tilt drainage-area. The most convenient
starting-point lies at the junction of a little burn with Glen Mohr,
immediately north of Glen Bheag. In the lower part of the little
burn, the small sill of hornblende-schist and part of the Dark Schist
are exposed, repeated several times by folding. In the bed of the
main stream below, is an excellent section of the Honestones with
the Little Limestone next them, and beyond this a high bank
composed of the Dark Schist. The locality was often visited in
former years by farmers and shepherds, who came from considerable
distances to procure a certain portion of the parallel-banded material
to be used as honestones, and it is to this fact that the beds owe their
distinctive name. These Honestones are characterized by their even
colour-banding, and are composed of a number of alternating softer
and harder layers, most of which contain a considerable amount of
biotite, arranged parallel to the banding or bedding. The portion
of the rock nearest the Little Limestone is, on the whole, the
softest; and it at first contained most clastic chlorite. This often
occurred in little felted films, obviously identical originally with the
434 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOJNE GNEISSHS [ Nov. 1904,
felted biotite-films in the Moine Gneisses, and along which the rock
readily splits. Close to the Quartzite, a few far more siliceous pink
and white bands occur, and in these muscovite is more abundant and
there is less biotite. The intermediate portion is a thinly-banded,
fine-grained, brpwn or grey rock, obviously containing a great deal
of fine brown mica. ‘This is the dominant constituent of the group,
and in a typical example (9797) the more siliceous bands are
composed of a singularly-even admixture of quartz-grains and
minute flakes of biotite, with, possibly, some water-clear felspar ;
the structure is essentially that of a fine biotite-granulite. The
more micaceous portion contains far less quartz or felspar, and is
largely composed of finely-felted brown mica, with which some larger
‘ erystals of muscovite are associated, set athwart the foliation as in
a spangled gneiss. These micaceous films are peculiarly interesting,
for they have been met with over a large area, among others, on
the north-west side of Ben Vuroch.'
The Little Limestone, though still containing the typical dark
dust, differs from the tremolite-rock in the fact that the bulk of the
hornblende is now actinolite. A still more important difference
occurs in the schist forming the steep bank above the stream. It
is lighter in colour thau the typical Dark Schist, and a series of
sections shows that it originally contained far less clastic chlorite
and fine dark dust; still, the maximum amount of chlorite occurs
in the portion of the bed next the Little Limestone (9794, 9792,
9795, 9790). It is thus seen that, although we have here the full
sequence of the beds about the Little Limestone, each band differs
slightly in composition from the type-rocks of the section about
Auchallater. It places the true position of the Honestones, however,
beyond dispute, and is especially important because it will be seen
immediately that this is, so to speak, the most siliceous phase in
which the Honestones are ever known to occur in this area accom-
panied by the full sequence. So soon as they become markedly more
siliceous, the Little Limestone and part of the Dark Schist appear to
be almost always missing in the area here described.
This fact can be seen at once by ascending Glen Mohr. A little
above the junction with Glen Bheag, the stream flows along the
strike of the rocks. In the bank on one side we have the repeatedly-
folded margin of the Limestone, on the other the white edge of the
Quartzite: the bed of the stream being formed by the Honestones,
now somewhat more siliceous, but still unmistakable. In quite a
short distance, the Honestones pass into a small group of quartzite-
bands, with a patch in the centre in which the honestone-character
is still traceable. Of these quartzite-bands, the one nearest the
limestone is quite white and almost indistinguishable from the
margin of the Quartzite; the other bands are pink and grey. When
the ground was first examined, the limestone was taken for the
Little Limestone ; for it appears to be very thin, has a bright pink
colour, and is exactly in the position where the Little Limestone
should be. The recent traverses, however, make it more probable
' See explanation of the Geological Survey l-inch map, Sheet 55 (Scotland).
Vol. 60. | OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 435
that it is the base of the Main Limestone, which has here under-
gone one of the startling changes in appearance so often noted ;
for quite close by, and over much of the Falar area, the Main Lime-
stone has the appearance of the normal rock of Blair Atholl.
This change of the Honestones into a series of quartzite-bands of
variable colour is highly important for two reasons. In the first
place, it is obvious that these are the bands that, repeated incessantly
by folding, form the Moine Gneisses along the Sluggan Road in Inver-
cauld Forest,already described (see p. 413): the highest white band,
in particular, is especially important, for it forms the top of the
Moine Gneisses below Gilbert’s Bridge and in many other localities.
The second point is that a change in composition, similar to that
along the main line where the Moine Gneisses begin, is now taking
place in a south-easterly instead of a north-westerly direction ; in
other words, the change in composition of the rocks, due to powerful
current-actions accompanied by the deposition of more siliceous
material, is repeated to the south-east. The survey of the whole
area has shown that this tendency to revert to more sandy con-
ditions of deposition occurs again and again south-east of the Moine
Gneiss area and, though carried to a far smaller extent, it is almost
invariably accompanied by the silting-away or non-deposition of the
finer clastic material.
Beiow the type-section in Glen Mohr, the Honestones are often
exposed in the bed and sides of the gorge. A little above Falar
Burn they have an almost flinty aspect, and are characterized by
even banding, recalling a very fine phase of the Moine Gneiss
(11,125). Structurally, the rock is a very fine quartz-biotite-
granulite, but its most striking feature is the arrangement of
the crystals of brown mica. ‘Though rigidly parallel, they are
oblique to the bedding, which is clearly seen under the microscope.
Just at the mouth of Falar Burn there is a distinct increase in the
amount of originally-softer material present, and a type-specimen
(9453) could be matched from the mouth of Glen Callater. Near
the foot of Glen Mohr the whole of this softer material has dis-
appeared, and now only a thin film of the more quartzose pink-and-
grey material seperates the Main Limestone from the Quartzite. It
is obvious that there is a slight line of erosion at the base of the
Limestone, showing that it must be above the Quartzite. The pink-
aud-grey material (9406) is singularly like a portion of the Moine
Gneiss, except that it is finer in grain; and the resemblance is
equally marked in a microscopic section.
(2) The Aberdeenshire Area.
Turning now to the Aberdeenshire area, and following these finer
Parallel-Banded Rocks in a direction paraliel to that along which the
coarser Moine Gneisses have been traced, an interesting outcrop
occurs about half a mile up Allt-na-Bronn, to the east of the Bynack.
Here the quartzite is succeeded by a thin series, composed of
436 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES | Nov. 1904,
alternations of yellow or grey quartzose laminz and films of dark
material, the whole bearing an unusual resemblance to unaltered
sediments (8522, 8523, & 8524). The grey siliceous lamine closely
resemble the typical Honestones from Glen Mohr, but as a whole they
are intermediate in composition between these and the parallel-
banded rocks at Glen Callater ; indeed, 8524 can be exactly matched
at Glen Callater. Similar material occurs in several instances in
this neighbourhood next the Quartzite, and at the head of Glen
Chonnie it is succeeded by the Little Limestone (8549). The latter
shows well the change that takes place as the Parallel-Banded
Rocks become more siliceous or the dark partings become thinner.
In place of being built up mainly of white hornblende, the
Limestone is now composed of aggregated patches or crystals of
this mineral set in a matrix of calcite, biotite, quartz, and iron-ores.
The fine dark dust is present in smaller quantity. In this part
of the district the Limestone always loses its typical aspect as
the border of the Moine Gneisses is approached, and in one case
resembles a film rich in epidote noted in the Banvie Burn (8551,
8552).
The Parailel-Banded material just described is obviously the
equivalent of the more micaceous portion of the Honestones. In the
next burn to the north (Allt Unich), the more siliceous pink-and-
grey material next the Quartzite is more persistently exposed.
Starting where the two branches of the burn join, the Quartzite and
the marginal rocks (Honestones) are well shown, the latter being
clearly the same as No. 9406 from the foot of Glen Mohr. These
rocks were obviously part of one bed of sandstone originally, and
they now fold together as one rock, and are quite inseparable.
Farther down the stream they not only become more crystalline,
but the pink-and-grey portion rapidly thickens. The burn is
obscured by Drift for a short distance, but fortunately the rocks can
be followed in the bank to the south-west ; and, returning to the
burn once more, just before the fault is reached we find the coloured
bands now so highly crystalline that a specimen (8518) taken from
a little scar at the burn-side is a typical pink-edged epidotic gneiss,
practically identical with No. 8519 taken 7 miles away from the
heart of the Moine-Gneiss area, and close to the margin of the
Cairngorm Granite. It will be noted that, in this little scar, the
low dip of the Moine Gneiss and its accompanying structures are
met with. ‘To the north-east of this point, towards Braemar and
well up the hill-side, it is evident that the Quartzite is also involved
in the movements that produced the Moine-Gneiss structure; and
this is placed beyond dispute by the distinctive pink-and-grey colour
of the marginal rock. From this burn, then, almost to Braemar, a
large portion of the Moine Gneisses are really the Quartzite, in what
may be conveniently called a ‘ Moine-phase.’
At the northern foot of Morone, rather more than 2 miles south-
west of Braemar, the Limestone and Parallel-Banded Rocks are
exposed in the face of a small scar. In this, the margin of the
Limestone is repeatedly folded on itself, and has almost the typical
Vol. 60. ] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 437
low dip characteristic of the Moine Gneisses in this area. Close to,
or in contact with it, is the more micaceous portion of the Hone-
stones, which are here thicker and so markedly crystalline that it is
questionable whether they are to be called Honestones or Moine
Gneisses. They contain much biotite, and the characteristic original
films of chloritic material now largely altered to biotite. These
obviously represent the softer, or more micaceous portion of the
typical Honestones that are farthest from the margin of the Quartzite.
The portion closer to the Quartzite forms the lower hill above the
road and is a highly-quartzose, more or less banded gneiss. The flat
ground at the foot of the scar between the two types of rock is
unfortunately obscured by Drift, and their relation to one another is
not at first clear. Briefly put, the doubtful Honestones, or softer
bands, are a little way within the belt of increasing crystallization,
but not sufficiently far to give them a decisive character ; the more
quartzose gneisses farther down the hill are well within the belt,
and their character is unmistakable.
At this locality, the Pink Felspathic material of the Gilbert’s-
Bridge area is again intimately associated with the Limestone and,
to a smaller extent, with the adjacent rocks; the most important
constituent of this pink material is again microcline. Further, the
softer rocks close to the Limestone are identical with the more
crystalline portions of the Honestones below Pool Tarf in the Tilt,
where, as previously stated, the further passage to Moine Gneiss is
practically unbroken.
We may conclude this account of the mode of ending-off of the
Moine Gneisses with a brief description of three sections, in all of
which the horizon of the Parallel-Banded material can be fixed just
before it becomes too thin to be shown on a map.
The first occurs about the hill of Creag-na-Dala Bige, in the
Invercauld Forest, overlooking the head of the Cairn. To the west
of this hill the Moine Gneisses cover a considerable area, although
this is largely composed of a single folded band, characterized by
pink edges and containing much epidote, already referred to. The
gneiss is succeeded to the east by a considerable mass of well-foliated
Dark Schist, here highly crystalline and containing some sillimanite,
and so much cordierite as to show that it was highly chloritic
originally, and is the lower part of the bed (8435). A few small
infolds of the Main Limestone occur within this Dark Schist. On the
opposite or eastern side of the Dark Schist, the Moine Gneisses are
represented by a small thickness of faintly-banded quartzose rock,
quite inseparable from the main Quartzite seen a little farther down
the hill.
The second occurs on the hill above Balloch, about a mile and a half
east-north-east of Invercauld House, and has been already referred
to (p. 414). The thin, faintly-banded, highly-quartzose represen-
tative of the Moine Gneisses is here succeeded directly by the Main
Limestone (9825); and there is clearly a slightly-larger hiatus than
at the locality just mentioned. A little farther west, the Parallel-
Q.J.G.8. No. 240. Qu
438 MR. G, BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES _[ Nov. 1904,
Banded material is seen in the scars to have thinned away, and to
be no longer separable on a map. In this direction the Dark Schist
slowly thickens, until in a few places the full sequence may be seen.
The third section occurs about 3 miles to the south-east of
Balmoral, on the ridge north-west of Girnoch Burn. Here the
Main Limestone (9828) is often separated from the Quartzite by
quite a thin parting of dark siliceous schist, which locally thickens to a
flinty Parallel-Banded rock (9816), resembling the specimen 11,125
of the Honestones from Glen Mohr. It is, however, still more like
a flinty biotite-schist that occurs repeatedly in the corrie behind
Coldrach in Glen Clunie, but is there in contact with the Little
Limestone. The extent of the hiatus at the Girnoch ridge is
thus clearly defined ; the whole of the Dark Schist and the Little
Limestone is missing, and this is exactly the hiatus with which we
started, at Gilbert’s Bridge, 30 miles away.
Fig. 7.—Diagram showing the true succession of the rocks described.
BIGCK coc
pee
Fiintass
Meat
Limestone
Dark =
SCHUSE i. 20: ee ey Clee yee Eee
Little
Limestone =
Honestome |= * =:
=-
a
-
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ms aan) meteor
eos
Ne
=-———
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pant en sme Fs
on fee ae et
— =. =.
Quartzite
From the evidence adduced, it will be seen that along a line more
than 30 miles long the Moine Gneisses, when traced to the south-
east, tend both to thin away and to pass into a material which was
originally of a more muddy nature. Along a considerable portion
of this line, the change is accompanied by a rapid decrease in
Vol. 60. ] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, 439
crystallization ; and this materially increases the difficulty of ascer-
taining the mode of ending-off of thesrecognizable gneisses. When
an area of more sandy deposition is approached, there is always a
tendency for a hiatus to occur in the sequence, the Little Limestone
and part of the Dark Schist being almost always missing. Moreover,
the Dark Schist itself tends to become more siliceous and to contain
less dark dust. A similar change undoubtedly occurs in the Little
Limestone before it disappears ; but the bed is so thin that it is often
difficult to find, and its exact mode of ending-off has not been satis-
factorily determined. The hiatus is most frequently noticed at the
base of the Main Limestone, which is clearly above the Dark Schist
and the Moine Gneisses. But the missing beds were originally of
no great thickness, and are only those that lie between the base
of the Limestone and the Parallel-Banded rocks, except where the
latter were originally composed of comparatively-fine mud. Over
the whole belt of ground examined, more than 30 miles long, this
hiatus never exceeds these limits, clearly showing that it cannot
be claimed as an important stratigraphical break in the sequence
of which the Moine Gneisses form a part. Where no hiatus at all
occurs, the Parallel-Banded rocks are succeeded by the Little Lime-
stone ; and the true stratigraphical position of the Moine Gneisses
is thus defined, as lying between the Little Limestone and the
white edge of the Quartzite, of which, indeed, they are simply
the flaggy top. The succession in the group of rocks described
and their mutual relations are briefly expressed in the appended
diagram (fig. 7, p. 438).
(k) Horizon of the Gneisses north-west of the Belt along
: which they thin away.
When well across the line of thinning-away, the upper limit
of these gneisses can often be fixed ; and a few type-localities may
be selected for this purpose. One of the best lies about Derry
Lodge, where both the Limestone and the Dark Schist are present.
Close to the Derry Falls the Moine Gneisses are succeeded by a
small portion of the Dark Schist; but this is so much more
quartzose, and contains so little dark dust, that it is practically
impossible to fix its exact horizon (10,882), although the occurrence
of the Main Limestone next to it shows that this must be a repre-
sentative of part of the Dark Schist. A small quantity of the typical
felspar is present; and the rock possesses the flaser-structure so
characteristic of the Highland metamorphism. Some distance to
the south-east of Derry Lodge, a rather similar section occurs ; but
here the Limestone is associated with the Pink Felspathic material
once more (8274).
