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THE

QUARTERLY JOURNAL

OF

SCIENCE,

LITERATURE,AND THE ARTS.

VOLUME XVI.

$$$ ee ———————_——

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.

1823.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY W. CLOWEs,
Northumve-iand enurte

CONTENTS

OF

THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL,

No. XXXI.

ART. PAGE

I, Onthe Theory of the Dead Escapement, and the reducing it to
practice for Clocks with Seconds and longer Pendulums. By
B. L. Vutiiamy, Clock-maker to the King

If. Account ofthe Remains of a Roman Camp at Mitchley, near Bir-
mingham. By Joun Fincu, Esq.

III. Observations on the Project of taking down and rebuilding Lon-
don Bridge, and on the Design for the New Bridge by the late
Mr. Rennie. ByaCorrespondent. . - cath 2 ;

1V. Remarks on the Deposition of Dew. By Geo. Haryey, M.G,S,

V. On Animals preserved in Amber, with Remarks on the Nature
and Origin of that Substance. By J. Mac Cuxttocn, M.D.,
F,R.S. apis ee ay oh a

VI. Lamaron’s Genera of Shells. , by : ; n ‘ :

VII. On an Arenaceo-calcareous Substance found -near Delvine in
Perthshire. By J. Mac Cuxtocn, M.D.,F.RS. . z

VIII. On the Process of Reproduction of the Members of the Aquatic

Salamander. By Tweepy J. Topp, M.D., F.R.M.S.E., &c.

TX. Prooress or Forgign Science . . , °

24

35

4)

49

79

. 97

CONTENTS.

ART. PAGE.

X. ANALysis or ScrentTiric Books.

i. Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, in which are explained the
preparations in the Hunterian Collection, illustrated by Engravings ;
to which is subjoined “Synopsis Systematis Regni Animatsis nunc
primum ex ovi modificationibus propositum.” By Sir Everarp Home,
MMPS. FSA, BOSS ee ee eee

XIy Astronomican AnD Navuticat Coiiecrions, No. XV.

i. An Extension of the Inverse Series for Computation of Refraction
together with a direct Solution of the Problem. ii. Catalogue of the
Orbits of all the Comets hitherto computed. By Dr. OLsers and
Professor Scoumacuer, Astr.Abl.I. . . . «

XII. MisceLLaANngeous INTELLIGENCE.

I. MecHanicat ScrieNCE.

1. Cutting of Steel by Soft Iron. 2. Water-proof Cloth. 3. Chain
Bridge over the Tamar. 4. Pottery Painting. 5. Extinction of Fires
in Chimnies. 6. Smut in Corn prevented

Il. CHemrcau Science.

1, Experiments with certain Substances under high Pressures. 2.
Fusion of Charcoal, Plumbago, Anthracite, and Diamond ; probable
productions of Diamonds. 3. Action of Nitric Acid on Charcoal, pro-
duction of Cyanogen. 4. Crystallized Carbon-Artificial Plumbago.
5. Action of Steam on Solution of Silver and Gold. 6. Charge of
Musket Balls in Shrapnell Shells. 7. Action of Gunpowder on Lead.
8. Inflammation of Gunpowder by Slacking Lime. 9. Purple Tint
of Plate Glass affected by Light. 10. On the Uncertainty of Chemi-
cakAnalysis. 11. Solubility diminished by Heat. 12. Inflammabi-
lity of Ammoniacal Gas. 13. Amalgamation of Nickel and Cobalt by
Arsenic. 14. Chronium in Ore of Platinum. 15. Test of Platinum.
16. Combustion by Blow-pipe under Water. 17. Composition of
James's Powders. 18. Adulteration of Ultramarine. 19. On the
presence of Iodine in the Waters of Sales, Piedmont. 20. Evolution
of Gas during Metallic precipitation. 21. Electro-Magnetic Effects of
Alkalies, Acids, and Salts. 22.'Table of Thermoelectrics. 23. Horizon-
‘tal Plate Electrical Machine. 24. Carbonic and Muriatic Acids of the
Atmosphere. 25. Vegetable Alkali from Rhubarb. 26. Change of
Fat in Perkin's Engine, by Water, Heat, and Pressure. 27. On

134

. 139

ael55

CONTENTS.
ART. : * . PAGE
Eritrogene, and the colouring Matter of the Blood. 28. Compounds
of Cystic Oxide. 29. On Prussian Blue in Urine, 30. Excrement
of the Boa Constrictor, Urate of Ammonia. 31. Prize Questions. . 156

lil. Natwrat History.

1. Extraordinary Formation of Hornstone. 2. Matrix of the Brazi-
lian Diamond. 3. Native Carbonate of Sodain India. 4. Acid Earth
of Persia. 5. New Experiment with Hydrogen. 6. Organic Remains in
Poland. 7. Charcoal in the Cinders of Vesuvius. 8. Observations
made on Vesuvius andits Products. 9. Hot Springs at Jumnotri. 10.
‘Shock of an Earthquake at Sea. 11. Aerolite at Coddenham, in Suf-
folk. 12. Direction of Lightning. 13. Observations on the Boletus
Igniarius. 14.On the employment of Electricity in the treatment of
Calculus Cases. 15. Dumbness cured by Electricity.

1. The Greenwich Rural Circle = : = tol Taide ede

2. Mr. Groombridge’s Transit Circle . é PAGE Sepa BOO.

XIII. MereoroiocicaL JOURNAL ‘ Fe a 4 Hs . 199

.
.
—
©
pa

Professor Brande's Lectures on Chemistry

Prorgssor BranveE will commence the Chemical Lectures in
the Laboratory of the Royal Institution, on Tuesday the
7th of October, at nine in the morning precisely. A
Prospectus of these Lectures will be found at page 191
of this Number.

TO OUR READERS AND CORRESPONDENTS.

Reviews of Dr. Henry's Elements of Chemistry, and of the last part
of the Philosophical Transactions, are postponed to the ensuing Number,
in consequence of our arrears in the department of Foreign Science.

“The description of Mr. Rider's Patent Steam Engine, together with
Illusi ative Plates, will be inserted in our next Number.

Lamarck's Genera of Shells will be concluded in the present Volume.

The remarks of O. P. on the proposed Charter of the Asiatic Society
have reached us, and will be duly attended to.

Mr. James Adams’ Communication reached us too late for insertion ;
with his permission we reserve it for our next.

We are obliged by Mr. Prinsep's remarks on Adie’s Sympiesometer,
which we also reserve from want of room for the plate.

We would willingly oblige our correspondent W. W. by the insertion of
his communication; but as it is merely an extract from the Rev. G.S.
Faber’s “Genius and Object of the Patriarchal, the Levitical, and the
Christian Dispensation," we must beg leave to refer our readers to the
Chapter ‘ on the Mosaic Cosmogony” in that work, to assist them in ap-
preciating the opinions of M. De Luc, as opposed to those of Mr. Gran-
ville Penn, upon the subject of the word day, as employed in the Mosaic
history of the Creation.

The description of the New Laboratories and Apparatus erected at
Apothecaries’ Hall, will probably appear in another form ; but our Corre-
spondent may be assured we shall attend to his wishes.

‘Hints to the Architect of the British Museum” appear to us to be
premature. Has P. seen the plan ?

Mr. Harvey's paper on the Population of Great Britain, with it accom-
panying plate, will appear in our next.

CONTENTS

OF

THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL,
No. XXXII.

ART. PAGE.

I. A short Account of the Origin, Progress, and present State of the
various Establishments for conducting Chemical Processes, and
other Medicinal Preparations, at Apothecaries' Hall. ( With a
gay 79S We pbte @) hagas se LeONO GS Magnesite. |; Vyegs

II. Remarks on the Numerical Changes of the Population of Great

Britain, as divided into the Classes of Agriculturists, Manufac-

- tures, and non-productive Labourers, during the period from 1811

to 1821. By Gzorce Harvey, Esq., M.G.S., M.A.S., &c., &c.,
MURRLIE PNL Cy eels Bello) Maus eis. oh? sas) “eget vm, slo, .° poe

IiI. On the Herring. By J. Mac Cutiocu. M.D., F.R.S. . . . 204

IV. A new Demonstration of Taylér's Theorem. By Epw. WIt-
MPTP AEM. UMD, UI. Pestle Dae vet See Nee Bee

V. Historical Statement respecting the Liquefaction of Gases. By
Mr. M. Farapay, Cor. Mem. Royal Acad. Paris, Chem. Assist.

HOUME MOVE ANSCIONEION, C-> 3 ss ee et eg ee ee SO
a

VI. Lamarck’s Genera of Shells,—concluded. (Witha Plate.) . . 241

VII. Experiments on the Proportion of Charcoal obtained from
Woods having a greater Specific gravity than Box, By Mr. T.
Gamers: 2. ie the orsgecice. of sp teewane dere Macbook Staves 2O4

VIII. Description of Mr. Rider's Rotatory Steam-Engine. (/Vith a
PIMC) a als CGRP hones oe ee Ret tte rT ee 8 Ne ee UG

1X. Observations on the Modern Theory of Physical Astronomy.
Dy JON WALEH, Bigdiy tout hey +, ety set ov eso SO

Vou. XVI. b

ii. CONTENTS.
Art. PAGE
X. Description of a Grotto in the Interior of the Colony of the Cape

of Good Hope. By Mr.G.Twomrson . . « . + + + « 272

XI. On some undescribed Minerals. By H. J. A, Brooke, Esq,,
AC dca tat inal te tant I aaa a Ate RR ROR

XII. On a Mountain Barometer constructed with an Iron Cistern.
By J. Newman, Philosophical Instrument Maker to the Royal
Institution of Great(Britain’-.. 6. 0s.) cs «els 3 4 BIO

XIII. Observations on the Ultimate Analysis of certain Vegetable
Salifiable Bases. By. W. T. Branps, Esq., Sec. R.S., and Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution . . 279

oi dee al Sa eee md!

XIV. Astronomical Phenomena arranged in order of Succession for
the first Three Months of the Year, 1824, computed for the Meri-
dian and Parallel of Greenwich. By James Sourn, Esq. F.R.S, 286

XV. Proceedings of the Royal Society . - . + «> Meow iid 07

XVI. ANALYsIs OF ScrentTIFIC Books.

i. A Course of Lectures on Chemical Science as deliyered at the
Surrey Institution. By GoLpswortHy Gurney. . .- . + + s 301

ii. Supplement to the Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and
Mosaical Geologies, relating chiefly to the geological indications of
the Phenomena of the Cave of Kirkdale oi Mcih. a O

iii. Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, in which are explained the
Preparations in the Hunterian Collection, illustrated by Engravings.
By Sir Everarp Homsg, Bart., V.P.R.S., F.S.A., Se. Se. +4 cyeel

iv. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for —
the year MDCCCXXIMT. Pili rami Pe a Og oS
Ve The Elements of Experimental Chemistry. | By WILLIAM
Henry, M.D., F.R.S., Sc. sc, 3t a a

XVII. Asrronomica, anp Nautica Couuecrions, No. XVI.

i, Description ofa new Tide Guage. “. . 4 6. ele «e848

CONTENTS. iii

ART. PAGE
ii. Catalogue of the Orbits of all the Comets hitherto computed. By

Dr. Oxsers and Professor ScHumMaAcHER «). 5. 1 4. » 348

iii, Report to the Board of Customs, containing a description of an
improved Sliding Rule for guaging Casks. By Dr. Youne ° Our

iv. Remarks on Professor Struve’s Observations to determine the

Parallax of the fixed Stars. By Joun Ponp, Esq., Astr. Roy. . . 364
v. Aecount of some Parhelia seen at the Cape of Good Hope. By
the Rev Fearon. Faunows,A.M. . 2... 0... * * 865

XVIII. MisceELLANeous INTELLIGENCE.

IT. MecHantcau Science.

1. Experiments on the tenacity of Iron Wire, by Col. Dufour,
2. Suspension Bridge of Iron Wire at Geneva. 3, Hydraulic Experi-
ments on the Propagation of Waves, by M. Ridine, of Zuric. 4. On
a phenomenon of Shadows, by M. Monyez. 5. On the Vibration of
Mb irzeroy, Px; wknd Pitenvat of Mechapitg ip'thggy

II. Cuemicat Science.

1. Thermo-Electric Rotation, by Prof. Cumming. 2. Thermo-
Electric Rotation, 8, Thermo-Electric Phenomena with Iron. A,
Dobereiner's Eudiometer. 5. On the Action of Platina on mixtures
of Oxygen, hydrogen, and other Gases. 6. Solar Light and Heat. 7.
Benzoic acid in the ripe fruit of the Clove-tree. 8. Cer tainty of Che-
mical Analysis, 9. Correction of bulk of Gases for Temperature. 10.
Supports for ignition of Particles by the Blowpipe. 11. Solubility
of Substances induced by Tartaric Acid, 12, On two new coloured
test Papers. 13. On the presence of ammonia in rust of Iron found
in inhabited Houses. 14, New Carburetted hydrogen Gas. 15. On
Titanium, by M. Ruse. 16, Cadmium from Zine-Works. 17, Alloy
of Zine and Iron. 18. Muriates of Baryta, Strontia, and Lime.
19. Ona Quadruple Salt. 20. Pyrophorus from Tartrate of Lead. 21.
Onagreen Pigment. 22. Peculiar effects of Burning on Limestone
or Chalk. 23, New vegetable principle; Dalhines . . . . . . 372

b 2

iv. CONTENTS.

III, Narurat History.
ART. PAGE

1. Amici’s Microscopical Observations. 2. Dry Rot. 3. Insects in
Amber. . 4, Analysis, by M.. Arwedson. . 5, Loose Crystals in a cavity
in Quartz. 6. Chloride of Potassium. 7, Chlorine a remedy in
Scarlet fever. 8, Efficacy of the Chloride of Lime as a Disinfector.
9. Use of Sugar as an antidote to lead, in cases of poisoning. 10. Vol-
canic Eruption in Iceland. 11, Periodical rise and fall of the Barome-
ter. 12. Periodical Thunder-storms. 13. Voyage of Discovery. 14.
Aninralcule of Conferva Canoides.. ..* . 0. 6 we ee « 388

Titerany: Notices: ia.) (<p 2k unis aa reg a) os!) a le eee

XXI. Meteorological Diary, for the Months of September, Octo-
ber, and November 1Sese, SPOT RRO ho les ee NS, oe, B98

Index etl JAF EP LAM, mint Yo etal, oF ie) Roemer e Rae

Prepar ing for Publication in 1 Vol. 8vo.
A MANUAL OF PHARMACY. by W. T. Branpe, FRS., &c.

Comprising the natural, medical, and chemical, history of the araiie
contained in the list of Materia Medica, attached to the London Phar-
macopeia, and of other substances occasionally employed in medicine :
together with a full exposition of the various pharmacentical processes
directed by the College of Physicians, and formule for the prescription of
the principal simple and compound remedies.

This volume is intended as a pupil’s companion to the New London
Pharmacopzia, and will appear as soon as possible after the publication of
that work.

Royal Institution, Albemarle-Street,
January, 1824.

Tuer Members of and Subscribers to the Royal Institution are in-
formed, that the Lectures will commence on Saturday, the 7th of
February next, at Two in the Afternoon, and that the following

arrangements have already been made.

On Electricity and Electro-magnetism, by W. T. Branbe, Esq.
F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution.

On the leading subjects of Mechanical Philosophy, and their
recent improvement, particularly on Optics and Hydraulics: by
J. Miturneton, Esq., F.L.S., and Professor of Mechanics in the

Royal Institution.
On Plane! Geometry: by Jonny Warker, Esq., M.R.LA.

On Music: by W. Crotcn, Mus. Doctor and Professor of
Music in the University of Oxford.

The Lectures and Demonstrations on Practical Chemistry, de-
livered by Mr, Branps, in the Laboratory of the Royal Institu-
tion will commence on Tuesday, the 10th of February, at Nine in
the Morning, precisely, and will be continued on Tuesdays, Thurs-

days, and Saturdays, at the same hour.

TO OUR READERS. AND. CORRESPONDENTS.

| We are under the necessity of postponing two Communications, with
which we have been favoured by Mr. James Adams.

An extension of the demonstration of the T'aylorian Theorem, published
in this number, to functions of several variables, will appear in our next
number.

Mr. Adie’s Sympiesometer, is not an instrument of sufficient import-
ance to induce us to engrave Mr, Prinsep's corrected scale.

We have received a paper ‘‘on the Use of the Pocket box Sextant,”
which reached us too late for this number.

Mr. Levy's observations on the crystalline forms of artificial salts will
be resumed in our next.

Our Correspondent at Penzatice lias omitted the sketch which should
have accompanied his communication.

« Amicus Cantabrigiensis,” is under consideration.

The enormous expense attendant on printing extensive tables, obliges
us to decline the insertion of Mr. Wilmot’s very. interesting paper on the
Population, §c., of London. We particularly request our Astronomical
and Meteorological Correspondents to take the above consideration into
account.

X. will be so good to inform us to whom we are to return his ‘ Stric-
tures,” on the proposed London Bridge. The considerations which he
stiggests, have no influence with tis ; but his remarks will not find a place
in this Journal, till he can persuade us'that invective’ is, argument, and
personal abuse, candid criticism.

We have received an anonymous article on the proposed ‘‘ Tunnel
under the River Thames,” which we decline publishing, as the writer is
evidently unacquainted with the means by which the undertaking is in-
tended to be accomplished. With him, we greatly doubt its practicability ;
and, if practicable, its permanance and utility, are still very questionable.

The queries of F. R. S., respecting Mr. Perkins’ steam-engine, we
have no means of answering.

To Readers and Correspondents.

An account of the Overflowing Well at the Horticultural Society's
garden, at Chiswick, with a description of the method employed in boring
for water, will appear in our ensuing number.

The Meteoric Stone supposed to. have fallen at Coddenham, which is
noticed in our last number, (p. 184,) is, it seems, merely a nodule of flint.
Its history has been particularly inquired into, by the Rev. W. Kirby, of
Barham; and it appears to have been picked up, during a thunder storm,
at a place struck by lightning. Mr. Brayley) of Islington, to whom we
are indebted for this information, remarks, that ‘‘ having examined all the

relations of the falls of meteorites which I have been able to procure, in
consequence of being engaged in a work on the subject, I have not met
with a single authenticated instance of the fall of a meteorite, during a
true thunder storm.” We regret that Mr. Brayley’s communication
reached us too late for insertion.

We had prepared an account of the Progress of Foreign Science for
the present number, but have no room for it. Our ensuing number will
contain a long article on this subject.

We have not received the work ‘of MM. Monticelli and Covelli, which
our Correspondent at Milan wishes us to notice.

* “| **

Apothecaries’ Hall.

Notice is hereby given,
THAT

A COURSE OF LECTURES ON THE MATERIA
MEDICA AND PHARMACY

Will be delivered at Apothecaries’ Hall, during the ensuing

season, by

WILLIAM THOMAS BRANDE, F.R.S.

These Lectures will commence on Friday, the 2nd of Ja-
nuary, 1824, at half-past eleven in the forenoon precisely, and
will be continued on each succeeding Friday at the same hour.
They will include a full account of the natural, medical, and
chemical history of the ArticiEs of the Materia Mepica,
illustrated by Drawings and Specimens, and an Explanation
of the Chemical Processes of the Pharmacopeia, as conducted

in the Laboratories at Apothecaries’ Hall.
The admission fee to the course is Two Guineas.

For further particulars, apply to Mr. Brande, No. 20, Graf-
ton-street, Bond-street ; or to Mr. Sayer, the Beadle at Apo-
thecaries’ Hall.

THE

QUARTERLY JOURNAL,

October, 1823.

Art. I. On the Theory of the Dead Escapement, and the
reducing it to practice for Clocks with Seconds and longer
Pendulums. By B. L. Vututamy, Clock-maker to the
King.

STronciy impressed with the great practical superiority of
the dead escapement, when properly constructed and executed,
over every other for clocks with seconds or longer pendulums, I
have taken much pains to ascertain whether any rule of general
application has been laid down by different authors who have
written on the theory and practice of clock work, to determine the
distance between the center of the escapement wheel, and the
center of action of the pallets, which, as far as relates to the theory
of the escapement, is of the utmost importance, and not the less
so as regards reducing that theory to practice; and generally
for determining the relative proportion of the parts of the dead
escapement as usually made for clocks. I regret to add, that my
inquiries have not been attended with the success the importance
of the subject, (as connected with the accurate measurement of
time by clocks,) had induced me to expect.

The merit of the invention of the dead escapement is, I believe,
unquestionably due to that celebrated clock-maker, George Graham,
F.R.S., but unfortunately he left no written description of it that

Vou. XVI. B

2 On the Theory of

I am aware of, and the chief mention I have found of the principle
of his escapement is in the works of the French authors *.

Thiout l’ainé, in his Tvazté de l’'Horlogeric, 4to, Paris, 1741, on
the subject of Escapements, Vol. Ist, page 103, thus expresses
himself :—“ Fig. 19, (Plate 43, Vol. Ist,) isa dead escapement for
clocks, as made, by Mr. Graham, clock-maker, of London. The
rule I have discovered for making it, and which I-apprehend to
be a good one, is to place the center of the anchor at the distance
of one diameter of the wheel from the wheel,” (that is a diameter
and a half of the wheel from its center,) ‘‘ as shewn in the figure.
The center of the anchor must be placed upon the perpendicular
line, passing through the center of the wheel, and the wheel cut
into thirty teeth, beginning from the above-mentioned perpendi-
cular line; and the teeth which suit the best must be chosen to
determine the place of an are drawn from the center of the anchor
upon which to form the pallets, which must be so made that the
seconds hand does not recoil.” Here follows a description of the
action of the escapement.

From the above it is evident, that M. Thiout’s knowledge of
this escapement was very limited.

The subject of the dead escapement is entered into at some
length by F. Berthoud, F.R.S., of Paris, the author of several
horological works. In his Essai sur l’ Horlogerie, 4to, Paris, 1763,
Tom. 1, Premiére Partie, Chap. xxi. No. 397, page 129, he thus

* I fully expected some account of this escapemeut in the Transactions of
the Royal Society, of which Mr. Graham was a member : but by reference to
the Index of the transactions, there isno mention of Clock Escapements ; at
which 1 am the more surprised, as there is a communication from Mr. Graham
on the subject of his invention of the Mercurial Pendulum, and the mea-
suring the lengths of peudulums at different places, Mr. Graham was the
immediate successor to Tompion, and the art of Clock and Watch-making is
so much indebted to him for its advancement, that I consider it due to his
memory to insert the following memorandum.

He was born in 1675, was elected an Assistant of the Court of the Company
of Clock-makers of the city of London the 18th April, 1716, and served the
office of Master of the Company 1721 and 22; was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society the 9th March, 1728, and died the 16th November, 1751. His
remaius were interred in the aisle of Wesminster Abbey.

the Dead Escapement. 3

expresses himself: ‘397. The distance between the center of
the anchor of the escapement and the center of the wheel, depends
upon the arc the pendulum is required to vibrate *; if it is to
describe large arcs of 10°, for example, then the center of the
anchor must be at B.” See Fig. 1, Plate I. (Berthoud, Fig. 8,
Plate XV.)

398. “ But if, on the contrary, it is to describe a short arc, of 1°
for example, the center must be ata. See Fig. 2, Plate I. (Ber-
thoud, Fig. 10, Plate XV.) at the distance of about a diameter and
a half of the wheel A from the center of the wheel + ; observing in

* This is not perfectly well expressed, as by the arc the pendulum is re-
quired to vibrate, might in this case mean the are the pendulum must describe
to enable the pallets to escape ; or, in other words, the quantity the pendulum
is led by the action of the wheel upon the inclined planes of the pallets, and
not the total arc of the vibration of the pendulum ; (at Nos. 399 and 400,
M. Berthoud describes the difference between the total are of vibration of
the pendulum, and the are led by the action of the wheel upon the pallets, )
neither is this a correct statement, for the quantity the pendulum is led by
the action of the wheel upon the pallets, depends upon the angle of lead of
the pallets, or the length of their inclined planes ; as well as upon the distance
between the center of action of the pallets and center of the wheel, and con-
sequent number of tecth the palJets take over. In illustration of this, (see
Fig. 3. Plate II.) to the same wheel are applied two pairs of pallets, which,
taking over a different number of teeth of the Wheel, are consequently at
different distances from the center of the wheel; and yet from the difference
of the angle of lead of the pallets, the pendulum will be led an equal quan-
tity of the action of the wheel upon either pair of pallets; the difference be-
tween the angles of Jead of the pallets compensating for the difference between
the distances at which each pair of pallets is placed from the wheel.

In the figure the four triangles, BAC, DAE, FWG, and H WI, which
express the angles of lead of the pallets, are drawn equal to one another, and
equal to the triangles KAL and NWM, also equal to one another, which
shew the quantity the pendulum is led by the action of the two pair of pallets,
on each side of the perpendicular line AX.

+ I believe that Mr, Graham, Mr, Shelton, who worked with him, and
most of the clock-makers of that period, who trod in the footsteps of
Mr. Graham in the construction of their seconds pendulum clocks, (the scape
wheels of which were necessarily cut into thirty teeth, ) made their pallets take
over eleyen, twelve and thirteen teeth of the wheel; and the distance between

B 2

4 On the Theory of

both cases, that the opening of the compass that describes the rests,
or circular faces of the pallets, is such that drawing a line from the
point 5, Fig. 1, Plate I, through the center B of the anchor, and
drawing upon its extremity 5 a line z A that shall pass through
the center A, of the wheel; these lines are so situated that the
line z A shall be perpendicular to the line 5 B*; and by the same
rule, if the anchor is placed at g, the pallets, or inclined planes, of
the anchor should act upon the wheel at. the points ef; this un-
derstood, the portions of the circles 1 C, 3 D, Fig. 2, Plate I. (M.
Berthoud tranfers his description to Fig. 10 of his work,) must be
drawn of the same radius a C; and in the same manner 2, 5, and
6, 4, taking care that the space, or thickness, C 5, 6 D, between
these portions of circles, is a little less than half the interval be-
tween the teeth of the wheel.”

“« Now, to determine the inclination of the planes, from the
center a, Fig. 2, draw the straight lines af and u g, forming the
angle fag, being half the angle the pendulum is required to be
led +; through the points 2 and 1, where these lines intersect the:
arcs 2, 5, and 1, C, draw the straight line 2, 1, which gives the in-
clined plane 2, 1, by a similar operation the inclined plane of the

the centers was one diameter of the wheel in the case of taking over eleven
teeth ; about one and a half diameter in the case of taking over thirteen
teeth ; and between one diameter and one diameter and a half in the case of
taking over twelve teeth. The French clock-makers, who copied Graham’s
escapement, followed nearly the same rule.

* (See Fig. 1. Plate 1.) In the case of the anchor, whose center of motion
is at B, M. Berthoud determines the center of action of his pallets by the
intersection of two tangents drawn from the points where the circle of the
inner rest of the pallets prolonged intersects the circle that circumscribes the
wheel, By this mode the two centers are nearer together than they would
have been, had he determined their distance by tangents diawn from the
points where the circle of the outer rest intersects the same circle.

That the points found by the intersection of tangents drawn from either of
these points is not the proper ceuter of action of the pallets, will be shewn
hereafter,—in the one case the centers are too far apart; in the other case
they are too near together.

+ See note, page 3.

the Dead Escapement. 5

other pallet is obtained. There are several other practical methods
which are easy of application, but. difficult to explain.”

And again, at Nos. 1324 and 1325, page 449, (in what follows
the ’scape wheel is supposed made, and the original text is
abridged, such parts only being translated as immediately relate
to the laying down of the lines of the escapement,) ‘‘ To draw the
anchor piece of the escapement,” (Berthoud here supposes the
drawing to be made upon a brass plate, and the distance between
the centers already determined,) “ the distance on the pillar plate
between the center of the scape wheel and the center of the verge
of the pallets must be taken *: from the center a of the anchor, see
Fig. 3, Plate I. (Berthoud, Vol. ii, Plate XXIII. Fig. 3; part of
Berthoud’s figure is omitted, no more being drawn than immedi-
ately relates to the text,) the line a 6 must be drawn just to touch
the circumference, bc, of the wheel; if from the point 6, where
the two lines touch each other, the radius B } is drawn, it will be
perpendicular to a (as may be geometrically demonstrated,) and
conformable to mechanical principles the action of the wheel
upon the pallets should be at the point 6; consequently, a b is the
length to be given to the arm of the anchor, to enable the wheel
to act upon the pallets in the most favourable manner possible.”

1326. ‘ Place the wheel in the plate with its center on the point
B, then place one of the points of a pair of compasses on the
center a of the pallets, open the compasses to the quantity ac,
and turn the wheel on the center B, until the front of one of its
teeth meets the other point of the compasses on the circle of the
wheel at 6 ; that done, keep the wheel immoveable, transport the

* From this it would appear, that M. Berthoud’s plan is to determine the
distance of the two centers from each other on the plate of the clock, and
then to adopt his eseapement to those distances ; which, as the number of the
teeth of the wheel is regulated by the length of the pendulum, to preserve the
angles B5 A, BGA, geA, andg fA, Fig. 1. Plate I. right angles, can
only be done by making the pallets take over a greater or lesser number of
teeth, or, if necessary, by altering the size of the wheel; or, if this cannot
be done for want of room or any other cause, then, and quite contrary to his
Jeading principle, the angles B5 A and BGA, &c., must be increased or di-
minished.

6 On the Theory of

other point of the compasses to the other side, and see if it will
reach the back of the point of another tooth at c: if it does not,
the opening of the compasses must be varied until it reaches from
the center a, at the same opening the points of the two teeth, the
nearest to the points c and 6: draw the portions of circles bt¢, cp,
which will represent two of the circular faces of the pallets*”.

1327. ‘* To find the other two circular faces, the opening of the
compasses must be altered in such a manner, that the teeth of the
wheel having advanced a quantity equal to half the interval be-
tween them, they pass a second portion of a circle drawn from the
same center a, and intersecting the circle of the wheel; but as
that may equally be done by opening or closing the compasses, a
quantity equal to the space between two teeth, it is preferable to
use that of the two openings which will occasion the distance of the
lines from the center to vary the least from the points ¢ and },
which points are to be varied from as little as possible. That done,
trace the other two faces of the pallets ds and eg+, which are
here by preference drawn within the others, to diminish the space
the anchor has to move, and, consequently, the friction of the
pallets. In this manner are described the four circular faces of
the two pallets, placed in such a manner, as to let the teeth of the
wheel alternately escape as the pallets approach and recede from
the center of the wheel by the action of the pendulum.”

1328. “ The length of the pallets is regulated by the quantity of
the angle of lead that is to be given to the escapement, which we
will here suppose of 5° on each side, or thereabouts.”

1329. (This part is very much abridged in the translation.)
“To describe the angle of escapement, prolong the line ab, to f.
See Fig. 3, Plate I, and draw the angle fag of 5°, the point d,
where the line ag intersects the inner circular face of the pallet,
determines the length of the pallet; for the wheel in passing the
pallet, causes it by its action on the inclined plane, to describe an

¥ This is not correct, because cp, Fig. 3. Plate I., is not a face of the
pallet.

+ This again is incorrect; dS, Fig. 3, Plate I, is not a face of the pallet,
and cannot be considered as such,

the Dead Escapement. 7

angle of 5° to have the inclined plane, draw the line dé passing
through the points d and 6 where the straight lines a f and ag
which form the angle g a/f intersect the portions of circles ds
and 6 ¢.”

1330. ‘* To draw the inclined plane ce, it is to be observed, that
as the pallet d dis drawn 5° within the circle of the wheel, it
follows that the pallet c must be situated without the same circle,
and ready to come into action as the other pallet escapes from the
wheel. Prolong the line ae to /, and draw the angle hai of 50,
which will determine the measure of the inclined plane ce; it only
then remains to draw the line ce, which passes through the points
¢ and e, where the straight lines a h and az intersect the portions
of circles ¢p and eq: thus will be given the inclined plane which
is to terminate the pallet, and so situated, that when the tooth
C shall have led the pallet without the circle of the wheel, a quan-
tity equal to an angle of 5°, the pallet ce shall also be led an angle
of 5°, and within the wheel; consequently, when the tooth r shall
have led the pallet to escape, the pallet c will have described an
angle of 5°, whence it follows, that the total lead of the escape-
ment will be 10°* ”.

¥ This is a mistake; the total quantity the pendulum is led being an angle
equal to the angle of lead of either of the pallets ; (it is supposed that the

angles of the two pallets are equal to one another, as they ought to be,) and
the pendulum is led nearly an equal angle, ascendiug and descending on each
side of zero, (or the perpendicular line on the degree plate,) by each pallet
alternately; but the advance of the wheel, and consequently the friction
upon the inclined planes of the pallets, is not uniform during the ascending
and descending of the pendulum at each vibration, but exists upon a greater
proportion of, and is consequently greater upon, the pallets as the pendulum
ascends than as it descends ; for, supposing the inclined planes of the pallets
divided at that point which the extremity of the tooth of the scape wheel
has reached when the pendulum is perpendicular, the portion of the inclined
planes the tooth of the wheel acts upon, as the pendulum descends, is less
than the portion acted upon as the pendulum ascends.

It is possible to make the inclined planes of the pallets so long, that the
angle of the total vibration of the pendulum will not exceed the angle of lead
of the pallets, in which case it will be visible that the total angle the pen-
dulum is led is only equal to the angle of one of the pallets,

M. Berthoud has fallen into the same error at No. 399. To

8 On the Theory of

1331. ‘¢ The escapement thus drawn will be a dead escapement,
because it is formed of portions of circles concentric to the point
A (396) but,” &c.

To illustrate as much of the above as refers to the irregularity of the friction
upon the pallets, suppose Fig. 1. Plate If. the pendulum at rest, and per-
pendicular upon the line X W, bisecting the angle Y X Z, (which angle is
equal to the angles BX P and D XQ of lead of the pallets,) and the lines
AB and CD the inclined planes of the pallets ; the dotted lines E E and GH
will represent the lines of the inclined planes, when the pendulum subtending
the line X Z is led to the extremity of the lead one way; and the dotted lines
IK and LM the inclined planes when the pendulum subtending the line X Y, is
at the extremity of the lead in the other dissection, (it cannot be too often
repeated that the angle of lead must not be compounded with the angle of
vibration,) and the points N and O, where a supposed circle circumscribing
the points of the teeth of the wheel intersects the inclined planes A B and
CD, are the points upon one of which (determined by the pallet from which
the wheel has last escaped) the wheel will be in contact with the pallet, when
the pendulum having advanced half the angle of lead subtends the perpen-
dicular line X W. Now it is visible that the portions N A and OD of the lines
AB and CD, which are the parts of those lines the teeth of the wheel act
upon when the pendulum ascends, are greater than the lines NB and OC,
which are the portions the tecth of the wheel act upon when the pendulum
descends; conseauently, the velocity with which the wheel advances is not
equal during equal portions of the lead of both pallets.

By altering the shape of the inclined planes of the pallets from straight
lines to portions of circles, the advance of the wheel may be made nearly pro-
portional to the advance of the pendulum. Suppose, Fig. 1. Plate IT., the
pendulum to subtend the perpendicular line X W, and consequently to have
vibrated half the angle it is led, and the inclined plane of the pallet #, in-
stead of being the straight line DC, to be a portion D T C of a circle, passing
through the three points D, S, (where the radius R V bisects the are MG ofa
supposed circle circumscribing the wheel,) and C ; the consequence resulting
from giving this shape to the pallets will be, that the wheel will have advanced
to the point S half its total advance, and have acted upon very nearly half the
surface of the pallet, when the pendulum has vibrated half the angle it is led ;
for the portion C S of the circular face of the pallet upon which the wheel
has acted during its advance from the point G to the point S, is less than the
portion S D of the pallet upon which it must act during its advance from S to
D, by the quantity S T ; which difference between the arcs CS andS D is very
trifling when compared with the difference between the straight lines CO and
O D, which form the inclined plane C D. The

the Dead Escapement. 9

The late Mr. Cumming, F.R.S. E., in his Elements of Clock and
Watch Work, London, 1766, page 43, No. 176, states, that Graham

made his pallets take over twelve teeth. In his Plate II., in which he
represents the dead escapement drawr very large, and in detail, Mr.

Cumming places the centers at the distance of exactly one diameter
of the wheel apart, and makes the pallets take over eleven teeth :

The same effect takes place in the pallet AB, but, from the relative situation
of the parts, in a much less degree; the circular face of the pallet requiring
to be a portion of a much larger circle: and here it is worthy of notice, that
the faces of the two pallets being portions of different circles, the one is, in
fact, a longer line than the other, and consequeutly with circular faces as
just described, there is more friction cn one pallet than on the other ; and
more on both than when the acting faces are straight lines.

The proportional advance of the wheel and pallets was probably considered
by Mons. L. Berthoud, (chronometer-maker to the French Navy during the
period of the Republic,) of great importance in the case of the dead anchor
escapement when applied to watches; he having given this shape to the pal-
lets of some of bis box marine chronometers, that I have had an opportunity
of seeing.

The friction is also unequal upon the rests of the pallets, without regard to the
shape of the inclined planes, whether straight or curved : forthe arc of vibration
on each side of zero on the degree plate must necessarily subtend equal angles,
and the angles of lead on each side of zero being also equal, it necessarily fol-
lows that the angles of rest must be equal ; but the rests of the pallets being at
unequal distances from their center of motion of a quantity equal to the thick-
ness of the pallet, it also follows that, though the arcs which subtend the angles
of rest subtend equal angles, yet that one of them must necessarily be larger
than th other, being a portion of a larger circle ; and consequently the fric-
tion greater upon the one than upon the other; the difference, however, is
very small, and this is an evil that from the construction cannot be avoided.

It is scarcely necessary to add, that for the clock to be in beat, it is requisite
not only that the angles the pendulum is Jed should be equal, but that the
angles of rest on the circular faces of the pallets should also be equal ; other-
wise the total angles of vibration on each side of zero on the degree plate,
(which represents the perpendicular line when the pendulum is at rest, ) will
not be equal, and, consequently, not be performed in equal times. The
above observations will, I believe, be found to be of universal application in
this construction of the dead escapement.

For further illustration on the subject of the angle of lead, see “ Astro-
nomical Observations,” by the Rev. Wm. Ludlam, 4to., Cambridge, 1769,
note, page 86.

10 On the Theory of

and in a note, p. 44, he thus expresses himself, ‘“ Fig. 3, Plate III.,
(Cumming’s Work) exhibits at one view the length of the pallet,
and the distances of the center of the verge from that of the swing
wheel, according to the number of the teeth of the wheel which the
pallet takes in from two to twelve*, (the wheel is supposed a wheel
of thirty teeth), by which it appears that the distance of those
centers is the secant, and the length of the pallets the tangent of
half the angle subtended at the center of the swing wheel by such
number of teeth.” To illustrate Mr. Cumming’s observation re-
specting the secant and tangent of half the angle of the number of
teeth taken over; suppose the case of the pallets taking over twelve
teeth, (see Fig. 4, Plate [V.,) D C the distance between the centers
will be the secant, and D B the length of the supposed pallets the
tangent to the angle AC B, which angle is half the angle sub-
tended at the center of the wheel by such number of teeth. Here
Mr. Cumming determines the center of action of the pallets by
tangents drawn from the points of the teeth of the wheel; which,
as will shortly be shewn, is not the most correct method.

I. A. Lepantre, in his T’razté d’Horlogerie, 4to, Paris, 1767, page
188, No, 58, states, that Mr. Graham made his dead escapement
for clocks with the rests at equal distance from the center of action
of the pallets as represented Fig. 2, Plate II., and has so repre-
sented them in Plate XIII., Fig. 9, of his work.

Whatever advantage may be supposed to result from the rests
being at equal distance from the center, it is more than counter-
balanced by the inequality of the distance from the center of the
pallets, at which the impulse is given by the wheel. In the first
place this difference of distance causes the lengths of the inclined

* In the plate of Mr. Cumming’s work, the number of teeth taken in by the
pallets is from three to thirteen, not from two totwelve, as stated in the text,
and as marked in figures in the plate. Fig. 4, Plate IV. represents the tan-
gents drawn, taking in from two to twelve teeth, as quoted in the text, Fig. 5,
taking infrom three to thirteen teeth, as represented in Mr. Cumming’s figure.

It is worthy of notice, that in the case of taking in thirteen teeth the distance
between the centres, supposing the tangents drawn from the points of the teeth,
(see Fig. 5, Plate 1V.,) is not exactly 1 and } diameter of the wheel, the dis-
tance determined by the supposed rule of Graham’s, but a little more.

the Dead Escapement. 11

planes to be different from each other, (see Note page 3, and Fig. 3,
Plate II., where the same effect is more visibly shewn,) and in the
second, and this is a most material objection, would entirely pre-
yent the application of the rule about to be shewn for determining
the distance between the center of the wheel and the center of the
pallets.

Ferdinand Berthoud, in his last and great work L’Histoire de
la Mesure du Tems, 4to., Paris, 1802, in vol. 2, page 26, speaking
of Graham’s escapement, which he does very briefly, thus ex-
presses himself, quoting M. Thiout, “‘ Larégle que j’ai trouve (dit
M. Thiout,) et qui me paroit assez convenable est d’eloigner le cen=
tre de l’'ancre de la circonférence de la roue d’un diametre du
rochet comme la figure le représente.” ‘This is translated at page
2, under the head of M. Thiout.

In Dr. Rees’ Cyclopeedia, 4to edition, (Vol. XIII. Part II..) under
the head of “ Escapement,” among other escapements described is
the “‘ Anchor Escapement, by Clement, or Dr. Hook,” and ‘ Gra-
ham’s dead beat.” In the first it is inferred that the distance be-
tween the centers of the pallets and scape wheel, regulates the arc
of vibration of the pendulum. ‘This, as has been before observed,
is not the case; (see note, page 3,) and in both, that the dis-
tance “is determined by tangent lines.” This cannot be better
explained than by the following quotation from the explanation of
“‘Graham’s dead beat,” which applies equally to the principle
upon which the anchor escapement is constructed. ‘“‘ In this con-
struction, as in the preceding one, the distance of the centers of
motion a, b, (Fig. 4, Plate XXXIJ., Rees’ Cyclopzdia,) is deter
mined by the tangent lines meeting the radii at the points of
the acting teeth; when the distance is an exact diameter of the
escapement wheel, we find that the pallets take in just ten teeth
out of thirty, which is the case in the figure before us; but when
twelve teeth are taken in, the center of the anchor’s motion falls
at h, just a diameter and a half from the center of the wheel.”
This is not correct, for it will be found by reference to Fig. 4, Plate
IV., that when the pallets take in ten teeth, the center of mo-
tion of the pallets determined by “ tangent lines,” is at a distance

12 On the Theory of

from the center of the wheel considerably less than a quantity equal
to one diameter of the wheel ; and that when the pallets take over
twelve teeth, the distance is considerably greater than one diameter
of the wheel. Also by reference to Fig. 5, that when the pallets
take over eleven teeth, the distance is exactly (or very nearly so)
one diameter ; and when they take over thirteen teeth, a little more
than one and a half diameter of the wheel. It is unnecessary
to make any remarks on the continuation of the description of
“« Graham’s dead beat,” with regard to Berthoud’s rule, after the
notice that has been taken of Berthoud’s account of the dead es-
capement at the beginning of this paper. In the representation of
Graham’s Escapement, in Rees, Plate XXXII. Fig. 4, before men-
tioned, the center of the pallets is placed at one diameter of the
wheel from the center of the wheel, and the pallets take over
eleven teeth. In the representation of the anchor escapement,
Fig. 3, the pallets take over ten teeth, and their center of mation
is less than one diameter of the wheel from the center of the wheel.

It may be considered requisite, in reference to the subject, that
some notice should be taken of the escapement under the denomi-
nation of ‘ Modification of the dead beat, by Grinion,” described
immediately after Graham’s dead beat. I shall content myself with
observing that Mr. Grinion describes his dead escapement as con-
structed on the same principle as I. A. Lepautre states Graham to
have made his, (see page 10, and Fig. 2, Plate II.,) with the rests
of the pallets at equal distance from their center of motion, and
with the center of the pallets placed at the distance of one diameter
of the scape wheel from the center of the wheel. In the figure (see
Fig. 5, Plate XXXII., Rees’ plates,) the pallets are represented
with the angle of lead of both pallets entirely within the periphery
of the circle of the wheel; with the pallets so constructed, the
point of the tooth of the wheel would drop on the rest of the pallets
at a very considerable distance from the inclined plane, and, cor-
sequently, the friction be very much increased; and, moreover,
the pendulum must vibrate a very long arc, to enable the
pallets to escape at all.

“ Bennet’s dead beat,” represented Fig. 7, is also in the same

the Dead Escapement. 13

ease with the angle of lead of both the pallets, entirely within the
periphery of the circle of the wheel.

I apprehend a very general and correct rule, and one easy of
application, for determining the distance at which the center of
action of the pallets ought to be placed from the center of the
scape wheel, and for drawing the lines of the dead escapement, may
be given.

Having determined the diameter of the wheel, the number of its
teeth, and the number of the teeth of the wheel the pallets are to
take over, draw a circle circumscribing the points of the teeth of
the wheel, and upon this circle at the proper places as determined
by the opening of the pallets, mark the thickness of the pallets,
which, making no allowance for drops, should always be half the
space between two points of the teeth for each pallet ; that done,
draw two straight lines between the points that mark the thickness
of the pallets upon the circumscribing circle ; these lines will be
chords to the portions of the circle they subtend ; prolong these
two lines until they intersect each other; the point where they
meet will be the proper center of motion for the pallets. Next, to
describe the circular faces of the pallets ; from the center of motion
as above determined, draw portions of two circles that shall in-
tersect the circle circumscribing the wheel at the four points which
mark the place and thickness of the pallets. The angle of lead
which is quite optional must then be determined—this is done by
drawing two lines from the center of action of the pallets ; the one
within and the other without the lines by which the said center
was found, and forming with those lines two equal angles: the
angle of lead determined, it now ouly remains to draw the inclined
planes or acting faces of the pallets ; this is done by drawing two
diagonal lines from the upper to the lower points of intersection of
the lines forming the sides of the two angles of lead, by the circular
faces of the pallets.

To illustrate this further, suppose ABC, Fig. 1, Plate III, a
scape wheel of six teeth, to which it is required to apply a pair of
dead-beat pallets, which are to take over two teeth, or what is the

same thing, occupy the portion of the circle contained between

14 On the Theory of

three teeth*; circumscribe the points of the teeth of the wheel by
a supposed circle Y E Z, divide each of the spaces DE and EF
between the teeth DE and F into two equal parts at G and H,
draw the straight lines D G and F H and prolong them until they
meet at I; the point I will be the proper center of motion for the
pallets ; from the center I draw the two portions of circles K L and
MN, intersecting the circumscribing circle at the points DG and
HF, the circular rests of the pallets will be a portion of these cir-
cles; the inner rest of the smaller, the outer rest of the larger
circle. To determine the angle of lead of the pallets, prolong the
two lines IHF and IGD to O and P, and from the point I draw
the twostraight lines IQ and 1 R, forming the two angles OJ Q and
RIP equal to one another, and, from the points F and § of inter-
section of the sides of the angles by the portions of circles K L and
MN, in the one angle, and the points D and T in the other;
draw the straight lines FS and DT these will be the inclined
planes or faces of the pallets.

As this mode of proceeding would be very difficult, not to say
impossible in practice, except in the case of large wheels, on ac-
count of the little distance, the points that determine the thickness
of each pallet are from each other; the preferable mode is, after
having determined the place of the pallets upon the circumference
of the wheel as above described, to draw from the center X of the
wheel, Fig. 1, Plate III, the two lines X U and X U, bisecting the
ares FH and DG which mark the thickness of the pallets; and
from the points V and V where those lines intersect the circle, to
raise the two perpendiculars V W and V W, which lines will be
tangents to the circle; and that done to draw the lines F HI and

* It may be worth while to notice, as a general rule, that a pair of pallets
always occupy the space or portion of the circle contained between the num-
ber of the teeth they take over and one more, thus taking over two teeth they
require the space contained between three teeth; were they to take over ten
teeth, they would occupy the space contained between eleven, The reason
is evident; in the one case the thickness of the pallets is without the teeth
and the other within, and the thickness of each pallet being equal to halfa

space, the thickness of the two together must be equal to one entire space ;
no allowance, as before observed, being made for dross,

the Dead Escapement. 15

D GI parallel to the two lines V W and V W, and the point I where
they meet will be the center of motion of the pallets, and must be
the same originally formed ; for a chord will aiways be parallel to
a tangent touching the same circle, when the tangent touches the
circle at a point equidistant between the two points where the
chord meets the circle; and that is the case here, for, by the con-
struction of the figure, the angle X V W is a right angle, and the
angles VXF and VXH equal angles. The chord HF being
parallel to the tangent VW, it follows that the line OI, which is
the chord HF, prolonged, must be parallel to the same tangent
VW. A similar demonstration will apply to the chord DG.

That there is but one proper place for the center of motion of the
pallets, and that it is the point found as above described, will be
evident when it is considered, that for the pendulum to be led an
equal quantity by the action of the wheel on each pallet, (the in-
clined planes of which must be of equal length, otherwise the action
will not be the same on both,) it is requisite, making no allowance
for drop, that at the instant the wheel has advanced a quantity
equal to half the space between two of its teeth, the lead of the
pallet should be completed, and that the tooth which has just led
the pallet to the extremity of the angle of lead of the pallet, should
quit the pallet; and, at the same instant, the other pallet should
present itself in such a situation, that another tooth of the wheel
may come into action with it; that when that tooth shall have ad-
vanced the same quantity as the preceding, that it shall also have
led the other pallet which it has acted upon to the extremity of its
action of lead; and have brought the first-mentioned pallet into a
situation to receive the following tooth of the wheel to that by
which it was previously led.

This can only be the case when the lines IO and IP which pass
through the circumscribing circle, intersect it at the points which
determine the thickness of the pallets, which, from the construction,
itis evident inthis case they do. By reference to the figure it will
be seen, that in consequence of the angles OI Q and PIR being
equal to one another, and the sides [O and IP of the same angles
intersecting the circumference of the circle at the points HF and

16 On the Theory of

G D, (equidistant each to each from the point 1), where the circles
forming the circular rests intersect the circle circumscribing the
points of the teeth of the wheel, the pendulum is led a quantity
equal to each of those angles at each vibration. For, supposing
the wheel advancing, at the moment the tooth 2 has reached the
extremity of the inclined plane of the pallet A A, the point S of the
pallet will have reached the point H, and the point T of the pallet
BB will have reached the point G, ready to receive the tooth 1,
which at that instant will drop upon it; and when, by the action
of the tooth 1 upon the pallet BB, it is returned to its former
place, the point F of the pallet AA will be ready to receive the
tooth 3, which will at that instant drop upon it.

To render the above demonstration as apparent as possible, the
wheel has been drawn with only six teeth, because, supposing a
wheel even of the size of the wheel in the figure, with thirty teeth,
(the number for a second pendulum), in which case the pallet
would be only one-fifth of their present thickness, the portion of the
circle the chord would subtend would be so short, and conse-
quently the space between the chord prolonged and the tangent so
small, that the distance between the points I and W would be
much less apparent. In the case of a scape wheel of the size
usually employed in seconds pendulum clocks, in laying down the
lines for the purpose of determining the distance between the two
centers, it will be sufficient, unless when very great accuracy is
required, to draw two lines, bisecting the points which mark the
thickness of the pallets upon the circle of the wheel, and upon
those lines at the points where they intersect the circle of the wheel,
to raise two perpendiculars and to take the point where these per-
pendiculars meet, as the center of motion of the pallets.

Were the center of motion of the pallets placed higher or lower
than the proper place, as above determined; See Fig. 2 and 3,
Plate ILI, in both which the angle of lead is drawn the same as in
Fig. 1. In the one case, the action of the tooth of the wheel upon
the inclined plane of the pallet AA, See Fig. 2, (here the center of
motion of the pallets is raised), would lead the pendulum an angle
less than the angle of lead O1 Q, as drawn, by a quantity equal to

the Dead Escapement. 17

the angle OI X, and consequently the point T of the line TD,
or inclined plane of the pallet BB, instead of having advanced a
sufficient quantity to meet the tooth 1 at the point G, will only
have advanced to H, and the point of the tooth | would drop upon
the inclined plane HK of the pallet between H and P, and the
pallet advancing with less rapidity than the wheel they will meet
nearer P than H*.

In the other case (the center of motion of the pallets is dropped
nearer to the center of the wheel) the action of the wheel upon the
inclined plane of the pallet AA, Fig. 3, Plate III, would lead the
pendulum, an angle exceeding the angle OIQ of lead already
drawn, by a quantity equal to the angleI O X, and consequently
the pallet BB will be led so much too deep into the wheel, that the
point of the tooth 1 instead of dropping safely upon the pallet,
will drop upon its circular rest at a very considerable distance
from the point H +.

It would be impossible for any clock to go with the pallets
shaped, as drawn Fig. 2 and 3, Plate III; but it does not follow
that pallets could not be made, preserving the same centers of mo-
tion, which would perform; and, at first sight, and upon a small
scale, appear as mathematically correct as the escapement drawn
Fig. 1, Plate III. Such pallets are represented Fig. 2 and 3, Plate
IV, applied to similar wheels ; taking over the same number of
teeth, and acting on the same centers as in Fig. 2 and 3, Plate III.
These pallets will be led an equal angle by the action of the
wheel on each pallet, and lead the pendulum an angle equal to the
angle itis led with the center of action of the pallets in its proper
place, as in Fig. 1, Plate III.

* The effect that would result in practice from the tooth dropping on the
inclined plane of the pallet, would be to cause the scape wheel, and conse-
quently the whole train of wheels, to recoil; an evil subyersive of the prin-
ciple of the escapement.

+ The effect produced by the tooth taking more hold on the circular rest
than is absolutely necessary for safety, is to considerably increase the friction
on the rest. In practice the tooth should drop just on the circular rest, and
no more,

Vor. XVI. Cc

18 On the Theory of

This effect is produced in Fig. 2, Plate IV, by increasing the
angle of lead of the pallet AA, and diminishing that of the pallet
BB; and it will be observed, that though the two angles BIC, and
DIE, the angles the pallets are led, are equal to one another,
and, consequently, that the pendulum will be led an equal angle
by the action of the wheel on each pallet; yet, that the angle
AIC of lead as drawn of the pallet AA, is greater than the angle
BIC the pendulum is led, by the angle AI B, representing the dif-
ference between the two: and the angle DIF of lead as drawn of
the pallet BB, is less than the angle DIE the pendulum is led,
by the angle FI E the difference between the two. Consequently,
the total difference between the angles of lead as drawn, is an
angle equal to the two angles AI B and FIE.

Asimilar remark applies to Fig. 3, with this difference, that the
same effects take place on the reverse pallets ; the angle of lead of
the pallet AA is diminished, and that of the pallet B B increased ;
the angles BIC and DIE, the pallets are led by the wheel as in

‘the former case are equal to one another; but the angle AIC of
lead of the pallet AA, is less than the angle BIC the pendulum is
led, by the angle AIB: and the angle DIF of lead of the pallet
BB, is greater than the angle DIE the pendulum is led, by the
angle F 1 E; and the difference between the two angles of lead as
drawn, is an angle equal to the two angles AIB and FILE.
This alteration of the shape of the pallets, requires a correspond-
ing alteration in the shape of the teeth of the wheel, which must
be longer and more undercut, and, consequently, weaker than
when the center of motion is determined as shewn by Fig. 1,
Plate III*.

* In the case of the center being placed as in Fig. 2, and 3. Plate IV. and
the angle of lead of the pallets supposed to be originally drawn as represented
Fig. 1. Plate III., the escapement will yet perform, and the pallets lead an
equal angle to one another, by the action of the wheel en each pallet; by
only altering the angle of lead of one of the pallets, as originally drawn, This
is shewn Fig. 1. Plate 1V., where the center of the wheel and pallets are
placed, and all the parts, the angles of lead of the pallets excepted, are
drawn as in Fig. 2. PlateTV.; the angle of lead of the pailet AA is drawn the
same as in Fig. 1, Plate IL!.; but the angle of lead of the pallet B B is dimi-

the Dead Escapement. 19

‘It now remains to point out the difference between the pallets as
drawn Fig. 1, Plate Ill, and Fig. 2 and 3, Plate IV. In Fig. 1,
Plate III, the angle of lead of the pallets as drawn, and the angles
they are led are one and the same, and equal to one another; and,
consequently, the pendulum is led an angle equal to either of
these angles by the action of the wheel’ on each pallet. In Fig. 2
and 3, Plate 1V, this is not the case, it is true the pendulum is led
an equal angle by the action of the wheel upon each pallet, the
angles BIC and DIE, Fig. 2 and 3, PI.IV, being in each figure
equal to each other, but the angles AIC and DIF of lead of the pal-
lets, are of necessity to enable the escapement to perform, drawn dif-
ferent from each other, and different from the angle the pendulum
is led ; the one being greater and the other less than that angle.
The consequence of this is that the length of the inclined planes
of the pallets is also very different, the one being much longer than
the other, which renders the fraction upon the two unequal, and
probably in the same ratio as the difference in their lengths, and,
consequently, the impulse received by the pallets must, from that
cause, independent of any other, be unequal. | That this is an evil
of the first magnitude in the dead escapement, it would be a waste
of time to demonstrate; it is only sufficient to observe, that the

nished to an angle sufficiently small to be led by the wheel an angle equal to
the angle the pallet AA is led with its angle drawn similar to Fig. 1. Plate III.,
and the two centers placed as in Fig. 2, Plate IV.

In this figure, see Fig. 1. Plate IV., the angles the pallets are led, and con-
sequently the pendulum, though equal to one another, are less than in Figs.
2 and 3, same Plate, where they are purposely made to lead angles equal to
the angle led Fig. 1. Plate 1II., at the same time they are led angles equal to
one another.

If, instead of the angle of lead of the pallet AA, Fig. 1, Plate IV. being
drawn as in Fig. 1. Plate III., the angle of lead of the pallet BB had been
so drawn, the angle of the pallet AA might equally be altered to suit the
action of the pallet BB, and similar effects would result as to the difference
between the angles of lead of the pallets as drawn, and the angles led by the
action of the wheel on the pallets: and consequently the angle the pendu-
lum would he led, would be considerably greater than in Fig. 1. Plate HI.
instead of less, asin Fig, 1, Plate IV.

C2

20 On the Theory of

impulses received by the pallets being unequal, the lengths of the
ares of vibration of the pendulum will be unequal, and, conse-
quently, performed in unequal times *.

The angles AIB and FIE, Fig. 2 and 3, Plate IV, in each
ficure, being equal to each other, it will be found in all cases,
that the excess of the angle led by one pallet, above the angle of
lead of the same pallet as drawn; will be equal to the excess
of the angle of lead, over and above the angle led by the other pallet.

Supposing the distance between the centers of action of the
pallets and the scape-wheel, determined as above described, see
Fig. 1, Plate If], and lines drawn from the points where the teeth
of the wheel act upon the rests of the pallets, to the centers of
motion of the wheel and the pallets, they will form the one an
obtuse, and the other an acute angle; and both angles will differ
an equal quantity, half the thickness of the pallet from a right
angle. Now, in principle, the most advantageous point of action
for the wheel upon the rests of the pallets, is at right angles to
the two centers of motion; but as it is impossible that the points
of action on the two rests should form right angles with the
centers, (for were the onea right angle, the other would be the thick-
ness of a pallet greater or less than a right angle,) it follows, that
the best construction is, that in which the action of the teeth of the
wheel on both rests differs the least possible quantity from a right
angle, and is that which will have the least tendency to wear:
and as observed by M. Berthoud, No. 1325, “‘ the most favour-
able possible.”

* This is correctly true in the case of the pendulum being supposed a beam,
and vibrating a short angle ; or in the case of a pendulum with a very light
bob suspended ona knife edge, as many of the old clocks were made: but in
practice, in the case of a seconds’ pendulum, and, still more, a two seconds’
pendulum, and a heavy bob, the power of gravity will very nearly overcome
the difference in the impulse; nevertheless the inequality of the impulse must,
in a certain degree, be prejudicial, particularly when very accurate perform-
ance is required.

In the case of the anchor escapement, as applied to watches, the evil would
probably be greater and more felt, and cause the arcs of vibration of the
balance to be very unequal.

the Dead Escapement: 21

There is a construction of the dead escapement, in which the
point of action of the wheel upon the rests may be at right angles
to the centers on both pallets, and consequently the rests at equal
distances from the center of motion of the pallets; but in that
case the impulse upon the two pallets is not at an equal distance
from their center, but the thickness of a pallet further from the
center upon one pallet, than upon the other. See Fig. 2, Plate II.
The impulse upon the inclined planes of the pallets being at an
unequal distance from their center, is a most serious defect, and
the cause that this construction of pallets is no longer employed *.

Another advantage resulting from the mode of placing the center
of action of the pallets as above proposed, is that the wheel will
require to be undercut the least possible quantity ; for if the center
of action of the pallet is raised above its proper center of motion,
it will cause the wheel to be more undercut than it need otherwise
have been, to free the pallet upon the inner rest on which the
wheel acts, otherwise the point of intersection of the inclined
plane, and rest of the pallet will cause the wheel to recoil, by
coming into contact with the face of the tooth of the wheel: and
if the center of the pallets is brought lower than the proper center
of motion, it will cause the wheel to be more undercut to free the
pallet upon the outer rest on which the wheel acts, otherwise the
action of that rest will occasion the wheel to recoil, (though the
effect is very much less considerable in this case than in the
former,) consequently, the proper centre of motion of the pallets is
the most advantageous to the shape of the teeth of the wheel :
for, as has been before noticed, the less the teeth of the wheel
are undercut, the shorter, and consequently the stronger, they
will be. It may be further observed, supposing the center of the
pallets to be in its proper place, that the greater the number of the

* It has been before noticed that I. A. Le Pautre, in his Traité d’ Horlo-
gerie, Ato. Paris, 1767, page 188, mentions, that Mr. Graham made his dead
escapement for clocks with the rests at equal distance from the center of mo-
tion of the pallets, and has so represented them in the plates to his work,

I do not recollect ever having seen a clock of Mr. Graham’s with the pallet
‘made in this manner, though I have seen such applied in old clocks.

22 On the Theory of

teeth of the wheel the pallets take over, the less the teeth of the
wheel require to be undercut. It must not be concluded from
this, that the number of teeth the pallets take over can be too
ereat, for I believe the contrary to be the case, inasmuch as it is
more advantageous in practice to communicate the impulse to
the pallets at a moderate distance from their center of motion,
which will be the case when they take over six, seven, or eight
teeth ; than at a very considerable distance, as in the case when
they take over eleven, twelve, or thirteen teeth.

To conclude, the great advantage of the mode of determining
the distance between the centers of the wheel and pallets, and
laying down the lines of the escapement as above described ; con-
sists not only in enabling the escapement to be made with the
least possible drop, and consequently with the least loss of power,
and with the action of the wheel and the friction upon each pallet
as equal as it can be in the dead escapement made according to
the usual construction with the wheel between the pallets; but
on its being of general application, and equally correct whatever
may be the size of the wheel, the number ofits teeth, or the num-
ber of teeth the pallets are made to take over.

In the above, the drop of the escapement has only been men-
tioned incidentally, and no allowance made for that part of the
action of the escapement, which by clockmakers is termed the
drop, or beat. In the dead escapement, in common with all other
escapements, the drop is: an unavoidable evil; and it is sufficient
to observe, that the more correctly in principle, and accurately in
execution, the escapement is made, the less will be the quantity
of drop requisite, and consequently the less the quantity of power
lost.

The following observations have arisen out of the preceding
pages, and although not immediately relating to the subject of this
paper, are, from the relation they bear to the construction of the
dead escapement, here inserted :

It has before been observed, (see note, page 3, and Fig. 4,
Plate II.,) that the quantity of the angle of lead of the escape~
ment depends upon two things; the angle of the inclined planes,

the Dead Escapement. 23

and the number of teeth of the wheel the pallets take over; and
that the escapement may be constructed to lead the pendulum an
equal quantity, with the pallets made to take over a few teeth,
and with a low angle of lead; or with the pallets made to take
over a greater number of teeth, and with a high angle of lead.
It may further be noticed, that the lower the angle of the inclined
planes, the less will be the friction upon them, and consequently
the easier the action of the wheel upon the pallets: because the
lower the angle the shorter the inclined planes: and, on the con-
trary, the higher the angle and the longer the inclined planes, the
greater the friction, and the more unfavourable the action of the
wheel on the pallets. At the same time it is to be observed, that
the less the friction on the inclined planes, the greater the friction
on the rests. Supposing the case of two dead escapements, si-
milar in every respect except the angle of lead, of which the pen-
dulums are made to vibrate equal angles, (here the angle of vi-
bration must not be confounded with the angle of lead,) and the
pallets of the one constructed with a low angle of lead taking
over a few teeth, and the pallets of the other with a high angle
and taking over a greater number of teeth; there will in the first
case be less friction on the inclined planes and more on the rests,
and in the second more friction on the inclined planes and less on
the rests ; and consequently, in the case of the pallets with a low
angle of lead, of the total space of time which is occupied by
each vibration of the pendulum, a less portion will be engaged
duriug the advance of the wheel and the giving the impulse, than
during the action of the wheel on the rests of the pallets; whereas,
in the case of the pallets made with a high angle of lead, the
direct contrary will occur; unless, indeed, which is a possible
ease, the angle of lead should lead the pendulum exactly half the
angle of vibration, when the portion of time the wheel is engaged
on the inclined planes will be equal to that it is engaged on the
rests of the pallets. This observation is made on the supposition
that the whole vibration of the pendulum is made with equal ve-
locity, which is not the case; but as the pendulum is acted upon
by the clock through the inclined planes of the pallets, both

24 On the Theory of the Dead Escapement.

during its ascent and descent, in the are of vibration, I do not ap-
prehend the distinction to be very material. Now as all irregula-
ities resulting from the train of wheels, must be more felt during
the period the impulse is being given, than during the period of
rest, it follows that on that account a low (or short) angle of lead
is much preferable to a high one.

It is also worthy of notice, that in the case supposed above, of
two pendulums made to vibrate equal angles, by the action of
dead escapements similar, except in the quantity of the angle of
lead; the pendulum applied to the pallets with the high angle,
will be much more liable to come to rest than the other, on ac-
count of the excess of the angle of vibration, over and above the-
angle of lead being less than in the case of the pallets with a low
angle of lead.

In a former paper, (see Vol. xiv. p. 334,) I described a new
mode of constructing the pallets and their parts, by which great
accuracy in the execution of the escapement is obtained. It might
appear requisite that I should, to complete the description of the
dead escapement, describe the method of dividing and cutting the
teeth of the ’scape wheel. But the subject of dividing and cutting
wheels has been so fully entered into, and so much has been .
written on the subject, and much to the purpose, by various au-
thors, who have written on clocks and watches, that it is quite su-
perfluous to add any thing further on the subject.

Art. Il. Account of the Remains of a Roman Camp at
Mitchley, near Birmingham. By John Finch, Esq.

[In a Letter to the Editor.]

Sir, Birmingham, Sept. 24, 1822.
Mircuiety Camp is situated three miles south-west of Birming-
ham, near the village of Harborne, and is the property of the Right
Hon. Lord Calthorpe. It is noticed by Mr. Hutton, in his valua-
ble history of this town. The exterior vallum is 330 yards long,
and 228 wide (by a measurement made as accurately as the ground

Remains of a Roman Camp. 25

would admit,) and enclosing about 154 acres. The interior camp
is 187 yards long by 165 wide, enclosing 6} acres. It is qua-
drangular, and pieces of ancient armour have been frequently
ploughed up.

The ancient vallum and fosse have suffered much by the lapse
of time, by the attempts of the occupiers of the farm to level the
ground, and by the unfortunate circumstance of the Worcester and
Birmingham Canal passing through it, to make the banks of which
the southern extremity of the camp has been completely destroyed.
Notwithstanding these various means of destruction, sufficient re-
mains are still visible, by which to ascertain that the original camp
must have nearly approached the plan which accompanies this.
Mr. Hutton describes a third embankment, enclosing thirty acres,
and surrounding the two before mentioned, but I could not exactly
ascertain it; on the eastern side, there is some appearance of it,
but I am uncertain whether it is not the natural formation of the
ground. On the north-west, there are decidedly three banks, as
the ground being more on a level, required an extra fortification,
and I believe the entrance was on this side. At the eastern angle
is a field, still called the Camp Leasow, where the ancient entrench-
ments are very distinct.

Mr. Hutton considers this camp as the work of the Danes, but
for the following reasens, I think it may be considered as a Roman
station.

“* An undertaking of such immense labour. could not have been
designed for temporary use.”

In shape it exactly resembles those camps, which are usually
considered as Roman. ‘Those of the Danes were of the most irre-
gular dimensions, and generally placed upon the top of an emi-
nence. This camp is placed upon the side of a hill, and is supplied
with water, which is well known to have been considered of great
importance by the former people.

The Ikenield Street runs within a very short distance of this
camp. From Etocetum or Wall, to Mitchley, is 16 English, or
about 21 Roman, miles; from Mitchley to Alauna or Alcester, is
15 and a half English, or about 20 and a half Roman, miles.

26 Remains of a Roman Camp.

Thus it is situated nearly in the centre between Etocetum and
Alauna; and this circumstance, together with the regularity and
great strength of the fortification, seem to prove, that it was the
intermediate station between them.
I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your most obedient humble Servant,

Joun FIncu.

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27

Ant. IIL. Observations on the Project of taking down and
rebuilding London Bridge, and on the Design for the New
Bridge by the late Mr. Rennie. By a Correspondent.

[Continued from Art. VI., p. 267, Vol. XV.)

Ir has at length been determined by an Act * of the Legislature,
that the hydrometer, by which the individuals possessing property
on each side of the Thames between London Bridge and Teddington,
have during many centuries regulated the height and strength of
their respective wharfs and shores, is to be removed; and the
waters of this great river are to be let loose again by the demo-
lition of the dam of London Bridge, not to sap and overflow wastes
and desert lands, but fields, gardens, and towns thronged with
human beings. What will be the depth of the channel these
waters, ungovernable from their increased power, will hereafter
scoop out, and what they will carry with them? What will be
the declination, speed, and windings of their course, and height at
extraordinary high tides? What the deceases from the damps,
aqueous vegetation and insects, which will arise from a frequent
saturation of the low lands with water? What will be the spread
of pestilent filth from the sewers of London on this river’s flat
banks, at the ebbing of the tide ?—are questions to which no
answers have been ventured. ‘The warnings of common sense, in
respect of the soil, site, and plan of the Penitentiary, now linger-
ing with its inmates, were contemned a few years ago; as those
are at the preseut time in respect of the destruction of property
and human life, consequent on this intended revolution of the an-
cient government of the Thames Ti

Engrossed in the consideration of this adventurous speculation,
the writer of these observations took little interest in the conten-
tions relating to the designs for the new London Bridge, nor con-

* Jth Geo. 1V., Sess. 1823.
+ See Art. VI, in the July Journal, aud Mr. Telford’s Report in the Phil.
Mag., published the last day of July ult.

28 Observations on the taking down and

templated the grandeur of the work about to be erected. But
having received from a friend the Act “ for the rebuilding of Lon-
don Bridge,” and a drawing of the new bridge designed by the
late Mr. Rennie, his attention has been more particularly drawn
to it; and the examination makes him regret that he cannot be
convinced of the expediency of a new bridge; for, to see across
the Thames an elliptical arch in stone, whose transverse axis is
150 feet, and its semiconjugate 29 feet 6 inches, with two other
arches on each side of it, of a like character, standing on bearing
piers 45 feet high, would afford him a gratification which he is
unable to. express. In such a work it seems proper that the most
able person should be selected to furnish the design, and erect the
bridge; and doubtless the late Mr. Rennie was that person. It
also seems proper, now that gentleman is no more, that the faith
he would have inspired, should be obtained by investigation and
proof. In the absence of any shewing of the expediency of the
demolition of London Bridge, and of the reality of any beneficial
effects to arise, or of the fallacy of the evil effects anticipated from
it, and in the want of every scientific explanation of the principles
by which the late Mr. Rennie regulated the proportions of his
bridges; the observations in respect of the taking down the present
bridge, and the following inquiry in respect of the new one, are
submitted to you, not without a hope that in your next Journal
all the desiderata will be supplied by some one of those who have
pledged themselves to the success of these undertakings.

When the heights of the piers, and form of an arch of a bridge,
and the kind of stone of which it is to be constructed, are deter-
mined, the first object of inquiry is the thickness of the arch
at the vertex. Mr. Rennie, in his stone bridges, adopted the
rule* which M. Perronet? says is customary in large arches sur-
baissées, namely, to make the thickness at the vertex of an arch

# Examples—Waterloo, Darleston, and Weston. The key-stone in the
faces of Waterloo is said to be only 4 feet 6 inches, but the thickness of the
arch is 5 feet = en

24

+ GEuvres de Perronet, pages 625 and 664.

rebuilding London Bridge. 29

gyth part of the span; we may therefore conclude, that the thick-
ness uf the arch of the new London Bridge there was intended to

e aa = 6 feet 3 inches ; and this conclusion is confirmed by
the other parts of this bridge, and so far as the scale of the draw-
ing of it is evidence. This rule is purely empirical, and so
acknowledged to be: it may apply for Neuilli bridge with Saillan-
court stone, but it does not apply with marble for the bridge of the
Holy Trinity * at Florence, and ought not with granite at Waterloo
bridge, nor cannot apply in arches surbaissées in all their varieties.
The versed sine of the bridge of the Holy Trinity is between jth
and 4th of its span, and its thickness at the vertex is th part of
the span. The rule also, which Perronet gives in another part of
his work, in order to evade an obvious absurdity, viz., that the
thickness at the vertex of an arch should be =1,th of double the
radius of curvature there, leads to greater absurdities than that of
which the latter is an evasion. For, in the case of the bridge of
the Holy Trinity at Florence, the thickness of the arch at the vertex
is the ;45nd part of the diameter of the circle of curvature there,
and that of his own bridge of Neuilli is ;1,th part. It is desir-
able that a mode of determining this important feature of an arch
could be obtained directly from the strength of the material to be
used, and the weight to be borne, making due allowances for con-
tingencies ; and also, when this is derived, to determine any point
of thrust, and the correspondent angle, that is, the extrados of an
arch, and its abutment or bearing piers, from the same sources.
These questions M. de Prony, in the first volume of his Nouvelle
Hydraulique +, investigated ; but assuming the angle of rupture
with the vertical gratuitously, and not having illustrated by examples
the application of his formule, the articles require more eclair-
cissement than M. Garnier has given them in the Introduction to the
second volume, before they can be available to the practical profes-
sor. The solution of these questions has also been given analytically

* No. 29, Journal of Science, Roy. Iust., for April udé.
+ Arts 358 to 379.

30 Observations on the taking down and

in a work * published in the commencement of 1822 ; the latter
had been geometrically solved by the same author about fourteen
years ago. His formule may be applied to the case of the pro-
posed new London Bridge, as follows :

Let the material be Cornish granite; then it may be deduced
from the experiments of Mr. George Rennie, in the Phil. Trans.
1818, that a prism of this material will crush at its base, if it be
5500 feet high. Let a prism one foot square in horizon- Feet
tal section, one-fourth of that height t+, be denoted by f= 1375t

Let the height of another prism of the same section,
and of the same material, equal in weight to the
weight to be borne, allowing for contingencies, be de-

noted by g ‘ i : ‘ : ‘ - wm 2445
One cubic foot of the same material, by . ig vw b
The thickness of the given arch at the vertex, by m2 = 6,25||
The breadth of the given arch, from face to face, by b = 509
The semi-transverse, by . f é t eth
The semi-conjugate, by . ‘ c = 2955
The radius of curvature of the arch at the ation by r == 190

(2t)? i 22500 22500 __199
Ac 118

* Tracts on Vaults and Bridges, pages 36 and 67, Tract 2.

+ Mr. Emmerson considered that ove-fourth of the breaking strength should
be considered the practical strength, which rule seems to have been adopted
by the late Mr. Rennie, according to his evidence before Committees of the
House of Commons.

t The weight necessary to crush a thin piece of Cornish granite 11 inch
square, is 14302 lbs. avoirdupois, A foot cube of Cornish granite weighs

2662 ounces avoir. = 165,4 lbs. and yn x 64 = 5500 and aa ae 1375.

35,4

§ M. Perronet considered that 14 times the probable weight should be added

for insurance weight, taking 4000lbs. = the possible pressure and concussion

per foot sup.; then 4000 x 16 =
2662
ll == 6,25, being Ath of the span.

§ Mr. Mylne recommended the bridge should be, when rebuilt, 50 feet,
The engraving dyes not show the intended width of Mr. Rennie’s design.

rebuilding London Bridge. 31

The height from the bottom of the grating to the Foot
vertex of the extrados of the arch, by . , . m= 80,75
45 + 29,5 + 6,25 = 80,75.

The distance of the extreme point of thrust at the
level of the bottom of the grating, from the middle
of the arch, by . . , : - : sign

The angle of thrust at the extreme point, with a
horizontal line at the level of the bottom of the
grating, by. ; ? : : - ; ake

In respect of the thickness at the vertex of an arch equally stable

in all its parts ; it is shewn in the work referred to*, that the com-
pression at the vertex is equal to the weight there multiplied, by
the radius of curvature there, and also equal to the horizontal
thrust, and thence the force of horizontal thrust = (xg + w) br,
and since the area of the vertical section = nb square feet, and
the repulsive strength of the material = fin linear feet; it follows
that nbf must represent the force to crush the thickness at the
vertex. Whence xbf = (ng + w) br from which is obtained

6 ip plane — peeacbi Sla inches, supposing the
iF Ayia ARIS: 4
on 190

arch at the vertex uniformly thick, that is, without ribs,

The formule given to determine the point and angle of thrust
at any level from the vertex to the foundation, extracted from that
work, and applied in this case, are as follow:

d= ( = + =) A v? — 1 in which v is to be obtained from
t v

Fy cn

2 2
the formule v* — | + rosa =! an equation of the
cn

form v3 — pv = hi falling under the irreducible case wherein

(£)’ is greater than (us ). Therefore by the known for-

mule 3h een =)cos, zandv = a gifs cos, — anda
2p P 3 P 3

* Tracts on Vaults and Bridges, pages 37 and 67, Tract 2.

32 Observations on the taking down and

table of natural sines and tangents, v may be obtained *. Tang.

ga f= iy

When x = 6 feet 3 inches, d becomes 111 feet 6 inches, and
@ = 71° 23’. When nm = 3 feet 10 inches, d becomes 103 feet
6 inches, and @ = 75° 7’.

Whence in the first case the width of the grating at the level of
the foundation is 51 feet, exceeding by 8 feet, the width of the
grating in the drawing, but the width of the piers, at the level
where the line of water is shewn, and they rise vertically, becomes
22 feet, very nearly conformable to the dimensions of the drawing
taken from the scale; and in the second case, the width of the
grating at that level becomes 41 feet, and the pier at the level of
the water 16 feet.

The 51 feet, and the 41 feet, give the extreme points of strut-
ting; but the first would be strutted to a balance, if the grating were
28 feet wide, and the second 26 feet, which dimensions, in the
case of bearing piers, would generally be considered safe. In
Waterloo Bridge, the bearing piers are sufficiently thick for
abutment piers, and the width of the grating in the bearing
piers, conforms to what would be obtained from the above formule,
so that it is probable, in that bridge Mr. Rennie used the geo-
metrical construction before referred to, or one producing the same
result.

If the thickness at the vertex be taken at 6 feet 3 inches, and
the width of the vertex stone, at the intrados be taken 20 inches ;
then the summering of that stone will be ~ of an inch, that is,
the extrados of that stone will be 74th of an inch wider than the
intrados, that stone approaching very near to a parallelopiped. If
the thickness be 3 feet 10 inches, then the difference between the
extrados and intrados of that stone will be -4;th of an inch.

Partly to avoid the hazard of so little summering in the case
of a deficiency of strutting in the abutments; the Gothic archi-

* This operation is facilitated by Mr, Barlow’s Table 1V,, Mew Math,
Tab. 1814.

rebuilding London Bridge. 33

tects very wisely abandoned round-headed arches, and adopted
pointed arches. Their arches surmounted, were composed of two
ares of acircle, their arches depressed, were composed of two
ares of an ellipse ; the latter kind did not prevail until the time of
Henry VII. It is manifest, that these arches greatly increase the
summering of the vertex stone. Ammanati, at the bridge of the
Holy Trinity at Florence, to his great honour, living at the revival
of Roman architecture, adopted a pointed arch of Henry the VIIth’s
time, with that style of architecture.

Having derived that the thickness of the arch at the vertex being
of an uniform thickness directly from the strength of the material,
and the weight to be borne, this result leads to the consideration
of another practice of the Gothic architects, not less wise than that
just mentioned, by which the great cost, and the great strain and
compression, and consequent variation of the form, of the wooden
centring is materially reduced; and the abutments are subjected
to less thrust and weight, viz., by using ribs, or what in Roman
architecture are called double arches. By this practice, the wooden
centring became a mere skeleton, or in the mason’s phrase “a
horse,” on which they constructed another skeleton, or the sub-
arches, which they then keyed, and on the stone skeleton as a cen-
tring, they then laid the arched ceiling or floor, adopting the same
course, as from necessity modern bridge builders do in erecting
iron and wooden bridges. The Gothic architects also, in order to
save the walling and stuffing in the spandrills, and to bring up the
arch to the road, and consequently to reduce weight and expense,
sometimes pierced the bearing piers by arches longitudinally, to
which the cut-waters became abutments, and took their share of
pressure. Perronet imitated this arrangement at the bridge of
St. Maxence. Others have pierced the bearing piers transversely,
with ceils. Perronet gave grace to the elevation of the bridge of
Neuilli by splaying the angles of his ellipses to an arc of a circle,
by what have obtained the name of Cornes de Vache.

It would be in vain, in the present state of the science and art of
bridge building, to urge, the adoption of such of these excellent
inventions, as apply in the case, and also to advocate a due

Vou, XVI. D

34 Observations on the taking down and

regard to the architecture or dress for the proposed design: the
practical professors of bridge building, have generally from their
talents emerged from subordinate trades ; and their want of know-
ledge in the details of architecture, and their habits, lead them to
what is easy in design and execution; hence their works are
marked with the characteristics of a barbarous time. A more
advanced age will, probably, in contemplating this work, when
spanning the Thames, regret a delay in the revival of the science
of Ammanati, and the architecture of Palladio.

The design of the late Mr. Rennie for this bridge seems
to have been adapted to a river, where the banks are flat, and
of an equal height, and for a canal, in which the current and
deep channel, could be maintained in the mid water: how it applies
to the site of the present London Bridge may be ascertained by a
reference to a section across the river, and through the streets at
the site; and by a plan of the river in which its sinuosities are
accurately laid down*.