Even when no limestone is present, the upper limit of the
eneisses can be approximately fixed by the presence of identifiable
portions of the Dark Schist. Two good illustrations of this occur
in the Tarf Valley. On the south side of the stream the infold is
2u 2
440 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES _[ Nov. 1904,
too large to leave any doubt as to its horizon; but on the north
side the infolds, which occur at the south-western foot of Sron na
Macranach, are so small that they can be identitied only by the
aid of microscopic sections. One of these (11,137) is substantially
identical with another (11,136), taken from the south-west of the
Glen-Tilt complex, and lying between the Limestone and the
Quartzite. Both he well across the belt of increasing crystal-
lization, and both contain a small quantity of sillimanite
The evidence thus shows that here and there small patches or
infolds of Dark Schist and of the Main Limestone may be found
within the main area of the Moine Gneisses ; but, as previously
explained, there is now a tendency for the Dark Schist to become
more siliceous and to contain less dark dust. so that it is difficult to
identify. But, by first studying the more siliceous phases where
the Main Limestone is present to fix their position, such as those
seen at Derry Lodge, the true horizon and meaning of these infolds
become clear.
Attention has already been drawn to the fact that a great deal
of the most highly-quartzose Moine Gneiss is simply the Central-
Highland Quartzite in a Moine-phase; and if this, as well as the
infolds just referred to, be deducted from the areas in which
the Parallel-Banded rocks occur, it is soon seen that the true
Moine Gneisses need have had no great thickness originally. The
evidence of the incessant recurrence of some easily-recognized
small band in a typical area strongly supports this idea.
(2) Slight Reversions to Similar Conditions
of Deposition.
Attention was drawn to the fact that in Glen Mohr a change in
composition in the Honestones takes place in a south-easterly
direction, on similar lines to that seen in a north-westerly, as
the main area of Moine Gneiss is approached. But the change
is more local, and not carried to the same extent. In Glen Ky,
also, the Honestones become locally more siliceous and, moreover,
are occasionally mingled with the Pink Felspathic material, evenly
disseminated through them. Similar small local changes occur in
other areas; and an excellent example occurs in Glen Loch, in the
upper part of Glen Firnate, in Perthshire. Here, on the margin
of the Quartzite, a thin band of material occurs (3838, 3839),
practically identical with that seen in the less-altered rocks of
the Unich section (Pl. XXXVI, fig. 2, No. 150). These small
reversions are of considerable importance, as they afford the
key to the phenomena of the distribution of the Parallel-Banded
material. This distribution has resulted from the natural vanning
of the detrital material brought down by a large river with many
mouths, of widely-different sizes, but all tapping a common source
at A (see fig. 8, p. 441). There must. be a series of points in
front of these streams, at which clastic material of a definite
—— ee ee
Vol. 60. ] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 441
texture and composition will be deposited, provided local currents
do not intervene. By joining up these points, we obtain the
line shown in the diagram. In this investigation the line
Fig. 8.—Diagram to illustrate the mode of arrangement of the areas
in which the typical flaggy Moine Gneisses now occur, and also
the origin of the film-partings, now rich in felted biotite, to which
the flaqgy aspect of the gneisses is essentially due.
[For convenience of illustration, it is assumed that the distribution of the
detritus brought down is not interfered with by other local currents.
This interference would, of course, occur, and has doubtless added to the
difficulty encountered in unravelling the meaning of the distribution of
the Moine Gneisses. |
may be taken as defining the fans of the more sandy material
from which the Moine Gneisses have been formed. The typical
areas are the larger fans; the instances of slight reversion to
similar conditions of deposition lie within the smaller ones. In
addition, the origin of the fine films of chloritic material now
442 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES [Noy. 1904,
becomes clear. While the coarser material is deposited within
these fans in wet periods, in dry the line of deposition of finer
material would penetrate far within the fans (or towards the
shore-line), and thus the coarser material within them would
be separated by these films at more or less regular intervals.
The origin of the flaggy aspect of the typical colour-banded gneisses
is thus accounted for. In this investigation we have been dealing
with the phenomena along the margin of one of the larger fans ;
but the identity of the Moine Gneisses over large areas makes it
clear that there must be several larger fans.
Briefly, then, the Moine Gneisses are simply the flaggy
top of the Central-Highland Quartzite: this flaggy top is
restricted to certain larger fans of deposition. As we approach
the margin of each fan, the flaggy material becomes of a more
muddy nature originally ; and while the typical parallel banding
is retained, it becomes very much finer and the whole bed thinner.
It is to the fact that this change in original composition has not
been hitherto quite fully grasped, that the difficulty in accounting
for the disappearance of the gneisses is essentially due.
IV. AppEnDIxX.
A peculiar interest attaches to the easily-identified phases of the
Felspar-Rock of Gien Callater, as by means of them it can be proved
that the great masses of newer granite, shown on a geological map
of this area, have rarely produced any serious effect on the already-
metamorphosed Highland rocks. ‘The following series of slides (as
well as a number of others) was cut so as to put this fact beyond
dispute, as wellas to identify the zone in the Dark Schist.
10,777. Quarter of a mile north of Druid Farm, above Killiecrankie, and north-
west of Ben Vrackie. Perth ; 1-inch-sheet 55.
9454, Near the head of the Tilt, north of Falar. Perth; Sheet 64.
8548. Near the head of Glen Choinnich, one of the branches of the Ey Burn.
A branch of the Dee above Braemar. Aberdeen ; Sheet 64.
10,778. Glen Hy, below Aucherrie. Aberdeen ; Sheet 65.
3455. Glen Callater, just outside the Lochnagar Granite. South of Braemar.
Aberdeen ; Sheet 65.
7975. A small Sine of Dark Schist, completely enveloped in the Lochnagar
Granite. Close to the last.
The Lochnagar Granite is 10 miles in diameter, yet this inclusion
of the Felspar-Rock does not appreciably differ from any of the
others. The first specimen was taken 25 miles from this inclusion,
and there is no newer granite anywhere near it. Thus it is evident
that the great mass of the Lochnagar intrusion has produced
practically no effect on the already-altered Highland rocks.
All these specimens have been taken from the south side of the
great belt of increasing metamorphism.
On the north side of the belt similar phenomena are observed.
Here the original chloritic material is absorbed in the formation of
cordierite, but if the right portion of the Dark Schist be selected,
.
—_——_— ee ee —
Vol. 60.] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 443
the felspar with the dark dust is still seen to be present. A good
illustration of the failure of the newer intrusions to affect the
Highland metamorphism is afforded by the two specimens (11,137
and 11,136) selected to fix the upper limit of the Moine Gneiss.
The first is a small infold on the north side of the Tarf, and a con-
siderable distance from any granite. The second was taken near
the margin of the Glen-Tilt diorite, and forming really part of its
thin roof. The metamorphism of the two is substantially identical ;
indeed, it is not easy to obtain two rocks, so far apart, which have
so nearly the same composition, and show so exactly the same
metamorphism.
The published Geological Survey-Maps of Scotland (sheets 66 &
67) equally show that the course of the great ‘ sillimanite-aureole ’
is entirely unaffected by the Kincardineshire granite, for the aureole
meets the margin of the intrusion at right angles on its eastern
side.
Explanation of Maps and Section.
In order to understand the meaning of the maps and section
that accompany this paper, it is necessary to realize that the out-
crops here shown of such a rock as the Central-Highland Quartzite
are not the outcrops of an ordinary bed. They are really the
outcrop of a great sheet formed by the repeated folding of a bed on
itself, after the manner of the bellows of a concertina when shut up
(concertina-structure).
This concertina-structure was produced by the first and greatest
folding of the Highland rocks, and to it is due the erroneous idea
that the latter were of great thickness originally. A section drawn
across the country, after this folding was completed, would closely
resemble that drawn through a comparatively-undisturbed area,
except that the original beds have to be replaced by these horizontal
sheets. The structure has been considerably blurred, in many cases
by later movements; but over large portions of the typical ‘ Moine-
Gneiss areas,’ this sheet-structure must be still retained, for these
gneisses cover an area of several thousand square miles, and must
obviously, when viewed on a large scale, be still roughly a horizontal
sheet. ‘To the south-east of Glen Tilt these sheets have lost this
horizontality, and been thrown into anticlines and synclines that
give rise to the ridge-and-valley scenery referred to in the section
on the ‘ Succession in the Braemar Area’ (p. 423).
This type of folding, however, attains its full development only
in the harder bands, which must, moreover, have a certain thickness
before its development is possible. A perfect illustration of these
principles is afforded by the little sill of hornblende-schist shown in
the section across Glen Tilt (fig. 9, p. 444), the thickness of which
has to be greatly exaggerated to enable it to be shown. But in one
place, owing to a sudden increase in its original thickness, it was
able to fold on itself, and form a homogeneous mass 13 miles
long, and 300 yards broad at the observed outcrop, having a
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LL INO GIN
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SWING
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Quartzite
Moine Gneisses Q V5
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Main Limestone
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GEOLOGICAL MAP oF THE
GILBERT'S BRIDGE AREA, GLEN TILT.
Vol. 60.] MOINE GNEISSES OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 449
thickness of at least 100 feet. Overa very large area, however,
this little sill rarely exceeds 3 feet in original thickness, and it
~ must often have been less, while its outcrop can in many cases be
crossed in a single stride. It is, of course, still repeated by folding,
but now it and the associated beds fold together as one little group,
or ‘ entity in the folding,’ together building up a sheet, and thus at
each complete fold of the group both the top and the base of the
little sill are exposed in the outcrops.
Now, just as this sill, owing to its original hardness, folds on
itself, and forms a homogeneous sheet when it thickens, so the
Honestones on the margin of the Quartzite form a similar but
larger sheet when they not only thicken to the north-west but were
composed of harder material originally. Here, however, the change
is no longer local, but is maintained over a very large area.
Later Structures.
In a typical quartzite-mountain the original isoclinal folding is
left, and this structure only is shown on the south-east side of Glen
Tilt; but as the line along which the Moine Gneisses set on is
approached a remarkable buckling structure is set up in the rocks,
conveniently known as ‘ Moine-structure,’ shown on the left of
the section. It is obviously impossible to say exactly where this
structure ends off underground.
Considerable light is again thrown on these points by the little
sill where folded on itself. Some little distance north-east of the
line of section there is a scar of hornblende-schist, and in this the
stages in the formation of the mass can be made out as follows :~
I. The sill was folded on itself to forma large mass free from
infolds of the other material (concertina-structure).
II. A fine buckling-structure, reproducing in miniature that of
the Moine Gneiss, has been superinduced on the older folding.
Specimens showing this can be easily found.
Ill. A powerful strain-cleavage was set up in the mass, and
the cleavage-planes intersect the convex faces of the minute
buckles that face the south-east. They never cut those that
face the north-west: an important fact, as showing that the
crushing movements came from the south-east. This cleavage
imparts to the rocks, at first sight, the aspect of a well-bedded
mass, with a steady south-easterly dip of some 10° to 20°; but a
careful inspection of the scar-face already referred to soon shows
how complex the structure and history of the rock-mass really is.
Thus study of this sill throws great light on the history of the
Moine Greisses, which cover so large an area to the north-west.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXXIII-XXXVII.
Pirate XXXII.
Map of the Gilbert’s-Bridge area, Glen Tilt. In this the principal small
outcrops of the Main Limestone are shown about the bed of the Tilt. On the
hillside above is a large mass of the same limestone, in a much purer phase,
446 MR. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES _[ Noy. 1904,
greatly folded. Numerous infolds of Dark Schist occur in this, but they
cannot be traced on the ground. A belt of ground to the south-east of the
main mass of the Moine Gneisses, within whiel: the passage from Moine Gneiss
to Honestone occurs, is left blank. The limit of the main mass of the Moine
Gneisses is obtained by joining up the westernmost outcrops of the Main
Limestone, which occur as small infolds. The area is typical of the whole
district ; while the stream-sections are unusually clear, the flanks of the valley
are greatly obscured by downwash and patches of Drift, and the boundaries
between the different outcrops are often uncertain.
Puate XXXIV.
[For the microphotographs from which this and the following three plates are
reproduced, I am greatly indebted to Mr. Hall, of the Geological Survey. ]
Fig. 1 (88). First cutting above Struan Railway-station, Garry area. Moine
Gneiss with typical granulite-structure. (See p. 406.)
2 (86). Bed of the Garry below Dalnacardoch Lodge. Much microcline ;
also showing quartz-bleb structure. (See p. 408.)
PLATE XXXY.
Fig. 1 (99). Gaick Forest. Inverness. Epidotic gneiss. (See p. 410.)
2 (107). Cairn Fidhleir. Tarf Area. The round-weathering oligoclase-
gneiss. (See p. 411.)
Puate XXXVI.
Fig. 1 (84). Bed of the Garry, opposite Dalnacardoch Lodge. Abundant
microcline, containing minute quartz-blebs. Green mica and a
little plagioclase. (See p. 408.)
(136). The Passage-Rocks at Auchallater, Glen Clunie, Braemar. Show-
ing the fine biotite-granulite, always present in the Honestones
or Passage-Rocks, and often their dominant constituent. (See
p- 424.)
bo
Prats XXXVII.
Fig. 1 (118). Just above the road on the west side of Braemar. Highly-
quartzose Moine Gneiss, with lines of heavy minerals (see p. 424).
This is part, probably, of the Quartzite in a ‘ Moine-phase.’ But
it is difficult to say, at this locality, where one rock begins and
the other ends: they were obviously all part of the same bed
originally.
2 (150) Sron-Dias Crags, upper part of Glen Firnate, south-east of Beinn
y Ghlo. An illustration of a slight reversion to conditions of
deposition similar to those south-east of the main area of the
Moine Gneiss, the rock on the margin of the Quartzite having
the composition and structure of a fine Moine Gneiss. (See
p. 440.)
Discussion.
Dr. Horne said that he was glad to have the opportunity of
taking part in the discussion, because he had recently visited the
sections between Blair Atholl and Braemar under the guidance of
the Author, and had the privilege of reading his manuscript now
submitted to the Society. He wished to express his high appre-
ciation of the detailed mapping done by the Author, and of his
prolonged study of the petrographical characters of the rocks of
that region.
Quart. JOURN. GEOL. Soc. VoL. LX, PL. XXXIV.
Fie... x99.
G. B. Photomicro. Bemrose, Collo.
Quart. JOURN. GEOL. Soc. VoL. LX, PL. XXXV.
G. B. Photomicro, Bemrose, Codlo.
Quart. JOURN. GEOL. Soc. VoL. LX, PL. XXXVI.
x 82.
Pia, t:
No. 84.
Fia. 2. x 82
No. 186.
Bemrose, Collo.
G. B. Photomicro.
Quart. JouRN. GEOL. Soc. VoL. LX, PL. XXXVII.
No. 1138.