In a question involving the consideration of the effects of alter-
ing the habit of such a river as the Thames; of an expenditure of
about one million and a half of pounds sterling, simply for that
purpose; of the reputation which may be acquired by this country
from the science and art displayed in the erection of so magnificent
and difficult a work as the proposed new bridge ; it will scarcely
be thought by any one, that the pages of your Journal can be mis-
applied in an inquiry into the expediency of taking down the pre-
sent bridge; into the good effects to be derived from the demolition
of the dam, contrasted with the ill effects foreboded from it; and
in urging, as a compliment to the real and affected science of the
age, that some exposition of the principles upon which the parts of
this bridge have been proportioned, and of the results of the expe-
riments made of the strength of the material of which the bridge is
to be constructed, should be given for the information of the pub-
lic, and its use in future on similar occasions.

* It is to be regretted that the plans and sections made by Mr, Telford, in
his Survey of the Thames, were not published with his Report.

rebuilding London Bridge. 35

In the case of the iron arch of 600 feet span, designed by
Mr. Telford, for the same site, which was to have cost only
262,289/., it was thought right, that a series of questions should
be submitted to the scientific and practical men of the age, accom-
panied by drawings of that proposed structure, and their answers
have been of considerable advantage, in extending a knowledge of
the science of bridge building. It would be a great public benefit
if the same proceeding were adopted in this case; but the question
and data ought to be corrected, if not prepared, by some one
who knows both what will be useful to the practical professor, and
what will be amusing to the mathematician.

Art. IV. Remarks on the Deposition of Dew. By George
Harvey, M.G:S., &c. &c.

Du Fay mentions an interesting example.of the influence of
metals in retarding the deposition of dew. He found, that a
watch glass resting on a silver plate, and surrounded with a ferrule
of the same metal, had a space round its border five or six lines
wide, perfectly dry, and towards which the drops regularly de-
creased in magnitude. In performing the experiment, however,
I found, that not only a dry zone surrounded the edge of the glass,
but a circular space, equally dry, existed in the middle of its sur-
face, together with two narrow zones of dew, composed of exceed-
ingly fine particles, surrounding the borders of the middle zone,
and which last was covered with drops of a larger size.

At the time the experiment was performed, the whole night was
devoted to some general inquiries relative to dew; so that ample
Opportunity was afforded of observing its first deposition, and also
the gradual steps by which it successively accumulated.

At sunset, on the 15th of May, two watch glasses, of equal di-
mensions, were placed, with their concave sides upwards, on a
plate of highly polished block tin, one of them being surrounded
with a ferrule of the same metal, of the same diameter as the glass,
and a depth equal to its versed sine.

It was not until half an hour after sunset, that the temperature

D2

36 Harvey on the Deposition of Dew.

of the glass was sufficiently lowered, to admit the stratum of air in
contact with it, to impart a portion of its moisture. The dew first
made its appearance on each of the vitreous surfaces, like the
effect produced by a gentle breathing. There was a difference,
however, in the manner in which the moisture was deposited on
the two glasses. In the crystal without the ferrule, it was confined
to a zone, bounded on one side by the edge cf the glass, and on
the other by the circumference of a dry transparent circular space,
formed in the middle of the surface, of an inch and quarter diame-
ter; but in the other, the circumference of the dry lucid circle
formed the inner boundary of the dewy zone; and a circle distant
about a quarter of an inch from the circumference of the glass,
formed the outer. At half past nine, the particles on the inner
edges of both zones, preserved their minuteness ; but in the former
glass there was asmall but perceptible increase in their magnitude,
to its extreme edge; whereas, in the other, the increase proceeded
not only from the inner edge, but from the outer, producing thereby
the largest particles in the middle of the zone.

At the expiration of an hour, a new appearance was presented.
Within the dewy surface of the former crystal, another very nar-
row zone of moisture was perceptible, composed of exceedingly
fine particles. The two zones were not blended together, a dis-
tinct line of separation being visible between them. The formation
of the latter necessarily diminished the diameter of the lucid cir_
cle, since the whole of it appeared to have been formed within the
dry space. The surface of the glass, therefore, was divided into
three compartments :

Ist. The outer zone, composed of particles decreasing from its
exterior to its interior boundary.

2d. The narrow zone of very fine particles, its greater circum-
ference being in contact with the inner boundary of the former.

3d. The dry transparent circle.

The surface of the other crystal presented a similar zone of mi-
nute particles, on each side of the first mentioned dewy zone; so
that its surface was divided into five compartments :

Ist. A dry transparent zone.

Harvey on the Deposition of Dew. 37

2d. A narrow zone of exceedingly fine particles, having distinct
boundaries.

3d. A zone composed of particles increasing in size from both
its boundaries to its middle.

4th. A narrow zone of exceedingly fine particles, haying distinct
boundaries.

5th. A dry transparent circle.

At midnight, the only perceptible changes were an increase in
the magnitudes of the drops of dew, a small diminution in the dia-
meters of the dry circles, and also in the breadth of the dry zone.
At two in the morning, the drops in the larger zones had farther
increased, and the dry parts still remained without moisture. At
four, the moment which marked the greatest depression of tempe-
rature, the larger drops had increased considerably ; and the finer
particles in the narrow zones, had also augmented in_ size.
The breadths of the latter were, however, still preserved, in
common with the other zones, and the dry portions of the crystals.

The appearance of the glasses at each period of observation, was
extremely interesting. After the particles of dew had increased to
acertain size, the glassy surface very much resembled the white
metallic paper used in ornamental works. About an hour before
sunrise, a small pellucid drop appeared in the centre of the dry
circular space, formed from the moisture which had been deposited
on the outside of the glass, and which had descended to the lowest
part of the crystal. When the glass was raised, the drop re-
mained on the metal. The sudden application of heat to the
crystals, was always accompanied by a partial disappearance of the
minuter particles of moisture. This was observed, both when the
glasses were handled, and when a candle was brought near them,
for the purpose of examination :—affording an indirect proof of the
theory of Dr. Wells, that the primary cause of dew, and all the in-
teresting and beautiful phenomena arising from its numerous modi-
fications, are to be traced to changes and varieties of temperature.

To the feeble manner in which heat is emitted from highly po-
lished metallic surfaces, and the check which their influence com-
municates to bodies having considerable radiating powers, and in

38 Harvey on the Deposition of Dew.

contact with them, may be referred the cause of the phenomena
above described. The glass, for example, with a very superior pro-
pellent energy, had a portion of its surface touching that of the
polished tin, which radiates heat but imperfectly. The resistance
which this feeble radiation offers to the formation of dew, being
communicated to the vitreous surface equally in all directions, but
confined to within certain limits, will explain the cause of the ab-
sence of moisture in the bottoms of the glasses, and also why their
dry portions were of a circular form. The uniform breadth of the
dry zone, in the crystal surrounded with the ferrule, may be referred
to the same cause. ’

The gradual increase also of the particles of the dewy zones,
from the borders of the lucid portions of the crystals, affords a
beautiful proof of the general influence of the metal, and of the
gradual steps by which that influence is diminished. In the
glass surrounded with the ferrule, the deposition of dew was
checked, both by the metal on which it rested, and by the ferrule
itself. This double influence necessarily occasioned each border
of the zone of moisture, to be formed of the smallest parti-
cles, and the middle portion of the same, of the largest; that
being the part of the surface where the joint effect of the metals
was the least. The other glass, being subject only to one
of the influences here alluded to, necessarily had its minutest
particles confined to the inner edge of its zone; and, conse-
quently, those of the largest size, on the extreme border of the
crystal; that being the part farthest removed from the influence
of the tin.

In particular conditions of the atmosphere, and after a metallic
surface has been, for some time, exposed to its influence, it will
approach very nearly to a state favourable to the formation of
dew; or, as sometimes happens, moisture will be deposited on it *.
During the night when these experiments were performed, the latter

* The difficulty with which polished metals are dewed has been long known.
But there are some circumstances connected with the deposition of dew on
their surfaces, at particular elevations above the ground, which merit the fur-
ther attention of philosophers.

Harvey on the Deposition of Dew. 39

condition did not exist, but a close approximation to it took place,
This new state of the metallic surface necessarily restored, in some
degree, the diminished radiating power of the glass; and hence
produced the narrow zones of fine particles, formed after the first
deposition. Nor is it improbable, though I have not met with an
experiment to verify it, but that the moment marked by the depo-
sition of dew on a metallic surface, would also be distinguished by
the appearance of moisture on the dry portions of the erystal. And
from the principle also, that dew is deposited more readily on ho-
rizontal, than on vertical, surfaces, we may anticipate that moisture
would appear earlier, as well as more copiously, in the dry circular
space at the bottom of the glass, surrounded with the ferrule, than in
the dry zone round the border of the same crystal.

On the 10th of June the following cbservations were made
on the temperature of glass resting on the green herbage, and that
of the air twelve inches above it. The experiment was instituted
to observe if the deposition of dew immediately succeeded the de-
pression of the temperature of the body on which it was formed,
below that of the stratum of air hovering over its surface. From
the table this appears to have been the case.

ee Tease Tease
54 P.M. 73° 70°
53 70° 69°
61 66° 67°
3 63° 66°
74 61° 65°
73 594° 644°
84 58° 63°
4 57° 62°
9% 564° 62°
105 59° 624°

The first perceptible trace of moisture was observed on the
vitreous surface resting on the grass, at six; and at a quarter of an
hour after, it was distinctly visible. At fifteen minutes before six,

40 Harvey on the Deposition of Dew.

the temperature of the glass was 70°, and of the air 69°, when no
moisture was perceived; but in the space of half an hour, the
former indicated 67°, and the latter 66°, at which moment dew
was clearly perceptible; agreeing precisely with the discovery of
Dr. Wells, that bodies become colder than the neighbouring air
BEFORE they are dewed.

The sun at six P.M. had an elevation of 17 degrees, but its di-
rect rays did not reach the place of observation. The sky also was
tranquil and unclouded. It was not, however, till a quarter after
seven, that dew was perceptible on the glass elevated 16 inches
above the field, an instance of the slowness with which the cooling
power of the land imparts its influence to the neighbouring air. At
a quarter before eight, just as the solar orb was disappearing, the
temperature of a glassy surface, 30 inches high, was sufficiently
low to obtain moisture from the air reposing on it. By sunset,
masses of wool, of twelve grains each, placed on the metallic plates
resting on the grass, and at the respective heights of 16 and 30
inches, received increments of dew amounting to 4, 34, and 3
grains. Dew, therefore, is deposited in shady places, long before
sunset.

In consequence of the interposition of a dense cloud in the
zenith, from half past nine to half past ten, the temperature of the
erass was elevated two degrees and a half, and that of the air, half
a degree, as may be seen by a reference to the table. The effect
of a mass of clouds in elevating the temperature -of the land, was
first observed by Mr. Wilson, of Glasgow, and afterwards con-
firmed by Dr. Wells. At the present time, however, it was re-
marked, that the appearance of the cloud was accompanied by an
almost entire suspension of dew; and the minute quantity depo-
sited probably owed its origin to the clear horizon. In the inter-
val between a quarter past five, and half past nine, a mass of wool,
of 12 grains, received an increment of six grains anda half; but
from the last observation, to half past ten, the quantity gained was
only halfa grain; and its almost total suspension could be attri-
buted to no other cause than the appearance of the cloud; since
the air preserved its tranquillity, and every other circumstance, ex-

Harvey on the Deposition of Dew. 41

cepting that of temperature, remained the same. Soon after the
last observation, the upper sky again became clear; when the form-
ation of dew was actively resumed, and an additional quantity,
amounting to ten grains, deposited by six the next morning.

On the 16th of May, the sun rose about a quarter after four;
and from that time to six, dew was deposited on wool and swan-
down placed on grass, and at the elevations of 5, 18, and 32 in-
ches above the ground. Nor was the quantity, in some cases, in-
considerable, it varying from one to three grains. At the last ob-
servation, the sun had attained an elevation of 13 degrees; and
for half an hour previous to it, had thrown its direct rays on the
scene of the experiments. Dew, therefore, is deposited after
sunrise.

Puiymovrn, July 25th, 1823.

ewe ee

Art. V. On Animals preserved in Amber, with Remarks on
the Nature and Origin of that Subsiance. By J. Mac
Culloch, M.D., F.R.S.

Tux value which has long been attached to the specimens of
amber which contain insects, has introduced into the cabinets of
collectors many imaginary examples of this occurrence, which a
more careful examination would have proved to be fallacious.
For the sake of those who may be inclined to purchase such spe~
cimens, or to re-examine their own acquisitions of this nature, it
may be useful, not only to suggest the frequent deceptions to
which they are exposed by not attending to the real characters of
the including material, but to point out an easy method of dis-
tinguishing the true from the false. It is the more necessary to
do this, as the test which the Abbé Haiiy has given, in his work,
for this purpose, is neither satisfactory nor of easy application.

The existence of an insect in amber, is an unquestionable proof
of the vegetable origin of this remarkable substance, and is, there-
fore, in a mineralogical view, an important fact; but to find such an
animal in the exudation of a living vegetable, is scarcely a subject

42 Mac Culloch on Animals preserved in Amber.

of curiosity. It is, in another respect, important to show, that
such remains, if most frequently occurring in the recent resinous
exudations, are not limited to them; since collectors, finding
themselves deceived in their own specimens, might perhaps ima-
gine that no genuine instance of an insect, actually preserved in
amber, exists.

For the honour of the dealers in specimens, it is, however, but
justice to remark, that the difference is not, or at least not gene-
rally, known to them; as, among innumerable specimens exposed
for sale which I have examined, I have never yet found any of the
proprietors aware of the distinction. False specimens seem, at
any rate, to be true in their eyes, as they are in those of the pur~
chasers. A very perfect state of preservation in such insects as
may be surrounded by any substance resembling amber, is gene-
rally a justifiable ground of suspicion respecting the nature of the
including material. It rarely happens that those insects preserved
in amber are perfect, or that they present the more delicate part
of the anatomy of the animal; the wings of the hymenoptera, for
example, or their delicate legs.

It would require too much nicety of observation for an ordinary
naturalist, perhaps too much for any one, to decide on the recent
nature of the including resin from the characters of the insect
contained in it; when it is considered how many insects are yet
unknown, and how difficult it is to examine the enclosed spe-
cimers accurately. Otherwise, as there is abundant reason, from
the analogy of other animal remains buried in alluvial matter, to
conclude that insects enclosed in amber have belonged to a former
state of the globe, this difficulty might be solved by the entomo-
logical examination of the species. To ascertain the true nature
of the including material, is a task of great comparative facility ;
and it is always sufficient for the purposes in view; that is, for
ascertaining, simply, whether the specimens consist of amber, or
of some recent resin enclosing animal remains.

Where the exudation is sold in its natural state, the form of the
lengthened mass, or drop, is generally a sufficient evidence of its
reai nature; as no amber is ever found which has not undergone

Mac Culloch on Animals preserved in Amber. 43

some loss of shape, from mechanical violence, or other causes,
connected with its present mineral position.

But it frequently happens that this test becomes of no use; as
the specimens are often cut and polished into such forms as to
show the enclosed insect to advantage. Even in these cases,
however, the colour and appearance of the resinous matter which
encloses the insects, are always somewhat different from those
of amber; or they are always, at least, such that a practised
eye can pronounce on the genuine specimen; can distinguish be-
tween resin and amber. A paleness of colour is invariable in the
resin; and if amber is not always of a full yellowish brown, the paler
varieties have a peculiar tinge of yellow which never exists in the
resin ; the colour of these is comparatively watery, thin, and feeble.

The striking character, however, to a practised eye, is a pe-
culiar lustre in amber which is wanting in the resin; arising, pro-
bably, from a higher refractive density, and easily recognised
when once pointed out; but difficult to describe in words.

To those to whom characters of a nature so delicate are in-
sufficient, it is necessary to point out other more unquestionable
and easier modes of discriminating the two without injuring the
specimens.

It is proper, in the first place, to remark, that the electrical
property is not a sufficient test; although it is that to which an
appeal is commonly made. The resins, like amber, are electrical
on friction, and the electricity of both is negative. But, on
strongly rubbing the resins, they give out a smell quite different
from that which is elicited from amber in the same circumstances.
To describe these odours, is evidently impossible; but as they
can never be mistaken for each other when once known, it will be
necessary for the collector of specimens to render himself ac-
_quainted with both; by making the necessary experiments on
genuine specimens of common amber, and on specimens of that
resin which, if it is not the substance in question, agrees with
it in its ostensible properties, namely, gum animi, as it is com-
monly called.

It would obviously be easy to supply chemical tests for the

44 Mac Culloch on Animals preserved in Amber.

purpose of making this distinction; but the circumstances under
which these specimens exist, are not such as to warrant their
destruction for this purpose; and, to ordinary collectors, any
refined or minute mode of chemical examination would be useless.
The only easy test which can be applied without destroying or
materially injuring a specimen, is that of burning. If the doubtful
specimen be held against a red-hot iron, the smell of the smoke
which is produced is always a sufficient distinction between the
resins and amber; and, to render this test of easy application, the
collector may easily familiarizes himself with the peculiar smells of
the essential oils, which, with very slight differences, are given out
by copal, gum animi, or the other recent resinous substances, and
that of the oil of amber which is produced by burning this mi-
neral,

To this ultimate test, therefore, in doubtful cases, the collector
of specimens may have recourse; and it will always be sufficient
to distinguish, from genuine specimens of insects enclosed in
amber, those which have been entangled in the recent resinous ex-
udation of trees. Haiiy’s test of the difference between copal and
amber, already alluded to, and which is founded on the different
manner in which a melted drop falls from each, is neither so prac-
ticable nor so satisfactory.

I am sorry that I cannot inform your readers what is the real
nature of the vegetable resin in question, which is commonly sold
for amber when it contains insects. It has not been a matter
of observation among the collectors of these specimens, or the
dealers in them. Nor, as far as the chemical analysis of vegetable
compounds has yet proceeded, have we acquired any means of
ascertaining by chemical means the distinctions among these,
more than among any other vegetable products, of which the
general and ostensible characters are similar. It is however plain
that it is not copal, at least in all cases; but it bears, as already
insinuated, a striking resemblance to the gum known by the name
of gum animi. That such insects should be contained in more
resinous exudations than one is to be expected; and if those who
ace inclined to pursue this investigation should think it worth their

Mac Culloch on Animals preserved in Amber. 45

trouble to make the necessary inquiries and experiments, it will
probably not be found very difficult to ascertain whether these
specimens are limited to the produce of many trees, or to that of
one only, and to what plant they actually belong.

The immediate object of this paper is included in the foregoing
remarks; but the fact itself, as far as it relates to the existence of
insects in amber, opens a different field of interesting inquiry,
respecting which, unfortunately, no accurate information will
probably ever be obtained.

Geological observations, recently multiplied to a most interest-
ing degree, have proved, that besides the animals imbedded in
deep-seated strata of solid rock, and consisting of marine species,
numerous remains exist in alluvial soils, of quadrupeds and
birds which have once inhabited the dry land and the air, and of
amphibious creatures that have been bred and have died where
they have had alternate and easy access to the shores and to the
waters of lakes.

It ought to be a sufficient proof of the corresponding, probably
simultaneous, existence of insects, that they are found imbedded
in amber; the only mode nearly in which they could have been
preserved for the examination of the naturalists of future and
distant ages, though some of the aquatic, or rather subaquatic,
winged ones, have been found in the shales of the fresh-water
formations. To render the proof of distance of time, or of a cor-
responding era complete, it is only here necessary to advert to
that wich is already well known; namely, that amber is found in
alluvial soils of an antiquity at least as remote as that which marks
the other alluvial soils or strata in which such remains of a forme,
living inhabited world are imbedded. That this should have been
the fact, is too probable to doubt, even if such proofs did not
exist. Whether specimens sufficiently numerous, and sufficiently
distinct, may ever be found to enable some future Cuvier in ento-
mology to assign the genera and species of such remains, is uncer-
tain; perhaps it is not probable.

Hitherto, it 1s certain that no sufficient attention has been paid
to this branch of subterrene zoology, to the entomology of a former

46 Mac Culloch on Animals preserved in Amber.

world. To clear the way to this investigation, by guarding against
error in the specimens, is a humble step indeed. Yet to have
called the attention of those who are versed in the minutiz of
entomology to such a subject, will not be deemed officious in him
who is unable to lend any further assistance towards that object.
A careful examination of specimens may, perhaps, ultimately prove
that more is really in our power than we now suspect; and it is
not quite unreasonable to hope that the entomological sagacity of a
Latreille may hereafter perform for fossil entomology that which a
few years ago would have appeared equally improbable in the
history of extinct quadrupeds.

It is in the fresh-water formations chiefly that these researches
ought to be made. A considerable number of the coleoptera
inhabit the water or frequent it; and the bodies and wing-cases
of these are of such durable materials, that we might expect to
find them preserved in those deposits of mud, or sand, or cal-
careous matter, which afterwards become the sand-stones, shales,
and limestones of these deposits. For analogous reasons, we might
expect to find insects among the coal strata, since these also are
of terrestrial or fresh-water origin; as we might further expect to
discover them among the lignites. These are the produce of
ancient forests and peat-bogs; and there is no apparent reason
why some of the more durable insects might not, as well as the
tender shells, be found in such situations. But nothing will be
found unless it is sought for.

I have taken it for granted, throughout this paper, that the vere-
table origin of amber is admitted; improperly, perhaps, and, for
that reason, it will not be irrelevant to add a few words on the
nature of the evidence on which this opinion rests.

The existence of such animal remains in any undisputed speci-
mens of amber, ought, in itself, to be a sufficient proof of this
origin for the whole. It is impossible to conceive that winged
insects could be entangled in any substance of this nature under
any other circumstances ; while their actual existence in resins
now exuding from living vegetables, serves to explain the mode in
which this otherwise inexplicable event must have occurred,

Mac Culloch on Animals preserved in Amber. 47

The chemical connexion between amber and the existing resins,
must also be proved, if that be thought necessary for strengthening
this view, by such analogies as can be brought to bear on it, since
it is not matter for direct experiment.

In analyzing chemically the vegetable resins which most resemble
amber in their general characters, and in comparing these results
with those obtained from the analysis of amber, certain important
differences are observed. ‘To enter into the whole of these would
exceed the bounds I have here prescribed for this paper. It is
sufficient to say, that the essential, or volatile, oils, obtained from
all the resinous substances, possess a general resemblance to that
obtained from common rosin, or, to the oil of turpentine; and that
they exhibit the same chemical qualities, as these relate, in parti-
cular very conspicuously, to their habitudes with alcohol and
ether, and, especially, with naphtha, and to the action which they
exert on the solid resins and on the solid bitumens.

The same general powers and properties are found in those
essential oils which are produced by the decomposition of recent
vegetables and the recombination of some of their elements: and
thus a general character is found to pervade all those volatile oils
which are the produce of recent vegetable matter under whatever
form. But, in analyzing in the same manner, and reproducing
volatile oils from vegetable remains, which have been so long and
so deeply buried in certain alluvial soils as to lead us to suppose
that they have belonged to a pre-existent state of the surface of
the earth, it is found that these are essentially different. The vo-
latile oils thus produced, approach in their chemical affinities to-
wards those which are obtained from coal ; or from a substance, of
which the vegetable origin is rather generally admitted than
demonstrably proved. They are all varieties of naphtha, under
modifications which, having fully explained them in other writings,
it is not necessary here to detail again.

Now the same analogy holds in comparing the produce of the
vegetable resins with that of amber, as occurs in comparing the
oil of recent wood with that of jet, and more particularly with that
of coal. It is here unnecessary to enter into the minute differences

48 Mac Culloch on Animals preserved in Amber.

in these cases. The oil of amber, in all its most important
characters, resembles naphtha; and thus it might, @ priori, be
suspected, that the same influence which could render wood in
the form of jet (or coal), capable of yielding naphtha, might,
under analogous circumstances, so change a vegetable resin as to
cause it also to yield a species of naphtha instead of the resinous
essential oil. This probability, of the change of vegetable resin
into amber by long submersion in alluvial soils, is strengthened by
other analogous occurrences.

In the submerged wood (brown coal of Bovey), a substance is
found, so intermediate in its chemical characters between vege-
table resin and asphaltum, that Mr. Hatchett has given it the very
expressive name of retinasphaltum. It appears to be a vegetable
resin, in which the change to amber, or to some analogous sub-
stance, is as yet so far incompleted that it retains the mixed
character of both. The same, or a similar substance, has been
found in other alluvial soils, as, for example, in the London clay
(of Highgate): and my analysis proves this to be of the same
chemical nature. In these instances, the incompleted change from
resin to amber, or to a substance, at least, of which the distilled
volatile produce would resemble naphtha, or the mineral essential
oil, holds an exact parallel to certain of the cases in which the
progress from brown coal, in the common vegetable fibre partially
bituminized, can be traced down to perfect coal, or to a substance
capable of yielding naphtha only on distillation.

It is from these analogies that we may, perhaps, safely conclude,
that amber has been a vegetable resin converted to its present
state during the same time and by the same causes which have
converted common vegetable matter into jet, and, perhaps, ulti-
mately into coal.

That it is found in the same alluvial soils with jet, is, perhaps,
too feeble an argument to deserve any weight; but it is also one
which seems superfluous. Every circumstance which attends
amber strongly bespeaks its vegetable origin; and nothing proves
it more strikingly than that which forms the main object ‘of this
communication.

49 ©

Art. VI. Lamarck’s Genera of Shelts

{Continued from Vox, XV. p. 258.]

2nd Division.
A constant varix on the right lip, in all the species.
8. Struthiolaria *.

Shell oval, spire elevated. Aperture oval, sinuous, terminated
at the base by a very short, straight canal without any fissure.
Left lip callous, expanded ; right lip sinuous, reflected, with an ex-
ternal varix.

The struthiolaria is distinguished from buccinum, by having no
notch at the base of the canal, and by the varix on the right lip.
It has no other varix.

Type. Struthiolaria nodulosat. (Murex stramineus. Gmel.)
Shell ovate-conical, thick, transversely striated, white, with
small wavy, longitudinal, yellow streaks; whorls angular at the
top, flattened at the upper part, and nodular at the angle; sutures
simple ; interior of the lip reddish yellow. New Zealand. Pl. v.
Fig. 180. 2 Species.
9, Ranellat.

Shell oval or oblong, subdepressed, channelled at the base; two
rows of external varices. Aperture rounded, or sub-oval. | Varices
straight, or oblique, situated at the distance of half a whorl from
each other and forming a longitudinal row on each side of the
shell. They are sometimes smooth, sometimes tubercular, or
spinous.

Distinguished from struthiolaria and murex, by the position of
the varices, and the somewhat flattened form of the shell.

_ Type. Ranella gigantea§. (Murex reticularis. . Linn.)

* From ¢lgz40¢, passer, which signifies both a sparrow and an ostrich, The

trivial French name for this shell is pied d’autruche, ostrich’s foot.

+ Nodular.
t Dim. from rana, a frog. § Gigantic.

VoL. ANI EE

50 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

Shell fusiform-turrited, ventricose, transversely sulcated and
striated ; white, clouded with red; furrows tubercular ; the middle
part of the last and penultimate whorl, surrounded by a single row
of larger tubercles; beak ascending. American Seas. PI. v.
Fig. 181. 14 Recent species, and 1 fossil.

10. Murex*.

Shell oval or oblong, channelled at the base ; rough, spinous or
tubercular varices. on the exterior surface. Aperture rounded, or
sub-oyal. Three or more varices on each whorl of the spire, the
lower ones uniting obliquely with the upper in uninterrupted lon-
gitudinal rows. Operculum horny.

The Linnean genus murex comprehended a great variety of yery
different shells; confusedly jumbled together under one name, In
it were found several of the cerithia, at least one pleurotoma, a
turbinella, a cancellaria, two fasciolariz, several fusi, and pyrulz,
struthiolaria, and ranella, murex proper, and some tritones. Bru-
guiére reduced the murices to those shells which have constant
external varices, and Lamarck has divided these further, into the
three separate genera of ranella, murex, and triton, each containing
a considerable number of species.

Of all the variciferous shells, the murex has the greatest number
of varices, of which there are at least three, and frequently more,
on each whorl; if we count those on the lowest whorl, we shall find
that they coincide, though somewhat obliquely, with the varices of
the upper whorls, the whole forming longitudinal rows on the shell,
inclining towards one side, near the summit of the spire.

The struthiolaria has only one varix, which is on the right lip ;
the ranella two, at opposite sides of the shell; and the murex

‘three, or more.
Type. Murex brandaris+. (Idem. Linn.)
Shell subclavate, anteriorly ventricose, caudate, whitish ash

* The name used by Virgil and Horace for the shell fish from which the
Tyrian dye of the ancients was obtained ;. which, according to Columna was the
Purpura patula of Lamarck ; the Buccinum patulum of Linneus.

+ Lamarck’s second species. His type is AZ. cornutus,

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells; 5b

colour; belly large, bifariately spinous; spines straight, chan-,
nelled; spire rather prominent, muricate; beak naked towards its
extremity. Mediterranean aud Adriatic. PI. v. Fig. 182. 66 Re-
cent species, and two fossil.

11. Triton’.

Shell oval or oblong, channelled at the base; varices alternate,
or rare, or nearly solitary, on the separate whorls, and never ar-
ranged in longitudinal rows. An operculum.

Sometimes the triton has only one varix, viz., that on the right
lip, which is never wanting. The yarices are generally smooth;
never spinous.

Type. Triton variegatumt, (Murex Tritonis, Lenn.)

Shell elongated-conical, trumpet-shaped, ventricose at the lower
part, surrounded with very obtuse, smooth ribs ; elegantly vari-
egated, with white and red; edges of the sutures wrinkled ;
aperture red ; columella with white wrinkles; and one plait on the
upper part; margin of thelip spotted with black; spots terminated
by two short white lines. Asiatic Seas. Pl. v. Fig. 183.
31 Species.

2d Family.
AuatTa. (3 Genera.) '

A canal, of variable length, at the base of the aperture, the
right lip of which changes its form by age, and has a sinus at the
lower part.

A remarkable circumstance prevails in the shells of this family
which is scarcely found in any others, except the cypreea, namely,
the difference of form which exists between the young shell and the
adult, so that the former has often very little resemblance to the
latter.

Linneus considered all the alata as strombi, in which genus he
has included shells that by no means belong to it. The essential

* A sea deity, the son of Neptune and Amphitrite.

+ Variegated. Why our author has chosen to make this name nouler, we are
at a loss to guess,

E2

52 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

character of this family, (not noticed by Linneus,) consists in the
singular developement of the right lip of the shell at a certain age
of the animal, and especially, in a particular sinus which is con
stantly found near the base of that lip when it has acquired its full
expansion. The operculum is horny, elongated and straight.
Lamarck divides this family, which contains the true strombi of
Linneus, into three genera, founded on characters derived from the
canal at the base, and from those of the right lip of the aperture.

1. Rostellaria®.

Shell fusiform, or subturrited, terminated at the lower part by
a pointed, beak-shaped canal. Right lip entire, or toothed, more
or less dilated by age, and having a sinus contiguous to the
canal.

The right lip of these shells rests, at the upper part, against the
elongated spire, and sometimes runs along it; but what especially
characterizes this genus is that the sinus at the lower part of the
same lip is quite contiguous to the canal, which is not the case,
either with the pterocera or strombus.

Type. Rostellaria curvirostrist. (Strombus fusus. Linn.)
Shell fusiform-turrited, very thick, heavy, smooth, very deli-
cately striated transversely, reddish brown ; whorls rather convex,
the last obsoletely plicate; aperture white; edge of the lip toothed ;
beak rather short, curved. Molucca Seas. Pl, v. Fig, 184. 3 Re-
cent species, and 3 fossil.
2. Pterocerat.

Shell oblong oval, ventricose, terminated, at the lower part, by
an elongated canal. Right lip dilated by age, into a digitated
wing, the upper part of which rests against the whole spire; a
sinus near its base. Spire short.

The canal at the base of the shells of this genus, is not shortened
and truncated, as in the strombi, but elongated and caudiform, at-
tenuated towards the extremity, and frequently closed. The sinus

t * From Rostellum, a little beak,
>» Curved beak, From @ilezov, @ wing, and xtgac, a horn.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 53

is not contiguous to the body of the shell, as in the rostellaria, but
at a distance from it, as in the strombi, which differ from the pte-
rocera, only in wanting the digitations of the dilated wing, and by
their short canal.

The pterocera are generally large shells.

‘Type. Pterocera lambis*, (Strombus lambis, Linn.)

Shell oblong oval, tubercular-gibbous, heptadactylous, variegated
with red and brown; terminal digitations straight; spire acute
conical; aperture very smooth, rosy. Indian Seas, PI, v. Fig. 185,
7 Species. i.

| 3. Strombus'.

Shell ventricose, terminated at the base by a short, notched, or
truncated canal. Right lip dilated by age into a simple wing,
lobed or crenate at the upper part; on the lower part a sinus dis-
tinct from the canal or notch of the base.

Distinguished from pterocera by the dilated right lip not being
divided by longitudinal digitations, as is the case with that shell;
and by the canal at the base being very short, truncated, or notched :
from rostellaria by the sinus being separated from the canal by a
portion of the lip, whereas in the former it is contiguous to the canal.

Some strombi are of moderate size, even small, but some are
very large and thick shells.

Type. Strombus latissimust. (Idem. Linn.)

Shell turbinated, ventricose, smooth on the back, with the wing
subrugose ; orange, spotted with white; spire short, nodular; lip
very broad, rounded above, projecting beyond the spire, margin
acute, side very thick; aperture smooth, white, with a rosy
tint. Indian Ocean. PI. v. Fig, 186. 32 Recent species, and
1 fossil.

* The term used by the old French conchologists for those strombi, which
have large, projecting tubercles, and stria on the external surface, and the
aperture very smooth, and flesh-coloured, Thus, strombus gigas, was a dampis.
Dict. D’ Histoire Naturelle, Lamarck’s second species—his type is P. éruncata,

t Original Latin name fora sort of shell fish, from the Greek ¢lgoaSo;.

} Very broad, Lamarck’s third speciese-his typeis S. gigas,

54. Lamarck’s Genera of’ Shells.
3d Family.

Purrurirera. (11 Genera.)

~ Shell with a short posteriorly ascending canal, or oblique notch
or semi-canal at the base of the aperture, inclining towards the
back.

The canal at the base of the aperture is almost lost in the shells
of this family, most of them having merely an oblique notch, in-
clining backwards, and very perceptible when we examine the
hinder part of the shell. They all appear to have opercula,

Lamarck has called this family »wrpurifera, because the trache+
lipoda which produce the shells it comprehends, especially those
of the genus purpura, secrete, in a particular reservoir, the colour-
ing matter from which the Romans furmed their celebrated purple
dye, the use of which has been superseded by the discovery of the
cochineal.

The genera are separated into two subdivisions. 1. Those with
the canal ascending, or curved towards the back. 2. Those with
ah oblique notch, inclining backwards. The former subdivision
contains two, the latter nine genera.

1st Subdivision.
Canal ascending, or curved towards the back.
1. Cassidaria*.

Shell subovate, or oblong oval. Aperture longitudinal, narrow,
terminated at the base by a curved subascending canal. Right lip
varicose, or folded back ; left lip covering the columella, generally
rough, granular, tubercular, or wrinkled.

Distinguished from cassis by being, in general, less inflated than
ihat shell, but chiefly by the short canal, which terminates the
lower part of the aperture, not being abruptly turned towards the
back of the shell, and by its also being only siightly curved, or
ascending.

The spire of the cassidaria is short, conoidal, with convex whorls,
and without any continuous varices. The left lip rests on the

* As allied to the Cassis.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 55

columella, and is generally loaded with small, oblong, wrinkled
tubercles, lying in a transverse direction, which assist in forming
the character of these marine shells.

. Type. Cassidaria echinophora. (Buccinum echinophorum. Linn.)
. Shell ovate-globular, ventricose, banded, striated above and be-
low, pale yellow; bands, four or five in number, tubercular ; whorls
of the spire angular; angles tubercular-crenate. Mediterranean.
Pl. v. Fig. 187. 5 Recent species, and 2 fossil.

9. Cassis *.

Shell inflated. Aperture longitudinal, narrow, terminated at its
base by a short canal, curved abruptly towards the back of the
shell. Columella plaited, or wrinkled transversely. Right lip
almost always toothed. ;

This genus is included by Linneus in his Buccina, from which it

is distinguished by the longitudinal direction and narrow form of
the aperture, by the right lip being toothed, by the flattening of
the left or columellar lip, which generally projects considerably on
that side, and by the abrupt reflection of the base of the canal to-
wards the back of the shell. The true buccina have no canal, but
merely a notch at the base of the aperture.
_ The spire of the cassis is but little elevated, and often interrupted
by oblique cariniform varices. Lamarck uses these varices to di-
vide the genus into two sections, those shells whose spires are fur-
nished with them constituting one section, and those which are not,
the other.

Type. Cassis glaucat. (Buccinum glaucum. Linn.)

Shell ovate, turgid, smooth, gray; the last whorl anteriorly sub-
angular; spire striated, papillous, pointed; lip with four teeth at
the base, internally brownish yellow. Indian Ocean, Pi. v,
Fig. 188. 25 Recent species, and 1 fossil.

: 2nd Subdivision.

An oblique notch, inclining backwards.

¥ A helmet,
+ Gray. Lamarck’s sixth species ; his type is C, madagascariensis.

56 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

3. Ricinula*.
_

Shell oval, generally tubercular or spinous externally. Aperture
oblong, with a semi-canal at the lower part, curved towards the
back, and terminated by an oblique notch. Unequal plaits on the
columella and on the inner side of the right lip, usually con-
tracting the aperture.

The Ricinulze are generally small shells; the spire often low,
and covered with tubercles or spinous points like the fruit of the
ricinus. The aperture is generally tinged with purple or violet.

Type. Ricinula horidat. (Murex neritoideus. Gmel.)

Shell ovate, subglobular, covered with thick, short, acute, black
tubercles; interstices white; spire very short; aperture ringent,
violet coloured. Indian Ocean. Pl. v. Fig. 189. 9 Species.

4 Purpura}.

Shell oval, smooth, tubercular, or angular. Aperture dilated,
terminating below in an oblique, subcanaliculated notch. Colu-
mella flattened, pointed at the base.

This is the last genus whose shells present any appearance of a
canal at the base of the aperture; they are distinguished by the
dilated aperture, and the flattened and generally naked columella,
terminating in a point at the base, whose notch turns a little up-
wards posteriorly.

Type. Purpura persica§. (Buccinum persicum. Linn.)

Shell ovate, transversely sulcated, rather rough, blackish brown;
furrows obsoletely rugged, spotted with white ; spire short; aper~
ture dilated; columella brownish yellow, longitudinally excavated
in the middle ; interior margin of the lip sulcated, blackish, inter-

nally white, painted with brownish yellow lines. Indian Ocean.
Pl. v. Fig. 190. 50 Species.

* Dim. from Ricinus, from the seed of one species of which, R. communis,
the Castor Oil is procured.

t Rugged.

+ Purple, applied, xo? efoxm, to this genus, for the reason already given.
The term was also used, to denote this peculiar shell fish, by Pliny, Lib, 9, § 36-

§ Persian,

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 57

5, Monoceros*.

Shell oval. Aperture longitudinal, terminating below in an ob-
lique notch. Columella generally flattened. A conical tooth at
the interior base of the right lip.

_ The only distinguishing character between the monoceros and
purpura, is the projecting, horn-shaped, conical tooth, on the right
lip, which is constant in all the species.

Type. Monoceros imbricatumt. (Buccinum monodon. Gmel.)
Shell ovate, ventricose, rather rough, ash colour, or grayish
red; ribs crowded, transverse, imbricate-squamous; whorls con-

vex; spire short; lip crenate. Straits of Magellan. Pl. v. Fig.
191. 5 Species.

6. Concholepas.

Shell oval, inflated, semi-spiral ; sammit inclined obliquely to-
wards the left margin. Aperture ample, longitudinal, oblique, with
a slight notch at the lower part. Two teeth at the base of the
right lip. Operculum oblong, thin, horny.

This singular genus, of which only one species is known, was
formerly classed with the patellz. Bruguiéres, in consequence of
the notch at the lower part of the aperture, and from its having an
operculum, perceived that it differs materially from the shells of
that genus, and placed it with the buccina, but its peculiar cha-
racters forbid its being associated with either the one or the other,
or, indeed, with any known genus. Lamarck has, therefore, made
it a separate genus, and ranged it next to the monoceros, it hav-=
ing two teeth at the base of the right lip, instead of only one.

One Species. Concholepas peruvianus}. (Patella lepas. Gmel,)
The usual specific characters are omitted, but the author states
below, that the shell is of moderate size, the spire incomplete, de-
pressed towards the margin, and furrowed longitudinally. The

* Unicorn, from jaovos, one, and xegas, a horn. + Imbricated—disposed in plates,
lying one over another, like the tiles of a house. Lamarck’s second species ; his
type is M, cingulatum,

t Peruvian,

58: -Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

two teeth on the right lip are short and gbtuse. The left lip resem-

bles a flattened columella. Coasts of Peru. Pl, v. Fig. 192.
7. Harpa*.

Shell oval, more or less inflated, with parallel, inclined and
sharp longitudinal ribs. Spire short. Aperture notched at the
lower part; no canal. Columella smooth, flattened and pointed
at the base.

- Linneus comprehended almost all the harpze, under the name of
bucctnum harpa, considering them as forming only one species.
But although they agree in the common character, that all have
external, longitudinal, parallel, compressed, inclined and sharp
ribs, and that the upper extremity of each rib forms a small, de-
tached, projecting point, there are, nevertheless, constant pecu-
liar characters, which distinguish the several species. They are
principally found in hot climates.

Type. Harpa ventricosat. (Buccinum harpa. Linn.)

Shell ovate, ventricose ; ribs broad, compressed, tinged with
purple, pointed at the apex, with one tooth below the point; in-
terstices whitish, marked with curved, reddish-brown spots ; colu-
mella spotted with purple and black. Indian Ocean. PI. v.
Fig. 193. 8 Recent species, and 1 fossil.
| 8. Dolium}.

Shell thin, ventricose, inflated, generally subglobular, rarely
oblong; transversely banded ; right lip toothed, or crenate through
its whole length. Aperture oblong, notched below.

Linneus, and other naturalists, considering only the notch at the
base of the aperture, have confounded the dolium, harpa, terebra,
eburna, c., with the buccina, notwithstanding their great differ-
ences in point of general form, and the distinct characters by
which nature has arranged them in separate groups, all of which
are thus made to fade away, before the insulated circumstance of a
notch at the base of the shell.

| ¥ A harp.
+ Ventricose. Lamarck’s second species ; his type is H. imperialis.
3 4 tun
4 :

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 59

The dolium is distinguished from the harpa, and the other shells
just alluded to, by having no longitudinal ribs, by their ventricose,
inflated and subglobular form, the spire being much shorter than the
lower whorl, whence the aperture is very large, and always occu-
pies more than two thirds of the length of the shell. Although
thin, some of these shells attain a very large size. They are all
encircled externally by transverse bands, which render the margin
of the right lip crenate, from one end to the other.

Type. Dolium perdix*. (Buccinum perdix, Linn.)

Shell oblong-ovate, inflated, thin, reddish yellow, marked with
rows of white, ¢rescent-shape spots ; ribs rather convex; crowded ;
spire slightly prominent, conical. Indian Seas. Pl, v. Fig. 194.
7 Species. ;
were, 9. Bueccinum?.

Shell oval, or ovate conical. Aperture longitudinal, with a
notch at the base, but no canal. Columella not flattened, turgid
at the upper part.

The numerous species of which this genus still consists, although
much reduced by the separation of the harpe, dolia, &c., present
considerable differences of aspect; they are, however, all connected
by great leading characters. :

The buccina are marine, shore shells, the greater part very small,
though some species attain a mean, or ordinary size. Those which
have acallous columella, Lamarck had separated into a distinct
genus, under the name of nassa, but he has since reunited them to
the buccina.

Type. Buccinum undatumt. (Idem. Linn.)

Shell ovate-conical, ventricose, transversely sulcated and striated,
and decussated with very delicate longitudinal strie ; longitudi-
nally plicate ; whitish, or yellow gray ; folds thick, oblique, wavy ;
whorls convex ; aperture white or yellow. Seas of Europe. PI. v.
Fig. 195. 58 Recent species, and 2 fossil.

+
* Partridge. Wamarck’s seventh species; his type is D. galea.
+ A trumpet. The term is also used by Pliny, to denote a certain shell fish.
+ Wavy,

60 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

10. Eburna*.

Shell oval, or elongated; right lip very simple. Aperture lon-
gitudinal, notched at the base. Columella umbilicated at. the
upper part, and channelled below the umbilicus. Distinguished
from buccinum by the singular position of the umbilicus of the
columella, and, especially, by its being produced at the lower part
so as to form acanal, which occupies the rest of the left lip. In
other respects the eburne resemble the buccina in their general
form, and by the notch at the base of the aperture. Their ex-
terior surface is smooth, and polished.

Type. Eburna glabrata}. (Buccinum glabratum. Lenn.)

Shell elongated, oval, bisulcated at the base, very smooth, po-
lished, pale brownish yellow ; whorls slightly convex, confluent at
the upper part; sutures obsolete. American Occan. PI. v.
Fig. 196. 5 Species.

11. Terebrat.

Shell elongated, turrited, very pointed at the summit. Aperture
longitudinal, many times shorter than the spire, and notched at
the posterior part of the base. Base of the columella twisted, or
oblique.

The very short columella of this shell presents a peculiar cha-
racter; in its general form it much resembles the turritella, but is
distinguished from that genus by its aperture, and by the notch at
the posterior part of the base; from the eburne, by not having
the channelled umbilicus, and from the buccina, by the small pro-
portion which the length of the aperture bears to that of the
spire of the shell. ;

Type. Terebra maculata§. (Buccinum maculatum. Linn.)
Shell conico-subulate, thick, heavy, smooth, white, surrounded
with rows of bluish brown spots ; towards the base spotted with

pale brownish yellow; whorls rather flattened. Pacific Ocean,
Pl. v. Fig. 197. 24 Species.

* From £bur, ivory. + Smooth. + An auger.
§ Spotted.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 61

4th Family.
CoLuMELLARIA. (5 genera.)

No canal at the base of the aperture, but a more or less dis~
tinct subdorsal notch, and folds on the columella.

The shells of this family are entirely without any canal; their
essential characters are the plaited columella, and the notch at the
base of the aperture.

1. Columbella*.

Shell oval, spire short: base of the aperture more or less
notched; no canal. Columella plaited. Aperture contracted by
a swelling on the inner side of the right lip.

The shells of this genus are short, small, and of considerable
thickness ; often striated transversely, and of very various colours.
They are marine, shore shells, and are distinguished from the
volute, by the swelling on the inner side of the right lip, and by
their having a small operculum.

Type. Columbella mercatoriat. (Voluta mercatoria. Linn.)

Shell ovate-turbinated ; transversely sulcated,, white, painted
with small, reddish brown, transverse, subfasciculated lines, some-
times banded; lip toothed within. Coasts of Goree, Pl. v.
Fig. 198. 18 Species.

; 2. Mitra f.

Shell turrited, or subfusiform; spire pointed at the summit;
base notched; no canal. Columella transversely plaited; plaits
parallel, the lower ones the smallest. Columellar lip thin, and
resting on the columella.

Distinguished from the volute, by the summit of the spire being
quite pointed, and not terminated by a mammella, and by the
columellar plaits gradually lessening towards the base. The colu-
mellar lip is sometimes visible only near the base of the columella.
The mitre are found in the seas of warm climates; they are
agreeably varied in their colours, and sometimes are covered with
anepidermis, They probably have no operculum.

* Dim, from columba, a dove? + Connected with traffic,
t A Mire,

62 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

Type. Mitra episcopalis*. (Volutaepiscopalis. Lznn.)

Shell turrited, smooth, white, spotted with red ; the lower spots
square, disposed in regular order, transversely ; the upper irre-
gular; superior margin of the whorls entire ; columella quadripli~
cate, lip toothed posteriorly. Indian Ocean. Vl. v. Fig. 199.
80 Reeent species, and 14 fossil.

3. Volutat.

Shell oval, more or less ventricose ; summit obtuse, or el,
lated; base notched; no canal. Columella plaited ; lower plaits
largest, and most oblique. No columellar lip.

Bruguiéres began the reform of the too numerous genus yoluta,
as established by Linneus, by removing from it all the shells which
have no notchat the base. Lamarck has carried it still further;
by separating from it the mitre, columbellze, marginelle, cancellarise
and turbinelle. The genus still contains a great number of spe-
cies, many of which are remarkable for the variety, beauty, and vi-
vaeity of their colours. They are generally smooth and brilliant,
and do not appear ever to be covered with an epidermis. Some of
them are very ventricose, others simply oval, and covered with tu-
bercles ; others again are oyate-conical, elongated, almost fasiform,
or turrited, and approach the shape of the mitre. They are all
marine shells, and generally inhabit the seas of hot climates. No
species of this genus is found in our seas. ; ;

The volute are distinguished from the mitre by the lower plaits
on the columella being larger than the upper, and by the. obtuse
and mammellated termination of the spire.

Lamarck separates them into four subdivisions, viz.—1. cymbiole,
ventricose shells, 2. Muricine, oval, spinous, or tubercular.
3. Musicales, oval, subtubercular. 4. Fusotdee, elongated, yentri-
cose, subfusiform.

Type. Voluta Diademat. (Voluta cthiopica-var. Linn.)

Shell ventricose, orange yellow, sometimes marked with white ;

* Episcopal. t Volute. :
$ Diadem, Lamarck’s second species of the first subdivision. His type is
V. nautica,

~ Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 63,

spire crowned with arched, pointed, nearly straight spines ; colu-
mella triplicate. Asiatic Seas. Pl. v. Fig. 200. 44 Recent spes
cies, and 18 fossil.

4, Marginella *.

Shell oblong oval, smooth; spire short; right lip externally
varicose ; base of the aperture very slightly notched. Columella
plaited; plaits nearly of equal size. j

The marginelle are generally smooth, polished shells, prettily
coloured, and remarkable for the varix, or projecting callus on the
right lip of the aperture. They are distinguished from the mitree
and volute by the equal folds on the columella, by the aperture,
which almost always occupies the whole length of the shell, by the
callus on the right lip, and by the scarcely perceptible notch at the
base of the aperture. They inhabit the seas of warm climates.

Lamarck subdivides the genus into, 1, shells with a projecting
spire; and, 2, those without a projecting spire.

Type. Marginella glabellat. (Voluta glabella. Linn.)

Shell ovate oblong, grayish yellow, surrounded with reddish
zones, sprinkled with very small white spots ; spire short, conical ;
apex obtuse; columella quadriplicate. Senegal: Pl. v.Fig. 201.
25 Species.

5. Volvariat. ;

Shell cylindrical, convolute; spire scarcely projecting. Aper-
ture narrow, as long as the shell. One or more plaits on the lower
part of the columella.

Distinguished from marginella by having, in general, no varix
on the outer lip, which is thin and sharp, though sometimes slight
traces of a varix are perceptible. The volvariz are all sea shells,
and generally of small size. ,

Type. Volvaria bulloides §.

* Prom margo, a margin, in allusion to the varix on the right lip.

+ Dim. from glaber, smooth, or bare. t From volvo, to roll.

§ Likea bulla, We have chosen this, though fossil, and the last of La-
marck’s species, for our type, as most perfectly answering the characters of
the genus, and as being the individual on which he originally established it.
See his System, 1801.

64 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

Shell cylindrical, transversely striated: striz dotted; spire
nearly concealed in the folds of the shell, pointed ; base of the colu-
mella triplicate. Fossil, from Grignon. PI. v. Fig. 202. 5 Re-
cent species, and 1 fossil.

5th Family.
Convotura. (6 genera.)

No canal; base of the aperture notched, or effuse; whorls of the
spire wide, compressed, convolute, the last whorl almost entirely
covering the others.

The convoluta constitute the last family of the trachelipoda.
Like the columellaria, their shell has no canal at the lower part,
but a notch at the base of the aperture. The most remarkable
thing in regard to their form, is the great width of the whorls, so
that the last almost wholly envelopes all the rest. Hence the
spiral cavity of the shell is long and narrow, and the body of the
animal must, consequently, be considerably flattened.

The shells of the two first genera have the right lip of the aper-
ture curved inwards.

1, Ovula*.

Shell inflated, attenuated or subacuminated at each end ; lips
curved inwards. Aperture longitudinal, narrow, effuse at the ex-
tremities ; left lip not indented.

Linneus confounded the ovule with his bulla, from which they
were first distinguished by Bruguiéres. They are closely allied to
the cypreeee, in point of form; are sometimes rostrated at both
ends, nearly smooth, and have no spire. They are distinguished
from the cypreez, by the left lip never havmg any indentations, and
from the bull, by the turning inwards of the right lip.

The shells of this genus never have a lamina resting on the colu-
mellar lip, which is always naked, smooth, and more or less in-
flated. They have neither epidermis nor operculum.

Type. Ovula oviformist. (Bulla ovum. Linn.)

* Dim. from ovum, an egg.

t Egg-shaped. Lamarck divides the species into two sections, viz., those
with the right lip plicated, and those in which it is smooth.

Lamarck’s Genera of Sheils. 65

Shell inflated, oval, ventricose in the middle, smooth, milk white;
extremities rather prominent, subtruncated ; mouth orange. Mo-
luccas. Pl.y. Fig. 203. 12 Recent species, and 2 fossil.

2. Cypreea.

Shell oval, or oblong oval, convex on the upper part, somewhat
flattened at the under; lips curved inwards. Aperture longi-
tudinal, narrow, indented on beth sides, effuse at each end, and
extending the whole length of the shell. Spire very small, scarcely
perceptible.

The cypree are generally smooth shining shells, agreeably
coloured, and without any epidermis. They are remarkable for the
different appearance which the shell of the same individual as-
sumes at different periods of its growth. In the mature state, these
shells answer the description given above, but when young, they
have a very different form. ‘The aperture is then more dilated,
especially at the lower part, is entirely without indentations, and.
the right lip is sharp. In its next, or middle, stage of growth, it
acquires the general form of the adult shell, but is still incomplete,
having only its first superimposed layer of testaceous matter, and the
spire, though very small, is not yet. entirely covered; its colours,
moreover, are still wanting. The second layer of testaceous matter,
variegated with the brilliant colours that adorn this genus, is de-
posited by two membranous expansions of the mantle of the animal,
which it spreads over the back of the shell, so as to cover and con-
ceal it completely, thus adding at once to its solidity and beauty.
In some species, the place where the two edges of the mantle
meet, is marked by a longitudinal line, on the back of the shell,
of a different colour from the rest of it.

From the varying form of this shell, according to its age, we
must be careful to distinguish the three separate states in which it
is likely to be met with, or we shall be liable to mistake the same
individuals for three distinct species.

In some species the place of the spire presents a little pit, simi-
lar to an umbilicus, in others it is almost obliterated. In like
manner the two external margins of the shell are sometimes both

Vou. XVI. e

66 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

dilated, sometimes only one; and again, sometimes neither of them
are prominent or inflated.

Lamarck states that observation has proved that the animal of
the cyprea continues to grow after it has completed its shell,
which it is consequently obliged to quit, and form a new one;
hence the same individual may form several shells with a single
layer of testaceous matter, and several with the layers double, or
complete; and this he thinks is proved by the fact that perfect
shells of the same species are often found of different sizes.

The head of the animal which inhabits the cypraea, is furnished
with two slender conical tentacula, finely pointed, with the eyes
situated near the base on the outer side. The tube for re-
spiring water is short, and placed on the neck; itis formed by
the anterior part of the mantle, and lodged in the notch of the
shell which terminates the aperture on the side next the spire.
The foot of the animal is a ventral, fleshy, linguiform disc, which
it uses for the purposes of locomotion.

The cypreee live buried in the sands, at some distance from the
sea coast, both in hot and temperate climates. The different
species, which are very numerous, are not easily distinguished
from each other, for their individual characters, independent of the
colours of the shell, are few.

Type. Cyprea cervina*. (Cypreea oculata. Gmel.)

Shell ovate-ventricose, yellow or chesnut colour, sprinkled with
small, very numerous, whitish spots; longitudinal dorsal line
straight, light coloured; interior of the lip inclining to violet.
American Seas. Pl. y. Fig. 204. 6y ecent species, and 18
fossil.

3. Terebellum +.

Shell convolute, subcylindrical, pointed at the summit. Margin
simple, and acute. Aperture longitudinal, contracted at the upper
part, notched at the base. Columella smooth, truncated at the
bottom.

The genus bulla, observes Lamarck, seems to have been a pro-

* Belonging to a stag, from the colour of the shell, + A little auger.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 67

visional receptacle, in which Linneus placed all the univalve shells,
whose classification puzzled him; thus he considered the tere-
bellum to be of the same genus as ovula, bulla proper, achatina,
certain pyrule, &c., in spite of the disparity of these associations.

The terebellum has no epidermis, it is a thin, smooth shell, and
when we look at its back, appears to be irregularly notched at the
base. It most resembles the ancillaria, oliva, and conus, and has
some slight similitude to the young cypreea.

Type. Terebellum subulatum*. (Bulla terebellum. Linn.)

Shell cylindrical-subulate, thin, smooth, delicate; spire distinct ;
left lip resting on the columella. Indian Ocean. PI. v. Fig. 205.
1 Recent species, and 2 fossil.

4. Ancillaria+.

Shell oblong, subcylindrical ; spire short, not channelled at the
sutures. Aperture longitudinal. scarcely notched at the base,
effuse. A callous, oblique varix at the base of the columella.

The ancillaria has great resemblance to the oliva, but the upper
edges of the whorls of the spire rest, each respectively, against the
preceding whorl, and are not separated from it by a spiral canal,
as is the case with the olive. The callous, oblique varix, at the
base of the columella, distinguishes this genus from terebellum and
bueccinum.

The aperture of the ancillarize is longitudinal, but never extends
through the whole length of the shell. They are sea shells, and
more numerous in fossil than in recent species.

Type. Ancillaria cinnamomec tf.

Shell oblong, ventricose-cylindrical; chesnut yellow; a light
coloured or whitish band on the upper part of the whorls; colu-
mellar varix red, substriated. (Locality not given.) Pl. y. Fig. 206.
4 Recent species, and five fossil.

5. Oliva §.

Shell subcylindrical, convolute, smooth; spire short, sutures
channelled. Aperture narrow, longitudinal, and notched at the
base. Columella obliquely striated. No operculum.

* Awl-shaped, + From ancilla, a damsel. } Cinnamon colour, § Anolive.

F 2

68 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

The olivee are very smooth shells, shining, and prettily coloured,
and have no epidermis. They are distinguished from the cylin-
drical cones, by the channel which separates the whorls of the
spire, and by the strie on the columella; from voluta and mitra,
by the spiral whorls of those shells being separated by simple un-
channelled sutures. The oliva is further distinguished by a pro-
minent callus at the upper extremity of the columellar lip, which
assists in forming the channel of the spire. At the base of the
columella some vestiges of the very oblique callus of the ancillaric
appear, but those shells never have their sutures channelled, nor a
striated columella.

The shell of the oliva is rolled round the longitudinal axis, leay-
ing a void space at the place of the axis, and the last whorl so en-
velopes the rest, that only their upper portion is visible, and con-
sequently the spire is very short. The shell appears to be formed
of two separate layers of testaceous matter, like that of the cypreea,
for if we remove the exterior layer, we generally find the one be-
neath ofa different colour. Hence, during the life of the animal,
the shell is probably frequently covered by the mantle, though no
dorsal line, indicating the junction ef the lateral lobes of the mantle,
as on the cypraa, can be distinguished on the oliva.

Linneus not only did not distinguish the olive from his volute,
but even considered almost.all of them as mere varieties of one spe-
cies, viz., voluia oliva. This genus, however, is well defined by
the characters we have given above, though the discrimination be-
tween the several species is somewhat diflicult.

The olivz, are found in the seas of warm climates; the head of
the animal inhabitant is furnished with two long, pointed tentacula,
towards the middle of which, are placed its eyes. A tube, situated
above the head, conveys the water to the branchia.

Type. Oliva porphyria*. (Voluta porphyria. Linn.)

Shell large, light flesh colour, spotted with red, and adorned
with red angular lines; spire and base tinged with violet. South
American Seas. Pl. v. Figs 207. 62 Recent species, and 5 fossil.

* Of porphyry.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shelis. 69

6. Conus *.

Shell turbinated, or inversely conical, convolute. Aperture
longitudinal, narrow, not toothed, effuse at the base.

This genus is the most beautiful, extensive, and interesting of
all the spiral, unilocular univalves. It contains the most costly
and remarkable shells, whether from the regularity of their form, or
the brilliancy and variety of their colours. The most striking cha-
racter of the cones is that the whorls of the spire are, as it were,
compressed, and rolled one on another, cornet-fashion, so as to
leave only the outer whorl wholly visible, and merely the superior
margin of all the interior ones. Their general form is that of an
inverted cone, being smallest at the base, and increasing in diameter
towards the spire, which is usually short, sometimes flattened,
sometimes slightly convex, and occasionally somewhat conoidal.
The cones inhabit the seas of hot climates, at the depth of ten or
twelve fathoms: the animals of this genus breathe only by the
branchiz; their head is furnished with two tentacula, which have
eyes near their summit. The mantle is narrow, and above the
head is a tube, to convey the water which they breathe to the
branchie. The cones are all sea shells.

Type, Conus marmoreust. (Idem. Linn.)

Shell oblong, turbinated, black, with white, subtriangular spots ;
spire obtuse, crowned with tubercles ; whorls with concave chan-
nellings. Asiatic Seas. Pl. v. Fig. 208. 181 Recent species, and
9 fossil {.
Fourth Order.

CEPHALOPODA.

Mantle in form of a sac, containing the lower part of the body.
Head projecting beyond the sac, crowned with inarticulated
arms, furnished with suckers, and surrounding the mouth. Two

% A cone. + Of marble.

+ Besides the fossil species described at the end of the several genera, and
briefly noticed in the preceding pages of these extracts, Lamarck has added a
supplement, in this part of the work, containing the descriptions of many
others, which the geologist will find very useful in his researches in fossil con-

chology.

70 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

sessile eyes; two horny mandibles at the mouth; three hearts ;
sexes separate.

The cephalopoda, have been so named by M. Cuvier, because the
head of each animal is furnished with a kind of inarticulated arms,
forming a coronet round the mouth, which is terminal.

Except of the family of the sepiaria, and of the genus spirula,
we know little of the animals of the families and genera included
in this order, most of them inhabiting the great depths of the sea,
and, consequently, being beyond the reach of our observations.
From those which are known to us, we can ascertain that the
cephalopeda are the most perfect of the mollusea; their organiza-
tion is the most complicated, and most developed, and they are
in this respect, superior to the other invertebrated animals.

The body of the cephalopoda is thick and fleshy, and its lower
part contained in a muscular sac, formed by the mantle of
the animal. This mantle, closed at the posterior part, is only
open at thé upper, from which the head and a portion of the body
projects. The head is free, surrounded by a coronet of tentacular
arms, the number and size of which vary in the different genera.
Tt has at the sides two large, sessile, immoveable eyes, without
eyelids, but very complicated with regard to their humours, mem-
branes, vessels, &c. The mouth of these animals is terminal, ver-
tical, and armed with two strong horny mandibles, which are
hooked, and resemble a parrot’s bill. Lastly, the organ of hearing,
although unprovided with any external conduit, as in fishes, is dis-
tinguishable in these mollusca.

The cephalopoda are furnished with three hearts for the circula-
tion of the fluids; or, perhaps we should rather say, they have but
one heart, and two separate lateral auricles. In fact, the principal
trunk of the veins, or that which carries the blood, divides into two
branches, which convey the fluid to the lateral auricles; these send
it to the branchiz, whence it is carried to the true heart, situated
in the middle, and from thence over the whole body, by means of
the arteries.

These mollusca alllive in the sea ; some swimming about freely,
and fixing themselves to marine substances at pleasure, the others

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 71

crawling on the bottom, or along the shores, by the assistance of
their arms. Most of the latter conceal themselves amongst the
rocks, They are all carnivorous, and prey on crabs and other
marine animals. The position of their arms admirably facilitates
the conveyance of the food to the mouth, whose strong mandibles
serve to crush the hard bodies which the animal seizes on. Some
of the cephalopoda are quite naked, others inhabit a thin, unilo-
cular shell which envelopes them, and which they can cause to
float on the surface of the water: others, again, are provided witha
multilocular shell, either wholly, or in part internal.

These latter are very numerous, and singularly diversified in
regard to form; the ocean, especially at great depths, seems filled
with them, so great is the multitude of fossil multilocular shells,
met with in the older formations. With the exception of some
Species of a pretty large size, the greater part of these shells are
extremely minute.

The shells of those cephalopoda which are furnished with them,
afford but little instruction from their form, as to that of the ani-
mals which produced them. To distinguish these shells we can
only compare them with one another; and we are as yet ignorant
whether the divisions we may thus establish, will coincide with the
principal divisions we should form of the mollusca themselves, if
we had the opportunity of being better acquainted with them.

The multilocular shells of this order, are extremely remarkable
from their diversity of form, and have hitherto greatly embarrassed
naturalists in their attempts to determine the relation of the animals
which produce them, to the known conchiferous mollusca. The
manner in which these shells were formed, their connexion with the
animal, whether it inhabit the last chamber of the shell, be wholly,
or only in part contained in it, or whether the shell be more or less
completely internal, were all questions which we had no means of
determining, till MM. Sueur and Peron, brought the animal of
the spirula from New Holland.. This animal is a true cephalopoda,
and has a multilocular shell inserted in the posterior part of its
body, only a portion of the shell being visible ; hence we may con-
fidently presume that all multilocular shells, or those which are

72 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

essentially so, actually belong to cephalopodous mollusca, and are
more or less internal.

Lamarck divides the cephalopoda into three sections.

First Section. Testaceous, polythalamous cephalopoda. Shell
multilocular, subinternal.

Second Section. Testaceous, monothalamous — cephalopoda.
Shell unilocular, wholly external.

Third Section. Naked cephalopoda. No shell, either internal or
external,

Section J.
Polythalamous Cephalopoda.

Shell multilocular, wholly or partly enveloped, inserted in the
posterior part of the body of the animal, often adhering.

It appears that the shell of the polythalamous cephalopoda con-
tains the posterior part of the body of the animal, or a portion of
that part, in its last chamber ; but the shell itself is incased in the
posterior extremity of the body, and either entirely or partially
covered by it.

In the spirula, about a fourth part of the shell is visible, or
exterior to the body of the animal. In the nautilus, probably, two-
thirds of the shell are uncovered, the rest being enveloped by the
posterior part of the Cephalopoda.

The nummulites, and the other minute multilocular shells are,
on the contrary, probably wholly enveloped and hidden by the
posterior part of the animal which produces them; and, perhaps,
the same may be the case with the ammonites, although many of
those shells are of very large size.

Some of the animals of this section appear to contain their shell
without adhering to it, whilst others adhere by means of a ten-
dinous filiform ligament lodged in a sheath, which traverses the
chambers of the shell, and which increases in length in proportion
as the animal displaces the enveloped portion of its body; for, as
the animal grows, the last chamber of the shell must become too
small for the part contained in it ; it, therefore, probably withdraws
that part to some distance from the last chamber, leaving a void

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 73

space behind, and remaining stationary for a while in its new
position, forms another and a larger chamber.

This section contains seven families. The shell is multilocular,
and the margins of the chambers are simple, without any divided
sinuous sutures on the internal surface of the shell.

Ist Family.
Ortnocerata *, (5 genera.)

Shell straight, or nearly so; no spiral.

The shells of this family, as its name denotes, are straight, or
only very slightly curved, and consist of an elongated, testaceous
envelope, containing a similarly elongated nucleus. When the
envelope is solid at the upper part, so that the nucleus does not
reach its summit, they are easily separated from each other. The
chambers of the nucleus are simple, and generally perforated.
Most of the shells of this family are unknown except in the
fossil state.

1. Belemnites +.

Shell straight, elongated-conical, formed of two distinct and
separable parts; viz.

The external, a solid sheath, full at the upper part, with a
conical cavity ;

The internal, a conical nucleus, pointed, chambered transversely
through its whole length, multilocular; chambers slightly concave
on one side, and convex on the other, and perforated by a central
siphon.

The belemnites, which are only found fossil, and generally
empty, or without the nucleus, are merely the sheath of an
elongated-conical mass, uot adhering, chambered, and furnished
with a siphon like the orthocera and hippurites. The form of the
sheath is that of a long cone, more or less pointed at the summit,
and it often has a shallow lateral groove; its upper part is solid,
whilst the lower has a conical cavity, which contains the multilo-
cular nucleus.

Type. Belemnites subconicat. (Nautilus belemnita. Gmel.)

* From 245, straight, and xegasz, a horn
+ From fercs, unde Beasravey, a dart, $ Subconical.

74 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

Shell semicylindrical at the lower part; the upper part attenuated,
conical. Fossil—common in limestone, gc. Pl. vi. Fig. 209.
2 Species *. (This figure shews the slender process at the apex of
the cone, mentioned in the note below; Fig. 209 is a representa-
tion of another, and rarer species, B. mamillata.)

2. Orthocera.
Shell elongated, straight, or slightly curved, subconical, striated

* In the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, for 1893, isa very
interesting paper by Thomas Allan, Esq., on the “ Formation of the Chalk
Strata and Structure of the Belemnite,” to which we refer the reader for niuch
valuable information respecting this curious fossil. Amongst other particulars
mentioned by Mr. Allan, and which we wish our limits did not forbid us to
quote more in detail, he observes that, ‘‘ The form of the belemnite is that of
a cylinder, terminated at one end with a conical point, furnished with a slender
process of about a quarter of un inch in length ; but it isonly when the belemnite
has been enclosed in flint that this delicate member has been preserved.’’—
* This process proceeds from the apex of the cone, to that of the belemmnite.’—** In
composition, the belemnites, whether enclosed in lime-stone, fliut, clay, or
sand-stone, is uniformly formed of crystallized carbonate of lime, striated and
fadiating to the circumference, from a lime which passes from the apex of the
alveolus to that of the fossil.’’—** A structure quite different from tliat of other
calcareous fossils, which are formed in general of the common rhomboidal
carbonate ;” and, ‘* which appears to have been dependent on some internal
organization.” —** On this account we may, perhaps, he allowed to consider
the belemnite as unaltered.” Mr. Allan dissected several belemnites imbedded
in flint, from Ireland, hy means of acid, and found them intersected by minute
siliceous cylinders, having exactly the form and appearance of arteries, and
connected with eacli other and with that portion of the cone which remained,
by means of smaller fibres representing veins, and affording the most striking
resemblance to an injected anatomical preparation.” Others, when the
calcareous matter was removed, exhibited “ small, irreguiar, globular masses,
éntangled in “‘ lace-like work,” and in otliers, again, the flint presented an
appearance “ which may, perhaps, be best compared to the ovarium of some
animal.” Mr. Allan decides nothing as to the mode by which the siliceous
matter may have been introduced into the fossil. Perhaps they may be worm-
holes filled np with the flint ;—‘ the great dissimilarity among the specimens
seems to preclude the possibility of attributing their structure to organization,
however strongly some of them may resemble it.’ The slender process,
however, projecting from the apex of the concamerated cone to that of the
belemnite, appears to be uniform; and, perhaps, the ‘‘ anatomist may find in
the threads by which the rounded masses (in the ovarium-like specimens) are
connected, more uniformity than could be attributed to the accidental per-
forations of a worm.” These various appearances are beautifully represented
in two plates annexed to this valuable communication,

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 75

externally by numerous longitudinal ribs. Chambers formed by
transverse septa, perforated by a central or marginal tube.

The orthocera is a very small marine shell, resembling a straight
or slightly arched horn; the subcentral siphon which traverses the
interior transyerse septa, often projects at each extremity of the
shell, or only at one end. These small shells are found, with
many others, in the sand on the shores of the Mediterranean.

Type. Orthocera raphanus*. (Nautilus raphanus. Linn.)

Shell straight, elongated-conical, articulated; articulations
torose ; siphon sublateral. Shores of the Mediterranean. PI. vi.
Fig. 210. 6 Species.

3. Nodosaria +t.

Shell elongated, straight or slightly arched, subconical, nodular;
nodules globular, very smooth. Chambers formed by transverse
septa, perforated in the centre or near the margin.

The nodosaria differs from the orthocera by having only smooth;
globular nodules on the external surface, without the small longi-
tudinal ribs which give the latter shell a channelled appearance.

Type. Nodosaria radiculat. (Nautilus radicula. Linn.)

Shell straight, oblong-attenuated ; articulations globular, smooth;
siphon sublateral. Adriatic. Pl. vi. Fig. 211. 3 Species.

4, Hippurites §.

Shell tubular, cylindrico-conical, straight or slightly curved,
thick, multilocular; septa transverse. An internal lateral canal
formed by two longitudinal, obtuse, converging edges. The last
chamber closed by a thick, solid operculum ; edges of the opercus
lum bevelled, and accurately adjusted to the erifice of the chamber.

Some hippurites have a siphon which traverses the septa from
end to end, without communicating at all with the chambers of
the tube; in others, the siphon is replaced by a lateral canal some-~
times hollow, but most commonly filled by the same septa that
tvaverse the cavity of the tube; others, again, have both the siphon
and canal. Those with the canal are always thicker than the

* Aradish. + From nodus, a knot.
¢ Alittle root. § From Hippuris, the herb called mare’s tail?

76 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

others. These shells are only known in the fossil state, and were
discovered in the Pyrenees, by the late M. Picot de la Peyrouse.

Type. Hippurites rugosa *.

Shell cylindrical, attenuated, very thick, transversely rugose ;
base truncated; a double pit in the truncation. Fossil, from the
Pyrenees. PI. vi. Fig. 212.

5. Conilites t.

Shell conical, straight, slightly bent; sheath thin, distinct from
the contained nucleus. Nucleus subseparable, multilocular,
divided by transverse septa.

The conilites appears to differ from the belemnites, principally
in not having the upper portion of the sheath, or external shell,
elongated and solid, (in consequence of the termination of the
cavity for the nucleus before it reaches the summit,) as in those
shells. The nucleus seems also to be less easily separated from
the sheath than that of the belemnites.

One species. Conilites pyramidatat.

Shell conico-pyramidai; lower face concave. Fossil, Coast of
Britany. Pl. vi. Fig. 213.

2d Family.
Lirvotata, (3 genera.)

Shell partly spiral; the last whorl straight.

The lituolata are multilocular shells, of a spiral form, but the
last whorl terminates in a straight line. The transverse septa,
which form the chambers, are generally traversed by a siphon,
which is interrupted before it reaches the succeeding septum, The
whorls which form the spiral are, sometimes, distant from one
another, leaving a remarkable space between them; sometimes
they are quite close together; in either case, the last always ends
in astraight line. Some have the last septum pierced with from
three to six holes, as if their siphon were compound.

1. Spirula §.

Shell cylindrical, thin, almost transparent, white or pear! colour,

multilocular, partly twisted into a discoidal spiral; whorls distant

* Rugose. + From conus, 4 cone:
} Pyramidal, § A little spire.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 77

from one another, the last produced in a straight line. Septa
transverse, placed at equal distances from each other, externally
concave; siphon lateral, interrupted. Aperture orbicular.

The animal of the spirula, which was brought with its shell,
from the South Seas by M. Peron, is a true cephalopoda, The
posterjor part of the body is enveloped by a sac, the anterior
projects beyond it, and the head sustains six arms, disposed like
a coronet, round the mouth, two of which are longer than the rest.
At the posterior end of the sac, is an incased shell, only a portion
of whose last whorl is uncovered and visible. In consequence of
this important discovery, Lamarck thinks himself justified in as-
suming that all the multilocular shells, belong to the cephalopoda.

One Species. Spirula Peronii*. (Nautilus Spirula, Linn.) ©

The diameter of the disc of the shell seldom exceeds an inch.
No further description. South Seas. Pl. vi. Fig. 214.

2. Spirolinites.

Shell multilocular, partly twisted into a discoidal spiral; whorls
contiguous, the last terminating in a straight line. Septa trans-
verse, perforated by a tube.

Distinguished from spirula by the contiguity of the whorls. Only
known in the fossil state; very small shells ; the straight part of the
last whorl, bears a considerable proportion to the spiral part. Some
species have only an incipient spiral at the summit, the rest of the
shell being straight; others are quite straight, like certain indivi-
duals of the genus orthocera; in some the shell is flattened, in
others cylindrical. In all, the septa form little external projections,
which divide the spiral tranversely, as by so many separate ribs or
strie. The siphon, which traverses the septa and chambers, is very
distinct, notwithstanding the smallness of the shell.

Type. Spirolinites cylindracea +.

Shell straight, curved at the apex only; aperture orbicular.
Fossil, Grignon. Pl. vi. Fig. 215. 2 Species.

3. Lituolites f.
Shell multilocular, partly twisted into a discoidal spiral ; whorls

* Peron’s, t Cylindrical. t From lituus, a crooked trumpets

78 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

contiguous, the last terminating in a straight line. Chambers ir-
regular, septa transverse, simple (no siphon); the last septum
pierced with from three to six holes.

Small fossil shells; the septa, which form the chambers, are at
unequal distances, and inclined to one another; some species have
scarcely one complete turn of the spiral. ry

Type. Lituolites nautiloidea *.

Shell discoidal, caudate, ribbed; last septum with six or fewer
foramina. Fossil, Meudon, PI. vi. Fig. 216. 2 Species.

3rd Family.
Cristata. (3 Genera.)

Shell semi-discoidal; spire excentric.

The cristata, are flattened, multilocular, shells, almost reniform,
or crested; the chambers gradually lengthen as they approach the
exterior, arched border, and appear to turn partly round an ex-
centric, more or less marginal, axis.

1. Renulites+.

Shell reniform, flattened, furrowed, multilocular; chambers
linear, contiguous, curved round a marginal axis, those farthest
from the axis, the longest.

The form of these fossil shells is very remarkable. The chambers
are contiguous, unilateral, narrow, linear, curved into a portion of
a circle, all disposed in one plane in such a manner that the
first, or smallest, forms a little arc round a marginal axis, or
centre; all the other chambers are’placed on the same side as the
first, whence there results a flat, reniform, furrowed shell, having
its axis situated on the margin opposite to the convex part of the
chambers.

One species. Renulites opercularis t.

Shell semilunar, very flat ; furrows arched, concentric. Fossil,
Grignon, PI. vi. Fig. 217.

2. Cristellaria §.
Shell semi-discoidal, multilocular; whorls contiguous, simple,

* Nautilus-like. + From Ren, the kidney.
t Opercular, i. e., resembling an operculum,
§ From crista, a crest, or tuft,

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 79

progressively increasing in size. Spire excentric, sublateral. Septa
imperforate.

Most of the cristellariz, are flattened, crest-shaped shells, their
septa are visible externally; the chambers are elongated, subra-~
diated, of the whole breadth of the whorl which contains them,
and have an excentric, almost lateral axis.

Type. Cristellaria squammula *.

No further description. Pl. vi. Fig. 218. 9 Species, all recent.

3. Orbiculinat.

Shell subdiscoidal, multilocular: whorls contiguous and com-
pound; spire excentric; chambers short, very numerous; septa
imperforate.

The chambers of the orbiculina seem to be of two kinds, they
traverse each other, and render the whorls, as it were, compound.
Most of the species of this genus are flattened, or compressed.
The aperture is narrow, in the form of an arched, transverse fissure,
and appears common to the chambers of the last row.

Type. Orbiculina numismalis f.

No further description. Pl. vi. Fig. 219. 3 Species, all recent.
[To be concluded. ]

Arr. VII. On an Arenaceo-calcareous Substance found near
Delvine in Perthshire. By J. Mac Culloch, M.D,. F.R.S.

Tue present notice relates to a substance hitherto undescribed ;
still limited, as far as I know, to the spot named in the title, and
possessing some resemblance to an object well known to minera-
logists, the arenaceo-calcareous spar of Fontainebleau.

The present course of the Tay through the plain of Stormount
is accompanied by high terraces of rolled stones, gravel, and sand,
the ruins of the mountains from which it traces its many-headed
origin, and the remains of an alluvial plain, through which it is
still deepening its way, leaving these deserted records of its cor-
rosiye power.

* From sguama, a scale. t From orbieulus, a litile ord.
+ From numisma, a piece of money.

80 On an Arenaceo-calcareous Substance.

These terraces stand at various altitudes above the present bed
of the river; according to the different periods of time at which the
water, once effecting its descent to a lower stage, abandoned the
surface on which it had last flowed. At the point here to be
described, they appear to reach to about sixty feet.

At this place, as in most others, they present an aggregation of
rolled pebbles of various sizes, accompanied by a few angular
fragments, which seem to have undergone a less distant trans-
portation, and succeeded by coarse gravel and siliceous sand ;
the larger materials being, as usual, predominant towards the
bottom, and the smaller at the top. As the river is at present
impelled against the foot of this bank, it exhibits a recent section
resulting from the constant waste it experiences ; the surface of
the declivity being frequently renewed »y the losses which the mass
undergoes from the occasionally increased state of the stream.

The upper and flat surface of this bank is an extensive and cul-
tivated plain, nor is any rock to be seen for a considerable space ;
the alluvial soil covering the subjacent strata in most places to the
depth already described, and the river not having as yet reached
them any where in the immediate vicinity of the spot in question.

The fundamental rock, thus far below the site of the present
appearance, is the red sandstone which succeeds the primary
country of the Highlands at Birnam, and extends, with the excep-
tion of trap and its congenerous rocks only, far to the southward.
There is no appearance of limestone in the vicinity, nor are any
fragments of this substance obvious among the transported
materials, although there is little reason to doubt that such exist
in the soil. c

In examining the sandy bank, thin and indurated lamine are
seen interposed among the loose materials, protruding to a small
distance, and, in consequence of their superior tenacity, resisting
the: action of the stream and that of their own weight, On di-
vesting them of the loose sand in which they are enveloped, they
are found to present a great variety of stalactitic forms, generally
more or less complicated, and often exceedingly intricate and
strange. The two simplest modifications that occur, may be con-

On an Arenaceo-calcareous Substance. 8]

sidered as the elements of all these capricious appearances ; the
one consisting of a conical concretion, and the other of a lenticular
one, analogous to the stalactite and stalagmite of mineralogists.
These, combined and modified in different ways, produce the
several varieties of form that are found in this place.