Fig. O25 * $92:
G. B. Photomicro. Bemrose, Collo.
Vol. 60.] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, 447
It is now recognized that the granulitic gneisses and mica-schists
of Moine type cover wide areas of the Highlands, from the north-
west of Sutherland and Ross to the Grampians; and it is further
admitted that they represent sediments of siliceous and argillaceous
types. The speaker believed that the first part of the paper would
form a valuable addition to our knowledge of the petrography
of the Moine Gneisses. The second part, dealing with the probable
stratigraphical horizon of these altered sediments, raised questions
of great interest and importance. Along their north-western
margin their boundary is defined by the Moine Thrust, while along
their south-eastern limit in the Grampians, where they come into
contact with the sedimentary strata of the Kastern Highlands, no such
line of disruption had been detected. He agreed with the Author
in thinking that no set of faults like that of Glen Tilt and Loch Tay
could explain the relationship, for the obvious reason that the
Moine Gneisses occur to the south-east of that line of disruption in
Perthshire and Aberdeenshire. The Author advanced the ingenious
explanation that the Moine Gneisses pass laterally into the Parallel-
Banded or Hone-Rock group of the East-Highland sequence which,
according to him, lies between the Perthshire Quartzite below and the
Little Tremolite- Limestone (or, when the latter is absent, the Blair-
Atholl Limestone) above. It had been clearly proved, as contended
by the Author, that there is decreasing crystallization of the Moine
Gneisses along their south-eastern margin, and it had been further
conclusively proved that both the Parallel-Banded series and the
Perthshire Quartzite merge into granulitic gneisses along their
junction with the Moine Gneisses. Indeed, this feature is so marked
that several members of the Geological Survey had drawn a line to
guide the colourist, but not a stratigraphical line between theMoine
Gneisses to the north and the schistose Dalradian sediments to the
south.
Regarding the section at Gilbert’s Bridge, in Glen Tilt, it was
doubtless true that a band of limestone with dark schists is there
repeatedly infolded with the Moine Gneisses, as the Author showed,
and the speaker agreed with him in thinking that it represented the
Main Limestone of Blair Atholl. Similar evidence had been obtained
in the valley of the Tarf, north of the Tilt ; while north of the Dee
the Blair-Atholl Limestone, the Dark Schist, and even the Perthshire
Quartzite, had been found within the area of the Moine Gneisses,
and infolded with the latter. The Author’s reading of the section at
Gilbert’s Bridge involved his interpretation of the East-Highland or
Dalradian sequence. But some of his colleagues had been led by
their detailed mapping to the same conclusion as that of Prof. Nicol,
namely, that the Perthshire Quartzite overlies the Black Schist with
the Little Limestone. The speaker referred to the transgression of
the Quartzite and to the evidence furnished by the Boulder-Bed at
Newbiggin, south of Braemar, where it rests upon the eroded edges
of the Parallel-Banded series, and is folded over an arch of the
Tremolite-Limestone. In the opinion of the speaker, the view that
the Quartzite is the highest member of the series, although not free
448 Mh. G. BARROW ON THE MOINE GNEISSES [ Nov. 1904,
from difficulties, was a more reasonable interpretation of the sequence
than that adopted by the Author. He therefore inferred that the
Author had not proved his main point regarding the stratigraphical
horizon of the Moine Gneisses. Indeed, he considered it improbable
that the latter were represented by a few feet, and at one locality
by a few inches of the Parallel-Banded series. The speaker then
referred to the resemblance of part of the Moine Series to the pre-
Torridonian sedimentary schists north of Loch Maree, and to the
development of structures akin to those of the Moine schists in the
basal division of the Torridon Sandstone. In conclusion, he expressed
the hope that the paper would be published with the- necessary
illustrations, as it embodied the views of one who had studied the
crystalline schists in the areas mapped by him with great energy,
enthusiasm, and ability.
Sir ArcHIBALD GeETkIx remarked that, although it had been satis-
factorily proved that the main mass of the rocks of the Central
Highlands is of sedimentary origin, great difficulties still remained
in the determination of their true order of succession. He had had
the advantage of traversing some of the Author’s ground with him
in former years, and could bear testimony to the zeal, capacity, and
ingenuity with which he attacked the complex problems which these
rocks present. The speaker, however, thought that the difficulties
involved in the Author’s present .theoretical explanation were too
formidable, and he preferred the view of the structure of the ground
which had commended itself to the rest of the members of the
Geological Survey. In the exposition of his paper given by the
Author that evening, no reference had been made to the Boulder-
Bed which formed so conspicuous a band across the Highlands,
although no doubt this band had been fully dealt with in the paper
as written. The speaker was disposed to attach great importance
to this horizon as aclue to the sequence of the formations. Yet it
illustrated some of the perplexing features of the region. Though
conspicuous along the northern margin of the central chain’ of
quartzite-ridges, it had not been recognized along the southern
margin. But, even along its line of outcrop, it appeared not to be
a continuous sheet of conglomerate; it disappeared for considerable
distances, and came in again on the same horizon, even as far as the
islands of Islay and Garvelloch. Probably it represented a series of
local shingle-beaches which were not developed farther south. The
paper would be a valuablerecord of the observations and conclusions
of one of the most active and enthusiastic among the workers who
had given their time and energy to the elucidation of Highland
geology.
Mr. Greeny felt that 1t was impossible at that late hour to deal
with the many points of great interest which were raised by this
paper, the question of the relation of the gneisses of Moine type
being one of great magnitude. In Sutherland, where the speaker
had worked, they certainly appeared to represent a very large
formation. He drew attention tothe unique opportunity for
geological science presented by the work of the Geological Survey
Vol. 60.1] OF THE EAST-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS. 449
in the Highlands. ‘Tracts of metamorphic rocks with which single
workers could deal were too small for general purposes: while the
great continental masses of them in other countries could only be
sketch-mapped during the lifetime of the present generation. In
the Scottish Highlands we had a metamorphic region large and
varied enough to be of world-wide interest and application, and yet
it could be mapped in great detail, because it was possible to bring
the united efforts of a whole staff of surveyors to bear upon it.
Herein lay the very great value of the work of the Author and his
colleagues, work which might have other applications than those of
pure science.
The Autor thanked the Fellows present for the kindly way in
which they had received his paper. With regard to the suggestion
that rocks of various ages might be involved in what may be termed
a ‘ Moine-Gneiss’ area by folding, the Author pointed out that the
newest or most recent must be older than the oldest intrusion that
cuts the folding. As an illustration of this important point, he
referred to the Meall-Gruaim ‘augen-gneiss’ shown on the map to
the south of Gilbert’s Bridge, and suggested its pre-Torridonian
age.
450 PROF. W. 8. BOULTON ON THE [Nov. 1904,
31. The Iaxnous Rocks of PonrEesrorp Hitt (Suropsurre). By
Wit1am 8. Bourton, Esq., B.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.G.S., Professor
of Geology in University College, Cardiff. (Read June 22nd,
1904.)
[Prates XXXVIII-XLIII.]
ConreEnts.
Page
I. Introduction and Previous Literature.............--scececesess: 450
II. General Structure of Pontesford Hill ...................2c.0000 452
JIT. Detaiied Description of the Rocks :—
(1) The Norther Bhyolite... S1...-- -secnseseeere eee ae 455
(2) Nodular Structure of the Northern Rhbyolite............ 457
(3) The Andesite-Group :- -
(a) The more Acid Grits and Putls) 2. 322-Gaee sedan ses- 463
(6) Palagonite-Tuffs, Grits, and Halleflintas ......... 464
(e) Andesite-Dawas. -0- 3. o-scsns es Sn eae votes mee eee ee 470
(d) Summary of the Andesite-Group ..................... 472
(4) Rhyolite-Breccias and Grits associated with the
South-Hastern Rhwyolite.2:-.).ctis-c.0c0cc.e- cae seen teak 474
(5) The South-Kastern Rhyolite. . 2.0.6: 005) .scc-ran--ceee een 476
(6) Summary of the Bedded Rocks .................-.eececees 477
(7) The: Intraswve Baste Rocks. <2 s.)2.<.cces. scene eee 478
(8) Relation of the Intrusive Basic Rocks to the Bedded
FROGIG 1. 5205 sd coals van cee ae cide se beet ee eee te etc 482
LY. General Summary of Conclusions ......25.<2-.s02---csaesccrses 482
L. InrrRopuction AND Previous LITERATURE.
PonresForD Hirt is situated on the north-western fiank of the
Longmynd range of Shropshire, about 7 miles south-west of
Shrewsbury. With a length of about a mile, and a breadth of
half a mile, it rises to a height of just over 1000 feet, and from
its summit, which is the site of a weli-preserved Roman camp, a
fine view of the surrounding country is obtained. A mile to the
west, and running through the village of Pontesbury, the Stiper-
Stones Quartzite, the local base of the Ordovician System, crops
out; while to the south-west stretches nearly the whole sweep of
the Ordovician district of Shelve and the Corndon. Immediately
to the east and south rise abruptly the conglomerates and purple
grits of the Western Longmynd, making up the conspicuous woody
ridges of Radlith and Oakswood. Between these and Pontesford
Hill is a deep and picturesque wooded gorge, cut by the Habberley
Brook. Here, about a third of a mile east of the northern end
of Pontesford Hill, is the Lyd Hole, a big, circular pot-hole, at
and near which are some conspicuous exposures of rocks referred
to by Mr. Blake and Dr, Callaway in their papers dealing with
the geology of the district. Northward stretches the great plain of
Shrewsbury and Chester.
The hill, which is nearly severed into two roughly-equal portions
by a north-eastern and south-western gulley, rises from the valley
Vol. 60. ] IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. 451
with abrupt and steep slopes, but with a general rounded outline. On
the north-eastern side it 1s thickly clothed with fir and larch, while on
the south-eastern flank the rocks stand out in bold, bare crags, at the
foot of which a thick deposit of coarse screes has accumulated. On
the 1-inch map of the Geological Survey the hill is marked as ‘ green-
stone, surrounded by Lingula-Flags, but for a long time rocks other
than greenstone have been known to exist in the hill. Murchison,
in his ‘ Silurian System’ 1839 (p. 264), describes the ‘ fine-grained,
crystalline. dark-coloured greenstone,’ and remarks on the previous
page: ‘ Other veined and altered rocks adhere to the north-eastern
face of Pontesford Hill.’
In 1882 some of the rocks of Pontesford Hill were recognized by
Dr. Callaway as belonging to his Uriconian Series.’
The resemblance of the banded and spherulitic rhyolites of the
northern end of the hill to the Wrekin lavas, especially to the type
of Lea Rock near Wrockwardine, is pointed out; while the pro-
nounced flow-lines in the rhyolite are said to
‘ dip to the south-south-west at 45°. . .. [The basalt] is apparently intrusive ; and
as it is not found in the neighbouring Cambrian conglomerates it is probably
post-Cambrian.’ (Op. ciz. p. 121.)
In a synopsis of the microscopic characters of the rocks
collected by Dr. Callaway, Prof. Bonney (in an appendix to the
same paper) describes a specimen of the nodular rhyolite at the
northern end of the hill and of the basalt of the camp at the
summit. (These are referred to on pp. 4597 and 479 respectively of
the present paper.)
In 1890 the Rev. J. F. Blake, in a paper dealing with the Long-
myndian and associated rocks, refers to Pontesford Hill, and says:
‘ The igneous portion of the hill consists of two masses of acid rock, everywhere
separated by a mass of basic rock..... The whole of the western slope (of
Habberley Brook), which is formed by Pontesford Hill, is occupied by well-
bedded, soft, compact, pale slate, with a moderate dip of about 30° to the west.
It is above these slates, on the higher slopes of the hill, that the igneous
rocks are met with. On the other, or western, side of the hill only part
of the slopes is occupied by a spur of decomposed basic rock; the rest of
the ground between the two masses of acid rock shows numerous exposures of
pale slates and grits of varying coarseness, with the usual high dip and strike
of the district. (Op. czt. p. 402.)
After referring to the section at Lyd’s Hole, in which he endeavours
to show that the rhyolite there is intrusive in the ‘ purple slates
and grits, which are recognized as Cambrian,’ he further says:
‘On the other, or eastern, side of the hill the slates and grits are
of a different character’ (op. cit. p. 403). In the sketch-map
accompanying Mr. Blake’s paper (pl. xvi) the hill is shown with
‘volcanic acid rocks’ to the north and south, ‘higher Cambrian
1 «The Pre-Cambrian (Archzan) Rocks of Shropshire, Part II, with Notes
on the Microscopic Structure of some of the Rocks by Prof. T. G. Bonney’
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxvili (1882) pp. 119 ez segg.
2) Another nodule from the same locality, about 1°5 inch long,
contains an irregular quartz-amygdaloid, and shows a much-
fractured border, looking, indeed, as if the fracturing occurred when
the nodule was hollow (Pl. XL, fig. 2). Under the microscope,
many felspar-crystals, some 0:1 inch long, are seen in the fibrous
border, and the material of the latter is often arranged in radial
bunches, like that of the spherulitic bodies of the Lea Rock. The
central cavity is now filled with a brightly-polarizing mosaic of quartz,
in which are crowds of small brown spherules, with a pronounced
radial structure and showing the usual black cross with crossed
nicols. Lining the inside of the surrounding fibrous border is a
thin band of clear silica, and then a layer of the small, brown,
There is, of course, the possibility that, in some cases, such cracks are the
result of contraction due to the crystallization of the fibrous material.
460 PROF, W. S. BOULTON ON THE [ Nov. 1904,
spherulitic bodies, while these latter are sometimes arranged in
bunches radiating from the wall of the amygdaloid towards its
centre. It is clear that the brecciation of the wall of the nodule
occurred before the infilling of this silica and brown spherulitic
matter, for they are arranged in concentric borders around the
angular and isolated fragments of the wall.
Fig. 1 is a sketch of a nodule 7 inches across, collected by myself
from locality (433). There appear to be three generations, as it were,
Fig. 1.—Sketch of a nodule of complex structure,
measuring 7 inches across.
I @ \ ve)
A= Fibrous border,
B=Quartz-amygdaloid.
C=Quartz and brown spherulites.
in the formation of this nodule. Fibrous borders have been formed
apparently around two small vesicles; one nodule thus formed,
containing a more or less rounded amygdaloid, has become partly
enveloped by a larger, including an irregularly-stellate quartz-
amygdaloid, while all three have been enveloped in a dark-brown
fibrous layer, which forms the outer wall of the nodule.
A specimen of slag given to me some years ago by Mr. H. T. Waller
is interesting in this connection, and seems to have some bearing
upon the origin of these pyromeridal and lithophysal structures. It
is a compound vesicle or lithophyse, 14 inches across, in a bluish-
grey glassy slag (fig. 2, p. 461). The main vesicle is surrounded by
roughly-concentric ares of light-brown transparent glass, and be-
tween these glassy layers are crescentiform spaces. If this structure
occurred ina rhyolite, if the glass then devitrified, and brown fibro-
radiate microfelsitic matter developed in and around it, and the
Vol. 60.) ° IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILI. 461
empty spaces subsequently filled with quartz, we should get a very
close resemblance to some of the nodules that are found in the
ancient rhyolites of Pontesford and elsewhere.’
Without entering, for the present, into a further detailed account
of these pyromeridal structures, the general conclusions so far arrived
at may be thus briefly summarized. In many cases, though
certainly not in all, the nodule appears to have commenced as
a vesicle, often irregular in shape, and sometimes, possibly, with
Fig. 2.—Complex vesicle in artificial slag. (Natural size.)
crescentiform spaces around the main cavity, and separated from it
by similarly-shaped portions of the glass. Such vesicles probably
occur, on a very small scale, in the matrix of the rhyolite, and
show little or no further change, beyond the infilling of the
cavities with quartz and other secondary minerals, the fracturing
and deformation of their walls by subsequent movements of the
* There is a striking similarity between this lithophyse in slag and many of
those in the rocks of Obsidian Cliff described by Prof. J. P, Iddings, 7th Aun.
Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv. 1885-86 (1888) pp. 265 e¢ segg. It should be noted that
while this vesicle occurs at the surface of the slag, and was due solely to
the rapid distension and cooling of the slaggy magma, the lithophyses of
Obsidian Cliff, and of the ancient rhyolites of Pontesford, Boulay Bay, etc., are
in the body of the rock, and may have been produced, in some cases, by the
progressive crystallization in a ‘hydrous patch,’ as explained by Prof. Iddings
and Mr. Parkinson.
462 _ PROF. W. S. BOULTON ON THE [ Nov. 1904,
mass, and, in some cases, a slight development of the brown fibrous
material. But, in the case of the larger cavities, the brown fibrous
growth has developed conspicuously, encroaching upon the cavity,
as well as the surrounding matrix, evidently in much the same way
as in the admirably-described cases of the much smaller lithophyses
of the obsidian of the Rocche Rosse, Lipari. Thus, fibrous,
radiating, or mushroom-shaped masses can frequently be seen
penetrating the ‘vesicle,’ now filled with quartz, and spreading
across smaller cavities in the surrounding matrix. This fibrous
growth starts in general from the wall of the vesicle or cavity, but
it may develop from other lines or points. Thus felspar-phenccrysts,
which appear to be more numerous in the vicinity of the vesicles
than elsewhere, frequently form the centres for radiating growths,
which, by their coalescence, help to form the boundary-wall of a
nodule. Possibly, some of the vesicles, with their borders of brown
fibrous and often spherulitic matter, remained empty for a long
time, for the wall is often much fractured, angular fragments of it
occurring in the cavity, and now surrounded by concentric layers
of quartz and brown dusty or fibrous felspathic or microfelsitic
matter, usually with a well-marked spherulitie structure. Thus
the fibrous growth probably represents a phase of
the early devitrification of the glass, while the quartz,
chalcedony, and brown spherulitic aggregates were
introduced subsequently. Indeed, some of this fibrous matter
may represent the original crystallization of the magma during
cooling, rather than the devitrification of solidified glass.” At the
same time, it would seem that the formation of the fibrous material
is not confined to one stage in the process of devitrification, for,
as already remarked, it is found traversing old spherulites, now
occupied by secondary quartz.
There seems to be no limit to the size of such nodules,
for the fibrous material may successively surround smaller
individuals, producing composite nodules, of which the smaller
constituents may be of true lithophysal origin, their amygdaloids or
filled-up vesicles having a definite relation to their boundary-walls :
while the outer enveloping walls have no such related amygdaloids,
but, instead, smaller nodules which have played the part of vesicles
or phenocrysts in inducing devitrification in the form of a fibrous
layer.
Nevertheless, it is clear, from a study of the Pontesford nodules,
that some are quite solid to the core, without any quartz-amyg-
daloid, and with a more or less irregular, radial-fibrous structure.
These may be looked upon as imperfect spherulites or ‘skeleton-
spherulites,’ that probably commenced to develop from the centre
outward, as in the ordinary type of small spherulite. Further,
it would be rash to deny that in some cases the centres of these
’ G. A. J. Cole & G. W. Butler ‘On the Lithophyses in the Obsidian of
the Roeche Rosse, Lipari’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xlviii (1892) p. 438.
2 See J. Parkinson ‘Some Igneous Rocks in North Pembrokeshire’ Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. liii (1897) pp. 469-71.
Vol. 60.] IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. 463
once solid spherulites (as contended by Prof. Cole and Mr. Harker) *
have been destroyed, and replaced by secondary mineral matter,
generally quartz, which now forms the so-called amygdaloid.
If the mass is coarsely vesicular or lithophysal, there will be a
strong tendency for the fibres to surround these cavities, extending
outward into the matrix and inward towards the centre of the
vesicle. Similarly, fibrous matter may develop radially outward
from phenocrysts, or, as in ordinary spherulites, from central
points or lines, where the conditions have been such as to induce
erystallization.
It would seem, then, that many of the nodules are spherulitic
growths, where the spherulitic fibres develop in general, not from
a central point outward, as in the small, true spherulites, but
locally from vesicles or other cavities, crystals, etc., coalescing finally
to form in some cases larger and larger growths. Those nodules
which have roughly-concentric or crescent-shaped cavities, now filled
with quartz, may be due in some cases to a progressive or ‘ spas-
modic’ crystallization of a ‘hydrous patch’ during the solidification
of the rhyolite-magma (see p. 461). But in other cases, they may
have arisen as compound vesicles, due to the local distension of the
magma, and the subsequent development of the brown, fibrous and
spherulitic material. The spherulitic type of devitrification is not all
of the same age, for fibrous growths undoubtedly traverse small
and earlier-formed spherulites, which have been dissolved out and
replaced by quartz.
In a specimen of the South-Eastern Rhyolite, a spherulitic growth
has taken place around an undoubted vesicle, now filled with
quartz, for the flow-lines can be seen distinctly curving round it.
(3) The Andesite-Group.
(a) The more Acid Grits and Tuffs.—The actual junction
of the Northern Rhyolite and the succeeding tuffs is not seen, but
the felsitic-looking grits and tuffs follow on immediately, the line of
junction being marked by a hollow in the ground with springs. No
reliable dip in these basement-tuffs can be made out, but when a
good dip is seen higher up in the andesite-series, the beds are
dipping at about 80°. These acid-looking tuffs crop out along the
road and lower skirts of the hill (537, 566, 556, 555, 554, 553, 552,
551). They are pink and green, fine-grained, gritty tufts, with a
distinctly-acid look, though containing very few quartz-grains.
No. 566 is a fine-grained grit, the grains being pink, set in a
greenish matrix. Under the microscope the grains, measuring up
to 0°04 inch across, are seen to consist of lapilli of vesicular,
devitrified glass with well-marked fluxion-banding, together with
broken crystals of felspar with lamellar twinning. One fragment,
0°05 inch across, contains skeleton-crystals of orthoclase in a de-
composed greenish glassy matrix, a few subangular quartz-grains,
' G, A. J. Cole, Geol. Mag. 1877, p. 299; A. Harker, ‘The Bala Volcanic
Series of Caernarvonshire’ [Sedgwick Prize Essay for 1888] 1889, pp. 28-40.
464 PROF. W. S. BOULTON ON THE [ Nov. 1904,
and some secondary silica. The rock is undoubtedly a tuff, and
from the abundance of simply-twinned felspar, and the felsitic
look of the lapilli, apparently more acid than the andesite-tuffs
higher up.
No, 554.—A dull-green and red ashy-looking rock, with
55°8 per cent. of silica and a specific gravity of 2-694. Micro-
scopically, it is clearly a fine ash with lapilli measuring up to 0°05
inch across, made up mostly of decomposed glass with skeleton-
crystals and microlites of felspar, most with simple twinning, but
some (one 0:05 inch long) showing jamellar twinning. ‘The rock is
rather more basic-looking than No. 566, aud the fragments are
much stained with iron-oxide.
No. 551, of pinkish colour, much-jointed, fine-grained, weathering
a dull green, is exposed at the back of a ruined cottage, near the
road. (Silica-percentage = 57°07; specific gravity =2°57.) Under
the microscope, it is seen to be a very fine-grained tuff, made up
largely of broken crystals of felspar with simple and lamellar
twinning (0-001 inch or less), minute particles of reddish-brown
glass, with sharp edges and curvilinear outlines, and containing
minute vesicles, together with very few quartz-grains.
All these tuffs and grits clearly belong to the Andesite-Group,
for they pass at once without a break into the typical palagonite-
tuffs, and indeed are interbedded to some extent with them. From
their colour and texture and lower specific gravity, one is tempted
to class them with the rhyolite as a group of felsite-tuffs, rather
than with the andesites; but they contain, on an average, only
about 5 per cent. more silica than the palagonite-tuffs, and their
microscopic characters are practically the same as those of many of
the andesite-tuffs higher up the series. It may be here remarked
that many of the small pink chips and lapilli in these tuffs, of a
pronounced rhyolitic or felsitic appearance in the hand-specimen,
generally show under the microscope precisely the same characters
as those in the tuffs which, on analysis, prove to be of andesitic
composition. The felsitic appearance is doubtless due, in part, to
the smallness of the grains allowing of the complete oxidation of
the iron to the ferric state.
(6) Palagonite-Tuffs, Grits, and Halleflintas.—Behind
the cottage at the top of the road leading to Pontesbury (201 on
the map, Pl. XXXVIII) occurs an interesting exposure, showing
the newer basic rocks penetrating the tufts, and both faulted against
the buff-green shivery Shineton Shales, that abut against the hill
(see fig. 3, p. 465). Here (201 a, 6, ¢, d, «) we get, for the first
time, the palagonite-tutts of the Andesite-Group. ‘They are dull-
green, bluish when fresh, but weathering yellowish-green, and fine-
grained with white flecks.
No. 201 a consists of irregular fragments of yellow and greenish-
yellow decomposed glass measuring up to 0:04 inch across, including
small round vesicles and minute felspar-microlites, and with curved,
Cambrian,
.
Vol.60.] © | IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. 465
sharp outlines, set in a matrix of very fine glassy dust, containing
in places much secondary calcite. The lapilli of palagonitized glass,
often covered with minute brown pigment-spots, like spots on a
leopard’s skin, show no reaction with crossed nicols. The round
vesicles have a clear transparent border of a doubly-refracting
zeolite, and a faintly-polarizing substance in the centre, while many
elongated vesicles have a yellow border of palagonite, and enclose a
colourless zeolite in the centre. Broken crystals of felspar, measur-
ing up to 0:02 inch, occur, as also occasional angular grains of
quartz.
Fig. 3.—Sketch-map showing Pontesford rocks faulted against
Cambrian shales, at the top of the road leading to Pontesbury
[ 207}.
Palagonite-Tuffs. Intrusive Dolerite. Tuffs.
eC e,
Y lan Py eas 2 ee
[Scale: 1 inch=about 20 feet. ]
No. 2016, though occurring quite close to 201 a, is very different
in colour and texture. It is made up of lapilli of yellowish-green
vesicular palagonite and crystal-fragments. A fragment of brown
glass (0°0025 inch) contains minute needles of felspar and larger
laths of the same mineral showing distinct lamellar twinning,
together with small green patches that may be decomposed pyroxene.
Lapilli, measuring up to 0-1 inch across, vesicular, slaggy, and
twisted, are common, with some secondary calcite in the matrix.
No. 201d is harder, and paler in colour with pink and green
flecks, and contains lapilli of greenish andesite-glass with minute
black vesicles. Microscopically, it shows good felspar-crystals,
466 PROF. W. S. BOULTON ON THE | Nov. 1904,
measuring up to 0°05 inch across, with simple and lamellar
twinning, and an extinction-angle up to 16°.
No. 2U1® is a buff rock with pink grains, which microscopically
shows decomposed glassy particles and many broken crystals of
felspar (0°05 inch), parts of short rectangular prisms with albite-
lamellation. A lapillus, 0-03 inch across, is much stained with
red iron-oxide and is crowded with minute felspar-laths.
In among these tuffs the coarsely-amygdaloidal intrusive dolerite
has made its way. No. 201 is a fine-grained, granulitie dolerite
with serpentinized olivine-phenocrysts, 1n general character similar
to No. 28, described on p. 481. No. 201 y is a somewhat doubtful
rock. Itis dull yellowish-green, fine-grained, with green needles and
larger greenish-black patches with a dull pitchy lustre, made up of
a soft substance which is greenish-yellow when scratched—probably
palagonite. Microscopically, it is of uneven texture and colour,
with small laths of cloudy plagioclase, milk-white in reflected light,
oceurring ophitically with pale-green, much-cracked augite, altering
to a dark-green chloritic mineral. There isa good deal of pale-green
and yellow substance,, with cracks that suggest olivine, and red,
slightly-pleochroic depositsin small flakes and needles along the cracks.
The description of this rock would seem to apply equally well to
the ophitie dolerite with serpentinized olivine, and the andesite-lava
with patches of palagonitized glass. On the whole I am inclined to
put it in the latter group (see p. 471).
At (434), in a small opening near the road, is a dull purplish-
red, fine-grained rock, which, microscopically, is seen to be much
stained yellow, brown, and black, and made up of minute angular
chips of felsite and quartz, in a fine brown dust. Fragments
measuring 0-1 inch across, composed of these chips, are embedded
in a matrix of the same material, with crystals in nests or clusters,
the whole showing traces of bedding. ‘This rock is distinctly more
acid-looking than the palagonite-tuffs just described, and shows a
temporary return to the more acid type which follows the Northern
Rhyolite.
A conspicuous crag on the south-west of the gulley, referred to
as ‘ Agglomerate-Crag’ in my field-notes, is made up of a coarse
andesite-agglomerate or tuff, but very varied in colour and texture.
Some parts consist of yellowish-green palagonite-tuff with minute
angular dark-grey patches, with a flaggy and slightly-schistose struc-
ture, crumbling readily when struck with a hammer, others being of
harder, fine-grained, pink and green, gritty tuff; or again extremely
fine-grained, purple, yellow, or green hilleflinta. Angular fragments,
sometimes several inches across, of purple amygdaloidal andesite,
often showing most pronounced fluxion-banding, are embedded in a
green or pink, fine-grained matrix. The entire crag is much
jointed, the fragments showing elaborate faulting on a small scale,
and epidote and chlorite are common as secondary products.
Immediately behind the main crag, the tuff, with banded and
vesicular purple andesite-lapilli, embedded in a fine matrix of the
Vol. 60.] | IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. 467
same material, is well seen; while to the south-east of it is a bright-
yellow, hard, and exceedingly fine-grained hialleflinta, 2 feet thick,
which can be traced along the hillside for many yards, thus accu-
rately fixing the strike.
The followmg examples show the more typical microscopic
characters of these rocks :—
(Agg. Crag, a.)—Red and green gritty tuff, with fragments
measuring. up to 0:2 inch across, of decomposed glass, crowded with
minute round vesicles, now filled with pale-green doubly-refracting
zeolite, together with microlites of felspar showing very low ex-
tinction-angles; crystals of felspar, partly broken, measuring up to
0-04 inch, with good lamellar twinning; occasional angular grains
of quartz ; twisted pieces of vesicular glass; lapilli of previously-
consolidated glassy tuff, one being made up of a granular bright-green
matrix, full of minute felspar-laths with a parallel arrangement.
(Agg. Crag, b.)—A good specimen of palagonite-tuff, with lapilli
of reddish-brown and bright orange-yellow palagonite (pale-yellow
by incident light) of curvilinear outline, and crowded with minute
felspar-laths, and vesicles which are as a rule perfectly circular, but
sometimes much elongated. These have usually a ring of clear
doubly-refracting zeolite, with a similar material, or, in some cases,
a yellow isotropic substance, in the centre. Some amygdules show a
black cross with polarized light; and there is much dirty-white
ealcite in the matrix. (Pl. XLII, fig. 2.)
(Agg. Crag, c.)—Shows a fragment, 0°75 inch across, with fine
red and green bands, embedded in a matrix of pink and green
grains. This matrix is a fine crystal-tuff, made up of broken
erystals of plagioclase with repeated twinning, pinkish-brown in
colour, and set in a fine green dust, while the lapillus consists of
alternating bands of purplish-red dust and crystal-fragments.
(Agg. Crag, d.)—A green tuff, with dull green and pinkish-brown
lapili measuring upwards of 0°75 inch across. These consist of
black glass with felspar-microlites; pale-red, altered glass with
many round vesicles filled with a green substance, one pear-shaped
fragment of glass 0-06 inch long showing marked perlitic structure.