‘These concretions are formed of carbonate of lime, containing
sand united by that cement, in the same manner as it occurs in the
Fontainebleau spar. It appears difficult at first sight to account
for the stalactitic shape, since these concretions are neither formed
in cavities nor in a perpendicular position. ‘They lie, on the con-
trary, in a direction but little inclined to the horizon, and are ge-
nerated in the midst of the sandy stratum. It seems equally
difficult to account for the presence of the carbonate of lime; but
it is natural to suppose that water saturated with that substance
finds its way through fissures or intervals in different parts of the
bank; although it is not easy to conjecture whence it originates.
It would naturally be imagined that the calcareous solution thus
trickling through the sand, should diffuse and lose itself so as to
form with it a loose admixture; or else thus consolidate the parts
within its reach into a calcareous sandstone. But it is not un-
likely that this partial formation is determined, in some measure,
by the innumerable surfaces of the sand, already perhaps contain-
ing calcareous particles, and offering bases on which the earth
in the solution is quickly deposited by a species of crystallization,
thus checking that diffusion. The rudiment of a stalactite, once
formed, serves perhaps as a conductor to the fluid, which is thus,
by a continuation of the same process, enabled to prolong these
concretions, in some cases, even to the length of three feet. This
explanation, however, does not apply to the lenticular stalagmite
and its modifications; nor am I at present able to explain how
this appearance, which, in ordinary cases, results from the diffu-
sion of successive drops falling on an exposed surface, should here
occur in a close mass of sand. I must add that there is no ap-
parent difference in the position of the two modifications ; both
being found confusedly together, and without that mutual relation

which occurs in the common concretions of this nature: and I
Vou. XVI. G

82 On. an Arenaceo-calcareous Substance.

may also add that the purer forms are as accurate as those found
in caverns: the stalactite being a perfect prolonged cone, and the
stalagmite a thin and round flat cake.

The fractured. surface of the specimens varies; evidently in con-
sequence of the greater or less quantity of sand entering into the
composition, and of variations in the fineness of its particles. It
is rarely so distinctly laminar as even those specimens of Fon-
tainebleau spar which are most charged with sand; and, in general,
it is so much like an ordinary sandstone that the presence of the
calcareous ingredient would not be suspected. As such indeed it
was originally sent to me, being supposed a corroded specimen of
sandstone, of which an internal structure was detected by the usual
causes of wasting. .

{t is perhaps of little use to state the relative proportions of
the ingredients, which are moreover subject to variations ; but the
average of the specimens I examined gaye 60 parts of sand in 100
of the stalactite.

Considering the crystalline arrangement of the carbonate of lime,
as indicated by the platy fracture of the specimens, and the ana-
logous circumstances under which the mineral of Fontainebleau is
found, it might have been expected that geometric forms should
also be found with the rest in the sand banks of this spot. None
such have, however, yet been discovered ; and the resemblance re-
mains confined to the composition and internal structure. The
present appearance can therefore only be considered as an analogy ;
an instance of the possibility, as that is of the actual existence,
of a compounded crystal, in which the presence of a foreign-body
does not impede the crystalline tendency of the crystallizable im-
gredient, although the latter is so much inferior in quantity to the
intruding material. It is probable that with a general resemblance
in both cases, namely, the presence of a calcareous solution in a
mass of sand, there is an essential difference, in’ one particular,
between the circumstances under which the crystal of Fontainebleau
and the stalactite of Delvine are formed. From general principles,
we should conclude, that, in the former, the mixture of the sand
and the solution was preserved in a constant semifluid state, fresh

On an Arenaceo-calcareous Substance. 83

calcareous matter succeeding as the first was deposited, so as to
permit a slow arrangement of the carbonate of lime ; while, in the
latter, we are certain that the precipitation of this salt is hurried
by the rapid flow and absorption of the percolating fluid. In the
ordinary stalactite of caverns, the same effect results from the
rapid evaporation of the water, and from the mechanical descent
of that part of the solution which has not had time to deposit its
contents in its passage downward. ‘This opinion is supported by
the situation in which the Fontainebleau crystal is found, namely,
the fissures of a sandstone; in which it is easy to conceive that
state of things which I have here suggested. The occasional
variations that occur in this substance still farther confirm this
view. Mineralogists will immediately perceive that I allude to
that case in which the crystal consists partly of an arenaceous and
partly of a pure carbonate of lime. Here, it is probable, that the
fluid has so far prevailed in the fissure as to overtop the sandy
mixture, thus admitting the continuation of the arrangement from
the mixed to the pure part of the solution. It is probable that
there would not be much difficulty in putting this suggestion to’
the test of experiment ; by filling with sand those pools in the
Spar Cave of Sky, in which, as I have shewn in another place,
(Western Islands,) the formation of caleareous spar takes place.
The appearances now described will serve to illustrate another
circumstance occurring, not very unfrequently, in sand, in different
parts of England. The substances in question are found, among
other places, in the sand that lies above the fossil bones of Norfolk ;
and they have been ranked, improperly, with organic remains.—
They consist of long cylinders, or tubes, of different dimensions,
sometimes formed of one crust or layer, at others of more; in
which latter cases partial cavities sometimes occur between the
layers, On analysis, they will be found, like the stalactites of
Delvine, to be composed of sand agglutinated by carbonate of
ime; or rather they must be considered as calcareous stalactites
entangling sand. ‘The calcareous ingredient is often, however,
distinctly visible in these ; forming a lamina among the successive
coats, in which the crystalJine particles are seen radiating from
G 2

84 Process of Reproduction of the

the centre of the cylinder or tube. The same explanation evidently
applies to these, as to the stalactites of Delvine. With respect to
the central cavity, it is analogous to that which so often occurs in
ordinary calcareous stalactites, and presents no further difficulties.

I may add respecting these, that as the sand is generally fer-

ruginous, they are commonly of a brown colour and much charged *
with the -ust of iron.

Arr. VIII. On the Process of Reproduction of the Members

of the Aquatic Salamander. By Tweedy John Todd, M.D.,
F.R.M.S.E., &c.

Sxcrion lst. Description of the Process in general.

THE reproduction of the members of the Aquatic Salamander
may, perhaps, be better understood by considering it as consisting of
three distinct subordinate processes, viz., of growth, organization,
and increase. That of growth may be described as the production
of a homogeneous substance, of the nature of coagulable lymph, of
the form, but of a much smaller size, than the original member ;
that of organization, as the conversion of this substance into the
different structures, which naturally constitute the member ; and
that of increase, as its slow and gradual progress to the size of the
original part.
When the limbs of the salamander are removed, the phenomena
of inflammation and its terminations present themselves as in all
the other vertebral animals ; nor until the cicatrix is completely
formed can any difference be observed in either case, except that
the extremity of the stump, which in other animals tapers and
assumes a conical form, in this becomes enlarged and bulbous,
This swelling of the stump generally. precedes the formation of the
cicatrix, It, however, sometimes coincides with it, and very rarely
follows it. Ihave observed, when the cicatrization is protracted,
the swelling of the stump precedes the cicatrix a considerable
time, as much as fourteen days, and, when it is accelerated, they
generally take place together. In some rare cases the tumefaction

Members of the Aquatic Salamander. 85

of the stump continues after the growth has been nearly finished.
Except this appearance, which I have been led to regard as a sure
indication of future reproduction, no sign of it is ever to be observed
until after the perfect healing of the wound; and any cause, acci-
dental or intentional, which obstructs it, impedes also the produc-
tion of the new member.

This bulbous form of the stump is proved by dissection to arise
entirely from nicknamed vascularity.

A short time after the cicatrix is formed, varying from one
day to six, a red projecting point is observed on its central part
from which the cuticle seems to have been absorbed. This
point is soft, and bleeds on being pressed. Its surface is moist
and glistening, secretes a glutinous fluid, which adheres to the
fingers on being touched. It is surrounded by a groove formed
by the cuticle of the cicatrix being elevated above the level of its
bone, in the form of a collar. The microscope discovers this spot
to be a reticulated cluster of red vessels, which have protruded
through the cicatrix. I have sometimes doubted whether ‘there
was a real protrusion, or whether a point of the cicatrix presented
that appearance, but the constant observation of the collar-like
elevation does not warrant any such doubt. In two or three days
more, generally about six from the period of cicatrization, this
red spot becomes a conoid protuberance, the base of which is of
a transparent grey colour, but the point is still covered with the
red vascular spot. Examination shews this cone to be composed
of a transparent grey homogeneous matter, soft and semi-consis-
tent, resembling coagulable lymph, or animal gluten, covered with
a thin filmy membrane. This cone continues to elongate, and the
red point gradually disappears sooner or later, according to the
extent of the joint which is first to be restored. The usual. time
is about twelve days from the period o {cicatrization, when the new
growth is generally about a line and a halfin length. Butif.a very
small part of the joint has been amputated, the red spot disap-
pears much earlier, and the elevation of the new growth is hardly
perceptible, for this and the stump together bear always a constant
yatio to the length of the original joint, generally as two to. three,

86 Process of Reproduction of the

so that if little more than one-third has been removed, there is
no more new growth than what is sufficient to complete the ratio.

When the growth of the first joint is completed, the vascular
spot entirely disappears. The new growth at this period is irre-
gularly conical in form, and presents all the other appearances just
described. Its base is circumscribed by a red border, indicating
the seat of numerous red vessels. The extreme point seems
almost devoid of cuticle, or covering, but that of the base ap-
proaches, in some degree, the natural skin.

During two or three days more, generally about fifteen from the
period of cicatrization, the new growth ceases to increase in length,
but seems to acquire more consistence, gradually beginning to be
converted into the different structures of the limb. The extremity
is less pointed, and rather enlarged and bulbous. Its point is flat,
and the circumference rises above the central part, which is not
shining and moist, uncovered by membrane, and studded with
vascular spots, which bleed on being touched, like the granula-
tions of a wound, to which they may in many respects be properly
compared. This is the commencement of the growth of the second
joint of the extremity, and is an exact repetition of the process
observed in the growth of the first. ue

The new growth, however, does not shoot forward in the line of
the axis of the first joint, but forms an obtuse angle with it.

The growth of this joint generally occupies about seven days,
and is finished about the twenty-first after cicatrization, at which
time the new extremity has acquired about four lines in length,
always, however, depending on the length of the original limb. ©

At this time also the site of the angle is observed to form a
narrow neck-like depression, the incipient formation of the second
articulation.

The new growth of the second joint is less round and more flat
than that of the first, and it bears a less proportion to the size of
the second joint than the new growth of the first does to its ori+
ginal. Itis seldom a line in length.

About this period the point of the new growth is observed to be
flattened and a vascular line is seen upon it, from which soon

Members of the Aquatic Salamander. 87

arises a flattened conoid projection, the rudiment of the foot.
This last growth occupies about three days, and seldom exceeds
half a line in length, this bearing still less proportion to the part
of the original member which it represents.

A day or two after the growth of the foot is completed, all when

the stump and new growth together are equal in length to the
original first joint, two vascular spots are observed in the extremity
of the new member, from which two kuobs, the rudiments of the
phalanges of the second and third toes, soon push forward. In a day
or two more appear inthe same manner, in succession, those of the
first, fourth, and fifth, according as it may be the anterior or pos-
terior extremity. This process is repeated at certain intervals,
until the growth of all the phalanges is terminated, but of the same
diminutive size as the other parts of the new extremity. ‘This sel-
dom occurs before the fiftieth day from the date of the cicatrix.
» About the sixtieth day the whole length of the new growth and
stump together is equal to only half of the original limb, the stump |
and new growth of the first joint being about two-thirds the length
_of the original one, the leg about three-fifths, the foot about one-
third, and the toes about one-sixth, the diameter of the leg about
one-half that of the original one, and the breadth of the foot about
one-third,

Whilst the growth of the lower joints is taking place, the pro-
_cess of organization is going on in the superior ones, so that when
the growth of the second joint is completed, the first has acquired.
-a-certain degree of firmness to give it support. About forty days
from the period of cicatrization, we find more than two-thirds of
the first joint occupied by a solid and central part. This central
part is an elastic substance, resembling cartilage in appearance.

It is transparent, except in some points towards the superior end
where a cloudy white deposit is observable. Surrounding this
_some fibrous structure like muscular is to be seen, and the re-
mainder, except the cutis, which is nearly organized at an earlier
period, about the forty-third day, is of a soft gelatinous nature.
In the new growth neither the trunks of the blood-vessels nor the

88 Process of Reproduction of the

nerves can be discovered, although the minute ramifications of both
are visible. eh ed 8D

About the fiftieth day dissection shews that the trunk of the
original nerve terminates abruptly at the new growth, and branches
of fibrous matter appear to radiate from its extremity, which is
considerably swollen and expanded. It appears as it were a new
growth. The limb is striated with red vessels, presenting the
appearance of a tortuous congeries in the course of the original
trunks. The original muscles seem continued by new ones into
the new structure, and the new limb is already used in Joco-
motion. Though the external form of the articulation seems natu-
ral, its internal structure cannot be accurately distinguished.
Beneath the first articulation, the new growth, with the ex-
ception of its coming, consists almost entirely of a homogeneous
glutinous substance. Tob

About sixty days from the period of cicatrization, the first and
second joints are perfectly organized, although the new growths of
the toes continue soft and glutinous. At this period also all the
partial motions of the first and second joints are observed. The
old and new bones are united together by callous, resembling the
union of a fracture. Even at this period the trunk of the nerve
does not extend into the new member, but terminates at its com-
mencement. .

The process of organization proceeds in the other joints in'Sue-
cession, but is not completed in all before the hundredth day.

The process of increase is much slower than that of the two
preceding ones. It commences in every one as soon as their
organization is finished, but the period in which it is itself com-
pleted is so indefinite, depending so much on the season of the
year, it is difficult to assign it any particular term. It, however,
seldom takes place at any time within less than a year.

The reproduction of the tail, though appearing to differ from,
follows the same process of growth as that of the limbs. As in
that case no growth takes place until after cicatrization, and it is
preceded by the yascular structure, only of a different form, "The

Members of the Aquatic Salamander. 89

bulbous enlargement of the stump is, however, certainly much less
sensible.

_ After cicatrization, which is often very tedious, arising from the
exfoliation of the vertebre, the new growth makes its appearance,
preceded by a longitudinal vascular spot. The new growth is a
flat triangular projection, the base of which is less than the breadth
of the stump. It is perfectly soft and flexible, and of a transpa-
rent colour, except at its edges, which are striated with red
vessels.

Although the growth takes place as well from the sides as the
apex of the triangle, its increase in breadth does not keep pace
with its increase in length. Thus, when it has acquired four lines,
the base of the new production is only about five-sixths the breadth
of the stump, presenting the form of an isosceles triangle, a mini-
ature of the original tail.

As soon as the new growth of the tail, which takes place much
more rapidly than that of the limbs, is about four lines in length,
a triangular opacity is observed, projecting into it from the stump.
This is the rudiments of the spine, which, together with the forma-
tion of the cutis, is the beginning of the process of organization,

The new growth of the tail bears a much greater proportion to
the original size than the new growth of the limbs. The process
of organization is much sooner completed, and that of increase
requires a much shorter period. In the course of two months from
the period of cicatrization, the new tail can with difficulty be dis-
tinguished from the original one.

The processes of reproduction in the larva of the salamander,
are exactly the same as in the perfect animal, except that they
commence sooner, and are sooner completed.

Secrion 2d. Variations of the Process, &c.

It is a most difficult task, and, I may almost say, a fruitless one,
to endeayour to induce any derangement in the process of repro-
duction. Itis, however, a pleasing one to observe the new means
by which nature is ever prepared to adapt herself to every new
circumstance and exigency,

90 Process.of Reproduction of the

If, instead of astraightline, the amputation be made in an oblique
one, the new growth instead of commencing in one point and’ one
projection, commences at the same moment in two separate ones.
But the growth of the superior, or proximal, one, goes on in a
ratio so much greater than the other, it soon overtakes it, thus
speedily correcting the obliquity. These’ separate growths united
together at their bases, soon form one, and the process of repro-
duction is continued in the usual manner. It is worthy of remark,
that when this occurs in the reproduction of the tail, the new
growth does not assume its pointed triangular form, until the two
separate growths are united together.

When instead of a simple obliquity, the amputation is aindsi so
as to leave a bifurcated stump, which is easily done in amputation
of the tail, the new growth does not arise from the sides of the
fork, but from its angle, in the form of a triangular projection,
which is gradually united to them.

When, however, the method of amputation is reversed, and the
stump is spear-shaped, separate growths take place from each
side of the point; and, as soon as they are on a level with each
other, the process proceeds in the usual manner.

It would seem that the reproduction of any of the members may
be repeated, ad infinitum ; for, as far as I have observed, I have
never known any limit to it. Whether the second amputation be
made during the process of growth, organization, or increase, the
secondary reproductions observe the same laws as the primary one,
except that the nearer the amputation is made to the period of
growth, when the structure is most simple, the cicatrization is
quicker, and the growth takes place in a shorter period.

The process of reproduction is much influencea by the season of
the year. In the months of April, May, and June, it is compa-
ratively slow in its progress. It proceeds with the greatest rapi-
dity in the month of August, the period of greatest general vigour.

The reproduction does not appear in any way materially af-
fected by the animal being in spawn, nor does the privation of food,
which these animals are able to support for a considerable time,
in any sensible way interfere with the process.

Member's of the Aquatic Salamander. 91

It would seem, also, that whether one or all the members are
to be reproduced at the same time, the process goes on with equal
rapidity.

It was natural to inquire whether reproduction was a property
possessed generally by the other parts of this animal, or whether
it was strictly confined to those members in which it has been de-
scribed. The results of my researches only warrant me in stat-
ing, that this power is possessed by the extremities, the tail, the
lower jaw, and the crest of the male. I have looked for it in vain
in the eyes, although I have watched the changes in the part for a
very considerable time after cicatrization. I have never observed
it in any of the internal organs; nor have I been satisfied that it
takes place in the bronchi of the young animal. When any
other parts of the body, except those capable of reproduction, are
removed, the healing process proceeds as in other animals, leaving
a cicatrice, unequal and depressed, which is never obliterated.

It was also an object of my researches to discover whether re-
production commenced in any particular structure in preference to
the others. To these inquiries I have always received a negative
answer, leading me to conclude, that the reproducing vessels are
contributed by all the structures. This, however, was not the case
when the inquiry was pursued conyersely, so as to determine the
influence of the arterial and nervous system on the growth of the
new production, As relates to the former, my observations were
less conclusive and satisfactory, but concerning the latter, per-
fectly conclusive.

If the sciatic nerve be intersected at the time of amputation,
that part of the stump below the section of the nerve mortifies, re-
production following the cicatrix in the usual manner. If the di-
vision of the nerve be made after the healing of the stump, repro-=
duction is either retarded or entirely prevented. And if the nerve
be divided after reproduction has commenced, or considerably ad-
vanced, the new growth either remains stationary, or it wastes,
becomes shrivelled and shapeless, or entirely disappears. This
derangement cannot, in my opinion, be fairly attributed to the vas-
cular derangement inducedin the limb by the wound of the divi-

92 Process of Reproduction of the

sion, but must arise from something peculiar in the influence of the
nerve. I must, however, observe the same uniform influence was
not observed in every part. The intersection of the spinal marrow
at the origin of the tail had no power of checking its repro-
duction.

Srection 3d. Comparison of the Process of Reproduction in dif=
Serent Animals possessing this power.

In reasoning on the phenomena of reproduction, the compari-
son of this process, in the different animals endued with it, natu-
rally presents itself to the mind as a method by which further
knowledge of the process may be obtained.

In the tadpoles of the frog and toad the process is precisely the
same as in the lava of the salamander. But except in the repro-
duction of the tail, which is both constant and vigorous, it is very
uncertain in its extent, and strictly confined to certain states of
developement, the absorption of the tail distinctly marking the
period when the power is entirely lost. It is, however, curious to
observe to how near the moment of metamorphosis the reproduc-
tion of the tail continues. '

I have ascertained that the reproduction of the tail of the lizard
is effected by the same process as that of the salamander, and, {
should think, from what may be collected from Reaumur’s obser-
vations, it is probably the same in the crayfish and its species.
In the snail I have also every reason to believe the same process is
observed.

From the very interesting experiments of my ingenious friend,
Professor San Giovani, of Naples, I am authorized to conclude,
that although the reproduction of the earth-worm presents some
specific differences, yet the general process is the same. I am
entirely indebted to his liberality for the following account of it.
When earth-worms are divided at the lower edge of their great
ring, if they survive the injury, which they generally do three in
twenty times, the separate parts gradually diminish in circumfer-
ence, the wounds cicatrize, and the cicatrix, which is of a bright
red colour, is surrounded by a round projecting band, (bourrelet.)

Members of the Aquatic Salamander. 93

In the anterior half, reproduction goes onrapidly, for in twenty-four
days from the beginning of the experiment, four or six of its rings
are already reproduced in all about four or five lines in length.
As soon as reproduction commences, the round projecting band
ceases to be observed. The new production is transparent, of a
clear reddish colour, and of the same size and diameter as the
rest of the body. The anus is perfectly formed, and the parts of
the vessels, nerves, and alimentary canal belonging to the new
growth, can be observed, as well as the lateral filaments distri-
buted by pairs to each of the newrings. The great ring, it
is worthy of remark, entirely disappears during reproduction.
The process continues to proceed in the same manner, though
with less rapidity, being apparently much influenced by the season
of the year. Two hundred and thirteen days from the commence-
ment of the experiment the anterior halves have each repro-
duced twenty-five or twenty-six rings, the new growth becoming
gradually redder, less transparent, and more perfectly orga-
nized. Their diameter is every where equal, as well in the new
part as the old, so that the new tail continues conical instead of
being flattened as in the original.

The process of reproduction is much slower in the posterior
halves. They preserve a healthy and well nourished appearance,
their anterior extremity cicatrizes and tapers very much, becoming
more pointed, and appearing to assume the form of a head; not,
however, until fifty-five days from the beginning of the experi-
ment can the new growth be distinctly perceived, when only three
or four new rings are observed at the anterior extremity, their
termination, the seat of the head assuming a pointed conical
form, approaching nearer that of the natural head. Two hundred
and thirteen days from the beginning of the experiment the pos-
terior halves have each reproduced five or six rings, and the head
in appearance, (for it does not appear that its real organization
was determined by dissection,) only differs from the natural one
in being more obtuse and less tapered.

Thus, from the division of those worms, Professor San Giovani

94 Process of Reproduction of the

obtained six perfect ones, which he submitted to the inspection of
the Royal Academy of Naples, in May; 1815.

We here observe, as in the salamander, the bulbous enlarge-
ment of the stump, the red vascular structure, the first growth of
a transparent appearance, and its gradual transition to a more
perfect structure. It is also probable, that had the observations
been made more minutely, and more in relation to the process,
the resemblance would have been found more exact.

The specific differences which the case affords are the diminu-
tion in diameter of the original part, and the new growth at onee
of the same size, as also the early organization of the alimen-
tary canal, the nerves, and vessels. i

The disappearance of the great ring, or renflement, the organ
of copulation, is a fact both curious and interesting, although only
in unison with the general economy of nature.

This general resemblance, which we find in the process in the,
above-mentioned animals, can, however, with no reason be ex-
pected in the polypi, whose nutrition is carried on without any
vascular system. This difference of structure and functions
would only make the prosecution of this comparison, through this
order of animals, more useful and necessary. But whatever may
be the difference of the process in the different classes of animals,
it is very obvious that the power of reproduction itself, though
more common in the lower animals whose structure is most simple,
is not dependent on the difference of organization in the various:
classes, but can only be referred to some law of organization pecu-~
liar to the species possessing it. This conclusion is most forcibly
illustrated in the salamander and lizard, whose power of repro-
duction is strictly confined to certain numbers; and in the tadpole;
which loses this power immediately on arriving at its state of. full
developement.

Section 4th. General Observations.

Although the process of reproduction, as I have described it,
affords matter for many important deductions, I shall content my-

Members of the Aquatic Salamander. 95

self with one or two general observations. | The process of growth
naturally leads us to consider the more general law of organization,
from whence it would seem to emanate; I mean, the formation of
structures, or tissues, through the intermediate agency of that
substance, which we call coagulable lymph: Indeed, it would
seem that this matter is the matrix of every structure. It is
the simplest form of animal existence, and it is the first state of
existence of even the most perfect animals. It is the medium
through which every breach of continuity is unitedjand through
which every loss of substance is restored. And although it is
only on such occasions that its existence and importance is deve-
loped to us, there is good reason to believe thatit constantly exists
as a separate and independent part in all animals, in a greater or
" less degree, and that it is through its means that the whole process’
of nutrition is carried on. As forming a part of animals it bears
always a certain proportion to the others, being inversely as their
state of perfection, and in the simplest of them as in the animal-
cule of the sponge it appears to be the sole and only one.

The knowledge we possess’ of this substance we entirely owe
to Mr. Hunter, an obligation, which, together with his views of
inflammation, I hold to have as high claims on the gratitude of
society as any discovery which has ever extended the power of
human art over the functions of animal life.

This matter in its physical properties has been considered as a
peculiar kind of animal gluten, similar in the opinion of many,
and the same in the opinion of a few, as the fibrine of the blood.
As regards its vital properties it is possessed of a principle of vi-
tality, active and passive, sensible of the action of external
agents, and capable of organization.

In animals of red blood it is invariably produced by the red
arterial capillaries. This I hold to be an undeniable fact. In the
most transparent and colourless parts, where no coloured vessels
are to be seen, the secretion of coagulable lymph is preceded by
an afflux of red blood, and this, after symptoms of inflammatory
action had entirely ceased, or where it has never existed, as in
the progress of the reproductions of the tails of tad-poles, It is,

96 Process of Reproduction, &c.

indeed, singular, that the red vessels should be the instrument of
every new production of parts, which in their natural state do not
possess red vessels, and which disappear whenever the growth is
completed. 2

Soon after this substance is formed by the capillary arteries, it
is covered by a thin transparent temporary film or pellicle. The
formation of this pellicle is almost simultaneous with another
change, its penetration by blood vessels. I hesitate in stating
this fact by a*passive expression, for I regard the lymph as an
active agent in the formation of the vessels. Immediately after
the new growth has become vascular the process of organization
commences, and the red vessels almost entirely disappear, unless
when another growth is to take place where the red vascular spot
is observed at the extremity as usual. May we hence conclude,
that the new growths take piace from the red vessels, and that
organization is effected by the colourless ones ?

The reproduction of the members of the salamander is so justly
associated with the name of Spallanzani, who first observed and
published this extraordinary fact, it may fairly excite surprise,
that more present mention is not made of that observing natu-
ralist in the preceding pages ; but although desirous of confining
myself strictly to my own personal observations, never having
been able to procure his prodromo, I have been prevented availing
myself of his experience and authority.

Naples, February 28, 1823.

—EE

97
Art. IX. PROGRESS OF FOREIGN SCIENCE.

1. On Titanium and its Combinations with Oxygen and Sulphur, by
Henry Rose, of Berlin.

In the first half of his paper, Mr. Rose treats of the peroxide of
titanium, (called by him, properly enough, titanic acid,) and its
combinations with the alkalis and acids. We do not find here any
thing very worthy of extract. After trying in vain to reduce that
oxide to the metallic state by zinc, and a stream of hydrogen gas
at high temperatures, he finally had recourse with happier effect
to sulphuret of carbon, employed in similar circumstances.

’ The titanic acid should not be used in a pulverulent form, since
it is impossible to separate mechanically, the resulting sulphuret
of titanium from the residuary titanic acid. Hence he brought it
into the state of a thick paste with water, which he squeezed
strongly between folds of blotting paper under a press, so as to
obtain cohering pieces, which retained their cohesion on being ig-
nited. These lumps he put into a porcelain tube, to ene end of
which a retort was luted air-tight, containing rectified sulphuret of
carbon. ‘The other end of the tube terminated in a small glass
tube, which was left open. After the porcelain tube had been
heated red for half an hour, he applied a lamp to the retort, and
the gas was kindled as it issued from the end of the glass tube, in
order to shew, by the force of the flame, whether a suitable quantity
of 'sulphuret of carbon was evaporated. As the result was more
satisfactory in proportion to the slowness of the evaporation, he
reduced the flame to a size scarcely visible, by removing the lamp
to a considerable distance from the retort. The operation gerie-
rally lasted from four to six hours, care being taken that some sul-
phuret of carbon should always remain in the retort. By means
of a spirit lamp, he then fused the extremity of the small glass
tube, and withdrew the apparatus from the fire, so that the sul-
phuret of titanium should be surrounded during the cooling with
an atmosphere of alcohol of sulphur, a precaution essential to pre-
vent the action of air on the ignited sulphuret, which would recon-
vert it into titanic acid.

Sulphuret of titanium, thus formed, has a dark green colour.
The slightest rubbing with a hard body, gives it instantly a strong
metallic lustre; the metallic streak is brass yellow. When heated
in open vessels, it takes fire as soon as it becomes red hot, burn-
ing with a blue sulphureous flame, and is converted into titanic
acid, ‘The metal of the compound gets oxygenated sooner than
the sulphur, by roasting in the air, On pouring nitric acid on the
sulphuret, nitrous vapours exhale, the mixture becomes hot, and
finely comminuted titanic acid falls to the bottom of the vessel.
The simplest and most accurate method of analyzing this sul-
phuret, was by its combustion, on platinum foil over a spirit lamp.
{n this way, hard fragments were obtained, which on the slightest

Vou, XVI. H

98 Progress of Foreign Science.

rubbing assumed a bright metallic lustre. From such experiments
he infers; the composition of the sulphuret tobe, * om

Metallieititammum i's. bi SN See 49.17.
SOOO ETT nls | bin ase WP ep hte 50.83
100.00

And supposing the stage of sulphuration to correspond with that
of the oxidation in the titanic acid, he considers this as consisting of

Metallic titanium’ 2 ese 66.05
ORV Ve et ete in! 6. en ends 33.95
100.00

Mr. Rose details some experiments instituted with the view of
confirming his opinion about the relative states of sulphuration and
oxidation ; but they do not seem conclusive. He considers the
atom of titanium to weigh 7.782 referred to oxygen as unity.
Gilbert, Annalen der Physik, No. Ixxui. p. 129.

2. New note of M.Cagniard de Latour, on the Effects obtained from the
simultaneous Application of Heat and Compression to certain Liquids.

By the heat of an oil bath, some results have been obtained
which seem to indicate such as would be procured by the employ-
ment of much higher temperatures. They are presented in the
following Tables.

Tasxz I. Experiments made on Ether.

e
Volume in the liquid state, 7 parts. | Volume in the state of vapour, 20 parts.

Difference from one re-
sult to the next.

Degrees of Reaumur. | Atmos. pressures. |

80 5.6 tenths.

90 1g 2.3 tenths.
100 10.6 2.7
110 12.9 2.3
120 18.0 5.1
130 22.2 4.2
140 28.3 6.1
State of vapour 150 387.5 9.2
160 48.5 1.0
170 59.7 1.2
180 68.8 9.1
190 78.0 9.2
200 86.3 8.3
210 92.3 6.0
220 104.1 1.8
230 112.7 8.6
240 119.4 6.7
250 123.7 4.3
7.2

260 130.9

Effect of Heat on Ether, &c. 99

Taste II.

Degrees of Reaumur.

120
130
140

* {State of vapour 150

160

Volume in the liquid state, 3} parts. |

Experiments made on Ether.

Volume in state of vapour, or capacity
of the tube, 20 parts.

Difference from one re-

Atmos. pressures. sult to the next.

Sooo oONONONSCOMAG
SOC COMAAaAaAaGaaced

Tare Ill. Experiments with sulphuret of Carbon.

Degrees of Reaumur.

80

90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210

‘State of vapour 220

230
240
250
260
265

Volume in the liquid state, 8 parts.

| Volume in the state of vapour, 20 parts.

Atmos. pressures. Difference from one re-
sult to the next.

—s
WAAOHIOONA AR AWW:

OWURPUBWWIWHAWARONIMNOH

114,
129

»
oS . . . . . . . .
AAWONAANANAADNNMOOCONN
— —

H 2

100 Progress of Foreign Science.

Remarks on the Results contained in the above Tables.

In the first experiment, the ether passed into the state of va-
pour at 150°, and produced a pressure of 37 atmospheres.

The sulphuret of carbon, which is almost as volatile as ether,
passed however into the state of vapour only at 220°, with a pres-
sure of about 78 atmospheres, that is to say, doubie of the ether.
This result is the more remarkable since the capacity of the tube
which enclosed this liquid, was a little larger, in reference to the
volume, than for the ether.

The irregularities observed in the succession of the noted pres-
sures, depend probably on some inaccuracies which may have
slipped into the experiments, notwithstanding every precaution.
They have, however, no sensible influence on the main results.
From the table of the first experiments on ether, we perceive that
from 140° to 160°, the pressure increased by an atmosphere for
each degree; that however, at a much higher temperature, namely,
from 240° to 260°, the increase of pressure was only half an at-
mosphere for a degree ; and that finally, at 260° the pressure be-
came again stronger, a circumstance proceeding probably from the
decomposition of the ether, or from some analogous change of state.

It appears from the experiments made on the sulphuret of car-
bon, that from 250° to 260°, the augmentation of pressure was an
atmosphere and a half for each degree, and that at 265°, this in-
crease lessened as with ether.

On comparing together the two tables concerning ether, we ob-
serve that up to 150°, the pressures in the tube with least liquid, are
stronger than those of the other tube which contained the double.
This difference arises undoubtedly from the primitive attraction of
liquidity preserving, at these temperatures, least influence in the tube
where the particles of the vapour are more diffused than in the other.

We may remark, in these tables, especially in the second of the
experiments on ether, that it is in general when the liquid is in the
state of vapour, that the increase of the pressures is the greatest.
It soon diminishes, and seems thereafter to follow the same rate as
in gases. From the same two tables, we further perceive that the
total vaporization of the liquid, in the two experiments, occurred
at temperatures slightly different. This circumstance would seem
to demonstrate that this peculiar state always requires a very ele-
vated temperature, nearly independent of the capacity of the tube.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., xxii. 140.

3. On the Suiphurets resulting from the reduction of some Sulphates,
by means of Charcoal. By M. P. Berthier.

This diligent chemist confirms in this paper, the views of Berze~
lius, of which we formerly gave an account *, concerning the con-
stitution of the sulphurets ; namely, that they are compounds of the

* Vol. xv. p» 209.

On Sulphurets. 101

metallic bases of the earths and alkalies, with sulphur. M. Ber-

thier seems, however, to be unacquainted with the researches of the

indefatigable Swede, for he says that his experiments have enabled
him to resolve the hitherto undecided question, whether the alkalies
and alkaline earths exist in the metallic state, in their sulphurets
prepared in the dry way. It must be confessed that these experi-
ments are so simple and convincing, as to excite surprise at their
not having been sooner made.

Instead of mixing the sulphates and charcoal together in the
state of powder, whereby after their ignition in a crucible, only
impure su!phurets are obtained, M. Berthier finds that perfectly
pure sulphurets may be procured, by heating the sulphates in cru-
cibles lined with charcoal, (creusets brasqués de charbon.) This re-
sult is derived from the property which the sulphates possess, as
well as most oxides, of being reduced by the mode of cementation,
when they are kept exposed for a sufficient time, to a proper de-
gree of heat in contact with charcoal. The reduction may always
be completed in a few hours, by employing a white heat, even
though several hundred grammes be operated on, provided the
sulphuret be fusible. In other cases, smaller quantities must be
taken, and alonger heat applied. The crucible must be filled up
with charcoal powder, and closely covered with clay.

If sulphate of barytes, sulphate of strontites, or sulphate of
lime perfectly pure, and previously calcined, be heated in a
brasqued crucible, (one lined with solid charcoal,) to the tempera-
ture of an iron-ore assay, the resulting sulphuret forms a well ag-
glorerated mass, which may be withdrawn from the crucible
without breaking it, by the dexterous application of a knife blade ;
and by taking the weight of the sulphuret, it is found that the loss
suffered by the sulphate is precisely equal to the weight represent-

ing the quantity of oxygen contained in its base and ils acid. If,

on the other hand, the sulphuret be dissolved in muriatic acid, we
shall ascertain that during the solution, nothing but perfectly pure
sulphuretted hydrogen is disengaged, and that there is formed no
deposit of sulphur, uor oxygen-acid having this combustible as a
base. Finally, if we heat a portion of the sulpkuret in a silver
crucible, along with three or four times its weight of nitre, we
shall regenerate exactly the quantity of sulphate corresponding to
the portion of sulphuret employed, and that the regenerated sul-
phate, contains no excess, either of base or of acid. These three
experiments concur in proving, in the most evident manner, that
the sulphurets produced from the sulphates of barytes, strontites,
and lime, contain no oxygen, and consequently that their bases
in the metallic state.

The sulphurets, obtained on reducing the sulphates of potash
and soda by charcoal, are equally in the metallic state; for they
dissolve in the acids with the disengagement of pure sulphuretted

102 Progress of Foreign Science.

hydrogen gas, and without a deposit of sulphur, &c.; and they
are transformed into neutral sulphates by the nitrate of barytes;
but it is not possible to have a proof of this fact in the proportion
of oxygen which is disengaged during the reduction, as with the
sulphurets of barium, &c., because the sulphurets of potassium
and sodium are so fusible and volatile that the greater part pene-
trates into the charcoal coating, while the rest is dissipated in
vapour. ‘

We shall content ourselves with one or two examples of Mr.
Berthier’s experiments. 120 grammes of crystallized sulphate of
barytes of Auvergne, reduced to powder, having been heated in
a brasqued crucible at the porcelain furnace of Sévres, afforded a -
mass of sulphuret strongly agglutinated, of a granular crystalline
fracture, and a slightly reddish-grey colour. It weighed 86 gram-
mes. ‘The loss was therefore 34 grammes = 28 per cent, as in a
former experiment. Now the quantity of oxygen contained in the
sulphate of barytes being theoretically 28.5 per cent., it is evident
that the sulphuret produced by the reduction of this salt is the
sulphuret of barium, B.S., which must be composed of

Beriien” FMT eaey - 0.8099. - .. 100

Suilghiek ey rgd tioy Onl 0.1901 . . . 24,47
The sulphuret of barytes, thus procured, dissolves completely in
water, without colouring it. Muriatic acid disengaged sulphuretted
hydrogen from the solution without perceptibly disturbing it.

Compound Sulphurets.—The alkaline sulphurets, and the al-
kaline-earthy sulphurets unite very readily together, and with most
metallic sulphurets in the dry way. Although this combination
can take place nearly in every proportion, the resulting bodies are
true combinations and not mere mixtures. In fact, these bodies
are perfectly homogeneous, and frequently retain no trace of the
physical properties of their components, or at least of one of them.
These compound sulphurets are analogous to alloys, and to vi-
treous mixtures.

Sulphate of Potassium and Bartum.—5 gr. of sulphate of pot-
ash, and 5 gr. of sulphate of barytes, afforded a button of sul-
phuret weighing 5.6 gr. and which consequently must have con-
tained Sulphuret of potassium ........ 0.357

Sulphuret of barium .......... 0.643
It thence follows that more than the half of the sulphuret of potas-
sium, produced from the sulphate of potash, had been volatilized
during the operation.

4, On the acid of the triple. Prussiates. By M. Gay Lussac.

The nature of the acid contained in the combinations distin-
guished a short time since by the name of triple prussiates, as
also its chemical constitution, appear to me no longer involved
in uncertainty. M. Porrett, to whom we owe the important

On the Triple Prussiates. 103

discovery of this acid, considers it as formed of carbon, iron, azote,
and hydrogen ; but his experiments do not demonstrate in a satis-
factory manner the absence of oxygen, since they have led him
to ascribe to iron other degrees of oxidizement, besides those
which had been determined by more direct means. M. Robiquet
and M. Berzelius are of the same opinion with Mr. Porrett ; M. Ber-

zelius found that the precipitate, obtained, by pouring a solution

of lead into the triple prussiate of potash, is formed of

3 atoms of cyanogen ;
2 aa lead ;

1 4 iron $
or of 2 % cyanide of lead ;
1 af cyanide of iron;

of potash and iron ;
The triple prussiates < of barytes and iron ;
of lime and iron 5
have an analogous composition ; that is to say, they contain each
1 atom of cyanide of iron.
2 atoms of the cyanide of the other metal. :
Now since the hydrogen, contained in the acid of the prussiates,

- has totally disappeared, and since no more oxygen is found in

the triple prussiates, and particularly in that of lead, which I shall
take as an example, these two bodies must have united to form
water; and, consequently, the acid of the triple prussiates must
contain a sufficient quantity of hydrogen to neutralize the two
proportions of oxygen contained in the two proportions of oxide
of lead. This salt must be composed, therefore, of

2 atoms of hydrogen;

] Ge iron 3
3 “ cyanogen ;

or of 2 4; hydrocyanic acid ;
1 a cyanide of iron.

I consider this acid as a true hydrogen acid, whose radical
should be formed of one atom of iron, and three atoms of cyanogen.

When we combine it with an oxide, its hydrogen forms water
with the oxygen of the oxide, and its radical unites with the
radical of the latter. The compound is no longer a prussiate.
It is a cyanoferruret. Reciprocally, when we decompose a cy-
anoferruret by a hydrogen-acid, sulphuretted hydrogen for
example, the hydrogen of the latter combines with the cyanides
of iron (cyanoferre), and produces the hydro-cyanoferric acid. In
other respects, the theory of the cyanoferrurets, and of the hydro-
cyanoferrates, would be exactly the same as that of the sulphurets
and the hydrosulphates, of the chlorides and hydrochlorides, §c.

It is undoubtedly premature to give a name, such as cyanoferre,
to a being still hypothetical, or at least which has not been ob-
tained insulated ; but on one hand, I regard its existence as very

104 Progress of Foreign Science.

probable, and on the other, the denomination which I have em-
ployed expresses clearly my. notions of the nature of the triple
prussiates.—Ann. de Chim. et Phys. xxii. 320,

5. Note on the Purpuric Acid, by M. J. L. Lassaigne,

M. Vauquelin in repeating the experiments of Dr. Prout and
M. Gaspard Brugnatelli, on the peculiar acid which is formed,
by the mutual action of nitric and uric acids, obtained results
different from those announced by these two chemists. He ob-
served that two acids were usually produced, viz., a coloured acid,
and a white acid of great power. ‘These two acids are essentially
different; the first is coloured, and forms an insoluble salt with
lead; the second is white, and affords a soluble salt with the
oxide of the same metal. Neither of these acids exhibited the
properties detailed in the Memoirs of MM. Prout and Brugna-
telli; a circumstance which he ascribes to these chemists not
having obtained it in a state of purity.

Although M. Vaugqnelin did recognise the formation of two
distinct acids in the above process, their real existence appeared
to him somewhat doubtful. He thinks there may be truly but
one, whose properties might be modified by a colouring matter
developed at the same time. He supports this opinion by plau-
sible considerations. M. Lassaigne subjected to the action of
voltaic electricity a weak solution of coloured purpurate of am-
monia in a glass tube, connected by threads of amianthus with
‘another, containing distilled water. He obtained at the end of
some hours, a colourless acid at the positive pole, which, when
combined with ammonia, produced a colourless salt, exhibiting all
the characters of the white salt obtained by M. Vauquelin, and
not precipitating the solutions of lead and silver, as happened
before the transfer of the pure acid to the positive pole. M. Las-
saigne eonsiders this experiment as decisive of the justness of
M. Vauquelin’s views, and of the impurity of the substance ope-
rated upon by Dr. Prout. The name purpuric acid, he accordingly
proposes to change into superorygenated uric acid. May not this
Superoxygenation, which destroys the colour, be acquired at the

positive voltaic pole ?—Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxii. 334.

6. New mode of forming Cyanic Acid. -By F. Wohler of
ITiedelberg.

The researches of M. Gay Lussac shewed that the proportion
of carbon to azote in uric acid, is the same as in cyanogen; and
itis known that during the igneous decomposition of uric acid,
some prussic acid is produced. M. Woéhler prepared a large
quantity of urate of mercury, by mixing a solution of corrosive
‘sublimate, with a hot solution of the sparingly soluble urate of
potash, prepared in M, Bracomnot’s'way. He then exposed the

Mode of forming Cyanic Acid. 105

urate of mercuty to a decomposing heat, and transmitted the strong
smelling gas that was disengaged, into barytes water. The cy-
anate of barytes, the salt of this class, with which he was best
acquainted, is the one most easily separable from impure prussic
acid. Much carbonate of barytes fell down, and at the same
time, a soluble prussiate of barytes was formed. The latter was
decomposed by a current of carbonic acid gas; after which the
whole was heated, filtered, and evaporated. In this way he ob-
tained a perfectly white salt, in little scales, whose base was
barytes, and which being dissolved in acids, evolved a substance
of a vinegar odour, which excited a flow of tears, along with much
carbonic acid, and then ammonia by the addition of potash. It
exhibited in fact all the properties of cyanate of barytes, as de-
scribed by him in a former number of the Annals.

_. Urate of mercury appears to yield a greater proportion of
cyanic acid, than an equal quantity of cyanide of mercury.

When cyanogen is transmitted over heated carbonate of potash,
this becomes speedily fluid, then gradually yellow, and on cooling
it concretes into a bright yellow mass, which consists of cyanide
of potassium, mixed with carbonate and cyanate of potash. The
last salt is separable from the other two combinations, by boiling
alkohol.

The following process answers best for preparing cyanate of
potash. Four parts of finely powdered cyanide of potash and
iron, intimately mixed with three parts of nitre, are to be gradually
projected into a crucible at dull ignition. At each addition a
white vapour arises which attaches itself to cool bodies, and con-
sists chiefly of cyanate of potash. The mass, still in a semi-fluid
State, is to be taken out of the crucible, to be pulverized when it
cools, and. boiled in ordinary alkohol, which is to be poured off,
and allowed to cool. Cyanate of potash now crystallizes in small
plates. By re-dissolution in hot alkohol, crystallization, and pres-
sure (between folds of porous paper) the salt may be obtained
perfectly pure. About 20 parts of cyanate of potash may thus
be obtained from 100 of the triple prussiate. ‘The plates of the
cyanate havea great resemblance to chlorate of potash. It is not
altered in the air. Its taste is very similar to that of saltpctre.
Tt is slightly soluble in cold alkohol; but very much so in water.
‘When heated it melts even at a temperature far under a red heat,
into a fluid as limpid as water, and is not decomposed even when
long kept in a state of ignition; but if a drop of water be then
dropped into it, an extraordinary quantity of ammoniacal gas is
immediately exhaled. Treated with sulphuric acid, it is rapidly

decomposed into carbonic acid, sulphate of potash, and sulphate

of ammonia, which last is easily discoverable by the addition of
potash. With dilute acids, it exhales carbonic and cyanic acids,
‘and an ammoniacal salt is formed, When the solution of cyanate

106 Progress of Foreign Science.

of potash is heated to the boiling point, a great deal of ammonia
is disengaged, and carbonate of potash remains dissolved.

Cyanate of silver is obtained in the form of a white powder,
by precipitating a solution of nitrate of silver, with cyanate of
potash. This salt of silver, treated with acids, evolves carbonic
and cyanic acids, and an ammoniacal salt is generated. It is very
soluble in aqueous ammonia, by the evaporation of which, large
semitransparent crystalline plates are formed, resembling quickly
crystallized hydrate of barytes. ‘These constitute cyanate of silver
and ammonia.—A cyanate of lead is obtained in the form of a
thick white precipitate by mixing solution of acetate of lead, with
one of cyanate of potash. It appears in small needles, like muri-
ate of lead, and is like it soluble in hot water. It is composed in
100 parts of 75 oxide of lead, and 25 cyanic acid, From the
igneous analysis of this salt, M. Wohler infers the composition of
the acid to be,—

Carbon fA vian yt ane ee -.- 31.664
Azote. Un DE ays tee A TE artes 36,940
Oxygen . ieee WSRSHE OR 31.396

100.000

From theoretical considerations he offers the following modified
statement of these proportions as probably more correct.

Garbon'? >. ‘Bratomes) Te ee. sy 35.294
Aiadtel 10/22) VOM eee AE ee 41.177
Seppe. AT Tees 24 eS ie 23.529

100.000

As the atomic weight of the acid thus becomes 4.25, its com-
pound with oxide of lead=14, should give per cent. 76.713 oxide
to 23.287 acid, instead of 75 and 15, as by the above experimental
result.—Gilbert’s Annalen, Ixxiii, 157.

7. On Felspar, Albite, Labradore, and Anorthite. By Gustavus
Rose, of Berlin.

Some differences which Mr. Rose observed in the angles of cer-
tain crystals, hitherto classed among the felspars, led him to
make a closer investigation of them; the result of which was,
that under these crystals are contained four species, differing both
in a crystallographical and chemical point of view, though in the
former respect they exhibit an undoubted analogy.

Felspar proper, KS + 3 AS3, is the most abundant of these
species. To it belong the Adularia of St. Gothard, the glassy
felspar of Vesuvius and the Siebengebirge, the Amazon-stone of
Siberia, the Labradore-felspar from Friedrichswarn in Norway,
the felspar of Bayeno, Carlsbad, and the Fichtelgebirge, and ge-
nerally most part of Werner’s common felspars.

On Felspar, Albite, Labradore, &c. 107

The second species, Albite, is more rare. It is denoted by
NS? + 3 AS. Eggerts first found it in an uncrystallized fibrous
and granular form at Finnbo and Broddbo, near Fahlun, and
thereafter Haussmann and Stromeyer in a mineral from Chester-
field, in North America, to which the former gave the name of
Kiefelspath. Nordenskiold found it in a granite at Kimite, near
Pargas, in Finland; and Ficinus in a granite from Penig, in
Saxony. All these are uncrystallized varieties. To the crystal-
lized, which I have had occasion to see, belong the white schorl,
first described by Romé de I’Isle; the felspar crystals of Dau-
phiny of Hauy; the small crystals from Saltzburg and the Tyrol,
known a few years ago under the name of Adularia.

The third species forms the Labradore spar, which Klaproth
analyzed and distinguished from felspar, though mineralogists did
not consider it as a distinct species. Berzelius has assigned to it
the formula NS? + 3 CS? + 12 AS from Klaproth’s analysis.

The fourth species is the rarest of the whole. Mr. Rose has
recognised it only in the druses of limestone blocks, which are
found at Mount Somma, near Vesuvius, where it occurs in small
shining perfect crystals. He has determined its formula to be
MS + 2CS + 8 AS; and has called it Anorthite.

Albite is readily distinguishable by the twin grouping of its
crystals. Its primitive form is an irregular parallelopiped. In its
massive State, it differs from felspar, in not being straight foliated,
but always radiated. Labradore spar is completely decomposed
by concentrated muriatic acid, while felspar and albite are not
affected by it. Anorthite yields to muriatic acid as Labradore-
spar does. The name is derived from dvogSoc, not rectangled ; as
the want of aright-angled cleavage, in both directions of its
laminee, peculiarly distinguishes it from felspar. We must refer to
the paper itself for the details of the Crystallization-system of the
above minerals.—Gilbert’s Annalen, No. Ixxiii. p. 173.

8. On the influence of Tartaric Acid in certain cases of Analysis.
By Mr. Henry Rose, of Berlin.

In the first part of Mr. Rose’s Memoir on Titanic Acid, (or
Oxide,) we find the following method prescribed as the most con-
venient for obtaining it pure ; to which a note is appended rela-
tive to the influence of tartaric acid in analysis.

The rutile of St. Yrieux, in the department of Upper Vienne, in
France, was the titanium-ore employed. He fused the rutile with
thrice its weight of carbonate of potash, washed the fused mass
with water, dissolved the residuary combination of titanium oxide
and alkaliin muriatic acid, and threw down the oxide from this
solution by ammonia. The flocculent precipitate contained as
much iron as the rutile itself, and this iron is chemically united
with the oxide of titanium, for muriatic acid does not abstract it.

108 Progress of Foreign Science.

He then transferred the precipitate into a phial along with hydro-
sulphuret of ammonia, corked it up, and left the substances for
some time in digestion. The iron was thereby converted into a
sulphuret, which was removed by digestion in muriatic acid, while
the greater part of the oxide of titanium remained in a pure state.
Oxide of titanium thus prepared has a fine white colour. When
ignited, it assumes a lemon-yellow hue, which on cooling passes
back into white. If this ignited oxide be laid on blue litmus paper,
and moistened with water, the water becomes reddish, but the
paper remains unchanged. But when finely triturated oxide is
sprinkled on tincture of litmus covering white paper, the liquid is
immediately reddened. It combines with alkalis, forming salts,
which are for the most part with excess of acid. The super-
titanate of soda is composed as follows :

Titanic acid . . . 74.73

Water wis 82 100s

Soda. 2d) 7:.tonshs 5. at

100.00

The dry salt consists of about 83 parts of acid and 17 of soda in 100.

When a solution of red oxide of iron in an acid is mixed with
tartaric acid, it is known that the oxide can be precipitated neither
by caustic alkalis, nor by their carbonates or succinates ; but tinc-
ture of galls, triple prussiate of potash, and alkaline hydrosul-
phurets, shew the presence of iron in such a solution. Mr. Rose
hence conceived, that if the muriatic solution of the titanium oxide
fused with alkali, were mixed with tartaric acid, be might obtain,
by precipitation with ammonia, that oxide entirely free from iron.
But he found that tartaric acid imparted to the solutions of many
other oxides, the property ‘‘ of not being thrown down by caustic
alkalis or their carbonates, though they were otherwise precipitable
by them. Among these oxides, that of titanium ranks; for when
its solution contains tartaric acid, it cannot be thrown down by
carbonate of potash, or by carbonated cr pure ammonia. The
presence of alumina in a solution cannot be detected by re-agents,
when this contains tartaric acid, which in like manner prevents
the coloured aluminous lakes from being precipitated. Moreover,
the oxides of manganese, of cerium, yttrium, cobalt, nickel, and
magnesium, are in the same predicament. Solution of proto-
sulphate of iron with tartaric acid is merely rendered intensely
green by ammonia, and changes, after long standing in the air,
to a yellow-coloured solution which contains iron. The oxide of
lead likewise is not separable by alkalis, when its solution has
been treated with so much nitric acid, that no tartrate of lead can
precipitate. Oxides of tin and copper fa!l under the same head.
The solution of the latter mixed with tartaric acid becomes, on
the addition of carbonate of potash, merely of the same sky-blue

Carbonate of Magnesia in Calculi. 109

colour, which excess of ammonia occasions. Lastly, the oxide of
antimony, when its solution in an acid is mixed with the tartaric, re-
sists both alkalis, and the mostcopious dilution with water. In this
way oxide of bismuth may be separated from oxide of antimony ;
for the former is still precipitable though dissolved in company
with tartaric acid. The muriate of platinum is not altered in this
respect by tartaric acid; nor are the oxides of silver, zinc, and
uranium. Phosphoric and arsenic acids alone shew some analogy in
these properties to tartaric acid_—Gilbert’s Annalen, Ixxiii. p. 74.

9. On the existence of Carhonate of Magnesia in the Urinary Cal-
culi of Herbivorous Animals. By Mr. J. L. Lassaigne.

MM. Wurzer, J. F. John, Stromeyer, and Chevreul, had no-
ticed this as a constituent of these concretions, in the horse and
the cow. M. Lassaigne examined the collection of these calculi
in the cabinet of the Royal School of Alfort. He treated them with
sulphuric acid, calcined the saline mass thus obtained, which is
principally sulphate of lime, washed it with 3 or 4 times its weight
of cold water, precipitated the aqueous solution with bi-carbonate
of potash, filtered the liquor, and then exposed it to the action of
heat, when he observed the presence of magnesia. Its quantity
is indeed small, not exceeding one hundredth and a half, or two
hundredths of the weight of the calculus; but he conceives,
however, that carbonate of magnesia always accompanies the car-
bonate of lime in such cases.—Ann. de Chim. xxii. 440.

10. New Process for extracting Elaine from Oils. By M. Peclet.

This process is founded on the property which stearine pos-
sesses, of saponifying in the cold with strong leys, which does
not belong to elaine. To separate these two substances, a cons
centrated solution of caustic soda is to be poured upon the cil, the
mixture is to be agitated, and gently heated, so as to separate
the elaine from the soap of the stearine; after which it is to he
passed through a linen cloth, and the elaine may be removed from
the excess of alkaline solution by decantation. The process
always succeeded with all oils, except the rancid ones, or such
as had been altered by the heat. The elaine, obtained by this pro-
cess, is perfectly identical with that procured by the processes of
MM. Chevreul and Robiquet.

1]. Memoir on the Causes of the Diversities found in Soaps, in re-
ference to their hardness and smell; and ona new group of
Organic Acids. By M. Chevreul,

Hard soaps lose the greater part of their water of fabrication on

exposure to air; and when they have lost it, they dissolve

slowly and imperfectly in cold water. Soft soaps, on the contrary,

110 Progress of Foreign Science.

can never be dried by atmospheric exposure ; they retain more or
less water which renders them soft or gelatinous ; and if after dry-
ing them with heat, we put them into cold water, they diffuse and
dissolve. The causes of these differences are to be found; 1, in
the nature of the alkaline base; 2, in that of the fat matter com-
bined with this base.

1. Influence of the alkaline Base. If we saponify some of the same
fat body with potash and soda, it is constantly observed that the
soda soap is less soluble in cold water than the potash soap.

Influence of the fat matter which is combined with the alkali. Oil
of olives, and particularly the less fusible animal fats, form, with
soda, soaps which are inuch harder, than the soda soaps from rape-
seed and animal oils ; and, secondly, these oils form, with potash,
much softer soaps, than those containing olive oil and the less fu-
sible fats. M. Chevreul thinks that his researches completely
explain these results. Let us consider, first of all, the action of cold
water on the soaps, or in other words, on the salts which the stearic,
oleic, and margaric acids form with soda and potash *.

The stearate of soda may be considered as the type of the hard
soaps ; it appears to experience no action from ten times its weight
of cold water. The stearate of potash produces a thick mucilage
with the same proportion of cold water.

The oleate of soda is soluble in ten times its weight of cold
water ; the oleate of potash forms a jelly with the double of ‘its
weight of water, and a solution with four times its weight. It is
so deliquescent that*!00 parts absorb, in an atmosphere saturated
with moisture, 162 parts of water, at the temperature of 12° C,

- The combinations of margaric acid with soda and potash, differ
from those of the stearic acid, only in the somewhat greater action
of water on them. ‘The stearates, margarates, and oleates of the
same bases can combine together in all kinds of proportions.

1. The soaps of human fat, and vegetable oils, are formed of
oleates and margarates, whose respective proportions are very
variable; and the soaps are softer, the more oleate, and the less
margarate, they may contain. 2. The soaps of mutton suet, tal-
low, hog’s lard, and butter, putting out of view the odorous salts
they may contain, are formed not only of margarate and oleate like
the preceding, but also of stearate; and it is remarked that their
hardness is greater as the stearate predominates over the oleate.
On the other hand, his experiments having shewn that it is chiefly
the stearines which yield the stearic and margaric acids, and the
oleine which yields the oleic acid, it follows; 1, that according to
the proportion of the stearine to the oleine, contained in the sapo-

* He calls stearic acid, that which has the closest relations with the mar-
gavic acid, but which differs from it, in melting only at 70° C, and in contain-
ing less oxygen.

On Soaps considered with regard to Smell. 111

nifiable fats and oils, a proportion which may be inferred from their
degree of fusibility, we may predict the degree of hardness or
softness of the soaps produced ; 2, that it is possible to imitate
any given soap, by taking stearine and oleine in such proportions
that the stearic, margaric, and oleic acids, which they are suscep-
tible of furnishing by the action of alkalis, may be, in the same ratio,
as in the fat of the soap proposed for imitation. Thus, by adding,
to oils which would afford only soft soaps with soda, bodies
abounding in stearine, such as the wax of the myrica gale, a sub-
stance produced in large quantity by a tree in Africa, and which
was handed to M. Chevreul by an enlightened English traveller,
we may imitate the soap of olive oil, which differs from the soap of
rape-seed oil, only in containing less oleic acid.

These notions are obviously the fundamental base of the art of
the soap manufacturer, and they may give him a degree of preci-
sion which he could not have had, while ignorant of the analysis of
the fat part of soap into three acids, and of the reason why saponi-
fiable fat bodies produce hard or soft soaps.

2d. Section. Of Soaps considered with regard to Smell.

Soaps are either inodorous, as those of human fat, and hog’s
lard, or odorous, as those of butter, oil of the dolphin, and suet.
The odours of soaps are owing to principles absolutely distinct
from the stearic, margaric, -and oleic acids ; for, on decomposing
these soaps dissolyed in water, by tartaric acid, and submitting
the filtered aqueous liquids to distillation, we obtain products which
have exactly the same smell as the soaps from which they are
taken ; and, in the second place, by washing sufficiently, the stea-
Tic, margaric, and oleic acids, we succeed in bringing these acids
to such a state of purity, that when they are combined with pot-
ash and soda, they form absolutely scentless soaps.

The odorous principles of soaps have properties important
enough to require being investigated. It is a remarkable fact, that
they all possess a very strong acidity; to this property they join
that of the volatile oils. Hence it may be asserted, that these acids
form a new class of bodies, which are to the volatile oils, what the
stearic, margaric, and oleic acids are to the fixed oils. Mr. Chev-
_ reul calls phocenic acid, the odorous principle of the soap of the
dolphin oils; hércic acid, the odorous principle of the soap of
mutton suet; butiric acid, the odorous principle to which the soap
of butter of the cow, and even the butter itself, owe particularly
their characteristic smell; he says, particularly, because these
bodies contain besides, two other acids which he styles capric and
caproic acids. He does not describe the processes by means of
which he has obtained the three acids of butter in a state of pu-
rity ; he remarks, however, that the method which he adopted, by
giving more precision to the use of solyents in analysis in general,

112 Progress of Foreign Science.

is such as to exert a happy influence on young chemists who are
engaged in organic analysis, by pointing out the steps to be fol-
lowed when the object is to inquire if an organic matter should be
regarded as a species of an immediate principle, or as a combina=
tion of several species, and by compelling them moreover to under-
take trials which they would otherwise be apt to neglect.

Comparative examination of the Acids of Butter, of the phocenic
and hircic Acids.—In the state of hydrate, the acids of butter and
phocenic acid enter into ebullition ata higher temperature than that
of boiling water. They may be distilled over without alteration.
At 9° C. below zero, the phocenic, butyric, and caproic acids are
liquid, whilst at 15° C. above zero, the capric acid is in the form of
small needles. .

All these acids are colourless, and more or less odorous. ‘The
butyric and phocenic acids have a much stronger aromatic odour
than the caproic and capric acids, ‘The smells of the first two are
a little similar; but it is impossible to confound them after they
have been once felt. ‘The odours of the caproic and capric acids
resemble somewhat that of sweat; but the capric acid is distin-
guishable from the caproic by something, which reminds one of.
the odour of a he-goat. All these acids have a burning taste,
and a saccharine after-taste, like that of the nitric and muriatic
ethers. At 25°C. the density of the butyric acid is 0.9675, that of
phocenic acid 0.932, that of caproic acid 0.923, and that of capric
acid 0.910 at 18°.

They differ extremely in regard to their solubility in water. The
butiric acid dissolves in it in all proportions, and the combination’
which results from 2 parts of acid and 1 of water, is denser than
the latter liquid. The other acids are much less soluble.

100 of water dissolve 5.50 of phocenic acid ;

1.50 caproic acid ;
Q.12 capric acid.

Alkohol dissolves the four acids in every proportion; and the
solutions of the butyric and phocenic acids have an ethereous
odour of the rennet apple, even when no sensible quantity of ether
can be detected. ’

Butyric acid unites to hog’s lard, and communicates to it the
taste and smell of butter, but this aromatized fat soon loses its
smell by exposure to air. ' iad

The composition of these three acids is in volume;

Butyric acid. Phocenic. Caproic.
Reyer a yee ey é
Cawpom? Ys ee B 10 12
Hydrogen... 11 14 19

The salts formed by the acids of butter and the phocenic acid,
exhale, in the moist state, the smell peculiar to their acid, espe-.
cially when slightly heated, or brought into contact with carbonic

New Organic Acids. 113

acid» The odour of the butyrates is exactly that of fresh butter.
The above salts are inodorous in the dry state, even when heated
to 100° C. Their composition is easily deducible from their con-
stituent acids. To shew, however, the great differences among
the capacities of saturation of these acids, M. Chevreul details
the following composition of the salts of barytes:

100 of butyric acid neutralize 97.58 of barytes.
100 — phocenic acid . . « 82.77

100 — caproic ovate aed
100 — capric - « . £645

+ te)
sae 4 tik ® " 100 of phocenate ofbarytes
100 a 36 — butyrate —————
1Q0, ———___—_—_. 8 — caproate
aq) 0,5 — caprate

The phocenate of barytes crystallizes in large polyhedrons,
which appear to be octohedrons; the butyrate crystallizes in long
prisms ; the caprate in small globular crystals. The saturated
solution of butyrate of lime contains 17 of salt for 100 of water
at 15° C.; but at the boiling point it is less soluble, like its base,
and forms a crystalline mass. The caproate of barytes evapo-
rated spontaneously crystallizes in needles ; evaporated at 18°,
in hexagonal plates. The hircic acid gives to mutton broth the
flavour which distinguishes it from that of beef. It forms a
sparingly soluble salt with barytes, and a deliquescent one with
potash.

The disagreeable smell of leather dressed with fish oil, is as-
cribed by M. Chevreul to the decomposition of the phocenic acid
contained in this oil; for water, to which a few drops of this acid
have been added, takes this odour after some time.

The stearic, margaric, and oleic acids, in their habitudes with
heat, correspond to benzoic acid; the volatile acids, described in
the present memoir, correspond to the acetic. Among the fatty
bodies, not acid, there are some, like cholesterine (and ethal ?)
which experience no alteration on the part of the most powerful
alkalis ; while other species, as the stearines, oleine, butyrine, pho-
cenine, hircine, are all converted under the alkaline influence into
a sweet principle on the one hand, and, on the other, into fixed or
volatile acid fats; and it is possible that these latter species may
be composed immediately of the same acids, and a sweet anhy-
drous principle acting as a base. However this may be, we can-
not help approximating the substances which afford odorous acids
by saponification to the group of those ethers, which are regarded
as compounds of acids with alkohol.—Ann, de Chim. et de Phys.
xxiii. 16.

Vor, XVI. I

114 Progress of Foreign Science.

12. Facts subservient to the History of Cow-butter. By
M. Chevreul.

1. Fresh butter is a mixture of butter-milk and butter. To se-
parate these two substances, the fresh butter must be kept some
time melted in an oblong vessel. The butter milk sinks to the
bottom; the melted butter is decanted into a filter, and received
in water at 40° C. This mixture being agitated, is then left to
settle. When the butter has again gathered on the surface of the
water it is skimmed off, and filtered anew. In this state M. Chey-
reul has examined it as pure butter.

2. Butter-milk distilled, after being filtered, afforded an acid
product, having the smell of frangipane, (a French perfume,) and
it contained butyric acid, a trace of ammonia, and, apparently,
some acetic acid.

3. One hundred parts of fresh butter, (from Murs, in Anjou,)
were formed of,

Pure butter. . ° 83.75
Butter-milk . F ; 16.25 :

Pure butter indicates acidity by litmus paper. One hundred
parts of boiling alkohol, specific gravity 0.822, dissolve 3.46 of
butter. The solution powerfully reddens litmus.

Butter saponifies with potash im vacuo, without the production
of carbonic acid. One hundred parts are saponified by sixty of
potash, rendered caustic by lime; and there are obtained, acid
fats insoluble in water, some sweet principle, and volatile acids
which dissolve in water. The insoluble acid fats are the mar-
garic, the stearic, (in small quantity,) and the oleic. In the
state of hydrates, they weighed 88.5 parts, and they melted at
40°. C. Thesolution of the sweet principle and the volatile acids
- was distilled ; the acids rose with most part of the water, and the
sweet principle remained in the retort, mingled with the bi-tartrate
of potash. When the sweet principle was separated from the
tartar by alkohol, it weighed 11.85 parts. The volatile acids are
three in number, the butyric, caproic, and capric.

M. Chevreul treated butter with alkohol, in order to determine
the relation which its immediate principles bear to the fat bodies
described in-his former researches. For the minute details of his
experiments, we must refer to the Memoir itself. His conclusions
are the following :

** There exist, at least, two fluid substances in the oil of butter.
1. One soluble in every proportion in cold alkohol, not acid, and
which affords by saponification the sweet principle, and the acids
butyric, caproic, capric, margaric, and oleic.” He gives this sub-
stance the name of butyrine, because it contains the butyric acid,
(or its elements,) to which butter owes its odour.

2. The other has the properties of oléine.

On the Action of the Blood. 115

On treating the oils of the dolphin and the porpoise with al-
kohol, in the same manner as the oil of butter, he reduced them
to very different proportions. 1. Oléine. 2. A substance which
he calls phocenene, analogous to butyrene, but which may be dis-
tinguished from it, because instead of affording, like this, three
volatile acids, it yields only one, which he calls phocenic acid.
In a former paper, he described this acid under the name of del-
phinic acid. The discoyery of stearine, oleine, butyric acid, and
the colouring principle, in butter, was announced to the Institute

on the 19th of September, 1814.—Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.
xxii. 366.

13. Examination of the Blood and its action in the different pheno-
mena of Life. By J. L. Prevost, M.D., and J. A. Dumas.

The microscopic observation of the blood satisfied us, as we
have previously shewn, that this liquid during life was nothing
else than the serum, holding in suspension small regular and in-
soluble corpuscles. We have seen that these were uniformly com-
posed of a central colourless spheroid, and of a species of mem-
branous bag, of a red colour, surrounding this spheroid, from
which it was easily separable after death. The central body is
white, transparent, of a spherical form in animals with circular
particles ; of an ovoid form, in those with elliptical particles. Its
diameter is constant in the first, but it varies very perceptibly in
the second. It manifests also a great disposition to form aggre~
gates, or ranges, in the form of a string of beads.

The coloured portion appears to be a kind of jelly easily divi-
sible, but insoluble in water, from which it may be always sepa-
rated by repose. It is likewise transparent, but much less so than
the central corpuscle ; and the fragments arising from its division
are not susceptible of regular aggregation. As the attraction which
keeps the red substance fixed round the red globules, ceases at the
same time with the movement of the liquid, they can then obey.
the force which tends to unite them, and to form a net-work in
whose meshes the liberated red colouring matter gets enclosed, as
well as a great quantity of the particles which escaped this spon-
taneous decomposition. This mass, known under the name of
clot, (cruor,) gradually allows to transude, as through a close fil-
ter, the liquid which it had imprisoned at the instant of its solidi-
fication, and sinks by reason of its weight. It suffers no other
change besides, as long as no.alteration is made in its texture ;
but if it be torn, and exposed to the action of a stream of pure
water, this takes possession of the liberated colouring matter,
and of the untouched particles, while the aggregate formed by the
white globules, remains on the linen cloth or the searce, under the
form of filaments, in which ihe microscope recognises the aspect

2

116 Progress of Foreign Science.

and structure of the muscular fibre, known to chemists by the ex-
pressive name of fibrine. 4

Such is the manner in which the materials of the blood are dis-
tributed; and these gentlemen have repeated their observations
so many times during two years, that they entertain no doubts on
the subject. It perfectly explains the inutility of the attempts
made to insulate the colouring matter; and affords almost a cer-
tainty that this object will never be accomplished.

Three animal substances ought, therefore, to fix our attention
in the chemical study of the blood; these are, the albumen of the
serum, the white globule, and the colouring matter which enve-
lops this.

‘They ascertained by experiment that the coagulation of albumen
(white of egg,) takes place about 70° C. When once coagulated,
the albumen, viewed in the microscope, presents the same white
globules so often mentioned. The action of the voltaic pile clearly
shews the state of combination which exists between albumen and
the sodait contains. They ascribe the coagulation of albumen by
spirit of wine, to the affinity of this menstruum for the caustic
soda. They consider this as the most convenient method of ob-
taining albumen in a state of purity ; aud on studying it under this
form, it is seen, by the action of different re-agents, to differ in no
respect from fibrine. Lastly, the action of acids on albumen falls
under the same head, although there are two modes of action to
be distinguished. 1, The saturation of the soda; 2. The action of
the acid on the albumen. The first cause explains the precipitation
of white of egg by most acids; the second permits us to conceive
why the phosphoric and acetic acids form an exception to this
tule. In fact, these two agents dissolve, or at least reduce, to
jelly, fibrine itself; and, consequently, must be very far from pre-
cipitating its alkaline solutions.

The colouring matter of the blood has engaged the attention of
so many celebrated chemists, that they would long ago have ex-
hausted its history, had they not been misled by a physical cir-
cumstance of great simplicity. It is singularly divisible in water,
and passes even through filters ; but by means of the microscope,
its fragments are easily discovered, and they fall down or repose,
in the form of a red deposit, of considerable density. This pro-
perty of colouring water without disturbing its transparency, made
chemists believe that water could dissolve this substance, and they
subjected the red liquor to the action of reagents whose effects
have never been satisfactory. The colouring matter of blood ap-
pears to be formed of an animal substance in combination with the
peroxide of iron. Were we to abide by the experiments hitherto
made, we should believe that this matter is albumen ; but as only
a confused mixture of red matter has been operated on of white

On the Aciion of the Blood. 117

globules and albumen of the serum, we can by no means regard
the question as decided. They therefore conceive that all the pro-
cesses pointed out in the memoirs of Berzelius, Brande, and Vau-
quelin, for insulating the colouring matter, are more or less il-
lusory.

By reflecting on the properties of the several animal matters,
which the blood contains, their estimation is much easier than had

been heretofore supposed. In fact, the blood, after issuing from

its vessels, separates into two portions, the clot, and the serum.
The first is composed of the totality of the particles, (corpuscles,)
and a quantity of serum more or less considerable, according to
the space of time during which it has been left in repose; but in
no case does it contain any other substance, unless it be in certain
morbid affections, which they do not at present examine. As. it is

_very easy to subject the serum to an exact analysis, it is no less so

to correct the error which its mixture introduces into the results of
the analysis of the clot. They have thus made several analyses,
for the details of which we must refer to their memoir. We have
assembled the results in the following table.

Serum. Blood.
Mammifera. Water. Albumen “Water Particles. Albumen
Teste ea

Callitriche 998 92. 7760 1461 779
Healthy man : tet 100 7839 1292 869
Do. from vena porta of a i

criminal just stemidh fan 93 aon i B44
Guinea pig 900 100 7848 1280 872
Dog 926 74 8107 1238 655
Cat 904 96 7953 1204 843
Goat 907 93 8146 1020 834
Calf 901 99 8260 912 828
Rabbit 891 109 8379 938 683
Horse 901 99 8183 920 897

BirpDs.
Pigeon 945 55 7974 1557 469
Duck 901 99 7652 1501 847
Hen 925 75 7799 1571 630
Crow 934 66 7970 1466 564
Heron 932 68 8082 1326 592
CoLD-BLOODED ANIMALS.

Trout 923 77 8637 638 725
Gadus lota 931 69 8862 481 657
Frog 950 50 8846 690 464
Land Crab 904 96 7688 1506 806
Common eel 900 100 8460 600 940

We have only to glance our eyes over these results to be satis-

18 Progress of Foreign Science.

fied that it is impossible to draw from them general conclusions
relatively to the composition of the serum. This liquid varies in
the same animal, and also from one animal to another, without its
being possible to connect this character with the physiological con-
dition of the individual. But this is not the case with the par-
ticles. In the greater number of cases, their quantity exhibits a
certain relation to the heat developed by the vital action. The fol-
lowing table renders this position pretty evident. In it are assem-
bled the weights of the particles in one thousand parts of blood,
the habitual temperature of the rectum, the number of pulsations
of the heart in a minute, and the number of inspirations in the
same time. To complete our knowledge on this subject, the ratio
of the total weight of the blood in circulation to the weight of the
animal is wanting. MM. Prevost and Dumas are now engaged
in this difficult, and hitherto inaccurate, estimate, but one, indispen-
sable to the application of the facts here detailed.

Name of the Animal. petites on bres tenga | botabg ae scppiciien
1000 of blood. minute. per minute,
Pigeon 1557 ADP Ey 136 34
Hen 1544 41.5 140 30
Duck 1501 43) 5 110 21
Crow 1466 én =f, *
Heron 1326 4] 200 22
Ape 146] pa TE 90 30
Man 1292 39 72 18
Guinea pig 1280 38 140 36
Dog 1238 37.4 90 28
Cat 1204 38.5 100 24
She Goat 1020 |S i 4y 84 24
Calf 912 A FF i
Rabbit 938 38 120 36
Horse 920 36.8 56 16
Sheep 900 38 5 ys
Trout 638 »
That of the 2
Gadus lota 481 place. bs 36
9° in aplace
Frog BODy. | alte: : ms 20
Turtle 1506. Pee to 3
Fel 600 > if .

By drawing only a little blood from a large animal, these gentle-
men tried to determine the relative natures of arterial and yenous
blood. ‘The results on a sheep were as follows :—

On the Action of the Blood. 119

Serum. Blood,
Water. Album. Water. Particles. Album.

Arterial blood from the carotid 915 85 8293 935 772
Venous from the jugular 915 85 8364 861 775

Those of the dog’ and of the cat present differences in the same
direction. .10,000 of arterial blood usually contain 100 of glo-

bules, beyond what venous blood does. They took care in these

analyses, always to draw off the venous blood before the arterial,
lest ihe venous absorption, if it occurred, might come to favour the
relation, whose existence they have here indicated. The following
are the general conclusions drawn from their memoir.

1. That the arterial blood contains more particles (corpuscles)
than the venous blood.

2, That birds are the animals whose blood is richest in corpuscles.

3. That the mammifera come next ; and it would appear that
the carnivora have more of them, than the herbivora.

4, That cold-blooded animals possess the fewest.

Lastly, a direct proof is obtained in their experiments, of venous
absorption, after blood-letting. Thus, a robust cat in good health
was powerfully blooded from the carotid ; the blood afforded

Serum. Blood.

Water, Album. Water. Part. Album.

900 100 7938 1184 878

After 2 minutes, blood of jugular, 916 84 8092 1163 745

Idem, after 5 minutes . |. - 915 85 8293 935 772
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxiii. 50.

Messrs. Prevost and Dumas have published, in the same num-
ber of the Annales, an additional paper on the blood; from which
we have extracted the following facts.

Among the causes which may have an influence on the propor-
tions, or the nature, of the constituent principles of the blood,
there are certain pathological accidents to which, in the sequel,
they were led to pay particular attention. The secretory appara-
tus which it traverses, has always excited the curiosity of phy-
siologists. It would seem, at the first view, that what occurs in
a secreting organ, could not be appreciated with accuracy, could
we not subject to analysis the blood which is carried into it, that
which leaves it, and, lastly, the secreted liquid itself; and the
slightest reflection unanswerably proves, that the hope of obtaining
such data is vain. But in certain cases there is a legitimate
method of eluding this difficulty, and we shall here explain it in a
few words.

The blood distributed to a secreting organ arrives at it ina
certain state, experiences in its passage through it, a certain
change, and returns into the circulating mass, where it is mingled
with the whole sanguine liquid. But if by any means whatsoever,
the secreting organ be deprived of its influence, the fluid travers-

420 Progress of Foreign Science.

ing it would undergo no more alteration in its specific character,
than if it passed through an apparatus of simple capillary vessels.
Every aliquot portion of this fluid would therefore induce, in the cir-
culating mass, a change at first entirely inappreciable; but at the
end of acertain period, a multitude of impressions of a like kind
having ensued, it might be presumed, with some reason, that the
blood would resemble, in whole, or in part, the fraction which flows
in the ordinary state to the secretory organ. It might then be easily
submitted to analysis, and its composition be compared with that
of the same liquid in its regular condition.

At the first view, it seems difficult to neutralize the action of a
secretory organ; and whatever measures be adopted for the .pur-
pose, they will always be open to criticism. The removal of the
organ puts an end to all these objections, and fulfils perfectly the

-above conditions. M. Richerand examined the effects produced
by the ligature of the ureters, and he found that the secretion of
urine continued; that these canals became gorged, as well as the
kidneys, and that a general. affection, to which he gave the name
of urinary fever, soon supervened, the necessary consequence of
which was death, at the end of a few days. But this operation
leaves us in doubt, whether the urine was formed, and then re-ab-
sorbed, or if the kidney discharged its functions in only a partial
manner. He next proceeded to the removal of the kidneys, which
afforded him some singular results. If only one be removed, the
animal is not affected; but whenever both these organs come to
fail at the same time, it sinks under a_ pathological influence,
which terminates in a fatal manner after a few days. The gall-
bladder is found, on dissection, to be gorged ; and this secretion
seems to M. Richerand to replace, in these circumstances, the
action of the kidneys. In repeating experiments of this kind,
MM. Prevost and.Dumas operated chiefly on dogs and cats, as
rabbits supported the operation very ill; which in other respects
presents no real difficulty. A lean animal is selected, and. an
incision is made through the integuments of the abdomen, which
commencing at the inner third (éers internes) of the last rib, and
some lines below it, extends more or less, according to the size of
the animal, along the internal edge of the guadratus lumborum
muscle. The index of the left hand is introduced into the wound,
taking care not to pierce through the peritoneum. The kidney is
gently detached from its adhesions, and extracted by means either
of a hook, or polypus forceps. It is now separated from the
body, having previously fixed a ligature round its vessels. A few
stitches of a suture restore the divided muscles into contact, and
prevent all danger of hernia. The skin is stitched’ in the same
way.

__ When we wish to observe the physiological phenomena which
follow the removal of the kidneys, it is better to cut out first the

On the Action of the Blood. 121

right kidney, on account of its connexions with the liver, and to
allow an interval of fifteen days between this operation and the
following. The first, if well performed, affects in no respect the
health of the animal, whether it be carnivorous or herbivorous.
At the end of three days the wound is cicatrized, and no unplea-
santsymptoms appear. When the animal loses the second kidney,
it is rarely affected before the third day. During this interval the
wound is closed; the animal resumes its liveliness and activity ;

teats well, drinks little, sleeps as usual; its temperature, breath-

ing, and pulse do not vary in any very decided manner. But on
the expiration of this period, brown, copious, and very liquid
stools, as well as vomitings of the same nature, announce the dis-
turbance introduced into the constitution. Febrile exacerbations

raise the heat to 43° C., while at other times it sinks to 33°. The

pulse becomes small, hard, and rapid; the number of beats amount-
ing occasionally to 200 in a minute. The respiration is frequent,
short, and, at the last periods, oppressed. Finally, all the above
symptoms are aggravated, the debility augments, and the animal
dies between the fifth and the ninth day. If the two kidneys be
extracted at once, the resulting inflammation abridges this period,
and the subject does not last beyond the fourth or fifth day.
‘The examination of the dead body, exhibits constantly the fol-
lowing appearances. 1. The effusion of a clear limpid serum into
the ventricles of the brain; the quantity amounting sometimes to
an ounce, in a dog of middle size. 2. The lungs seem to be a

little denser than in the healthy state; and the bronchia contain

much mucus. 3. The liver appears more or less inflamed, and
the gall-bladder is filled with a greenish, or deep-brown bile.
4. The intestines contain abundance of liquid fecal matter, of the

‘same colour with the bile. 5. The bladder of urine is powerfully

contracted. To these symptoms there is sometimes superadded,

particularly in herbivorous animals, a dangerous inflammation

from the operation.