No. 205—near Agglomerate Crag—is a coarse, pink-and-green
gritty tuff, showing well all the different kinds of lapilli, which
measure generally about 0-1 inch across (Pl. XLII, fig. 1). An
included fragment in the tuff, of a pale yellowish-green, is a piece of
decomposed andesite-lava, the matrix being crowded with felspar-
needles, milky-white by incident light, and containing vesicles filled
with pale yellowish-green, doubly-refracting zeolite with spherulitic
structure.
A buff-yellow finely-laminated hilleflinta,’ near by, shows bands
of very fine glassy dust, alternating with coarser bands made up of
| The term ‘halleflinta’ is here used, as elsewhere in this paper, as a general
field-term for a hard, felsitic, fine-grained, laminated rock. In Pontesford
Hill all the halleflintas are fine glassy and crystal-tuffs of andesitie com-
position.
468 PROF. W. 8. BOULTON ON THE [Nov. 1904,
erystal-fragments, and splinters of yellow palagonite enclesing
felspar-needles (Pl. XLITI, fig. 3).
These rocks can be easily followed cropping out along the south-
western face of the gulley, but higher up the slope towards the
wood at the top of this part of the hill, the beds are found to be
harder, more massive and fine-grained, less flaggy and niore gritty,
until at the top near the wood (512) the rock is a very hard
massive grit, dark green with pink grains, having a specific gravity
of 2:79, and dipping at 80°. Microscopically, it resembles No. 205,
but is not so coarse, and contains many grains of ilmenite altering
to leucoxene, a constituent which probably accounts for its rather
high density.
A band of these hard grits, 70 yards thick, can be traced all
down the north-eastern slope of the gulley, dipping about halfway
down at 60°. They are followed at once on the south side by
beautifully-laminated green and yellow hialleflintas, with inter-
bedded andesite-lavas ; while on the other, or north-west, side they
are covered by the newer basic rocks.
Some of the best and most accessible spots for observing the
typical andesite-rocks are along the foot of the western slope of
the hill, south of the gulley, in the little gardens behind the cottages
that occur at intervals along the road. Thus at (209) the foilowing
section is seen :—
Fig. 4.—Section under the fence, western flank of
Pontesford Hill {209}.
“SS QA SS Ss
WN SS S SON MW
ma . AX WAN SS SS ve
{Length of section = about 30 feet; dip = 85°.]
a=Finely-laminated green hilieflintas, 8 feet thick, striking obliquely with
the fence and dipping at 85°, containing a red and white siliceous band
12 inches thick (4), which, under the microscope (530), appears to be a
tuff-band with broken felspar-crystals, but very largely replaced by a
mosaic of secondary guartz- -crystals.
c—A coarser, andesite- tuff with circular, oval, and subangular lapilli of ande-
site- glass, 2 or more inches across; and interbedded with beautifully
banded red, blue, and yellow hilleflinta.
The lapilli of andesite-glass occur also in the fine halleflinta, the
lines of which flow round them, showing some resemblance to a
finely-banded lava with phenocrysts. A lapillus of andesite (531),
taken from the finely-banded tufts, shows microscopically an andesite-
glass, pale yellowish-white by reflected light, containing Jaths of
felspar 0-05 inch long, often in radiating groups, much decomposed,
but some showing lamellar twinning. Crystals of a pyroxene-like
mineral, now replaced by a yellowish-green product, have evidently
Vol. 60.] © | IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. 469
erystallized out after the felspars, for they often enclose the latter.
Irregular, but rounded portions, which macroscopically might be
taken for filled-up vesicles, are found to be fragments of previously-
consolidated palagonite-tuff, with minute angular bits of palagoni-
tized vesicular glass, enclosing needles of felspar, and occasional
crystals of augite. These fragments of tuff embedded in the lava
have been partly re-fused: for, although of irregular shape, their
edges are quite rounded.
Along the same line (305, 308) are very typical examples of the
palagonite-tuff. In (3505) angular lapilli, measuring up to 0°15 inch
across, of green and orange-coloured palagonitized glass are present,
containing abundant circular vesicles filled with zeolites, together
with minute needles of felspar. Many of these lapilli have amarkedly-
twisted and slaggy appearance, and some are strongly stained with
iron-oxide. The matrix of the rock is a very fine dust, now largely
replaced by calcite and other secondary minerals. (Pl. XLII, fig 3.)
Ascending the hill from the gulley towards the Higher Camp on
the main summit, the andesite-lavas, coarse and fine andesite- and
palagonite-tuffs, with hialleflintas, are met with in many isolated
crags, all along the north- western and western face, extending half-
Way, in some places two-thirds of the way, up the slope, where they
are covered irregularly by the basic rocks (520, 522, 523, 524, 525,
etc.). These tuffs are of types already described, but the finer tuffs or
halleflintas are hereabouts more common, and are especially well-
displayed at intervals along the lower slope, where crags showing
beautiful lamination may be seen, as well as quantities of hiilleflinta-
débris brought to the surface by rabbits.
The following is a complete analysis of palagonite-tuff from
Agglomerate Crag, by Dr. C. F. Baker, late of the University of
Birmingham :—
Per cent.
a nthe ert Beacia fag 53°41
LUE SR Re tae eee Re. 11°52
i Ea) eee eal Coxe canopy apa TE Sa sine i 8:36
1 oS gla li SAUER ERE eae SR aera H 3°38
Bess Ce) ee sy 1-48
Oe eee do, Hee Sh Bn at 13:16
0 EE a eee ie ee oot 2°63
__# 3 tiger opted are argo 0-63
RR ee ose oo eee ee re O71
Loss at about 110° Centigrade ... 1°54
Loss, extra, at dull-red heat ...... 3°56
(Specific gravity = 2-743.) 100°38
Sir John Murray & the late Prof. Renard,’ in comparing an
analysis of palagonitic matter with that of the anhydrous silicate
(basic glass), from which the palagonitic substance was derived, say :
‘The transformation which has taken place seems to tend to the formation
of a zeolitic substance ; lime and magnesia are eliminated, the protoxide of iron
* Challenger Reports: ‘ Deep-Sea Deposits’ (1891) p. 307.
Q.J.G.8. No. 240. 2k
470 PROF. W. S. BOULTON ON THE [ Nov. 1904,
passes into peroxide, alkalies derived from the action of sea-water enter into
combination, the quantity of alumina remaining almost constant.’
In the palagonite-tuff of Pontesford most of the iron is in the
peroxide-state, while the percentage of lime is high, and magnesia
low. It must be remembered that the rock contains a fair amount
of secondary calcite, so that both original lime and magnesia may
have been removed from the glass during the formation of pala-
gonite. It would be difficult, or impossible, however, to demonstrate
these changes in a tuff with secondary deposits (calcite and zeolites)
in the matrix, as is the case with this Pontesford specimen.
(c) Andesite-Lavas.—The andesite-lava, which, as already
noted, occurs as lapilli in the tuffs, is also found interbedded with the
tufts, though covering a relatively-small area. It has been found very
difficult, in the field, to separate some of these andesite-lavas from the
newer basic rocks, for both may be fine-grained, with a dull blue- or
grey-greenish colour. Typically, however, the andesite is bluish-
green, weathering yellowish-green, fine-grained, with small white, and
often squat-shaped, felspars, easily recognized with a lens, and small
soft black specks, giving greenish scratches, which under the micro-
scope are found to be portions of the interstitial glassy matrix con-
verted into palagonite, together with vesicles filled with a chloritic
substance ; while the compact varieties of the intrusive dolerite
usually weather reddish-brown, and the felspars are less prominent.
Where the andesite occurs near to the intrusive dolerite (and indeed
it is never far from it) it is often darker than usual, owing, as
microscopic examination shows, to the development of large numbers
of minute magnetite- or ilmenite-grains, so that it becomes increas-
ingly difficult to distinguish it from the finer dolerite. Moreover,
there is always the possibility of the dolerite showing through among
the andesite-lavas, as, indeed, it actually does in one or two places
(516d). The difficulty of separating these rocks does not completely
disappear when a microscopic examination is made: for, as will
appear in the following descriptions, many of the mineralogical and
structural characters are common to some specimens in both groups.
By slicing a large number of rocks at all the doubtful points, and
repeatedly noting their field-relations in the light of the knowledge
obtained from an examination of these rock-sections, it has been
found possible to distinguish the two groups, and map their
boundaries with tolerable accuracy.
At the south-western end of the gulley, at the foot of the northern
face and opposite ‘ Agglomerate-Crag,’ is a typical specimen of
the andesite-lava (57), interbedded with green-and-yellow finely-
laminated hilleflinta ; and a few yards to the west (516) is a group
of crags showing two similar thin beds of lava (5164, 516¢), a few
yards wide, separated by relatively-soft green palagonite-tuff (516 5),
while a small sill of intrusive dolerite abuts against 516c. The
same lavas are seen in among the hiilleflintas and palagonite-tuffs
all along the lower slope of this part of the hill, and up to the line
of the intrusive dolerite (525, etc.).
Vol. 60. | ' IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL, 471
Under the microscope, the andesite-lava (516c, 57 a) is found to be
made up of a felted mass of felspar-laths about 0:02 inch in length,
milky-white by reflected light, but still showing both simple and
lamellar twinning, generally extinguishing parallel to their length,
or nearly so, indicating a felspar of the oligoclase-series. A good
deal of very pale-green, nearly-colourless, highly-refractive and
much-cracked augite (malacolite) occurs in short prisms, usually with
octagonal sections, and exhibiting a well-marked prismatic cleavage.
It is frequently twinned, and occasionally encloses felspar-prisms.
These minerals are embedded in a dull, greenish-brown, glassy
matrix, largely converted into yellow-and-green palagonite, which
in its turn has been replaced in part by zeolites. Small magnetite-
or ilmenite-granules are plentiful. The ilmenite, which is evidently
secondary, occurs in minute rhombs and hexagonal plates, with the
ordinary white leucoxene-products, some of the skeleton-crystals
showing very good examples of the characteristic mesh of white
rods. The altered glass has the same general character as that of
the palagonite-tuffs; it occurs in roundish patches, portions of
which are milk-white in incident light, and with weak chromatic
polarization, and sometimes exhibits a fibrous or spherulitic structure.
Minute green granules, milk-white in reflected light, are common
in these palagonite-areas, especially along their borders, representing
a further change in the alteration of the glass. It is possible that
some of the larger circular areas represent vesicles. The rock is an
augite-andesite with a hyalopilitic groundmass, in which much
of the residual glass is converted into palagonite, and a good deal
of secondary ilmenite occurs (Pl. XLIIT, fig. 5).
In some cases (516 a, 528) phenocrysts of felspar measuring up
to 0:05 inch, as a rule simply twinned, and often arranged in radial
groups, are embedded in a mesh of much smaller crystals; while in
(528) many elongated vesicles are seen, filled with a pale-green,
spherulitic, brightly-polarizing substance, often with a bordering
zone of colourless zeolite, which, between crossed nicols, shows
a fibro-radiate or minutely-spherulitic structure.
No. 525, just below the dolerite, is much darker in colour than
the typical andesite, very fine-grained, with pale-green flecks, and
in the hand-specimen it is almost impossible to distinguish it from
the fine-grained compact dolerite. Under the microscope, the
matrix is nearly black, and, with a high power, appears dusted all
over with very minute grains of secondary magnetite and ilmenite,
which appear not only in the matrix, but covering largely the
phenocrysts. Much pale augite is present, together with squarish
felspar-phenocrysts of low extinction-angles, as well as felspar-
microlites in the glassy matrix, and many vesicles filled with a
pale-green, faintly-polarizing substance (? delessite), often showing
zonary banding, and a fibrous or spherulitic structure. In spite of
the close microscopic resemblance of this rock to some of the finer
dolerites or basalts, there can be no doubt that it belongs to the
Andesite-Group.
At the top of the gulley, a little way down the north-eastern
DE 2
472 . PROF, W. S, BOULTON ON THE [ Nov. 1904,
slope, and just outside the wood (573, 513), are dark, fine-grained,
basic-looking rocks of much the same type as No. 525, which, in
my first examination of the hill, were mapped as intrusive basalt.
Microscopically the felspars are milky-white by reflected light, in
places blotched with hematite, while the matrix is of a pale
yellowish-green. Much secondary ilmenite with leucoxene; the
pale, much-cracked augite of the andesite-lava ; and a hyalopilitic
groundmass, with much of the glass converted into green palagonite,
are also seen. Circular vesicles are common, filled with concentric
zones of a green substance exhibiting well-marked spherulitic
structure, a colourless, brightly-polarizing substance, and calcite.
These rocks are associated with hard hilleflintas, as appears to be
the case generally. The close proximity of the newer basic group
probably accounts for the large quantity of secondary iron-ore
present, and the consequently more basic appearance of the rock.
The silica-percentage of No.516¢, a typical specimen of the augite-
andesite, is 50°67; while the specific gravity of five different specimens
from various points on the hill varied from 2°76 to 2°83, giving
an average of 2°80. The rock is thus practically basic ; but, from
the comparative abundance of felspar (probably oligoclase) and the
absence of olivine, it is perhaps more convenient to style it a
basic augite-andesite, or andesitic basalt.
(qd) Summary of the Andesite-Group.—aA marked feature
of the Andesite-Group just described is the preponderance of tufts,
generally glassy, but sometimes made up almost entirely of broken
crystals of oligoclase or andesine. These tuffs are the fragmenial
representatives of a basic augite-andesite lava, which in places is
interleaved with the tuffs. From the blade-like character of some
of these masses of andesite, and, in places, their tendency to an
ophitic structure, it would be unwise to ignore the possibility of
the intrusion of some of them into the tuffs. But the evidence,
both petrological and in the field, and especially the occurrence of
lapilli of similar andesite in the associated tuffs, seems to point
to their bedded origin ; and, in any case, there can be little doubt
that both tuffs and andesites belong to the same petrological series,
and are of the same general age.
The quantity of palagonitized glass in these tuffs and lavas is
remarkable, and equally so the comparative freshness of the
palagonite, considering the great antiquity of the rocks.
The substance, palagonite, is not uncommon in the older glassy
volcanic rocks of Britain and elsewhere, both in basic tuffs, and as
an alteration-product of the glassy residue of basic lavas. Thus
Prof. Cole has described and figured it in the andesite-tuff of Snead
near Bishop’s Castle, as well as in the associated andesite-lavas !;
and palagonite-tuffs in the Carboniferous rocks of the Forth Basin,
* “On some Additional Occurrences of Tachylyte’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
vol, xliv (1888) pp. 305-306 & pl. xi, fig. 5.
Vol. 60.] | IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. 473
and the Pebidian of St. David’s (Pembrokeshire), have been figured
and described by Sir Archibald Geikie'; while Prof. Zirkel has
described tuffs of this nature from Nevada and elsewhere.” But
the finest palagonite-tuffs are the more recent ones of Sicily,
Iceland, the Canary Islands, etc., including those of Palagonia with
the type-palagonite of Waltershausen, the characters of which
have been summarized by Prof. Penck.* Through the kindness of
Prof. Judd, 1 have been able to examine some of these rocks, as
well as specimens from Samoa, given to me by Mr. H. T. Waller.
In the palagonite-tuff from Galdar (Grand Canary), lapilli of
orange, reddish-brown, and yellow palagonite (average measurement
= 2 inch across), contain fresh clear olivine-phenocrysts ; circular
vesicles lined or filled with zeolites; and the same zeolite (phillipsite)
forms a fibro-radiate, mammillated border round the lapilli, the
outside margin of this border having a bright-yellow colour.*
In the Samoan rocks the palagonite is yellow, orange, or reddish-
brown, with a singular absence of separated iron-oxide, and enclosing
microlites of felspar, and phenocrysts of fresh, nearly colourless
olivine, together with round or elongated vesicles filled with
zeolites.
The tuff from Samoa contains lapilli, up to half an inch across,
of yellow and orange-yellow, faintly-polarizing palagonite, crowded
with minute and perfectly-round or much-elongated vesicles, and
containing fresh, nearly-colourless phenocrysts of olivine. The
vesicles are mostly filled with zeolites, a clear, colourless border of
a doubly-refracting substance, and a dark, nearly-opaque centre
of minute brown granules, possibly iron-oxide, the whole giving a
dusky cross in polarized light. Distinct from these vesicles, and
much smaller, minute gas-pores are visible, often tilled with pala-
gonite ; while others, with a faintly-marked radial and concentric
structure, are slightly affected by polarized light, and probably
represent globulites, or the variolitic structure on a small scale.
In one specimen from Samoa, each fragment of pale yellowish-brown
palagonite, crowded with microlites and skeleton-crystals of felspar,
is ringed round with a darker border of orange-yellow palagonite,
and the vesicles have a border of the same brown material, the
centres being filled with colourless zeolite. Except for the presence
of olivine in these rocks, and the somewhat fresher, clearer, and
almost isotropic character of this palagonite, there is scarcely a
detail of structure and appearance that cannot be matched in the
palagonite-tuffs of Pontesford.
In the volume on the Deep-Sea Deposits of the Challenger
1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xxix (1880) pp. 513-16 ; and ‘ On the supposed
pre-Cambrian Rocks of St. David’s’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxix (1883)
pp. 295-300.
* U.S. Geol. Explor. Fortieth Parallel, vol. vi ‘ Microscopical Petrography
(1876) pp. 272-75 & pl. xii, figs. 3-4.
3 * Ueber Palagonit- und: Basalttuffe ’ Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch.
vol. xxxi (1879) pp. 504-77.
* Compare Challenger Reports: ‘ Deep-Sea Deposits’ (1891) pl. xviii.
figs. 2 & 3.
474 PROF, W. 8. BOULTON ON THE [Nov. 1904,
Reports,’ Sir John Murray & the late Prof. Renard described
palagonite-, glassy-, and crystal-tuffs, dredged from the bottom of
the ocean, which again show characters almost identical with
those of the Pontesford rocks.
It seems probable that the conversion of the basic andesite-glass
into palagonite, in the case of the Pontesford rocks, took place
soon after their eruption, and that further and later changes in
the rocks have affected the crystalline constituents and fine matrix
of the tuffs, rather than this palagonitized glass. It has been con-
tended by Prof. Penck, Sir John Murray & the late Prof. Renard,”
and others, that the conversion of basic glass into palagonite is
brought about largely by the hydrochemical action of sea-water,
whereby changes take place which tend to the formation of zeolites.
That the tuffs of Pontesford were deposited in water is abundantly
clear, from the fine and regular lamination of some of the tuffs and
halleflintas, and the pronounced bedding of some of the voleanic
grits.
(4) Rhyolite-Breccias and Grits associated with the
South-Hastern Rhyolite.
It will be seen from the map (Pl. XX XVIII) accompanying this
paper that a strip of dolerite at the southern end of the hill inter-
rupts the succession of the bedded volcanic group. Andesite-tuffs
and lavas can be traced right up to this dolerite on the western
side, and the same rocks are met with along the footpath in the
adjacent field (535) cropping out through the dolerite, which makes
up nearly all the ground at this extreme southern end. On the
eastern side of the dolerite, along the footpath by the side of the
fence, which roughly corresponds to the little cross-fault marked on
the map, the andesite-rocks are again met with in smail and rather
obscure outcrops (536, 537). No. 536 is much brecciated, iron-
stained, and under the microscope shows a large amount of
secondary quartz (it yielded on analysis 84°70 per cent.). If the
longitudinal fault through the centre of the hill (see p. 453) runs as
far south, it would probably come through this point.
No. 537 is a pale, siliceous-looking rock, with a distinct banded
appearance, the bands running parallel to the general strike of the
andesite-group. Under the microscope it is found to be a crystal-
tuff, with broken crystals of felspar 0-01 to 0-07 inch long, showing
both simple and lamellar twinning, and set in a finely-banded,
dusty matrix, containing a few lapilli of decomposed vesicular
glass.
No. 17 L is a fresher-looking rock, but with much iron-staining,
and yellow and green secondary products. It is full of small
felspar-laths with a parallel arrangement, extinguishing parallel
(or nearly so) to their length, with a few larger crystals showing
1 Pp. 304-311 & pl. xviii.
? Ibid, p. 307.
‘
Vol.60.] . IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. 475
extinction-angles up to 15°. The structure is typically pilotaxitic,
though in places, where there is more residual glass, it might be
more exactly termed ‘ hyalopilitic.’
These rocks, which are evidently of the andesite-series, though
perhaps originally more acid than those in the same series farther
north, pass at once into typical acid tuffs or breccias,
which culminate in the South-Eastern Rhyolite.
A hard, flaggy, pink, felsitic-looking rock with green angular
chips (538, 540, 543, 545) is the first band of these markedly-acid
tuffs, with structures generally like those in the Westphalian
Devonian tuffs described by Miigge.*
No. 538 is a rather fine-grained variety, made up of very small
fragments of red, vesicular, altered glass with the typical ‘ Bogen-
struktur, set in a dirty-green matrix of fine glassy and crystal
dust. Larger crystals of felspar, showing both simple and lamellar
twinning, are present, together with rounded lapilli of vesicular
glass measuring up to 0°14 inch across; in one place the vesicles
have been drawn out into long and extremely-fine tubes. The
rock has the same general structural character as the palagonite-
tuffs, and was evidently formed under much the same conditions,
in this case by the breaking up of a perlitic and very vesicular
acid glass, the glass becoming afterwards strongly coloured with
iron-oxide. Its percentage of silica is 74°83, and the specific gravity
is 2°64.
No. 540 is in the same band as 538, but is coarser in texture,
with green chips measuring up to 0°3 inch in length. The matrix,
greenish in colour, is made up of fine glassy dust, embedded in
which are many minute red splinters of glass, with curved edges,
and often showing the optical phenomena of tension, like those
observed in Rupert’s drops; together with phenocrysts of orthoclase-
felspar (some 0-03 inch long), and irregularly-shaped lapilli of
green, fine-grained, banded tuff.
This glassy breccia is followed by a bright-red and green flagg
grit (839, 541), in places dipping north-westward into the hill
at about 80°. A specimen (539) isa very striking rock under the
microscope (Pl. XLIII, fig. 4). It is made up of lapilli measuring
about 0-02 inch across, mostly of green and brownish-red vesicular
glass, often showing what looks like perlitic structure, but may be
the vesicular structure previously described in the matrix of the
Northern Rhyolite (pp. 457, 458); others are fragments of dark-
brown, nearly black glass, crowded with felspar-microlites ; others
again of felspar-crystais, more or less broken, usually exhibiting
simple twinning, together with occasional rounded blebs of quartz
0-05 inch across. The rock bears a general structural resemblance
to the grit in the Andesite-Group at the top of the gulley (512),
but the fragments are more glassy and the rock as a whole more
acid. The bright-red colour of this rock is due to the large amount
of hematite that has developed in the glass.
* ¢ Untersuchungen iiber die Lenneporphyre in Westfalen & den angrenz-
enden Gebieten’ Neues Jahrb. Beilage-Band viii (1893) p. 642.
476 PROF, W. 8. BOULTON ON THE | Nov. 1904,
The red-and-green grit is followed by a breccia of the type
of that on the other side of it (538, etc.), but distinctly coarser,
with a pinkish matrix containing angular yellow and green
splinters measuring | inch or more across. Sometimes the rock
is bright bluish-green with pink glassy splinters, making up one of
the most striking rocks of Pontesford Hill.
These three bands (the red grit and glassy breccias above and
below it) can be followed along the south-eastern flank of the hill,
extending nearly up to the Camp, where they abut irregularly
against the basalt. In the glassy breccia (545) a vein of barytes
about a foot thick, running nearly east and west, has been partly
exposed.
(5) The South-Eastern Rhyolite.
The bedded rocks of the hill end southward in a rhyolite which
skirts it on the south-eastern side, and extends to the eastern
boundary-fault. It isa dark purple-red rhyolite, in some places
compact, but generally slaggy and coarsely vesicular and amyg-
daloidal, the vesicles measuring often 1 inch or more in length,
sometimes drawn out into fine tubes, and filled with yellow and
green secondary minerals.
Under the microscope, the vesicular, slaggy and banded structures
are very pronounced ; there is much staining with red iron-oxide, and
occasionally phenocrysts of felspar are present, generally showing
albite-lamellation. Much secondary quartz, yellow epidote, and
green chlorite, frequently in spherulitic aggregates, together with
radial growths of a colourless, brightly-polarizing, fibrous substance,
fill cracks and vesicles. Some of the larger irregular vesicles are
partly filled with highly-vesicular and spongy rhyolite, squeezed in
while the rock was still plastic ; while, in other cases, sharp, angular
portions of the felsitic matrix have been forced in by movement
more probably after partial or entire consolidation, as in the case of
the more angular fragments of fibrous felsitic matter in the quartz-
amygdaloids of the Northern Rhyolite.
In some specimens, the rock appears to consist of two magmas
that have imperfectly mixed, a darker and more ferruginous one
irregularly penetrating a paler variety; while, in other cases, the
bands vary considerably in colour, owing to the irregular distribu-
tion of the iron-oxide, so that the rock has a peculiar gnarled and
twisted appearance, suggestive of the knotty or grained structures
of wood. This gnarled structure is doubtless to be explained by
the partial separation of a more basic and ferruginous constituent
of the original rhyolite-magma before the extrusion of the lava.
In one place there is an included fragment, 0°05 inch across, of
nearly-black glass with clear vesicles. In a slice (1 Y 1) of one of
several of these rocks kindly lent to me by Mr. Parkinson, a well-
marked spherulitic structure is visible to the naked eye, the sphe-
rulitic bodies measuring 0°1 inch across. The rock was originally
the usual highly-vesicular and slaggy type of this South-Eastern
: Led
Vol. 60. | IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. ATT
Rhyolite, but a fibro-radiate structure, which is almost invisible
until the specimen is examined with crossed nicols, has developed :
in one place round an elongated vesicle, and in other places around
felspar-phenocrysts. A mosaic of secondary, colourless quartz,
possibly due to solfataric action, has largely replaced some of the
original brown glassy matter of these spherulites, but more espe-
cially the spaces between them, so that the spherulitic bodies appear
light-brown in a nearly-colourless matrix (Pl. XU, fig. 2).
The rock, as a whole, is more basic and slaggy-looking than the
Northern Rhyolite, contains little or no visible primary quartz, and
the felspars have more generally the albite-twinning. Its per-
centage of silica is 75°78, and its specific gravity 2°63.
(6) Summary of the Bedded Rocks.
TABLE SHOWING SrxicA-PERCENTAGES AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.
Percent.| Sp. Average |
Rock-specimens. of silica. | practi: sp. i |
pea orthernm Rhyolite (15) .2...25 i.e eee | 81-93 | 2°610 2°61
2. Andesite-Group. ae | a
(a) Red-and-green grits { (350) w"| Bro a570 f| 263
f (Age. Crag) .2...:-)...- | 53°45 2-743
(5) Palagonite-tuff4 (green, flaggy) .........) .... 2°837 | |
(coarse agg.-breccia)...| ...... 2700 $| 2°75
ep taeeen allen idita o.oo ce ccc. cecttaatess:| caoves 2-670 | |
le ASL PENT ca he) as a ee oe a 2-790 }
SR MOL a Pn Re 50°67 | 2°760)
f RO steer satierehsacsent | sehr ce | 2°800 |
(eyemdesite-tava 4) (57 @) site s2 elec dst | 2820+) 2:80 |
b ABS) ot opto. seate parreres: | 2-800 |
OE eee eee eee ha eee | 2-880 ) |
3. Rhyolite-grits and breccias ..................06- | 7483 | 2:640 2°64 |
| 4. South-Eastern Rhyolite.....................-.000-| 7578 | 2°630 | 2°63 |
The foregoing table shows that a considerable gap in silica-
percentage occurs between the Northern Rhyolite and the more acid
of the andesite-tuffs that immediately follow. This fact, combined
with the discordance in strike between the banding of the Northern
Rhyolite and the succeeding tuffs (see map, Pl. XX XVIII), might
be taken to imply, either that a considerable break in the volcanic
history here exists at the base of the tuffs, or that the junction is a
disturbed one. Unfortunately, the junction is largely obscured by
the dolerite, and where this is not the case, it is impossible to see
the relation of the two rock-groups. There still remains another
alternative, namely that the Northern Rhyolite is intrusive, as stated
by Mr. Blake,* and does not belong to the bedded volcanics of the
1 See ante, pp. 451, 452.
478 PROF. W. S. BOULTON ON THE [ Nov. 1904,
hill. While it may be impossible to disprove its intrusive origin
(for the banded and pyromeridal structures do not necessarily
negative its intrusion), it seems more in accordance with the
facts* to consider the rhyolite as an outpouring of lava, and to regard
its junction with the andesite-tuffs as a break in the history of the
volcanic activity represented by the Pontesford rocks.*
After leaving the Northern Rhyolite, the whole of the tuffs and
lavas, including the acid breccias and rhyolite at the south-eastern
end, form a continuous bedded series, despite the great difference
in the average silica-percentage of the Andesite-Group and the
Rhyolite-Breccias near the South-Eastern Rhyolite. Commencing
with a silica-percentage of nearly 60, these andesite-tuffs (together
with their associated lavas) become practically basic, with a little
over 50 per cent., and end with tuff and lava of a pronounced acid
type, with a percentage of about 75.
Thus, even if the Northern Rhyolite should be regarded as
intrusive (and to determine this finally, evidence from adjacent
Uriconian areas may have to be considered), the South-Eastern
Rhyolite must be regarded as bedded.
It is impossible to point definitely to the source of these bedded
volcanic rocks, but from the thinning of the tuffs towards the north-
east, and the diminution of the size of their lapilli, together with
their more gritty and washed appearance, when followed in this
direction, it might be inferred that they had their origin in some
vent or vents to the west of the present site of Pontesford Hill.
(7) The Intrusive Basic Rocks.
The basaltic rocks that make up the higher ground of the hill
vary considerably in colour and texture from point to point.
Typically, the rock is a dark or purplish-red, coarsely-amygdaloidal
dolerite or diabase, well shown along the eastern side, where it has
weathered into bare, bold cliffs. But in other places it is iron-
grey, very hard, fine-grained, and compact (60), or again somewhat
coarsely crystalline, and showing to the naked eye a marked
ophitic structure (35, 514, etc.). In places along the Camp at the
top of the hill, and elsewhere, the rock has an intense red colour,
due to the large amount of hematite contained in it. Specimens
may be collected showing a breccia-like appearance, the angular
fragments differing slightly in texture and colour from the sur-
rounding material, as if a partly-consolidated mass had been broken
up by subsequent intrusion. In other places the rock exhibits
a spheroidal structure (424), the spheroids measuring sometimes a
foot across.
* Tf the ‘inlier’ of rhyolite-rock (559), described on pp. 455-56, be a true
tuff, the evidence for the extrusive origin of the rhyolite would seem fairly
complete.
* For a description of an ancient, bedded, volcanic group, with sudden and
marked changes in chemical composition, see Sir Archibald Geikie’s ‘ Ancient
Volcanoes of Great Britain’ vol. i (1897) pp. 145 e¢ segg., and Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. vol. xxxix (1883) pp. 300 e¢ seqq.