Considering that a dog of middle size, in its healthy state, se~
cretes a dram and upwards of urea in the 24 hours, MM. Prevost
and Dumas entertained the hope of deciding the question relative

to the functions of the kidney, by the examination of the blood of

the nephrotomized animals. They were bled when their feeble and
languishing health made it be presumed that they had only a short
time to live: and their blood was examined with attention. It
was first of all perceived to be more serous than the blood of the
same animals in the healthy state, and the serum itself contained
a more considerable proportion of water. This ought to be ex-
pected, if we bear in mind that the cutaneous transpiration is null
in these animals, and that it cannot therefore restore the equi-
librium which the annibilation of the kidneys has just destroyed,
The serum and clot, dried as usual, were treated with boiling water
as long as this menstryum had any perceptible action on them

122 Progress of Foreign Science.

The evaporated washings were subjected to alkohol, which dis-
solved the matter distinguished by the name of muco-extractive
substance, by Dr. Marcet, one of the first philosophers who charac-
terized it. M. Berzelius has since shewn, that this product might
be considered as a mixture of lactate of soda, and a peculiar animal
matter. Healthy blood having been exposed to perfectly similar
treatment, it was observed, that the blood of the animals operated
on afforded an alkoholic residuum twice more considerable. In
both cases, it was of a brown colour, soluble in water and alkohol,
strongly absorbent of moisture from the air, and precipitating the
acetate and nitrate of lead; but that obtained from the blood of
the nephrotomized animals concreted into a white crystalline mass
with nitric acid. Water dissolved almost entirely the latter pro-
duct,-and the aqueous solution saturated by means of a little car-
bonate of soda then evaporated, furnished a saline residuum from
which alkohol separated anew the animal matter, which appeared
with its primitive properties. These different characters, indicated
the presence of an animal matter susceptible of combination with
oxide of lead, as also of a considerable quantity of urea, and a
pretty large proportion of lactate of soda. When the combustible
ingredients were destroyed by the action of heat, the last substance
left much carbonate of soda.

The urea was now purified, by converting the residuum of the
alkoholic treatment, into nitrate; and this compound was left on
unsized paper for some hours. Thus the whole lactate of soda
was separated by its deliquescence, and sinking into the paper.
On re-dissolving the nitrate in water, there remained a small re-
siduum, which appears to be a combination of nitric acid with the
animal matter, precipitable by lead. The evaporation of the liquid
re-produced the nitrate of urea, in perfectly white pearly spangles.
It is easy by the known methods, to extract from them, the urea in
its pure crystalline state. By igneous analysis with oxide of cop-
per, MM. Prevost and Dumas ascertained the urea to be the same
as that obtained from urine.

Important physiological corollaries may be deduced, from the
existence of urea in flie blood, independently of the action of the
kidneys. This organ appears to be merely an eliminating surface,
analogous to the skin, as Dr. Rollo long ago supposed*, We are
still ignorant of the place where urea and the several ingredients
of the urine are formed. If any thing can throw light on this sub-
ject, it must, probably, be the examination of different urines in very
decided pathological cases. In fact, every chemist knows that
the urine of patients labouring under chronic hepatitis, contains
little or no urea; which would seem to prove, that the functions of
the liver are necessary to its formation.

, The true seat of diabetes has been the subject of many learned

See

_ * On Diabetes, p. 308.

On the Action of the Blood. 123

discussions, which have, however, left the matter undecided. Some
experiments, to be afterwards detailed, lead MM. Prevost and
Dumas'to think; 1. That the urea is eliminated by the kidneys in
proportion as it is formed; 2. That when this organ is extracted,
the blood retains the whole of the urea. Now if it be admitted,
that the same thing happens with the saccharine matter, it may
without difficulty be conceived that in the cases where the kidney
does its duty, the whole sugar disappears from the blood, and that
in those where it performs its functions in a partial manner, sensi-
ble quantities of sugar will still be found in that liquid. It cannot
be expected to be found in any very notable mass, as long as the
action of the kidney has not been entirely destroyed. These se-
veral considerations seem to them to establish that it is with the
sugar of diabetic persons as with the urea, and they have some
reasons for thinking that this principle exerts a diuretic action,
from which the chief symptoms of diabetes may be deduced. We
may also find here illustrations of some phenomena of the gout,
which confirm the discovery itself. The presence of concretions of
lithate of soda in the joints might have led us to think that this
principle existed in the blood. We know besides, that the urinary
secretion is loaded with a large portion of lithic acid, when the
paroxysm affects the kidneys, and that the articulations briskly
attacked, are the only ones which contain the concretions of the
alkaline lithate. If analysis proved, that at the beginning of the
attack the blood contains more lithic acid than the kidney can
possibly draw off, we would recognise in the general disturbance
which forms the commencement of the paroxysm, the result of this
morbid action of the blood, and in the point affected, a mo-
mentary seat of the secretion. The characters of the urine will
henceforth acquire a very great interest, as they may serve to in-
dicate the state of the mass of the blood, and the kind of alter-

-ation which this important fluid has undergone.

Physiologists, curious of ascertaining for themselves the truth of
the facts announced in this Memoir, will not experience much dif-
ficulty. Five ounces of blood from a dog which had lived without
kidneys for only two days, afforded more than twenty grains of urea;
and two ounces of the blood of a cat, in the same circumstances,
yielded more than ten grains of it. These quantities are perfectly
appreciable by the least experienced chemists. The above analy-
ses have been successfully repeated by M. Vauquelin; and his
pupil M. Segalas has shewn that urea is a very powerful diuretic.

14, On the Electro-Magnetic Multiplier of Schweigger, and on some
of its applications. By M. Oersted.

Immediately after the discovery of electro-magnetism, M. Schweig-
ger, Professor at Halle, invented an apparatus well adapted

124 Progress of Foreign Science.

for displaying, by means of the magnetic needle, the feeblest
electrical currents. The effect of this, multiplier is founded on
the equal action exercised on the needle by all the parts of a
conducting wire, when it transmits a current. When a portion of
this wire is bent, like ab c, (Fig. 1.), if the two branches ab and
bc are in a vertical plane, and if a necdle d e is suitably suspended
in the same plane, we may easily conceive, that the needle must
receive an impulsion double of what one of those branches would
have communicated. In fact, the impulsions given to the needle
by the two horizontal portions of the wire are added together.
To be satisfied of this, we have merely to observe, that in the
actual arrangement, these portions are percurned by the electrical
current in two different directions. The upper wire, and the under
wire cause the declination of the needle to the two opposite sides
only in the case where electricity moves in it, in the same direction.
We shall therefore increase the effect by giving the conducting wire
several convolutions round about the needle, as is shewn in Fig. 2.
It is this which constitutes the electro-magnetic multiplicator.

Fig. 3. represents this apparatus according to the form which
M. Oersted has given it, which however differs from that of

Oersted on Electro-Magnetism. 125

M.Schweigger, merely in parts not essential. AA is the foot of
the instrument ; CC,CC, are two uprights, which carry a frame BB,
in the border of which there is a groove, where the successive
turns of the multiplying wire lodge. DD is an upright, destined
to support the wire, from which the needle is to be suspended.
All these parts are of wood. EE is a wire of metal, which passes
with friction through a hole, pierced in the upper part of the
upright DD. To this, metallic wire is attached by a little wax,
the silk-worm thread EF ; the latter bears at its extremity a small
(folded) double triangle of paper, on which reposes the little mag-
netic needle. At G, is a hollow cylinder, in which the thread of
suspension passes freely, and which prevents the multiplying
wire from touching it. There may be seen also beneath the
needle, a graduated circle for measuring the deviations. The
multiplying wire is of silvered copper ; its thickness is one-fourth
of a millimetre (about 0.01 of an inch Eng.). Jt 7s wrapped
through its whole length in silk thread. Thus all electric commu-
nication is avoided between the different parts of this wire, which
are wound over one another in the groove of the frame B B. H and
J represent the two extremities of the wire.

The use of this apparatus may be conceived almost without
explanation. To multiply the effect which a galvanic arrangement
has on the needle, the communications have only to be established,
so that the multiplying wire may become a part of the circuit.
The electricity developed by the contact of two discs, the one of
zine, and the other of copper, when nothing but water is employed
for the liquid conductor, is perfectly appreciable with this appara-
tus. We mayin the same way make galvanic actions manifest, which
would be too feeble to be perceived by employing a prepared frog.
When we wish to render evident an extremely weak action, which
gives a scarcely visible deviation, we must open the circuit imme-
diately after closing it, and then close it anew every time that the
needle is on the eve of terminating the return of the preceding
oscillation. The apparatus may be also rendered more delicate by
placing in HH a small magnetized needle, in the position requisite
for diminishing the force with which the suspended needle tends
to preserve its direction. When it is wished to make use of the
multiplier for electro-magnetic actions somewhat more consider-
able, much thicker conducting wires must be employed. Without
this precaution, there might be, instead of an increase, a dimi-
nution of effect, caused by the imperfection of the conductor.
M. Poggendorff has made a happy application of the multiplier to
examine the order of the conductors in the galvanic series. He
found also that some metals gave, at the instant of their being
plunged into concentrated nitric acid, an effect contrary to what is
manifested some moments afterwards. This change does not take
place with dilute nitric acid, The metallic couples which shewed

126 Progress of Foreign Science.

this peculiarity, are lead and bismuth; lead and tin; iron and
bismuth; cobalt and antimony. M. Avogrado says, that the effect
which occurs at the instant of immersion of the metals in the con-
centrated acid, is the same with that obtained with the dilute acid,
and that it is only in the long run that the contrary etfect is
exhibited.

If we plunge, at two different instants, two pieces of the same
metal into an acid capable of attacking them, that of the two
pieces first plunged will comport itself towards the other, like the
most positive metal. ‘Two plates of zinc, with dilute sulphuric or
muriatic acid, answer well. Of the metals in the following series,
each comports itself as a negative body, in reference to all those
which follow it; and as a positive body with regard to all those
which precede it, platinum, gold, silver, arsenic, antimony,
cobalt, nickel, conper, bismuth, iron, tin, lead, and zinc. These
results do not agree with those formerly obtained with Volta’s
condenser; but the difference may arise from the degree of con-
centration of the acid. As gold and platinum are not attacked by
nitric acid, these metals give no electric developement, unless aqua
regia be used for them. This is a new proof of the necessity of
a chemical action for the production of a voltaic current.—Aunzn.
de Chim. et de Phys, xxii. 358,

15. On some new Thermo-electric Experiments made by Baron
Fourier and M. Oersted.

M. Seebeck has proved that an electrical current can be es-
tablished in a circuit formed exclusively of solid conductors, by
disturbing merely the equilibrium of temperature. We are thus in
possession of a new kind of electrical circuits, which may be called
thermo-electric, in distinction of the galvanic circuits, which it
may be henceforth proper to denominate hydro-electric. A ques-
tion interesting to electro-magnetism, as well as to the theory of
the movement of caloric in bodies, here presents itself. ‘The object
is to examine, if the thermo-electric effects may be increased by
the alternate repetition of bars of different materials, and how we
must proceed in order to obtain such effects. It does not appear *
that the author of the discovery of thermo-electricity has hitherto
directed his inquiries towards this point. The apparatus which
MM. Fourier and Oersted first employed, was composed of three
bars of bismuth and three others of antimony, soldered alter-
nately together, so as to form a hexagon, constituting a thermo-
electric circuit, which includes three elements. The length of the
bars was about 12 centimetres (4.7 inches Eng.), their breadth
15 millimeters (0.59 of an inch), and their thickness 4 millimetres
(about 0.16 of an inch.) This circuit was put upon two supports,
and in a horizontal position, observing to give to one of the sides

On Thermo-Electro-magnetism. 127

of the hexagon the direction of the magnetic needle. A compass
needle was then placed below this side, and as near to it as possible.
On heating one of the solderings with the flame of a lamp, they
produced a very sensible effect on the needle. On heating two
solderings, not contiguous, the deviation became considerably
greater. When, lastly, the temperature of the three altérnate
solderings was heated, a still greater effect was produced. They
likewise made use of an inverse process, that is to say, they re-
duced to zero, by melting ice, the temperature of one, or more
solderings of the circuit. It is readily conceived that, in this case,
the solderings which are not cooled must be regarded as heated
in reference to the others. This manner of operating allows
the different experiments to become comparable; otherwise the
Jaws of this class of phenomena could not be discovered. By
combining the action of the ice with that of the flame, namely, by
heating the three solderings that are not refrigerating, they arrived
at a very considerable effect indeed ; the deviation of the needle
amounted then to 60°.

They afterwards continued these experiments with an apparatus
composed of 22 bars of bismuth, and 22 of antimony, much
thicker than those of the hexagon; and became convinced that
each element contributes to the total effect. Having opened the
circuit in one point, they soldered to the separated bars, small brass
cups, which were subsequently filled with mercury, in order to
establish at pleasure a sure communication between their extre-
mities by means of metallic wires. A copper wire, a decimetre in
length, and a millimetre in thickness, was nearly adequate to
restore the complete communication. With two similar wires
placed alongside of each other, the communication was perfect.
A wire of the same diameter, but more than a metre long, trans-
mitted the current pretty well; while a wire of platinum, half a
millimetre in diameter (about ;1, of an inch), and 4: decimetres
long, established the communication so imperfectly, that the
deviation of the compass-needle did not amount to 1°. When
the interposed body was a slip of paper moistened with a satu-
rated solution of soda, no appreciable effect was observed. It is
worthy of remark, that an apparatus capable of affording electro-
magnetic effects of such magnitude, produced no sensible chemical
action or ignition. They further add, that the effect of the com-
plex electro-magnetic circuit, is much inferior to the sum of the
insulated effects, which the same elements could producé when
employed in the formation of simple circuits.

_ Details of the Experiments of the preceding note, and ulterior
Observations.—The bars made use of in the following experiments
were parallelopipeds, having for their transverse section, a square
15 millimetres in each side (about 0.6 of an inch square.) ‘Lhey

128 Progress of Foreign Science.

composed a rectangular circuit abde (Fig, 4.) One half,
acd wasantimony; the other abd bismuth. These two halves
were soldered together. There were thus two adjacent sides
of antimony, and two of bismuth. The length of the greater side
was 12 centimetres; that of the other 8. The circuit having been
placed horizontally on supports, with two of its sides in the
direction of the magnetic meridian, the needle was placed upon
one of them. After leaving the apparatus alone, to allow it to
assume throughout the equilibrium of temperature, ice was put on
one of the two solderings which joined the heterogeneous metals.
The needle then showed a deviation of 22° or 23°, the atmospheric
temperature being at 14° C. When the temperature of the air
was 20°, they observed a deviation of 30 degrees.

2d Experiment.—Another circuit (Fig. 7.) was formed nearly of
the same size, but in which the opposite sides were of the same
metal; for example, a 4 and cd were bismuth, ac and bd an-
timony. The apparatus was put in action by placing ice on two
opposite angles. ‘This circuit produced a deviation of 30° or 31°,
in the same circumstances in which the simple circuit afforded
only 22° or 23°. In this circuit the temperature soon comes to
an equilibrium, so that the thermo-electric effect appears weaker
in it than it would have been, but for this circumstance.

=
S
=|
=
=
=
=
=
=

UFO

D
3d Experiment.—A circuit AB DC (Fig. 5.) whose contour had
double the length of that of the circuit in the first experiment, was
brought into action by ice placed on one of its solderings. The
deviation was only from 13° to 15°, under the same conditions, in
which the circuit (Fig. 4.) gave 22° to 23°.
4th Experiment.—Another circuit (Fig. 6.) was formed of the
same length with that of the preceding experiment, but four alter-
nations were given it, or four thermo-electric elements ab; a de-
notes antimony and 0 bismuth. ‘This circuit was made active by

On Thermo-electro-magnetism. 129

ice placed on the solderings at every two intervals. The deviation
of the magnetic needle was in this case 313°, in the same circum-
stances in which. the simple circuit of equal length, in the third
experiment, produced a deviation of only 13° or 15°. But it must
be recollected that the circuit of the second experiment, which
had only half the length of circumference, and half the number of
elements, afforded nearly the same effect. Hence we perceive,
what will be confirmed by ulterior experiments, that the deviations
of the necdle, produced by the thermo-electric circuit, augment
with the number of elements when the length of the circuit re-
mains the same, but that they become feebler in proportion as the
length is increased. It is seen, moreover, that these two effects
counterbalance each other, as will be made more evident in the
sequel. Hence the effect of a circuit does not change when the
length of its circumference augments in the same proportion as the
number of its elements; or in other terms, that elements of equal
length, form circuits which produce equal deviations, whatever
may be the number of these elements. These results were con-
firmed, by comparing the effects of circuits of one, two, three,
four, six, thirteen, and twenty elements. In order to form com-
plex circuits capable of producing a very great effect on the
magnetic needle, very short elements must be employed. One
inconvenience, it is true, will thence arise; the equilibrium of tem-
perature will be rapidly restored in the circuit, unless with regard
to the alternate solderings, one be put in communication with a
continual source of heat, and the other, with a continual source of
cold. The thermo-electric action may be rendered sensible by
means of the electro-magnetic multiplier, but the effect is not so
good as by the preceding simple arrangement. Hence it is in-
ferred that the thermo-electric circuit contains electrical forces, in
much greater quantity than any hydro-electric circuit of equal
size; while, on the other hand, the znfensity of the forces in the
latter circuit is much more powerful than in the other. In the
first electro-magnetic experiments it was well seen that the de~
viation of the compass-needle, produced by the electrical current,
was regulated by the quantity of the electrical forces, and not by
their intensity -(action électro-métrique.) The considerable de-
viation, therefore, which the thermo-electric current produces, is
an indication of the great quantity of foree which it contains.
They tried the effect of the complex circuit on the needle of the
multiplier, and found that it increased considerably with the num-
ber of the elements of the circuit, even in cases where this mul-
tiplication of the elements added nothing to the effect on the
simple compass needle. It appears, therefore, that the intensity
of the forces increases, in the circuit, with the number of its
elements, precisely as happens in the pile of Volta. The circuit
had no sensible effect, however, on the needle, when the commu-

Vou, XVI. K

130 Progress of Foreign Science.

nication was established by the wire of the multiplier. The
thermo-electric circuit afforded no sensible taste, when it was
made to act on the tongue; but on a prepared frog, it exhibited
the effect of two metals slightly dissimilar. This result she ws the
electroscopical delicacy of the nerves of the frog.

Fig4. Fig.7
TT 7 ye MAUTTLLATTNALN TANT NTT

TTT d

These philosophers conclude, that the thermo-electric circuit
will afford a quantity of electricity incomparably greater than
what could be derived from any other apparatus hitherto invented.
‘‘ If, by means of the ancient circuits,” say they, ‘‘ water, acids,
and alkalis have been decomposed, it is not beyond the limits of
probability to suppose, that by the new ones, the metals them-
selves may come to be decomposed; and thus the great revolution
in chemistry, commenced with the pile of Volta, will be com-
pleted.”—Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., xxii. 375.

18. On the Climate of the Canaries, by M. de Buch.

In this long memoir, which we have no room to extract, we find
the following table of the mean temperatures for each month, at
Sainte-Croix-de-Teneriffe. It is the result of very exact observa-
tions, made by Don Francesco Escolar.

Centigrade. Centigrade.
January . . 17.69° JalFis onl) ROSE
February . . 17.94 August . 26,05
March . « 19.54 September . 25,24
April .. . '. 19.62 October . 23.70
May : « 22.29 November . 21.35
Jane..0> oil 23.0% December . 19.06

Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., xxii. 281.
19. Reflections on Volcanoes. By M. Gay Lussac.

Two hypotheses may be framed concerning the cause which
maintains volcanic phenomena. According to the one, the earth
should be still in a state of incandescence at a certain depth below
its surface, as the observations recently made in mines, on the
progressive increase of its temperature, would seem to indicate ;
and this heat should be the principal cause of volcanic phenomena.
M. Gay Lussac assigns valid reasons for the rejection of this hy-

\

Gay Lussac on Volcanoes. 131

pothesis. According to the other, their principal cause’is a very
energetic, and as yet unsaturated, affinity between substances, which
a fortuitous contact would permit them to obey; whence would
result a heat adequate to melt the lavas, and to elevate them, by
the pressure of elastic fluids, to the surface of the earth*.

On consulting analogy, the substances capable of penetrating
into the volcanic fires in masses sufficient to feed them, are air or
water, or both together. M. Gay Lussac shews satisfactorily
enough, that the instrumentality of air need not be taken into ac-
count. That water penetrates into the fires of volcanoes cannot
be called in question. ‘There is no great eruption, which is not
followed with an enormous quantity of aqueous vapours, which
condensing afterwards, by cold, on the summits of the volcanic
mountains, fall back again in abundant rains, accompanied with
frightful thunders, as was witnessed in the famous eruption of
Vesuvius in 1794, which destroyed Torre del Greco. There have
also been observed in the daily ejections of volcanoes, aqueous
vapours, and muriatic acid gas, whose formation it is hardly
possible to conceive in the interior of volcanoes, without the
concurrence of water.

Admitting that water may be one of the principal agents of vol-
canoes, it remains for us to examine the part which it probably
plays. On the second hypothesis, it is necessary for the water
to meet in the interior of the earth substances to which it has an
affinity, sufficiently powerful for its decomposition, and for giving
rise to a considerable disengagement of heat.

Now the lavas vomited by volcanoes, being essentially com-
posed of silica, alumina, lime, soda, and oxide of iron, all oxidized
bodies, and having no longer an action on water, it is not in this
state, that they must have originally existed in the volcanoes ; and
from what is now known of their true nature, since the beautiful
discoveries of Sir H. Davy, they should exist there, if not wholly,
at least in part, in the metallic state. In this case it can without
difficulty be conceived, that by their contact with water, they may
be decomposed, be changed into lavas, and produce sufficient
heat, to explain the greater part of voleanic phenomena. One of
the consequences, and perhaps the most important, would be the
disengagement, through the crater of the volcano, of an enormous
quantity of hydrogen, either free or combined with some other
principle, if it be really water which maintains by its oxygen,
the voleanic fires. It does not, however, appear that the disen-
gagement of hydrogen is very frequent in volcanoes. Although
during his residence at Naples, in 1805, with his friends, MM.
Alexandre de Humboldt, and Leopold de Buch, M. Gay Lussac

* This idea is due to Sir H. Davy. It was a natural inference from his dis-
covery of the metallic bases of alkalis and earths.—ditor.
K 2 :

132 Progress of Foreign Science.

- was a witness at Vesuvius of frequent explosions which projected
the melted lava more than 200 metres high, he never perceived
any inflammation of hydrogen. Each explosion was succeeded by
volumes of a thick and black smoke, which would not have failed
to take fire, had they been formed of hydrogen, as they were
traversed by red matters more highly heated than would have been
necessary for their accension. This smoke, the evident cause of
the explosions, coatained therefore other fluids than hydrogen ;
but what was its true nature *?

Admitting, says he, that it is water which furnishes the oxygen
to the volcanoes, it must, since its hydrogen is not disengaged in
a free state, at least most usually, become engaged in some new
combination. This cannot be into any compound inflammable
on contact of air, by means of heat ; but it might happen to form
muriatic acid with chlorine. We have in fact several observations
at the present day, on the presence of this acid in the vapours of
Vesuvius ; and according to that excellent observer M. Breislack,
it should be at least as abundant in them, as sulphurous acid.
M. Menard de la Groye, and M. Monticelli regard the presence
of muriatic acid in the vapours of Vesuvius, as incontestable.
M. Gay Lussac suggests that this position should be further ve-
rified by putting water containing a little potash, in open vessels,
at several places of this volcano. This water would gradually
become charged with acid vapours, and at the end of some time, it
would be easy to determine their nature.

If the combustible metals (silicium and aluminum) be not in
the state of chlorides, the muriatic acid must then be a secondary
result. It proceeds from the action of water on some chloride
(probably that of sodium,) an action which is promoted by the
mutual affinity of the oxides. The production of muriatic acid
by the concurrence of water, and some oxide, on a chloride, ought
to be very frequent in volcanoes. The lavas contain chlorides,
for they exhale them abundantly on contact of the air. MM. Mon-
ticelli and Covelli have extracted by simple washings with boil-
ing water, more than 9 per cent. of sea salt from the lava of
Vesuvius of 1822. It exhales from the mouth of volcanoes ; very
fine crystals of it being seen in the scoriz that cover the incan-
descent lava.

It is known that the lava, especially those which are spongy,
contain much specular iron. It forms occasionally a kind of
‘veins ; and coats with beautiful micaceous crystals the walls of
galleries still too hot for remaining long in them. Now, the
peroxide of iron being very fixed at much higher temperatures

* We are surprised at the above inference. Surely M. Gay Lussac cannot
have forgotten Sir H. Davy’s experiments on’ the non-combustibility of hy-
drogen, when mixed with muriatic acid gas, &c.—Editor.

Gay Lussac on Volcanoes. 133

than that of lava, it is by no means probable that it has been
volatilized in that state. It has, most likely, been primitively
in the state of chloride. If, indeed, we take protochloride of
iron which has been fused, expose it to a dull red heat in a glass
tube, and then pass over its surface a current of steam, we shall
obtain much muriatic acid and hydrogen gases, and there will
remain in the tube black deutoxide of iron. The perchloride of
iron is very volatile; and becomes so hot with water, that, on the
large scale, the mixture might become incandescent. If chlorides
of silictum and aluminum exist in the bowels of the earth, their
action with water would be far more energetic. M. Gay Lussac
does not believe in the agency of sulphur in volcanoes ; and finds
a difficulty in accounting for the presence of sulphurous acid, if it
really exist. He shews that basalts, cannot owe their black colour
to carbon; for in that case, by ignition, metallic iron would be
formed in them. He thinks that itis sea water which most usually
penetrates into the heart of volcanoes. He illustrates the extent of
the earthquakes which accompany eruptions, by the vibratory
effect produced cn a long beam, when one end of it is struck with
a pin-head ; and by the shaking of vast edifices, and of even the
profound quarries at Paris, by the rattling of carriages on the
streets. Why should it be astonishing, therefore, concludes he,
that a very strong commotion in the bowels of the earth shall
make it tremble throughout a radius of several hundred leagues.—
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxii. 415.

134

Art. X. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS,

Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, in which are explained the pre-
parations in the Hunterian Collection, illustrated by Engravings ;
to which is subjoined ‘‘ Synopsis Systematis Regni Animalis nunc
primum ex Ovi Modificationibus propositum,” by Sin EvVERARD
Home Bart. V.P.R.S., F.S.A., F.L.S., &c.

Turse lectures were read before the College of Surgeons, in the years
1810, 1813, and 1822, and they contain a connected view of those
discoveries and researches in physiology and comparative anatomy,
communicated by the author to the Royal Society, and which,
since the year 1784, have from time to time made their appearance
in the Philosophical Transactions. ‘They now form four splendid
volumes in quarto, two of letter press, and two of illustrative en-
gravings, from the admirable drawings of Messrs. Bauer and Clift.

Although the first two volumes were published several years ago,
we are not aware of their having been noticed in any periodical
journal or review; we shall therefore endeavour to give a succinct
account of the whole work, which is the move necessary, as many of
the inquiries, commenced in the first volume, are continued and
concluded inthe third. The following is the order in which the
author has arranged his subjects.

1. Thestructure of parts connected with motion.
2. The structure of parts connected with digestion,
3. The Blood.

4. The Brain and Nerves.

5. The organs of Seeing and Hearing.

6. The Heart.

7. Generation.

8. Classification of Animals,

Before we enter upon our analysis of the author’s experiments and
observations on these very different topics, we must beg leave to
express our regret that he has not distinguished these inquiries,
which are entirely and peculiarly his own, from those which were
commenced, or suggested, by the late John Hunter, from whom he
drew his first sources of information, and to whom he evidently owes
much of that diligence in inquiry, and activity in research, which
stamps his philosophical investigations, no less than his eminent
professional career. We should also have been better pleased had
he told us a little more of the discoveries of other anatomists and
physiologists ; such information, accompanied by proper references
to authorities, would have added to the value and interest of the
work before us, and we regret that our own time is too much

Home on Comparative Anatomy. 135

engaged to fill up this chasm, for which much labour and inquiry
would be requisite. Upon the present occasion, therefore, we shall
consider it our first duty and main object, to point out and discuss
that which peculiarly belongs to Sir Everard Home, canvassing those
views and opinions which are indisputably his own, and endeavouring
to appreciate the originality and merit of his discoveries. ;

The statements respecting the powers of motion in vegetables, as
well as many ingenious remarks upon the minute structure of muscle
and its combination with elasticity, are, we presume, to be ascribed
to Mr. Hunter, but the discovery of the structure of the left ventricle
of the heart, is due to our author; at least he made it known in the
year 1790, and it has never been claimed by any other anatomist,
but acknowledged as correct, and taught in our Schools since that
time : it is one of the most beautiful mechanical arrangements of the
animal frame, and we cannot better communicate it to our readers
than in the author’s words.

«“ The muscular structure of the left ventricle of the human heart,
detached from the other parts, is an oviform hollow muscle, but more
pointed at its apex than the small end of a common egg; it is made
up of two distinct sets of fibres lying upon each other. ‘Those which
compose the outer set have their origin around the root of the aorta,
and in a spiral manner surround the ventricle to its point, where
they terminate, after having made a close half turn.”

“‘ The fibres of the inner set are similar in their mode of surround-
ing the cavity, and in their termination, but they decussate the other
set through their whole course, and the two sets are blended together
where they terminate.”

“‘ Inthis muscle the fibres, by their spiral direction, are nearly one
fourth part longer than the distance between their origin and ter-
mination, and the two sets acting in different directions, one half less
contraction is necessary in each fibre than would otherwise have
been the case; while the turn both sets make at the apex, fixes it
and prevents lateral motion.

On the growth of shell and of bone there is nothing deserving of
particular notice, but the formation of the intervertebral joints in
fishes is curious as baffling artificial imitation. The illustration of
this subject is taken from the Squalus Maximus, and it appears that
each joint is a cavity filled with a fluid and forming a kind of ball
and socket.

The subject of progressive motion, commenced in the first, is con-
tinued in the third volume, and is extremely interesting in its details
and illustrations. The observations on the feet of the fly and other
animals that walk against gravity, we believe are original and due
to our author ; they are illustrated by excellent engravings from Mr.
Bauer’s pencil, from which it appears that the animal is supported
by a mechanism resembling cupping glasses. It is curious that the
hind feet of that enormous animal the Walrus, are constructed upon

136. Analysis of Scientific Books.

the same principle, to enable it to retain itself. upon the slippery
rocks which it climbs, and thus to prevent its falling backwards into
the sea.

On the subject of digestion the author has taken infinite pains,
both as regards the anatomy of the organs and the phenomena of the
process ; he deserves to be attentively consulted by all those who
venture upon that difficult investigation, and when we find from his
experiments that the horny part of the bird’s gizzard coagulates milk
in the same way as the gastric secretion, and thus appears to a su-
perficial observer to possess the power of digesting, we cannot but
smile at disputes which have arisen among physiologists of repute
respecting that very important but recondite process, some main-
taining, whilst others deny, that the division of the gastric nerves
impedes or prevents that process altogether; while others tell us that
by bringing their divided ends into contact, their functions are pre-
served and the operation continued. But how is all this ascertained ?
It is said by fair and convincing experiments. But how was the
digestion demonstrated ? Why, two rabbits were crammed with parsley
previous to the experiment, and afterwards, upon examining the
contents of the stomach, the parsley was digested in the one case, and
unmixed, unaltered in the other.—We purposely abstain from any
remarks upon the electrical part of this inquiry, but are inclined to
ask, in which cavity of the rabbit’s stomach the parsley was found ?
the stomach of that animal having two cavities, the one to prepare
and macerate, the other to dissolve and digest.— We believe it was in
the former—and in what state ? Either upon the surface, above the
other contents, unchanged, or more or less mixed with the other
contents, and consequently, more or less acted upon by the juices
with which they were previously imbued. Allowing, then, the greatest
latitude for deduction, we ask what such experiment, proves ?..: It
proves, supposing all preliminaries correct, that when the nerves are
divided and their ends turned asunder and kept separated, that the
muscular coats of both cavities of the stomach cease to act; but that
when the divided ends of the nerves are left in contact, or again
brought together, the motion of both portions of the stomach is re-
newed, and the contents blended together, this being the end for
which each muscular action of the stomach is ordained. Bat all
this is entirely independent of digestion properly so plc aaa
is performed in the other cavity of the stomach.

The formation of the teeth is a very curious subject of inquiry, es-
pecially as relates to their variety of formation according to the
different purposes for which they are intended in the different. tribes
of animals. The grinders of the Elephant furnish us with a very
remarkable assemblage of three substances of different degrees of
induration, which: our author shews (Vol. III.) to contep peta in
texture to bone, ivory and enamel.

Concerning the stomach and its functions, many interesting aoibo

Home on Comparative Anatomy. 137

will be found in these volumes, particularly respecting the discovery
of its lymphatics, and the branches of the vas éreve in which the
author considers them to terminate ; his inquiries, too, respecting the
structure and uses of the spleen, are new and elaborate, as well as
the account of the intestinal canal. Our limits prevent us from
entering at length into these curious discussions, for the details of
which we must refer our readers to the work itself. Among them
We were particularly struck with the proofs of the length of the in-
testines being proportionate to the difficulty of acquiring food and
with those of the accumulation of fat in the lower bowels.

‘In the beginning of the third volume we find an entirely new
analysis of the blood, founded chiefly upon Mr. Bauer’s microscopi-
cal observations, from which it appears that the blood consists of red
globules, from which the colouring matter, under certain circum-
stances, is detached; a smaller set of globules, which our author
calls lymph globules, and an elastic transparent substance, soluble in
water. Carbonic acid is also shewn to exist in the blood, and to be
separable under certain circumstances during the act of coagulation.
This’ latter circumstance, as connected with the vascularity of
coagula, is one of the most important physiological discoveries of the
present century.

The brain, the structure of which in the present day is a very
favourite subject of investigation, has engaged no small share of
Sir Everard’s attention, and he has some new and yery important
remarks respecting it. In the first place, he adduces evidence in
favour of its existing in a very different state and appearance in the
living body, to that which its exhibits after death ; in the former case,
it has a gelatinous texture, and in the latter, appears to have undergone
a species of coagulation. Upon this topic, also, we find in our
author’s work some novel and refined microscopical observations ;
We must admit that these investigations are very important; indeed the
mechanical structure of the different parts of the body, though followed
up with much perseverance by some of the older physiologists, has
not of late received that attention which it merits ; and we feel much
indebted to Sir Everard Home for the inquiries which he and Mr.
Bauer have instituted in this department of anatomy. But, however
ingenious or’ plausible the investigations to which we allude may
be, they will require much future observation, to confirm their
accuracy, and to sanction the theories and views which our author
has founded upon them.

But, secondly, there will be found in the volumes before us, the
commencement of an inquiry into the functions of different parts
of the brain, deduced from the effects of injuries upon them ; this
is, perhaps, the only satisfactory mode of arriving at legitimate con-
clusions in this abstruse department of physiology; and it is highly
creditable to Sir Everard to have commenced a work which we most
strongly advise should be followed up and extended as opening a

138 Analysis of Scientific Books.

field, not only curious as a branch of human physiology, but of the
highest importance as relating to the light which it may throw upon
the treatment of injuries of the brain, and upon the general patho-
logy of that organ.

With respect to the eye, after stopping to admire Mr. Bauer's
beautiful drawings of its different parts, and the new muscle which
the microscope alone could have brought within the reach of our
observation, we cannot but assent to the use which the author has
assigned to it. The discovery of lymphatics in the' choroid coat of
the bird’s eye is also new, and may be urged in support of the
opinions advanced respecting that set of vessels in the brain and
stomach. For many years the existence of such vessels in those
organs has been admitted; to have demonstrated them, certainly
forms a very important step in the advancement of anatomical
knowledge.

The use of the colouring matter called nigrum pigmentum in the
eyes of quadrupeds, and of the marsupium of the bird, when applied
generally to the skin of the negro, is probably the most curious
discovery contained in these volumes, and one to which no other
physiologist has laid claim. The explanation, too, of the manner
in which the bird’s eye is adapted to the vision of near and distant
objects is extremely ingenious, and the result of much elaborate
research,

The detection of the muscular structure of the membrana tympan
in the organ of hearing of the elephant furnishes a strong argument
in favour of the study of comparative anatomy, as having added to
our anatomical knowledge of the human body, and showing that
the charms of music can only reach their utmost extent in the ear
that is highly cultivated.

The investigation of the series of structures employed in supplying
the bodies of animals with blood, and of aérating that blood, con-
sidered as a distinct inquiry, is very beautiful, and the author must
be allowed the merit of having handled his subject both with skill.and
judgment; it isa part ofthe work peculiarly deserving the study
of the tyro in anatomy.

The pressure of other matter obliges us, for the present, to close
this work, and to postpone, till the appearance of our next Number,
the further account of its contents ; we shall then, however, resume
the subject more particularly in reference to the contents of the two
recently published volumes, which, in point of accurate and splendid
engravings, are even superior to their predecessors.

139

Art. XI. ASTRONOMICAL AND NAUTICAL
COLLECTIONS.

No. XV.

i. An Extension of the InveRsSE Serizs for the computa-
tion of Rurracrion, together with a direct solution of the
problem.

ConsipERING the acknowledged and increasing importance
of the accurate determination of astronomical refractions, it
may not be thought superfluous to attempt to confirm and ex~
tend the mode of computation, which has been adopted for the
Table of Refractions printed in the Nautical Almanac, and at
the same time to compare its results, in the most unfavourable
case for its application, with those of the direct method, which,
in that case only, are very readily obtained.

If r be the refraction, z the density, = 1— x

y the pressure, x the distance from the centre,
u the perpendicular falling from the centre on the direction of
the ray,

v the distance of this perpendicular from the point of refraction,
s the initial value of u, or x’; we shall have (Coll. VI, VIII,)

ar = dy dy = — mzdz,
4 v

= gio + p— pz) s = (1 + px) s, and, p being a -

very small fraction,

vat — ui 2? — 3? — Qyxs, dy 2%

dz
dz. -v ap = ov
dr ps dr ps

as * @

jor . We may then put, in order the better to observe
dr mpsz

the progress of the subsequent operations,

id

140 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

ae oe
7 = 2+ * + Xe

*+Y¥u+*+00

{I

<a Zl OX’? + F + U0
SS Yo oe Ea ee.
—— ee XY
see et Y"o+.

a eres
It will be convenient to denote the successive results of the
differentiation of any quantity, Z, Y, X, with respect to y or z,
which introduces a new power of v, by Z,v, Z,v, Y,v, Y,v’, and
so forth; we shall then have
y Sons A Z=YZ :
Y=Z, VW=2XZ42'=(2Y,Z)+(V,Z+ Y)=3Y,Z4+¥?
bia) X=3VZ+ Y' =(3Y,Z)+ (8Y.2Z4+ 3Y,¥+2Y,Y)
v=, = 6Y.Z+5Y,Y
V=1, ne 4UZ+X',=(4Y,Z)+(6Y,Z+6Y, Y)+(5Y, Ye
+5Y)=10Y;24+11Y,Y+5Y;

,

La V'Z=3Y'27°4+-Y°Z
VY’ =2X'Z4+-Z2" = 12Y,27+10Y, YZ
+(8Y,2°+6Y,YZ)
HY 24 Y)=15Y 24 WY IZ4Y:
X"=3V’Z+ Y" = (80 Y,2°+ 33 Y,YZ+ 15 YZ)
+ (15 Y,2?+ 30 Y,YZ)+ (18 ¥,2Z
+18Y,¥Z +18 Y,Y"}
+(3Y,Y¥%)
= 45Y,2Z°+81Y,YZ+33Y°Z+21Y,¥? ©

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 141

Z" = Y"Z=15Y, 24-18, YZ2+4 YZ
¥"=2X"Z4Z",=(90Y,Z)+ 162 Y, YZ2+ 66Y,222+42 Y, ¥2Z)
4 (15 Y,Z°+45Y,YZ%)+(18¥22?+36Y,¥°Z

+18Y, YZ?) +(3Y,¥2Z
+Y¥*)
= 105 Y,2!+225Y,YZ?+84Y2224+81Y,Y°Z
+¥4

ZV—Y"'Z
If we now select, from these general values of the coefficients,
those which are concerned in the horizontal refraction, when

dv r2

v= 0, and s = 1, we shall have, instead of ps = oe +...,
putting 7’= ic
P

+ ..., in which we must substitute the values of Z**’, de-
rived from the particular hypothesis respecting the constitution
of the atmosphere that we may choose to adopt.

- Example A. The simplest application, that can be made of
this series, is to put, instead of Professor Leslie’s hypothesis of

z*=y (nt+z—nz2), merely z2 = y, whence € = = == 22, and

a= i Sie obegad s; consequently dZ = 0, and the
mpsz mps

series stops at the second term, assuming precisely the form
which has been actually employed, as an approximation for de-
termining the effect of a change of temperature. (Coll. VI.)
To inquire what would be the physical conditions, that would be
implied by this equation, would be to anticipate the contents of
a very elaborate memoir, which is probably now in the press,
and in which the author has deduced some very convenient and
elegant expressions, when considered merely in a mathematical
poiat of view, from a law of condensation which will scarcely

142 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

be admitted by natural philosophers in general, as applicable
to the phenomena in their whole extent.

Example B. We may also obtain a finite inverse series, nearly
resembling that of the Nautical Almanac, from the equation
y = .57 +. 432‘, which is obviously impossible in nature, since
it supposes a constant pressure after the density has vanished.
A result, however, nearly identical, may be deduced from the
supposition y = 3.422 —4.12°+ 1.7z‘, which implies an at-
mosphere terminating at the height of about 14 miles ; although
the series thus obtained would extend to a fifth term, instead of
ending at the fourth, but without producing any material
difference in the result. Considering, indeed, the analogy be-
tween logarithms and high powers, it is not improbable that the
true value of y might be very correctly expressed by a series of
this form, however complicated it might appear at first sight.
The value of x and the height k = 20900000 (<r — 1), in feet,

might be found from the fluxion da = =4y = 6 sae — 12.32dk
mz

46.8 z%dz, anda —1 = (6.824 6. 1529 —'9.972"

= i
+ 2.92), ork = 27300 (2.92 —6. 8z + 6. 1527 — 2.272");
which becomes 21300, when the density z is reduced to oo and

the pressure y= .444.
Example C. a. As the most unfavourable specimen of the ap-
plication of this method, we may take the case of an equable

temperature, at the horizon: and first suppose, with Laplace,

that m = 798, and 1 = 3403, so that_+. = 4.2624, Z =
P mp |

em — 1 = 3.2624, since z is here = y, and €= 1;
mp

y= ba 4264 yo 2t ry = = ¥,,and Fi
OP ip P P P
sie i. Hence we have YZ = fakes Z’, and the equa-

Pp
tion becomes 1 = 1.6312r! +.57949'2 -b .46037'9 . SV9Sr'#

aT

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 143

+ .6517r° + ... Now the value of 7’ cannot be very accu-
rately obtained from these coefficients, without a liberal em-
ployment of the method of logarithmic differences, finding the
results derived by it from the first three, the middle three, and
the last three terms, and comparing these with each other; and
in this manner it seems natural to suppose that we might easily

come within about ao of the truth. (Coll. VIII.) The best in-

ference of this kind, however, that has been obtained, was

r =40' 15’, which is too much by about -

If still greater accuracy were required, we might compute a
greater number of the coefficients of the series, or we might
separate the computation into two or more parts: but it would
be a little troublesome to adapt the new values of Z, and its de-
rivatives, either to the diminished magnitude of the density z,
or to a value of p, diminished in the same proportion ; so that if
the actual density at the time in question were called unity, the
refractive density might still be truly represented by 1 + p5;
observing also to make the remaining portion Az also equal to
unity: and in this case the values of Z, and of its powers, only
would require to be changed in the subsequent computation.
This operation has been somewhat more negligently performed
in the Astronomical Collections; but its object then was merely
to show the convergence of the series, and that object was
obtained.

ag! ONIEL ;
3540 mp

pi ae XD = 17, B80,

B. With the values m = 766, p= =4.621,

4.621

we obtain Z = 3.621, Y=

seer a= 3129

2
=

z= S yze4 27H and 2
P -

3714095 . FF poe
————; and for the equation 1 = ai + sar * ae
we have 1 = 1.8105r’ + .7162r’2 + 62907’ + .7760r'4 +

1.023175 + .,,; and if we make 7’ = 44, we shall have the

144 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

true sum 1.0460; ifr’ = .43, 1.0218, whence 7 = 4210,
and 7 appears to be 37’ 29”.

But if we wish to supply any real or imaginary deficiency of
the inverse series, we may easily revert to a modification of the
original solution of Taylor, who first applied to the problem of
atmospherical refraction his very useful theorem for “‘ integra-

”

tion by ig:
fZayY = So flax — : x f2ZaX® + ...3 and not

as the Bay is sometimes now called, that is,

J¥dZ =... 5:28 1% has fe onan copied in the Article
Fivents of the Supplement of the Encyclopedia Britannica,
n. 5,546. Taking the fundamental equation for the refraction,

dic ge. and making first Z = gh. aX = vdv, and dY = dz,
v v

sete soar ck Lys,..., and

Seid
for wes pee vig aglenn al ie : vdv,...3 or secondly, making
ax vdv vdvu
dz = gz Ee zdv , we have wa in zdo
Vv Vv Vv Vv v

which making dX again = vdv, and Z = z, dY being = : a we
VU

have S= wt + fzvdv as 3 feeviv an ok, “abs
v v

Now in all cases v? = 22 — w2, and vdv = adx — udu =ade
dy — dz

vdv

++ psudz, and since dz = —= = —=", we have =
Mz mz dz

—x mpsuz — x dz mz

wos oP psa uaaent and Pe

mz mz vdv mpsuz — xl,
dz 3

mhente 7 fee EE ok ig
v mpsuz — x 3 mpsuz — wt ° dz-

m ,
5 re .; and from one or the other of the series
mpsuz — x :
thus obtained, we may always compute the value of 7, taking

the fluents from z = 1to z= 0. Butat the horizon, it will be

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 145

easier to employ the particular fluent '/, = Jz, dis-

fh

covered by Euler, and still more elegantly demonstrated by
Laplace, in the form ~ of. e= dx = J: and the applica-
tion of this proposition leads us to the integration of several
fluents, ei wie be thus enumerated :

af = fx = J3.141592
ral

Le a ot 2"dz a2 ¥ (n+l) _ dy = JS on by
0 V hl 0 rss Jr 1 n+1
2 KA
putting y = 2"+,

a [= = 1 a “tt: z"dz
: hl” m—1 hi” 4. 1 m—1 1

get oF
Zz z z
i tif fe —2_7 asi Qiggnsey), ds zen
re A os es ti
= z z
z 4 z 4
: oe + =a
| CT hae eS
z z
2 zdz a = zdz zz
ll “ = = = _
ooh 3 oe! ni? 1
z Zz Z
7 aif eteee ? Cea’ Moan ee
BM) bb ys ini PO fobiait Voidy yaad
z z z
16 .
+ aes
3 2
‘es 1
iii. ( (l—2z)dz _ - 25 ay 4 <3 2) fom
at = . one (32

(202 ~1) J =. 828427 Jo

- 2 zzdz r zzdz ‘ z3
iy. a = —t's as SS =) ae
nfo l J 3 2] 3
z

146 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

6a Js fis ttt iasiteni ie ea Ae
“eS he
z z z
+ 12 Ss
ena) =4 4) 2:16 36
pit pe 3 TR RT

Loi — ‘iodis A «x.

vi. = Gm a)de. = 642767 of x.
oe yest
' z

Now the value of v = J (a? — s? — 2pxs), becomes here

N (2? = 1 - 2px); and sinces ~1=fde = — dy ‘

Me

making fda = 3, or *= (= + 1)’, we have 2? — 1 = 5° +423;
but the actual extent of the atmosphere is so limited, that we
may neglect =’, in comparison with 22, without sensible error,

and make a — 1=2, anddr = ite sala int = oe
J QE 2px) 2 VB

WES 236 eI RA Se EE Bek
( e 2 Pe} LF 2 2 + 8
P°x* 5 px’ _ —p ( dz 1 pyd2 | 3
mye ee V2 gree aps oR
Pp oe - + ...). This expression is applicable to every hypo-

thesis by which the relation of « to z can be expressed ; and in
the case of a uniform temperature, since dy = — mzdx = dz,

and do = <4, we liave E=— 6. ee and
MZ Mz ™m™ z e

2h hice. 0.2 bape 29hy
Z z
xidz 5 3 dz
+ SS, mp ). Then, by the integration
108 be pnt mA
« z

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 147

already explained, 'f, dr = — p at, ~* (1 + . 414214 mp

+ .269649 m2p? + .200865 mp? +...) or, taking 1 =
P

3403, and m = 798, r = .010423 (1 + .097133 + .014830
+ .00259 + [.0005]) = .010423 x 1.1151 = 39° 57”; so
that the former result was too great by 18”: and if we make

> = 3540, and m = 766, we find r = .0097988 (1+4-.08963
+ .01263 + .00203 + [.00040]) = .0097988 (1.1047) =
.010825 = 37’ 13”, or 16” less than the former computation
made it; the difference, which before came out 2’ 46”, being
now found, a little more accurately, 2’ 44”.

_ The relation between x and z may be computed from the hy-
pothesis of an equable variation of temperature in ascending,
according to the statement expressed by the equation z = y
(1 + tz — €) (Coll. VI. 7. p), or z = yw, whence

piece zdw ba a i Rh ti
w ww Z w Zz
wll : dz _. dw
dy = — mzdz, and — = —— —mwaz; consequently
z w

hlz = hlw — mfwdx, and z = we-mfude = (1+ tr — 2)
e—m(2+}t2r—tz) 5 and from this expression we may find the den=
sity z corresponding to any height x, upon the supposition that
the bulk of a given quantity of air varies proportionally with a
uniform variation of temperature, and not uniformly, as the ex-
periments of Schmidt and Gay Lussac induced them to infer
with respect to ordinary temperatures. (See Nat. Philos.
Vol. Il, p. 393.) If we computed the horizontal refraction
from this equation by means of the series beginning with ©,
we should have to substitute, for dz, (1 + ta—t) e—™(t-+4¢02—t4)
(—mdx—mt«dz) and for 2, x—1.

Besides the equation y = az* + bz? + cz* +.,., there
may probably be many others, not far from the true constitution
of the atmosphere, which would afford finite expressions for the

L 2 .

148 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

refraction; thus, if y= 2, we have dt = iy iol > Cage
Mz 2 mz

ada eT 2 (1 — /z), whence peat oe

m ; A (22 — 2px)
= a Na Le or, If. faguce w,

wh iki _ aes a _— fz — 1 + we,
m m
pee 4 Pedy | sec til and the fluxion assumes the
J (2-3 7 — +)
m m

form furl: , Article FLuents, n. 259; and there

A (a+br+cx?)
is little doubt that such a hypothesis, if advanced with sufficient
pomp and ceremony, would be allowed to represent the consti-
tution of the lower parts of the atmosphere, which are princi-
pally concerned in the refraction, much better than that of
Bessel, though, perhaps, not quite so accurately as they might
be represented by a more appropriate, though less convenient,
exponent.

London, 6th Aug. 1823.

ii. Catalogue of the Orzrts of all the Comers hitherto computed.
By Dr. OrzeErs and Professor Scuumacuer. Astr. Abh.I.

** This Table originated from a request of the Editor of the
Astronomical and Nautical Collections, that Dr. Olbers would
have the kindness to furnish him with any additional materials
that could be incorporated with the former Table, as it stood at
the end of the Essay on Comets. He was so good as to send
his remarks to Professor Schumacher, who introduced them, in
their proper places, together with some corrections and ad
ditions of his own, into Delambre’s Table.”

[The remainder, n. 7]..125, in our next Number. ]

49

1

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ts of Comet

d

f the Orb

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Arr. XIJ.—MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

I. Mecuanicat SciENcE.

1. Cutting of Steel by Soft Iron.—Mr. Barnes, of Cornwall, Con-
necticut, has ascertained a singular property of soft iron in cutting hard
steel. He had fixed a circular plate of soft sheet iron on an axis,
and putting it into a lathe, gave it very rapid rotatory motion, apply-
ing, at the same time, a file to it to make it perfectly round and
smooth; the file, however, was cut in two by the plate, the latter
remaining untouched; and it was found not to have been much
warmed in the operation, though a band of intense fire surrounded it
whilst in action,

A saw made of avery hard plate, which required altering, was cut
through longitudinally in a few minutes, and afterwards teeth were
cut in it by the same means. Had the file been used to produce the
saine effect, it would have required a long and tedious operation.

Rock crystal applied to the plate cut it readily.

Mr. Perkins, of Fleet-street, has verified this remarkable and useful
observation. A piece ofa large hard file was cut by him into deep notches
at the end, where, also, from the heat produced by friction, it had
softened and been thrown out like a burr. On another part of the
file, where the plate had been applied against its flat face, the teeth
were removed, without any sensible elevation of the temperature of
the metal. The plate, which had previously been made true, was
not reduced either in size or weight during the experiment, but it had,
according to Mr, Perkins, acquired an exceeding hard surface at the
cutting part.—Silliman’s Jour, vi. 336.

2. Water-proof Cloth.—A chemist of Glasgow has discovered a
simple and efficacious method of rendering woollen, silk, or cotton
cloth completely water-proof. The mode adopted is to dissolve
caoutchouc in coal tar oil, produced in abundance at the gas works ;
by a brush to put five or six coatings of this mixture on the side of
the cloth or silk on which another piece is laid, and the whole passed
between two rollers. The adhesion is most complete, so much so,
that it is easier to tear the cloth than to separate it from the caout-
chouc.

3. Chain Bridge over the Tamar.—A chain or suspension bridge
across the Tamar, at Saltash, in Devonshire, is now seriously in-
tended; and the wealthy landholders in Devon and Cornwall have
readily come forward with offers of pecuniary assistance. It is to be
of sufficient height to admit of frigates passing under without striking
their jury masts. Such a bridge would be of great importance to that
part of the country, for the numerous advantages it would confer.

156 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

4, Pottery Painting—An experiment, promising considerable suc-
cess, has been made at Paris. {t is an attempt to preserve the large
paintings of the mostdistinguished artists, by the employment of plates
of pottery. The different parts of a large picture are united by a
composition, and so coloured as to disguise completely the joints.
The artists who work at this experiment propose, by this means, to
produce paintings as durable as mosaic, of much easier execution,
and at a moderate price.

5. Extinction of Fires in Chimnies.—M. Cadet Vaux, reflecting on
the circumstances of a fire, when it occurs ina chimney, was led to
endeavour at its extinction, by rendering the air which passes
up the flue unable to support combustion, This object he ob-
tained by the simple means of throwing flour sulphur on the fire in
the grate, and so effectual was it, that a fagot suspended in the
chimney, very near the top, and consequently near the external air,
whea set on fire, and burning with great fury, was instantly extin-
guished on the application of the sulphur below. ‘This process is the
more applicable, inasmuch as it docs not require that all the oxygen
in the air should be converted into sulphurous acid gas, before it
passes up the chimney; on the contrary, a comparatively small pro-
portion of the latter gas, mixed with common air, is sufficient to pre-
vent its supporting the combustion of common combustible budies.

6. Smut in Corn prevented. —M. B. Prevost gives the following method
of preparing seed corn, to prevent the smut: Into a cistern put one
gallon of water, ale measure, and dissolve in it one ounce of sulphate
of copper, for every bushel of corn to be prepared. Having two tubs
that will contain about eight bushels ; throw into one of them about
two bushels of corn, and then pour on the solution till it covers the
corn an inch or two; carefully remove any thing that floats on the
surface. Put corn into the other tub, and treat it in the same
manner. When the corn has reposed half an hour in the first tub,
after being well stirred, put it to drain, in a strainer, over the second
tub, When it no longer drips, place it in a heap, and it will soon be
dry enough to sow. The effect of the solution is more certain, the
dryer the corn is before it is immersed,

IJ. Cuemicat Science.

1, Experiments with certain Substances under high Pressures, by M.
Cagnard de la Tour.—One of my tubes of glass, in which I had put
water and a little sulphuret of carbon, presented, when heated, the
following results: The water became at first milky, then resumed its
transparence with a slight tint of green, which increasing with the
temperature, at last became almost black. During the experiment
the sulphuret of carbon became lighter than the water, and floated

Chemical Science. 157

on it some time before it became all vapour. As the tube cooled
the green colour diminished by degrees, and the fluids took their
first state except that the water was of a yellowish tinge, which,
however, was much diminished by agitation.

The tube was again heated, with the intention of converting all
the water into vapour, but soon after the deep green colour appeared,
the tube broke.

Another tube, besides the same liquids, contained also a little
chlorate of potash. ‘The first effect of the heat was to dissolve the
salt; on leaving it to cool, the water became milky, and the sulphuret
of carbon, which previously fluated, fell to the bottom with the
crystallizing salt. I:xposed to a higher heat, the liquor became of a
sudden of a fine lemon yellow colour, accompanied with efferves-
cence, and the formation of an oily looking globule which, when
all was cold, remained liquid at the bottom of the tube, but no
crystals were now deposited,

The tube being heated still more highly, the yellow liquid dis-
appeared and was replaced by a small globule of liquid sulphur ;
this at a higher heat took on the colour and transparency of the
ruby, but, when all was cold, had the ordinary appearance of sul-
phur. No trace of sulphuret of carbon appeared in the tube, except
that when heated to a certain degree, the water became of a bluish
colour. When cold the water was colourless and transparent. This
coloration did not take place in another tube into which a larger
proportion of chlorate of potash was put.

Sometimes small acicular crystals formed in these tubes, grouped
five or six about a central point ; sometimes nearly the whole mass
was crystallized, this effect was only once obtained. On breaking
the tube a very strong explosion took place, and the fluid was ex-
pelled from the tube ; the water was strongly acid. It is remarkable
that in these experiments the water did not at all effect the transpa-
rency of the glass, though, when alone, it produces that effect very
rapidly.— Ann. de Chim. xxiii. 267.

2. Fusion of Charcoal, Plumbago, Anthracite, and Diamond ; pro-
bable productions of Diamonds, by Professor Silliman.—Professor
Silliman has lately been very active in ascertaining the effect of in-
tense heat on charcoal, plumbago, and anthracite. The instruments
he,used were Dr. Hare’s galvanic deflagrator and his compound oxy=
hydrogen blow-pipe. Fusion was generally produced, and, in some
cases, results which apparently approximate so nearly to diamond as to
give great interest to the experiments. The following passages are
partly extracted, partly condensed from some of his papers on the
phenomena. ‘The papers at length may be referred to in Silliman’s
Journal, vol. vi.

_ With regard to the fusion of plumbago, the best results were obtained
when the plumbago was connected with the copper pole, and prepared

158 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

charcoal with the zinc pole*, The spayk was vivid, and the globules of
melted plumbago could be discerned, even in the midst of the ignition,
forming and formed upon the edges of the focus of heat. There were
also bright scintillations from combustion, and just on, beyond the
confines of the ignited portion of plumbago, was formed a belt of a
reddish brown colour, supposed tobe iron, from the combustion of the
plumbago inthat place. The globules were frequently so abundan tas
to look like a string of beads, the largest of the size of the smallest
shot, others quite microscopic. No globule appeared on the point
of the plumbago which had been in the focus of heat, but here a
hemispherical excavation existed, and the plumbago looked like black
scoria. }

On the zinc pole, with prepared charcoal, there were peculiar
results; the pole was always elongated towards the copper pole, and
the black matter accumulated there presented every appearance of
fusion, not into globules but into a fibrous and striated form, like
half-flowing slag. ‘‘ It was evidently transferred in the state of
vapour from the plumbago of the other pole, and had been formed by
the carbon taken from the hemispherical cavity,” and was very
different to the melted charcoal obtained when both poles were ter=
minated by that substance. On the end of the prepared charcoal
were found numerous globules of perfectly-melted matter, spherical,
and of a high vitreous lustre. Those most remote from the focus
were sometimes of a jet black like obsidian, others brown, yellow,
and topaz coloured, others greyish white like pearl-stones, with the
translucence and lustre of porcelain, and others again were limpid
like flint-glass, or like hyalate, or precious opal, but without colour.
Tew of the globules on the zinc pole were perfectly black, few on
the copper pole were otherwise, except in one instance, when very
pure plumbago from Borrodae was used, and they were then white
and transparent. When the points were held vertically, and the
plumbago uppermost, no globules were found on the Jatter, and they
were unusually numerous and almost black on the opposite pole.
When the points were changed, plumbago being on the zinc, and
charcoal on the copper end, very few globules were formed on the
plumbago, and none on the charcoal, the last being rapidly hollowed ;
whilst the plumbago was as rapidly elongated by matter accumu-
lating at its point, which, by the microscope, appeared to be a con-
cretion in the shape of a cauliflower of volatilized and melted charcoal.

Some of the globules being bedded in a handle of wood, bore
strong pressure without breaking, and easily scratched flint, window
and hard green glass. They sunk rapidly in strong sulphuric acid,
much more so than the melted charcoal, but not much more so than
the plumbago, from which they were formed.

With a new deflagrator good results were obtained, using plumbago
at both poles. The pieces of plumbago were one-fifth of an inch

* The apparatus is in the condition of a single pair of plates.

Chemical Science. 159

diameter, and one or two inches long. ‘The globules, now extended
from one quarter of an inch of the end to the distance of one-fourth or
one-third of an inch all round. They were perfectly visible to the
naked eye, and of all the colours before-mentioned ; some were so
limpid as not to be distinguishable from diamond. In one instance
only was a globule found on the point; “it would seem as if the
melted spheres of plumbago, as soon as formed, rolled out of the
current of flame, and congealed on the contiguous parts. The exca-
vation on the copper side, and accumulation on the zinc side, were
constant. The result too obtained when the charcoal was on the
copper, and the plumbago on the zinc side was constant. The char-
coal was rapidly volatilized, a cavity formed, and the matter removed
accumulated upon the plumbago point, forming a protuberance easily
distinguished from the plumbago; and when seen by the microscope
presenting an aggregation of spheres with every mark of perfect
fusion, and with aperfect metallic lustre.”

In another experiment the spheres were very numerous and white
like calcedony, “‘ they appeared to me to be formed by the conden-
sation of a white vapour, which in all the experiments where an
active power was employed, I had observed to be exhaled between
the poles, and partly to pass from the copper to the zinc pole,
and partly to rise vertically in an abundant fume, like that of the
oxide proceeding from the combustion of various metals ;” this fume
is easily condensed on glass held over it, rendering it opaque from a
white lining; there was a distinct and peculiar odour in the fume,
but the condensed matter was tasteless, did not effervesce with acids
or effect test papers; it was concluded, therefore, not tobe alkali: “ it
seems possible that it is white volatilized carbon, giving origin by its
condensation in a state of greater or less purity to the grey, white,
and, perhaps, to the limpid globules.”

- Some of the coloured globules were collected together, they rolled
about like shot; they were rubbed in the hand to free them from
plumbago, and then placed upon a fragment of Wedgwood-ware
floated in a dish of mercury, and a small jar of very pure oxygen
gas, previously washed and tested by soda and lime-water slid over
‘them. The globules were heated by a powerful lens; for half an
hour they did not melt, disappear, or alter their form, but carbonic
‘acid was afterwards found in the gas on examination with lime-
water. Jn a long-continued experiment, it is presumable that
they would be eventuaily dissipated, leaving only a residuum of iron.
That they contain iron is manifest from their being attracted by the
magnet, and the colour is evidently owing to the metal.” “It would
be interesting to know whether the limpid globules are also magnetic ;
but this trial I have not yet made,”

In some cases the white fume collected in considerable quantities
on the charcoal, and looked like a frit of white enamel, or a little
like pumice-stone. ‘* Had we not been encouraged by the remark-

160 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

able facts already stated, it would appear very extravagant to ask
whether this white frit, and these limpid spheres, could arise from
carbon volatilized in a white state, even from charcoal itself, and
condensed in a form analogous to the diamond. The rigorous and
obvious experiments necessary to determine this question, it is not
now practicable for me to make, and I imust, in the mean time,
admit the possibility that alkaline and earthy impurities may have
contributed to the result.”

With respect to the passage of matter from one pole to the other,
the eyes being protected by green glasses, ‘‘ I can distinctly observe
matter in different forms passing to the zinc pole and collecting there
just as we see dust, or other small bodies, driven along by a common
wind: there is also an obvious tremor produced in the copper pole
when the instrument is in vigorous action, and we can perceive an
evident vibration produced as if by the impulse of an elastic fluid
striking against the opposite pole.”

Such were the experiments with the deflagrator; the following
relate to the same subject, and were made with the compound blow-
pipe. The diamond was supported on a piece of limestone, and
when subjected to the heat rapidly consumed, but when removed
from the flame exhibiting marks of incipient fusion. The surface
became dull and irregular, as if softened and indented by the stream
of gas, or as if irregularly removed by combustion.

Anthracite under similar treatment consumed rapidly, but still had
an evident appearance of being superficially softened, and there could
be distinctly seen, ‘‘ in the midst of the intense glare of light, very
minute globules forming upon the sitrface. These when examined
by a magnifier proved to be perfectly white and limpid, and the
whole surface of the anthracite exhibited like the diamond, only
with more distinctness, cavities and projections united by flowing
lines, and covered with a black varnish” like a slag.

Plumbago presented numerous globules to the naked eye, seen
through a glass they were perfectly white and transparent spheres.
In some experiments they were as large as small shot; scratched
window-glass, were tasteless, harsh when crushed between the teeth,
and not magnetic. They resembled melted silex, and might be sup-
posed to originate from impurities ‘ had not their appearance been
uniform in the different varieties of that substance,’ which has never
yet presented any combined silex, and no foreign substance could be
detected either by the glass or the fingers ; “ add to this in different ex-
periments I obtained very numerous perfectly black globules on the
same pieces which afforded the white ones. In one instance they
covered an inch in length all around, many of them were as large
as common shot, and they had all the lustre and brilliancy of the
most perfect black enamel.” Here and there were globules of the
lighter coloured varieties.

After some further arguments and statements, in which the non-

Chemical Science. 161

conducting power of these bodies for electricity is insisted on, and
which we regret we have not room to state. Professor Silliman
says, “It will now, probably, not be deemed extravagant if we
conclude that our melted carbonaceous substances approximate very
nearly to the condition of diamond.” Admitting this, yet the interest
and importance which would attach to the discovery of the artificial
production of diamond, justifies us in. reserving our doubts whilst
reading Professor Silliman’s statements. The experiments are very
important, but many doubts arise, even whilst reading the description
only. That the vapour, which is described as rising from the charcoal
and: plumbago, and which formed a kind of frit, and was supposed
to be the matter of the globules, could be carbon in any state, is
almost impossible ; it neither accords in its properties with charcoal
or diamond... Sir G. Mackenzie shewed that a mere red heat was
sufficient to burn solid diamond even in the common atmosphere, so
that it is hardiy probable a vapour at all like diamond could escape
through the air so intensely heated, and condense on a glass-plate
unburnt. ‘I'he properties of the globules, also, continually fali short
of those of the diamond. We would beg to suggest what we think
would be a ready test of their nature, namely, trial by the blow-pipe.
The diamond, heated with borax on the platinum wire, before the
blow-pipe, undergoes no change; we are afraid the globules would
not stand the trial, but hope the Professor will be induced by its
readiness to submit them to it.

3. Action of Nitric Acid:on-Charcoal, production of Cyanogen.—
The*following account is abstracted from a paper by Dr. Cutbush,
in Silliman’s Journal, vol. vi. 149. Nitric acid was poured on to
charcoal to illustrate the nature of gunpowder by a reference to the
composition and decomposition of the acid; and being left, the mixture
became, after the usual action, thick and brown, like artificial tannin.
It was thought that perhaps cyanogen might be formed by the union
of part ef the carbon with nitrogen, at the same time with the car-
bonic acid and nitrous gases. The mixture was therefore put into a
retort, distilled, and all the products passed through a series of
Woulfe’s bottles, containing water. Most of the gases were thus ab-
sorbed, and the acid solution neutralized by potash. ‘The solution
was thentested by sulphate and persulphate of iron, when the colour
immediately changed, and became more or less blue, thus proving the
presence of cyanogen in the results of the action of charcoal and nitric
acid; so that at the same time that one portion of charcoal has taken
the oxygen of the nitric acid, another portion must have taken its ni-
trogen.

The author of the paper observes, that charcoal has the property of
absorbing many gases, and particularly hydrogen. He asks whether
the charcoal he used might not contain hydrogen ; and whether this
nascent hydrogen, during the action of the carbon, might not have

Vox, XVI. M

162 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

acted ona portion of the acid, taking its oxygen and leaving its ni-
trogen in the state in which it might combine with the carbon and
produce the cyanogen.

4, Crystallized Carbon—Artificial Plumbago.—At page 159, of our
last volume, is an account of artificial plumbago formed in gas retorts,
from a paper by the Rev. J. J. Conybeare, in the Annals of Philosophy.
Mr. Herapath, in a late paper in the Philosophical Mag. 1xi. 423,
has shewn that this substance is not what it was at first supposed to be,
inasmuch as it is pure carbon. Mr. Conybeare had operated on a
portion taken from near the side of the retort, and hence the iron he
found in it. As observed by Mr. Herapath, at the Bristol gas works, it
is hard and very solid with a mammellated surface, from which seales
may sometimes be detached. Its specific gravity is 1.865. When bro-
ken its crystalline form is very visible, and may be compared to
starch. Mr. Herapath thinks its primitive form is the tetrahedron.
In fine powder it loses its grey lustre and becomes a deep black.

When burnt with peroxide of copper, it requires so much heat that
the black glass tubes generally give way. Even with chlorate of po-
tassa it is necessary to repeat the process several times, but little being
consumed each time. Nitre has still less effect on it, It is a good
conductor of electricity.

Mr. Herapath remarks, that as it is found in thin layers, it is evi-
dent that its source is the gas, and its deposition on the hottest part of
the retort, shews that coal gas should not be exposed to a greater heat
than that at which itis produced. It is observed, too, that if this sub-
stance should turn out to be of the same composition as the diamond,
and the only difference be that the diamond has twice the number of
atoms in the same space, which is probable, from its specific gravity
being 3.5, it might throw some light upon the cause of opacity and
transparency.

{We would just remark here, that the necessary presence of iron in
plumbago is a point not conceded by all chemists.—Ep.]

5. Action of Steam on Solutions of Silver and Gold.—The following
observations on the action of steam on solutions of silver and gold,
were made by Professor Pfaff, whilst investigating the volatility of mu-
riates contained in boiling water. When the vapour of pure distilled
water is made to pass through a solution of nitrate of silver, the solu-
tion assumes all the shades between yellow and dark brown, aceord-
ing to its concentration, and the time the steam has passed through it.
When the solution has acquired 212° the colour increases rapidly.
If several glasses are connected, and successively raised to the boil-
ing point, by the steam passing through them, all become coloured.
Nitric acid destroys the colour of this solution of nitrate of silver, and
whilst the steam is acting oxygen is disengaged. When steam is
passed through a solution of gold, a blue liquid is produced, like that

Chemical Science. 163

obtained by adding oxalic acid to a solution of gold. Thus, it seems
proved, that the steam acts in producing these effects by deoxidizing
the salts of silver and gold. Muriate of platina, or either of the ni-
trates of mercury, were unaffected by similar treatment.

6. Change of Musket Balls in Shrapnell Shells.—My. Marsh. of;
Woolwich gave me some musket balls, which had been taken out of
Shrapnell shells. The shells had lain in the bottom of ships, and pro-
bably had sea wateramongst them. When the bullets are putin, the
aperture is merely closed by a common cork. ‘These bullets were
variously acted upon: some were affected only superficially, others
more deeply, and some were entirely changed. The substance pro-,
duced is hard and brittle, it splits on the ball, and presents an ap-
pearance like some hard varieties of earthy hematite; its colour is)
brown, becoming, when heated, red; it fuses, on platinum foil, into
a yellow flaky substance like litharge. Powdered and boiled in water,
no muriatic acid or lead was found in solution. Jt dissolved in nitric
acid without leaving any residuum, and the solution gave very faint
indications only of muriatic acid. It is a protoxide of lead, perhaps:
formed, in seme way, by the galvanic action of the iron shell and the
leaden ball, assisted, probably, by the sea water. It would be very
interesting to know the state of the shells in which a change like this
has taken place to any extent; it might have been expected, that as
long as any iron remained, the lead would have been preserved in the
metallic state. —M. F. t

7. Action of Gunpowder on Lead.—Mr. Marsh gave me also some
balls from cartridges about fifteen years old, and which had probably
been in adamp magazine. They were covered with white warty ex-
erescences rising much above the surface of the bullet, and which,
when removed, were found to have stood in small pits formed beneatly
them. These excrescences consist of carbonate of lead, and readily:
dissolve with effervescence in weak nitric acid, leaviug the bullet’in
the coroded state which their formation has produced. It is evident
there must have been a mutual action amongst the elements of the
gunpowder itself, at the same time that it acted on the lead; and it
would have been interesting, had the opportunity occurred, to have
examined what changes the powder had suffered.—M. F. ;

8. Inflammation of Gunpowder by Slaking Lime.—In consequence,
of the application of quick-lime to the dessication of various sub-
stances, the Comité consultatif de la Direction des Poudres et Sal-
pétres, made some trials of the temperature produced by slaking lime.
They found that it frequently rose so high as to inflame gunpowder
thrown upon it; and that, even when enclosed ina glass tube, and the
tube put in among the lime, the heat was sufficient to fire the gun-

M 2

164 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

powder, Hence quick-lime would be a dangerous desiccator ina pow=
der-house.— Annales de Chim, xxiii. 217.

9. Purple Tint of Plate Glass affected by Light.—It is well known
that certain pieces of plate glass acquire, by degrees, a purple tinge,
and ultimately become of a comparatively deep colour. The change
is known to be gradual, but yet so rapid as easily to be observed in the’
course of two or three years. Much of the plate glass which was put
a few years back into some of the houses in Bridge Street, Blackfriars,
though at first colourless, has now acquired a violet or purple colour.
Wishing to ascertain whether the sun's rays had any influence in pro-
ducing this change, the following experiment was made : three pieces
of glass were selected, which were judged capable of exhibiting this
change ; one of them was of aslight violet tint, the other two purple
or pinkish, but the tint scarcely perceptible, except by looking at the
edges. They were each broken into two pieces, three of the pieces
were then wrapped up in paper and set aside ina dark place, and the
corresponding pieces were exposed to air and sunshine. This was
done in January last, and the middle of this month, (September,) they
were examined. The pieces that were put away from light seemed
to have undergone no change; those that were exposed to the sun-
beams had increased in colour considerably ; the two paler ones the
most, and that to such a degree, that it would hardly have been sup-
posed they had once formed part of the same picces of glass as those
which had been set aside. Thus it appears that the sun’s rays can
exert chemical powers even on such a compact body and permanent
compound as glass.—M. F. 2

10. Onthe Uncertainty of Chemical Analysis, by M. Longchamp.—The
following is:the conclusion of a very interesting memoir on the uh-
certainty of some results of chemical analysis; we shall endeavour
to return to the memoir at some opportunity.

“It results from the experiments stated in this work, that the ana-
lysis of salts presents an uncertainty of which itis difficult to appreciate,’
at present, the whole extent ; and that the cause, until now unper-
ceived, is, that the sulphates of barytes and lead, and chloride of
silver, carry with them, whilst precipitating, some part of the elements
in the midst of which they are formed ; and if to this be added the
uncertainty presented by the carbonate of lime obtained from the
decomposition of calcareous salts, resulting, probably, from the same
cause, one will be ready to admit as a general law, that whenever an
insoluble salt forms in the midst of a liquid it carries with it a
portion of the surrounding substances. ‘This observation, chemically
important, probably will be so also to the mineralogist and geologist,
inasmuch as it may tell in what circumstance a mineral mass has been
formed : for it is probable that the substances which have been found:
in small quantity only in minerals, have been enveloped at the time of

Chemical Science. 165

their precipitation, and, consequently, these substances have existed
‘dissolved, in greater or smaller quantities, in the liquid from which the
mincrals originated.

«It results from my experiments, that the nitrate of harytes ought
to be proscribed our laboratories, as it gives results far more uncertain
than the muriate. It is the same with the nitrate of lead, which is
still more uncertain. M. Berzelius has frequently used it, particularly
in the analysis of vegetable acids, gum, starch, Sc. ; and I believe,
that notwithstanding the pains he has taken not to use nitrate of lead
in excess, he has not been able to obtain results without serious errors,
and that thus it is that the analyses of M. Berzelius differ frequently
from those made by other chemists.

‘* The alkaline subcarbonates cannot be employed to estimate with
‘precision the quantity of lime dissolved by an acid in solution; and
the salts of lime cannot, in any circumstance, serve to estimate the
quantity of any alkaline subcarbonate in solution.

** Finally, it results, that if by rigorovs methods we succeed in
determining the proportions of the elements of salts, chemical analysis,
in general, would still not be more free from uncertainty ; for if, for ex-
ample, one perfect analysis of sulphate of barytes was made, it would
not be less true that a solution of muriate of barytes being poured
into any solution, to separate the sulphuric acid, the sulphate of ba-
rytes, which, by its weight, is to indicate the quantity of the acid,
having carried with it a certain portion of the elements, in contact
with which it was formed, would always give results, more or less
removed from the truth, since its weight would be complicated with
that ofthe impurity.”—dnn. de Chim, xxiii, 241. i

11. Solubility diminished by heat.—{{ phosphate of iron be dissolved
in sulphuric acid, and the solution be diluted with some hundred times
its volume of water, a portion of the phosphate wil! be precipitated,
but some will remain in solution. On submitting this solution to
ebullition, some white flocculi of phosphate of iron will appear; on
‘cooling, the phosphate will be redissolved ; and these changes may be
repeated at pleasure. ‘* It appears to me,” says M. Longchamp,
‘* that this result can only be explained by supposing that the sul-
phuric acid quits the phosphate it previously holds in solution, to go
to the water, and oppose its resolution into vapour ; and that when by
fall of temperature the caloric exerts no further molecular disintegrat-
ing action, the acid goes again to the phosphate it had abandoned,
and dissolves it.” ;

‘Jt is also by the action which liquid water exerts on that which is
vaporizing, that we may explain why lime and magnesia are more
soluble i in cold than in hot water.” — Ann. de Chim. xxiii. 192.

12. Inflammability of Ammoniacal Gas.—Professor Silliman ob-
serves, that if a large jar of ammoniacal gas be opened in the air,

- 166 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

beneath a burning candle, it is so combustible, that as it mixes with

_the air it will burn with a voluminous flame, forming a striking ex-
periment. In small jars it will not burn, because it cannot mix
sufficiently with the alts or is dissipated, or preserved cool by the
vessel. —Silliman’s Jour.

13. Amalgamation of Nickel and Cobalt by Arsenic. —It is
known that arsenic will amalgamate with mercury, but the influence
which it exerts in causing the amalgamation of other metals, which
when pure, shew no tendency to combine with mercury, is not
known. Wishing to amalgamate a portion of argentiferous grey
cobalt, mixed with kupfernickel, seventeen ounces were pulverized
and mixed with mercury, added by degrees, in a mortar. After
adding eighteen ounces of mercury, an amalgam was obtained, which,
when washed and dried, weighed twenty-two ounces. The amalgam
had adhered to the mortar and pestle in considerable quantities.

The mercury was separated from the amalgam by heat, and
left ten and a half ounces of a metallic substance, of a fine silvery
white ; when roasted it gave out a strong odour of garlic, and consisted
principally of cobalt and nickel,

A grey cobalt mixed with kupfernickel from Allemont, and not
containing above 0.02 of silver, presented the same phenomena,—
Jour. de Phy. ., Ixxxiv. 167.

14. Chromium in Ore of Platinum.—It has been shewn by a corre-
spondent in the Annals of Philosophy, vi. 198, that the ore of platina
contains chrome. It may easily be detected by separating the black
sand, by means of a magnet, and fusing it with carbonate of potash in
a strong heat, when chromate of potash i is found in the crucible, | Its
nature was proved by dissolving the fused mass, neutralizing and pre-
‘cipitating with acetate of lead, a yellow precipitate fell down, ‘This
collected and treated with muriatic acid, gave a white salt, and an
orange liquid which, after some boiling, aes green.

Vauquelin first remarked the existence of chrome in the ore of plati-
num, but Tennant threw a doubt on the subject, by stating his inability
to find it there.

15. Test of Platinum.—Professor Silliman recommends the hy-
driodic acid, as the best test for platinum in solution, When dropped
into a weak solution, it almost immediately produces a deep wine red,
‘or reddish-brown colour, which by standing grows very intense. It re-
sembles the effect of muriate of tin, butis more sensible. On remain-
ing a day or two, films of platinum were deposited. The hydriodic
acid had been prepared, by putting phosphorus to about an equal
bulk of iodine, placed under water in a glass tube, so that it remained
mixed with acids of phosphorus, and perhaps phosphorus itself. No
other metallic solution gave similar results.—Silliman’s Jour. vi. 376.

Chemical Science. 167

16. Combustion by Blow-pipe under Watero—Mr. Skidmore, of
New York, has remarked that the flame of the oxy-hydrogen blow-
pipe may be made to burn under water. All that is required is to
introduce it slowly, so that the flame shall not recede into the vessel.
In this situation the flame is globular ; wood put into it burns, and
wires are ignited, and Mr. Skidmore thinks it may be very importantly
applied as a submarine instrument of naval warfare, no difficulties
being presented which may not easily be overcome.

17. Composition of James's Powders.—Mr. Phillips finds James’s
powders, purchased from Messrs. Newbery’s, St. Paul’s Church-
yard, to consist of

Peroxide of antimony ; ; : / 560

Phosphate of lime ‘ F ; : - 42.2

Oxide of antimony, impurity, and loss . eons
100.

The quantity of protoxide of antimony contained in the powder was
so small, ‘‘ that it would have been nearly impossible to have ascer-
tained its weight.” — Ann. Phil. N.S, vi. 189.

18. Adulteration of Ultramarine.—The following remarks on the de-
tection of impurities in ultramarine are by Mr. Phillips, and are bricfly
extracted from a paper, by that chemist, on the colouring matter of
lapis lazuli.

Genuine ultramarine loses its colour when put into an acid leaving
insoluble matter of a dirty white colour, and affording a colourless
solution. It is not injured by boiling in solution of potash. It ig not
injured by being heated.

If it be adulterated with blue verditer, upon being heated it will
become immediately greenish, and eventually black; when put
into an acid, a greenish or bluish solution is obtained, which, on the
addition of ammonia, becomes ofadeep blue colour. The bluish acid
solution will deposit copper upon iron, and, if much verditer be
present, an effervescence will be produced by the action of the acid on
it. If Prussian blue be present, heat will cause it to darken very
much; when boiled with alittle alkali in solution, the colour will
become browner, and if there be not too much alkali, the solution
obtained will precipitate a solution of iron of a deep blue colour. If
indigo be present, heat will volatilize it in the form of a blue vapour,
and sulphuric acid will not destroy the colour of the indigo. Smalts
may be detected by their resisting the action of acids. Thenard’s blue
may be distinguished in a similar way.

Mr. Phillips has failed, like many other chemists, in ascertaining
the colouring matter of lapis lazuli, but he has almost shewn that
it cannot be a metal or metallic compound. He rather inclines to
the opinion that it is due to a peculiar non-metallic substance, of
what nature is uncertainAnn, Phil. N: 8. vis 34.