Vol.60.] «IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. 479
The amygdaloidal type shows vesicles generally elongated in a
direction parallel to the strike of the bedded tuffs, sometimes 2
or more inches long, and filled with calcite and other secondary
minerals, which, however, have in some cases been dissolved out,
giving to the rock a very vesicular, slaggy appearance.
In a small quarry at the extreme south-western end of the hill
(431), very fine specimens of the amygdaloidal rock may be seen.
The vesicles, up to 2 inches across, which are here quite round,
have been filled with small spherulitic growths of red iron-oxide
and chalcedony with pronounced concentric rings, the clearer
siliceous portions showing a dark cross in polarized light. These
bodies generally line the wall of the vesicle, while the inter-
vening spaces have been filled mostly with calcite, but also
with chalcedony, chlorite, and, in some cases, further spherulitic
aggregates of iron-oxide. The rock is here much veined, showing
slickensides, and calcite has been deposited in large quantities.
Microscopic sections of the rock often show the felspars orien-
tated in the direction
Fig. 5.—Roughly-parallel wavy ridges on a of strike of the an-
weathered surface of basalt. (Natural desite-tuffs, and at
size.) one place in the
eee ee basalt of the Camp
(53), curious roughly-
en SCS parallel and wavy
I er lines, about one-
eighth of an inch
ee ee aaa apart, are visible on
the weathered sur-
face, and have the
same direction. They stand out as thin ribs, as if made of harder
material than the rest of the rock (fig. 5).°
Prof. Bonney has described a specimen from the Camp. He
says :—
‘The groundmass is full of elongated microliths of felspar with a slightly-
parallel grouping, generally plagioclase, but possibly in one or two cases ortho-
clase, with dark granules, probably in many cases hematite, and numerous
grains (generally rather irregular in outline) of augite. One of more definite
form is a compound erystal, about 0°02 inch in diameter. The rock is a basalt,
and more resembles that of a flow than of a dyke.’®
It may be added that the rock is a type of the finely-granular
dolerite or basalt, and that very little of the original material of
the felspars or augite remains, although the outlines of the crystals
are perfectly preserved. Silica-percentage = 47:62 ; specific gravity
= 2°84,
1 This is the opening referred to by Murchison: see p. 451.
2 A thin slice, taken across a selected specimen of the rock, did not reveal
any difference in structure or composition such as might account for these
curious ribs. The same structure, but on a larger scale, is to be seen in some
of the igneous rocks of Llanvawr, in the Ordovician of the Corndon district.
3 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxviii (1882) p. 124.
480 PROF. W. 8. BOULION ON THE [Nov. 1904,
A typical specimen of the granulitic dolerite (28) is from the
northern slope of the hill. It contains laths of felspar measuring
up to 0°05 inch in length, showing simple, but generally lamellar
twinning, and atendency to a parallel arrangement, with extinction-
angles as high as 40°, indicating a felspar of the basic labradorite-
series; plates of yellowish-brown augite measuring 0-04 inch across,
sometimes enclosing felspar-laths, and in one or two places sur-
rounding phenocrysts of olivine. Numerous large crystals of olivine,
0-06 inch long, showing the typical crystal-outlines and cracking,
are now converted into pale-green, faintly-polarizing serpentine,
with the characteristic heematite-rods and plates along the edges
and cracks. Frequently the phenocrysts are aggregated, so as to
approach the ‘ glomeroporphyritic’ structure of Prof. Judd. The
groundmass is made up of a fine mesh of felspar-laths having very
low extinction-angles, surrounded by much light-brown and greenish
augite in a finely-granular condition, and possibly some minute
olivine-crystals, together with grains of magnetite and ilmenite,
forming the pilotaxitiec structure of Rosenbusch.
The rock appears to be a typical example of a granulitic
augite-olivine-dolerite with two generations of felspar, the
earlier consisting of phenocrysts of labradorite, the later, forming the
matrix, a more acid feispar allied to oligoclase (Pl. XLIII, fig. 6).
For the full analysis and the specific gravity see p. 481.
No. 60, at the extreme southern end of the hill, may be taken as a
type of the ophitic dolerite. Itis made up of plates of yellowish-
brown, almost colourless augite nearly 0:1 inch across, enclosing laths
of labradorite measuring up to 0-08 inchin length. Olivine-pheno-
crysts are abundant, but are all converted into pale-green serpentine,
in some cases with a distinct spherulitic or fibrous structure, and
with the usual separation of magnetite and hematite along the
borders and cracks. The felspars have been largely replaced
by secondary substances, while the augite is relatively fresh ; but
this, too, in places has degenerated into a serpentine-product. Silica-
percentage=45°64 ; specific gravity = 2°84.
No. 569, from the edge of the dolerite-mass on the western
slope, shows pronounced ophitic structure, and the olivine, which is
plentiful, has completely degenerated ; much green serpentine, with
pale-yellow granules, white by reflected light, and plates and rods
of hematite and magnetite resulting from its decomposition.
Specific gravity =2°85.
No. 514, from the north-western slope, near the gritty tuffs of
the Andesite-Group, shows the ophitic structure to the naked eye,
with much green material, little laths of felspar, and occasional
round vesicles filled with a dark-green substance. Microscopic
examination reveals large plates of augite, of a deeper brown than
usual, enclosing felspar-laths measuring up to nearly 0-1 inch in
length. No recognizable olivine occurs, but much greenish-yellow
serpentine-material, often minutely spherulitic, and containing small
pale-brown granules, white by reflected light, as well as grains
iron-ore. A good deal of ilmenite with leucoxene occurs in this
rock. Specific gravity =2°86.
Vol. 60.] » IGNEOUS ROCKS OF PONTESFORD HILL. 481
The following table gives the percentage of silica and specific
gravity of varieties of the intrusive dolerite, taken from different
parts of the mass :—
No. of Percentage Specific
specimen. of silica. gravity.
Fs eee Be SE 48°30 2°88
GAN sak) as eee 3 45°64 2°84
rij eM Oe Tov a 47°62 2°84
BO Sagwdaed pacasnndant 45°81 2°84
EF gah gh 8 GBA cha el 50°15 2°83
> epee
CONTENTS.
Pages
Proceedings of the Geological Society, Session 1903-1904 ........ cc csceceeseeneee i-vili
PAPERS READ.
Page
1. Mr. E. T, Newton on Edestus in the British Coal-Measures. (Plate I.)......... 1
2. Mr. Cunningham-Craig on Metamorphism in the Loch-Lomond Disirict.
(Plates; FTV -): aie c0 ines pave = duatadatads dnatis vet oOhane eae gee 10
5. Mr. Acland on a New Cave at Gibraltar. (Plate VI.) ............ccccececececeeees 30
4, Prof. Gregory on the Glacial Geology of Tasmania. (Plates VII & VIII.) ... 37
5. Miss Healey on some Upper Jurassic Ammonites. (Plates IX-XII.)
6, Dr. Preller on Lake-Basins between the Jura and the Alps. (Adstract.) ...... 65
7. The late Mr. E. E. Walker on the Garnet-bearing and Associated Rocks of
the Borrowdale Volcanic Series. (Plates XIII & XIV.) .............cccc0ceees ‘ 70
8. Mr. & Mrs. Reid on a probable Paleolithic Floor at Prah Sands
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To Fellows 5s. [Postage 6d.]
GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE added to the Geological Society's Library
during the years ended December 31st, 1894-1902. Price 2s. each. To Fellows ls. 6d.
each. [Postage 23d. ]
LIST OF THE TYPE- AND FIGURED SPECIMENS RECOG-
NIZED BY C. D. SHERBORN IN THE COLLECTION OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, verified and arranged, with additions, by the
Rey. J. F. Buaxe. 1902. Price 3s. 6d. (bound in cloth), 3s. Od. (in paper wrappers).
To Fellows 2s. 6d. and 2s. 0d. [Postage 3d.]
HUTTON’S ‘THEORY OF THE EARTH,’ Vol. III., edited by Sir
ArcuipaLp Gerxisz, D.C.L., F.R.S. Price 3s. 6d. To Fellows 2s. [Postage 4d.]
THE GEOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. Translated by Dr. O. F. Fiscuzr,
from the works of MM. Hocusterrer & Perermany. With an Atlas of Six Maps.
Fellows may purchase One Copy of this book at 2s.; additional copies will be
charged 4s. [Postage 5d.]
CONTENTS,
Pages
Proceedings of the Geological Society, Session 1903-1904, including the Pro-
ceedings at the Annual General Meeting, the Anniversary Address, etc.... ix-cviii
PAPERS READ.
Page
9. Mr. Clement Reid on a probable Eocene Outlier off the Cornish Coast ........ 113
10. Mr. A. M. Bell on Implementiferous Sections at Wolvercote .........scccececeees 120
11. Dr. A. Smith Woodward on the Jaws of Ptychodus from the Chalk.
CP late PAV) Se ascasacenceces -stcvnsaeedte S ccatategssahycasavearaecuptaetscches se cnee er eamsee 133
12. Prof. Lloyd Morgan & Prof. Reynolds on the Igneous Rocks associated with
the Oarboniferous Limestone of the Bristol District. (Plates XVI & XVII.) 137
13. Mr. Boulton on the Igneous Rocks at Spring Cove ...........csecsecsecsceseeeeeees 158
14. Mr. Rendle Short on Rbeztic Sections in the Bristol District, and on the Mode
of Deposition of the Bhsstic Series «2. ..2i...s.0.c.cc 000 deans ovsbee ee «codseae eens 170
15. Prof. Reynolds & Mr. Vaughan on the Rhetic of the South-Wales Direct
Sume.\* (CEelate SOVAILE) fe. o.oo cisss caves canteves teal bath oct shaw ese eee 194
16. Dr. Davison on the Derby Earthquakes of March 24th and May 3rd, 1903.
(PIAfie Aa) seeped Sec adl o cesa've see tsnonatsyaaite dapccaee soecec tae) diaet aan Dae eee 215
[The List of Geological Literature for 1903 will be issued shortly.—
No. 239 of the Quarterly Journal will be published next August. |
[The Editor of the Quarterly Journal is directed to make it known to the Public that the
Authors alone are responsible for the facts and opinions contained in their respective
Papers. |
*.* The Council request that all communications intended for publication by the
Society shall be clearly and legibly written:on one side of the paper only, with
proper references, and in all respects in fit-condition for being
at once placed in the Printer’s hands. Unless this is done, it will be in
the discretion of the Officers to return the communication to the Author for revision.
The Library and Museum at the Apartments of the Society are open every Weekday
from Ten o’clock until Five, except during the fortnight commencing on the
first Monday in September, when the Library is closed for the purpose of
cleaning; the Library is also closed on Saturdays at One'p.m. during the
months of August and September. It is open until Hight p.m. on the Days of
Meeting for the loan of books, and from Hight p.m. until the close of each
Meeting for conversational purposes only.
Bt Mea Soy BS Re SD BLS OY CGAY es; BEES AEE eee al tS =
| Vol. LX. AUGUST 15th, 1904. No. 239. :
3 Part 3.
| THE
|
|) QUARTERLY JOURNAL i
:
OF THE ,
;
| GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
:
EDITED BY
THE ASSISTANT-SECRETARY.
[With Thirteen Plates, illustrating Papers by Dr. Davison,
Col. English, Mr. R. B. Newton, Mr. R. Holland,
Prof. G. de Lorenzo, Mr. H. N. Davies, Mr. Arnold-
Bemrose, and Mr. J. V. Elsden. | ,
LONDON :
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
PARIS:—CHARLES KLINCKSIECK, 11 RUE DE LILLE.
SOLD ALSO AT THE APARTMENTS OF THE SOCIETY,
Price Five Shillings.
Oil Ol OO LOLOL GLO OOOO LOLOL OOOO OOOO MOO OOOO NO DDO ws
SOO ore
.
»
=
LIST OF THE OFFICERS AND COUNCIL OF THE ~
~ ee
ry Me
=
4 aq
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
—_—, eee
Elected February 19th, 1904.
Wy yw
PrestVent.
John Edward Marr, Se.D., F.R.S.
Gice-PBresidents.
Prof. Thomas George Bonney, 8c.D.,LL.D., | Edwin Tulley Newton, Esq., F.R.S.
E.R.S., F.S.A. Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, Esq.,
Sir Archibald Geikie, Se.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
Sec.R.S.
Secretaries.
Robert Stansfield Herries, Esq., M.A. | Prof. William Whitehead Watts, M.A.,
| M-Se., F.R.S. .
Foreign Secretary, Creasurer.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., | William Thomas Blanford, C.I.E., LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.L.S. F.R.S.
COUNCIL.
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Avebury, P.C.,| Prof. John W. Judd, C.B., LL.D., F.RS.
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. | Prof, Percy Fry Kendall.
Francis Arthur Bather, M.A., D.Sc. | Philip Lake, Esq., M.A.
William Thomas Blanford, C.I.E., LL.D.,| Prof. Charles Lapworth, LL.D., F.R.S.
FE.R.S. | Bedford McNeill, Esq., Assoc. R.S.M.
Prof. Thomas George Bonney, Se.D., LL.D.,| John Edward Marr, Se.D., F.B.S.
E.R.S., F.S.A. Prof. Henry Alexander Miers, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.O.L., LL.D.,) Horace Woollaston Monckton, Esq., F.L.S.
F.B.S. | Edwin Tulley Newton, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. Edmund Johnstone Garwood, M.A. | George Thurland Prior, Esq., M.A.
Sir Archibald Geikie, Se.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,, Prof. William Whitehead Watts, M.A.,
Sec. B.S. | MSce., F.R.S.
Prof. Theodore Groom, M.A., D.Se. |The Rey. Henry Hoyte Winwood, M.A.
Alfred Harker, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. |Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, Esq.,
Robert Stansfield Herries, Esq., M.A. | ERS.
Assistant-Secretarp, Clerk, Librarian, and Curator.
L. L. Belinfante, M.Se.
Agsistants tn @ffice, Library, and Huseum.
W. Rupert Jones. Clyde H. Black.
Alec Field.
STANDING REFERENCE COMMITTEE.
Dr. J. E. Marr, President.
R. S. Herries, Esq. By oe
Prof. W. W. Watts. } ag sa
Dr. F. A. Bather. Prof. J. W. Judd.
Dr. W. T. Blanford. Prof. H. A. Miers.
Prof. T. G. Bonney. Mr. E. T. Newton.
Prof. E. J. Garwood. Mr. A. C. Seward.
Lj Sir Archibald Geikie. Mr. H. B. Woodward.
EVENING MEETINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
TO BE HELD AT BURLINGTON HOUSE.
Session 1904-1905.
1904. 1905.
Wednesday, November ......... 9*—23* | Wednesday, March ............ 8*—_22
” December ......... 21 a AGRA: Oh eset 5*—19
1905. BE: Ey Pe Suen 10*—24
; ee
Wednesday, January ............ 4*_]8* 4 bee: Pitas > Lite
“ Feb. (Anniversary,
Friday, Feb.17th) 1*—22*
[Business will commence at Eight o’ Clock precisely each Evening.]
The dates marked with an asterisk are those on which the Council will meet.
4
ve
>|
t
3
+
wr .
ee AS ee ut es | v ~ & ) na , al
ADMISSION AND PRIVILEGES
OF
FELLOWS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
Every Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed by three or more Fellows,
who must sign a Certificate in his favour. The Proposer whose name stands first upon
the Oertificate must have a personal knowledge of the Candidate.