168 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

19. On the presence of Iodine in the Waters of Sales, Piedmont,—
The waters of Sales spring in considerable quantities from an argilo-
calcareous ground at the foot of a hillock, on the left-hand side: of
the torrent Staffora, near the road to Godiaso, not far from Sales, in
the province of Voghera. They are turbid and of a faint yellow
colour. ‘They have a strong odour approaching to that of. urine,or
a muriatic residuum ; their taste is brackish and sharp.; bubbles of
air constantly rise from the bottom of the reservoir containing them.
Their temperature is that of the atmosphere; their specific gravity
1.0502. In 1788 the Canon Volta analyzed them, and found a
twelfth of muriate.of soda. In 1820, M. Romano repeated the ana~
lysis, and found muriate of soda, several earthy muriates, anda little
oxide of iron. M, Laur. Angelina, of Voghera, on using starch as a re-
agent, found a blue colour produced in the water, indicating the pre-
sence of iodine, and. using the process generally adopted with the
mother waters in the manufacture of soda, he succeeded in procuring —

a certain quantity of iodine from the water.

It is remarkable that, for a long time, the water of Sales has been
administered successfully in scrofulous cases, and in cases of the
goitre.—Jour. des Mines, viii, 293.

20. Evolution of Gas during Metallic precipitation.—M.. Rivero
has remarked, that inflammable gas is developed when zinc is made
to, act on chloride of silver to reduce it. M. Despretz has since
remarked, that in the precipitation of one metal by another, gas. is
always liberated when the two metals form an energetic voltaic com-
bination; thus it will happen with any two of the three metals,
silver, copper, and zinc. Its source, therefore, is voltaic electricity.

21. Electro-Magnetic effects of Alkalies, Acids, and Salts, by M.
Yelin.—The magnetic needle used by M. Yelin, was nearly 1.5
inches long, and 008 of an inch in diameter. It weighed little more
than half a grain, and was delicately suspended by ¢ a spider’s web,
from a rod passing through the top of a glass cylinder, so that it
could be raised or lowered at pleasure. The bottom of the instru-
ment is a piece of card-board, on which circles are marked and
divided, indicating the number of degrees through which the needle
may have moved.

The conductor, whose state was to be indicated by this needle, was’
sometimes a band of tin 0.4 of an inch broad, and 24 inches long ;
sometimes a brass wire helix, which being brought up close beneath
the needle, formed a kind of condenser, and rendered the action
more sensible.

1, The tin band was placed under the needle, both being parallel
to the magnetic meridian, a small glass was filled with muriatic acid;
the end of the band, towards the austral pole of the needle, was
plunged into the acid, and in a few moments after, the other extre-
mity was immersed, immediately the austral pole went to the east.’
The experiment being repeated, except that the end of the band,

Chemical Science. 169

corresponding to the boreal pole of the needle, was first immersed,
the austral pole went to the west. When in place of muriatic acid, a
solution of ammonia, mineral alkali (soda), or sal-ammonia, was
used, the results were exactly the same ; but if a solution of vegetable
alkali (potash) was used, the deviations were all in the opposite
directions. Pure water produced no effect but 545 of acid made it
active. All solutions of salts, or acid, thus applied, produced an
effect on the needle. It appears in these cases that, according as
the first contact is made to the right or left, an arrangement of
molecules is established in the fluid, proper to form a species of pile
of which the two poles are very distinct, and that the whole of this
little pile is reconstructed in the opposite direction, when the contact
is made in the opposite way.

Place the needle over the condenser, the wires of the latter and
the needle being parallel to the magnetic meridian, hold a cylinder of
zinc in perfect contact with cach end of the wire of the condenser,
the arrangement will then be zinc, brass, zinc; plunge the cylinder
corresponding with the austral pole of the needle into muriatic acid,
and then plunge the other into the same acid, the austral pole of the
needle will go towards the east. Repeat the experiment with nitric
acid and fresh cylinders of zinc; now the austral pole of the needle
will go towards the west. These and other results are the same,
whether the conductors are put in contact with the metals before or
after their immersion in the fluid.

- The needle condenser and metal bars (zinc), being as before, let
the glass be filled with a solution of potash, then immerse the end of
the bar corresponding to the austral pole of the needle, and after-
wards the other bar, the austral pole will deviate to the east. Take
the bars out of the. solution, but without changing their position
in the hands, and as soon us the needle is at rest, introduce them
again, beginning with the bar corresponding to the boreal pole of
the needle; the needle (the austral pole) will now deviate to the
west. ‘Take the bars out of the fluid, and, -without changing them
from hand to hand, turn them, so that the ends which were before
immersed in the liquid, shall now be in contact with the extre-
mities of the condenser wire, then repeat the above experiments,
and the same results will be obtained. Finally, if the bars, being
well cleaned, are changed from hand to hand, and the experiments
again repeated, the same results will be produced.

But now, preserving the apparatus as it was, change the solution
of potash for very pure muriatic acid. The zinc bar, corresponding
to the boreal pole, being first immersed in the acid, the austral pole
will go eastward. Remove that bar from the acid which was last
plunged in, and a little while after, the other bar, and without
changing them at all in the hand, wait till the needle is quiet; com-
mence by the bar corresponding to the boreal pole; at the moment
when’ that. which agrees with the austral pole* shall touch the acid
the needle (the austral pole) will deviate towards the west’, and

170 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

if will go in the same direction as often as the experiment is repeated,
whether the operation be began on the right or on the left hand.

If the bars be then well washed and dried, and restored to the ends
of the condenser wire they were in contact with before, but with that
part which was before immersed, now in contact with the wire, and
the immersions and experiment be repeated, one of two things will
happen, either the needle will constantly move to the east, whichever
bar is first immersed, or the action will be very doubtful or null.

If, instead of turning the bars, they are changed one for the other,
the needle will go constantly to the west, whichever bar is first im-
mersed; but the previons results may be at any time restored by
re-changing the bars, and then the needle will go to the east.

The faculty thus acquired by the bars of zinc, of becoming positive
or negative, according as they are plunged either first or last in the
acid, they preserve some time. They may be washed, dried, and
held in the hand, without losing their state, and hence particular pre-
cautions are required in making delicate experiments with the metals.

This faculty is not communicated either to the fluid or to the ex-
tremities of the condenser wire. All the metals which become mag~
netomoters by muriatic acid, as well as all the acids which produce
an electro-magnetic action with homogenous metals, produce the
same phenomena.

These experiments may be compared, with interest, with the ob-
servations of M. Volta, that a band of wet paper, making part of the
conductor of his pile, becomes charged with electricities, which it pre-
serves some time; with that of M. Gautheret, who thought he re-
marked something similar in the conducting wires of the pile, and
with that of M. Ritter on his secondary piles, the phenomena of
which M. Volta attributed to the electromotive action of the alkalies.
and salts interposed. ‘A very decided electric charge may be remarked
in the metals interposed between the conductor and the fluid; they
are both unipolar, z. e., charged each with a single electricity, which
they retain for some time, and this electricity is constantly positive in
one, and negative in the other. They form, therefore, the elements of
a species of pile, of which the extremities may be detached without
losing their electricity ; and, in consequence of this property, I call it
a secondary pile with mobile unipolar extremities.”

‘«T have sometimes succeeded, with bars of some length, in obtain-
ing distinct poles at each extremity, so that when the bars were turned,
opposite results were presented by the needle; but I have not been able
to discover the condition of this. phenomenon, so as to be able to pro-
duce it at pleasure.”

M. Yelin remarks, however, that he has never yet been able to ascer-
tain the existence of free magnetism or electricity in any of these bars.
Many other experiments are given in tables, which we have not room to
notice, though they are of great interest. ‘The bars M. Yelin used
were .275 of an inch in diameter, and 2.75 inches long.— Bib; Univ:
aaxiil, 38,

Chemical Science. 171

© 22. Table of Thermoelectrics by Professor Cumming.—The fol-
lowing table of thermoelectrics is by Professor Cumming : they being
used two together, each substance is positive to all below, and
negative to all above. The voltaic series, and the order of conductors
of electricity and heat, are added merely to shew that the thermo-
electric series has no accordance with either of them.

: Conductors of

~ "'Thermio-eléctric, Voltaic Series, Electricity. Heat.
Bismuth Charcoal Silver Silver
Nickel? Platina Copper Gold
Nickel Gold Lead Tin
Platina Silver Gold Copper
Palladium Copper Zine . Platina
Cobalt Lead Tin Tron
Silver Tin Platina Lead.
an =. Tron Palladium
~ Lead Zinc Tron
“ Rhodium
Brass
Copper
Gold
Zinc
Charcoal
Plumbago
Iron’
~ Arsenic
Antimony Ann. Phil. NS. vi. 170.

23. Horizontal Plate Electrical Machine.—Dr. Hare, of Pennsylva-
nia, has suggested and practised a new mode of mounting the plate of an
electrical machine, by which it is made to afford negative electricity as
readily as positive, withoutlosing any of the advantages which the plate-
machine has oyer the cylinder. The plate is made to revolve hori-
zontally, and is supported on an upright iron bar, about an inch in
diameter, which rises through a table on which the machine stands.
The bar rests beneath the table on a brass step, and is furnished with
a wheel and band, by which motion is given to the machine. Its
upper end is fastened by a block of wood and cement, into a glass
cylinder 44 inches in diameter and 16 inches long, which, being open
only at the lower end, forms a perfect insulation. A brass cap sur-
mounted by a screw and shoulder is cemented on to the cylinder,
and the plate is fastened on by means of the screw, a nut, and discs
of cork. Thus the plate, which is 34 inches diameter, is mounted ;
and two cushions, of which there are two pair, placed opposite to
each other, as in the common machine, and the conductors are

ounted in a similar way, except that wood is used in place of iron.
The two rubbers connect together by an arched brass rod, and the

172 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

two conductors by another arch of the same kind; these, therefore,
act as the positive and negative conductors. ‘lhere is noundue
strain upon any part of this machine, and it is found on practice to
excite well and insulate perfectly.—Phi/. Mag. ixii. 8.

24. Carbonic and Muriatic Acids of the Atmosphere.—According
to M. Vogel, scarcely any carbonic acid can be found in the atmo-
sphere over the sea two or three miles from shore, even barytes water
almost fails to detect it. Onthe other hand, various Dutch chemists
have pointed out the existence of muriates, and even free muriatic
acid in the atmosphere. The latter seems most decided near the
sea-shore, and is most abundant in dry weather. At Amsterdam it
appeared to be particularly abundant; but is attributed in part, at
least, to the action of sulphuric acid formed by the combustion of coal
and peat, which acting on the muriates set their acid free.

25. Vegetable Alkali from Rhubarb.—M. Nani, of Milan, states,
that he has discovered a new vegetable alkali in rhubarb; but has
not, as yet, said much of its properties, and except its solubility in
weak sulphuric acid, and precipitation by lime, no evidence of its
alkaline nature is offered. Six ounces of rhubarb in powder were
boiled for two hours in cight pints of common water with four drams
of sulphuric acid, it was filtered, pressed, and the residuum re-boiled
with six ounces of water and two drams of sulphuric acid, the fluid
being again separated, the residuum weighed but two ounces. The
united infusions were mixed by degrees with three ounces of quick-
lime, and from being yellow became of a blood-red colour ; after
standing a day the precipitate was filtered out, dried in the sun, and
weighed six ounces. It was then digested at a high heat with four
pounds of alcohol of specific gravity .837 for two hours, filtered,
and again digested with two pounds more of alcohol, which, when
separated by a second filtration, was added to the first. Being put
into a retort, five pounds of the alcohol were distilled off, and the rest
of the liquor evaporated carefully to dryness. It weighed two drams,
was of a red-brown colour, with brilliant points throughout it. Its
taste was sharp and styptic. It was soluble in water, and its odour
was like that of rhubarb.

This preparation is recommended in pharmacy as being of constant
quality, of convenient solubility in water, and deprived of its inert and
ligneous matter ; one or two grains is sufficient for a dose.— Bib. Uni,
Xx, 232.

26. Change of Fat in Perkins’s Engine, by Water, Heat nd
Pressure.—Mr. Perkins uses in his steam cylinder a mixture of
about equal parts of Russia tallow and olive oil to lubricate the
piston and diminish friction. ‘This mixture is consequently exposed
to the action of steam at considerable pressure and temperature, and
being carried on by the steam, it is found in the water giving rise to
peculiar appearances,

Chemical Science. 7 173

The original mixture is solid at common temperatures, but fuses
at about 85°. Fah. When boiled in alcohol, a small portion dis-
solves,

The water, as it issues from the end of the ejection-pipe into the
tub placed to receive it, and from which it is pumped up again into
the generator, appears white and translucent, and after having been
used some time, very much resembles thin milk. A scum is found
floating on it, which, when collected together, forms a soft solid, but
when it has been long exposed to the action of the steam and ata
high temperature, is hard like wax nearly. It is always black and
dirty. A portion of this substance was digested in hot alcohol, and
the clear solution set aside; flocculi separated in abundance from it
on cooling, which, when dried, collected, and fused, gave a grayish
substance, contracting and cracking as it cooled, with the lustre and
appearance of wax, but rather more brittle. It does not melt in
boiling water, but at a higher heat melts, and ultimately burns like
fat. It is rather lighter than water; it dissolves readily in alkalies,
+more readily, I think, than fat, and in this respect resembles Chev-
reul’s acids of fat, as well as in its solubility in alcohol ; the alka-
line solution is turbid. It is not soluble in ether, or very slightly so;
when burnt it leaves an ash consisting principally of carbonate of
lime.

The cold alcoholic;solution, on evaporation, left a substance similar
in many respects, but much softer, even fluid. It burnt in the same
manuer, leaving a slight ash of carbonate of lime. The merest trace
of .copper was found in these substances.

The action of the alechol being continued, nothing at last remained
but dirt and mechanical impurities. The softer portions from the
surface of the water were found to contain a quantity of unchanged
fat and oil.

The milky water, on examination, was found to be a mixture,
probably, of this substance and water. It undergoes no change in
appearance when leti for many weeks, but when filtered through good
filtering paper, the latter portions came through clear and trans-
parent, the altered fat being separated, When evaporated it leaves a
substance having all the properties of the solid matter above de-
scribed. The finely-divided state of the substance, its solidity, and
its near approach to the specific gravity of water, will, perhaps,
account for the length of time during which it will remain uniformly
diffused through it.

27. On Eritrogene, and the colouring Matter of the Blood. By
B. Bizio.—A_ person afflicted with the “yellow jaundice, died in the
hospital at Venice, in June, 1821. During an anatomical ex-
amination, there was found, in place of bile, a fluid which pos-
sessed none of the characters of that secretion. Jt was in conse-
quence given to I] Sig. B. Bizio for examination, who, finding it to be

174 Miscellaneous Intelligence

of great interest, from the presence of a new animal substance con-
tained in it, and the illustrations it afforded of the colouring matter
of the blood, read an account of it to the Atheneum at Venice, from
which account this abstract has been made.

The contents of the gall bladder were not of uniform consistence,
but consisted of a clot of filaments in a tenacious liquid as thick as
honey ; the fluid part was of a purple colour; the clot white, with
red and black spots; the odour was like putrid fish; it caused no
bitter sensation on the tongue; it was rather lighter than water; it
did not alter by standing for two or three days. oe

By decantation and washing, the insoluble portion was separated
from all that was soluble in water; it was then heated with water,
and agitated, by which means the adipose portion separated, and col-
lecting on the surface, was taken off when cold, and dried by
bibulous paper. It was of a greenish colour, and had the odour
of the bile originally; the fibrous matter freed from fat, collected
at the bottom of the vessel. Being heavier than water, it had lost its
original elasticity, and did not act on turnsole or violet paper; upon
trial it was found to be fibrine but little altered; the fatty matter, on
examination, gave stearine and elaine, which was separated by gently
heating the substance in alcohol; the part left undissolved, was of a
fine green colour, and being boiled in fresh alcohol, formed a green
solution, which by partial evaporation and cooling, yielded rhom-
boidal crystals, transparent, and of an emerald green colour. This
was considered as a new substance, and called Eritrogene.

The portion soluble in water, on careful examination, gave colours
ing matter identical with that of the blood, albumen, a green resin, a
yellow substance, salts, Sc. The composition of the bile is givenas —

Water . ‘ 2 : ; A pest tc Olan
Stearine : 4 . a so yp thale ties
Elaine . 7 Hs Hi : I AS) ae}
Eritrogene P 4 : ; - A ILSF
Fibrine 3 “ ; - Petites (iy Os |.
Albumen. - E - : s 7.282
Colouring matter of blood . 5 a 3.148
Green resin é 4 i - : 2.030
Yellow matter, §c. : E , : 3.915
Salts, loss, §c. : : : : 2 4.803
100,

Eritrogene.—This substance is of a green colour, tasteless, having
. the odour of putrid fish ; it is transparent, flexible, unctuous, easily
scratched or cut, and crystallizes in the form of rhomboidal parallelo-
pipedons ; ‘it has no action on turnsole or violet, specific gravity 1.57 ;
it fuses at 110° Fahrenheit, appearing like an oil; when slowly cooled,
it erystallizes on solidifying ; if heated up to 122° Fahrenheit, it vola-
tilizes giving, in contact with the atmosphere, a purple vapour; its

Chemical Science. 175

name was giyen in consequence of the power it possessed of being
transformed into a red matter, and of giving a purple vapour ; it does
not dissolve in water or ether, but in alcohol with facility; it
combines with oils, one-sixth only making them as thick as butter ;
boiled, or otherwise treated with potash or soda, it does not enter
into combination, but merely becomes of a yellow tint, hard and
fragile.

Sulphuric acid, when cold, dissolyes it without alteration ; slightly
heated strong effervescence commences, which at first diminishes, and
afterwards increases the temperature. When the action has ceased,
the eritrogene is found altered to a fragile substance of a cinnamon
colour. Cold muriatic acid dissolves it also without alteration ; when
warmed, there is effervescence, and a deep chesnut-coloured butyra-
ceous substance is produced. The cold nitric acid solution of it is
green, but at 80° er 90° Fahrenheit, the colour begins to disappear ;
and at 100° Fahrenheit, is entirely lost. A singular phenomenon
then occurs ; beyond the limit mentioned the solution begins to appear
of a rose tint, which increases by degrees till it arrives at a beautiful
purple; as the tint becomes apparent so also does a slight degree of
effervescence, which augments with the augmentation of colour and
temperature, until both are at their height together about 144° Fah-
renheit, when the ebullition ceases, and the matter formed seems to’un-
dergo no further change. The gases liberated during the action,
proved to be, for the most part, pure oxygen, whence M. Bizio con-
cluded, that the erttrogene had taken nitrogen from the acid.

Surprised by this circumstance, and anxious to confirm its singular
affinity for nitrogen, M. Bizio acted on the substance by ammonia.
A few grains were put with liquid ammonia into a small flask.
The action was very slow, and it was only after some days that-solu~
tion began, and it was without change of colour; but, on heating the
flask, strong effervescence began as soon as the eritrogene was fused,
and the full purple colour appeared ; and on collecting the gases
liberated during the action, they were found to consist of ammo-
niacal and hydrogen gases mixed together. By filling a bent tube
with ammoniacal gas over mercury, introducing a few grains of eri-
trogene, and heating them, the purple substance was obtained, and
the decomposition of gaseous ammonia as well as that in solution fully
proved.

ELritrogene combines readily with sulphur, either by heat or fric-
tion ; the compound fuses readily at 20°; if heated in the air, the
eritrogene attracts nitrogen, and Jeaves the sulphur. It combines
also with phosphorus when heated with it under water. Heated in a
tube over mercury with oxygen gas, there was at first but little
effect ; but the temperature being raised in a dark place, a beautiful
phosphoric light appeared, which continued until the whole of the
erttrogene was changed into a colourless oily fluid, slightly turbid
and free from acid. With hydrogen gas, it underwent no change. When

176 Miscellaneous Intelligence .

left in the air, it slowly attracts nitrogen, and becomes of a tn
colour, but if left too long, it blackens and becomes mouldy. -
then put into water, it resumes it spurple colour, and when, by Stas
ing, it has fallen to the bottom, the water has a chesnut brown tint;
from which, some foreign matter 1s suspected to give colour to the
eritrogene, and the pure substance is supposed to be colourless.

Until now, nothing has been said of the nature of the azotated
eritrogene ; but M. Bizio at last states it to be precisely the same
substance as the colouring matter of the blood, having presented, on
the most scrupulous examination, all the physical. and chemical
characters belonging to that body.

In some further remarks upon the coloration of the blood, M.
Bizio states his opinion, that erttrogene, or something very hike it}
and ready to become eritrogene, exists in the chyle; and that, when
this reaches the lungs, nitrogen is absorbed as well as oxygen, and
colour given to it. He remarks, that though he had been unable to
find eritrogene inthe chyle, yet the researches of Vauquelin, Brande,
Marcet, Emmert, Dupuytren, c., have shewn, that a fatty matter,
sglisbledia aicahel, exists in the chyle, and that chyle may be con-
sidered, as Thenard has said, blood minus the colouring matter, and’
plus the fatty substance. Marcet remarks, that the coagulum of
chyle is opaque, and has a rose tint, perhaps due to some” particles
of eritrogene azoiated by the air. The author, however, supports his
opinion ‘with modesty, and hopes, that ere long, further light will be
thrown on this subject.—Gior. di Fis. vi. 446,

28. Compounds of Cystic Oxide.—The following is the composition
as ascertained by M. J. L. Lassaigne, of certain compounds of cystic
oxide. Its compound with muriatic acid is crystalline, but always
distinctly acid: when dried in the sua, and decomposed by carbbriate
of ammonia, it gave

Cystic auiie ‘ ¢ Z H 94.7 100.
Muriatic acid : : 5.3

The compound with nitric acid crystallized i in naeaiel with a bril-

liant nacreous aspect. It gave
Cystic oxide : ; 96.9 Ar
Nitric acid : i 3 f100-

The sulphate of this substance is a viscid colourless substance,
soluble in water, and uncrystallizable. It appeared to be com-
posed of

Cystic oxide. : : sha 10.4100
Sulphuric acid . " . : 10.4 ,
but it was probably not quite dry.

The oxalate crystallizes in needles, which effloresce in the: air, it
contains .

Cystic oxide. : : : é . 78
Oxalic acid d , " u . . 22

Chemical Science. 177

The cystic oxide is insoluble in the other vegetable acids. Being
analyzed by combustion with oxide of copper, it gave as its ele-
ments,

BEMPOR: ny oe soiiuigist vals Ot aibiave Hi brn higSOu?

Nitrogen 5 ‘ : : : ‘ 34.

Oxygen ° . : ‘ . : 17.

Hydrogen ‘ ; . : : . 12.8
100

Ann. de Chim. xxiii. 329.

. 29. On Prussian Blue in Urine, by Dr. Julia —A gentleman of
sanguine temperament, aged eighty-two, was attacked with an acute
disease of the urinary passages. He had previously enjoyed perfect
health. On the second day of the disease, the urine was of a deep
blue colour, glutinous, frothed on agitation, and deposited blue fila-
ments. Dr, Sernin, who attended this gentleman, sent a portion of
the urine to M. Julia for examination, and the latter ascertained that
it contained very little urea, was charged with albumen and gelatine,
and that the blue colour arose from hydrocyanate of iron, probably
in the form of a triple salt with soda. The cause of the solubility of
the substance in the urine is unknown at present.— Archives Generale.

30. Excrement of the Boa Constrictor, Urate of Ammonia.—Pro-
fessor Pfaff states, that the excrement of the Boa Constrictor contains
so much ammonia as to be a suburate of ammonia. When distilled
with weak solution of potash, ammonia is condensed in the receiver ;
uric acid so treated, yields no ammonia. When evaporated with
nitric acid to a certain point, before the formation of purpuric acid,
the solution deposits crystals of nitrate of ammonia; if all these be
separated, no purpuric acid is furnished by further evaporation, but if
allowed to remain, the purpuric acid is produced,

31. Prize Questions.—The following prize questions are offered by
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris.

** To determine by a series of chemical and physiological experi-
ments. What are the phenomena which succeed one another in the
digestive organs during digestion?” For the year 1825, the reward a
gold medal of 3000 francs value.

‘«* To determine, by various experiments, the density which liquids,
and especially mercury, water, alcohol, and sulphuric ether, acquire
by compression, equal to the weight of several atmospheres ; and to
measure the quantity of heat produced by such compression.” For
the year 1824, the prize a gold medal of 3000 francs value.

ne

Vou. XVI. N

178 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Ill. Narvurat Hisrory. '

1. Extraordinary formation of Hornstone.—Professor Jameson
in some speculations in regard to the formation of opal, woodstone,
and diamond, gives the following statement :—‘* Like opal, horn-
stone seems sometimes to be a product of vegetable origin, for the
specimen which I-now exhibit to the Socicty is a variety of wood-
stone. This remarkable specimen, which is eighteen inches long,
five inches thick, and eight broad, was torn from the interior of a
log of teak wood, (tectona grandis,) in one of the dock-yards at
Calcutta. The carpenters on sawing the log of teak wood, were ar-
rested in their progress by a hard body, which they found to be in-
terlaced with the fibres of the wood; and, on cutting round, ex-
tracted the specimen now on the table. This fact naturally led me
to conjecture, that the mass of woodstone had_ been secreted by the
tree, and that, in this particular case, a greater quantity of silica
than usual ‘had been deposited; in short, that this portion of the
trunk of the tree had become silicified, thus offering to our observa-
tion in vegetables, a case analagous to the ossifications that take place
in the animal system. I was further led to suppose that the wood
might contain silica in considerable quantity as one of its constituent
par rts, a conjecture which was confirmed by some experiments made
by Dr. Wollaston. Other woods appear also to contain silica, and
these, in all probability, will occasionally have portions of their
structure highly impregnated with silica, forming masses which
will present the principal characters of petrified woos! Indeed, I
think it probable that some of the petrified woods in cabinets are
portions of trees that have been silicified by the living powers of the
vegetable and not trunks, or branches, which have been petrified
or silicified by a mere mineral process.”—Edin. Jour. ix. 165. ~

2. Matrix of the Brazilian Diamond.—In Mr. Hewland’s splendid
collection there is a Brazilian diamond, imbedded in brown iron ore ;
another also in brown iron ore, in the possession of M. Schuch, li-
brarian to the Crown Princess of Portugal; and Eschwege has in
his own cabinet a mass of brown iron ore, in which there is a dia=
mond in a drusy cavity, of a green mineral, conjectured to be arse=
niate of iron. From these facts he infers that the matrix, or origi=
nal repository of the diamond of Brazil, is brown iron ore, which
occurs in beds of slaty quartzoze micaceous iron ore, or in beds
composed of iron glance and magneti¢ iron ore named by him
Itabirite, both of which are subordinate to what he considers as pri-
mitive clay- slate-—Edin, Jour. ix. 202.

3. Native Carbonate of Soda in India.—Captain John Siewant
being, in the course of military operations, encamped on the banks
of the Chumbul, near the village of Peeplouda, just where the

Natural History. 179

Chaumlee and Chumbul join, had occasion to observe the production
of this alkali in considerable quantities in the bed of the river. It
being the dry season there was scarcely any stream, but a number
of pools, and walking amongst them, “ I observed that, on the’
margin of one of the above pools, the ground for a considerable
space appeared beautifully white; on examining it closely, I found
it covered with a fine pure saline efflorescence, in general about two
or three tenths of an inch in depth, covering a soft, wet, and slip-
pery mud ; the taste and appearance of this salt induced me to con-
clude it was carbonate of soda, which I found to be the case on
taking some of it to my tent.” Before Captain Stewart could ascer-
tain the extent of the bed, an order came for removal; but he believes
there are numberless places in the bed of the river besides the one
le discovered, and thinks they might be easily and profitably worked’
in the dry season. The banks of the river are described as steep
and broken, and composed of a kind of friable clay-rock, mixed
with loose limestone. The bed of the river is in‘many places ba-
saltic rock, sometimes forming a smooth surface, exhibiting the pen-'
tagonal form of the columns like a regular pavement.—Bombay
Trans. iii. 53. It

4, Acid Earth of Persia —An acid earth is found in great quan-
tities at a village, called Daulakie, in the south of Persia, between’
three and four days’ journey from Bushire, on the Persian Gulf. It
is used by the natives in making their sherbets, &c., and large quan-
tities are thus employed. A portion has been brought from thence
by Lieutenant-Colonel Wright, and examined by Mr. Pepys, who:
finds that about a fifth of it is soluble in boiling water, yielding an
acid solution, which, when tested, gave proofs of the preseneé of
sulphuric acid and iron, and on evaporation yielded crystals of aci-
dulous sulphate of iron.—Pwil. Mag. \xii. 75.

’5. A most extraordinary experiment has been made by M.
Dobereiner. It was communicated to me by M. Hachette, and hav-
ing verified it, I think every chemist will be glad to hear its nature.
It consists in passing a stream of hydrogen against the finely divided
platina, obtained by heating the muriate of ammonia and platina. In
consequence of the contact, the hydrogen inflames. Even when the
hydrogen does not inflame, it ignites the platina in places; and I find
that when the hydrogen is passed over the platinum in a tube, no air
being admitted, still the platinum heats in the same manner. What
the change can be in these circumstances, M. Dobereiner has, no
doubt, fully investigated ; and the scientific world will be anxious to
hear his account of this remarkable experiment, and the consequences
it leads to.—M. F.

6. Organic remains in Poland.—In a calcareous rock of the moun-
N 2

180 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

tain of Provislava, in Poland, and at the depth of ten ells, has been
discoyered a back-bone of the great length of twelve ells. | Itis now
under scientific examination, and an account of the organic remains
with its site is promised,

7. Charcoal in the Cinders of Vesuvius—M. Vauquelin stated to
the Academy Royal des Sciences, that he had found charcoal in the
cinders thrown out from Vesuvius during the last eruption.

8. Observations made on Vesuvius and its Products.—An account
has been published by MM. Monticelli and Covelli of Naples of the
phenomena presented by Vesuvius, in the years 1821-22. It abounds
with interesting facts and observations, several of which We are in-
duced to select at this time, froin the abstract given of the work in the
Bibliothéque Universelle, xxiii.

_ Examination of recent Lava.—On the 11th Feb. Vesuvius began.
to emit much smoke, scoria, Sc. gc.; on the 22nd about an hour
and a half after sunrise an eruption commenced, and soon after, a
current of lava descended from the top of the mountain, and moved
over that of 1810, forming a cascade of fire; this current was re-
newed by others thrown out from the mountain, and attended by all
the phenomena of a magnificent eruption, On the 24th MM. Mon-
ticelli aud Covelli visited the lava to make their experiments. Being
covered by cooled scoria, it did not appear in any part to be ignited,
but it moved on a nearly horizontal soil, at the rate of 15 feet in 34,
minutes. At about 12 feet from the lava the thermometer stood at
93° F., whilst in the free air it was 59° F., but at three feet distance
it could not be measured, far surpassing that of boiling water.

Nitre in powder thrown into the crevices of the lava fused without .
detonating or scinuliating.. The atmosphere about the lava was not
in an electric state, and a chemical examination proved that the lava
taken whilst still glowing, contained no free acid, but only some sub-
stances soluble in water, amongst which were muriatic acid, sul-
phuric acid, and lime.

The vapours exhaled by the lava, had no action on paper tinged by
turnsole or syrup of violets, they appeared to be composed ‘of steam, .
with a very small quantity of salts of iron and copper. ‘The vapours
had no other effect on the neighbouring lava than to change its
colour, The saline efflorescences which deck the surface of the lava
with the most brilliant colours, only appear when the lava cools, and
when the vapours previously disseminated over the whole surface,
concentrate into small fumaroles. These efflorescences which have
been erroneously considered as sublimations appear to have existed
ready formed in the lava, they were mixtures of chloride of sodium, |
muriate of iron, and peroxide of iron, as well as carbonate and sub-
carbonate of soda, sulphate of soda and of potash.

With regard to the presence of sulphur and sulphurous acid in the

Natural History. 181

volcano and its lavas, the latter was soon found in the fumes from the
crater, and also from the fumaroles in the lava, but on continuin;
their researches these philosophers were led to conclude, that the
sulphurous acid is not contained teady formed in the lava, but is de-
veloped by the contact of the air ; fragments of red-hot Java plunged
into tincture of turnsole, not changing its colour, whilst those which
had been cooled in the air easily turned it red.

Sulphur in crystals is not found in the crater. It is requisite for
ts production that the temperature of the surface of the crater or of
the lava should be below 212° I’. The sulphurous acid only appears
when the temperature is sufficient for the combustion of the sulphur,
and the ¢ontact of the external air is necessary to its production.
Thus the distinction of volcanoes into two classes, namely those
which with Vesuvius, produce muriatic acid, and those which with
the Solfaterra, produce sulphurous acid is unfounded; since the two
acids appear at Vesuvius according to the temperature, and since the
Solfaterra does not really produce sulphurous acid, as has been till
now supposed, but muriatic acid free and combined, carbonic acid,
and sulphuretted hydrogen,

The lava which flowed from the crater on the 26th Feb. was of
a deep bluish-grey colour, and a fine grain resembling basalt; it was
composed of grains of pyroxine as large as a hemp seed, crystals of
amphigine, mica in very brilliant small plates, olivine ? in transparent’
and yellow grains, but rare, and finally of portions of a black pumice
as big as nuts and incorporated with the lava.

Volcanic Electricity 'y.—In October of the same year the mountain
again became active, and an eruption took place one of the most dis-
astrous that Vesuvius ever gave rise to. After frequent ejections of
ashes, §c. from the summit, earthquakes, §c., the lava appeared
about mid-day of October 21, 1822, on the border of the crater, and
came down in two streams. On the 22nd an enormous column of
fire 2000 feet high, rose from the top of the mountain, whilst a rain
of hot sand, pumice stones, and lava fell. About 2 o'clock P.M.; the
first signs of electricity manifested themselves in that part of the at-
mosphere situated round the column of sand, which rose from the
crater in the form of a pine, and shortly, numberless zig-zag flashes
continued without ceasing, to penetrate the cloud of cinders without,
however, giving rise to any detonation that could be heard. Towards
the evening the thunders commenced just as the volcano took, for a
short time, an appearance of repose,

About 8 o’clock our philosophers took the opportunity of the
short calm and approached the mountain, just as a fresh and more
vigorous eruption took place. Soon the whole heaven seemed on fire
from the immense quantity of ignited matter thrown up into it.
Towards the middle of the night the paroxysm of the volcano seemed
to have risen to its height, but whilst the operations of the crater
became more and more feeble, the play of electricity, which embel-
lished the elevated region of the clouds of sand, became stronger

182 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

and acquired fresh vigour. At this moment the heavens presented a
‘very unexpected scene, zig-zag flashes of lightning passed in such
quantity either from the borders of the clouds of sands into the air,
or from one cloud to another, that the edges appeared as if surrounded
by a fringe of light. A faint idea of the phenomenon may be given
by supposing an electric disc continually throwing off from its edge
a multitude of flashes of light. The flashes which were so abundant
on the edges of the clouds were very rarely seen in the interior, and
never formed in their centres, or on the summit of the mountain.

On the 23d, a horrible explosion threw into the air such an im-
‘Mense quantity of sand, $c., as to threaten the greatest disasters to
‘the towns to which the cloud was carried. The inhabitants of Torre
Anunziata, Bosco-trecase, and Ottajano, ran the most imminent
dangers ; the frequent heavings of the earth, the constant rain of
fiery stones, the continual discharge of the lightning, which fell with
awful thunder on the most elevated points of the churches, houses,
and trees, the numberless flashes which serpentining on all sides, and
which not coming less frequently from the earth than from the
heavens, traversed even the very roads, produced frightful sensations
in those who were thus surprised; and then the lavacame down
upon them. To leave their houses was impossible because of the
falling sand and stones, and the lightning ; not only the rain of fire co-
vered the ground with stones, but large globes of fire passed through

he air, which burst with dreadful noise, destroying the houses. Du-
ring this night the sand fell in the streets to the depth of a foot, and
‘its weight on the roofs of the houses and churches was such as with
the shaking of the earthquakes to crush them to the ground.

__MM. Montecelli and Covelli found that the sand which fell on the
23d and following days was electrified vitriously or positively. A glass
disc strongly excited by the dry skin of a cat, would not retain the
grains which fell, whilst a stick of wax excited by the same skin be-
‘came abundantly charged with them. These falls of sand were ac-

companied at Resina and even at Naples by a strong odour of muriatic
acid and muriate of iron.

_ Eruption of Vesuvius, October 1822.—M. Montecelli had remarked
that the eruptions of Vesuvius consisted of a successive series of more
and less active intervals, something similar to the paroxysms of some

diseases. The following table and remarks illustrate the duration
and nature of these intervals with regard to the eruption in October.

Paroxysm Recast ancane sts EAE Daration
1 Oct. 20, 10 P.M. Oct. 22, 1 A.M. 27
2 22, 1AM. 29, 1 P.M. 12
3 D4 Hilla i) Fei 22, 8 P.M. %
4 99," '8 P.M. 23, 1 A.M. 5
5 93, 1 AM. 93, 2 P.M 13
6 Sy, 2, ee. 24, 8 P.M. 30
7 24, 8 P.M. indefinite.

Natural History. 183

Effects 1. Much smoke, small streams of lava not passing the
foot of the great volcanic cone,

- 2. Rupture of the eastern lip of the crater; column of fire;
ejection of lava on the east and west of the crater; small shower of
coarse sand.

3. Pine of sand; new jet of lava; small shower of coarse sand.

4, Force of the eruption at its maximum; new explosion with
the destruction of the S.E. eminence of the crater; great overflowing
of lava from the same side; ignition of the crater; many columns
of ignited stones thrown with force into the air; great development
of electricity in the clouds of sand.

__5. Great eruption of sand; further overflowing of lava; elec-
tricity weaker than before.

6. Two pines on the crater; rain of fine red sand.

7. Pine small; smal! shower of red sand.

On comparing the duration of the paroxysms, it will be seén that
the shortest are found in the middle, and the longest at the extremi-
ties; but the shortest were the most violent, and the force of the
others was inversely as their duration.

9. Hot Springs at Jumnotri.—The following account is from Captain
Hodgson’s relation of his Journey to the Source of the Jumna, The
time was April, 1821. ‘‘ At Jumnotri, the snow which covers and

conceals the stream is about sixty yards wide, and is bounded to the
right and left by mural precipices of granite. It is about forty feet
five inches and a half thick, and has fallen from the precipices above.
Tn front, at the distance of about five hundred yards, part of the base
of the great Jumnotri mountain rises abruptly, cased in snow and ice,
and shutting up and totally terminating the head of this defile, in which
the Jumna originates. I was able to measure the thickness of the
bed of snow over the stream very exactly, by means of a plumb line
let down through one of the holes in it, which are caused by the steam
of a great number of boiling springs, on the border of the Jumna.
The snow is very solid and hard frozen, but we found means to de=
scend through it to the Jumna, by an exceedingly steep and narrow
dark hole made by the steam, and witnessed a very extraordinary
‘scene, for which I am indebted to the earliness of the season and the
‘unusual quantity of snow which had fallen this season. When I
got footing at the stream, (here only a pace wide) it was some time
before I could discern any thing, on accountof the darkness of the
place made so by the thick steam, but having some white lights with
me, I fired them, and by their glare was able to sce and admire the
curious domes of snow over head ; these are caused by the hot steam
melting the snow over it. Some of these excavations are very spa=
cious, resembling vaulted roofs of marble, and the snow, as it melts,
falls in showers like heavy rain to the stream, which appears to owe

184 Miscellaneous Intelligence:

its origin, in a great measure, to these supplies. Having only a short
scale thermometer with me, [ could not ascertain the precise heat of
the spring, but it was too hot to keep the finger in it for more than:two
seconds, and must be near the Loiling point. Rice boiled in it but
imperfectly. The range of springs is very extensive, but I could
not visit them all as the rest are in dark recesses or in snow caverns,
The water of them rises up with great ebullition through crevices of
the granite rock, and deposits a ferruginous sediment, of which I col-
lected some, . It is tasteless, and I did not perceive any peculiar
smell. . Hot springs are frequent in the Himalaya.”—Asiatie Re-
searches, xiv. Y

10, Shock of an Earthquake at Sea,—On Sunday, February 10.
1823, at lh. 10’. P.M. the East India Company’s ship Winchelsea,
on her passage from Bengal to England, when in lat. 52°. N. long,
85°. 33’. E. experienced a shock similar to that of an earthquake.
Every individual was alarmed by a tremulous motion of the vessel,
which gave a sensation as if it were passing over a coral rock, at the
same time a loud rumbling noise was heard, similar to the rolling of
a butt along the deck. The agitation and noise continued two or
three minutes, The captain, being in the round-house, looked out at
the stern windows, but saw no appearance of any shoal, though, had
there been one, it must have been visible, for the water was clear and
smooth, and the ship not going more than two knots an hour, it. was
considered out of soundings at the time. During the continuance of
this phenomenon, there was no perceptible commotion in the sea, and
‘the vessel was some hundred miles from any land. This remarkable
phenomenon cannot be accounted for in any other manner than bi
referring it to some volcanic irruption, probably in one of the islands
eastward of the bay cf Bengal.

The above account is given by Mr. Parson, surgeon, at the time, of
the ship in question.— Med. Rep. xx. 175. Ponape

11. Aerolite? at Coddenham, in Suffolk.—A very heavy storm passed
one day in July last, over the village of Coddenham, in Suffolk, about
half past two, P.M, from the N. E., the rain fell in torrents with some
little hail, accompanied with thunder and lightning. One flash was
particularly vivid, followed by an instantaneous loud clap of thunder.
When the rain abated, a lad returning home, took fron) out the run
_of water, beside the road in the street, a round ball, which, to his asto-
nishment, he found to be a heavy stone and very hot, with a strong
sulphurous smell. He shewed it to two people in the village, who
not only corroborate the boy’s statement, but say the surface of the
stone became warmer after it had been a short time out of the water,
and then gradually cooled. The stone is nearly globular, about seven
inches in circumference, and weighs eight ounces, five pennyweigits,

Natural History. — 185

and seven grains. The surface is even, of a dark-grey colour, and an-
swers in every respect to the meteoric stones described in Jameson’s
Mineralogy, and Murray’s Elements of Chemistry.

The above account is taken from the New Monthly Mag. ix. 383,
but the evidence of the nature ofthe stone is somewhat uncertain and
doubtful.—We put no faith in it.

12. Direction of Lightning,—Itis said to have been observed, from
a series of observations, in Germany, that the general direction of
lightning is from east to west, comparatively seldom from north to
‘south. From another series of observations, also made in Germany,
it is stated to appear, that most of the lightning rises in the west and
extends towards the east. We suppose it is meant that the direction
of the lightning is parallel, or nearly so, to a line running east and
west, for whether it goes inthe one or the other direction, would,
considering its velocity, be a difficult thing to determine. Perhaps,
however, it is meant that the place from whence the lightning arises
in a storm, is successively removed from east to west, or west to east.

13. Observations on the Boletus Igniarius, by Professor Eaton.—Few
persons take the trouble to watch the growth of cryptogamous plants,
therefore, accidental observations may with propriety be preserved.
The doletus igniarius, or the common touchwood, is a very durable
fungus. We often observe it full grown, and generally several years old;
but few persons have observed its progress while in the growing state. A
fungus of this species first appeared growing from the trunk of a de-
caying Lombardy poplar in my yard, about twelve inches from the
ground, in July, 1821. During that season it grew to the extent of
four inches indiameter. Last June it commenced growing again, and
about the Ist September follewing, it was fifteen inches in diameter,
‘measured across the base of the semicircle. The first season it ap
proached a globular form, though it was an unfinished, and rather
‘shapeless, mass. Nowit has assumed its regular form, and seems to
‘have completed its growth, which, if correct, proves it to be a biennial
plant.

’ The most remarkable fact observed in the growth of this fungus,
was its flesh-like property, manifested when its parts were severed. A
deep gash was cut in its periphery, in August, and the severed parts
shortly after united by the process which surgeons denominate first
intention. A piece was broken from another part in the same month,
and after lying on the ground two days it was joined on again. The
‘piece united, as in the case of the incision before mentioned, and con-
tinued to grow with the other parts of the fungus. ' Now there is not
even a cicatrice, nor any other evidence left of the incision or the
fracture. Silliman Journ. vi. 177.

14. On the employment of Electricity in the treatment of Calculous
cases, by MM. Prevost and Dumas.—These philosophers have, in

186 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

ihe course of their researches, thought on the practicability of
operating on the calculus in the bladder, by electricity, so as either to
extract. it, or assist in reducing it to that stale in which it could be
voided without having recourse to an operation.

The modes of applying the electric current are two. It would be
possible, in fact, to extract the calculus by means of a double sound
communicating at one end with the bladder, and at the other with
two vessels filled water, into which the poles of the pile should be
plunged. This method, if practicable, would transfer the acids
and bases of the calculus into the vessels, but it would require
a battery of strong power, and probably, from the dispersion of the
galvanic fluid, disturb the bladder, which, with other objections,
make the method inapplicable. The other mode is, in place of
endeavouring to extract the calculus, to aim rather at its disin-
tegration, and bring it into so friable a state that it may readily be
‘broken down, and pass out through the urethra.

A fusible calculus was submitted to the action of a pile of 120
pair of plates for 12 hours, the pile being recharged each hour.
The calculus was placed in a vessel of pure water, and the platina
wires from the poles of the battery, which also passed through the
water, touched it in two points, distant about 6 or $ lines. During
the action, the phosphoric acid, and the bases separated at the poles,
then re-combined and fell as an insoluble powder to the bottom of
the vessel. At first the calculus weighed 92 grains, but was then
reduced to SO grains; the treatment being continued for 16 hours
more, the calculus became so friable, that the slightest pressure
broke it into numerous crystalline grains, the largest not larger than
a lentil, all of which would easily have passed the urethra.

The practicability of this mode of treatment is evident to those, at
all acquainted with physiological experiments. It is almost always
possible to carry two conductors into the bladder, which, by means
of a slight spring, shall have their extremities separated, so as to
touch the a eae in two points. The voltaic current being passed,
the calculus would be decomposed without the bladder being too
much affected. To proye this, such a system of conductors were in-
troducted into the bladder of a dog, and connected with a battery of
135 pair of plates. It was found that, the bladder being distended
by warm water, the animal was not particularly disturbed, notwith-
standing the conductors decomposed water with energy, and gaye
torrents of gas.

The following experiment was then made: a fusible calculus. was
fixed at the end of the sound, between the two conductors, and in-
troduced into the bladder of a large dog, which was then filled with
warm water. The conductors were then connected with the battery.
After some slight movements, the animal became calm, and re-
mained quiet under the galvanic action for an hour. The sound
being carefully withdrawn, the calculus was found decidedly to have
undergone decomposition. This was repeated for six days, one hour

Natural History. 187

night and morning, when the calculus had become so friable, as to
oblige the disconiinuance of the experiment. It had lost in weight
like the former calculus. After some days’ rest, the dog was killed,
and the bladder examined; its texture was just as usual, its appear-
ance presented nothing particular, and when opened for the evacua-
tion of the urine, its fibres contracted just as usual.

_ The innocuous hature of such a voltaic current on an organ, at a
certain distance from it, may be readily ascertained in the following
manner: place the conductors and calculus in the water, as in the
first experiment, then pass the current, and also dip the tongue into
the water; it will be found that whilst the calculus is undergoing
rapid decomposition, the tongue, sensible as it is to the influence of
electricity, will scarcely be able to ascertain its presence, when not
more than 15 or 18 lines from the calculus.

It is evident that this process will be of no avail in the treatment
of calculi, composed of, or containing much, uric acid; and MM.
Prevost and Dumas do not think of recommending the process in
cases even where it promises help, until farther investigation has les=
sened the difficulties, and illustrated the points which remain untried.
They have introduced calculi into the bladders of dogs; and when
the wounds have cured, propose practising on them, that the best
method for the human being may be ascertained. It will be re-
quisite to ascertain, by experiment, what fluid will be best for the
distension of the bladder; and it is indispensable to find means
‘of ascertaining accurately the nature of the calculus whilst in the
bladder. They are encouraged against these and other difficulties,
however, by having already ascertained, at the Jardin des Plantes,
that the action of the pile causes no bad effects on the bladder ;
‘and also that the addition of a certain quantity of nitrate of pot-
ash to the fluid for injection, renders the decomposition more rapid
‘and sure, so that the hard and compact phosphates give way in
an analogous manner to those that are porous.—Amn. de Chim.
xxiii, 202.

15. Dumbness cured by Electricity, by Miles Partington, esq.—The
following account of a galvanic experiment on a dumb boy having
been inserted in several newspapers, unknown to me at the time,
I am induced, by the advice of several medical friends, to attest the
truth and correctness of the detail, as far as respects my knowledge
‘of the circumstances attending the event of his recovery; and
having made the strictest inquiry of those immediately connected
‘with Christ’s Hospital, I have every reason to believe the following
detail to be strictly true.

_ Eighth months ago, a youth about twelve years of age, named
‘Oldham, in Christ’s Hospital, went to bed at the usual hour, and in
the morning rose totally dumb. He preserved every other faculty,
‘but was obliged to write on a slate for every thing that he wanted,
that he could not explain by signs, Every means of internal re«

188 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

medy, and also electricity, were resorted to without effect.. Galva~
nism was also attempted, but was so much resisted by the boy’s
fears that it could not then be applied. His general health was in-
variably good. At length, by strong recommendation, his fears of
galvanism were overcome, and it was applied five different days.
On Friday week, being the evening of the fifth application, exactly
eight months to a day, he retired to bed as usual, and awoke sud-
denly about eleven o’clock, making so much noise as to awaken
some of his schoolfellows. Their astonishment produced so much
alarm that the nurse opened the door of her adjoining apartment to
learn the cause, when many voices exclaimed, ** Oh! nurse, Oldham
can speak again.” The nurse doubting the fact, immediately went to
him, and discovered the reality of this phenomenon. In the morn-
ing the boy had quite recovered his speech, and on being asked if he
felt any peculiar sensation, merely said, he thought he was being
galvanised, as he felt the tip of his tongue affected, together with a
rumbling in his inside. His speech has continued perfect ever since.

In addition to the above statement it may be proper to say, some
time previous to the commencement of the experiment, he was
brought to my house, but having been somewhere electrified, the boy
was so much frightened, on seeing a large apparatus in the room,
that, considering the agitation he then laboured under, I did not
think it prudent to urge him further, and he departed without being
galvanized. About two or three months after he came again, at-
tended by a medical assistant, with a note from Mr. Field, the re=
spectable apothecary to the Hospital, assuring me that the boy
was willing to submit to the experiment, and to be repeated accord-
ing to my direction; and, in truth, he suffered me to proceed in a
willing manner. I began with a small galvanic trough, plates in
breadth and depth one inch, with diluted muriatic acid. Having
placed a piece of insulated platina on his tongue, which, holding in
his own hand, he could shift according to instruction, while I ap-
plied another conductor to different parts of the larynx, varying the
direction according as I perceived the muscles to be most easily
put in motion, and the vocal nerves apparently excited. By the ac-
count he gave after his recovery, a sensation of warmth always con-
tinued for some time as he returned home, and there constantly
occurred an increased flow of saliva during the operation.

I am not aware that any further particulars are necessary to be
stated, as every person conversant with the medical application of gal-
vanism or electricity, must know the necessity of attending to the
present sensations, as a guide which admits of variation according to
the state or temperament of the sensory nerves at the time of applica-
tion. I deem it only necessary to add, that my young patient at-
tended three days in the week, and it was on the morning after the
fifth time that | received a grateful letter from the father, informing
me of his son’s entire restoration of speech at 11 o’clock on the pre=
ceding night, having been galvanized at 3 o’clock on the same. day,

Natural History. 189

being the fifth time of attendance, and I was much gratified a few
hours after with a visit from the boy, attended by his father, the son
himself giving me, with a clear voice, the whole of the circumstances
stated in the Times newspaper, and, as I am told, copied afterwards
into other papers.

P.S. It may be proper to state, the boy continues well at the
present time.

Orchard-strect, Portman-square, June 19, 1823.

1. The Greenwich Murai Circle.—Feeling a lively interest in any
thing connected with the Royal Observatory, we have, with the
greatest satisfaction, seen the results of Mr. Pond’s inquiry into
the state of the Greenwich mural circle: the experiments prove
almost to a mathematical certainty, that this splendid instrument is,
after twelve years constant use, as free from error, as even its warmest
advocates, or the most accomplished observer, could wish.

2. Mr. Groombridge’s Transit. Circle. — Whilst admiring the
mechanical skill of him who constructed the Greenwich mural
circle, we were much concerned to hear, that there were some
grounds to suspect the accuracy of another instrument made by the
same artist, and generally considered, little inferior to the Greenwich
circle itself; we allude to the four-feet meridian transit circle, late the
property of Mr. Groombridge. On this gentleman’s retiring from the
duties of an-active observer, the instrument was disposed of, liable
however, to an examination on the part of its maker, as to its
efficiency or inefficiency; which investigation being conducted by
Mr. Troughton, in the presence of Mr. Groombridge, the late Pro-
fessor Tralles, and its intended purchaser, gave reason to fear that
some alteration in its figure, had been sustained. Accordingly, future
and more minute examination was deemed necessary ; and, at length,
it was resolved, that comparisons of North polar distances taken on
the same nights, with it and the Greenwich mural circle should be
entered into ; and the results of many weeks’ observations proved, that
those obtained by Mr. Groombridge with his instrument, were, to use
the words of the Astronomer Royal, ‘‘ as coincident with those pro-
cured by the Greenwich mural circle, as those of the Greenwich
mural circle were with themselves.” Knowing that the reports of
the suspected inaccuracy have extended far and wide, we feel it due to
Mr. ‘Troughton who constructed the instrument, and to Mr. Groom-
bridge, who used it, to give publicity to the above statement. It
is at present in Blackman street, and is having eight additional
microscopes applied by Mr. Troughton; it will then have six
readings to each of its divided circles, so that all error of division will
probably be annihilated. We hope ere long to see it actively em

ployed,

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The First Course of: these Lectures will commence on Tuesday, the 7th of Oc-
tober, at Nine in the Morning precisely. The Second Course will begin

on the Second Tuesday in February, at the same hour.

Che Moval BWiustitution.

PLAN

OF AN EXTENDED AND PRACTICAL COURSE OF LECTURES
AND DEMONSTRATIONS ON ae Be

CHEMISTRY,

DELIVERED IN THE LABORATORY OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION, |
BY WILLIAM THOMAS BRANDE, F.R.S.,

Seeretary of the Royal Society of London, and F.R.S. Edinburgh ; Professor of Chemistry in
nhac!) Siianaes, the Royal Institution, and of Chemistry and Materia Medica r
to the Apothecaries’ Company.

These Lectures commence on the First Tuespay in OcToser, at Nine in
the Morning, and are continued every Tuesday, Thursday, aud Saturday. Two
Courses are given during the Season, which begins in October, and terminates

in June.

The Subjects comprehended in the Courses are treated of in the
following order*. —

Division I.

OF, THE POWERS AND PROPERTIES OF
MATTER, AND THE GENERAL LAWS
OF CHEMICAL CHANGES.

$1. traction—Crystallization—Chemical Affinity

~ —Laws of Combination and Decomposition.

$2. Heat—Its Influence as a Cliemical Agent in
Art and Nature.

§3. Electricity—Its Laws and Connexion with |

Chemical Phenomena. § 4. Radiant Matter.

Division Il.

OF UNDECOMPOUNDED SUBSTANCES,

AND THEIR MUTUAL COMBINATIONS.
$1, Substances that support Combustion: Oxy-
gen—Chlorine—Iodine,

§ 2. Inflammable and Acidifiable Substances :
Hydrogen—Nitrogen—Siil phur— Phosphorus—

6) » Carbon—Boron.

Metals—and their Combinations, with the va-
rious Substances described in the early part
“of the Course.

Division III.

VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY.
$3; Chemical Physiology of Vegetables.

* Mr, BRanve’s, MANUAL O

§ 2. Modes of Analysis—Ultimate and proximate
Elements.
§ 3. Processes of Fermentation, and their
Products.

Division EY.
CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL

KINGDOM.

$1. General Views connected with this Depart-

ment of the Science. dy
§ 2. Composition and Properties of the Solids
and Fluids of Animals.
§ 3. Products of Disease. § 4. Animal
Functions.

Division V.
GEOLOGY.

' $1. Primitive and secondary Rocks—-Structore

and Situation of Veins.
§2. Decay of Rocks—Production of Soils—Their
Analysis—Principles of Agricultural —
; Improvement. :
§ 3. Mineral Waters—Methods of Ascertainin
their Contents by Tests and by Analysis.
§ 4. Volcanic Rocks—Phenomena and Products
of Volcanic Eruptions.

L op CHEMISTRY, intended as a Text Book to these Lectures, is pub-
lished by Mr, Murray, Albemarle-Street. ive

Cae Professor Brande’s Lectures on Chemtstry.

In the First Diviston of each Course, the principles and objects of Chemical
Science, and the general Laws of Chemical Changes, are explained, and the phe-.
nomena of Attraction, and of Light, Heat, and Electricity developed, and illus-
trated by numerous Experiments. .

In the Seconp Division, the undecompounded bodies are examined, and the
modes of procuring them in a pure form, and of ascertaining their chemical cha-
racters, exhibited upon an extended scale-—The lectures on the Metals include
a succinct account of Mineralogy, and of the methods of analyzing and assaying
Ores.

This part of the Course will also contain a full examination of Pharmaceu-
ticul Chemistry ; the Chemical Processes of the Pharmacopeie will be par-
ticularly described, and compared with those adopted by the Manufacturer.

The Tump and Fourru Divisions relate to Organic Substances.—The
Chemical changes induced by Vegetation are here inquired into; the Principles
of Vegetables, the ia of Fermentation, and the Character of its Products are
then examined.

THe Cuemican Hisrory of ANiMALs is the next object of inquiry—it is il-
lustrated by an examination of their component parts, in health, and in disease ;
by inquiry into the Chemistry of Animal Functions, and into the application of
Chemical Principles to the treatment of diseases.

The Courses conclude with an AccouNT OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE EartH,
of the Changes which it is undergoing, of the objects and uses of Geology, and of
the principles of Agricultural Chemistry.

The applications of Chemistry to the Arts and Manufactures, and to Eco-
nomical Purposes, are discussed at some length in various parts of the Courses ;
and the most important of them are experimentally-exhibited. \ The various
operations of Analysis are also shewn and explained.

The Admission Fee to each Course is Four Guineas; or, by paying Eight
Guineas, Gentlemen are entitled to attend for an unlimited time. Gentlemen,
who are in actual attendance at the Medical and Anatomical Schools in
London, are admitted to attend Two. Courses of Mr. Brande’s Lectures,
upon the payment of Six Guineas. Life and Annual Subscribers to the
Royal Institution are admitted to the above Lectures, ‘on payment of Two
Guineas for each Course ; or, by paying Six Guineas, are entitled to attend
for an unlimited time.

et

Further Particulars may be had by applying to Mr. Brande, No. 20, Grafton-
Street; or at the Royal Institution, Albémarle-Street.

THE

QUARTERLY JOURNAL,

January, 1824.

Arr. I. A short Account of the Origin, Progress, and

present State of the various Establishments for conduct-
ing Chemical Processes, and other Medicinal Preparations,
at Apothecaries Hall. (with a Plate.)

From the charter granted to the Society of Apothecaries by his
majesty King James the First, it appears that about the latter end
of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century, the
metropolis of this kingdom abounded in ignorant and dangerous
empirics, who, not being regularly educated as apothecaries, made
and compounded many ‘ hurtful, false, and pernicious medicines,”
the evil effects of which were not confined to the capital, but were
disseminated through most parts of the kingdom. With a view to
remedy these grievances the society was established in the year
1617, and was empowered to make ordinances concerning medi-
cines and compositions, advising respecting the same with the
president and censors of the Royal College of Physicians; also to
examine the shops of apothecaries within the city of London, and
to the extent of seven miles around it, with a view of ascertaining
the qualities of the drugs and medicines contained in them, and
with power to destroy all “ unwholesome and hurtful articles’
which they might discover during such examination.

It was soon found that the want of legislative authority ren-

Vou. XVI. O

194 On the Chemical Establishments

dered the wise and judicious intentions of this charter nugatory,
with respect to all such apothecaries who were not members of the
society. Early and repeated applications were therefore made to
parliament, for their sanction to confirm and establish the powers
contained in it, but for various causes such sanction could not then
be obtained; so that the evils, which it was chiefly intended to ob-
viate in the preparation of medicines, continued to an equal and
probably greater extent.

From the records of the society, it appears, that its members
soon discovered a laudable anxiety to relieve themselves from the
necessity of depending for a supply of medicines on the artifices,
and the spurious compositions of the druggists and chemists of
that time, and accordingly, in the year 1623, they formed a plan
for supporting a dispensary of their own, for compounding the
more elaborate confections, (which containing a great number of
ingredients were more liable to adulteration) by a public dispen-
sation under the inspection and management of a committee of
themselves. The utility of this plan, being probably confined to
very few articles, must have been of a very limited extent, and it
was not until nearly half a century after, that the design of a pub=
lic laboratory for the preparation of chemical medicines was set on
foot. It originated from the difficulty and great expense which
must have been incurred, by the apothecary, in making his own
chemicals, and from the impracticability of his procuring them else-
where in a pure and genuine form.

In the year 1671, a chemical laboratory was first formed at
Apothecaries’ Hall, by subscription among the members of the so-
ciety. When compared with the present very extensive establish-
ment, it must certainly have been upon a small scale, but, no
doubt, amply sufficient to answer the purpose for which it was then
intended, which was to furnish the individual subscribers, and
them only, with such chemical preparations as they might have
occasion for in their medical practice as apothecaries.

How long the sale of chemicals was confined to subscribers
alone cannot now be known, but the increasing reputation of this
laboratory must have soon caused applications for purchasing

at Apothecaries’ Hall, 195

them from persons who were neither subscribers nor members of
the society, for, in 1682, the committee of managers were called
upon to consider the propriety of acceding to such applications.
Whether it was at that time consented to, or not, does not appear,
but it must have taken place within a few years after,

In the early part of the reign of her late majesty Queen Anne, a
new era took place in the affairs of this society. So much diffi-
culty had arisen in providing pure and genuine drugs and medi-
cines for the use of the Royal Navy, and the credit of the society
in their chemical preparations was so fully established, that appli-
cation was made to them by his royal highness Prince George of
Denmark, Lord High Admiral, to undertake that service, which
was readily consented to, and became the origin of a separate
commercial establishment under the title of the Navy Stock.

Until this time chemical processes only were carried on at their
hall, but as it now became necessary to provide both drugs and
their preparations, as well as the various galenical medicines at
_that period employed, a considerable capital was formed, and
warehouses and laboratories erected for that purpose. The great
expense attending the establishment of this stock, which, from the
extensive erections of such various kinds, became unavoidable,
rendered it for the first half century a source of small pecuniary
profit to the proprietors. It is only subsequently to that period,
that the numerous and extended wars in which the nation has
been engaged, and the consequent large supplies of medicines re~
quired for the service of the navy, in addition to the great quanti-
ties exported to India, by order of the Honourable East India Com-
pany, and the large sums which have been of late years received
for medicines furnished for public institutions, as well as private
families, that a profit has accrued by which the society and its
members have been indemnified for the losses and other disad-
vantages sustained in the infancy of this commercial establish-
ment. .

As the concerns of the society have been, at all times, conducted
with that accuracy and integrity which has acquired for the me-
dicines prepared at Apothecaries’ Hall the highest character, both

O02

196 On the Chemical Establishments

throughout this kingdom and in almost every part of the globe, it
will be right to give a general explanation of the manner in which
the business is conducted, subjoining a short description of the
present improved state of their laboratories and apparatus, and
also of the several processes carried on in them.

The general management of the affairs of the society, as con-
nected with the preparation of medicines, is under the immediate
superintendence of committees, who meet four times in the week, or
oftener when required, and some member of which attends daily
and enters in a book the processes which he finds carrying on at
the time of his visit. These daily attendances are performed by
the members of the committees in rotation.

The buying committee meets every Tuesday at one in the after-
noon, to examine and compare the samples of articles sent in by
the druggists, and to direct their purchase; the articles wanting,
and the quantity of each required, being specified upon a list posted
up in the hall for the information of any merchant or druggist who
may choose to offer samples to the committee. At these meet-
ings, the best article being selected and determined upon, the
chairman announces the name of the vender and the price, and the
deputy chairman enters the order. Where two or more samples
of the same article are equal in quality but vary in price, the cheap-
est is purchased ; if the price of two or more equally good samples
be the same, and the quantity required considerable, the order is
generally divided, or given to that house from which the least has
been purchased.

In this way every drug and other article required for the use of
the society’s trade is purchased exclusively by sample.

To ensure the correspondence of the bulk of the article deli-
vered into stock with that of the sample, a distinct Committee of
Inspection meets every Friday, for the purpose of comparing the
bulk with the sample presented on the preceding Tuesday, and
rejecting or receiving it accordingly. It is also an important duty
of this committee to examine samples ofall preparations whatever,
coming from the laboratories, previous to their being disposed of
in trade; samples, therefore, of all powders, tinctures, chemical

at Apothecaries’ Hall. 197

and other preparations, are regularly presented at this committee,
and their qualities determined by inspection or experiment, when
any faulty articles are rejected or returned for amendment, while
those which are approved are entered as such, and ordered into the
shops and warehouses.

The immediate business of the chemical laboratories as relates
to the processes, operations, and apparatus, are under the con-
trol and inspection of the superintending chemical operator ; and
of the chemical and galenical operators who reside at the hall; and
these officers constantly attend the buying and inspecting com-
mittees, and such other meetings of the directors of the establish-
ment as may require their presence.

If any explanation be necessary of the prices charged by the
Society of Apothecaries for their medicines, which are in some in-
stances higher than those usually affixed to the same articles,
even by respectable chemists and druggists, it will be only neces-
sary to observe that the mode in which the business is transacted
at Apothecaries’ Hall, puts it out of their power to enter into com-
petition with those persons in that respect for the reasons which
follow:

The society consider it their duty to countenance and support
the laudable designs of the Royal College of Physicians by adher-
ing strictly to the directions of the Pharmacopoeia in the prepara-
tion of medicines, both as to the quality of the ingredients and the
proportions in which they are employed. Moreover, their prac-
tice of purchasing none but select drugs, separated from those
parts which are of a damaged or inferior description, compels
them to give proportionably higher prices for them than are given
by the wholesale trader, who either imports his own drugs, or
purchases them in their original packages as imported, which he
afterwards garbles and divides according to their respective quali-
ties, and fixes his prices to the different purchasers accordingly.

The medicinal compositions which are most liable to adultera-
tion, because the Jess easily detected, are extracts, confections,
and tinctures. The ingredients of which these are formed, are
for the most part very expensive, such as, among many cthers»

198 On the Chemical Establishments

opium, cassia fistula, castor, colocynth, saffron, benzoin, guaiacum,
scammony, cinnamon, cardamom seeds, but above all the cinchona
lancifolia, or crown bark, which from the very high price it bears,
from the large quantity of it which ought to be employed, and
from the many inferior sorts of bark which may be purchased in
some instances for not more than a sixth part of its price, affords
a strong temptation to abuse, both in the quantity and quality of
the article made use of; a temptation, which the most charitable
judgment must suppose, in many cases, too strong to be resisted.

That there are chemists and druggists in the metropolis, from
whom genuine drugs may be purchased, and by whom medicines
are prepared with fidelity, is indisputable, but it may be feared
that it is too often far otherwise. The advantage of low prices is
a powerful inducement with medical practitioners, both in town,
and particularly in the country, to purchase inferior medicines ;
placing that confidence in the vender of them, to which, they are
perhaps not aware that he is not always entitled, and of the quality
of medicinal preparations the practitioner himself is frequently an
incompetent judge.

As superior excellence in the condition of the various materials
employed in the preparation of medicines must be allowed to be of
the greatest importance, and as it is a trust so liable to abuse,
that it must ever be considered highly confidential, it is respect-
fully submitted that this advantage cannot be satisfactorily se-
cured by any other method than that which has been constantly
pursued by the Society of Apothecaries, namely, having no articles
of inferior qualities in their possession, and, as far as is practica«
ble, conducting all their processes within their own walls, and
particularly that of powdering drugs in their own mills, by which
a fruitful source of fraud must be effectually prevented.

After repeated solicitations, the Society have for a few years
past, in addition to the general business carried on at their hall,
opened a department for the sole purpose of preparing and com-
pounding the prescriptions of physicians and others, which from
the success which has already attended it, they are well satis-
fied will prove an acceptabie enlargement of a system, the prin-

eng teas ae

at Apothecaries’ Hall. 199

cipal object of which, in all its branches, has been to provide the
public with pure and genuine medicines.

Description of the Laboratories.

The principal laboratory is a brick building about fifty feet
square and thirty high, lighted from above, and subdivided by a
brick wall into two compartments, the dimensions of the larger
one being fifty feet by thirty; and of the smaller fifty feet by
twenty. The former may properly be termed the Chemical

Laboratory, all the open fires and furnaces being situated in it,

and all operations requiring intense heat being there conducted.
The latter is usually termed the Still-House, all distillations and
evaporations being performed there, exclusively by steam, which
is furnished in a manner afterwards to be described, by a boiler
placed in a small building annexed to the main laboratory.

Immediately connected with the above-mentioned building isa
chemical warehouse for such articles as are in immediate con-
sumption in the laboratory, above which is a small house for a
clerk, the whole being shut off from the laboratory by iron doors.

The principal entrance to the chemical laboratory is through the
Mortar-room, which is forty feet long and twenty-two broad, and
appropriated to mortars, presses, and generally speaking to all
mechanical operations performed by manual labour. At its east-
ern extremity is a large drying stove, heated by flues, for the
desiccation of those articles which cannot be dried conveniently
at temperatures easily obtained by steam. At the west end of
this apartment a room twenty-two feet by fifteen is divided off, in
which is an apparatus for the production of gas from oil, with
which the hall and its various departments, both externally and
internally, are lighted. Above the mortar-room is a gallery
fitted with shelves for various utensils and apparatus, opening at
one end into a room appropriated to the use of the labourers, and
at the other, into the Test-room, a small laboratory fitted up with
the requisite apparatus, for minute and delicate investigations, and
in which chemical tests and other articles requiring ‘peculiar at~
tention and cleanliness are prepared.

200 On the Chemical Establishments

Annexed to the gas-room is a counting-house, behind which a
room twenty-two feet square, commonly called the Magnesia-
room, is appropriated to the preparation of that article, and also
to the manufacture of the most common saline preparations.

Such are the general arrangement and dimensions of the various
buildings connected with or forming part of the chemical labora-
tories ; in a detached building there is a steam-engine of eight horse
power, which is employed with proper machinery, for grinding, sift-
ing, triturating, pounding, and a variety of other operations,which it
is not necessary at present particularly to advert to. There are also
connected with the establishment, suitable warehouses, shops, and
all other requisite conveniencies for carrying on an extensive trade.

In the construction of the new laboratory safety is ensured by
the whole being fire proof, and it is ventilated by a series of aper-
tures in the roof, which may be opened or closed at pleasure.
The main chimney is erected in the centre, and has, opening into
it below the pavement of the laboratory, four large flues, one of
which enters upon each side of its square base. The shaft is one
hundred feet high from the foundation, and is accessible in its
interior from one of the under-ground flues. The flues of the
furnaces which are placed against the walls of the laboratory are
each supplied with registers, and open into a common channel,
which surrounds the building, terminating in the chimney as al-
ready described. Each of the four large flues has also a separate
register, which may be more or less closed or opened according
to the operations which are going on in the various furnaces con-
nected with it. ‘The furnaces thus arranged are,

A subliming apparatus for benzoic acid.

A furnace for the preparation of sulphate of mercury.
A high pressure steam-boiler.

A reverberatory furnace.

A sand bath.

An apparatus for muriatic acid.

Ditto for nitric acid.

Ditto for the distillation of hartshorn..

A calcining furnace.

at Apothecaries’ Hall. 201

There are also a series of furnaces built against the sides of the
main chimney, and communicating directly with it by flues of
their own, which, as well as the common openings by which they
enter the chimney, are supplied with effectual registers, so that
when not in use they may be perfectly closed. Of these furnaces,
four are chiefly employed for various sublimations, and fusions ;
four are retort pots; the third side of the chimney is occupied by
a powerful wind furnace ; and the fourth by a furnace for the sub-
limation of calomel. In this laboratory there is, moreover, a very
copious supply of water, both hot and cold; and an engine-hose
and pipe is always attached to the water main, in case of accident
by fire, as well as for the purpose of cleansing the pavement.
Beneath the building are extensive vaults for fuel, with which there
is a direct communication by steps descending in one of the angles
of the laboratory.

The s¢zll-house contains six stills of various dimensions and con-
structions, twelve pans, or boilers, and a drying stove, all of which
are exclusively heated by steam, supplied from an eight hundred
gallon copper boiler, placed in an annexed building, below the
level of the still-house ; and the flue of which, passing under the
pavement of the laboratories, enters the main chimney already
described.

The boiler is calculated to supply steam under a pressure of an
atmosphere and a half, and is fed with hot water by a forcing
pump kept in constant operation by the steam-engine. It is pro-
perly fitted with valves, and pressure and water gauges.

The main steam-pipe, after ascending from the boiler, sends off
descending branches which ramify under the pavement of the still-
house, in channels of brick-work, covered by cast-iron plates.
These send off a steam-pipe, fitted with a register cock, to each
still and boiler, from which there passes off an eduction or con-
densed water-pipe, entering the condensed water main, the rami-
fications of which accompany the steam main, and deliver their
contents into a cistern, whence the boiler is supplied with hot
water, A large branch of the steam-pipe circulates in five con-
volutions at the bottom of the drying stove, so as to -heat a cur-

202 On the Chemical Establishments, &c.

rent of air which is made to pass through it; and another branch,
rising perpendicularly through the pavement, is properly fitted
with cocks and screws for the occasional attachment of leaden or
other pipes, for boiling down liquids in moveable pans and vessels.

In this building, one of the stills is of a distinct construction,
and heated by high pressure steam, supplied from the boiler
already mentioned in the description of the laboratory. Another
still, together with its condensing pipe, is composed entirely of
earthenware. The former is chiefly used for the first distillation
of sulphuric ether, and the latter for that of spirit of nitric ether.
The stills and vessels are generally heated by the circulation of
steam upon their exterior, but sometimes serpentine pipes travers-
ing the liquor are employed.

In the still-house all spirits and waters are distilled; extracts
and plasters are prepared; and all operations are carried on
which involve risk by fire, or in which damage is likely to occur
from excess of heat.

The Magnesia-room contains proper vats and boilers for the pro-
duction and evaporation of saline solutions ; the apparatus for the
precipitation of carbonate of magnesia; and a series of vessels
for saturating alkalies with carbonic acid.

In the above outline it has been intended to shew that no labour
or expense has been spared to render the chemical laboratories
complete, and that all the important modern improvements in
their construction have been adopted upon an extensive scale,
rather than to enter into any particulars respecting the arrange-
ment and dimensions of the vessels, furnaces and apparatus which
they contain. These details will be found in the description of
the annexed Plate representing the ground plan of the laboratories,
—See Plate.

203°

Arr.II. Remarks on the Numerical Changes of the Popu-
lation of Great Britain, as divided into the Classes of Agri-
culturists, Manufacturers, and non-productive Labourers,
during the period from 1811 to 1821. By George Harvey,
Esq., M.G.S., M.A.S., &e. &c.

[Communicated by the Author. ]

Tue numerical changes which particular branches of a com-
munity undergo, in the progress of time, are to be classed among
the most remarkable phenomena with which we are surrounded ;
and may be regarded as the ultimate result of that great chain of
causes, which is in perpetual operation to alter and diversify the
condition of man. In a society, exposed to the uncertain tide of
political events, it is interesting to trace the mutations which some
of its greater divisions disclose, as causes, more or less favour-~
able, operate upon them ;—how, for example, at one period, or in
some particular districts, the manufacturing part of a community
increases in numbers, in happiness, and prosperity ; and how, at
other times, and in other districts, indications of an opposite kind
may be traced ;—commerce imparting vigour at one season, and at
another exhibiting only the feeblest influences of its power. So
likewise the condition of an agricultural population changes; and
shades of prosperity may be discovered in a singular variety of
forms.

Such uncertainties must necessarily impart their influence to
population. The principle of subsistence, which, without impro-
priety, may be said to govern and control all the primary move-
ments of man, will operate as a perpetual stimulus, and compel
him to migrate from one branch of a society, or from one country
to another, until he finds a station suited to his wants,

_ ‘To this principle may be referred the numerical changes which

the three divisions of the inhabitants of Great Britain have under-

gone, during the period from 1811 to 1821. The divisions here
alluded to are those prescribed by the Act for ascertaining the
population ; consisting, 1°. of families engaged in agriculture ;

204 On the Numerical Changes of the

2°. of families employed in trade, manufactures, or handicraft ; and
3°. of all other families not included in the cther classes*.

The magnitude and character of these changes are exhibited in
the following tables: the first presenting the general results relating
to England, Wales, and Scotland; the second to the particular
conclusions deduced for the counties of England; and the third
and fourth to the results obtained for those of Wales and Scotland.

Proportional change of 10,000 Families, chiefly employed

A In Trade, Manufactures, | Otherwise than the two
An herignlinrgs or Handicraft. | preceding Classes.

GENERAL RESULTS,

England . . . —168} England . . . +175 | England...
Wales. ©. "2550" | Wales > 9°. 63

; 3 | Wales... . --492

Scotland . ... —211|Scotland ... 33 | Scotland . . . +178
ENGLAND.

Rutland . . . +432| Stafford , . . +731) Durham .. . 1518
Northampton . -+400| Derby . . . . +609] Worcester . . +404
Buckingham . -235| Westmoreland . +591 | York, N. Riding 1343
Salop . oy » S192 | SUSSEX 2 6 vers 563 | Norfolk . . . +283
Huntingdon . . +102} Cornwall . . . -+557| Hertford . , . +252
Oxford ... . 79 | York, E. Riding -+539|Devon. ... 233
Lincoln . . . + 69} Monmouth . . +517] Northampton . +231
Kent . . . . + 65) Warwick . . . +450] Buckingham, +227
Suffolk. . . . + 50] Surrey. . . . +425 | Cumberland. . +175
Dorset. . . . +49] Lancaster. . . +421 | Chester ons 169
Essex - . +47} Northumberland +384| Somerset . . . 169
Southampton . — 9] Huntingdon . . +322 | Wilts eur" 168
Berks . . . . — 2L| York, W. Riding +265 | Bedford . . . +133
Westmoreland . — 22| Cambridge . . +197 | Southampton . +130
Surrey. . . . — 28] Gloucester . . +146] Nottingham . . +4120
Cambridge . . — 36) Berks . . . . +140] York, W. Riding + 87
Middlesex . . — 50|) Essex , . . . +132|Kent . 2. . . 4672
Devon... . — 78] Lincoln . + +107 | Leicester. . . 72
Hereford . . . — 88| Leicester. . . +106] Hereford . . . 30
Somerset . . . — 89| Cumberland. . +101 | Gloucester . . — 10
Hertford . . . —122| Middlesex . . + 63| Middlesex . . — 13.
Norfolk . . . —125| Hereford... 58 | Suffolk. . . . — 26
Nottingham . . —128] Oxford . . . 507) Dorset os. «ys, —o oe
Bedford . . . —128] Durham .. . +49] Lancaster . . —100
Gloucester . . —136| Chester .. . + 382/|Sussex. . . . —103

* Jn the Act of 180] relative to the population, the inquiry related to persons,
and not to families. his led, however, to so many ambiguities and uncer-
tainties, that the very accurate author of the Preliminary Observations to the
Population Returns for 1821, observes, that it ‘* was found in practice to produce.
no valuable result.” This was corrected in the Acts of 1811 and 182) ; and the
results now appear to merit considerable attention,

Population of Great Britain.

205

Proportional change of 10,000 Families, chiefly employed

In Agriculture.

In Trade, Manufactures,
or Handicraft.

Otherwise than the two
preceding Classes.

WES oon eerre
Leicester. . .
Cornwall . .

York, E. Riding
Chester ...
Northumberland
Worcester ..,
Cumberland. .
Stafford...
- Warwick...
York, N. Riding
Lancaster ..
York, W. Riding
Monmouth . .
Derbys).
Sussex
Durham

Cardigan
Pimt ™$

Radnor

Denbigh
Merioneth
Pembroke
Carnarvon
Anglesey .
Montgomery .
Glamorgan .
Carmarthen .
Brecon. . .

2. ee © © ww © e © © 8

Clackmannan
Kireudbright
Renfrew. .
Edinburgh .
UG: se 3. s
meraiok Sy
rgy PE
Dumfries .
Bute
ot
Stirling . .
Dumbarton .
Forfar ..
Linlithgow .
Kinross . .
1 Pa
Aberdeen.
Elgin. ..
Peebles . .
Banff...
Kincardine .

Sp.“ s-nee nie. se Se 648 Sis SEOs. one ees

Waltsia; «1s + 10
Nottingham... + 8
Bedford . .. — 5
Dorset... . — 15
Suffolk... . — 25
York, N. Riding — 43
Salop -. — 4
Somerset . . . — 80
Southampton . —12L
Hertford . . . —130
Kent 2... 2 —137
Devon. 4.6) s))«, —155
Norfolk . . . —158
Worcester . —182
Rutland - « —262
Buckingham . —462
Northampton —361
WALES.
Brecon . . . +1277
Cardigan . . -+ 378
Denbigh . . -+ 290
Pembroke . . + 285
Flint . . 2. . - 239
Montgomery . -++ 150
Merioneth . . + 107
Radnor . .. + 39
Glamorgan . — 130
Anglesey . . — 14
Carnarvon . . — 330
Carmarthen . — 646
SCOTLAND.
Caithness . . 1903
Clackmannan . 1711
Edinburgh . 610
Haddington . ef 535
Bute... . + 533
Wigton . . » ++ 520
Ross .... + 473
Sutherland . . + 462
Elgin . . + 430
Banff . . . . + 424
Ayr . « » » 30
Naim . - « - 326
Roxburgh . . + 297
Kirkcudbright 275
Aberdeen, . . 253
Forfar oe 243
Linlithgow . . 240
Kinross . . . 212
Peebles... 207
Kincardine. . 199
Perth. . . 137

| Rutland. .

ENGLAND continued.

Berks ..

Oxford . .
Monmouth
Salop- a)". ms

Warwick .
Cambridge

.
a

Northumberl nd

Lincoln. . f
Essex ... .
Derby .

York, E. Riding

Cornwall . .
Surrey. .

Huntingdon .
Stafford . .
Westmoreland

Carmarthen
Glamorgan .
Carmarvon .
Anglesey .
Montgomery
Merioneth

Pembroke .
Brecon ..
Radnor . .
Denbigh .
Bim P's
Cardigan

Renfrew .
Tnverness
Lanark .
Orkney .
Selkirk

Dumbarton
Eife. +s. ¢
Sutherland
Naim. .
Penthisns
Berwick .
Dumfries
Kincardine .
Wigton .