Fellows on election pay an Admission-Fee of Six Guineas. The Annual Contribu-
tion paid by Fellows is Two Guineas, due on the Ist of January in every year, and
payable in advance; but Fellows elected after the month of February are subject only
to a proportionate part of the Contribution for the year in which they are elected,
and Fellows elected in November or December pay no Contribution for the current
year. The Annual Contribution may at any time be compounded for by a payment of
Thirty-Five Pounds.
The Fellows are entitled to receive gratuitously all the volumes or parts of volumes
of the Quarterly Journal of the Society that may be published after their election,
so long as their Annual Contributions are paid; and they may purchase any of the
publications of the Society at a reduction of 25 per cent. under the selling-prices.
The Library is open daily to the Fellows between the hours of 10 and 5 (except
during the fortnight commencing on the first Monday in September ; see also next
page), and on Meeting-Days until 8 p.m. Under certain restrictions, Fellows are
allowed to borrow books from the Library.
Publications to be had of the Geological Society, Burlington House.
Reduced Price | Reduced Price
TRANSACTIONS. tothe Fellows. | TRANSACTIONS. to the apd
5 8. a, &. d,
Vyas a FA] 1 esse. 0 Oly VAL IR ATG) vececsesaccnsscuceus aontentos 010 0
Te AUT 9g ed ae 0 4 0 WoL GV ES Parti 4s yc acccsoccacahoaseesensacct a 010 0
~ AACR c cee dete oa. cee iicdc ae ocecendsens> 0 4 0
QUARTERLY JOURNAL. (Vols. III to LIX, inclusive.)
Price to Fellows, 13s. 6d. each (Vols. XV, XXIII, XXX, and XXXIV to LIX,
16s. 6d.), in cloth.
CLASSIFIED INDEX TO THE TRANSACTIONS, JOURNAL,
&e., by G. W. OrmeErRop, Esq. New Edition, to the end of 1868, with First, Second, and
Third Supplements to the end of 1889. Price 8s. 6d. To Fellows, 5s. 6d. [Postage
5d.|—The First, Second, and Third Supplements may be purchased separately.
GENERAL INDEX TO THE FIRST FIFTY VOLUMES OF THE
QUARTERLY JOURNAL (1845-1894). Part I (A-La). Part II (La-Z),
Price5s, each. To Fellows 3s. 9d. each. [Postage 3d.]
CATALOGUE OF THE LIBRARY, 1880. (620 pages 8vo.) Price 8s,
To Fellows 5s. [Postage 6d.]
GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE added to the Geological Society’s Library
during the years ended December 31st, 1894-1903. Price 2s. each. To Fellows ls. 6d.
each. {Postage 23d. |
LIST OF THE TYPE- AND FIGURED SPECIMENS RECOG-
NIZED BY C. D. SHERBORN IN THE COLLECTION OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, verified and arranged, with additions, by the
‘Rey. J.F. Brake. 1902. Price 3s. 6d. (bound in cloth), 3s. Od. (in paper wrappers).
To Fellows 2s. 6d. and 2s. Od. [Postage 3d.]
HUTTON’S ‘THEORY OF THE EARTH,’ Vol. III., edited by Sir
ArcuIBaLp Gerkie, D.C.L., F.R.S. Price 3s. 6d. To Fellows 2s. [Postage 4d.]
THE GEOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. Translated by Dr. O. F. Fiscusr,
from the works of MM. Hocusterrer & Perermann. With an Atlas of Six Maps.
Fellows may purchase One Copy of this book at 2s.; additional copies will be
charged 4s, [Postage 5d.]
CONTENTS.
Pages
Proceedings of the Geological Society, Session 1903-1904 ...........ccccceeeeeees cix—cxii
PAPERS READ.
Page
17. Dr. Davison on the Caernarvon Earthquake of June 19th, 1903, and its —
Accessory Shocks.:,/(Plate"KX.) 2.icc ce ceiecs deste dhentne aaeteeeee 233
18. Col. English on Eocene and later Formations surrounding the Dardanelles,
with Appendices by Dr. Flett, Mr. R. B. Newton, and Mr. R. Holland.
(Biates AAT ON KY 5) ga cva. sege sens qe agehatparesseyecctee tesa, agee eee eee ee 245
19. Prof. De Lorenzo on the History of Volcanic Action in the Phlegrean Fields.
(Plates ARV I- ANVIL.) evita eaves cesels slacy des cucteviebs cannes ee 296
20. Dr. Preller on the Age of the Lake of Geneva. (Adstract.) ......c.ccceccececeee 316
21. Mr. Jukes-Browne on the Valley of the Teign .........60. ..cceccsecececcoccssueenee 319
22. Mr. H. N. Davies on Human Remains in Gough’s Cavern, Cheddar. (Plate
RAE enka czdn te none sane denn sibs 2 Canta olde an2otontsn cal acaiee ves is oak ae aoe ern 335
23. Mr. L. Richardson on a Non-Sequence between the Keuper and the Rheetic... 349
24, Mr. W. F. Gwinnell on Plesiosaurus from the White Lias of Westbury-on-
Severs” (Abstract) 3.5.2 oon cra peannevnckctods. (aes eee et 359
25. Mr. Fearnsides on Upper Gault Limestone at Barnwell .....................ceeeee 360
26. Mr. Arnold-Bemrose on Quartzite-Dykes in Mountain-Limestone. (Plates
Pe A RR tec de nae dic acuanes bode ape teens ucegiaes pease seus aa 364
27. Mr. Elsden on the Age of the Llyn-Padarn Dykes. (Plate XXXII.) ......... 372
[No. 240 of the Quarterly Journal will be published next November. |
[The Editor of the Quarterly Journal is directed to make it known to the Public that the
Authors alone are responsible for the facts and opinions contained in their respective
Papers. |
*,* The Council request that all communications intended for publication by the
Society shall be clearly and legibly written on one side of the paper only, with
proper references, and in all respects in fit condition for being
at once placed in the Printer’s hands. Unless this is done, it will be in
the discretion of the Officers to returnthe communication to the Author for revision.
The Library and Museum at the Apartments of the Society are open every Weekday
from Ten o’clock until Five, except during the fortnight commencing
on the first Monday in September, when the Library isclosed for
the purpose of cleaning; the Library is also closed on Saturdays
at One p.M. during the months of AugustandSeptember. It is open
until Eight p.m. on the Days of Meeting for the loan of books, and from Hight
p.M. until the close of each Meeting for conversational purposes only.
er
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No. 240,
(EV hx
THE
NOVEMBER 23rd, 1904.
QUARTERLY JOURNAL
OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
EDITED BY
THE ASSISTANT-SECRETARY.
[With Eleven Plates, illustrating Papers by Mr. Barrow
and Prof. Boulton. |
a ~ _—
an ; —,,
E Po _navan instityes, SSS
LONDON : Ee \
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LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. ‘ }
PARIS:—CHARLES KLINCKSIECK,\11 RUE DE LILLE. the )
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LIST OF THE OFFICERS AND COUNCIL OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
RRRARARN
Vey
ARR AARAI™
Weve
ae
John Edward Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S.
ices Presidents.
Prof. Thomas George Bonney, Se.D.,LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.S.A.
Sir Archibald Geikie, Sc.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
Sec.R.S.
Edwin Tulley Newton, F.R.S.
Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, F.R.S.
Secretaries.
Robert Stansfield Herries, M.A.
Foreign Secretary.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.LS.
Prof. William Whitehead Watts, M.A,,
M.Sce., F.R.S.
Creasurer,
William Thomas Blanford, O.I.E., LL.D.,
PRS:
COUNGIL.
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Avebury, P.C.
D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Francis Arthur Bather, M.A., D.Sc.
William Thomas Blanford, C.I.E., LL.D.,
E.R.S8.
Prof. Thomas George Bonney, Sc.D., LL.D.,,
F.R.S., F.S.A.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.O.L., LL.D.,
E.R.S.
Prof. Edmund Johnstone Garwood, M.A.
,| Prof. John W. Judd, C.B., LL.D., F.B.S,
| Prof. Perey Fry Kendall.
Philip Lake, M.A.
| Prof. Charles Lapworth, LL.D., F.R.S.
| Bedford McNeill, Assoc. B.S. M.
John Edward Marr, Se.D., F.R.S.
| Prof. Henry Alexander Miers, M.A., F.RB.S.
Horace Woollaston Monckton, F, L. S.
Edwin Tulley Newton, F.R.S.
George Thurland Prior, M.A.
Sir Archibald Geikie, Sce.D., D.C.L., LL.D. | Prof. William Whitehead Watts, M.A.,
Sec.R.S.
Prof. Theodore Groom, M.A., D.Sc.
Alfred Harker, M.A., F.R.S.
Robert Stansfield Herries, M.A.
M.&c., F.R.S.
The Rev. Henry Hoyte Winwood, M.A.
Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, ERS.
Assistant-Secretary, Clerk, Librartan, anv Curator.
L. L. Belinfante, M.Se.
Agsistants tn @ffice, Library, and Mluseum.
W. Rupert Jones.
Clyde H. Black.
Alec Field.
STANDING REFERENCE COMMITTEE.
Dr. J. E. Marr, President.
Mr. R. S. Herries.
Prof. W. W. Watts.
Dr, F. A. Bather.
Dr. W. T. Blanford.
Prof. T. G. Bonney.
Prof. E. J. Garwood.
Sir Archibald Geikie.
\ Secretaries.
Prof. J. W. Judd.
Prof. H. A. Miers.
Mr. E. T. Newton.
Mr. A. C. Seward.
Mr. H. B. Woodward.
EVENING MEETINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
TO BE HELD AT BURLINGTON HOUSE.
1904.
Wednesday, November ......... 23*
3 December ......... 7*—21
1905.
Wednesday, January ............ 4*_]8*
is Feb. (Anniversary,
Friday, Feb.17th) 1*—22*
Session 1904-1905.
1905.
Wednesday, March ............ 8*—22
yy girl Siac voneoseane 5*—19
. May roc cdaectaevanere 10*—24
. TUNE ~ chcas aren eae 7*—21*
[Business will commence at Eight 0’ Clock precisely each Evening. |
The dates marked with an asterisk are those on which the Council will meet.
°
¢ 2
G.
be
“7
:
a . | as
ADMISSION AND PRIVILEGES
OF
FELLOWS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
Every Candidate for admission as a Fellow must be proposed by three or more Fellows,
who must sign a Certificate in his favour. The Proposer whose name stands first upon
the Certificate must have a personal knowledge of the Candidate.
Fellows on election pay an Admission-Fee of Six Guineas. The Annual Contribu-
tion paid by Fellows is Two- Guineas, due on the Ist of January in every year, and
payable in advance; but Fellows elected after the month of February are subject only
to a proportionate part of the Contribution for the year in which they are elected,
and Fellows elected in November or December pay no Contribution for the current
year. The Annual Contribution may at any time be compounded for by a payment of
Thirty-Five Pounds,
The Fellows are entitled to receive gratuitously all the volumes or parts of volumes
of the Quarterly Journal of the Society that may be published after their election,
so long as their Annual Contributions are paid; and they may purchase any of the
publications of the Society at a reduction of 25 per cent. under the selling-prices.
The Library is open daily to the Fellows between the hours of 10 and 5 (except
during the fortnight commencing on the first Monday in September; see also next
page), and on Meeting-Days until 8 p.m. Under certain restrictions, Fellows are
allowed to borrow books from the Library.
Publications to be had of the Geological Society, Burlington House.
Reduced Price | Reduced Price
TRANSACTIONS. tothe ieee TRANSACTIONS. to the Pps be
ae B 8. d.
ee AEE Oy coc ccs sanecseccnccesvacccanen 1386 RIG eRHVOIE SP ALG On ecssccueacssosesccsevassceosze 010 0
MMENEED Pari Ec. occapsccccesensiaes-.-cpiee 040 | se 0 aa eo acs esc cceaphesde casies 010 0
- BETH one's can ecccansseenssecccest 0 4 6
QUARTERLY JOURNAL. (Vols. III to LX, inclusive.)
Price to Fellows, 13s. 6d. each (Vols. XV, XXIII, XXX, and XXXIV to LX,
16s. 6d.), in cloth.
CLASSIFIED INDEX TO THE TRANSACTIONS, JOURNAL,
&e., by G.W. Ormerop. New Edition, to the end of 1868, with First, Second, and
Third Supplements to the end of 1889. Price 8s. 6d. To Fellows, 5s.6d. [Postage
5d.]—The First, Second, und Third Supplements may be purchased separately.
GENERAL INDEX TO THE FIRST FIFTY VOLUMES OF THE
QUARTERLY JOURNAL (1845-1894). Part I (A-La). Part II (La-Z).
Price 5s. each. To Fellows 3s. 9d. each. [Postage 3d.]
CATALOGUE OF THE LIBRARY, 1880. (620 pages 8vo.) Price 8s,
To Fellows 5s. [Postage 6d.]
GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE added to the Geological Society's Library
during the years ended December 31st, 1894-1903. Price 2s. each. To Fellows 1s. 6d.
each. [Postage 23d. ]
LIST OF THE TYPE- AND FIGURED SPECIMENS RECOG.-
NIZED BY C. D. SHERBORN IN THE COLLECTION OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, verified and arranged, with additions, by the
Rey. J. F. Brake. 1902. Price 3s. 6d. (bound in cloth), 3s, Od. (in paper wrappers).
To Fellows 2s. 6d. and 2s. 0d. [Postage 3d.]
HUTTON’S ‘THEORY OF THE EARTH,’ Vol. III, edited by Sir
ARCHIBALD Garkie, D.C.L., F.R.S. Price 3s.6d. To Fellows 2s. [Postage 4d.]
THE GEOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. Translated by Dr. O. F. Fiscugr,
from the works of MM. Hocusterrer & Perermann. With an Atlas of Six Maps.
Fellows may purchase One Copy of this book at 2s.; additional copies will be
charged 4s. [Postage 5d.]
a
T :
CONTENTS,
PAPERS READ.
Page
28. Mr. A. J. R. Atkin on the Genesis of the Gold-Deposits of Barkerville and
the V LITA by © «ss nccsoncedtaicosgeeenc oiadauand tenet aes Gar aneeeee Ee en ane ee ee 389
29. Messrs. Baldwin & Sutcliffe on Loscorpius sparthensis .......6..eccesveceenneeeenees 394
30. Mr. Barrow on the Moine Gneisses of the East-Central Highlands and their
Position in the Highland Sequence. (Plates XXXIII-XXXVII.) ............ 400
31. Prof. Boulton on the Igneous Rocks of Pontesford Hill. (Plates XXXVIII-
ME TET)): = vowcesceundas ocviberpeytvauun dushpmatstaeeeetas omban caves ten eaLac neha: eee 450
(TirLepacn, Contents, and Inpex to Vol. LX.)
[No. 241 of the Quarterly Journal will be published next February. |
[The Editor of the Quarterly Journal is directed to make it known to the Public that the
Authors alone are responsible for the facts and opinions contained in their respective
Papers. |
*,* The Council request that all communications intended for publication by the
Society shall be clearly and legibly written on one side of the paper only, with
proper references, and in all respects in fit condition for being
at once placed in the Printer’s hands. Unless this is done, it will be in
the discretion of the Officers to returnthe communication to the Author for revision.
The Library and Museum at the Apartments of the Society are open every Weekday
from Ten o’clock until Five, except during the fortnight commencing on the
first Monday in September, when the Library is closed for the purpose of
cleaning; the Library is also closed on Saturdays at One p.m. during the
months of August and September. It is open until Eight p.m. on the Days of -
Meeting for the loan of books, and from Hight p.m. until the close of each
Meeting for conversational purposes only.
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