Roxburgh .
Argyll . .
Peebles . .
Aberdeen .

Stirling .
Caithness
Haddington

GP Sp wv © “eo 0 Chemo Be te oe 8 8 Che ©

206 On the Numerical Changes of the
Proportional change of 10,000 Families, chiefly employed

; In Trade, Manufactures, | Otherwise than the two
Any Agicultares or Handicraft, preceding Classes.

SCOTLAND continued.

Roxburgh . . — 312 |Stirling . . . -+-- 116] Kinross . . . — 105
Lanark. . . — 319 Orkney . ++ 106 | Linlithgow . — 135
Perth seers — 333 |Selkirk . . . ++ 95| Forfar. . — 145
Inverness « — 416 | Argyll of 6 EME PAVE T's Wot ce — 176
Haddington .. — 433 | Dumfries - — 166/ Banff... — 192
Wigton - « = 552] Berwick. . . — 248| Elgin. — 238
Naim. . — 556 | Fife. + . — 567] Ross. . — 433
Sutherland - — 719] Dumbarton .. .. — 578 | Bute . — 498
Selkirk — 907 | Inverness . . — ew Kirkcudbright . — 519

Orkney ..... — 984] Lanark . . . — 728| Edinburgh . . — 795
Caithness - « 1802] Renfrew ... =—1480 | Clackmannan . —2210
To facilitate comparison, the total population of each county has
been assumed at 10,000 families ; and from this radix, the pro-
portional number of families for each of the classes has been de-
duced by a simple numerical operation, from the absolute popula-
tion recorded in the returns for 1811 and 1821. The difference
between the results thus obtained for the two periods, in each
county, produced the results given in the preceding tables; and
which are so arranged, as to present, for one extreme, the maxi-
mum of increase, and for the other, the maximum of decrease ; the
intermediate steps indicating by their proper signs + or —, the
increments or decrements of the respective counties, according as
their respective divisions have been augmented or diminished. As
an example, to prevent a misconception of the tables, it may be
added, that during the ten years from 1811 to 1821, the agricul-
tural population of Norfolk has diminished in the ratio of 125
families to 10,000; the county of Hereford has increased its manu-
facturing population in that of 58 families to 10,000; and Suffolk
decreased the class of its non-productive labourers, 26 families out
of the same number. aren:
By a reference to the table of general results, it will be perceived,
that the aggregate agricultural population of England, Wales, and
Scotland, has diminished ; but that the families employed in trade
and manufactures have increased. The third, or unproductive
class, has received a small diminution in England, but in Wales
and Scotland they have been augmented, and in the former con--

Population of Great Britain. 207

siderably. Of the agricultural population it may also be observed,
that Wales has undergone a greater diminution than either those
of England or Scotland; and the classes of its unproductive la-
bourers has likewise received the greatest augmentation. The
feeble diminution also of the last-mentioned class for England, is
worthy of particular remark; and from the manufacturing popula-
tion having received an increase somewhat analogous to the de-
pression of the class of agriculturists, it may be inferred, that during
the ten years from 1811 to 1821, the class of artisans derived its
increments from that of agriculture; the demand for labour having
been more active in the former division than in the latter. The in-
crements also, which the manufacturers of Wales and Scotland
have received, may be properly attributed to the same source.
The most important feature of the table of general results, and that
indeed which deserves the most serious attention, is the great
diminution of the agricultural population.

Of the individual counties it may be observed, that for agricul-
ture, the maximum increase is in Rutland ; for trade and manu=
factures in Stafford; and for the third, or unproductive class, in
Durham. The latter county also presents the maximum decre-
ment for agriculture; Northampton for manufactures; and West-
moreland for the unproductive class. The counties of Wilts and
Leicester approach the nearest to the actual state of the aggregate
agricultural population ; and Gloucester, for the two succeeding
classes. The county distinguished by the least change in its agri-
cultural population is Southampton; and for the minimum change
in its manufacturers, Bedford; and for its third, or unproductive
class, Gloucester. The forty English counties, having each of the
three classes divided into the general denominations of increments
and decrements, are respectively, in point of numbers as follows:

Trade, Manufactures, |Otherwise than the two
or Handicraft. preceding Classes.

Agriculture.

_
Counties Counties

Increments Increments . . 26} Increments . . 18
Decrements . . 29 | Decrements . . 14] Decrements. . 22

Counties
il

Total . Total . . 40 Total . « 40

208 On the Numerical Changes of the

To give a more perfect idea of the great fluctuations which the —

three established divisions of the English population have under-
gone during the period under consideration, is the object of
plate VII. The lines ad, a’b’, ab”, may be regarded as lines
passing through zero, or a common origin, and to which all the
changes indicated in the preceding tables are referred. Those
portions of the waving lines above those which denote the common
origin of the changes, represent the counties distinguished by in-
crements ; and those below, the different decrements. ‘The sums
of the lines indicating the changes for each county, must obviously
amount to the same constant quantity. The counties are arranged
alphabetically, and not in the order in which they are recorded in
the tables.

By contrasting the lines denoting the different changes with
each other, it will be immediately seen how one is, in some mea-
sure, regulated by the other; how, for example, if a county as
Cumberland, has positive changes in the second and third divisions
of its population; how the class of agriculturists is immediately
distinguished by a negative change, equal to the sum of the pre-
ceding; or how, if like Monmouth, the first and second classes are
contrasted, and their variations are of an opposite kind, how the
third class undergoes a change, equal to the difference of the two;
partaking of a positive or negative character, according to the na-
ture of the greater. ‘The maximum increments and decrements are
also clearly displayed in it; and likewise those counties in which
the changes of their population have been the least.

In Wales it will be observed, that with the exception of Cardigan,
the agricultural population of all the counties has diminished ; and
it is also remarkable, that the decrements in general are superior
in magnitude to those of England, The numerical results also for
the unproductive labourers in all the counties, excepting Flint,
have signs precisely the reverse of those attached to the class of
agriculture; proving that the former counties have gained acces-
sions, partly, at least, from thelatter. Cardigan having increased
both its agricultural and manufacturing population, has diminished
its unproductive members. Carmarthen, on the contrary, has

Population of Great Britain. 209

increased the latter class of persons from the other two classes, and
most particularly from that of agriculture. The same remark ap-
plies also to Glamorgan, Anglesea, and Carnarvon. The last-
mentioned county is also that which approximates the nearest, in
the state of its agricultural population, to that of the aggregate
population of the principality; the same being found to be the case
in Radnor, for trade and manufactures; and in Montgomery, for
that of the unproductive labourers.

Of the thirty-two counties composing Scotland, it may be re-
marked, that eight are distinguished by an increase of their agri-
cultural population, and twenty-four by a diminution thereof; but
of the population devoted to trade and manufactures, twenty-four
counties have received increments, and the remaining eight decre-
ments. Sixteen also of the counties have received an augmenta-
tion to their non-productive members, and the remaining number
a diminution.

The magnitudes of the numbers indicating the extreme changes
may considered as remarkable, when contrasted with the corre-
sponding results for England. Caithness, for example, is distin-
guished by an increment to its manufacturing population of
+ 1903, and by a decrement to its agricultural members of — 1802.
Renfrew has also increased its non-productive members by + 1276,
and Clackmannan diminished the same class by — 2210. The
county distinguished by the least change in its agricultural popula-
tion is Dumfries; Selkirk in its families devoted to trade and
manufactures, and Peebles in the class of its non-productive mem-
bers. The families devoted to agviculture in Peebles, approach
also the nearest to the change of the aggregate population of the
first class; Selkirk also in its trading and manufacturing, and
Perth in its non-productive, members, to the respective changes in
the aggregate members of the corresponding classes. Caithness
presents also an example of a remarkable decrement in its agricul-
tural population, and of a more considerable increase in its mapu-
facturing members ; but only a very moderate decrement in its
negative members. Clackmannan likewise has very rapidly di-
minished the latter class, increased in a very great degree its

Vou, XVI. 's

210 Population of Great Britain.

manufacturers, and received a small increase in its agricu
population, Inverness presents also an instance of considerable
declensions in its agricultural and manufacturigg members; and
an increment equal to both the preceding decrements, to its unpro-
ductive families, A similar remark applies also to Dumbarton and
Lanark. The declension of the manufacturing families in Renfrew,
and their probable change into the unproductive class, likewise
merits attention.

By an inspection of this part of the table, it appears that the ag-
gregate of the increments for agriculture, amounts to 1437 ; whereas
that of trade and manufactures is 10,658, the latter exceeding the
former ina greater ratio than that of 7 to 1. The aggregate of the
decrements of agriculture amounts also to 9,143, and that of trade
only to 4,564; the former exceeding the latter in the ratio of 2 to 1.

Arr. Ill. On the Herring. By J. Mac Culloch, M.D., F.R.S.

THE natural history of the animals useful to man, is not
merely an amusing pursuit, but forms one of the most valuable
branches of this department of knowledge. Yet it has been the
blame of naturalists to have too much neglected this branch of their
science, in their attention to classification and nomenclature. If
there are not many of the wild or still undomesticated animals
from a knowledge of whose habits we might derive advantage,
there are still some that are loudly calling for this kind of investi-
gation. From the state of ignorance that we are still in respecting
these, we are not only forfeiting advantages which we might se-
cure, but are also subject to serious losses and frequent disap-
pointments.

This is peculiarly true of the herring. The following remarks
will show, not only what advantages we might derive from an ac-
curate acquaintance with the natural history of this fish, or with
what may be called its moral and political history, but demon-
strate the heavy losses in a commercial view, which have been the
conseauence, not merely of this ignorance, but of false theories on

Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring. 211

that subject. If it is difficult to acquire this knowledge, we must
recollect that nothing remains long impossible to industry and ob-
servation. That. nothing rational has been yet attempted, is
equally a stimulus and an encouragement; nor do I know of any
department of this branch of natural science, whence an industri-
ous naturalist might derive more honour, with the additional satisfac-
tion of having conferred solid and important benefits on mankind.

The respect due to Pennant’s name, will not permit us to speak
lightly of him; yet, on this subject, he seems to have either given
way to the influence of his imagination, or to have copied without
inquiry from the works of others, what deserves nothing but the
name of a pure romance. ‘The readers of his woik on Zoology
must be aware of the theory to which I have given this name. Yet
I am uncertain if it originated with himself, or with Anderson the
historian of Greenland and Iceland. Since it is necessary however
that it should be stated, as the foundation of this hief sketch, I
shall give the most condensed view of it that I can, from he latter
author. It is marvellous that such a tale should have been copied
and quoted, and reprinted, not merely by the herd, but by the
careful authors of the French Encyclopzedia ; and that, thus trans-
mitted, it should not only have been believed for half a century or
more, by those who, if they had reflected for an instant, or even
opened their eyes, must have seen that it was a fable, but that it
should have been the foundation of numerous expensive commer-
cial establishments, standing to this day as testimonials of the
fiction of one party, and the credulity of others.

Anderson commences by saying that, in Iceland, the herrings
are two feet in length; which is a preliminary worthy of what is to
follow. Every summer, he proceeds to say, an army of these fish
leaves those northern regions, being chased southwards by whales,
grampuses, sharks, and other large predatory fishes. As this army
proceeds to the south, it divides into two columns ; the eastern one
making for the North Cape, and descending along the coast of
Norway. This eastern wing, however, divides itself again into
two other columns; one of these entering through the Sound into
the Baltic, and the other proceeding for the point of Jutland.

P 2

212 Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring.

This latter again splits on that point into two lines, one of which
defiles along the eastern shore of Denmark, and then entering the
Belts, reunites itself to the Baltic division; whilg the other, coast-
ing Heswick, Holstein, Bremen, and Friesland, enters by the
Texel into the Zuyder Zee, so as again to return into the north sea.

The second grand division of the original army, which had taken
to the westward, is, according to this naturalist, the largest of the
two.. It proceeds straight for Shetland and Orkney, and thence
goes on to Scotland. Here it divides, like the former eastern
column into two divisions, or subsidiary columns, one of which
proceeds down the eastern coasts so as make the round of England
by the British channel, while at the same time it detaches parties
into the harbours of Friesland, Holland, Zealand, Brabant, Flan-
ders, and France. The western division, during this time, sepa-
rates itself again in such a manner as to visit the coasts of Ireland
and the western lochs of the Highlands, producing the Irish and
Highland fisheries ; visiting also the Isle of Man, where the her-
ring fishery is notedly abundant. In its further progress, this
Irish and Highland army reaches the land’s end, and here finally re-
unites itself to the eastern one whence it had separated, meeting it
at the entrance of the channel. Thus reunited, the great original
western division of the entire northern army, makes a rendezvous
in the Atlantic, where, it must be supposed, they take an account
of the killed and missing, before they return again to Iceland and
the Polar seas, to renew the same march in the following summer.

It is sufficient to read this account to perceive, even without
evidence to the contrary, or an examination of the subject, that it
must be a pure romance. It is plain, d@ priort, that there are no
means of ascertaining such a series of facts, nor even of approxi-
mating to a much less detailed history than that which is here
given; even admitting that the basis of the extravagant super-
structure were true. The few facts that I have to offer, will de-
monstrate that itis an entire vision. That the herring is, to a cer-
tain degree, a migratory fish, may be true; but even a much more
limited migration than this is far from demonstrable. It is at any
rate perfectly certain that it does not breed exclusively in the.

Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring. 213

Arctic seas, and that it does not, as the author and Mr. Pennant
imagine, migrate ‘* heaven directed” to our shores. It is equally
certain that it does not take the directions here described along
them, that there is no such progress along the east and west
coasts from a central point, and no such reunion at the Land’s end.
It is no less certain that its appearance, instead of being thus regu-
lar and constant, is quite the reverse, and that it is marked by ex-
treme irregularity, as well for the period, as for the places visited.
Of the imaginary original eastern army, I do not pretend to know
much: the few remarks I have to offer, refer principally to the
western or supposed Scottish column.

With respect, in the first place, to the original breeding station
of the herring, the statement is unsupported by any evidence. We
have no actual reports respecting their breeding or abundance in
the northern seas. I cannot find that they have been remarked as
abounding in the Arctic ocean, nor that they have been observed in
the proper icy seas. They have never formed a fishery either in
Greenland or Iceland: nor have our whale fishers taken any par-
ticular notice of them. It is a pure error to suppose that the great
northern whale feeds on them. ‘That fish is incapable, from the
structure of its cesophagus and mouth, of swallowing so large a
fish ; and its food is well known to consist of minute shrimps,
beroes, clios, and other marine worms and insects, among which
the cancer pedatus and oculatus appear to be the most remark-
able. The whale which pursues the herring on the Scottish coasts,
is the piked, or bottle-nosed whale ; an animal of very different
anatomy and habits.

On the subject of the imaginary eastern army, all that appears to
have been ascertained relates to the Swedish and Norwegian
fisheries. The herrings were first noticed on the coasts of Sweden
in 1740, and at that period the Gotheburgh fishery was established.
The herrings were also abundant on the coasts of Norway before
1790. After that date they deserted those, and made their appear-
ance at Marstrand. So far also from this visit having been among
the first, which it should haye been according to Anderson’s state-

214 Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring.

ment, they did not appear till November, when the Swedish
fishery commenced. The produce also was so abundant, that in
the short space of three weeks it amounted to 600,000 barrels.
Since that period, however, they have deserted this coast.

This statement is sufficient to show the fallacy of the imaginary:
visit and progress of the eastern division of the equally imaginary
Arctic herrings ; and I may now inquire respecting the supposed
western one that appears on our own shores.

Now, so far are they from being migratory to us from the north,
that there can be no doubt of their breeding on our own coasts.
Yet the period of breeding, no less than the time of their visits,
seems as irregular as every thing else that belongs to this appa-
rently most capricious fish, That they do breed with us, is proved
by their spawn being taken on many of the coasts where the full
grown fish is found: and if that has not been found on all, it pro-
bably depends, partly on want of observation, and partly on the
regulation for the minimum size of the herring nets. In Orkney,
in 1699, an immense quantity of herring spawn was thrown on
shore during some tempestuous weather; proving that they then
bred there. Yet, for a long period, they have entirely deserted the
coasts of Orkney and Shetland: and it is only within three or
four years that the Orkney fishery has recommenced. This cir-
cumstance marks a change of haunt and of spawning-places, but
not a migration of the full-grown fish; and is plainly inconsistent
with any progress from the northward. Had they migrated in
the manner stated, they must necessarily have appeared in Shet-
land and Orkney every year, while they would also have appeared
there first, instead of being, as is the fact, utterly unknown about
the former islands.

It is difficult, or rather impossible, to account for their thus
changing the places of their spawning, not only in these islands, but
upon the British coasts in general; but these very changes of
haunt prove also that they have no more any fixed rules for it
than they have fixed migrations. Whether they did always
spawn in these places where they were formerly abundant, cannot

Dr. Mae Culloch on the Herring. 215:

now be ascertained. But it is probable; partly from the fact just
related of Orkney, and partly because, before the mesh regula-
tion, they used to be taken ofall sizes by the country fishermen.

Of these changes of place, the few following will be suffici-
ent example and proofs. In the time of Charles I., and long
afterwards, the Long island was their great resort; and at Loch
Maddy alone in North Uist, 400 sail of vessels have been loaded
in one season. These last events were about the beginning of the
last century. At the prior period which I mentioned, buildings
were erected in this inlet, and a regular fishery established ; but
they have long since deserted, not only this spot, but all the shores
of the Long island. It is scarcely now even remembered by the
people when they last appeared in any quantity.

From the beginning of the last century, for a considerable pe
riod onwards, their chief resort was about Loch Ewe, Loch Torri-
don, and, generally speaking, to the northern lochs of the west
coast. About the same period they were then also abundant on
the coasts of Sky. This state of things is well remembered, and
it lasted for a long time. It is well remembered because it was
the cause of much writing; finding its way into such popular
works as Goldsmith’s light essays, and producing as many
pamphlets and as much talk as politics have done at other peri-
ods. The poet Aaron Hill, was then entrusted with the direction
of one of these fisheries, and if I mistake not, one of Mrs. Char-
lotte Smith’s novels was written in Sky, from a similar connexion
on the part of her husband. It is even better remembered by those
who sank large sunis in this vast speculation. Hence were
erected the enormous establishments at Loch Torridon, at Mar-
tins’ island, and on Tanera, now long become useless; and the
anticipations founded on it equally led to the establishment of
Steen and Tobermory, and of other towns which have long ceased
to make any progress, partly from the desertion of the herring
shoals, and partly from the wrong principles on which the Fishery
Society proceeded. I may here also remark, that in 1700, when
they were abundant in Sky, it was ascertained that they bred
there,

216 Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring.

These are the losses to which I alluded at the commencement
of this paper, which were caused by false views of the proceedings
of the herrings. J do not know how far these establishments ori-
ginated in the Arctic Theory, because some of them are prior, at
least to the publication of Pennant’s opinions: but it is very cer-
tain that many of the more recent ones proceeded on this founda-
tion, believing that the migration of the herring was steady and
certain. Nothing else could have led to the sinking of so much
capital ; the nearly total loss of which has been the result of this
false information, or theory, and inconsiderate expenditure.

To pursue this part of the subject; at a later period, they seem
to have preferred the lochs further to the south. ‘Thus Loch
Hourn and: Loch Nevish became the great fishing stations, as did
the Sound of Sky. But, warned by their preceding failures, no
buildings were erected in these, and the fishery was managed by
means of boats and busses in the present method. Thus also
they made Loch Fyne one of their principal resorts, moving in a
great measure towards the Clyde, or further south; though it also
happened that they were abundant in these lochs, and also in the
neighbourhood of Sky at the same period. ‘Thus Portree, Scalpa,
Loch Hourn, Loch Ransa, and Loch Fyne, have, within a few
years, been the great resorts; yet very irregularly: and in this
manner has Campbell town, which depends chiefly on the herring
fishery, fluctuated between wealth and bankruptcy. For a single
season, not many years ago, Loch Scavig in Sky was crowded with
them in a manner perfectly incredible. Yet, before and since that
period, they have been unknown there; marking in a very pointed
manner, the extreme irregularity and caprice of their movements.
All these seem mere changes of haunt, unconnected with any par-
ticular migration, and for which no causes can at present be
assigned.

Vulgar philosophy is never satisfied unless it can find a solution
for every thing; and is satisfied, for this reason, with imaginary
ones. Thus, in the Long island, it was asserted that the fish had
been driven away by the manufactory of kelp; some imaginary
coincidence having been found between their disappearance and

Dr. Mae Culloch on the Herring. 217

the establishment of that business. But the kelp fires did not
drive them away from other shores, which they frequent and aban-
don indifferently without regard to this work. It has been a still
more favourite and popular fancy, that they were driven away by
the firing of guns; and hence this is not allowed during the fish-
ing season. But this, like the former, is causa pro con causa. A
gun has scarcely been fired in the Western islands, or on the west
coast since the days of Cromwell; yet they have changed their
places many times in that interval. In a similar manner, and with
similar truth, it was said that they had been driven from the Bal-
tic by the battle of Copenhagen. It is amusing to see how old
theories are revived. This is a very ancient Highland hypothesis,
with the necessary modification. Before the days of guns and
gunpowder, the Highlanders held that they quitted coasts where
blood had been shed: and thus ancient philosophy is renovated.
The steam-boats are now supposed to be the culprits ; since a rea-=
son must be found. To prove their effect, Loch Fyne, visited by a
daily steam-boat, is now their favourite haunt ; and they have left
Loch Hourn and Loch Torridon, where these have never yet
smoked.

The recent and present state of the eastward fishery will furnish
facts equally at variance with any theory of the herring; and as it
is only by collecting and comparing these that we can form any
hopes of attaining a true one, I may state the more important par-
ticulars.

In former times, the fishery of the east coast did not commence
till that on the west had terminated. It was then supposed,-and
not very unreasonably, that the fish had changed their ground,
and that these were the western herrings. Yet it ought to have
been plain that this was not the case, as the eastern fish were en-
tirely different in quality from the western, and very far inferior.
At the same time, they were in that condition as to spawning,
which proved that they could not have been the same fish. The
fact of their being entirely different fish is now at least fully proved,
because on both shores the period of the fishery has been the same.
It is remarkable also that the eastern fishery has become so abun-

218 Dr. Mac Cullcech on the Herring.

dant, as quite to have obscured the western ; while the quality of
the fish has also improved, although they continue to be still far
inferior. In 1820, this eastern fishery was so abundant as to have
overstocked the whole market, foreign and domestic; procuring
considerable loss to the merchants, and materially checking its fu-
ture progress. It is further to be remarked in this case, that so far
from there being any indications of a progress from the north, the
fishery has commenced soonest on the southern parts of this shore ;
and, what is also remarkable, that for some years since that, it
has become later every year. Of its actual state I cannot speak
precisely, because my observations terminated with 1821.

I might extend the same kind of remarks to the English fish-
eries, but it is unnecessary. That of Yarmouth, and that of the
Isle of Man, are among the most steady. A few years ago, they
were taken in such abundance for the London market on the
coasts of Kent and Sussex, that they could not be consumed, and
were employed as manure; and other changes equally unintelligi-
ble have occurred on the eastern and southern coasts of England,
as well as the north shore of Cornwall.

That this capricious conduct is not peculiar to the herring, is
proved by the recent state of the Pilchard fishery of Cornwall, and
by the changes which the Sardinian fishery of Britany has under-
gone. The almost entire desertion of this fish from the former
country, where it had been annual and abundant to a proverb,
forming a steady and valuable object of commerce, is as yet unac-
counted for. Lately, it has shewn symptoms of again returning.

It seems at any rate perfectly ascertained with respect to the
herring, that it breeds on our own shores; and this is the im-
portant point which the preceding remarks serve to ascertain,
though they yet leave the changes of place unaccounted for. It
seems to reside permanently in the deep surrounding seas, and ap-
parently round the whole island, though more abundantly to the
northward. This is clearly proved by the Dutch fishery, which
was carried on at all times in the deep sea, and constituted that
very fishery which was supposed to have produced to Holland such
enormous wealth, and which excited our jealousy, and stimulated

Dr. Mae Culloch on the Herring. 219

our attempts. This was well known in Pennant’s time, and long
before, since it is a fishery of a very ancient date; and it ought to
have prevented the promulgation of the absurd theory which I have
here contested. Itis now equally known to ourselves, from our
own deep sea fishery; though that is comparatively little pursued,
for reasons which will appear hereafter.

The approach to the shores is performed, in the first place, for
the purpose of spawning, as this operation can only be carried
on in shallow waters ; and hence the resort of the fish to the lochs
and bays. It is probable also that the pursuit of food is another
reason or motive; and, among that food, we may reckon the
medusee and other analogous marine vermes, which are produced
in such abundance during the summer, in all these shallow seas.
Nor is it unlikely that the herrings are driven in to the coasts
by their enemies, the piked whale, the grampus, and the fin-fish,
as well as by the cod and other smaller fishes that make prey
of them.

If all these motives variously combined will not account for their
irregularity, they may at least aid in doing so. Hence, its haunts,
as well as its periods may vary. That the season of spawning in
different fish takes place at different periods, is apparent from the
different states as to fulness in which these are taken at the same
time. Hence the periods of their approach to the shores must
vary, and hence also the full growth of the young fish must be
established at different periods. As to the food, the season and
place in which that is produced is known to vary, as does its abun-
dance ; and this, unquestionably, must be one of the powerful
motives by which their appearance both as to time and place is
regulated. The appearance of their great enemies is no less un-,
certain, and thus also we approximate somewhat nearer to the
causes of all these variations. Since there is reason to believe
that the herrings feed on the medusz, and as the presence of these
is known by the luminous state of the water, it is very likely that
this might, in itself, form some guide to the fishermen for their
presence. But as they have not hitherto been aware of the cause
of the luminous state of the water, this indication has heen neg-

220 Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring.

lected. In many seasons, the waters of particular bays are highly
luminous, and crowded with these animals ; while, in others, they
are utterly wanting. We might expect that the presence of the
herrings would vary accordingly ; but though I have thus observed
it, the observations have not been sufficiently repeated to allow of
establishing a general rule.

I have already remarked that the season of spawning is appa-
rently uncertain and various, and this seems confirmed by the dis-
cordant opinions of the fishermen on this subject. It seems, at
any rate, to be fully ascertained, that they spawn in the same lochs
where they are taken. The herring spawn abounds in these places
in the season of the fishery; and, with small nets, fish of all
sizes are taken. The spawn is also then devoured by cod, coal
fish, and others which follow them; as they are in great abun-
dance by the sea birds, particularly by the smaller gulls and the
terns, which may be constantly seen flocking above the shoals, as
the shoals of coal-fish are also found following them, Thus also
they are found round the shores of the Isle of Man; and hence it
appears that the proper season of the herring fishery in the lochs,
is that in which they arrive for the purpose of spawning; and
hence the condition in which they are taken. The young also
seem to haunt the seas and bays where they have been produced,
till they are full grown ; but they are now seldom taken under the
full size, on account of the strictness with which the law for. de-
stroying the small meshed nets has been enforced. The fish which
has spawned returns to the deep sea to recruit itself ; and thus
the shotten herring, as it is called, is seldom taken.

It is further evident that the season of spawning must vary on
different shores, because, at the same time, the fish is. taken in
different conditions on different shores, or is found at far distant
times in the same condition. This happens comparatively on the
east and west coasts of Scotland ; as it does in comparing the west
coast, or the Isle of Man, with the eastern coast of England. It
would be very important for the fisheries to ascertain the exact
season of spawning for each place, on account of the great dif-
ference in the goodness of the fish according to the condition in

Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring. 221

which it is taken. Independent of this, the herring is always in a
much higher state of feeding on the west than the east coast, and
is also much superior in size, flavour, and quality. In point of
flavour, indeed, it is scarcely the same fish; being as much su-
perior as a salmon is to the worst sea trout. This difference, in
itself, would be enough to prove that no migration took place from
the west to the east coast. Imay add to the confusion which
belongs to this subject, what I do not pretend to solve; namely,
the various conditions as to fulness in which the herring is taken
in the same place and at the same time. We might perhaps con-
clude from this, as from the other facts stated, that the season of
spawning is very uncertain, and that, in this case, different tribes
of fishes, or different fish, had been intermixed.

It appears to be a further proof against any migration of her-
rings in a body, even from the deep seas to the shores, that when
they first arrive, and for the apparent purpose of spawning, they
are not in shoals. They cannot then be taken by nets, from their
dispersion, But the Highlanders then fish for them with a feather
or a fly, and arod, and, by this very amusing fishery, they take
them in sufficient quantity to render it a profitable occupation ; as
one man has been thus known to take a barrel and a half, or about
1200 fish, during the few days this fishery lasts. It is thought
that they again disperse after spawning before they collect into
shoals, so as to give cause for a second fishery of the same nature.

Such are the principal facts which I have been able to collect,
respecting the natural history of the herring, and the physical
history of the fishery on the coasts of Scotland. Having had but
slender opportunities of observation or inquiry, no other apology
is needed for not having done more. I believe there is much
more knowledge dispersed among the fishermen, for him who
might have opportunity and dexterity to extract it. The people
observe; but having neither system, nor interest to record,
their knowledge is forgotten or neglected, even by themselves.
He who should bestow his attention on this subject, for a few sum-
mers, might probably attain a knowledge of the most important
facts yet remaining, and complete what I have only sketched.

222 Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring.

It is the duty of the Board of Fisheries to add this to their other
exertions ; and if that has not yet been done, it is perhaps because
it has been thought sufficiently known, or, possibly, because it is
supposed unattainable. It cannot be supposed unimportant; and
that it is neither of all these three, I hope I have proved. At least
I have justified the criticism with which I commenced on the
theory of Anderson and Pennant. It will not be uninteresting
to add a few words on the present commercial and political state
of the Heriing Fishery.

That fishery, so long a subject of anxiety and speculation and
regulation, has now arrived at a state more extended than was so
long wished for, and so long despaired of. It has occasionally ex-
ceeded the demand; and in 1820, it considerably and injuriously
overstocked the entire market. It must be known, at least to those
who have attended to the history of our commerce, that our anxi-
ety about this branch of trade was excited by our jealousy of our
neighbours the Dutch, who were represented as raising gold from
the mines of the ocean, and as infringing on our rights and pro-
perty; insulting our indolence at the same time by their superior
industry. I may refer to the pamphlets and newspapers, almost to
the romances and poetry of the day, for the public opinion on this
subject.

That this subject gave rise to as much nonsense as ever was
written, need scarcely be told; while the greater the difficulty
which we imagined we found in coping with them in this field, the
greater was our anger. ‘These politicians forgot that Holland was
overflowing with capital and industry, and was ariven to this oc-
cupation for want of other employment for its people, as of vent for
its capital. They forgot also that the industry and capital of
Great Britain were much more profitably, as well as more agree-
ably, occupied; and that neither force, nor bad writing, nor boun-
ties, nor acts of parliament, would succeed in diverting either from
a profitable trade to a bad one, or from occupations of little labour
to one extremely laborious and disagreeable. Yet thus were
passed the chief Acts of Parliament in Charles the Second’s
time, particularly after 1672; when it is palpable that they were

Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring. 223

also as much dictated by a spirit of jealousy, as the desire of
gain.

Pursuing the same system, the bounties were established in
1748, and as the quantity or rate of these fluctuated, the herring
fishery rose and again declined. It was at alow ebb during the
American war, as well as during the last. Nor could any reason-
able bounty have enticed capital into it under those states of com-
merce; though our politicians did not even then appear to have
reflected that there was no capital to spare for such an employ-
ment, that there were abundant and much more enticing de-
mands on it from other quarters, and that the trade itself had the
further demerit of being new, precarious, and disagreeable. This
was the true cause of the declension of the herring fishery; and
were the same causes to be renewed, it would decline again. If itis
now flourishing, it is chiefly from the superabundance of capital, and
from the want of better outlets to our industry. England will have
cause to lament the day which shall render her the great herring
fisher; the rival of the ancient Dutch, and the envy of politicians
of the same caliber as Aaron Hill and Oliver Goldsmith.

The raising of the barrel bounty to four shillings in 1815, and the
admission of rock salt in 1817, were the last regulations, and
those under which this trade is now flourishing, These are all, at
least that I shall notice, as I cannot here afford to trace the whole
history of the fishing regulations, since they would in themselves
makea volume. The chief of the others, however, which do re=
quire notice, was the Act for the minimum of the meshes, (a very
questionable policy as it regards the domestic fishery,) and the
method of gutting and bleeding the fish, as practised by the Dutch.
Under this process, where carefully followed, the Scottish herrings
are now found to be equal to the Dutch, and to compete with them
in the foreign market. ‘The bounty regulation is a very doubtful
benefit. It is costly without being necessary; and amongst the
fishermen in general, the restrictions and trouble which attend the
various regulations, are so great as to make it a very common wish
that it should be rescinded, and the whole trade left free. It is
argued, on the other hand, that, without force, the fishermen and

224 Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring.

merchants will make and sell bad fish; to which the obvious
answer is this, this would be against their interests, as they would
soon have no buyers.

But to pass from this. There has been, under these various
circumstances, a progressive increase in the quantity taken; while
from 1816 to 1820, beyond which this sketch does not extend, the
quantity cured according to the regulations, and therefore entitled
to the full bounty, has also progressively increased. But there is
another important cause here implicated. The great increase has
not arisen from the extension of the Buss, or deep sea fishery, but
from that of the boat fishery. This is carried on by the small far-
mers and fishermen who reside on the sea-shores, who sell to the
busses, which thus find it a more profitable trade to buy from
them than to fish for themselves. Thus far our fishery differs from
that of the Dutch, which was carried on by large sloops or herring
busses in the deep sea. Thus the main cause of the increase is
not to be sought in the acts of parliament and regulations only,
nor exclusively in the superabundance of capital. It has been one
chief result of the alterations in the system of Highland farming,
by which, in consequence of the allotment of the interior tracts to
sheep, the people have migrated to the sea-shores as occupiers of
fishing crofts. While this mode of fishing has been found the most
profitable, in a commercial view, it has also produced the ad-
vantage of finding employment for the formerly unoccupied people
of the Highlands, and has been, in fact, one of the great but over-
looked benefits, which has flowed from a system against which
such a senseless and protracted clamour has been raised.

It is, perhaps, time to reflect whether bounties can any longer
be necessary. The solution of this question must be sought in the
preceding facts. Circumstances have changed. Capital is now
seeking employment. So is Highland industry; so is industry in
general. Ifthe bounties force a larger fishery than finds a vent,
they are no longer beneficial; they cannot at least be necessary.
But I need not dwell on this part of the present subject. I shall,
therefore, pass over all that relates to the present legislative regu-
lations, whether as these relate to salt, or to any thing else, for the

Dr. Mae Culloch on the Herring. 225

purpose of offering a few remarks on the singular state of the
market.

If we take the year 1820 as a standard, the herring fishery has
not only arrived at its maximum, but has exceeded that, and must
be reduced. It has, once at least, exceeded the demand, as I shall
presently show. Now as the supply appears inexhaustible, and as
the demand for food appears equally so, it is an object of curiosity
to inquire what it is which has thus brought it to a state of rest; a
state of rest which would at least seem to render all further en-
couragement unnecessary. This is true of other fisheries. The
Ling fishery of Shetland is in the same state, restricted by an in-
sufficient demand. If it is inquired why they do not fish more, the
fishermen answer briefly, ‘‘ the people will eat no more salt fish.”
Thus they account for that limited demand which checks their in-
dustry, and which also, as in all similar cases of limited and doubt-
ful demand, generally keeps the supply down to a state somewhat
lower than that which would really find a sale. This must be re=
collected, in examining this question; for however a greater or an
occasionally higher sale might occur, it is the business of the pro-
ducer, for his own interest, first to take care that there is really a
demand, and then to watch that his supply shall not exceed it. It
is the object of the merchant to see that demand both precedes and
exceeds supply.

It appears very difficult, practically, to admit the theory of the
fishermen as it relates to the consumption of salt fish. As to the
West India demand for herrings, that can be accurately calculated,
because it is compulsory on the consumers. The Spanish demand
for ling is equally certain and regular; because it is also com-
pulsory from other causes, and because there is no great fluctuation
in the number of consumers. In neither case is it a matter of
taste or opinion, and it is therefore subject to no caprices. But
that the people of Britain who are often in want of animal food,
those of Ireland and Scotland in particular scarcely ever seeing it,
should refuse to eat salt fish, is hardly credible. They assuredly
show no dislike to it on the sea-coasts where they have ready ac=
cess toit; and in most maritime districts indeed, it forms a princi-

Vou. XVI. Q

226 Dr. Mac Culloch on the Herring.

pal part of theirdiet. It is not to be supposed that the labourer of
the interior would not eat herrings rather than be confined all the
year to oatmeal, potatoes, or bread; and if there is no fish con-
sumed in these districts, it must be from want of knowledge, want
of habit, or from defect of the internal commercial arrangements of
the county.

That it would be highly advantageous, both to the people
themselves and to the merchants and fishermen, to diffuse that
habit and that knowledge, can admit of no doubt; as it is folly to
say that salt fish is not a nutritious diet. That this has been neg-
lected, is equally apparent; and it seems particularly to have
been neglected by our monstrous charitable establishments, in
whose department it would seem particularly to lie. If it were
possible to excite such a demand, and that a steady one, our
fisheries would prosper in proportion, and can now prosper in no
other way, as they have overstocked the foreign market; that
market which cannot be extended as the home one may. But as
long as the fishermen are checked by their frequent losses on a
perishable commodity of precarious sale, they must restrict or
withdraw. ‘To excite such a fashion. or demand, would be an act
worth all bounties that ever were invented. The true object of
policy is not to produce the article, but to produce a sale for it.

If we reflect on our peculiarly maritime situation, the inex-
haustible supply which our seas afford, and the constant occupa-
tion for industry here found, it has been a singularly unfortunate
circumstance, that those who framed the model of our Reformed
Church did not retain at least the weekly fast. It is a misfortune
that they had not been persons of more general views, and econo-
mists. Much was retained that was matter of indifference on the
great points at issue; for the sole purpose of drawing a line short
of the extremity of reform. Had this also been retained, a point in
itself indifferent, the beneficial consequences would have been
very great ; asit would not only have operated by its direct effects,
but have tended to diffuse the general commerce of fish in the
interior of our own country, and the general habit of consuming
it. It is easy to conjecture how advantageously it would have

~ Dr. Mae Culloch on the Herring. 227

operated, when, even now, we derive so much benefit from the
fasts of the foreign Catholic church as the ground of a branch
of commerce.

But I must conclude this sketch of a subject which might easily
be extended to an inconvenient length, and shall subjoin some
documents from the official reports, as proofs and illustrations of

‘some of the preceding views and arguments. They will shew

among other things, the state of the market and the supply, and
the comparative produce of the east and west coasts of Scotland.
The period I have selected is one of five years, as I cannot, without
trespassing on the prescribed bounds, take a larger one.

In 1815, there were about 160,000 barrels cured; and in 1816,
this had increased to 163,000 only. In 1817, the increase was to
192,000; and in 1818, it took a sudden start, and was 228,000.
In 1819, it had advanced to 326,000 on the east coast, and we
here trace distinctly its gradual increase and parallel course, to the
various causes I have already laid down. The increase in 1820
had advanced, even on 1819; but though I have lost this docu-
ment, the consequences were such as to have left a considerable
quantity on hand unsaleable, producing a very serious loss to the
merchants.

As to the east and west coasts, in 1819, the proportion was about
81,600 for the latter, that of the former being, as already stated,
326,000; but as the boats of Glasgow, Grenock, and Rothsay,
stand for about 53,000 of the latter, and as they buy on the east as
well as the west coasts, it is estimated that the eastern was to the
western fishery as 280 to 45 nearly. Formerly, the eastern fishery
was limited to Wick, which also furnished 21,000 of the produce
of 1819. The remainder is, in a great measure, to be attributed
to the improvements upon the Sutherland estate.

I must now remark, that the average weight of the herring
cask is between 120 and 130 pounds, and that the number of
fish averages 800. Now the exportation of white herrings in 1819,
was about 227,000 barrels; leaving about 108,500, or eighty-
seven millions of fish, for home consumption, exclusive of the
comparatively small quantity produced by England and the Isle of

Q2

228 Dr. Mae Culloch on the Herring.

Man. If we take the nearest round numbers, and allow ouly two
herrings a day for an adult, this would be an annual supply of a
proportion of animal food for little more than 119,000 individuals.
But this quantity would scarcely be a sufficient supply of food for
40,000 persons, allowing six fish a day. It is hardly necessary to
remark how trifling a supply this is for the home consumption, in
an article of which the production seems to be illimitable. It is
plain that much may yet be done towards increasing the food of
the people, when the habit shall have been excited, and the cir-
culation of this article better understood. The price is not the
obstacle, because the price of 800 fish was only twenty shillings.
Animal food could not well be cheaper than when nearly two her-
rings could be procured for a halfpenny, or when an adult could
be completely fed for three halfpence a day. ‘That, with such a
price and such possibilities, the poor of this country should have
wanted animal food in 1819, when the market was glutted to the
ruin of the proprietors, is not one of the least curious facts ina
science which has for some time abounded, even to weariness, in
theoretical writers. J. Mac Curtocu.

Art. IV. A new Demonstration of Taylor’s Theorem. By
Edward Wilmot, Esq., T.C.D.

[To the Editor of the Dulweaakis JOURNAL. ]

Sir, September 16, 1823.
Tuose who are in the habit of lecturing in the elementary parts
of mathematics, must frequently feel the difficulty of making the
common proofs of T'aylor’s Theorem for the development of ‘func-
tions intelligible to the junior students. ‘This difficulty I have my-
self frequently felt, and [ know it is complained of by the pro-
fessors in the French colleges. I am, therefore, induced to send
you a demonstration which appears to me at once simple and valid.
It is independent of those assumptions in functional principles which
are involved in the proofs, and which, though they are perfectly
clear to the expert and practised analyst, are always embarrassing,
and often absolutely unintelligible, to the beginner. The proof which

A new Demonstration of Taylor’sTheorem. — 229

I annex was given me at one of my lectures in our University by
an undergraduate, whose knowledge of the calculus was limited
to the first twenty sections of Lacroix. It is independent of the
theorem of Maclaurin, and gives that series as a_particular case.
In this respect, amongst others, it excels the proofs of Lacroix.
~~ Tam Sir, &e. .
Dionysius Larpner, A.M,
University of Dublin.

Demonstration of Taylor’s Theorem, by Edward Wilmot, Esq.
Trinity College, Dublin.
Let n = F(a) and n’ = F(« +h); let
n=A+B (xth) + C (whj2+D (ct+hy+E (a+h)*.....
Where A, B, C,.... are independent of x and h. The powers
of (x + h) being expanded, and the series disposed by the dimen-
sions of h, it becomes
n =(A+Bar+ Ca®...) +(B+2Cr + 3Pa*.'.)

h+(C + 3Dx + 6Ea*..) H?...--
_ The successive co-efficients of this series are evidently
¥ dn dn 1 d’n 1 d'n 1

tite. AAD, day, Loe, tae, W258 we

Hence we have

, dn h d?n he dn h?
aiesanbiee sp Wicganhig tt gs Page ee?

By supposing 2 =o in this series, we find that of Maclaurin.
Riu). ota ny bah hr

Art. V. Historical Statement respecting the Liquefaction of
Gases. By Mr. M. Faraday, Cor. Mem. R. Acad. Paris,
Chem. Assist. in the Royal Institution, &e.

I was not aware at the time when I first observed the liquefac-
tion of chlorine gas*, nor until very lately, that any of the class of
bodies called gases, had been reduced into the fluid form; but,
having during the last few weeks sought for instances where such
results might have been afforded without the knowledge of the

% Phil, Transactions, 1823, pp» 160.189. |

230 Mr. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Gases.

experimenter, I was surprised to find several recorded cases.

I have thought it right therefore to bring these cases together, and

only justice to endeavour to secure for them a more general at-
tention, than they appear as yet to have gained. I shall notice
in chronological order, the fruitless, as well as the successful, at-
tempts, and those which probably occurred without being ob<
served, as well as those which were remarked and described
as such,

Carbonic Acid, ke.—The Philosophical Transactions for 1797, con=
~ tain, p. 222, an account of experiments made by Count Rumford, to
determine the force of fired gunpowder. Dissatisfied both with the
deductions drawn, and the means used previously, that philosopher
proceeded to fire gunpowder in cylinders of a known diameter and
capacity, and closed by a valve loaded with a weight that could
be varied at pleasure. By making the vessel strong enough and
the weight sufficiently heavy, he succeeded in confining the pro-
ducts within the space previously occupied by the powder. The
Count’s object induced him to vary the quantity of gunpowder in
different experiments, and to estimate the force exerted only at
the moment of ignition, when it was at its maximum. This force
which he found to be prodigious, he attributes to aqueous vapour
intensely heated, and makes no reference to the force of the gase-
ous bodies evolved. Without considering the phenomena which
it is the Count’s object to investigate, it may be remarked, that
in many of the experiments made by him, some of the gases, and
especially carbonic acid gas, were probably reduced to the liquid
state. The Count says,

“‘ When the force of the generated elastic vapour was sufficient
to raise the weight, the explosion was attended by a very sharp
and surprisingly loud report ; but when the weight was not raised,
as also when it was only a little moved, but not sufficiently to
permit the leather stopper to be driven quite out of the bore, and
the elastic fluid to make its escape, the report was scarcely audi-
ble at the distance of a few paces, and did not at all resemble the
report which commonly attends the explosion of gunpowder. It
was more like the noise which attends the breaking of a small

Mr. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Gases. 231

glass tube, than any thing else to which it could be compared. In
many of the experiments, in which the elastic vapour was confined,
this feeble report attending the explosion of the powder, was im-
mediately followed by another noise totally different from it, which
appeared to be occasioned by the falling back of the weight upon
the end of the barrel, after it had been a little raised, but not suffi-
ciently to permit the leather stopper to be driven quite out of the
bore. In some of these experiments a very small part only of the
generated elastic fluid made its escape, in these cases the report
was of a peculiar kind, and though perfectly audible at some con-
siderable distance, yet not at all resembling the report’ of a mus-
ket. It was rather a very strong sudden hissing, than a clear dis-
tinct and sharp report.”

In another place it is said, “ What was very remarkable in all
these experiments, in which the generated elastic vapour was
completely confined, was the small degree of expansive force which
this vapour appeared to possess, after it had been suffered to
remain a few minutes, or even only a few seconds, confined in the
barrel; for upon raising the weight, by means of its lever, and
suffering this vapour to escape, instead of escaping with a loud
report it rushed out with a hissing noise, hardly so loud or so
sharp as the report of a common air-gun, and its effects against
the leather stopper, by which it assisted in raising the weight,
were so very feeble as not to be sensible.” This the Count at-
tributes to the formation of a hard mass, like a stone, within the
cylinder, occasioned by the condensation of what was, at the
moment of ignition, an elastic fluid, Such a substance was always
found in these cases ; but when the explosion raised the weight and
blew out the stopper, nothing of this kind remained.

The effects here described both of elastic force and its cessation
on cooling, may evidently be referred as much to carbonic acid
and perhaps other gases as to water. The strong sudden hiss-
ing observed as occurring when only a little of the products
escaped, may have been due to the passage of the gases into the
air, with comparatively but little water, the circumstances being
such as were not sufficient to confine the former, though they

232 Mr. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Gases.

might the latter; for it cannot be doubted but that in similar cir-
circumstances, the elastic force of carbonic acid would far sur-
pass that of water. Count Rumford says, that the gunpowder
made use of, when well shaken together, occupied rather less
space than an equal weight of water. The quantity of residuum
before referred to, left by a given weight of gunpowder, is not
mentioned, so that the actual space occupied by the vapour of
water, carbonic acid, &c., at the moment of ignition, cannot be
inferred ; there can, however, be but little doubt that when per-
fectly confined they were in the state of the substances, in M.
Cagniard de la Tour’s experiments *.

When allowed to remain a few minutes, or even seconds, the
expansive force at first observed, diminished exceedingly, so as
scarcely to surpass that of the air inacharged air-gun. Of course
all that was due to the vaporization of water and some of the other
products would cease, as soon as the mass of metal had absorbed
the heat, and they would concrete into the hard substance found
in the cylinder: but it does not seem too much to suppose, that so
much carbonic acid was generated in the combustion, as would,
if confined, on the cooling of the apparatus, have been equal to
many atmospheres, but that being condensible, a part became
liquid, and thus assisted in reducing the force within, to what it
was found to be.

Ammonia.—I find the condensation of ammoniacal gas referred to
in Thomson’s System, first edition, i.405, and other editions; Henry’s
Chemistry, i. 237 ; Accum’s Chemistry, i. 310; Murray’s Chemistry,
ii. 73.; and Thenard’s Traité de Chimie, ii. 133. Mr. Accum refers
to the experiments of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, Ann. de Chimie,
xxix. 289, but has mistaken their object. Those chemists used
highly saturated solution of ammonia, see pp. 281, 286, and not
the gas ; and their experiments on gases, namely, sulphurous acid
gas, muriatic acid gas, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas, they state
were fruitless, p. 287. ‘* All we can say is, that the condensation
of most of these gases was above three fourths of their volume.”

Thomson, Henry, Murray, and, I suppose, Thenard, refer to the

* See vol. xy. p. 145, of this Journal,

Mr. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Gases. 233

experiments of Guyton de Morveau, Ann. de Chimie. xxix. 291,
297. Thomson states the result of liquefaction at a temperature
of —45°, without referring to the doubt, that Morveau himself
raises, respecting the presence of water in the gas; but Murray,
Henry, and Thenard, in their statements notice its probable pre-
sence. Morveau’s experiment was made in the following manner:
a glass retort was charged with the usual mixture of muriate of
ammonia, and quick lime, the former material being sublimed,
and the latter carefully made from white marble, so as to exclude
water as much as possible. The beak of the retort was then
adapted to an apparatus consisting of two balloons, and two flasks
successively connected together, and luted by fat lute. The bal-
loons were empty, the first flask contained mercury, the second,
water. Heat was then applied to the retort, and the first globe
cooled to — 21.25°C., aqueous vapours soon rose, which condensed
as water in the neck of the retort, and as ice in the first balloon.
Continuing the heat, ammoniacal gas was disengaged, and it es-
caped by the last flask containing water, without any thing being
perceived in the second balloon. This balloon was then cooled to
— 43.25°C., and then drops of a fluid lined its interior, and ulti-~
mately united at the bottom of the vessel. When the thermome-
ter in the cooling mixture stood at —36,25°C., the fluid already
deposited preserved its state, but no further portions were added
to it; reducing the temperature again to —41°C,, and hastening
the disengagement of ammoniacal gas, the liquid in the second
balloon augmented in volume. Very little gas escaped from the
last flask, and the pressure inwards was such as to force the oil
of the lute into the balloon where it congealed. Finally, the ap-
paratus was left to regain the temperature of the atmosphere, and
as it approached to it, the liquid of the second balloon became
gaseous. The fluid in the first balloon became liquid, as soon as
the temperature had reached — 21.25°C.

M. Morveau remarks on this experiment, that it appears certain
that ammoniacal gas made as dry as it can be, by passing into a
vessel in which water would be frozen, and reduced to a tempera-
ture of —21°C., condenses into a liquid at the temperature of —48°
C., and resumes its elastic form again as the temperature is raised ;

234 Mr. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Gases,

but he proposes to repeat the experiment and examine whether a
portion of the gas so dried, when received over mercury would not
yield water to well calcined potash, “ for as it is seen that water
charged with a little of the gas, remained liquid in the first bal-
loon, at a temperature of~21°., it is possible that a much smaller
quantity of water united to a much larger quantity of the gas,
would become capable of resisting a temperature of —48°C,

Sir H. Davy, who refers to this experiment in his Elements of
Chemical Philosophy, p. 267, urges the uncertainty attending it,
on the same grounds that Morveau himself had done; and now
that the strength of the vapour of dry liquid ammonia is known,
it cannot be doubted that M. Morveau had obtained in his second
balloon only a very concentrated solution of ammonia in water. I
find that the strength of the vapour of ammonia dried by potash,
is equal to about that of 6.5 atmospheres at 50° F*. and accord-
ing to all analogy it would require a very intense degree of cold,
and one at present beyond our means, to compensate this power
and act as an equivalent to it.

Sulphurous Acid Gas.—It is said that sulphurous acid gas has
been condensed into a fluid, by Monge and Clouet, but I have not
been able to find the description of their process. It is referred
to by Thomson, in his System, first edition, ii. 24; and in subse-
quent editions ; by Henry, in his Elements, i. 341; by Accum, in his
Chemistry, 1.319; by Aikin, Chemical Dictionary, ii. 391; by Nichol-
son, Chemical Dictionary, article, gas (Sulphurous acid); and
by Murray, in his System, ii. 405. All these authors mention
the simultaneous application of cold and pressure, but Thomson
alone refers to any authority, and that is Fourcroy, ii. 74.

It is curious that Fourcroy does not, however, mention conden-
sation as one of the means employed by Monge and Clouet, but
merely says the gas is capable of liquefaction at 28° of cold.
“ This latter property,” he adds, “ discovered by citizens Monge
and Clouet, and by which it is distinguished from all the other
eases, appears to be owing to the water which it holds in solution,
and to which it adheres so strongly as to prevent an accurate esti-
mate of the proportions of its radical and acidifying principles,’

* Philosophical Transactions, 1823, p. 197.

Mr. Faraday on the Inquefaction of Gases. 235

Notwithstanding Fourcroy’s objection, there can be but little
reason to doubt that Monge and Clouet did actually condense the
gas, for I have since found that from the small elastic force of its
vapour at common temperatures, (being equal to that of about
two atmospheres only*).a comparatively moderate diminution of
temperature is sufficient to retain it fluid at common pressure, or
a moderate additional pressure to retain it so at common tempe~
rature ; so that whether these philosophers applied cold only as
Fourcroy mentions, or cold and pressure, as stated by the other
chemists, they would succeed in obtaining it in the liquid form.

Chlorine.—M. de Morveau, whilst engaged on the application of
the means best adapted to destroy putrid effluvia and contagious
miasmata, was led to the introduction of chlorine as the one
most excellent for this purpose ; and he proposed the use of phials,
containing the requisite materials, as sources of the substance.
One described in his Traité des Moyens de désinfecter l’air (1801),
was of the capacity of two cubical inches nearly; about 62 grains
of black oxide of manganese in coarse powder was introduced,
and then the bottle two-thirds filled with nitro-muriatic acid ; it was
shaken, and in a short time chlorine was abundantly disengaged.
M. Morveau remarks upon the facility with which the chlorine is
retained in these bottles; one, thus prepared, and forgotten, when
opened at the end of eight years, gave an abundant odour of
chlorine.

I had an impression on my mind that M. de Morveau had pro-
posed the use of phials similarly charged, but made strong, well
stoppered, and confined by a screw in a frame, so that no gas
should escape, except when the screw and stopper were loosened ;
but I have searched for an account of such phials without being
able to find any. If such have been made, it is very probable
that in some circumstances, liquid chlorine has existed in them,
for as its vapour at 60°F, has only a force of about four atmo-
spherest, a charge of materials might be expected frequently to
yield much more chlorine than enough to fill the space, and
saturate the fluid present; and the excess would of course take
the liquid form. If such vessels have not been made, our present

* Philosophical Transactions, 1823, p. 192. t Ibid. p. 198.

a

236 My. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Guses.

knowledge of the strength of the vapour of chlorine will enable us
to construct them of a much more convenient and portable form
than has yet been given to them.

Arseniuretted Hydrogen.—This is a gas which it is said has
been condensed so long since as 1805. The experiment was
made by Stromeyer, and was communicated, with many other
results relating to the same gas, to the Gottingen Society, Oct.
12, 1805. See Nicholson’s Journal, xix. 382; also, Thenard
Traité de Chimie, i. 373; Brande’s Manual, ii. 212; and Annales
de Chimie, xiv. 303. None of these contain the original ex-
periment ; but the following quotation is from Nicholson’s Journal.
The gas was obtained over the pneumatic apparatus, by digesting
an alloy of fifteen parts tin and one part arsenic, in strong muri-
atic acid. ‘Though the arsenicated hydrogen gas retains its
aeriform state under every known degree of atmospheric tem-
perature and pressure, Professor Stromeyer condensed it so far
as to reduce it in part to a liquid, by immersing it in a mixture
of snow and muriate of lime, in which several pounds of quick-
silver had been frozen in the course of a few minutes.” From
the circumstance of its being reduced only in part to a liquid, we
may be led to suspect that it was rather the moisture of the gas
that was condensed than the gas itself; a conjecture which is
strengthened in my mind from finding that a pressure of three atmo-
spheres was insufficient to liquefy the gas at a temperature of O°F.

Chlorine. —The most remarkable and direct experiments I have
yet met with in the course of my search after such as were con-
nected with the condensation of gases into liquids, are a series
made by Mr. Northmore, in the years 1805-6. It was expected
by this gentleman ‘that the various affinities which take place
among the gases under the common pressure of the atmosphere,
would undergo considerable alteration by the influence of con-

s

densation ;” and it was with this in view that the experiments
were made and described. The results of liquefaction were there-
fore incidental, but at present it is only of them I wish to take
notice. Mr. Northmore’s papers may be found in Nicholson’s
Journal, xii, 368. xiii, 232. In the first is described his appa-

ratus, namely, a brass condensing pump; pear-shaped glass re-

Mr. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Gases. 237

ceivers, containing from three and a half to five cubic inches, and
a quarter of an inch thick; and occasionally a syphon gauge.
Sometimes as many as eighteen atmospheres were supposed to
have been compressed into the vessel, but it is added, that the
quantity cannot be depended on, as the tendency to escape even
by the side of the piston, rendered its confinement very difficult.

Now that we know the pressure of the vapour of chlorine,
there can be no doubt that the following passage describes a true
liquefaction of that gas. ‘+ Upon the compression of nearly two
pints of oxygenated muriatic acid gas in a receiver, two anda
quarter cubic inches capacity, it speedily became converted into a
yellow fluid, of such extreme volatility, under the common pres-
sure of the atmosphere, that it instantly evaporated upon opening
the screw of the receiver; I need not add, that this fluid, so highly
concentrated, is of a most insupportable pungency.” ‘ There was
a trifling residue of a yellowish substance left after the evaporation,
which probably arose from a small portion of the oil and grease
used in the machine,” &c. xiii. 235.

Muriatic Acid.—Operating upon muriatic acid, Mr. Northmore
obtained such results as induced him to state he could liquify it
in any quantity, but as the pressure of its vapour at 50° F. is
equal to about 40 atmospheres*, he must have been mistaken. The
following is his account: ‘‘ 1 now proceeded to the muriatic acid
gas, and upon the condensation of a small quantity of it, a beau-
tiful green-coloured substance adhered to the side of the receiver,
which had all the qualities of muriatic acid; but upon a large
quantity, four pints, being condensed, the result was a yellowish
green glutinous substance, which does not evaporate, but is in-
stantly absorbed by a few drops of water; it is of a highly pun-
gent quality, being the essence of muriatic acid. As this gas
easily becomes fluid, there is little or no elasticity, so that any
quantity may be condensed without danger. My method of col-
lecting this and other gases, which are absorbable by water, is
by means of an exhausted Florence flask, (and in some cases an
empty bladder) connected by a stop cock with the extremity of
the retort.” xiii. 235. It seems probable that the facility of con-

* Philosophical Transactions, 1823, p. 198.

238 Mr. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Gases.

densation, and even combination, possessed by muriatic acid gas
in contact with oil of turpentine, may belong to it under a little
pressure, in contact with common oil, and thus have occasioned
the results Mr. Northmore describes,

Sulphurous Acid Gas.—With regard to this gas, Mr. Northmore
says, ‘“‘ having collected about a pint and a half of sulphurous
acid gas, I proceeded to condense it in the three cubic inch receiver,
but after a very few pumps the forcing piston became immoyeable,
being completely choked by the operation of the gas. A sufli-
cient quantity had, however, been compressed to form vapour,
and a thick slimy fluid, of a dark yellow colour, began to trickle
down the sides of the receiver, which immediately evaporated with
‘the most suffocating odour upon the removal of the pressure.”
xiii 236. This experiment, Mr. Northmore remarks, corroborates
the assertion of Monge and Clouet, that by cold and pressure they
had condensed this gas. The fluid above described was evidently
contaminated with oil, but from its evaporation on removing- the
pressure, and from the now ascertained low pressure of the vapour
of sulphurous acid, there can be no hesitation in admitting that
it was sulphurous acid liquefied. }

The results obtained by Mr, Northmore, with chlorine gas and
sulphurous acid gas, are referred to by Nicholson, in his Chemical
Dictionary, 8vo. Articles, Gas (muriatic acid oxygenized) and Gas
(sulphurous acid); and that of chlorine is referred to by Murray,
in his System, ii. 550; although at page 405 of the same volume,
he says that, only sulphurous acid ‘* and ammonia of these gases
that are at natural temperatures permanently elastic, have been
found capable of this reduction.”

Carbonic Acid.—Another experiment in which it is very probable
that liquid carbonic acid has been produced, is one made by Mr.
Babbage, about the year 1813. The object Mr. Babbage had in
view, was to ascertain whether pressure would prevent decom-
position, and it was expected that either that would be the case, or
that decomposition would go on, and the rock be split by the ex-
pansive force of carbonic acid gas. The place was Chudley rocks,
Devonshire, where the limestone is dark and of a compact tex-
ture. A hole, about 30 inches deep and two inches in diameter,

Mr. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Gases. 239

was made by the workmen in the usual way, it penetrated directly
downwards into the rock; a quantity of strong muriatic acid,
equal to perhaps a pint and a half, was then poured in, and imme-
diately a conical wooden plug, that had previously been soaked in
tallow, was driven hard into the mouth of the hole. The persons
about then retired to a distance to watch the result, but nothing
apparent happened, and, after waiting some time, they left the
place. The plug was not loosened at the time, nor was any
further examination of the state of things made: but itis very pro-
bable that if the rock were sufficiently compact in that part, the
plug tight, and the muriatic acid in sufficient quantity, that a part
of the carbonic acid had condensed into a liquid, and thus,
though it permitted the decomposition, prevented that develop-
ment of power which Mr. Babbage expected would have torn the
rock asunder.

Oil Gas Vapour.—An attempt has been made by Mr. Gordon,
within the last few years, and is still continued, to introduce con-
densed gas into use in the construction of portable, elegant, and
economical gas lamps. Oil gas has been made use of, and, I be-
lieve, as many as thirty atmospheres have been thrown into vessels,
which, furnished with a stop cock and jet, have afterwards allowed
of its gradual expansion and combustion. During the conden-
sation of the gas in this manner, a liquid has been observed to
deposit from it. It is not, however, a result of the liquefaction of
the gas, but the deposition of a vapour (using the terms gas and
vapour in their common acceptation) from it, and when taken out
of the vessel it remains a liquid at common temperatures and
pressures; may be purified by distillation, in the ,erdinary way,
and will even bear a temperature of 170° F. before it boils, at or-
dinary pressure. It is the substance referred to by Dr. Henry, in
the Philosophical Transactions, 1821. p. 159.

There is no reason for believing that oil gas, or olefiant gas,
has, as yet, been condensed into a liquid, or that it will take that
form at common temperatures under a pressure of five, or ten, or
even twenty atmospheres. If it were possible, a small, safe, and
portable gas lamp would immediately offer itself to us, which might

240 Mr. Faraday on the Liquefaction of Gases.

be filled with liquid without being subject to any greater force than
the strength of its vapour, and would afford an abundant supply
of gas as long as any of the liquid remained. Immediately upon
the condensation of cyanogen, which takes place at 50° F. at a
pressure under four atmospheres, I made such a lamp with it. It
succeeded perfectly, but, of course, either the expense of the gas,
the faint light of its flame, or its poisonous qualities, would pre-
clude its application. But we may, perhaps, without being con-
sidered extravagant, be allowed to search in the products of oil,
resins, coal, Sc. distilled, or otherwise treated, with this object in
view, for a substance, which being a gas at common temperatures
and pressure, shall condense into a liquid, by a pressure of from
two to six or eight atmospheres, and which being combustible, shall
afford a lamp of the kind described*.

Atmospheric Air.—As my object is to draw attention to the re-
sults obtained in the liquefaction of gases before the date of those
described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1823, I need not,
perhaps, refer to the notice given in the Annals of Philosophy,
N.S. vi. 66, of the supposed liquefaction of atmospheric air, by
Mr. Perkins, under a pressure of about 1100 atmospheres, but
as such a result would be highly interesting, and is the only addi-
tional one on the subject I am acquainted with, I am desirous of
doing so, as well also to point out the remarkable difference be-
tween that result and those which are the subject of this and the
other papers referred to. Mr, Perkins informed me that the air
upon compression disappeared, and in its place was a small
quantity of a fluid, which remained so when the pressure was
removed, which had little or no taste, and which did not act on
the skin. As far as I could by inquiry make out its nature, it
resembled water, but if upon repetition it be found really to be
the product of compressed common air, then its fixed nature shews
it to be a result of a very different kind to those mentioned above,
and necessarily attended by far more important consequences.

* In reference to the probability of such results, see a paper ‘* On
Olefiant Gas.” Annals of Philosophy, N.S, iii. 37,

241

Art. VI. Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.
[Concluded from Vou. XVI. p. 79.]

4th Family.
Srua#rvutata*. (3 genera.)

Shell globular, spheroidal, or oval ; whorls of the spire envelop-
ing, or the chambers united under one covering.

The spherulata are small, spheroidal or oval, multilocular shells,
some having no other cavity than those of the chambers, and
their whorls enveloping one another; others are furnished with
a peculiar internal cavity, and are composed of a series of elon-
gated, narrow, contiguous chambers, arranged in a portion of a
circle, which, by their union, form a single coat, that envelopes the
central cavity.

1. Milliolites +.

Shell transverse, oval-globular, or elongated, multilocular;
chambers transverse, surrounding the axis, and successively cover-
ing one another; aperture very small, situated at the base of the
last whorl, orbicular, or oblong.

Lamarck states that he possesses some milliolites, (or rather
milliolite,) in the recent state, which were found on fuci, near the
Island of Corsica ; but all the species he describes are fossil. In
that state they occur in such vast abundance as to form the
principal part of the stony masses of some of the quarries near
Paris.

The size of these tiny shells scarcely exceeds that of grains of
millet (whence their name); some are globular, inclining to oval,
others oblong, or somewhat triangular. Their spire turns round
an axis perpendicular to the plane of the whorls, and much longer
than the transverse, or horizontal diameter of the shell; which is
just the reverse of what takes place with the planorbes, ammo-
nites, §c. ‘The chambers, which are considerably broader than

* From spherula, a little ball. + From miilium, millet,

Vou. XVI. R

242 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

they are long, are transverse, envelope the whole length of the axis,
and cover one another in succession, giving the shell a triangular
form, three chambers being rather more than sufficient to complete
a whorl.

Type. Milliolites cor anguinum*.

Shell subcordate, inflated, duplex; aperture small, suborbicular.
Fossil, Grignon. PI. vi. Fig. 220. 4 Species +.

2. Melonites ¢.

Shell subspherical, multilocular; spire central ; whorls conti-
guous, enveloping, tuniciform. Chambers narrow, elongated, and
numerous; septa imperforate. *

Type. Melonites spherica}.

No further description. Pl. vi. Fig. 221. 2 Species.

oth Family.
Rapiorata|, (3 genera.)

Shell discoidal, spire central; chambers elongated, radiating from
the centre to the circumference.

From the character of the shells of this family, it follows that
their spire can have but one turn, and is consequently false, or
imperfect.

1. Rotalites 4.

Shell orbicular, spiral, convex or conoidal at the upper part ;
flattened, radiating, and tubercular, at the lower; multilocular.
Radii wavy. Aperture marginal, triangular, inclined towards the
base.

The rotalites are very small shells, widest at the base, with the
whorls contiguous and distinct. The transverse septa which di-

* Serpent’s heart.

+ We omit the genus gyrogonites, altogether, on the authority of M.M.
Cuvier and Brogniart, quoted below. The truth of Leman’s observation, has
since been confirmed by Mr. Sowerby. ‘The passage alluded to will be found
at page 61, of the Description Geologique des Environs de Paris. Speaking of
the fossil shells of the third fresh-water formation, Messrs. B. and C. add,
‘¢ There are also found in it those small, round, channelled bodies, which M.
de Lamarck has named gyrogonites, and which, according to M. Leman’s

“observations, appear to be the seed of a species of chara.”
+ From melo, a melon. § Spherical. || From radius, a ray.
@ From roéa, a wheel.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 243

vide the chambers, radiate from the centre or axis of the shell
towards the circumference, so that the chambers are slightly
conical.

One species. Rotalites trochidiformis*.

Shell conoidal; whorls carinate; lower side granular. Fossil,
Grignon. Pl. vi. Fig. 222.

Lenticulites f.

Shell sublenticular, spiral, multilocular; exterior margin of the
whorls triplicate, extending over the interior whorls, both above
and below, to the centre of the shell. Septa entire, curved, pro-
duced on both sides like radii. Aperture narrow, projecting over
the penultimate whorl.

The lenticulites are distinguished from the rotalites and dis-
corbites, by the lateral prolongation of the chambers and septa,
and from the nautilus, by not having the siphon of that shell.
They are very similar in structure to the nummulites, but they
differ from them by the prolongation of the chambers, §c., and by
the projection of the aperture over the penultimate whorl. They
are chiefly found in the fossil state, but Lamarck tells us that he
possesses some recent species of this genius, which were found in
the sea near Teneriffe, at the depth of 125 feet. He describes only
three fossil species, but adds in a note, that the xautilus calcar, and
nautilus crispus, of Gmelin, as well as the nautilus calcar of Fichtel,
appear to be distinct species of lenticuline, and must be added to
those he has described.

Type. Lenticulites rotulatat.

Shell orbicular ; margin acute; discs somewhat gibbous on both
sides. Fossil, Meudon. PI. vi. Fig, 223.

3. Placentula§.

Shell orbicular, discoidal, convex above and below, multilocular ;
aperture oblong, narrow, lying like the radius of a circle on the
lower disc, or on both discs.

The placentule are divided internally into several chambers,

*® Trochus-shaped. + Lenticula, a little lentil.
t From rotula, a little wheel. § A little cake,

R 2

244 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

each extending from the centre to the circumference. Their aper-
ture is the chief character which distinguishes them from the len-
ticulites. .

Type. Placentula pulvinata *.

No further description. Pl. vi. Fig. 224. 2 Species, both
recent.

6th Family.
NavuTiLacea. (6 genera.)

Shell discoidal, spire central, chambers short, not extending
from the centre to the circumference.

The nautilacea differ widely from the radiolata, in having the
spire composed of several whorls, wherefore the chambers cannot
extend from the centre to the circumference: their spire is also
complete, which that of the radiolata never is.

1, Discorbites ft.

Shell discoidal, spiral, multilocular; sides simple. All the
whorls visible, naked, contiguous to one another. Septa transverse,
frequent, imperforate.

The discorbites differ from the nautili, by having all the whorls
of the spire visible, and no siphon: from rotalites, by the aperture
not inclining downwards towards the base, and the spire not rising
into a cone.

One species. Discorbites vesicularis t.

Shell discoidal; whorls nodular at the chambers, subvesicular;
last chamber somewhat closed. Fossil, Grignon. PI. vi. Fig. 225.

Note, by Lamarck. The Cornu ammonis vulgatissimum of Plancus,
(de Conch. Arimin. p. 8. t. 1. f. 1.) must be referred to this genus.

2. Siderolites

Shell multilocular, discoidal; whorls contiguous, not visible
externally ; disc convex on both sides, and loaded with tubercular
points; circumference bordered with unequal radiating lobes.
Septa transverse, imperforate. Aperture distinct, sublateral.

The siderolites are very small, star-shaped shells, with a sub-

* Made like a cushion, or pillow. + From discus, a disk, and orbis, an orb.
t Vesicular. § From sidus, a star.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 245

granular disc, ‘and the circumference beset with several unequal
points, diverging like radii.

One species. Siderolites calcitrapoides*.

Asmall shell, very remarkable for its star-shape ; it is subpa-
pillous, with unequal projecting radii, with blunt points. Fossil,
Maéstricht. PI. vi. Fig. 226.

3. Polystomellat.

Shell discoidal, multilocular; whorls contiguous, not visible ex~-
ternally ; their surface radiated by transverse furrows or ribs.
Aperture composed of several foramina, variously disposed.

The polystomell are radiated externally by the projection of the
transverse septa of the chambers, which extend from the summit
to the circumference of the shell, crossing the whorls, which are
not visible on the outside. These characters are common also to
the lenticulites, but the aperture of the latter is simple, whilst that
of the polystomella is composed of several holes, differently dis-
posed in the different species.

Type. Polystomella crispat.

No further description. PI. vi. Fig. 227. 4 Species, all recent.

4. Vorticialis §.

Shell discoidal, spiral, multilocular; whorls contiguous, not
visible externally; septa transverse, imperforate, not extending
from the centre to the circumference. Aperture marginal.

The vorticiales differ from the nummulites chiefly by having a
distinct aperture, and from the discorbites, by the spiral whorls not
being visible externally. Their axis is central, and confounded
with the summit of the spire.

Type. Vorticialis craticulata 4.

No further description. PI. vi. Fig. 228.

5. Nummulites ||.

Shell lenticular, attenuated towards the edges; spire internal,

discoidal, multilocular, covered with several thin plates ; exterior

* Like the rowel of a spur. + From aodvs, many, and clone, a mouth,
+ Curled. § From vortex, a whirlpool ?
q From craticula, a gridiron ? || From nummulus, a small coin.

246 _ _Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

side of the whorls triplicate, extending from both sides to the cen-
tre of the shell, and uniting. Chambers very numerous, small,
alternate; septa imperforate, transverse.

. The nummulites, by a transyerse section in the direction of their
plane, present from eighteen to twenty-four very narrow whorls,
which seem to turn circularly round a central point, yet, never-
theless, describe a true spiral line, terminating in the: last whorl ;
and since each of them is doubly folded at its exterior margin, they
form as many little plates, above and below, as there are whorls,
which all unite at the two centres. Now, between all these little
plates, each whorl of the spiral is divided into a multitude of small
chambers, formed by transyerse, imperforate septa, extending ra-
ther obliquely towards the centre of each disc, losing themselves
and disappearing between the plates, as they approach each other.
Hence the shell is thickest in the middle.

_ Breyn, in 1732, and Jean Gesner, in 1758, conceived the idea
that the nummulites are true univalve shells, very analogous to the
ammonites, and Bruguiéres has since adopted their opinion, of the
accuracy of which there can now be little question. They are very
common fossils, and extremely abundant in various countries, often
forming large stony masses. Bruguiéres considers them to be sea
shells, :

Type. Nummulites levigata*.

Shell lenticular, smooth, slightly convex on both sides.

Fossil, Villers-Coterets. Pl. vi. Fig. 229. 4 Species, all fossil.

6. Nautilus f.

Shell discoidal, spiral, multilocular ; parietes simple, without any
suture. Whorls contiguous; the last enveloping the others.
Chambers numerous, narrow, transverse, formed by transverse
septa; last chamber very large; septa concave on the side next to
the aperture, their discs perforated by a tube, and their margins
very simple.

The nautilus is generally rather a large shell, whose spire turns
orbicularly in the same plane, round the central summit. A pory-

* Smooth, t+ The original name, from nauta, a sailor,

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells, 247

tion of the last whorl seems to be enveloped by the posterior part
of the sack or mantle of the cephalopodous animal to which it be-
longs, the remainder of the shell being uncovered and visible ;
whilst another part of the animal is contained in the last chamber
of the shell, to which it probably adheres by a tendinous ligament,
inserted in the extremity of the siphon*. The want of colour at
the end of the last whorl, confirms this supposition,

Type. Nautilus pompiliust, (Idem, Linn.)

Shell suborbicular, marked with red streaks; whorls smooth at
the back and sides; aperture oblong-cordate; umbilicus concealed,
Indian Ocean, PI. vi, Fig. 230. 2 Species, both recent.

| 7th Family.
AmmongEata,. (5 genera.)

Septa sinuous, lobed and indented at the circumference, united
at the inner surface of the shell, and articulating with it by means
of indented sutures.

The multilocular shells of this family are very remarkable for
the character of their septa, whose wavy and sinuous discs, lobed
and indented at their circumference, form, by their union, as they
fold back at their junction with the inner surface of the shell, a
sort of indented sutures, not unlike the leaves of the parsley. These
suture sare hidden by the exterior portion of the shell; but, although
we usually find the ammoneata in the fossil state, after the shell has
disappeared, still their casts display, in a very evident manner,
the peculiar characters of the family.

Of the animals belonging to these shells we know nothing; but
from their being multilocular, we presume, with great probability,
that they are cephalopoda, and analogous to the nautili, though
at the same time very distinct from that genus. It seems probable
that the shell is wholly internal, and, as Bruguiéres has supposed,
that most of them live at great depths in the ocean.

The general form of these multilocular shells varies extremely

* A similar confirmation, there is every reason to suppose, must belong to
the ammonites, nummulites, &c. See what has been already said on this sub-
ject under the head Spiral.

+ From aoaminroc, whence pompilus, a term used by Pliny, for a species of
nautilus,

248 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

in the different genera, Some are discoidal, with spiral whorls
either visible or enveloping ; some form a turrited, pyramidal spire ;
whilst others are straight, or nearly so, without any spire at all.

1. Ammonites *.

Shell discoidal, spiral, whorls contiguous, and all of them visi-
ble ; the interior parietes articulated by sinuous sutures. Septa
transverse, lobed and indented at the circumference; their discs’
without any siphon, but perforated by a sort of marginal tube.

The ammonites differ essentially from the nautili, by the sinuous
sutures of the internal parietes, and by the similarly sinuous form of
the septa. From the orbulites, by all the whorls being distinctly
visible.

The ammonites are only known in the fossil state, and most of
the specimens, found in our collections, are merely internal pyritic
casts of the shells. They are common in almost all countries,
chiefly in schistose or argillaceous formations, and M. Ménard
found one in the maritime Alps, at an elevation exceeding 9000
feet. Several species are of very large size. They abound so.
much in Burgundy, that the road between Auxerre and Avalon is
mended with ammonites.

' Type. Ammonites Kénigit.

Shell discoid, convex, with radiating undulations ; inner whorls
half exposed; marginal undulations numerous; central undulations
few, very prominent ; aperture cordate elongated. PI. vi. Fig. 231.

From Kellowayst.
2. Orbulites §.

Shell subdiscoidal, spiral, whorls contiguous, the last envelop-

* From ammon, a name ot Jupiter, who was worshipped in Libya under the
form ofaram. The old name of the ammonites was cornu ammonis, from
their resemblance to a ram’s horn.

+ Named in honour of Mr. Kénig.

_ ¢ Our figure, and the preceding specific character, is taken from the Mineral
Conchology of the late James Sowerby, Esq.,in whose lamented death natural
history has recently experienced a severe loss. The talents and ardour of his
sons, happily forbid our deploring it as irreparable.

Lamark describes 20 species of ammonites, but he has not given a single refe-

ence to any other author, or to any figure, for either of the species described.

§ From orbis, an orb.

_Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 249

ing the rest; internal parietes articulated by sinuous sutures.
Septa transverse, lobed at the circumference, and perforated by a
marginal tube.
Type. Orbulites subradiatus*. (Ammonites subradiatus.
var) Sowerby.)

Shell lenticular, umbilicated, carinated and radiated; radii
twice curved, obscure, excepting near the margin, where they are
bifid ; umbilicus small; keel entire ; aperture sagittate.

From a mass of olite, found on the road between Bath and Bristol.
Pl. vi. Fig. 232.

3. AmmonoceratitesT.

Shell corniform, arched, subsemicircular ;_parietes articulated by
sinuous, ramose, indented sutures. Septa transverse, sinuous,
lobed and indented at the circumference. Tube or siphon mar-
ginal, not perforating the septa.

The ammonoceratites seem to be to the multilocular shells with
indented septa, what the spirula is to those with simple septa. In
either case the whorls of the spire are not contiguous, and the
present genus appears not even to form one complete whorl. The
upper extremity is flattened at the sides, so as to become lingui-
form.

Type. Ammonoceratites glossoideat. j

Shell very large, thick, cylindrical, arched, rather flat at the
sides, inner side somewhat concave ; apex compressed, linguiform.
Said to be found in India. PI. vi. Fig. 233.

* Subradiated. Our figure is from a specimen lent us by our kind friend
Mr. G. B. Sowerby, and which has been drawn and described in the 5th vol.
of the Mineral Conchology. Lamarck has described five species of orbulites,
but given no reference to any figure of either of them, except to a doubtful
one of the third, O. striata, We have adopted Mr. Sowerby’s specific name and
description of the specimen we have figured, which does not belong to either
of the five species mentioned by Lamarck.

+ From Ayjov, ammon, and xepas, a horn.

+ From yweoa, a tongue, and «des, form. Our figure is copied from that in
Bowdich’s Elements of Conchology, who calls it A. Lamarchii, and says, in a
note, “ The locality is unknown. M. Lamarck purchased it by accident: he
kindly allowed me to take it home, in order that the figure, which is the first
that has been made, might be as accurate as possible.” Part I, p, 21.

250 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

_ The shell has been broken in three pieces, as shewn in the figure.
Its length is 19 inches, 2 lines, (French measure.) 2 Species.)
4, Turrilites *. oN

Shell spiral, turrited, multilocular, whorls contiguous, all visible ;
parietes articulated by sinuous sutures. Septa transverse, lobed
and indented at the circumference. Aperture rounded.

The turrilites, instead of being discoidal, or simply arched, are
elongated, straight, and form avery elevated spiral, which, it seems,
must terminate in a point, like the turritella. Fragments of in-
ternal casts of this shell have been long known by the name of
turbinites. We are indebted for a more accurate knowledge of the
genus to M. Denis Montfort. .

One species. Twrrilitescostutalat. '

Shell straight, turrited; whorls convex, transversely ribbed ;
ribs tubercular at the extremities. St. Catherine’s Hill, near Rouen.
Pl. vi. Fig. 234.

5. Baculites t.

~ Shell straight, cylindrical, sometimes slightly compressed, rather
conical ; parietes articulated by sinuous sutures. Septa transverse,
near together ; disc of the septa imperforate, lobed and indented
at the circumference.

The chambers of these shells, of which we have only the interaal
casts, are narrow, ransverse, and differ in that respect from those
of the turrilites, wh’h are rather longitudinal, the septa which
form them b i arther asunder. In both, the chambers are
filled with ¢ matter.

“Type Baculites Faasit§.

Sheil straight, cylindrical, slightly depressed at the opposite
sides; sutures lobed, indented. St. Peter’s Mount, near Maéstricht,
Pl. vi. Fig. 235. 3 Species.

Section II.
Monothalamous Cephalopoda. (1 Genus.)
Shell unilocular, wholly external, and enveloping the animal.

* From durris, a tower. + Ribbed. t From baculum, a staff,
§ In honour of M, Fanjas, ‘

-\Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 251

It isa very extraordinary circumstance that an animal, whose
body is not in the slightest degree spiral, should form a spiral shell.
The fact, however, is well ascertained, as the animal has been seen
in its shell, and Lamarck states that he has seen it so himself, The
curvature of the shell arises, he thinks, from the way in which the
animal folds and rolls up some of its arms, when at rest within it. In
the cephalopoda of the first section the portion of the body of the
animal, enclosed by the shells, is contained in the last chamber; in
this, the whole animal is enveloped by the shell.

The shell of the monothalamous cephalopoda is univalve, unilo-
eular, wholly external, and capable of floating on the surface of
the water. It is thin and fragile, and seems to have some analogy
with that of the carinaria; but the animal, to which that shell belongs,
is not a cephalopoda.

_ One genus, Argonauta*,

Shell univalve, unilocular, involute, yery thin; spire bicarinated,

turning into the aperture ; carine tubercular.
. The animal of the argonauta has a fleshy body, like the octopus,
obtuse below, and principally contained in a non-alated sac,
formed by the mantle. The head is furnished with lateral eyes,
and terminated by the mouth, around which are ranged, like radii,
eight elongated pointed arms, furnished with suckers. Two of
these arms have, for two-thirds of their length, a thin, oval mem-
brane, which the animal extends and contracts at pleasure.

The difference between this animal and the octopus, consists
principally in the singular membrane just mentioned, and in the
latter having no shell.

The argonauta does not appear to be attached to its shell, and
it is said that it quits it when it pleases. It is asserted, moreover,
that when it wishes to sail on the surface, it displaces the water
from the shell, in order to lighten it, extends the two membranous
arms, which serve as sails, and plunging the others in the sea, they
perform the office of oars. If bad weather, or an enemy approach,

* From argo, the name of the ship which carried Jason from Thessaly to
Colchis, and nauta, a sailor. Lamarck observes, that the genus oc: fire, of
Leach, ought, perhaps, to be included in this section,

252 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

in an instant all is taken in; the animal ships his oars, strikes his
sails, and upsets his boat, which fills with water and goes down:
but when the danger is past, he returns to the surface, bends his
sails again, and once more rows gallantly along.

‘* The tender nautilus, who steers his prow,

The sea-born sailor of his shell canoe,

The ocean Mab, the fairy of the sea,—
* * * * * * * *

He when the lightniug-winged tornadoes sweep
The surge, is safe—his port is in the deep. Byron.

Recent observations have vindicated the character of this clever
little sailor from the aspersions heretofore cast on it, of being a
mere pirate, who having killed and devoured the former inhabitant,
seizes on his vessel; they have proved that he is lawful owner,and
his own industrious shipwright—and beautiful is the model
which his little frail bark is constructed! It somewhat resemble,
a nautilus in its external form, whence its trivial name, paper
nautilus; but it is essentially different from that shell, in being
unilocular, It is, besides, very thin, externally rugose or tuber-
cular, and furnished with a double keel. The end of the spire
always turns inwards and enters the cavity, and the last whorl
envelopes all the others. The argonaute are found in the Medi-
terraneanu, and East Indies.

Type. Argonautaargo. (Idem. Linn.)

Shell large, involute, very thin, white; sides transversely ribbed;
ribs frequent, forked on one side; carine approximate, tubercular,
partially blackish red; tubercles small, very numerous. Mediter-
ranean. Pl. vi. Fig. 236. 3 Species, all recent.

Secrron III.
Naked Cephalopoda. (1 Family.)

The animals of this section have no shell, either internal or ex-
ternal, but the greater number of them contain a solid, free, cre-
taceous or horny substance in the interior of their pig

Sepiaria. (4 Genera.)

This family includes all the animals which Linneus compre-
hended under one generic name, sepia ; they are the most perfectly
known of all the cephalopodous mollusca,

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 253

The sepiaria are marine animals, none of them have any true
shell, they always live in the sea, some crawling at the bottom, as
the octopus, others, as the sepia and loligo, swimming freely in
mid water, by means of the membranes or fins with which their
sac is furnished. ;

The body of these animals is fleshy, half enclosed in a muscular
sac, from which the head and anterior part of the body project.
The head is crowned with tentacular arms, disposed like radii
round the mouth, with suckers on the inner side. The branchic
are enclosed in, and concealed by, the sac, on the outside of the
peritoneum which contains the viscera. They are two in number,
of a pyramidal form, and are situated one on each side of the pe-
ritoneum. The containing cavity has an external communication
by the funnel under the neck, at the mouth of the sac, and which
conyeys the water to and from the branchie.

1. Octopus *.
2. Loligopsis.

The second of these genera is wholly unprovided with any solid
cretaceous or horny substance in the interior of its body, but the
octopus has two cartilages inserted in the substance of the purse,
or elongated sac, which partly contains the body. Cuvier de-
scribes these cartilages as having the form of a dagger, (stilets,)
and says that they occupy the lower half of each side of the back,
and are the only appearance of any thing resembling the sword of
the calmar, (Loligo,) or the bone of the sepia. Hist. et Anatom.
des Mollusques, p. 12.

The general form of the octopus is very analogous to that of the
sepia and loligo; it has eight long, nearly equal arms, surrounding
the mouth ; no membranes for swimming attached to the sac, and
the suckers are simply fleshy, and not provided with the horny in-
dented ring, which constitutes the claw of the latter animals.
They are the largest of the sepiaria. The loligopsis has eight
sessile and equal arms, round the mouth; two fins, or membranes,
for swimming, attached to the lower part of the sac, and is of

* From oxlw, eight, and orus, a foot.

254 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

small size. Only one species, Loligopsis Peronii, is known. Of the
octopus, Lamarck describes four species. —
3. Loligo*.

Body fleshy, contained in an elongated cylindrical sac; sac
pointed at the base, and alate at the lower part. An elongated,
thin, transparent, horny lamina, enclosed in the interior of the body,
near the back. Mouth terminal, furnished with strong horny man-
dibles, like a parrot’s bill, and surrounded by ten arms; arms fur-
nished with suckers, with circular, cartilaginous rings, with simple
edges ; two of the arms longer than the rest, and pedunculated.

The loligo is distinguished from the sepia, by its sac being nar-
rower, and furnished with the membranes for swimming at the
posterior part only; whereas that of the sepia, which is very much
broader, has a narrow ala, or fin, on each side, extending from the
upper margin to the base of the sac. A still more striking dif-
ference between the two genera, is derived from the sword, or sim-
ple, feather-shaped, horny, transparent, dorsal lamina, belonging
to the loligo, which, in every respect, is wholly unlike the lamellar,
spongy bone of the sepia.

The internal organization of the two animals is very similar;
each secretes a black liquor, which it can eject at pleasure, and
probably on similar occasions. The loligines swim at freedom in
the sea, and prey on crabs and other marine animals. They de-
posit their eggs in clusters, like a bunch of grapes, all being
attached to a common centre, and forming an orbicular mass.

Type. oligo vulgarist. (Sepia loligo. Linn.)

Ale semirhomboidal, separate to the extremity of the tail;
border of the sac trilobate; dorsal lamina contracted isi
European Seas. PI. vi. Fig. 237.

4. Sepia t.

Body fleshy, depressed, contained in a sac; sac obtuse posteri-

orly, and bordered on each side, through its whole length, by a

* Original Latia name fora species of cuttle fish.

+ Common.

¢ From sepio, to cover, or conceal, because it conceals itself, when pursued,
by the ejected inky fluid.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 254

narrow ala, A free, cretaccous, spongy, opaque bone, enclosed in
the interior of the body, near the back. Mouth terminal, sur-
rounded by ten arms, furnished with suckers; two of the arms pe-
dunculated, and longer than the others.

The bone enclosed in the body of the sepia, is friable, licht
whitish, oval, rather thick in the middle, thin and sharp at the
edges. It is composed, according to Cuvier, of thin lamine, in
the interstices of which are a multitude of small hollow columns,
perpendicular to the lamine.

The sepiz attain a considerable size ; some are nearly twé feet
long. The head, which, with the upper part of the body of the
animal, projects beyond the sac, has two large, very remarkable eyes,
placed at the sides, and which are the most perfect of those of any
of the invertebrated animals; except that they have no eyelids,
they appear to be as perfect as the eyes of vertebrated animals.
The suckers at the summit of the long arms, serve to keep the ani
mal stationary, whilst it seizes its prey with the shorter ones, which
are also furnished with suckers, and are conical, pointed, and ra«
ther compressed at the sides. The form of the suckers, when ex-
tended, is ‘‘ nearly that of an acorn cup, with a deep circular car-
tilaginous ring, armed with small hooks, which is secured in a thin
membrane, something transparent by the projection of a ledge, in-
vesting its whole circumference about the middle of its depth, and
not to be extracted without some force.

‘Each sucker is fastened by a tendinous stem to the arm of the
animal ; which stem, together with part of the membrane that is
below the circumference of the cartilaginous ring, rises into, and
fills its whole cavity, when the animal contracts the sucker for
action. In this state, whatever touches it, is first held by the mi-
nute hooks, which insinuate themselves betwixt the scales of its
prey, and then is drawn up to a closer adhesion, by the retraction
of the stem, and inferior part of the membrane, much in the same
manner asa sucker of wet leather sustains the weight of a small
stone*,” The mouth of the sepia is situated at the summit of the

* Needham on the Calamary, p. 22, 1745.

256 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells,

head, in the centre of the arms ; its orifice is circular, membranous,
more or less fringed, and contains internally two hard, horny man-
dibles, similar in form and substance to those of a parrot’s bill,
which are hooked, and shut one into the other. Within the cavity
of the beak is a membrane, furnished with several rows of small
unequal teeth. With this formidable weapon, the sepia devours
crabs, lobsters, and even shell-fish, which it crushes with its beak,
and then completes their trituration in its muscular stomach, which
almost resembles the gizzard of a bird.

The bladder which contains the black fluid, called the sepia inh,
is placed near the cecum; it is connected with the extremity of the
intestinal canal by a small tube, and terminates at the anus, whose
orifice opens into the funnel at the anterior part of the body of the
animal. By this canal the sepia ejects the inky fluid contained in
the bladder, when pursued by an enemy, and escapes the threatened
danger, by the obscurity it imparts to the surrounding water. It
is said that the indian ink is prepared from the black fluid of some
species of sepia.

The sepic are not hermaphrodite, like most of the other mol-
lusca, but consist of male and female individuals; the latter lay
clusters of soft eggs, connected together like a bunch of grapes.
They are supposed at first to be yellowish, and to become blackish
after they are fecundated.

Type. Sepia officinalis*. (Idem, Linn.)

Body smooth on both sides ; pedunculated arms very long ; dor-
sal bone elliptical. Mediterranean, English Channel, &c.t. Pl. vi.
Fig. 238. 2 Species.

Fifth Order.
Hereroropa. (3 Genera.)

Body free, elongated, swimming horizontally. Head distinct ;
two eyes. No coronet of arms on the head, nor foot under the
belly or neck, for creeping. One or more membranes for swim-
ming, not disposed in regular order, nor in pairs.

* Of the shops.
+ In some former instances, /a manche, (the channel,) has inadvertently been
written la mancha,

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. 257

The situation of the heart and branchiz of the mollusca of this
order, is extremely singular; they are placed below the belly, and
in many of them are on the outside of it. In this respect, and in
the position of the animal whilst swimming, which is horizontal,
the heteropoda differ essentially from the pteropoda, which always
float in a perpendicular position. :

They seem to be more nearly allied to the cephalopoda, but differ
from them by having no arms on the head, no mantle, nor the two
horny, crooked mandibles, like a parrot’s bill, which those animals are
furnished with ; their organs of motion are also differently disposed,

The body of these mollusca is gelatinous and transparent, and
the shell of some of them resembles that of the argonauta.

1. Carinaria *.

Body elongated, gelatinous, transparent, terminated posteriorly
by a tail, and furnished with one or several unequal ale. Heart
and branchiz projecting beyond the belly, united in a pendant
mass, situated towards the tail, and enclosed in a shell, Head
distinct; two tentacula; two eyes; a contractile trunk.

Shell univalve, conical, flattened at the sides, unilocular, very
thin, hyaline; summit convolute, spiral ; back of the shell some-
times furnished with an indented keel. Aperture oblong, entire.

M. Bory de St. Vincent first observed this singular animal in his
voyage to the principal islands of the African seas, and gave a
figure of it, with its shell enclosing the principal organs. Subse-
quently MM. Peron and Le Sueur have given further details of
the animal, in the Annales du Museum, vol. xv. p. 67.

Type. Carinaria vitreat. (Patella cristata. Linn.)

Shell thin, hyaline, transversely sulcated; back furnished with
an indented keel ; spire conoidal, attenuated ; apex very small, in-
volute; aperture contracted towards the keel. Southern Ocean.
Pl. vi. Fig. 239.

This shell, which M. Lamarck considers as the rarest, most
curious, and most precious of all that are contained in the Museum
of Natural History at Paris, was presented to it by M. de Ja Réveillére,
Lépaux, in the name of M. Huon, who, after the death of Entre-

* From carina, the keel ofa vessel. — + Glassy.

Vou. XVI. S

208 Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

casteaux, commanded the expedition sent in search of La Peyrouse.
It is distinguished from the argonauta, by the spiral summit not
entering into the aperture, and by its having a single, sharp, in-
dented keel, the whole length of the back, The animal, moreover,
never conceals itself in the shell, which, probably, seryes only to
protect the heart and branchiz, which are enclosed within it,

Lamarck gives two other species, viz.,C. fragilis, from the Afri-
can Seas, and C. cymbium, (argonauta cymbium, Linn.) from the
Mediterranean ; the latter no larger than a grain of sand,

2, Pterotrachea.
3. Phylliroe.
These genera, the last of the mollusca, have no shell.

In parting with our author, we cannot but congratulate and -
thank him for the essential service he has rendered the science by
his admirable work. In his hands conchology has assumed its
proper aspect, and from being little better than a vague mass of
unconnected descriptions, now forms a regular and important link
in the great chain of natural history. If his system be not abso-
lutely faultless, it is at least superior to any other general system
extant. In one or two instances, perhaps, Lamarck may have con-
stituted a genus, from characters not sufficiently peculiar to entitle
the individual to that distinction. His castalia, for instance, seems
to be separated from the unio on insufficient grounds; and Mr. G. B.
Sowerby has, we think very properly, restored it to that genus.
Indeed, our author himself appears to have had some doubt on
the subject, from the specific name ambigua, by which he deno-
minates it.

In point of nomenclature, the work contains some grammatical
inaccuracies and inelegancies, which have occasionally surprised
us. The names are frequently taken from obsolete Latin terms,
when better words might, just as easily, have been adopted, and
much confusion prevails in the genders assigned to several of
them. Thus, diceras, derived from a Greek neuter noun, is made

eminine; pterocera, similarly derived, should be pteroceras, and
neuter; as should anostoma, but, like diceras, they are both made

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells, 259

feminine. Planaxis and argonauta, which are made feminine,
should be masculine; as should alto triton, which is made a neuter
noun. Other similar oversights may be found, but our limits will
not allow us to extend the list, even if we were so inclined ; and,
after all, the faults are so overbalanced by the merits, that, non
paucis offendemur maculis. We once more thank M. de Lamarck
for the treasure he has given to the world, and heartily bid him
farewell.

P. S.—It will be seen by the list of plates, that, in the last we
have given the figures of most of these shells, of which we were not
able to obtain drawings at an earlier period. Except clymene, to
which Lamarck gives no reference but the manuscript memoirs of
M. Savigny, we believe every genus is now illustrated by an ap-
propriate figure. We haye also given a second figure of planaxis
sulcatus, and another of carocolla acutissima, from more charac-
teristic specimens than those from which our former drawings were
taken. The figure of the limacina helicialis is from a specimen
brought to England by Captain Sabine, who accom panied Captain
Ross on his expedition to the Arctic Regions. It perfectly an-
swers Lamarck’s description of that shell, and also the figure re-
ferred to by Otho Fabricius, in his Fauna Gréenlandica, which may
be found in Adelung’s Geschichte der Schiffahrten, or History of
Voyages to discover a north-east passage to Japan and China,
Hallé, 1768. PI. xvii. Fig. 12,

The following is Mr, Sowerby’s specific character of the galeolaria
decumbens, (Pig. viii. ***.) ‘* Testd repente, teretiuscula, dorso
obtusé angulato, sulcato, aperture: lingula breviuscula.”’ We have
not been able to obtain either of the two species described by La-
marck, if, indeed, they be really different from the G. decumbens,
of Sowerby. Lamarck gives no reference to any figure for either
of his species.

Fig. xii.* is creusia spinulosa; that described at p- 76, vol. xiv.
C. stromia, we have not met with; we, therefore, add the specific
character of C. spinulosa.

Shell turbinated, conyex, with four sutures; furrows very small,
radiating, spinous,

82

260

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

N. B. All the Figures are drawn from Nature, except those stated to have been
copied from other Works.

PLATE 3.

Fig.

1, SILIQUARIA anguina.

2. Dentalium elephantinum.

3. Pectinaria belgica.

4, Sabellaria alveolata. (Ellis.
Tubularia arenosa Anglica.)

5. Terebella conchilega. (Ency.
Method. P\. 67. Fig. 5.

6. Amphitriti ventilabrum. (Ellis.
Pl. 34.

7. Spirorbis nautiloides. '

(Ellis.

8. Serpula vermicularis.
Pl. 38. Fig. 2.

9, Tubicinella balenarum., a. oper-
culum.

10. Coronula diaderna. Upper and
under view.

11. Balanus sulcatus.

12. Acasta Montagui. (Encyel. Bri-
tan. Sup. Vol. 3. PI. 1. Fig.
57.)

13. Pyrgoma cancellata, exterior

PuLaTE 4,

Fig.

23. Teredo navalis. a. interior of
the tube, shewing the trans-
verse septa. 0b. the true
shell. c¢. its two valves. d.
the operculiferous pieces.

24. Pholas dactylus. a. interior of
one of the valves, shewing the
internal, dentiform process,
below the umbo.

25. Gastrochena cuneiformis.

26. Solen vagina. upper fig. exte-
tior ; lower, interior view.

PLATE 5.
Fig.
32. Mactra gigantea, exterior and
interior.
33. Crassatella Kingicola, 33 and 33.
a. interior of each valve. 0.
exterior of the valves united.

Vou. 14.

Fig.
and interior view of the shell,
with the valves of the opercu-
lum below.

14. Anatifa levis. ;

15. Pollicipes cornucopiz, the
smaller figure shews the ten-
tacular arms.

16. Cineras vittata.

17. Otion Cuvieri.

18. Aspergillum javanum.

19. Clavagella echinata. (Annales
du Museum. Vol. 12. Pl. 43.
Fig. 9. a.)

20. Fistulana clava.
rior valves.

21. Septaria arenaria. 0. small end,

a. b. the inte-

shewing the septum. . large
end.
22. Teredina personata. (4n. du

Mus. Vol. 12. Pl. 43. Fig. 6.)

Vou. 14.

Fig.
27. Panopza Aldrovandi, exterior
and interior.

3%. Glycimeris siliqua. a.
of one valve.

29. Mya truncata. a. interior of the
right valve. 0. interior of
the left valve

30. Anatina laterna, exterior and in-
terior.

31. Lutraria solenoides.

interior

do. do.

Vou. 14.
Fig.
(Sowerby’s Genera of Recent
and Fossil Shells)
34. 34. a. Erycina cardioides, exte-
rior and interior.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

Fig.

34. b. and 34. c. Erycina compla-
Data, exterior and interior.

35. Ungulina transversa, exterior
and interior.

36. Solenomya mediterranea, do. do.

37. Amphidesma variegatum, do. do.

38. Corbula nucleus, do. do.

39. Pandora rostrata. a. interior of
Tight valve. 6. ditto left.

40. Saxicava rugosa, exterior and
interior.

41. Petricola striata, do. do.

42. Venerupis perforans. a. inte-
rior of right valve. 6. ditto
left.

43. Sanguinolaria rosea, exterior
and interior.

44. Psammobia ferroensis. a. inte-

PLATE 6,

Fig.

8.*, Magilus antiquus.

46.*, Tellinides timorensis. a. b.
the two hinges. (Bowdich’s
Elements of Conchology.

Fig. 36. a. b.)

51]. Crassina Danmoniensis. a. in-
terior of left valve. b. ditto
of right do.

52. Cyclas_rivicola.
interior.

_ 53. Cyrena cor. exterior and interior.
54. Galathea radiata. a. b. interior
of right and left valves.

55. Cyprina Islandica. exterior and
interior.

56. Cytherea lusoria. exterior of one
valve. a. back view of the
valves united. 6. interior of
right yalve.

exterior and

PLATE 2.

Fig.

69. Unio sinuata. exterior and inte-
rior.

70. Hyria avicularis. do. do.

71. Anodonta cygnea. do. do.

72. Iridina ovata.

73. Diceras arietinum.

74. Chama lazarus. exterior of one

valve. a. 6. interior of each
valve.

75. Etheria elliptica. exterior and
interior. :

76, Tridacna gigas. back view of the
valves united, shewing the

261

Fig.
rior of left valve. 6. ditto
Tight.

45. Psammotea donacina, exterior
and interior.

46. Tellina radiata, do. do.

47. Corbis fimbriata, valves united,
shewing the relative position
of the umbones. a. exterior

of one valve. 6. interior do.

48. Lucina Jamaicensis. exterior
and interior.

49. Donax scortum. side view,
shewing the lanula. a. exte-

rior of onevalve. 6. interior
ditto.

50. Capsa levigata. exterior of one
valve. a. interior of left

valve. 0, ditto right valve.

Vou. 14.

Fig. 3

57. Venus puerpera. exterior and
interior.

58. Venericardia planicosta.

59. Cardium costatum. exterior and
interior.

60. Cardita sulcata. do. do.

61. Cypricardia Guinaica. do. do.

62. Hiatella spinosa. a. left valve.
b. right valve.

63. Isocardia cor. side view of the
valves united. a. exterior of
one valve. 6. interior of do.

64. Cucullza auriculifera. exterior
and interior.

65. Arca tortuosa. do. do.

66. Pectunculus glycimeris. do. do.

67. Nucula rostrata.

68. Trigonia pectinata. exterior of
one valve. a. interior of
right valve. b. ditto of left,

Vout. 15,

Fig.
open lunula. a. b. exterior
and interior.

77. Hippopus maculatus. back view,
shewing the close lunula. a. b.
exterior and interior.

78. Modiola papuana. exterior and
interior.

79. Mytilus Magellanicus. do. do.

80. Pinna rudis. do. do.

81. Crenatula modiolaris. do. do.

82. Perna ephippium. do. do,

3, Malleus albus. do. do.

84. Avicula crocea. do. do.

262

PLATE 3.

Fig.

85. Meleagrina margaritifera. ex-
terior and interior

86. Pedum spondyloideum, do. do.

87. Lima squamosa. do. do,

88. Plagiostoma transversa.

89. Pecten maximus, exterior and
interior.

90. Plicatula cristata. do. do.

91. Spondylus geederopus. exterior
of one valve. a. b. interior
of right and left valve.

92. Podopsis truncata. exterior and
interior. (ncyclopedie. Pl,
188. Figs. 6 and 7.)

93. Gryphea angulata.

93#, Grypheea cymbium.

94, Ostrea edulis. exterior and inte-

rior.

Vulsella spongiarum. do. do,

Placuna sella. exterior of one

valve. a. interior of lower
valve. 6. ditto upper.

Anomia ephippium, lower valve,

95.
96.

97

PLaTE 7.
Fig.
106.
107,
108.

Hyalea tridentata.

Balantium recurvum.

Cleodora pyramidata. (Ann. du.
Mus. 15. Pl. 2. No. 14.)

Cymbulia Peronii. (Ann. du.
Mus. 15. Pl. 3. No, +)

Chitonellus levis.

Chiton squamosus,

Patella granatina.

Pleurobranchus Peronii. (Ann.
du Mus.Tom. 5. Pl. 18. Fig. 3.

Umbrella Indica. a. under side
of the shell.

Parmophorus Australis,

Emarginula fissura.

Fissurella nimbosa.

Pileopsis ungarica.

Calyptrea equestris. a. under
side.

Crepidulafornicata, a. under side,

Ancylus lacustris.

Bulleea aperta.

Balla lignaria.

Laplysia depilans.

Dolabella Rumphii a. concave

_ side.

Parmacella caliculata. under and
upper side,

109.

110.
111.
d 12
113.

114.

AS.
116.
Lt be
118.
119,

120.
121,
122.
123.
124,
125.

126,

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

Vou. 15.

Fig.

a. interior of ditto. 0. inte-
rior of upper valve.

98. Spheerulites foliacea. (Encyclo-
pedie. Pl. 172. Fig. 7.)

99. Radiolites rotularis.

100. Calceola sandalina. ,

101. Briostrites inzequilobus. (Sow-
erby’s Gen. of R. and F.
Shells.)

102. Crania personata. exterior of
upper valve. a. interior of
ditto. 6. interior of lower
valve. ©

103. Orbicula Norvegica.
and interior.

104. Terebratula vitrea. front view of
the valvesunited. a. interior
oflarger valve. 0. interior of
smaller ditto, shewing the ra-
mified processes for the sup-
port of the animal.

105. Lingula anatina. exterior and
interior,

exterior

Vou. 15.

Fig.

127. Limax rufus."

128, Testacella haliotidea.
side.

Vitrina pellucida.
under side.

Helix gigantea.

Carocolla accutissima.

Anastoma depressum.

Helicina neritella.

Pupa mumia.

Clausilia torticollis: the small
figures below represent the
two valves of the penultimate
whorl.

Bulimus hemastomus.

Achatina perdix.

Succinea amphibea.

Auricula Mide.

Cyclostoma volvulus.

Planorbis corneus.

Physa fontinalis.

Lymneea stagnalis.

Melania truncata.

Melanopsis levigata.

Pirena terebralis.

Valvata piscinalis.

Paludina vivipara.

Ampullaria Guyanensis.

a. under

129, upper and
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.

136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148,
149.

| Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

PLATE 8.

Fig.
150. Navicella tessellata. a.
side.

151. Neritina pulligera.

152. Nerita exuvia.

153. Natica glaucina.

154. Ianthina communis.

155, Sigaretus haliotideus. under and
upper side.

Stomatella sulcifera.

Stomatia phymotis.

Haliotis Iris.

Tornatella flammea.

Pyramidella dolabrata.

Vermetus lumbricalis.

Scalaria pretiosa.

Delphinula laciniata.

Solarium perspectivum.

under

156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
168
164,

do. do.

PLATE 5.

Fig.

180.
181.
182.
183.
184,
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.

Struthiolaria nodulosa,
Ranella gigantea.
Murex brandaris.
Triton variegatus.
Rostellaria curvirostris.
Pterocera lambis.
Strombus latissimus.
Cassidaria echinophora.
Cassis glauca.

Ricinula horrida.
Purpura persica.

191. Monoceros imbricatum.
192. Concholepas Peruvianus.
193. Harpa ventricosa,

194. Doluim perdix.

PuaTE 6,

Fig.

8«*, Vermilia rostrata.
of the aperture.

8**«. Galeolaria decumbens. natural
size. a. operculum — very
much magnified. 6. aperture
ditto. (Sowerby’s Gen. of R.
and F. Shells, No. 11.)

12*. Creusia spinulosa.a. operculum,

68*. Castalia ambigua, exterior of
one valve. a. 6. interior of
both valves.

108*, Limacina helicialis, upper and
under side.

131*. Carocolla acutissima.

169%. Planaxis sulcatus,

a. the beak

263

Vou, 15.

Fig.

163. Rotella lineolata.

166. Trochus imperialis. a under
side.

167, Monodonta pagodus.

168. Turbo marmoratus.

169, Planaxis sulcatus.

170. Phasianella bulimoides,

171. Turritella duplicata.

172. Rissoa.

173, Cerithium palustre.

174. Pleurotoma Babylonia.

175. Turbinella cornigera.

176. Cancellaria reticulata,

177. Fasciolaria tulipa.

178, Fusus colus.

179. Pyrula caliculata,

Vou. 16,

Fig.

195. Buccinum undatum.
196. Eberna glabrata.

197. Terebra maculata.

198. Colombella mercatoria.
199. Mitra episcopalis.

200. Voluta diadema.

201. Marginella glabella.
202. Volvaria bulloides.
203. Ovula oviformis.

204, Cypreea cervina.

205. Terebellum subulatum.
206. Ancillaria cinnamomea,
207. Oliva porphyria.

208. Conus marmoreus,

Vou. 16,

Fig.

209, Belemnites subconica.’ (Trans.
R. S. E. Pl. 25. Fig. 3.)

209%, = mamillata,

210. Orthocera. raphanus. a. nat.
size. (Ency. P1.465. Fig. 2. c.)

211. Nodosaria radicula. a, nat. size.
(Ency. Pl. 465, Fig. 4. 6.)

212, Hippurites rugosa. a. larger end.

213, Conilites. pyramadata, (Sower-
by’s Min. Con. No. 46. Pl.
260. Fig.3.)

214. Spirula Peronii.

215. Spirolinitis cylindracea. (Ency.
Pl. 466. Fig. 2.)

216. Lituolites nautiloidea. (ney
P}. 465. Fig. 6.)

264

Fig.

217. Renulites opercularis.. (Zncy.
Pl. 465. Fig. 8.)

218. Cristellaria squammula. a. nat.

size. (Fichtel. Pl. 16. b.)

219. Orbiculina numismalis. a. nat.
size. 6. transverse section,
shewing the chambers. c. side
view, shewing the aperture.
( Fichtel. Pl. 21. a. b. c. d.)

220. Miliolites coranguinum. (Zncy.
Pl. 469. Fig. 2. a. b.)

221, Melonites spherica. a. nat. size.
Fichtel. P\. 24. 6.)

222. Rotalites trochidiformis. upper
and under side.

223. Lenticulites rotulata.
Pl. 466. Fig. 5.)

224. Placentula pulvinata. a. nat. size.
(Fichtel. Pl. 3. 6.)

225. Discorbites vesicularis.
466. Fig. 7. a.)

226. Siderolites calcitrapoides. a. nat.
size. 6. transverse section.
(Fichtel. Pl. 15. e. k.)

227. Polystomella crispa. a. nat. size.
b. side view. c. transverse sec-

(Ency.

(Ency.

Lamarck’s Genera of Shells.

Fig.

228. Vorticialis craticulata. a. nat.
size. b. side view. (Fichtel.
Pl. 5. A. tk.)

229. Nummulites levigata.

230. Nautilus pompilius.

231. Ammonites KG6nigi. (Sowerby’s

ries Con. No. 46. Pl. Aen
ig. 3.
Orbuistes subradiata.

232.

233. Ammonoceratites glossoidea.
(Bowdich. P\. 3. Fig. 14.)

234. Turrilites costulata. (Sowerby’s
Min. Con. Pl. 36.)

235. Baculites Faujasii.

236. Argonauta Argo.

237. Loligo vulgaris—the corneous

lamina very much _ reduced.
a. b. cranium—nat. size. c. the
beaks united. d. e. its parts
separate—f. indented ring of
the sucker.

238. Sepia officinalis, the shell very
much reduced. a. beak. 0.
suckerring. c.egg. All nearly
the natural size.

239, Carinaria vitrea. (Ency. Pl. 464.

tion. (Fichtel. Pl. 4. d. e. f. Fig. 3.)
and PI, 5. b.)
00006060000000060000
ERRATA.

Vol. xv. p. 219, line 26, for “ air-holes,” read “ suckers.”
Vol. xv. p. 248, line 98, for “ nerita,” read “ natica.”

Art. VII. Experiments on the Proportion of Charcoal ob-
tained from Woods having a greater Specific Gravity than

Box.

By My. T. Griffiths.

Tue pieces of wood, having their respective weights carefully
taken, were put into crucibles covered with sand, which were
placed in a strong heat, till all the volatile products were dissi-
pated. The charcoal thus obtained was weighed whilst warm, in
order to prevent any inaccuracy that might have been occasioned
by the absorption of moisture from the air. Of the many different
woods that might have been employed, eight specimens have been

selected, and the result of the experiments made upon them, are

Mr. T. Griffiths on Charcoal. 265

detailed in the following tables; the first of which shews the spe-
cific gravity of the different woods. ‘The second table shews the
proportion of charcoal in one hundred parts of the respective
woods.

In the third table the specific gravity of the charcoal is taken in
the following manner. Its weight was taken in air, with its surface
slightly varnished, which, when it was weighed in water, prevented
that fluid from fillmg its pores. But this method not giving the
true specific gravity of the charcoal as its pores were filled with
air, another was adopted, in which the charcoal having been
weighed in air was put at the botton of a glass of water under an
exhausted receiver where it remained several hours till the air it
contained was expelled. Upon removing the receiver the charcoal
was saturated with water by the pressure of the atmosphere upon
its surface. In this state it was weighed in water; the specific
gravities obtained by this method are given in the fourth table.

In regard to electrical conducting power, charcoal from satin
wood is the best, and charcoal from tulip wood the worst. The
other specimens discharge a battery with nearly equal energy.

TABLE 1. TABLE 2.
Lignum Vite “...... 1S 2 RN YT Pa: |
Cocoas wood ...... 1.336 | Botany Bay wood... . . 28.1
Ebony... ... gpsbianee 1.226 0b Brazilwood) oy) son 2% 26
Brazil-wood,,... «:.. 1. » 1.132 | Cocoas wood ...-... 22.5
Sam wood ..:..,;. 1.078 .| King wood .. oa.» cvs 22
Tulipwood ....... Tory | Lulip’wood . .°.. . >. 20.8
King wood ....... 1.069 | Satinwood ........ 20.7
Botany Bay wood... . 1.067 | Lignum Vite. ...... 17.5

TABLE 3. TABLE 4.
Lignum Vite....... 0.94 | Lignum Vite ....... 1.84
ore 0.93 | Cocoas wood....... 1.36
Cocoas wood....... Oo" satm wood . 5"... . es 1.26
Tulip-;wood «2: =) ees 2 3° 0.76 | Tulip wood. ....... LiF
Botany Bay wood .... 0.57 | Botany Bay wood .... 1.12
See OER ie sil. t). . 2.05) IMS WOOR 66. os a 1.04
Bitig' wood. Saat eo AR pe 1.4

Brazil wood. ......, 0.6 Brazil wood. .... we Obie

266

Art. VIII. Description of Mr. Rider’s Rotatory Steam-
Engine. (With a Plate.)

[To the Editor of the QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, ]

Belfast, August 27, 1823.
Sir,

A vantiery of occurrences have, until now, induced me to de-
cline publishing on the subject of my rotatory steam-engines. My
principal reason was, that I did not wish to appear before the pub-
lic until the matter, from actual experience, and deliberate trial, was
placed beyond a doubt of success. I feel the greater satisfaction
in informing you that I consider this desirable object is now at~
tained, there being three engines on my principle at present work
ing at different places in this neighbourhood with the greatest
success, one of which is twelve, one sixteen, and the other twenty
horse power.

I send you herewith drawings, and a description of my rotatory
engine, through my friend Mr. Boyd ; and should you still enter-
tain the same favourable opinion of the improvement, which you
were pleased to express to him, I shall feel much obliged by your
taking such notice of it as you think it deserves, in the Journal
which you conduct.

The advantages which these engines possess, are, that they
require less room, less weight, consume less fuel, and are cheaper
than the common engine; beside the expense of foundation work,
and buildings necessary for erection, is considerably reduced.

By this important improvement, so long sought after, the opera-
tion of the steam on the piston, from its first action, is completely
uniform, and may be communicated to any purpose required, with-
out the loss of power occasioned by the use of lever beams, crosses,
cranks, fly wheels, or balances of any description.

For steam navigation these engines are peculiarly adapted,
where the saying of room and weight is an object of much im-
portance.

Mr. Rider’s Rotatory Steam-Engine. 267

Should you think any farther information than what is now
communicated necessary, I shall feel great pleasure in affording it.
Tam, Sir, -
Your most obedient servant,
J. RIDER.

Description of a Patent Rotatory Steam-Engine, manufactured by
Job Rider and Co., Belfast.

Plate IX. The two figures show the parts of a twenty-horse
engine, the same marks of reference are used to denote the same
parts in both. Fig. 1, is a section cut through the centre at right
angles to the axis. Fig. 2, is a middle section cut through the
centre of the axis.

Fig. 1 and 2, the fixed parts are aaaa ; the outside cylinder has
a flanch 66 near each end, and two internal eccentrics cc; on the
outside of it are two flanched branches —— >, one of which con-
nects the engine with the boiler, the other with the condenser. It
is covered with two ends, eece, (as shewn in Fig. 2,) each end hav-
ing a centre flanched branch, into which is fitted a flanched socket
DD, screwed down on hemp packing, shewn by dotted shade.

The revolving parts are 1, 1, the inside cylinder (which is fixed
on the axis 2.2.2.2.) has six cavities, or interstices, d.d.d., into
which are fitted sliding valves 3.3.3.3.; upon each end of it are
fitted flanches (Fig. 2,) 5.5.5.5. shewn by the sloping lines; these
flanches are screwed together through the arms of the cylinder, as
shewn by 6.6.6.6. (Fig. 1,) each flanch having grooves proceeding
to its extremity, equal in depth to the rabbet of the flanches upon
the cylinder, and coresponding with the valve recess dd, in the in-
side cylinder 2.2.2, The sliding valves are made to work steam
tight in these grooves ; they are connected by ground steel pins,
which pass through the axis, as shewn in Fig. 2, by 4.4.4.4. These
pins keep the edges of the sliding valves close to the (fixed) out-
side cylinder, both in its eccentric and concentric parts (as shewn
Fig. 1,) during the time that the inside cylinder, with its flanches
and sliding valves, are turned upon their axis.

The sliding valves are at their full extent when passing the

268 Description of Mr. Rider’s

lower concentric part of the outside cylinder, at which place the
power is obtained, and they are close in the recesses of the inside
cylinder when passing the upper concentric part.

Fig. 1, r.r.r.r. is an oblong flanched box, which has a cover
screwed to its flanch; through the cover are screws with guard
rivets XD, which press down the hemp packing 4, by means of the
plate 1, keeping the piece of brass o close to the inside cylinder
2.2.2.2.

The ends of the piece of brass o come close to the inside of the
revolving flanches, and a packing is completely formed between
the outside of the upper concentric part (in the eccentric CC.) and
the inside of the revolving flanches 5.5.5.5.

Fig. 2, yy, are sections of rings kept close to the outside of the
revolving flanches 5.5.5.5. by spiral springs placed in the thick
part of the cover eeee.

The engine is placed between the boiler and condenser, the
boiler producing, and the condenser destroying, steam. It has on
the boiler-side a pressure of steam, and on the condenser-side
nearly a vacuum, the steam-gauge standing at six inches of mer-
cury more than the pressure of the atmosphere, and the vacuum-
gauge standing at 26 inches less. This gives a power of 16
pounds on the square-inch.

The course of the steam gives a velocity of 600 feet per minute
of a revolving motion, to the extremity of the sliding valves, and
forces round the inside cylinder 2.2.2.2. and the shaft ]. Fig. 1.
—> —> show the course of the steam from the boiler to the
condenser, according as the engine is connected to them.

The engine can be made so that the motion may be reversed at
pleasure. The air-pump and under work belonging to the engine,
which are not shewn in the plate, may be made on the common

construction.

[To the Editor of the Quanrrnty JournAt or SciENCcE. |
Fort Breda, 27th August, 1823.

Sir,
In addition to Mr. Rider’s letter explanatory of the advantages

Rotatory Steam-Engine. 269

his engines possess over the common ones, I have only to add,
that like many others not professionally occupied with the science
of mechanics, I had my doubts as to the superiority of his inven-
tion; and it was not until I had the experience of ocular demon-
stration, confirmed by the judgment of people versed in steam-
engines, that my prejudices were removed; but having witnessed
the engines he mentions in his letter to you, at work, and hearing
the favourable report of all parties, I now confess myself a com-
plete convert. The chief objections urged against these engines,
is the fear of greater wear than in others. Now this has been
quite satisfactorily proved to be even less. The engine at Messrs.
Grimshaw’s, (a twelve-horse power,) after working all last summer,
and driving all the machinery of the printfield, day and night, (for
there was no supply of water to drive the wheel,) was taken
asunder, and the sliding valves and water cylinder examined, when
no apparent wear or tear was visible, although during the entire
period it had never been fresh packed. This was the first engine
made of the kind, except the model one at the foundry. It was
warranted equal in power and durability to an engine of twelve-
horse power on the old construction, and the time of payment left
to Messrs. Grimshaw’s discretion. ‘They are now so well satisfied
that they have paid for it, and so they well might, as it does not
require more than half the fuel necessary for one of the best engines
on the old principle! The sixteen-horse engine to which Mr.
Rider alludes, is at Messrs. Bell’s Bleach-works, Ballyclare, where
it affords the greatest satisfaction. The twenty-horse engine is at
Messrs. Alexander’s flour-mills. It drives three pair of mill stones
with a full feed of grain, and could readily drive a fourth pair, did
the connecting machinery answer, with a pressure of from four to
six inches on the mercurial gauze. In fact, the real power of
these engines is yet unknown, and the multifarious advantages at-
tending them are such as to demand the serious attention of all
manufacturers, and others who have machinery to drive.

I am sure you will feel great pleasure in giving publicity to this
invention through your widely circulated Journal, it being one of
the greatest importance to the arts and manufactures; and which,

270 Mr. Rider’s Rotatory Steam-Engine.

in my humble opinion, bids fair to constitute one of the greatest
improvements yet made in the steam-engine.

Thad almost forgotten to mention a circumstance which has,
doubtless, operated against the good name of this invention in
Glasgow, t. e., the bad success attending the engine put on board
the Highland-lad steam-yessel, by Messrs. Girdwood and Co.,
through Mr. R,’s license. In consequence of the eyil reports
(which were industriously circulated,) Mr. R, and I went to Glas-
gow, where, on inspection, we found the engine differed most ma-
terially from his plan, and was extremely defective indeed, so much
so, that it is wonderful it had any power whatever. By way, how-
ever, of letting the good folk on the other side of the water witness
the astonishing effect of his improvement, he is now engaged in
constructing an engine to be mounted in a boat at Glasgow, where
all may haye an opportunity of judging for themselves,

I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
WILLIAM BOYD.

Art. IX. Observations on the Modern Theory of Physical
Astronomy. By John Walsh, Esq.

[Communicated by the Author.]

Mey, in general, are too apt to form theories without thoroughly
examining the bases on which they found them, and the conse-
quences that may follow from them; and, as well as others, the
geometer and the natural philosopher have often committed them-
selves in this way. When the geometer departs from the spirit of
demonstration, he is no longer to be depended upon. Sometimes
I meet, even in the works of the most illustrious mathematicians,
with the expression, ‘‘ rigorous demonstration.” This sounds
oddly ; I cannot perceive the necessity of the word rigorous, or
of any adjunct of similar meaning, as applyed to demonstration.
Both sides of an equation, being only different manners of repre-

J. Walsh, Esq., on Physical Astronomy. 271

senting the same magnitude, or the same relation, whatever change
takes place in one side, must take place also in the other. If this
is not the case, it is a proof that no equality exists. The force
of gravity, if such a force exists, is said to vary inversely as the
square of the distance from the attracting body. Let F be this
force, at any distance R, and f any other force of the same attract-
ing body, at any other distance 7, then,

F r

F SR
If we make R nothing, then the force F is infinitely greater than
the force f, whatever may be r, which is absurd, Then, therefore,
no equality can in every case exist, between the two sides of this
equation. Therefore, the law of universal grayity, or rather what
is said to be this law, is not the true law. .

It appears to me that the first law of Kepler, if this law is true,
is not yet demonstrated to be true.

Let any body be at rest at B,
and let it be acted on at the
same instant by two forces, re-
presented by, and in the direction
of, the straight lines BC, B D; by
the joiut effect of these forces,
it will move with a uniform mo-
tion along the diagonal BA.
Now, at the instant it is arrived
at A, let the central force S act
again on it, and cause it to
move along the line Az. It
is required to determine, how
shall this second central force Ss
be represented. This is always
done by taking Ah = AB, and vitiles hn parallel to Am, and
nm toh A; then, Am is said to represent this force; now, if this
is true, then no force whatever acting in the direction AS, on the
body when at A, could cause it to move along this line AS, which
is absurd, as the body was not at rest, when at A, Then, there-

272 J. Walsh, Esq., on Physical Astronomy.

fore, Am cannot represent the second impulse of the central
force. Then, therefore, the first law of Kepler, if true, is not yet
demonstrated to be true.

Let us now try if any other law, more conformable to the nature
of analysis, and the spirit of demonstration, can be substituted in
the place of the inverse ratio of the square of the distance, to show
the variations of the force with which any two attracting points
act on each other, when at any distance asunder.

When the points are in contact, the spaces which they would
uniformly describe in the same time by their total actions on each
other, were they free to move, would be inversely as their forces.
Let C be the straight line, which any of them may uniformly de-
scribe in any given time, by an action equal to that, which the
other point would exercise on it when in contact with it; and let
x be the distance of this point from the point of contact, which I
call the centre of gravity of the two attracting points; then,
eo will always represent the force whatever may be x. And no

other can be the law of universal gravity, if such a principle exists.

Let a and y correspond to the second attracting point, then we
shall have for the relation between the forces with which they act
c3(a+y)2

on each other, a constant quantity, whatever may be

x and y.
Joon Watsu.

Art. X. Description of a Grotto in the Interior of the
Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. By Mr.G.Thompson.

[Communicated by the Rey. F. Fallows.]

Tne Grotto is situated in the Kango, in the district of George,
about 350 miles from Cape Town. It was first discovered by a
Mr. Botha, a farmer, by accident, when on a hunting party, and a
few days afterwards it was entered by him and a Lap of far-
mers ; this occurred in the year 1780.

The hill, where the grotto is, is between 5 and 600 feet in

Pek hatete Dy -

Description of a Grotto at the Cape of Good Hope. 273

height, being part of an extensive chain of calcareous mountains
which divides the Kango country from the great Kaaroo or desert.
The entrance is at the height of about 100 feet from the level of a
brook which passes close to the hill. The door-way or entrance
is about 20 feet high, and a most romantic excavation. From the
entrance you are led in nearly a horizontal direction for 200 feet,
when a precipice of 33 feet presents itself, and which is descended
by a ladder into Van Zeily’s Hall, (named after the discoverer, as
are likewise the other chambers,) a most wonderful subterranean
vault about 100 feet broad, varying in height from 60. to 70 feet,
and measuring in length about 600 feet. The. scenery in this
cavern is grand and awful in the extreme, adorned with the most
splendid stalactites, which were greatly beautified by the glare of
torches, some of the columns rising to the height of 40 feet,
(caused by a single drop of water from the roof,) others appearing
in the shape of cauliflowers, festoons, and assuming all kinds of
fantastic forms. The next apartment is the Registry (from the
names being wrote upon the walls) about 40 feet broad, and 25
feet high. From this we are led to Botha’s Hall, about 140 feet
broad and 50 feet high; adjoining this is the south chamber, a
small place about 30 feet long, 15 broad, and 20 high, which leads
to Vander-West-huissen’s Chamber, 15 feet high, 10 long, and as
many broad; from this we are led to Thom’s Chamber, 14 feet
long, 8 broad, and 15 high. At the end of this last mentioned
apartment a precipice of 14 feet, prevented others exploringfthis
grand cavern, however I ventured down, followed by three slaves,
who all-lost their torches in the descent, and fell neck over heels ;
fortunately my light was secured, when I proceeded first into
what I take upon myself to call “* George Thompson’s Chamber.”
This 1 fully explored, and found it about 500 feet long, 50 broad
in some parts, and varying in height from 20 to 40 feet. This is
the extremity of the cavern, which I presume may be upwards of
1500 feet from the entrance. On the right, near the ladder, is
Bat Corner, or Fledermuishoek. The Rhombus is on the right of
Van Zeily’s Hall. The Pyp or Yzigle Chamber, and the Bath-
house are also on the right of Botha’s Hall. The passage between
Vor. XVI. T

274 Description of a Grotto at the Cape of Good Hope.

the South Chamber and Vander-West-huissen’s Chamber is so
narrow as scarcely to admit a large person, and is called Botha’s
Poort or door, likewise Nel’s Poort, is equally narrow between
Vander-West-huissen’s and Thom’s Chamber. These apartments
constitute the whole of this very extensive scries of subterranéous
caverns; and should there be any other apartments, they must
communicate bya very small passage, as I narrowly examined
every part. The beauty of some of the chambers cannot be de-
scribed. The production of the stalactites is very surprising ;
a single drop of water from the roof, in time will raise a column
50 feet high. A great many drops have produced cauliflowers,
pulpits, and other beautiful and romantic festoons, shewing the
remarkable action of water, and carbonic acid upon calcareous
rock. The Bath-house contains several basins of clear water:
Innumerable quantities of bats have taken up their residence here,
(apparently from the excrement,) from time immemorial—they are
the only inhabitants of these lonely regions. The heat is great,
and even oppressive at the farthest extremity. Had this beautiful
grotto been situated where it was more accessible to mankind,
and not so far in the wilds of a desert country, we should ere this
time have seen a proper account of it, by which means it would
have been plucked from the obscurity which shrouds it at present,
and have gratified the eyes of the curious, and the lovers of the
sublime.

Art, XI. On some undescribed Minerals. By H. J. As
Brooke, Esq., F.R.S.

Childrenite.
Axovrt four years since I purchased at Tavistock, in Devon=
shire, three specimens of a mineral, said to have been taken from
some part of the ground which had been perforated for the canal
lately completed there. They were supposed to be carbonate of
iron, but it was obvious on looking’ at the crystals that they must
belong to some other substance.
Intervening occupations prevented me for along time from ex-

Mr. Brooke on some undescribed Minerals. 275,

amining them, but it is now several months since I ascertained
from the measurement of their angles that they differed from the
crystals of every other known mineral. They are so very minute,
that the whole quantity I possess would weigh only a few grains.
A part of one of the specimens, however, enabled Dr. Wollaston
to ascertain that the mineral was a Phosphate of Alumina and Iron.

The attention which Mr. Children has shewn to mineralogical
chemistry, is one, among many other inducements to name this
mineral Childrenite.

The form of the crystals is represented by the accompanying
figure, except in this particular, that the planes marked 6, in the
figure, generally consist of a number of very narrow planes with
parallel edges, but whose inclinations upon e, I have not been
able to measure.

P one ore” . 114° 50’
© or Bh i PASD. TO
Pepe. 288

eo on'e’’ 2s 130*20

I haye not succeeded in cleaving the crystals, but we may as-
sume aright rhombic prism as their primary form; and if we
suppose the planes e to be produced by decrements upon its ter-
minal edges, the lines between e e’, and e” e’”, would obviously lie
on the lateral primary planes, and the inclination of these planes
would then be 92° 48’.

If the planes e result from a decrement, by one row of mole-
cules, the terminal edge would be to a lateral edge, nearly as
13 to 28, and the planes a might then be represented by the

symbol

The crystals slightly scratch glass, Their colour is wine yel-
low. And in the only specimens I have seen they occur on the
surface of crystallized’ quartz, and might be mistaken by a casual
observer for sulphate of barytes,

Somervillite.

The next mineral I shall have to describe came to me with some
T2

276 Mr. Brooke on some undescribed Minerals. _

other Vesuvian substances, from Dr. Somerville, from apes cir-
cumstance I have named it Somervillite. | Siedow
Its primary form is a right square prism, but the crystals are
modified on the solid ini and lateral edges, as in the annexed
nee
Be aN ee AP PS ARTO: >
an MM, 88° 9", 208
MM On 6’! Lae,
Mon die od3s
Mon M’. . 90

Assuming the planes a to result from a decrement by one row of
molecules, the terminal edge of the primary form would be to the
lateral edge, as 16 to 25 nearly. The planes e result from a decre-
ment by three rows in breadth on the lateral edges.

The crystals may be cleaved easily parallel to the terminal
planes, but imperfectly, if at all, parallel to the lateral planes or
to the diagonals of the prism. ‘Their colour is a very pale dull
yellow.

The substance for which this might at fd view be mistaken is
the idocrase, although no plane corresponding in its inclination on
P with the plane a of the preceding figure, has yet been observed
on any crystal of that substance. But these crystals are much
softer than zdocrase, the cleavage parallel to the terminal planes
much more distinct, and the cross fracture more glassy.

They occur in cavities, with crystallized black mica, and with
‘another substance which I have not yet examined; and the mass
to which they adhere appears to be nearly all Somervillite, inter-
mingled with black mica.

Mr. Children has taken the trouble to compare the characters
of this mineral under the blow-pipe, with those of zdocrase.

When exposed alone in the forceps it slightly decrepitates, which
idocrase does not, and fuses, with greater difficulty than idocrase,
into a greyish glass, the globule from zdbocrase being greenish.
With borax, in the reducing flame, idocrase produces a light
green, and this a colourless glass,

-

x 4

Mr. Brooke on some undescribed Minerals. 277

Kupferschaum.

I do not find any analysis published of the mineral termed’
Kupferschaum by the Germans, which is the same as the fibrous or
flaky bright green substance found at Matlock.

It dissolves entirely and with effervescence in muriatic acid.
From this solution a bulky precipitate is thrown down by caustic
potash, a considerable part of which is redissolved by an excess
of the alkali, leaving a residuum of hydrate of copper. If the solu-
tion be filtered to separate the copper, and acetous acid be added,
a white flocculent precipitate appears, which may be redissolved by
an excess of acid or of alkali. As this is a marked character of
oxide of zinc, I conclude that the mineral is a carbonate of copper
and zine.

Arr. XII. Ona Mountain Barometer constructed with an
Tron Cistern. By J. Newman, Philosophical Instrument-
Maker to the Royal Institution of Great Britain.

[To the Editor of the Quarterly Journal.]
Sir,

I rake the liberty of sending you an account of an alteration I
have made in the construction of Mountain Barometers, and which
has been declared highly satisfactory and important, by those who
have made trial of instruments so constructed. The object has
been to correct those defects and errors which arise from the use
of a wooden cistern and leather bag, in the common instrument. It
has been found that when the cistern is made of a wood sufficiently
sound and close-grained to permit of the pressure required from
the screw to make the instrument portable, that it is so impervious
to air, as not to allow it to pass with sufficient freedom, and con-
sequently, that when the instrument is used at any great altitude,
the mercury cannot fall into the cistern except with considerable
difficulty, and a long time is required before an accurate observa-
tion of the air’s pressure can be made ; most generally, however, the
cistern is sufficiently pervious to air, but it is then found that on

278 Mr. Newman on the Mountain Barometer.

screwing up the mercury to the top of the tube, a portion of the
metal generally makes its way through the wood, thus soon render-
ing the instrument quite useless ; for it is very evident that a baro-
meter that loses a portion of mercury from the cistern by making
it portable or otherwise after it is adjusted, can no longer be cor-
rect or give the height of the column.

_ To obviate these inconveniences, I have substituted a cistern of
iron in place of the wooden one; it is fastened to the tube by a
thick collar of wood, which is glued on in the usual manner; a
screw passes through the centre of the bottom, so as to move ina
line with the barometer tube; it is terminated inside the cistern by
a piece of cork tied over with leather, so that the instrument
being inclined that the tube may be filled with mercury, this cork
may be screwed up against the end of the tube, and effectually
preserve the metal within from oscillation, without subjecting the
cistern itself to any pressure.

As there is no pressure on the mercury in the cistern, the
wooden cap may be left so porous in one part, as to allow of the
ready access of air, so that the column shall fall jfreely to its
proper level, without any danger of losing mercury.

Another great object in a mountain barometer, is to obtain the
temperature of the mercury, which is done by fixing a thermome-
ter with the bulb in the cistern; I have found that by carrying a
barometer in my hand and near the body, the temperature is
increased considerably, and will frequently rise as high as 85° F.

In the barometer of common construction, the height of the
column of mercury is marked off from another instrument, pre-
sumed as a standard, and in that case, the actual height is rarely
or ever given, for every change that takes place in the weight of
the atmosphere, alters barometers more or less according to the
proportion which the diameters of the tubes bear to those of the
cisterns, and for that reason, upon examining twenty barometers
no two will agree, unless they were marked off together, and
happen to stand at that exact height.

To remedy this source of error each instrument may be reckoned
a standard, the height of the column is marked off from the sur-

Mr. Newman on the Mountain Barometer. 279

face of the mercury, and the point given at which it was marked
off; when with the correction for the capacities of the tube and cis-
tern, and also the temperature, the actual height of the barometer
is ascertained. Upon examining the first four which I made inde-
pendent of each other on this principle, one for Mr. Daniell, one
for the Royal Society, and two for Captain Sabine, they agreed
within .004 of an inch with each other.

Arr. XII. Observations on the Ultimate Analysis of certain
Vegetable Salifiable Bases. By W. T. Brande, Esq.,
Sec. R.S., and Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Institution.

Since the discovery of a peculiar crystallizable substance, pos-
sessed of alkaline properties, in opium, by M. Sertuerner, in the
year 1816, a variety of analogous salifiable bases have been de-
tected in, and separated from, other vegetable products. Among
these none are more remarkable than the two substances dis-
covered in certain species of the genus Cinchona by Messrs. Pel-
letier and Cayentou, in the year 1818. To that separable from
the common pale Peruvian bark, (Cinchona Lancifolia,) they have
given the name of Cinchonin; and of Quinine, to that obtained
from the yellow bark, (Cinchona Cordifolia.) They have also
ascertained that the red bark contains no distinct principle, but
that it derives its virtues from a mixture of those existing in the
two varieties just named. In conformity with the principles of
chemical nomenclature adopted in this country, the former may
be called Cinchonia and the latter Quinia.

The essential medical virtues of opium, cinchona, and of the
other substances in which they have been found, appear, in all
cases, to depend upon these newly-discovered bodies, and in this
respect they promise to form very important articles in the Ma-
teria Medica ; and they are particularly interesting to the chemist,
as constituting a distinct class of salifiable bases, possessed of

280 Professor Brande’s Observations on

some of the properties of alkaline bodies, and presenting a curious
contrast in their ultimate composition, to the vegetable acids es-
pecially, and to the proximate products of the vegetable kingdom
in general.

In examining morphia, very soon after its discovery, I was
much struck with the peculiar products which it appeared to af-
ford when submitted to ultimate decomposition; I’did not, how-
ever, at that time pursue the subject, conceiving that it would
form a part of the inquiries of its discoverer. But I have since
recogniscd the same peculiarities in cinchonia and quinia, and
the views of their nature, to which my experiments have led me,
are very different from those of Messrs. Pelletier and Caventou*,
and appear important in respect to the ultimate composition of
vegetable bodies in general.

These substances agree in being difficultly soluble in water, in
alcohol, and in ether, at common temperatures, but they dissolve
in considerable proportion in boiling alcohol, which deposits them
as it cools. Morphia, cinchonia, and strychnia, are thus obtained
in the crystalline form; quinia is uncrystallizable, and separates
as the alcohol cools, in the form of a viscid mass, somewhat re-
sembling birdlime. They are tasteless, or only slightly bitter, in
their pure and dry state, but the addition of the smallest portion
of acid gives rise to intensely bitter compounds, When exposed
to a moderate heat they exhibit no signs of water of crystalliza-
tion, but at higher temperatures they fuse like resins, and con-
crete on cooling, with the exception of quinia, into a radiated
crystallized mass. At a temperature of 300°, cinchonia decrepi-
tates, and at 450° it fuses, becomes brown, and a portion sublimes
and condenses on cooling in brilliant acicular crystals which
resemble the original substance.

At a red heat these substances are all decomposed with nearly
similar phenomena, and the results are remarkable as presented
by a vegetable body. Under these circumstances they produce
great abundance of ammonia, which is easily recognised by its

« Annales de Chimie et Physique, XV. .

certain Vegetable Salifiable Bases. 281.

smell and action upon turmeric paper; the odour of prussic
acid may also be distinctly perceived; an oily matter smelling
like naphtha, distils into the cool part of the tube in which the
experiment is made, and a very abundant carbonaceous residue
remains.

The most remarkable circumstance attending this decomposi-
tion of cinchonia, is the entire absence of all appearance of aque~
ous vapour, of which I have never been able to distinguish any
traces, provided care had been taken to exclude air, even when
the products were made to pass through a considerable extent of
cooled tube. This led me to suspect the entire absence of oxygen
in this substance, an opinion which was corroborated by its total
want of action upon potassium, when heated with that metal in
naphtha: the cinchonia, under these circumstances, readily dissolves
in boiling naphtha, and again entirely separates as the solution
cools, concreting into a radiated crystallized mass, in which the
brilliant globules of potassium are disseminated.

The singular and characteristic properties of these vegetable
alkalies, induced me to pay more attention to their ultimate ana-
lysis, and to endeavour to attain more accurate information re-
specting the nature and proportions of their elements, especially
as cinchonia is stated, by its discoverers, to consist of oxygen,
hydrogen, and carbon, and to be deficient in nitrogen *; a state-
ment at which I am the more surprised, since a repetition of their
principal experiments upon these bodies, has convinced me of the
extreme accuracy of their difficult researches. In these experi-
ments, which are always tedious and difficult, I have availed
myself of the forms of apparatus contrived by Dr. Prout and Mr.
Cooper, (Henry's Elements, ii. 165,) employing the peroxide of
copper as originally recommended by M. Gay-Lussac, (Ann. de
Chimie, xcvi. 53,) with the precautions suggested by Dr. Ure,
in his valuable paper on the ultimate analysis of organic substances
published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1822.

* Annales de Chimie et Physique, XV. 296.

282 Professor Brande’s Observations on

From an experiment made with Dr. Prout’s apparatus the re-
lative proportions of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen, in cinchonia
were estimated as follows :

Warnes OP eyeee a 8. ORF BOE
DIRTOR ER a) Son. 6 py toy mw Lee
Mygtuseny ss so sf OLBe

—

99.90

In this analysis the permanently gaseous products were collected
at one operation, and the hydrogen was estimated by a second
experiment in which every product was allowed to escape from
the tube, and the weight of carbonic acid and nitrogen then de-
ducted from the entire loss.

In a second experiment, in which Mr. Cooper’s apparatus was
employed and in which, as in the others, he was good enough to
assist me, similar proportions of cinchonia and of oxide of copper,
were employed, but the water produced was retained in a portion
of the tube, cooled for the purpose, and its quantity ascertained
afterwards, by carefully weighing the tube, first in its original
state, and a second time after the entire expulsion of the water
by heat. The following is the result of this experiment :

Carbon rere ASA, tite 8a
Nitrogen: :\ ghiys ot peedis AH
Hydrogen.) wie e eos og TQ

100.5

Several other experiments were made chiefly with a view of
detecting the presence of oxygen, but that element was in no
instance discovered, either by any loss of weight, as indicated by
the results of destructive distillation, or indirectly, by the ap-
pearance of aqueous vapour in other processes of decomposition,
Among the latter, the effect of chlorine upon cinchonia may
perhaps be regarded as most satisfactory. Five grains of carefully
dried cinchonia, were introduced into a small exhausted: retort
which was afterwards filled with chlorine. There was no absorp-
tion of the gas, nor the smallest apparent action until very consider-

certain Vegetable Salifiable Bases. 283

able heat was applied; the substance then blackened and was
evidently decomposed, and upon examining the retort when cool,
it was found to contain muriatic acid, but there was no appear-
ance of condensed aqueous vapour in any part of it.

Quinia as has already been stated agrees with cinchonia in af-
fording a large quantity of ammonia, when subjected to destruc-
tive distillation, and consequently, in containing nitrogen as one
of its elements.

Having, as I conceive, satisfactorily established the non-
existence of oxygen in cinchonia, I was induced to infer from
analogy, that that element would not be found in quinia, and this
opinion seemed justified by the apparent absence of aqueous va~
pour in the tubes in which it had been decomposed. But on
passing the products of its decomposition through a long glass
tube, containing fragments of rock crystal, and heated to
bright redness, there appeared some slight traces of aqueous
vapour in a portion of the tube cooled for the purpose of its con-
densation.

In the experiments made with a view of determining the ulti-
mate components of quinia, there was also always a small loss of
weight, which, from the above statement, may be referred to oxy-
gen; but in five experiments very carefully repeated upon that
substance, there were slight discrepancies of results, which induce
me to give the following as, probably, an approximation only to the
correct proportions of its elements.

Gavan sk Ls 7980
Nitrogen . . . . ~ 13,00
Hydrogen” « s . > 6 ABB
Oxygn 2.0... 5.55

100.

Morphia.—The results of three experiments made with a view
to determine the ultimate composition of this substance, agree
closely with each other; I have, therefore, no doubt of the accuracy

of the following estimate of the relative proportions of its ultimate
elements :—

284 Professor Brande’s Observations on

Carbon ») 6) fie 9072.00 why
Nitroges «3 0G. 5. SaeeSSO
Hydrogen. . ...., 5.50
Onyeews suv & lol hA0G

100. *

When morphia is passed through a red-hot tube, it affords, as
might be expected, a considerable portion of aqueous vapour, and
when fused with potassium, or heated with it in naphtha, it manifests
a very evident action upon that metal.

Strychnia.—The experiments which I have made upon this sub-
stance, induce me to regard it as resembling, in the nature of its
ultimate elements, the preceding salifiable bases, but I have had no
opportunity of ascertaining their relative proportions.

The strychnia which I examined, prepared by M. Robiquet, of
Paris, was in small and imperfect octoédral crystals; fusible as
morphia, of a bitter taste, and intensely so when combined with an
acid. Heated in a tube it decrepitates, fuses, becomes brown and
black, ammonia and water beipg at the same time evolved. There
can, therefore, be no doubt of the existence of carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and oxygen, in this substance.

Tt appears from the above experiments, that the peculiar salifi-
able bases, or alkaline substances, as they have been termed,
separable from opium, from the varieties of cinchona, and from the
Nux Vomica, resemble each other in containing nitrogen as a
characteristic component part, and that consequently, when burned,
they exhale an odour precisely resembling that of animal bodies,
and like them afford ammonia, and some of its compounds, when
subjected to distillation. There is another remarkable analogy
which pervades this class of bodies, as far as they have hitherto

* M. Bussey, to whom we owe an analysis of morphia, gives the following
as its components :—( Annals of pcg y vi. 229,)
Carbon . 0.04 she 4eGo%0
Nitro ems. va cit veri gerera \aiuk payed tap ded
BASHIG PE Bets ow opie es ica, Ost
ORG REM cPe er hehe Cartel tem ant ate oOs

100

certain Vegetable Salifiable Bases. 285

been examined, which is their very feeble saturating power in re-
gard to the acids, or in other words, the high equivalent number by
which they are represented.

In respect to cinchonia, 100 parts were found to require for sa-
turation a quantity of diluted sulphuric acid, equivalent to 12.7 of
real acid; of the sulphate of cinchonia thus obtained which erys-
tallizes in quadrangular prisms without retaining water, 24 grains
furnished by decomposition with muriate of baryta 8 grains of
sulphate of baryta, equal to 2.72 sulphuric acid, so that upon
these data the number 315 will be the prime equivalent of cincho-
nia, that of sulphuric acid being = 40. From the experiments
of Messrs. Pelletier and Caventon, it appears that 100 parts of
cinchonia saturate 13.02 of real sulphuric acid, proportions
agreeing very nearly with those obtained in the laboratory of the
Royal Institution, by Mr. Faraday.

Quinia saturates a still smaller quantity of the acids than cin-
chonia; by direct experiments, and by the analysis of the crystal-
lized sulphate, 360 parts of quinia were found to neutralize 40 of
real sulphuric acid.

The equivalent of morphia deduced from’ the experiments of
MM. Pelletier and Caventou, (Journal de Phar.,v.) appears to be
about 325, and that of strychnia 380. Ann. de Chim. et Phys. 155.)

These substances, therefore, arranged in the order of their satu-
rating powers, stand in the following order, the annexed numbers
being their prime equivalents in reference to hydrogen as unity.

CAMCMODIA S65) oo -eueindd ots
IOCIIIA. as «hae. cus Re meee
COG Kans ees, bate) «pine OU
SATVEDMG 65-0. es Ge aao
_In detailing the above experiments, I have purposely avoided
any allusion to the equivalent ratios in which the ultimate elements
of the substances analyzed may be supposed to be associated, for
I am not sufficiently convinced that the methods arc susceptible of
that extreme and rigorous accuracy which they should be, to serve
as the foundations of so refined an application of the theory of
proportionals.

286 Mr. South on Astronomical Phenomena.

It was my intention to have concluded this paper with some re+
marks upon the preparation of cinchonia and quinia, and upon
the relative medical effects of these substances in their pure states
and in the form of salts, but the experiments connected with these
subjects not being yet complete, I shall reserve them for a future
communication.

The cinchonia which I used in the above experiments, was
prepared for me with much care, by Mr. Faraday, in the labora-
tory of the Royal Institution ; and the quinia was made by Mr.
Mennell, at Apothecaries’ Hall, where considerable quantities of
the sulphate of quinia have already been prepared for medical
use. In the case of intermittent diseases the latterjsalt appears
rising in reputation, and promises to come into as general use
in this country as in France, where it is universally substituted
for the bark in substance in-cases of ague. Upon this sub-
ject some interesting details will be found, in a communication
from Dr. Elliotson, to the Medico-Chirurgical Society, eegen
in the twelfth volume of their Transactions.

Art. XIV. Astronomical Phenomena arranged in order
of Succession for the first Three Months of the Year 1824,
computed for the Meridian and Parallel of Greenwich.

~ By James South, Esq., F.R.S.

Convincep that next to the daily corrections in right ascension
and north polar distance of the 46 principal stars*, there is
nothing so much wanted in our observatories as an Astronomical
Ephemeris, and regretting someone more adequate to the task has
not yet undertaken it,’ I avail myself of Mr, Brande’s kindness,
which enables me through the medium of this Journal, to present
the public with a list of astronomical phenomena, arranged in
order of succession, for the first three months of the year 1824:
computed for the Meridian and Parallel of Greenwich.

* Inthe Annals of Philosophy for the present month, I have published the
daily corrections in right ascension of 37 Stars of the Greenwich catalogue,

Mr. South on Astronomical Phenomena. 287

Knowing that to the various forms of time, under which as-
tronomical notices are given, we may attribute the loss of many
a valuable observation, the phenomena here registered are re-
duced to sidereal time.

The Right Ascension and Declination of the Sun, Moon, Planets
and Stars, are given to the nearest minute.

The Sun’s place is taken from the Nautical Almanac.—The places
of Mercury, Venus and the Georgian, are computed from data,
found in the same work; those of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, are
taken from Schmacher’s Ephemeris ; whilst that of Juno is derived
from tables published by Mr. Groombridge.

The right ascension of the Moon, is computed from the nautical,
as is also her Declination, corrections for parallax and refraction
haying been applied to it; the ephemeris is continued as far
through each lunation, as it is probable she will be observed.

The differential stars, and their places, are taken from Schuma-
cher’s Astronomische Nachrichten,

The eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites are computed from the
Nautical Almanac, the corresponding mean time is also given;
to the notice of each eclipse the distance of the planet from his
opposition is annexed, so that by a reference to the diagrams pub=
lished in this Journal, the observer will instantly be informed
where the Immersion or Emersion will take place.—‘The time is
accurate to the nearest minute.

The Occultations of Stars by the Moon, and the consequent
Emersions, are derived from the list published in the Philosophical
Magazine,-—because, however, our clocks shew right ascensions
in time, not. in space, the degrees and minutes there given, are
here converted into time—and as for the purpose of identifying a
star, it is generally advisable, that its place should be brought up
to the period of observation neatly; this I have also done ;—and
as apparent time in an observatory is useless, till converted into
sidereal or mean, it is here altogether rejected, and the two latter
are substituted in its stead,—the calculations are considered
accurate, to two or three minutes of time.

For the original list, we are obliged to Messrs. Inghirami

288 Mr. South on Astronomical Phenomena.

and Baily, to the former for having made the calculations, to
the latter for having published them; and I trust neither the one,
or the other, will feel displeasure because I have put threat into a
proper observatory dress.

That eclipses of stars of the 7th, 8th and 9th magnitudes may
be observed I well know; but it must be remembered that identi-
fication of the star, is as essential as the observation.—Now con-
sidering the frequency with which stars, such as these, are diffused
over the heavens, the effect which the lunar light has apparently
to alter their natural splendour, and to obliterate from our sight the
presence of all minute stars, which under other circumstances
might materially assist us, I fear little confidence must be placed
in identifications, unless made by instrumental assistance*. He
who has a telescope mounted equatorially, will do well to place
it upon some known star in the neighbourhood of the Moon, and
though it may not be accurately adjusted, it will afford him a
result which when compared with the actual place of the star,
may be applied in the form of index error, to the observed place
of the unknown star; ‘hence a reference to the data furnished
in this ephemeris, will generally inform him, how far his identi-
fication is complete.—Should the star be to the east of the meri-
dian, he should endeavour, if possible, to get its transit over it
the same evening, if to the west of it, he should procure it the
first opportunity.

That the following pages are exempt from error, I dare not in-
dulge the hope; I believe, however, they will be found generally
accurate; the practical astronomer who knows what it is to ob-
serve all night, and to compute nearly all day, will I am sure pare
don what is done amiss :—

* Gentlemen by their fire-sides, identify stars, however near to the Moon,
easily enough ; but Major Kater (on shore,) who has had no litile experience in
these matters, assures me, that it was not without considerable difficulty, he
could identify * Scorpii ; now this star is of the 3rd or ath magnitude.—Again,
Sir Thos. Brisbane and Mr. Rumker (at sea), transmitted to Europe, not long
since, a novel observation, in the shape of an occultation of Mercury by the
Moon, little suspecting that their planet Mercury was no other than the
Star Regulus,

289

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA arranged in Order of Succession,
for the first Three Months of the Year 1824.

JANUARY.
> °
Planet’s or zs Sidereal Planet’s or Planet’s or ER Sidereal Planets or

3 Star’s a= Star's Star’s a8 Star’s

5} Name, ke. 2?! Tine Declination. &| Name, &c. |”) Time Declination.

A é a ie

' H. M. D. M. H. M. D. M.

1} Sun. ... 18 44 23 5S} 41Piscium|5.6| 0 12 7 13N
Mercury . 19 34 23 53S 45° 2. | 611 O17 - 6 43N
Saturn . . 3.2 1447N Moon.. . 022 %720N
Jupiter .. 6 24 23 17N 0135... 8].030 6 57N
/ Venus .. 15 31 15 54S Saturn . 3.1 14 46N

9g} Sun. ... 18 48 23 OS Jupiter. | 6 20 23 20N
Mercury . 19 41 23 34S “| Im.x...| 7}. 7 Sorll"59 mr.
Saturn .. 3 2 14 46N ¥’s R.A. 04 392’ Deh, 8° 24’N. (cont.)
Jupiter. . 6 24 23 17N Venus .°. 16 17 40S
Venus .. 15 36 16 98S 9g] Suns... 19 "9 22 138

3] Sun... . 18 53 22 54S Mercury . 20 28 20 54S
Mercury . 19 47 23 16S 72Piscium| 6| 0 56 14 ON
Saturn .. 3.2 14 46N 0O311.:46}/+1 1 14 44N
Jupiter. . 6 23 23 18N Moon... 110 12 34N
Venus .. 15 40 16 25S 101 Pisces} 6] 126 13 46N

4| Sun.... 18 57 2249S Saturn .. 3.1 14 45
Mercury . 19 54 22 57S Jupiter. . 6 20 23 21N
Im.%...| 7] 2 4lor 7 48'ur, Venus 16 7-17 548
#’s R.A, 21" 28’ Decl. 12° 14’ S. (14’N.)}]10] Sun... 19,24, 22 58
Saturn .. 3 1 14 46N Mercury . 20 34 20 278
Em. * .. 3 Sor 8" 9’mr.(10’n.)]] | 1.243... | 6} 154 17 24N
Jupiter .. 6 22 23 18N 125m ae aeS le tleas): 1a: LLIN,

Em. | Sat. 9 40 orld" 46’M1T.(7) Moon... 2. 217 1S N
Venus .. 15 45 16 40S § Arietis .|7.8] 2 9 18 53N

5) Sup... « 19 2 22 42S Saturn .. 3 i 14 45N
Mercury . 20 1 2234S Jupiter. . 619 23 21N
Im. x. . [4.5] 22 46o0r 3° 49’mr. Venus .. 1612 18 8S
¥'s R.A. 22 8’ Decl. 8° 39'S.(6'S.) [111] Sun. ... 19 28 2156S
Em.* .. 23 26or 4°29’mr.)4’s.) Mercury . 20 40 19 56S
Satur .. 3 1 14 46N Im.* 1. 7.8] 23 480r 4529’.
Jupiter. . 6 22 23 19N #’s B.A. 2h 54" Decl. 20° 47'N. (0)
Venus . . 15 49 1655S Em. *¥ 1°. 0 48o0r 5°22’ mr.(9’s.)

6] Sun. ... 19 6 22 36S e Arietis .| 5] 249 20 38N
Mereury . 20 8 2211S Moon... 2,59 427 ITN,
Saturn . | 3 1 1446N Saturn . . 3 1 14,45N
Em. 1 Sat, 4 160r 9" 14’m7.(9) T Arietis | 6] 311 20 30N
Jupiter. . 6 21 23 19N 66 ..«. 467|; 3:18 22:12N
Em. 2 Sat. 9 140r14" 12’m7.(9) Im.%¥2. | 7] .3 200r 759’.
Veuus .. 15 54 1711S ¥’s R.A. 3! 0’ Decl. 21° 5'N. (cont.)

7 Sun.... 19 10 22 29S Im.* 3. .| 7] 3 2lor 8" O'My.
Mercury . 20 15 21 48S #’s R.A. 8" 1’ Decl. 219 13’ N.(7'S.)
16Piscium] 6] 23 27 1 8&N Em. *3 . 3 430r 8 22’m1.(15’s.)
17Piscium|4.5] 23 31 4 41N Im.%*4. | 7| 3 43o0r 8)2e'mr.
Moon... 23 35 155N #3 R.A. 3 1! Decl. 21° 30’ N. (7 N.)
22Piscium] 6} 23 43° 1 57N Em. *4 . 4 50 0F 9)29'm7.((')
Im. *... 6° 1 lor 6" 5’mr. Jupiter. . 6 18 23 21N
#sRA. 23 37’ Decl. 2° 28' N. (14'N.) Em, | Sat. 12 3orl6 40’. (14)
Em. *. .. 2 Tor 7 I’ur(1n.) Venus . . 16 17 18 21S
Saturn . . 8 1 1446N 12] WSUN,.. 3 6 19 32. 21 46S
Jupiter, . 6 21 23 20N Mercury . 20 46 19 268
Venus .. 15 58 17 268 Im. ¥. . {6.7| 23 530r 4 28mMr.
Ban. 1 | 19 15) 22 218 #3 R.A. 3" 55! Decl. 21° 32'N. (2’ N.)

Mercury || | 20 21 21 21S
NEN OL me CR EY PR

VoL. XVI, U

290 Astronomical Phenomena.

JANUARY. |

2 »
a] 4 se bs
Planets or |= é Sidercal Planet’s or Flaneide or |= £ Sidereal
2 Star’s = & Star’s a Star’s 28
=| Name,&e. || Time. Declination. 2} Name,&e. |&”| Time.
© co a Ss
a =z? e =

H. M. H. M D. M.

0 430r 3°19'wr.(15) VII. 57. .'3-4] 710 22 18N

0 520r 5'27’mr.(2"s.) VII. 97. .|7.8] 716 21 53N°~

3 1 14 46N Moon... 724 21 31N

7.8| 842 24 38N VIL 179 | 7] 733 2248N _

3 5lor 8*26’m7T.(15’) Im. 4 Sat. 9 330r13"55'mT.(18)
36 Tauri 6.7} 3 54 23 37N Em. of it . 11 22or15 44’wr.(18)
Moon... 41 24 3N Im. * 4. 11 59o0rl6"2Vnr.
~ Tauri. | 6] 412 25 12N x’s R.A. 7 85! Decl. 20° 44’ N. (6'N.)
Jupiter . 618 23 22N Em. ¥ 4. 12 38orl7™ O’mr(11'N.)

16 21 18 358
19 87) 27 37-8
20 52 18 558

Venus ..
13} Sun.
Mercury .«

Moon... 15 S7t eclipsed,
Venus . . 16 36 19 1388
Ve) Saneers 4 19 49 21 58

Mars and y Virg. ay lat. 9’ Mercury . 21 7 #17 188
Saturn 3 14 46N Saturn .. 3 1: 14 46N
x Tauri. | 6] 4 “1 24 46N Jupiter ._. 6 16 23 23N
IV. 287. | 8| 455 26 11N 25 Cane. 816 17 37N
Moon... 5° 7) 96 1TN 8

118Tauri.| 7] 518 25 ON ole 8

Jupiter . 617 23 92N 52 Canc. .|7-8) 8 41 16 39N
Em. 1 Sat. 6 38orllh 9’m7r.(16) Venus .. 16 41 19 258
Im. ¥.. .1 71 9 460r14"16’mr. 17}. Son ©, ts J 19 54 20 548
xs R.A. 5" 18’ Decl. 25° 0’ N. (5'S.) Mercury . 2111 1646S
Em. * .. 10 350r15" 5’mr.(1's.) Em. 2 Sat. 1 580r 6" 8&'mr.(20)
Em. 2 Sat. 12 20o0r16"49’mr.(16) Saturn .. 2 1 14 46N

Im.%1. .].51 4 47or 9). 2'm7.
*’s R.A. 9h 992" Decl. 12° 5’ N. (7S.)

Venus .. 16 26 18 498
14) Sun.... 19 41 21 26S

Mereury . 20 57 18 23S Em. ¥ 1 5 450r10" O'MT.(7'N.)
Im. #1. .| 7| 23 160r 3¢44’ur. Jupiter . 615 23 23N

¥’s R.A. 6 1’ Decl. 24° 27’ N. (1'N.) Im.¥2..| 7] 8 llorlg25™r,

Em. * 1 0 Sor 4'30'r.(0') ¥s R.A. gi 29’ Dee}. 11° 34’ N. (13’N.)
Saturn .. 3 1 14 46N km. *¥2 . 8 26or1240'mr.(16'N.
5 Gem... 4 7|" 6"'1 | 228 2PN 1X.35 ..| 7] 9 8 I2 14N
Bs et aM MS Tok Se zLeonis .|| 5} 9 22 12 5N
Moon. 616 24 21N Moon... 9 30 11 12N
Jupiter. .! 617 23 22N 19 Leonis}| 7] 9 38 12 23N
V1.166..7.8| 6 27 24 44N Im. ¥ 3. .| 4] 10 120r14"26'mr.
Moon... 6 30 with Jupiter. ’s R.A. 94 39’ Decl. 10° 41’ N. (168.)

Im.*¥ 2. .! 7] 11 Torls'"83mr. Em.¥3 . 10 370r14"5)'mr.(4’s.)

x’s R.A. 62 27’ Decl. 23° 39’ N. (15’S.) Venus .. 16 45 19 868
Em. *2 . 1] 42orl16h 8'mr.(1'n.) ||18 Sin 2s; 19 58 20 428
Venus .. 16 31 19 1S Mercury . 9114) 18 156

ra) Balke. 7s 19 45 2116S Im. *1...1 6| 2 530r 7 5’mr,

Mercury . 21 2 17 508 x's R.A. 10" 14’ Decl 6° 35'N. (IN)
Im. ¥ 1. 18-4] 0 37or 5°-I'mr. Saturn .. 3 1 1447N

#’s R.A. 7" 10‘ Decl. 22° 18’ N. (9'N,) Em.*¥1 . 3 38or 7150'mT zn)
Em. 1 Sat. 1 14o0r 5° 37'mT.(18) Jupiter. . 675 23°94

Em. *¥1 . 1 l4or 5! 28'm7.(12'N.) Im$#¥2.. 7 8orll*19’mr.
Saturn . . 3 1 14 46N xs R.A. 104 23’ Decl. 5° 33’N. (0)

Im. ¥2. |7.81 3 14or 7" 38'mr. Em. % 2 8 4orlg!15'’mr.(14'N.)
¥’s R.A. T" 16 Decl. 219 53’ N. 4'N,) Moon. . 10 27 4 46N
Im. % 3. .| 6] 3 38or 8" mr. Im. ¥ 3. | 6] 14 470r18557’mr.

xs R.A. T! 17 Decl. 21° 48’ N. (7'N.)
km.*2. 4 12o0r 8'35’mr.(1'n.)
Em. *3 | 4 350r 8) 58'mT.(2’s.)
Jupiter . 616 23 23N

x's R.A. 10" 86’ Decl. 3° 15/N. (6’S.)

Em. ¥3 . 15 44o0r19"54’mr. (9’ N.)

Venus .. 16 50 19 48S
19} Sun. . 20 2 20 30S

Im. %*3. | 6) 11 550r15" 41’,

Astronomical Phenomena. 291
JANUARY.
Planet’s or 3 2| Sidereal Planet’s or Planet’s or Ei 2] Sidereal Planet’s or
§ Star’s pare Star’s Star’s nese Star’s,
5 Name, &e. mo Time. Declination £| Name, Xe, Ee Time, Declination,
a 2° Bile =
: H. M. D. M. H., M. D. M.
Mercury . 2118 15 43S (Gr.El.) ¥’s R.A, 155 44° Decl. 24° 43’ S. (6'S.)
Saturn .. 3 1 1447N Em. ¥ 1 12 20or16" @mr.(7’s.
Im. 3 Sat. 5 llor 9"18'mr.(22) Em. *2 . 12 540r16" 40’mT.(1’s.
Jupiter. . 614 23 24N Em. *3 . 13. 1orléh47’mr.(2'n,)
Em. 8 Sat. 8 190rl2h26'mr.(22) Venus .. 17 19 20 42
Venus ,. 1655 20 OS 25, Sun. ... 20 28 19 9S
720} Sun. ... 20 7 2017S Mercury . 2126 13 22
Mercury . 2120 1515S Saturn .. $8 1 1449N
Saturn, .. 3 1 1447N Jupiter. . 6 12 23 26N
Jupiter. . 6 14 23 24N Im *.. 17.8} 13 180r17> I’mr,.
Em. | Sat. 9 lorl3® 3m7.(23) %’s R.A. 16" 39 Decl. 26° 18’ S. (cont.)
Venus .. 17-0 20 8S Venus .. 17 24 2050S
21} Sun.... 20 11 20 48 26) Sun... 20 82 18 54S
Mercury . 21 23 1448S Mercury . 2124 13128
Saturn .. 8 1 1447N Saturn . 3 1 1450N
Jupiter. . 6 13 23 25N Jupiter, . 6 11 23 26N
Venus ,. MWpS42R143 Im. 3 Sat. 9 40 0r13!19’m7r.(29)
722) Sun.... 20 15 19 51S Em. 3 Sat. 12 49or16 27’m7T.(29)
Mereury . 2125 1421S Venus . - 17 29 20 55S
Saturn .. 3 1 1448N 27| Sun..., 20 36 18 39S
Em. 1 Sat. 3 36or 732'm7T.(25) Mercury . 21:22 18 28
Jupiter. . 6 13 23 25N Saturn .. 3 1 14 50N
Im.% 1. .} 9} 11 460r15"40’mr. Jupiter. . 6:11) 23 26N
%’s R.A. 134.57’ Decl. 18° 26’ S. (16'S.) Em. 1 Sat. 11 23o0r14" 58’m7r.(30)
Em. *1 . 12 3orl5)57’mT.)7s.) Venus .. 17:34 21 18
Im.%2.. 12 24o0r16" 18’mr. 28] Sun. ... 20 40 18 23S
%'s R.A. 13" 59’ Decl. 18° 24’ S. (5'S.) Mercury . 2120 12 538
Em. * 2 13 360117" 30’mT.(9'N.) Saturn... 31 14 51N
Venus .. 17 10 20 258 Jupiter. . 6 10 23 27N
23) Sun. ... 2019 19 878 Im. ¥. . ./7.8] 15 260r18 56mT.
“Mereury . 2125 14 18 ¥’s R.A. 19.29’ Decl. 23° 6 S. (3/N.)
Satur .. 3 1 1448N Em.* . 1 16 300r20" 0’m.(7'N.)
Jupiter. . 6 12 23 25N Venus . 17°39 21 6S
Im, *1. .|7.8) 10 370r14%27’mr. 29] Suns... 20 44 18 8S
-¥’s R.A. 14" 49’ Decl. 21° 41’ S. (1'N.) Mercury .« 2116 12 56S
Em. *1 . 11 300r15"20'mr.(12’N ) Saturn . 3-1 14 5EN
‘Im. * 2. | 7| 14 3lorls"2I’mr, Em. 1 Sat. 5 59o0r 9h 27’m7.(32)
%’s R.A. 14" 55’ Decl. 22° 19’ S. (3’N.) Jupiter. . 610 23 27N
‘Im. * 3. .] 7| 15 120r19® 2m, Im *.. 15.6] 15 360r19" 2’mr.
’s R.A. 14" 56’ Decl. 22° 38 S. (9'N.) ¥'s R.A. 20" 9’ Decl. 19° 40’ S. (cont.)
Em.*2 . 15 500r19"40'mr.(12’N.) Venus. . . 17 44 21118
Em.*3. 16 220r20"12’mr.(1’s,) ||30] Sun, . . 20 48 1751S
Venus . . 17 14 20 33S Mercury . 2113 12 58S
24] Sun... . 20 23 19 23S Saturn . . 3 1 14 52N
Mercury . 2126 13 428 Jupiter. . 610 28 27N
Saturn .. 3 1 14 49N Venus .. 17 49 21 16N
Em. 2 Sat. 4 58or 8" 467127) |/31] Sun...» 20 52 17 35S
Jupiter. . 6 12 2% 26N Mercury . 21,9 18.18
Im.%* 1. .! 51 11 840r15"20’mr. Saturn . SH)1)-14 53
%’s R.A. 15" 43’ Decl. 24° 48'S. (14S ) Jupiter. . 6 9 28 27N
Im. * 2.°.| 6| 11 490r15" 35’mr. Em. 2 Sat. 8 4orll23’mr.(34)
‘#’s R.A. 15" 44’ Decl. 24° 43’ S,(7'N.) Venus. . - 17 54 21 22S

292 Astronomical Phenomena.

FEBRUARY.

Planet’s or 3 ¢] Sidereal Planet's or Planet’s or |5 §| Sidereal Planet’s or

. Star’s ae Star’s Star’s = 3 Star’s

5} Name, &c. |"! Time. Declination. $| Name, &c. |?) Time. Declination.

(=) iss A S35 $4,

H. M. D. M. H. M.D. M.

UbeSan. Fee: 20 57 1718S If. 261 . | 7| 2 59 20- SN
Mercury. . 21 5 13-108 Saturn .. 3 2 14 58N
Jupiter and 11 Gemini, dif. lat. 3 Jupiter. . 6 7 23 29N
Saturn . | 3 lorl4 53N Im. ¥...| 5! 9 Oorll'5/’mr.

Im. 4 Sat. 4 ot 7T)55'mT.(35) ¥’s R.A. 2 49’ Decl. 20° 38’ N. (8’N.)
Jupiter. . 6 23 QIN Bm. ©... 4 9 57 orl?" 48’mT.(5'N,)
Em. 4 Sat. 6 4 10" 0’mr.(35) Em. 2 Sat. 11 9 14% Vorr.(41) |
Mars... 1250 2 48 Mars... . 1253 2168

Venus .. 17 59)| 21.978 Venus .. 18 29 21 38S

2) Sun.... 21/1 °17- 18 Mercury . 20 35 15 9S
Saturn .. 3 1 14 54N 8} Sun... 2125 15 13S
Jupiter. . 6 9 23 28N Saturn .. 3°2 14.59N
Mars... 1250, 2 7S 7 Tauri. .) 6] 3 24 23 52N
Venus -. 18 4 2) 298 Moon... 3 34 .22 57N
Mercury | | 20 55 13 42S(Inf.C.)|| | IIL. 172.“.)78] 3 40 93 95N .

3] Sun... . 21 5 16448 33 Tauri .|6.7 a 22 39 N !
Im... | 9] °2 420r 5"50’'mr. Im.* 1. .] 5] 4 5lor 7° 40’mr.

*’s R.A. 23" 25’ Decl. 1° 2’ N. (19'N.) #’s R.A. 3" 36 Decl. 23° 24 N. (cont.) -
Saturn . 3 1 1455N Im. * 2. .|7.8] 5 43o0r 8"32’mr.
Em.* .. 3 40 or 648'r (0’) *'s R.A. 3! 38’ Decl, 23° 19’ N. (10’S.)
Im.*.. | 6]° 358 T Ver. Im.*3. |8.9| 5 550r 844 ar.

¥’s R.A. 23" 27’ Decl. 1° 8’ N. (10‘N.) #3 R.A. 3" 39’ Decl. 23°21’ N. (11’/N.)
Ems*3 4 12or Pavmr(14e) Im. ¥4... | 6 or 8 5\’'mr.
Jupiter. . 6 8 23 28N *’s R.A. 3 39° Decl. 23° 10’ N. (0°)
Mars... 1251 2 -9S Jupiter. . 6 7 23 29N
Venus .. 18 9 21 31S Im. * 5. | s| 6 l0or 8'59'mr.
Mercury. . 20 51 1358S ¥’s R.A. 3) 40° Decl. 23° 18’ N. (7S.)

4) Sun... 21 9 1626S Im *6..| 5] 6 17or 9" 6r.
Saturn .. 3 2 14 56N ¥’s R.A.3!'39' Decl. 23° 30° N. (cont.)
Jupiter. . 6 8 23 28N Em. * 2. 6 380r 9527’ wr. (6's.)
Im.*%...| 6] 6 400r 9'44’mr. Em.*3 . 6 47or 9)36'mT (S'N.)
¥’s R.A. 0217 wa 6° 43. N. (7S.) Im. *7 .|7.8} 6 48or 9437'mr.
Em. 2 14 or10" 18M (14's. ) ¥’s R.A. 3" 40’ Decl. 23° 25’ N: (12’N.
Mars -. “' 51,°2.11S Em. * 4 || 7 38o0r 9552’mrT.(4’s.)
Venus .. 18 14 21 33S Em. *5 . 7 100r 9"59’m7r.(4’s.)
Mercury . 2046 1414S Em. *7 . 7 3lorl0?20’mr.(9'N.)

or) bs S11 a 2113 16 8S Im.¥ 8 .|/7 | 10 100r12"58’m7r.(13'n.)
Saturn . 3 2 14 56N ¥’s R.A. 3" 48 Decl. 23° 24°N
Jupiter. . 6 8 23 28N Em. ¥8 . 10 390r13"27’mr. O35)
Em. 1 Sat. 8 22 or] 1#29’m7T.(39) Mars... 12 53 2178S
Mars: : i. 4 12 52 2138S Venus .. 18 3t 21 36S
Venus . . 18 19 21 84S 9} Mercury . 20 32 15 278
Mercury . 20 42 14 328 Sum 30.4 2129 14548

6] Sun. ... 2117 #15 50S Saturn . . 3 2 15 ON
Moon... 142 15 34N Moon... 436 24 47N
Saturn . . 3 2 14 57N 98 Tauri .| 6} 4 47 24 46N
Jupiter. . 6 7 23 28N 1V. 287. .| 8} 455 26 11N
Mars... 12°52 2148 TV. n295%) 46 ry 24 .1N
Venus .. 18 24 21 36S Jupiter . 6 23 29N
Mercury . 20 39 14518 Im. *%...| 7 7 dhoctoh Sitsen:

deSon ..3." 2121 15 32N *’s R.A. 4" 43% Decl. 25° 4’ N. (12'N.)
v Arietis ./5.6] 229 21 12N Bim S45 8 180rl1 tens
Moon 237 19 46N Im.% .. | 61 9 350r12"19'mr..

47 Arietis| 6] 248 19 57N *’s R.A. 4" 47’ Decl. 24° 46’ N. (4’S.).
Em. 1 Sat. 2 58or 5"51’m7.(41) Em... .. 10 300r13" 14’m7r.(2’s.)_
Mars... 1253 2 18S

Astronomical Phenomena, 293

FEBRUARY.

2 2
3 5 S aa
Planet’sor | = £j Sidereal Planet’s or Planet’s or |= £] Sidereal Planet's or
< Star’s 2s : Star's. S Star’s == Siar’s
a” Name, &c. | Time. Declination. >| Name, &c, |&”| Time. Declination.
o re ° rg z ? ce
ic z=? a se

. M: H: M.D. M:
4 18 39 21 34S Em. ... 7 430r10"12’mT.(8's.)
Mercury . 20 29 15 44S VIII. 208.) 8]. 8 46 14 51N
710} Sun... .. 21 33 14 35S VIIL. 225.) 8] 850 13 45N
Saturn... 3h 2) 15 - IN Moon... 8 56 14 31N
125 Tauri. 5 29 25 47N mw Cancri .|6.7) 9. 3 15 42N
5.37 24 37N Mars... 12,54 2188S
5 41 24 56N Selous near A Virginis.
5 a. 25 55N In. *. . || 8 14 450r17" 13 Mr.
Jupiter . 6 23 29N x's R.A. 9! 9! Decl. 13° 3’ N, (4'S.)
Im. %...| 8] 8 abr hia Em. ... 15, 240r17" 52’mT. (14's.
*s R.A. 5! 48’ Decl. 24° 34 N. (13’8.) Venus .. 19 0 2126S
Em... 9 9orll" 49’m7T.(10's.) Mercury . 20 24 1647S
Mars ... 12.54 2188S 14] Sun. ... 21.48 12 168
Im. *. . || 7| 13 390r16"19mT. Saturn .. 32° Sul (5
*’s R.A. 6" 1’ Decl. 24° 27’ N.(13'N.) Im.*...| 6| 4 3lor 6"56’mr.
hn 14 Oorl6'40’mr.(15'n.)|_ | ¥’s R.A. 9" 47’ Decl. 9° 46’ N. (10'S.)
Venus ., 18 44 21 32S PM oa: 4 46or 711 m7.(16s.)
: Mercury . 20 26 16 28 Em. 1 Sat, 5 2lor 746 mr.(48)
11} Sums ’2 : 2137) 14 15)8 Im.*...| 6] 5 300r 755 Mr.
Satum .. SyPS" 15 “IN *’s R.A. 9" 49’ Decl. 9° 9’ N. (15'N.)
Jupiter. | 6 6 23 29N Jupiter. || 6,6 23 30.N
Moon. . 648 23 11N Em. *. | 6 13o0r 8'38'mr.(5'N)
44 Gem. .|6.7/ 655 22 54N Im. *. . [4.5] 6 36or 9" 1'mr.
48Gem. | 6] 7 2 24 25N #’s R.A. 9" 51! Decl. 8° 53’ N. (15/N.)
58 Gem 713 23 17N Binteyges «ps 7 220r 9" 47'mT.(5s.
Im. *. . .|6.7| 9 32o0r12" Sur. IX. 202. | 8] 945 854N
%’s R.A. 6" 53’ Decl. 22° 54’ N. (4'N.) 11Sext. .| 6] 949 9 ON
Emi... 10 25o0r13" 1’mr.(9's.) Moon... 956 823N
Mars... 1254 72°18S Me Ol ey wht OL LO 18). PON sa
Venus .. 18 50 21 30S Mars... 1254 2188
Mercury . 20 25 1617S Venus .. 19.225 ele 20h
12] Sun.... 2141 13 56S Mercury . 20 24 16 58S
Saturn .. 5. 3 15°-3N 15} Sun...) ... 2152 12558
Im. *. . .[6.7] 3 200r 5°53’mr. Saturn .. 3.3 15 GN
¥’s R.A. T 45’ Decl. 20° 20’'N. (6'N.) Im.*%...| 7] 4 590r 720'mrT.
Pay)... 4 Q9or 6"42’mr.(12'N.) x’s R.A. 10" 44’ Decl. 3° 2’ N. (10’S.)
Jupiter. . 6 6 23 29N Em... 5 540r 8" 15’'mr.(4'N.)
79 Gem. | 7) 735 20 44N Jupiter. . 6. 5 23°30 N
VII. 224 | 7} 742 19 46N Im.* ...| 7] 8 6orl0*27'mr.
85 Gem. 6.7] 745 20 20N %’s R.A. 10 46’ Decl. 2° 41’ N. (cont.)
Moon... 753 “19 39N 36 Sext. | 6| 1036 3 I5N
Em. | Sat. 10 45or13" 17 mr.(46) 55 Leonis.| 6| 10 47 1°40N
Mars... 1254 2188S Moon... 1053 «1 44N
Im. *. . .| 7] 18 140r15" 46m. 75 Leonis.|5.6} 11. 8 2 59N
%’s R.A. 8! 4’ Decl. 18° 12’ N. (cont.) Mars... U2) AA, ae CHLOE
Im. *.. .| 8| 13 440r16"16/mr. Venus .. 19 10. 2115S
’s R.A. 8" 6! Decl. 18° 5’N. (cont.) Mercury . 20 25 17 98
Venus . « 18 55 2128S 16) Sun... . 2156 12 35S
Mercury . 20 24 16328 Saturn .. a, pL le tN
Ban*. 5": 2145 13 36S Jupiter . . 6 5 23 30N
Saturn .. 3 3 15 4N XI]. 167. | 6] 1142 4218S
Jupiter. . 6 6 23 30N XI. 168. | 8) 1146 4 98
Im. *. . .|/8.9] 6 400r 9! 9’mr. Moon... 1149 4568
%’s R.A. 8" 54’ Dec]. 14° 52’ N. (6'N.) XI. 221. |7.8] 1155 4 30S

aod

a
2
a

Mercury, Fe
Sun...
Saturn .,
Jupiter .
Mars .,.
Em. 1 Sat.
Venus .,
Meyer oe:
Sums ie, +
Saturn .
Jupiter .
Mars...
Venus .
Mercury.
Sun...
Satur .
67

Planet’s or
Star’s
Name, &c.

gnitude
of Stars.

Ma

Mars...
Venus. .

Mercury .
SUB eiucin
Saturn ..
Jupiter. .
Mars...
Venus ..
Mercury .
SRO aang oe
Saturn .

Em. 2 Sat.
Jupiter. .
Im.*%..

x's R.A. is 3 Decl. 15°

| 1
Mars ..
Venus

Jupiter .

Em. 1 Sat.
Mars ..
Venus .
Mercury

Sun...
Saturn .
Jupiter .
Mars ..
Im. * 1.

Astronomical Phenomena.

x's R.A. 17 21’ Decl. 26° 7S. (14'N.)

Im. ¥ 2.

x’s R.A. 17" 21’ Decl. 26° 7'S.

Em. * 2. -
Em *xl..
Venus ..

19 45 20 268

FEBRUARY.
Sidereal Planet’s or ‘Planet’s or En Siderea Planet’s or
tar’s ‘ tars <8 Star’s
Time. Detlination. j | Name, &e. wi Time. Declination,
a ze
H. M. Dz. Mz H. M. OD. M.z
1254 2168S Mercury . 20 39 1747S
19 15 21 9S PS} Sue cee 22°93) 10 6S
20 25 17208 Saturn .. 3» 15 16N
22 0 12148 Jupiter. . 6 5 23 81N
3 4°15 8N Mars... j ARES gt date: bes
6 5 23 30N Im. ¥.. .| 4] 17 43o0r19"81’mr.
1254 2158S ¥’s R.A. 18!" 17’ Decl. 25° 30’ S..(4’S.)
19 20 21 48 Em. 19 Q9or20"56'mr. (0’y
20 27 1727S Venus 19 51 2016S
22 4 1153S Mercury . 20 42 1745S
3 4 15° 8N 24] Sun. .,. 22 27 9 448
3 47or 5"56’'MT.(52) Saturn .. S$) 4b] ‘Ip Murase
6 5 23 30 Jupiter. . 6 5 23 31N
8 58orl 1! 6'uT. Em. 3 Sat. 6 43or 8"29’mT.(58)
33’ S. (1'N.) Mars... 12 53 1 588
9 28orl1]"36'mr.(g'N.) Venus .. 19 56 20 7S
1254 2138S Mercury . 20 46 17428
19 25 20 598 25}; Sun. 92. 31 98 2TS
20 28 17 338 Saturn .. 3 6 15 18N
22 8 11 328 Jupiter. . 6 5 2331N
3 4 15 11N Em. 2 Sat. 6 52o0r 8"33’mr.(59)
6 5 23 30N Mars. . 12,52. .1°555
12 54 2118S Venus 20 1 19 58S
13 Sorl5"12’m7r.(53) Mercury . 20 49 17408
19 30 2053S 26) Sun... 22 35 8 598
20 30 17 408 Saturn .. 3 6 15 20N
22.12 71 11$ Jupiter .. 6 5. 23 31N
3.4, 15 12N Mars . 12 52 11518
6.5 23 31N Venus 20 6 19 46S
12°54 2,98 Mercury . 20 53 17°34S
19 35 20 44S 27; Sun... 22 38 8 87S
20 33 17 428 Saturn .. 3, 6 bo 2a
22 16 10 498 Jupiter .. 6..5, 23'31N
3 H 15 13N Marans». 4 12551 ak See
6 23 31N Venus .. 20 11 19 338
7 “ or 9'41’m7.(55) Mercury . 20 58 1729S
12.54 2 78 28) Sun. 22 42. 8 14S
19 40 20 35S Saturn .. 3 2 15 22N
20 36 17 458 Jupiter. . 6 23 31N
22 19 10 27S Em, 1 Sat. 10 7orlhS6ar (62.)
8.5 15 14N Mars... 1251 (1°48S8
6 5 23 31N Venus 20 16 19 218
12.58 2 458 Mercury . 21 2. 17 23 8(Gr.El.)
15 58o0rl17"45'mT. 29] Sun... . 22 46 7 52S
Satur... hole wo 2 ae
J 7] 16 9oris' Yur. Jupiter . 6 5 2332N
(14'N.) Mats... 1250 1388S
16 36o0r18"28'mr.(14'N.) Venus 20 21 19. 9S
16 47 orl 8" 39'Mr.(14’N.) Mercury - 21 6 17168 ;

Planet’s or
-_ Star’s
Name, &c.

Magnitude
of Stars.

Sons...
Im*.. ./6.7

%’s R.A. 234 14’ Decl. 0° 40'S. (cont.)

Jupiter. .
Mars...
Venus ..
Mercury .
Sun.4..
Jupiter. .
Im. 3 Sat.
im 4%".
Mars...
Venus ..
Mercury .
San 29.08 3
Jupiter .
Em. 2 Sat.
Mars...
Venus’. .
Mercury .
Sun....
Jupiter. .
Mars...
Venus . .
Mercury .
Sun. .
Jupiter .
Im. * 1.

Em. ¥ 1
Im. * 2.

Il

Astronomical Phenomena.

Sidereal

Planet’s or
Star’s

Time. Declination.

H. M. D. M.
22 50 7 29S
4 58or 6520’mr.

6 5 23 32N
1338
18 568
i Bs
7 6S
6 5 23 32N
8 Oor 9'18’mT.(65)
13 or12" 30’mr.(65)
48 1288S
31 18 418
15 16 495
57 6438S
6 5 23 32N
9 57orl1" 10’mr.(66)
1248 1235S
36 18 25S
16 358
23 1 6208
23 32N
47 11758
18 108
16 218
23/4. 5 57S
23 32N

7| 7 18o0r 8"24’mr.
¥’s R.A. 2) 99’ Decl. 18° 58’ N. (3’N.)
8 l0or 9"16’mr.(9'N.)

9 Sorld 59 mr.

*’s R.A. 2h 28” Decl. 19° 15’ N. (3’S.)

Em.%* 2 .
Mars...
Venus ..
Mercury .
Suly/*)s “2
Moon...
Im. * 1. {6.7

%’s R.A. 3" 18’ Decl. 22° 12’ N.

Em.*% 1 .
Jupiter. .
Im. * 2.

7

¥’s R.A. gh # Decl. 22° 38'N. (cont.)

Im. * 8. .6.7|

*s R.A. 3 28’ Decl. 22° 5

Em. 1 Sat,
Mars...
Venus .
Mercury « :
Sun...
Moon. .

Jupiter .
Mars ,.
Venus .

9 53 0r10"59’m7.(2'N.)

12 46 1
20 46 17
21 30 16
23 8 5 348

315 21 51N

4 4lor 5'43'mr.
(9'8.)

12S,

5 44 or 6 46’ mr.(3's.)

6 5 23 32N
9 27 0r10"28'mr.

2orll" 3’mr.
“N. (cont.)
12 300r13"31’m7.(69)
12 45 1.68
20 51 17 398
2136 15 468
2312 5108
‘ “é 24 10N

23 32N
A ry 1.08
20 56 17 248

10

o
>
Planet’s or |=
Star’s ‘=
Name, &c. Ee
iz
H.
Mercury . 21
Son iter; 23

Im. *1..] T| 4

x’s R.A. 5" 18’ Deel. 25°

Moon. .
V. WS 8
Em.* 1.
12] Tauri | 6
TPS ESS co ANG:
Jupiter. .
Em. 1 Sat.
Mars .
Im. ¥ 2.

EOD Or Or OH Or OH

o- 12
17,8] 12

Planet’s or.
Star's
Declination.

M. D. M.
41 15 29S
146 4478
17 or 5° 12’mr.
0’ N.(7'N.)
17 24 54N
21 26 51N
Qlor 6! 15’mT(6'N.)
25° 238.55 N
29 25 47N
6 23 32N
6or 8" O’mr.(71)
43 0538
49 or13" 42’mr.

¥’s R.A. 5" 37 Decl. 24° 37’ N. (10'N.)

Im. ¥*3. .| 5] 13

*’s R.A. 5" 38’ Decl. 24° 30’

180rl4"]I’mr.
N. (4'N.)

Em.* 2. 13 29 or14)29’m7r.(12'N.)
Em.*3 . 13 57o0rl4" 50’mr.(8'n.)
Venus . Blot) 1% ee
Mercury . 2147 15 7S
Sun... 2319 42358
Jupiter. . 6 6 23 32N
8Gem..>.) 7]/ 6 6 24 IN
VI.67.. 611 23 50N
Moon... 620 23 57N

V. 168. J7.8} 628 24 36N

Im.* 1. .1 7! 7 5lor 8" 41’nr.

#’s R.A. 6" 27 Decl. 23° 39’

im. * 1
Im. * 2.

N.(7'S.) }
56o0r 9'46’mr (0’)

8
| 7| 11 450r12"35’mr.
¥’s R.A. 6" 84 Decl. 23° 0'N. (cont.)

Im. 3 og: | 12 29 or13"18'mr.(72)
Im. * 3. | 7! 12 360r13" 26'mr.

xs R.A. 6! 36’ Decl. 23° 33°N. (cont.)
Mars . 12 42 04758
Venus . . 21 6 16488
Mercury . 2152 14 468

Sunk yo 23125 Os.
Jupiter. - 6 6 23 32N

56 Gem. 5.6} 712 20 46N

VII. 97. 47.8) 716 21 53N
Moon... 724 21 17N
79Gem. | 7| 735 20 44N
Mars... 1241 0408

Mars and x Virg. dif. Lat. insensible

Em. 2 Sat.
Im. *

13
7} 14

Qor13" 47 M773)
57 15)42ur

#’s R.A. 7 49" Decl. 19° 46 (13°N.)

Em.. 15 43 orl6"27'm1r.(3'N.)
Venus . . 2111 16 308
Mercury . 2158 142458
Sun. 7.5. 23 27 $3 36S
Jupiter. . 6 6 23 83N
25 Cancri] 6} 8 16 17 37N
6.....56) 822 18 41N

Astronomical Phenomena.

MARCH.

Planet’s or
Star’s
Name, &e.

Sidereal Planet’s or Planet’s or

5 Star’s
Time. E = Name, &c.

nitnde

8

Planet's or
Star’s

of Stars.
tars.

DeclinaGon-

Magnitude

of

Ma

M. D. M. H. M.. D. M.
Moon... 826 17 2N Jupiter. - 6 7 23 33N
52 Cancri |7.8} 841 16 39N Im. *. . 7.8} 8 36o0r 8) 59’MT.
Mars... 1240 0 338 ¥s R.A, 13h orl. 12° 51’ S. (10'S.)
Venus .. 2116 16118 Bim). 9 360r 9458'mT.(5'N.)
Mercury . 22 3°13 588 Mars*.... 12 34 0 4N
Sun) #.07 : 23 30: 3138S XII. 262 .|6.7| 12 57 13 58S
Jupiter. . 6 6 23. 33N XIII. 19 .|7.8} 18 4 12 32S
Im.% 1...) 5} 6 450r 7824’ mr. Moon. . 13 11 13 448
#’s R.A. 9 29’ Decl. 12° 5 N N. (3'S.) 68 Virg. 1S UP TAS HL
Em.*1 . 7 48or 8" 26'mr.(10'N.)]] | Mars... 14 47+with y Virginis.
3Leonis .|| 5} °9 22 12. .5N Venus .. 2140 14 328
Moon... 926 11 34N Mercury . 22 32 11 388.
18 Leonis| 6} 9 37 12 37.N 17/ Sun. ... 23 49, 1155
IX. 184. .| 8} 9 40 1156N Jupiter 6 8 23 33N
Im.x2..| 4| 12 Sorlg'4émr. Mars.. 12 32 012N
¥°s R.A. 9 32’ Decl. 10° 41’ N. (11'S.) XUI.190. 13 38 18 228
Mars... - 12 39 0265 89 Virg.. 15.6) 13 40 17 158
Em. *2 .- 13 Tor 13¢45/mr.(3'N.) XIII. 276 .|7.8} 13 53 18 57S
Venus . - 2121 15.538 Moon. . 14 7 18 24S
Mercury - 2218 13 33S Im. *%... 14 3lorl4" 49’mr.
Son. 3 23 34; 2 49S x's R.A. 144 8’ Decl. 19° & S. (16S.)
Jupiter. . 6° 7 23 33N Em. * .. 15 Oorl5"18’7.(10's.)
Im.* 1 | 7) ° 9 3lorl0® 5’wr. Venus . . 21 44 1411S.
*'s R.A. 10" 28’ Decl. 5° 33’ N.(10’N.) Mercury. . 22 38 11 5S
19 Sext.: |.7/'10) 4 5 29IN 18} Sun... J’ | 23:52 05158
Em. * 1 . 10 11orl0"45’mr.(16'N.) Jupiter. . 6 8 23 33N
Moon... . 10 24 5 18N Im. ¥. . .|7.8| 11 460r12 O'mr.
35Sext.. .| 7) 10 34 5 40N ¥*'s R.A. 14h 59’ Decl. 22° 23’ S. (15'S.)
38Sext.. | 7) 10 88 7 16N Ema en: 12 3orl2)17’mr.(12’s.)
Mars’... - 1238 0198S Mars... 12 31 OJ9N
Im. *2. .| 6] 16 350r17". 8’. Venus .. 2149 13 50S
x's R.A. 10" 36’ Decl. 8° 15 N. (9'S.) Mercury . 22 44 10 31S
Em.*2. 17 27orl8" O’mr.(5’Nn.) |}19} Sun... 23°56 0 27S
Venus . 2125 15 35S Jupiter. . 6 8 23 33N
Mercury .- 22,14 13 7S Mars... 12 30 0 27N

14] Sun, <). 23 38 2268 Im. * 1. .! 7! 16 300r16" 39’mr.
Jupiter . 6-7 23 33N ¥s R.A. 16 & Decl. 25°.’ S. (6'N.)
Moon. . 19). 1. 21S Im. ¥ 2. .!7.8| 16 het eee
91 Leonis {4.5} 11 28 0 .9N x's R.A. 164 4’ Decl. 25° 1S. (VN.)
XI. 182. .) 8} 11 46 0275 Em. *¥1 - 17 Sloe aden (1en.
SXI213. pT} lirse0.00 46S Em. *¥2 . 17 38 1747’ mr.(10'N.
Mars .». 12 36 0118 Venus .. 21 54 13 298
Venus... 21 30 1514S Mercury . 22/50 9588S
Mercury . 22°20 112 378 20| Sun... 2359 0-358

15] Sun. 23.41 2.28 Jupiter. . 6 9 23 33N
Jupiter. . 6 7 23 33N Mars... 12 28 0 385N
Em. 1 Sat. 9 29or 9956'm7.(78) Venus .. 21°59" 13 .6S
XW. SS Sst Stas 95 i%155.8 Mercury .« 22°56 9922S
Moon 12.15; 7498 21) Sunde .% 0 3 O20N
22. Virg. .|5.6| 12 25 8.298 Jupiter. . 6 9 23 33N
x Virm- | 6} 12,30 7. 28 Jupiter and II Gemini dif. Lat. 2’
Mars 1235 0 48 Mars... 12 27 043N
Venus 2135 14.538 Venus .} | 22 4 12 428
Mercury 22,26 12.858 Mercury . 23) 2 8 45S
Sun. . 23.45 138858 92] Sun. J. 4 0 7 Ga

Astronomical Phenomena. 297

MARCH.

=] Sidereal Planet’s or Planet’s or *| Sidereal Planet’s or
‘ Star's s Star’s . Star’s
Time. Declination. Name, &c. 2) Time. Declination.

Planet's or
Star’s
Name, &c-

Magnitude
of Stars

H. M. D. M. .™M.
Jupiter. . 6 9 23 33N me 32
Em. | Sat. 11 53orl1"51’mr.(85) Mercury . 39
Mars... 1226 0O5I1N 28] Sun.... 29
Venus . - 929. 12Z:19'S Jupiter. . 12
Mercury . oe 7) 8.98 Em. 2 Sat. 43or 8" 19’nT.(91)
Son <.!.... 010 1 8N Mars... 12.17 .139N
Jupiter .. 610 23 33N Im.* 1. .| 7] 17 6orl6"40’mr.
Avedrse.-<: - 12 24 0 59N xs R.A. 23" 26’ Decl. 0° 21’ N. (2'N.)
Im. *. . .| 8] 15. Torl5". mr. Em.* 1. 17 350r17" 9mr(14’N.
x's R.A. 19536’ Decl. 21° 56’ S. (1’S.) Im.* 2. .1 6] 18 8orl7'42’ur.
Em.... | 120r]6" 6’mT.(6's.) ¥’s R.A. 234 27 Decl. 1° 8’N.(14'S.)
Venus . | 11 56S Em.*2. 26 or] 8" O’mT.(10’s.)
Mercury . 7 298 Venus .. 37
Son% </.: 1 31N Mercury . 45
Jupiter. . 23 33N 29| Sun... . 32
Mars... 1 7N (Opp.) Jupiter. . 12
Venus .. 1l 3% Mars... 15
Mercury . : Venus ..
Sun... Mercury .
Jupiter. - sun... .\4
Mars ..- Jupiter. .
Venus .- Jupiter ..
Mercury .« Mars. .
Sun... Venus .
Jupiter. - 3 ‘ Mercury .
Mars...- pL Ty ae ae
Venus . | ' Jupiter ..
Mercury - : Em. ] Sat.
Sua os é Mars. .
Jupiter. . ‘ Venus .
Mars... Mercury .

to
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wo now

:

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AZZAR

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wont a f=

—onva@awr NO
AnNASAAMANMN

oo 99
aoe

Art. XV. Proceedings of the Royal Society.

The meetings of the Royal Society were resumed for the season
on Thursday evening, the 20th of November, when the Croonian
Lecture was read by Sir Everard Home, Bt., V.P.R.S. It con-
sisted of observations on the Anatomy of the Human Brain, as

compared with that of fishes, insects, and worms.

The Rey. Daniel Creswell, D.D., and John Bayley, Esq., were
elected into the Society.

November 27.—A paper on the Migration of Birds, by the late
Dr. Edward Jenner, was read. It was transmitted to the Society
by his nephew, Mr. W. C. Jenner.

Anthony Mervin Story, Esq., was elected into the Society.

298 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

On Monday, December Ist, (St. Andrew’s Day having fallen
ona Sunday,) the Fellows of the Royal Society held their An-
niversary at Somerset-House.—At 12 0’clock, when the President
took the chair, there was a numerous attendance of the Fellows.
‘The President began the business of the day, by reading the lists
of the newly admitted, and deceased, members, and on the last
occasion paid a tribute of respect to the memories of Dr. Jenner,
‘Dr. Hutton, Dr. Baillie, and Colonel Lambton, by describing the
characteristic labours, virtues, and talents of these eminent men.

He then proceeded to state the award of the council. of the
Copley Medal, to Mr. Pond, the Astronomer Royal, for his various
communications, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society.

In a discourse which was received with the most profound at-
tention by the Fellows, the President gave a view of the import-
ant labours which had been carried on in the Royal Observatory,
since its foundation by Charles II., and which had led to the most

‘important discoveries made in modern times in astronomical
science. He entered into an animated panegyric of Flamstead,
Halley, Bradley, and Maskelyne, and spoke of the glory arising
to this country, from the immediate or ultimate results of their
researches which, illustrated by, and throwing light upon, the mathe-
matical laws of the motions of the heayenly bodies, developed by
our own illustrious Newton and his school, have given to us the
true knowledge of the system of the universe. He spoke of the
benefits which had been conferred by the observations, made at
Greenwich, on navigation and our maritime interests, repaying
a hundred fold the liberal expenditure of government on this great
national establishment.

In speaking of the labours of Mr. Pond, he mentioned that the
two most important points of research to which he had directed
his attention, were, the question of the parallax of the fixed stars,
and observations which seem to show a considerable apparent
southern motion of many of the principal fixed stars. Mr, Pond
thinks there is no evidence of a sensible parallax. Dr. Brinkley, on
the contrary, is of opinion that this parallax distinctly exists.
“The Council of the Royal Society,” said the President, do not

Proceedings of the Royal Society. 299

mean in any manner by their award of the medal to express an
opinion on this subject, for when two such observers differ, the
question cannot be considered as settled :” and he paid the highest
compliments to the profound mathematical knowledge, acuteness,
accuracy of research, and extent of view, of Dr. Brinkley.
Between his observations and those of the Astronomer Royal, the
problem of parallax was now, he said, reduced within very narrow
limits, but perhaps more perfect instruments and observations
would be required for its complete solution.
On the supposed southern declination of the fixed stars, it is
impossible, said the President, to form, at present, any correct
judgment; such an important result can only be established by new
observations, carried on for a great length of time, and confirmed
by the experience of the best astronomers, in different countries.
He desired Mr. Pond to consider the medal as a mark of the
respect of the Society for the zeal and ardour with which he had
pursued astronomy, and as shewing their confidence in the general
accuracy of his observations. He likewise requested him to re-
gard it, as a pledge that future important labours were expected
from him. He exhorted him to emulate the fame of his great
predecessors, and to endeavour to transmit his name to posterity
by similar monuments of utility and glory.
The Society then proceeded to the election of a Council and
‘Officers, for the year ensuing, when the following Members of the
old Council were re-clected.
Sir H. Davy, Bart.
W. T. Brande, Esq.
Samuel Goodenough, Lord Bishop of Carlisle.
Taylor Combe, Esq.
John Wilson Croker, Esq.
Davies Gilbert, Esq.

: Charles Hatchett, Esq.

: Sir Everard Home, Bart.
John Pond, Esq.
William Hyde Wollaston, M.D.
Thomas Young, M.D.

300 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

The following were chosen Members of the Council, out of

the Society.
William Allen, Esq.
Major Thomas Colby.
James Ivory, Esq.
Sir James Mac Grigor, Knt.
William Marsden, Esq.
William George Maton, M.D.
Bernard Edward, Duke of Norfolk.
Edward Rudge, Esq.
William Sotheby, Esq.
Henry Warburton, Esq.

Officers for the ensuing Year.
Presipeyt.—Sir H. Davy, Bart.
TREASURER.—Davies Gilbert, Esq.
SEcrETARIES.—William Thomas Brande, Esq.

Taylor Combe, Es.

Thursday, December 11.—A paper was communicated “ on the
Nature of the Acid and Saline matters usually existing in the
Stomachs of Animals, by W. Prout, M.D.” The object of this
paper is to prove, that the free acid, which exists in the stomach,
and which frequently is thrown up in cases of indigestion, is the
muriatic acid.

M. Fourier and M. Vauquelin, of the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris, were elected Foreign Members of the Royal Society.

Thursday, December 18. A paper was communicated by the
Rev. B. Powell, entitled ‘“‘an Experimental Inquiry respecting the
supposed invisible heating effect beyond the red end of the pris-
matical spectrum.”

A paper was read “on the North Polar distances of the prin-
cipal Fixed Stars,” by J. Brinkley, D.D., F.R.S.

A paper was also communicated by James Ivory, Esq., F. R. is
“On the figure requisite to maintain the equilibrium of a homo-
geneous fluid mass that revolves upon an axis,”

The Society adjourned over the Christmas Vacation, to meet
again on Thursday, Jan. 8, .

301

Arr. XVI. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

I. A Course of Lectures on Chemical Science, as delivered at the
Surrey Institution, by GoLpswortHy Gurney. London, 1823,
8vo. pp. 310.

Our attention was originally called to this book, by the exor-
bitant and solemn praises bestowed upon it in the daily and weekly
papers. The Times holds it up as a model of scientific composi-
tion; the Morning Post deliberately represents it as a never-suffi-
ciently-to-be-valued collection of new and important truths ; John
Bull says “‘ there is no extant work on chemical science so full
of important investigations ;” andthe Literary Museum concludes
a critical review of its merits, by asserting that ‘‘ in more than one
instance, much new matter is presented to us in the way of theory
as well as of practice ; and the experiments by which the lectures
are illustrated, are in almost every case original.’’ With such re-
iterated testimonials in favour of Mr. Gurney’s “ Lectures,” we
should hold ourselves remiss in passing them over without notice,
and our readers might suspect us of prejudice and partiality,
attached as we are, to another school of chemistry, were we to
withhold the important information, which according to the highly
respectable scientific authorities above quoted, has thus emanated
from the Surrey Institution.

In respect to our author’s originality, we confess we were some-
thing startled at finding some long and unacknowledged quotations
in the introductory lecture from works which we happened lately
to have perused; but our apprehensions were speedily relieved,
by the tale unfolded in Lectures II and III. For instance: “ Put,”
says Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney, “into a glass vessel, contain-
ing water, a few grains of sugar of lead, and stir them together
with a glass or other rod, the water will soon become turbid in
consequence of the sugar of lead being insoluble in that fluid, and
simply a mixture of the particles with the water will take place ;
if the water be minutely examined, these particles may be seen
floating in it, and they will ultimately, if left to themselves, fall to
the bottom, If to this milky fluid be now added a few drops of
aqua-fortis, it will instantly become perfectly clear and transpa-
rent, and now not the minutest portion of the lead can be per-
ceived init. In the first instance then, it was only a mixture, in
the latter a perfect solution, because the combination of lead and
aqua-fortis is soluble in water, whereas the sugar of lead is not
so.” p. 39.

The insolubility of sugar of lead in water was to us a new fact,
and as Thomson’s System, and Henry’s Elements, happened to be

302 Analysis of Scientific Books.

lying on the table, we found upon referring to the former, that
water takes up 0.27 parts of sugar of lead ; and in the latter, this
salt is represented as “‘ almost equally soluble in hot and cold
water, viz., to about one-fourth the weight of the fluid.” We hope
Drs. Thomson and Henry will make a memorandum of this over:
sight and correct it in future editions.

A little further, in p. 46, we are told that crystals of alum
exactly resemble those of natural quartz, whereas we had always
ignorantly supposed that the former were octoédra, and the latter
six-sided prisms.

In the second lecture Mr. Gurney rectifies Dr. Wollaston’s
errors respecting the theory of crystallization, but as we can un-
derstand Dr. Wollaston, and cannot understand Mr. Gurney, we
consider ourselves inadequate to discuss the question. The argu-
ments enunciated in pages 59, 60, et seq. of our author’s, lec-
ture in reference to this subject are doubtless novel and pro-
found; that they are, to our humble capacity, unintelligible,
arises doubtless from the want of his ‘“‘ moveable diagram,” the
place of which is very inadequately supplied by Mr. Scharf’s im-
moyeable lithography. With great regret, therefore, do we pass
over the new facts ‘‘ connected with general as well as with chemi-
cal science,” and tending to explain effects ‘* which have hitherto
baffled the most ingenious inquiry,” set forth in this and in the
succeeding lecture. We must leave the atoms “ to seize their
previous partners,” or let them alone as they think fit, since our
downright dulness prohibits our officiating as masters of the ce-
remonies upon the occasion.

Our ignorance also obliges us to decline any attempt at impart-
ing to our readers the contents of Lecture IV, on chemical affinity,
which if we mistake not, Mr. Gurney refers to the same laws as
those which gcvern “ musical vibrations ;”’ when, therefore, he talks
of vibration of sound combining three to two, and five to three,
constituting thirds and great sixths; of tone being produced by a
series of detonations, and detonations by the sudden formation
and filling ofa series of vacuums ; of the definite divisions of the
organ pipe, and the concords of the French horn, the olian harp,
and the musical glasses; and lastly, when we are informed that
musical and chemical combinations depend on the same “ regula-
tions,” that modulation is an imitation of definite proportions, and
that in respect to time, every different note in the scale of music,
is a simple multiple or division of the other, we unwillingly feel
ourselves obliged to resign our critical labours as connected with
this individual lecture, and to leave the decision upon its value and
merits, to those who have more music in their souls, since our own
attainments in that delightful art never exceeded the performance
of the obligato part upon comb and paper, or an occasional fantasia
upon the jews’ harp. Thus much in candour to Mr. Gurney.

Gurney on Chemical Science. 303

In Lecture V, we had hoped to have met him upon more equal
grounds, but to our utter dismay, a few paragraphs brought us to
a large organ, which our author undertook to build “‘ some years
since, when a very young man,” and which was ‘* admitted on all
hands, to have a remarkably fine tone,” though built “ on theory,
for I had never seen the interior of one, till I had finished mine,
and knew nothing whateyer practically of the construction of
them.” This organ was combined with a piano-forte, and toge-
ther with the very pleasant anecdote brought in at p, 112, to
which we refer our musical readers, is somehow or other intended
to illustrate the doctrine of expansion, the strings of the piano
being it seems expanded, and its notes flattened by heat, while
those of the organ-pipes were affected in the opposite way.

At p. 119 of this lecture, we are informed that “ different coLours
have different conducting powers in respect to heat;” ‘ black conducts
it the most readily, white the least so.”” This is quite new to us; so
also are the following assertions (p. 121.) ‘* Water, unlike all other
substances, is of a greater specific gravity when in aliquid than in a
solid state, which accounts for the lower parts of our rivers never
being frozen.” Again,—‘‘ The particles of water, previously to their
assuming the state of a solid, conform to the general law of liquids
increasing in specific gravity, as they lose their caloric.” This
gross error is the foundation of the blunders that abound in seve-
ral succeeding paragraphs.

In the lecture on electricity, we are told at p. 133, that flannel
becomes positively electrical when rubbed on glass, but negative
when rubbed on sealing-wax, whereas the reverse is the case.
We are also told that the contact of two different metals excites
electricity in an eminent degree; that this electricity is increased
by inducing a rapid change of surface, which may be effected by
the action of an acid on the metals; and that it is necessary that
the solution employed, be a good conductor of electricity. ‘This
is a very summary theory of the pile ; and the difference between
its phenomena and those of the common electrical machine, is
equally hastily despatched. ‘In fact,” says Mr. G,, ‘the
common electrical machine differs from the galvanic battery,
simply from its being defective in physical power, if we may so
express ourselves.” At p. 136, we are informed that the decom-
posing powers of electricity were first pointed out by Sir Anthony
Carlisle.

** Another property of electricity,” says our author, “ is that
wheneyer the connexion is made between the two poles of a bat-
tery by a good conductor, it passes silently and without any visi-
ble eflect.” Now in the preceding paragraph, we have just learned
that the said connecting wire is magnetic, and we suspect that
we have sometimes seen it red-hot, and sometimes fused. But

ced

304 Analysis of Scientific Books.

the per-oration of this lecture is truly delectable, and we regret,
we can only find room for an abstract of it, in which, however,
we shall use Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney’s own words. ;

“‘T cannot avoid coming to the conclusion in my own mind, that
the regularity, the beauty, and the harmony, of all the changes
which take place in the material world will, one day or other,
be found to depend on the one grand disposing cause of elec-
tricity.” And again, after observing that the functions of ani-
mals are dependant upon chemical changes, “I expect,” he
says, “ it will not be long before it will be as universally admitted,
that those chemical changes are brought about by electrical
causes.”

‘“* That organic matter has some influence on the mind, cannot
for a moment be doubted, and that the stomach is the chief source
of this influence seems equally certain. Further it is well known,
that a sympathy of the most intimate nature exists between the
skin and the stomach. Now, holding, as I do, that all organic
changes are in some way or other dependant on electrical agency,
and that that agency is mainly available to us by means of the
atmosphere, which serves as a conductor of electricity between
the clouds to the earth and the human body, can it be considered
as too fanciful a supposition, if I attribute the various changes of
state in the human temperament, especially in persons of a ner-
vous and irritable habit of body, to corresponding changes in the
electrical state of the surrounding media, such as the earth and
the atmosphere?” pp. 142, 143.

Now without meaning any disrespect to our author, we must
beg leave to set this down as an unequivocal sample of that fi-
gure of speech usually called nonsense; and he should remember
that much may be said in a lecture, and even plausibly urged in
the warmth ofargument, which will not bear to be printed and
published.

We have of late heard a great deal of talk respecting the tempe-
rature of mines, and the evidence thus afforded of a source of heat
within the earth ; upon this subject we have always been sceptical ;
and rather than adopt the preposterous Beccherian notion of a
central fire, have contented ourselves with viewing the phenomena
as dependant partly upon the increased density of the air and its
consequent diminished capacity for heat, at great depths, and
partly upon other more obvious causes; but Mr. Gurney in his
lecture on combustion, has set us right upon this head. ‘ Com-
bustion is one of those grand operations which are constantly
going on within the bowels of the earth, where it serves the im-
portant purposes of composing and decomposing an immense
variety of substances necessary to the renovations and revolutions
which are perpetually going on among all organic as well as in-
organic matter.” p. 151].

Gurney on Chemical Science. 305

In this same lecture we learn, at the bottom of p. 154, that it is

impossible to make a room air-tight, and that health is injured in
exact proportion as we do it; but a few lines further on we are
told, that if the room be heated by flues, it may safely be made
air-tight !
_ At pages 156 and 157, there are some sharp remarks upon Sir I.
Davy’s experiments respecting the temperature of flame, which
according to Mr. Gurney, involve much contradictory evidence.
Now as we have unfortunately not profited by Mr. Gurney’s tui-
tion, but happen to have received part of our chemical education
under the former master; and as we belong to a school, one ob-
ject of which is to teach his doctrines, and set forth his discoveries,
we cannot be supposed to come unprejudiced to the consideration
of our author’s views, and therefore leave the determination of this
subject to less biassed judges, observing at the same time, that we
have looked in vain for those interesting discoveries which Mr. G.
tells us he has made (p. 163) relating to gaseous bodies.

Thus far we have exposed our author’s methods of handling the
higher departments of chemistry; we now descend to the more
immediate drudgery of the laboratory. ’

At p. 180, Mr. Gurney attributes to the ‘‘ wpper sides” of the

leaves of plants, those functions which chiefty belong to their lower,
and generally unvarnished, surfaces; and at p. 184, we find that
“« metallic oxides are generally reduced by the aid of fluxes, one of
which is carbon,” which in our conception of the term is no flux
at all.
- Speaking of the composition of water, it is stated to consist of
85 oxygen, 15 hydrogen; the proper numbers are 89 and 11.
Nitrous oxide is said to contain 1 nitrogen. and 2 oxygen by
volume—those numbers should be reversed ; and it is incautiously
asserted that this gas may be breathed not only without injury,
but often with benefit, for Mr. Southey, the Poet Laureate, declared
that the sensations he experienced, were perfectly new and de-
lightful !

In the 9th lecture we are informed that “ it is likely that the
Avrora Borealis consists of hydrogen gas, sustained at a certain
elevation in the air, in virtue of its lightness, and ignited from time
to time by electricity. The ignis fatuus also consists chiefly of
hydrogen, in combination with phosphorus, generated by the de-
composition of vegetable matter, and lighted by the heat given
out during the act of decomposition,” all which to our obtuse un-
derstandings, appears very wilikely, though the reasoning if not
brilliant is at least luminous.

A little further on we are told, that the air emitted from the
lungs consists of nitrogen and carbonic acid, and that as soon as
it escapes from the mouth, the nitrogen ascends, and the carbonic
acid descends, “ thus preventing all danger of our again taking in

Vou. XVI. x

306 Analysis of Scientific Books.

what was breathed out, precisely because it was unfit to benefit
and sustain our animal functions.” Yet in the same lecture Mr.
Gurney dwells upon the ‘“ quality ef permanently-elastic fluids of
interfusing themselves equally amongst each other, when they are
in contact.”

Our chemical readers are probably aware that the nature of
nitrogen is a problem which has attracted the attention of almost
all eminent chemists, they will therefore naturally be anxious to
learn Mr. Gurney’s notions on the subject which are thus modestly
set forth.

«‘ Nitrogen I suspect, is a peculiar compound, formed by the
crgans of the animal body, and not a simple element as is gene~
rally supposed.” ‘ Under strong suspicion that nitrogen is a com=
pound, and not a simple element, I am now prosecuting a series
of experiments with a view of satisfying my mind upon this sub-=
ject;” ‘* and from the experiments I have already made, I am dis-
posed to believe that it is not a simple substance, but a compound
of oxygen, and hydrogen nearly in equal proportions.” p. 202.

But this lecture teems with novelties, for at p. 204, we find to our
infinite satisfaction and surprise, that ‘‘ charcoal contains 64 parts
of pure carbon united to 36 parts of oxygen in every 100 parts,”
and “ that it forms nearly the whole body of the vegetable king-
dom,” and “gives their peculiar character to those very rocks
and cliffs, which form an impregnable barrier round the island
which we inhabit, and render it inaccessible to the inroads of any
foreign enemy, or even of the ocean itself.”

By this time, any moderate reader will be satisfied with the “ no-
velties” offered by our author, under the heads of nitrogen and car-
bon; turn we therefore to phosphorus. Phosphorus, we are told, is
exclusively an animal product, and is ‘‘ generated, or at least
makes its appearance during the conversion of vegetable and mi-
neral into animal matter,” and that it has “* some mysterious con-
nexion with animal life. In proof of this, it is found, that several
animals possess the power of generating and giving forth this sub-
stance at will.” The glow-worm, the fire~fly, &c., are next cited
as instances ! ;

In the lecture on the metals, there is an uncommon scarcity of
those blunders and mistatements, or novelties, as one of the writers
above quoted calls them, which pervade the other discourses ;
yet there are a few interspersed, as for example: ‘ Nitrate of
silver is so powerful an antiseptic, that a single ounce of it dis-
solved in 1200 ounces of water, will preserve the water in a state
of purity for ever! The nitrate of silver is deleterious in its
effects on the animal system; but when the water thus preserved
is needed for use, the whole of the silver may be separated from it
in a few minutes, by adding a small portion of muriate of soda or
common salt,” p, 217. In the same page, a compound of silver

Gurney on Chemical Science, 307

and nitric acid is said to have uncommon fulminating powers ; and
further on, iridium, osmium, rhodium and palladium are repre-
sented as probably alloys of other metals, for this satisfactory
reason, “since they are found no where but in the ore of plati-
num.” At p. 220, it is'affrmed, that the muriatic acid of commerce
“ always contains a portion of corrosive sublimate, which is an
oxide of mercury ;” and again, “ mercury has a yery strong affi-
nity for gold, and may be seen to fix itself, and change the colour
of this metal, even through the skin and apparel of those persons
who have taken it to any extent; ists a very common case in the
West Indies where so much calomel is used !”

In the lecture on acids and alcalis, there is a sad nomenclatural
jumble at p. 234; and at p. 236, we find, that “‘ what is sold as
soda water ought to be simply pure water impregnated with this
gas; but I am afraid this is very seldom the case.” So are we.

Mr. Gurney is very unhappy in assigning to Dr. Priestley the

- due merits of his discoveries ; he never mentions his name without

coupling with it some unaccountable absurdity; our readers nay
take the following as a specimen. Speaking of Dr. P.’s expéri-
ments on the products of fermentation, he says, ‘ the result of
that inquiry was, the discovery of carbonic acid, which he called
dephlogisticated air. This name was changed afterwards to fixed
air, because it is found fixed in almost all vegetable substances.”
p- 236. Such a cluster of incongruities, it would be difficult to
match,

Nitric acid is stated to be a compound of five to two—five of
oxygen to two of nitrogen—five what of oxygen? two what of
nitrogen? Here our author is evidently floundering amidst volumes
and atoms.

To those who are desirous of a concentrated specimen of
Mr. Gurney’s eloquence, originality, and scientific acumen, we
strenuously recommend the perusal of his twelfth lecture, from
which we shall offer a very few extracts only.

After candidly telling his audience that he is now to occupy
their time with conjectures and guesses, about which, he is himseif,
far from being satisfied or convinced, he observes that he feels no
reluctance on this score, having had practice enough in experi-
mental philosophy ‘“ myself,’ to know that the most brillian
discoveries, and the most important facts and theories, not only
may arise out of happy guesses, but that the “ most brilliant of
these which we boast the possession of, have actually arisen out of
those, rather than out of a direct course of study and experiment.”
Now our limited experience conducts us to a diametrically opposite
conclusion, and leads us to infer, that with the sweat of his brow,
and the labour of his hands, man must earn his knowledge as well
as his subsistence. As to the discoveries of his own, to which
Mr, Gurney “ himself alludes,” we are as yet in dark ignorance,

X 2

308 Analysis of Scientific Books.

‘unless that of the composition of nitrogen already before our
readers, be alluded to.

Our author then touches upon moral philosophy, in which, he
says, ‘‘ as there is no beginning to our conjectures, there is no chance
of their arriving at any end. If we begin to guess at all, as to the
nature of moral causes, we may guess about them as much as we
please ; for there is no reason why we should ever stop. And in
fact, about that which we actually know nothing, we never can, by
any possibility, know any thing, except through the interpretation
and revelation of a superior power,” Sc. Now all that we can
possibly conclude from this passage is, that the latter part of it
applies with singular fitness to Mr. Gurney’s chemical knowledge.

But where so much “important matter of fact” is brought
before us, we must not waste our space in these ‘ shrewd con-
jectures and happy guesses,” we therefore hasten to give our
readers a spice of Mr. Gurney’s notions, concerning “ the effects
of light in natural phenomena.”

In the first place he tells us, that “ light as well as heatis a
modification of electricity,” and that the various colours of plants.
are derived from metallic oxides, undergoing various changes,
occasioned simply by their contact with light on the surface of the
plant, and that during the night plants give out nitrogen. But all
these “ novelties” are trifling to those propounded by the truly
original Mr. Gurney, in respect to animal functions. He asserts,
and in sober seriousness too, that “ the blood in animals contains
iron and other metallic oxides, which not only occasions its par-
ticular colour, but determines its fitness for regulating the functions
and renovating the powers of the system. Persons excluded from
light become first pale and sallow, and finally sickly and diseased.
Perhaps this may arise chiefly from the imperfect oxidation of the
blood, occasioned by the absence of light.” ‘ Coloured bodies
are all better conductors of heat than white, therefore animals
clothed in white under the frigid zone, are better able to bear
severe cold.” At p. 262, et seq., there is abundance of analogous
talk concerning ‘“‘ moonlight, the cheek of beauty, magnetism,
sunshine, and electricity,” which is offered with great diffidence,
“< because it is only lately that I have made the matter a subject
of my thoughts.”

But we must draw toa close. We have elsewhere complimented
Mr. Gurney on his originality—his modesty induces him (p. 269,)
to hope that he may allude to what he has said and done, as being
with few exceptions novel and original, and may therefore meet
with more indulgence than if he had pursued the common and
beaten track ; and finally, he concludes with the following pecu-
liarly condescending and complacent paragraph.

“T would beg permission, also to refer to the new matter, in the
way of theory, as well as of practical discovery, that I have been

Gurney on Chemical Science. 309

led to offer to your notice, because it gives me an opportunity of
stating publicly and unequivocally, that any good which may
result to science in general from those discoveries, as well as any
credit or advantage that may accrue to me in after-life, from being
the agent in these discoveries, is due to my connexion with this
Institution, for I will frankly confess to you that but for that con-
nexion, it is more than probable, I should never have been led to
make them.”’

We must now take leave of Mr. Gurney and of our readers. We
recommend the former to waste no more time in original re-
searches—no more money in puffing his book; and before he
again tries his hand at a course of lectures, to peruse Mrs. Marcet’s
“* Conversations” and Parkes’ Catechism.—The latter are respect-
fully informed, that Mr. Gurney’s Course of Lectures is printed for
Messrs. Whittaker, in Ave-Maria Lane, and may be had at all
the Booksellers.

P. S. We had almost forgotten to mention, that a lecture on
the blowpipe is appended to this volume. Its style, as we might
expect, is rather more inflated than that of the preceding dis-
courses, but in “‘ novelties” it yields to none of them. Among
other valuable and original suggestions, we here find a proposal
for illuminating our theatres by the light emitted from quicklime,
under the influence of what Mr. Gurney elsewhere calls the Ox
hydrogen blowpipe.

II. Supplement to the Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and
Mosuical Geologies, relating chiefly to the geological Indications
of the Phenomena of the Cave of Kirkdale. By the Author of the
Comparative Estimate.

Tue confidence which we expressed, in our review of Mr. Penn’s
Comparative Estimate that he would find little difficulty in re~-
conciling the phenomena of the Kirkdale Cave with his geological
interpretation of the Mosaic account of the creation, was not un-~
founded, and we are happy to find that he has anticipated our ex-
pectations, and laid his views before the public in the form of a
supplement, without waiting till a second edition of the original
volume shall be called for. Mr. Penn informs us in a prefatory
note, that, “‘ the following pages were first drawn up, with a view
to the extension of the conclusion of chapter 6, part 3 of the Com-
paratice Estimate, and to a new chapter immediately to succeed
it,” in a second edition, but in justice to the purchasers of the:
first, he has embodied the whole in the present supplemental
volume. ‘ The curious and important question to which it re-
lates, could not have been anticipated in the first edition, as the
work was printed before this new and interesting subject had been
fully and distinctly brought before the world.”

310 Supplement to the Comparative Estimate

After the unqualified approbation which we have expressed in
our 30th Number, of Mr. Buckland’s Reliquie Diluviane, we
shall hardly be suspected of any wish to undervalue that most able
and interesting work, nor, from the equally decided commendation
which we bestowed on the Comparative Estimate, in our 29th Num-
ber, can it be expected that we shall abandon our author, or hold
his arguments for the strict and literal interpretation of the sacred
text, by the united agencies of historical, moral, and physical evi-
dence, in lighter estimation now than we did then.—On the con-
trary, the Supplement has strengthened our conviction of their force
and justice, and proportionately exalted our opinion, high as it
was before, of the talents and right-mindedness of the individual
who urges them. Nor is this feeling at all incompatible with our
admiration of the author of the Reliquie Diluviane and his de-
lightful book, which for accuracy of observation, clearness, and
minuteness of detail, stands unrivalled. But our object is not to
draw a comparison between the two works, or the abilities of their
respective authors, (for both we have the highest respect,) but to
lay before our readers, as briefly as possible, the grounds on which
Mr. Penn endeavours to shew the perfect accordance of the phe-
nomena detailed in the Reliquie Dilwviane, with the views he
has promulgated in his Comparative Estimate.

It was suggested in that work, that the animal remains dis-
covered buried singly in strata of gravel and clay, and those found
in multitudinous masses in cavities of rocks, may very probably have
resulted from one and the same revolution in different localities, and
therefore that it is unnecessary, and unphilosophical to resort to dif-
ferent revolutions to account for the diversity. This suggestion, at
which the time it was made, was founded on general probabilities, for
want of more minute information, is now confirmed by the important
and extensive means, recently supplied to us, of comparing the cha-
racter and nature of the rocks, in which, in this and other countries,
the innumerable mingled fragments of tropical animals occur, and
which reveal to us the great geological fact, that all those rocks belong
to one and the same class, viz., limestone, whose texture and com-
position bear unequivocal evidence, by the intimate and multitudi-
nous incorporation into their substances, of marzne organic remains,
that they were not indurated, but soft and plastic, when they rested
in enormous masses, on the bed of the primitive ocean. “ We may
conclude,” says D’Aubuisson, “‘ from these incorporated evidences,
that there are few facts in natural history established on such
strong proofs as the aqueous fluidity of secondary soils, properly
socalled.” Thus we recognise a period, in which the substance of
limestone existed, not hard and consolidated above the waters, but
soft and yielding within them. This idea of the original soft state
of secondary limestone is strengthened by the analogous pheno-
menon mentioned by Saussure as being daily exhibited by the
sands on the border of the sea near Messina, which, though still

of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies. 311

moveable when the waves accumulate them on the beach, gradu-
ally harden to such a degree as to serve for millstones.

To this soft bed, our author supposes the congregated masses of
bodies of animals of all races and climates, confusedly crowded
in close contact, to have been transported from the southward in
a northerly direction, by the reflux current of the departing ocean,
(as stated at length in the Comparative Estimate,) and to have
been simultaneously deposited on, and finally immersed, by the
turbulant vortices of the diminishing waters, in those parts of the
then sea bed, which are now become Germany and England; “ like
the bodies of elephants and other animals, whose remains are
found separately and singly plunged into beds of clay. Let us
therefore endeavour to trace the probable and natural consequences
of that vast and amazing operation, and let us observe to what
correspondence with the phenomena of the caves in question they will
conduct us.”

Imprimis, the frame-work of the different animals would be shat-
tered by the concussion they must have experienced during the
transport, and at the moment of their immersion in the calcareous
bed; and their skeletons, thus dislocated and fractured within their
integuments, would be prepared to separate their parts, when the
flesh and skins had decayed.

On the final departure of the sea, the soft mass would remain in
its actual position, together with the substances it enclosed, and at
length become indurated secondary rock, and it would be strati-
fied, in consequence of the successive cumulations, at different in-
tervals, of the plastic matter from which it was derived, and the
strata would form regular horizontal planes, because they were de-
posited from suspension in a fluid.

As the mass dried, the foreign matter enclosed in it would be
more or less detached from its substance, and left in a midus or
cavity, the size of which would depend partly on the original quan-
tity and bulk of the foreign matter, partly on the degree of resist-
ance it was capable of opposing to the contracting mass, partly on
the expansive force of the gases arising from its putrefactive fer-
mentation, and partly on the degree of compression to which, from
various causes, it had been subjected; and from the last cause,
always considerable, the already dislocated and fractured bones,
must probably have been stil] more crushed and splintered, and
the whole reduced within a much smaller space than it at first oc-
cupied. The fluid discharged by the drying and hardening rock,
percolating through the limestone, would form stalactites, depend-
ing from the roof; the more copious droppings would keep the
slime or mud which entered with the carcasses, for a long time ina
liquid state, and that portion which drained down the sides and
flowed to the bottom of the cavity, would form a solid floor of cal-
careous stalagmite, beneath the mud; whilst what fell directly

312 — Supplement to the Comparative Estimate

from above, would shoot out in branches of similar stalagmite, in
striving to percolate downwards through it; or, if the mud were
firm enough to support it, would form acrust.on its surface. In
the mean time, the animal substances, occupying the interior of
the cave, would continually diminish by decomposition, and hay-
ing been defended by their integuments from rolling or trituration
during their transport, and from the time of their first immersion,
such portions as had not decayed and perished, would neces-
sarily exhibit surfaces wholly untriturated ; moreover, because all
the bodies were immersed s¢multancously, in one vast united mass,
no alternations of animal and mineral matter could have taken place.

Crevices and fissures in cavities lying near the surface would na-
turally be produced by the drying of a mineral paste saturated
with water, and suddenly and permanently exposed to the action
of air and heat ; or, if the enclosed bodies were in very large num-
bers, the gases evolved by their decomposition might have dis-
tended the soil of the sides whilst yet soft and yielding, and even
have forced their way through the weakest part, so as to form
channels and orifices bearing no geometrical proportion to the ori- .
ginal bulk of the bodies themselves.

‘“« This operation, and its general effect upon the bodies, would
only be a vast enlargement of that which we so commonly witness
on a minute scale, in limestone rocks containing shells. In those
rocks, in consequence of a similar process of exsiccation producing
contraction and compression of the mineral mass, we sometimes
observe the shells to be broken, sometimes altogether crushed, and
sometimes again entire and freely moveable within their little
cavities ; and we often perceive the sides of those cavities to be
coated with small crystals produced by the filtered fluid, as in the
large cavities by stalactite. Now ‘ that which is so readily ima-
gined on a small scale,’ observes justly Dr. Mac Culloch, ‘is as ea-
sily transfered to adarger ; since, in the operations of nature these
terms are of no moment*.’ We obtain, therefore, from what has
been here exposed, a strong philosophical probability that the ac-
cumulated and mingled masses of tropical and other animals,
whose bony fragments have been found in Germany and in Eng-
Jand, assembled in vast congeries in the interior of one and the
same class of secondary rocks; containing also in their substances,
in numberless instances, fragments of shells and other marine organic
remains ; were there enyeloped, after transportation and deposition,
by the substance of the rock during its pristine state of fluidity in the
bottom of the primitive sea; just as the shell was unquestionably
involved by the same substance during its pristine state of fluidity,
and in no other manner ; that the cavity in which they are found,
was originally moulded upon the general surface of the aggregated

* Geological Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 10.

of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies. 313

mass, as the nidus of the shell was unquestionably moulded upon
its surface ; and that the orifices and channels in the rock, which
communicate with those internal cavities, were produced by one,
or other, or all, of the causes which have been described.”

The phenomena of the cave at Kirkdale, (which are too well
known to our readers to require that we should detail them in this
place,) appear to have been produced by such operations on the
large scale, but very different are the deductions which the elo-
quent professor of mineralogy (as Mr. Penn justly styles the au-
thor of the Reliquie Diluviane) has drawn from them. Accord-
ing to the hypothesis which he has framed to account for the phe-
nomena, (which, at the outset, he observes, ‘‘ seem calculated to
throw an important light on the state of our planet at a period
antecedent to the last great convulsion which has affected its sur-
face,’ and ‘ that they afford one of the most satisfactory chains
of consistent circumstantial evidence that he has ever met with in
the course of his geological investigation;”) the limestone existed
in its present consolidated state, and with its present cavity, at the
time when the animals, whose exuvie were found there, were
lodged withinit—and from the disproportion between the dimen-
sions of the orifice of the cave, and the natural bulk of the larger
animals, (elephant and rhinoceros,) he infers that they must have
been introduced by the exertion of some of the smaller, viz., the
hyznas, either by individual industry, or ‘ acting conjointly with
others, piece-meal and by fragments, into the small recesses in
which they are found.” ‘* The more rational idea,” (more rational
than the fanciful causes hitherto assigned to similar animal phe-
nomena) ‘ that the fossil exuviz were drifted northwards by the
diluvial waters from tropical regions,” says Mr. Buckland, ‘‘ must
be abandoned on the authority afforded by the den at Kirkdale ;
and it now remains only to admit, that the animals must have in-
habited the countries in which their bones are found*.” The cave
in question he therefore considers to have been the habitation, dur-
ing a long succession of years, of a colony of hyznas, who
dragged into its recesses the other animal bodies, ‘‘ whose remains
-are found mixed indiscriminately with their own ;” the probability
of which idea he contends is supported by the comminuted state
and apparently gnawed condition of the bones, and he adds, “ this
conjecture is rendered almost certain by the discovery I made of
many small balls, of the solid calcareous excrement of an animal
that had fed on bones, resembling the substance known in the old
Materia Medica, by the name of album grecumt,” and which the
keeper of the menagerie at Exeter Change, immediately recognised,
as resembling, in form and appearance, the feces of the Cape
hyena. ‘I do not know,” continues the Professor, ‘‘ what more
conclusive evidence than this can be added to the facts already

* Reliquie Diluviane, p.173+ + Ibid. p. 20°

314 Supplement to the Comparative Estimate

enumerated to show that the hyzenas inhabited this cave, and were
the agents by which the teeth and bones of the other animals were
there collected *.””? On these inferences, Mr. Penn remarks, “ thus
that most complete and satisfactory chain of consistent circumstantial
evidence, stated in the first instance, does not appear to connect
any thing more than the general conclusion that the animals lived
in Yorkshire, with the premises that their remains are now found
there ;” and he compares the process by which those inferences are
obtained, to that by which the mineral geology, peremptorily in-
ferred from the spherical figure of the earth that ‘ it really was
once fluidt.”

Our author then proceeds to adduce several insurmountable
objections, to which he contends that the hypothesis of the hyzna’s
den is liable, which we shall briefly recapitulate.

1. It has omitted to inquire whether the careasses of those
animals being moveable Lodies, might not have been removed to
their actual stations? Whether any power capable of removing
them exists in nature? Whether such power has ever been
brought into actual operation ?

2. The cave at Kirkdale contains innumerable bones, not
only of the larger quadrupeds, but also of water rats; all of which
animals were, by the hypothesis, imported by the hyzenas for the
purposes of food. Now the bones of the larger animals resisted
the teeth of the hyenas, and were only gnawed, by them; but the
same cannot be argued of the innumerable bones of water rats
which equally remains. ‘ The presence of their minute and mas-
ticable bones, therefore refutes the cause assigned for the presence
of the large and unmasticable bones, for no one would conclude that
the hyzenas spared the bones of rats, merely because they could not
masticate those of elephants. Certainly not, replies the hypo-
thesis, ‘ but in masticating the bodies of these small animals with
their coarse conical teeth, many bones, and fragments of bones,
would be pressed outwards through their lips, and fall neglected to
the ground }’.

“‘ This retort is indeed quite unexpected ; yet surely, if we ever
witnessed the fate of a mouse in a cat’s mouth, we are perfectly
competent to judge whether so small and friable a mouthful as the
body of a water rat within the jaws of a hungry hyena, would be
likely, notwithstanding the coarse conical teeth of the latter, to
eject any bones or fragments of bones to testify of its fate;” and
even if it did, Mr. Penn insists on the improbability that they
should have remained neglected, in the presence of so many hyenas,
young and old, as the hypothesis assumes to have co-existed in
the cave, taking into the account the excessive greediness for
bones, which the hypothesis tells us they are remarkable for.

* Reliquie Diluviane, p.21. t Comparative Estimate, p. 34, §c.
f Relique Diduviane, p. 34.

of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies. 315

“The hypothesis, moreover, asks, ‘ if bears eat mice, why should
not hyenas eat rats?’ I know no reason why they should not;
but if they are so peculiarly fond of bones, and yet so awkward as
to drop them in the actual eating, it is most probable they would
have gratified their natural propensity as soon as they felt the calls
of hunger return, instead of neglecting them, and that they would
thus have converted them into a much more proportionate quantity
of album grecum, than appears by the report to have been dis-
covered in the cave.” The hyzna’s fondness for bones, therefore,
becomes a “ strong presumptive evidence that this rich treasury
of bones of all magnitudes was never in the power of a confra-
ternity of hyenas ‘ whose habit it is to devour the bones of their
prey *? ”

3. Our author questions the certainty that the small balls,
called album grecum, were really the excrement of the hyxna, and
supposes they may have been merely accidental conglobations of
the sediment in the cave, which is stated to have consisted of a
soft mud, or loam, mixed with much calcareous matter, which seems
to be derived, in part, from comminuted bonest. ‘This strikes us
as the weakest part of our author’s objections to the hypothesis,
and we think he must have forgotten that the album greecum was
submitted to analysis by Dr. Wollaston, ‘* who found it to be com-
posed of the ingredients that might be expected in fecal matter
derived from bones, viz., phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, and
a very small proportion of the triple phosphate of ammonia and
magnesiat.” No mention is made of the presence of alumina
which must have been found in them had the balls been formed of
the sediment of the cave, the substance of which is said to have
been an argillaceous and slightly micaceous loam §, mixed with
the calcareous matter, Sc. ‘Ihe conjecture with which Mr. Penn
concludes this head, is more forcible; ‘ if the animal feces could
have remained in the cave undissolved by the diluvial waters, which
the hypothesis supposes to have occupied tt during the period of
their continuance on the earth, an accumulation of the same sub-
stance would probably have been discovered underneath the diluvial
mud, answering by proportion to the number of those inhabitants
in their succeeding generations, and to the duration of their te-
nancy; which does not appear to be the case from the terms of the
report.”

4. The supposed marks of hyzenas’ teeth on the larger bones,
Mr. Penn very rationally conceives may be attributed to a varicty
of totally different causes, and very justly exclaims, “ it is too
much to call upon us in this period of the world to acknowledge the
remarks on antediluvian bones found in Yorkshire, for evidences of

* Reliquiea Diluviane, p. 37. — t Ibid. p.10, — F Lid, p. 20.
§ Lbid., p. 10.

316 Supplement to the Comparative Estimate

hyenas’ tecth, and to make the truth of geology to depend abso-
lutely upon that acknowledgment.”

5. The finding, ina German cave, of the “bones of a bear, so
small that it must have died immediately after its birth,” is no
proof, as the hypothesis contends, ‘‘ that animals lived and died
through successive generations in the cave in which we find their
remains,” for since the diluvial waters swept away at once an en-
tire animal creation, of all ages and generations, where we find the
exuyize of the old, we shall expect to find the exuviz of the young
also, ‘‘ and then the remains of a hyena cub in England, or a
bear cub in Germany, will no more testify to their having been born
in those countries, or to their parents and progenitors having liyed
and died in them, than the remains of a drowned puppy on the
beach, or in the drain to which the flux of the tide may have
driven it.”

6, Our author contends that the popular tales collected by
Busbequius (quoted at p. 22, of the Reliquie Diluviane,) cannot
lay claim to much authority at the present day, and that it does
not appear from natural history that it is the custom of hyenas,
and other beasts of prey, to convey their booty toa den, ‘ and that
always the same den,” and there to devour it. On the contrary,
natural history informs us, that lions, and other carnivorous ani-
mals ravenously devour their food on the spot where they seize it,
leaving behind them what they do not immediately consume; and
Campbell says*, that these remnants form a considerable part of
the food collected by the Africans during the period called the
Bushman’s harvest. Mr, Penn concludes, therefore, ‘ that the
hyzena’s den of the hypothesis had never any more relation to
reality and fact, than the lion’s den of ancient A’sop;” that those
animals eat bones only when they cannot get flesh, and thatif ‘“ the
violence of the diluvial waters” has swept away the heaps of bones
which Busbequius asserts the modern hyenas of his day collected
round their dens, and which, consequently, cannot now be shown,
“itis only the more necessary that the hypothesis should show us
the inside bones of the dens of modern hyznas.”

7. He denies that natural history supports the assertion that
hyzenas divide large carcasses into small portions in order to con-
vey them through a small orifice, either by individual labour, “ or
acting conjointly with others.”

“ But that which constitutes the most weighty and really im-
portant objection to this ingeniously inventive hypothesis, is its
direct contradiction of the philosophical conclusions of the Mo-
saical geology, whilst it is unprovided with any counter prin-
ciples, deduced from that or any other geology, of virtue to in-
validate those conclusions.” The hypothesis is founded on the

¥ Travels to South Africa, vol. ii. p. 19, 20,

of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies. 317

superficies of present and sensible phenomena, and seems afraid
of venturing to ascend to the principles which generated them.
“ The Reliqguie Diluviane has indeed ably and unanswerably
added to the demonstrations of the truth of the sacred history of
a deluge ; not by hypotheses of hyzenas’ dens, but by its sagacious
discrimination between alluvial and diluvial productions; and by
its enforcement of the amazing proofs of inundation a¢ high levels ;’’
and the conviction we thus obtain of the truth and consistency of
the sacred historian in this respect, stimulates us to seek the same
character in his history of every thing which preceded that event,
up to the hour of creation.

By combining the history, given us by Moses, of the creation,
with his history of the destruction of the former earth, and by
comparing both with the actual phenomena of our globe, ‘“ we
have found the most powerful evidences conspire to substantiate
the transport of the dead bodies of a former animal creation, from
the tropics towards the poles,” but none to support the sup-
position of the hypothesis, that animal genera, now confined to
the tropics, once inhabited northern Europe; none that the rela-
tions of the sun and the circles of the earth have ever so much
varied as to produce the climate of the torrid zone in the polar
vicinities of the temperate, essential to that supposition. In short,
the point at issue resolves itself into this question ; ‘‘ Whether the
exuviz went to a polar climate, or a polar climate has come to the
exuvie.”

Buffon supposed our earth to be a bit of the sun knocked off
by a blundering comet, and that it gradually cooled as it passed
through space; ‘ the eminent author of the hypothesis of the
hyzena’s den” cautiously abstains “ from committing himself by
any opinion as to what the cause of the change of climate was ;”
nevertheless he decidedly thinks that the presence of the remains
of tropical animals at Kirkdale, proves them to have been ante-
diluvian inhabitants of Britain, and that, therefore, the northern
latitudes were probably warmer before the deluge, than they are
at the present day. The direct contrary to this is asserted and
supported by Daines Barrington*, who says, ‘ that the seasons
have become infinitely more mild in the northern latitudes than
they were sixteen or seventeen centuries ago;” and the Abbé
Man concludes from numerous testimonies that all the countries
from Spain to the Indies, and from Mount Atlas to Lapland, have
passed from extreme humidity and cold to a great degree of dry-
ness and warmthf.

* Philosophical Transactions for January 18, 1768.

+ Memoires sur les grandes gélées, §c.

The increasing temperature as we descend into deep mines, has lately
been adduced as an argument in favour of the hypothesis of the gradually
diminishing heat of the earth. The following solution of the phenomenon

318 Supplement to the Comparative Estimate

This must be so if our earth was the former sea bed, but if its
surface was merely covered by the diluvian waters, for about
twelve months, though they might fora time have caused a lower
temperature than prevailed in it prior to the deluge, yet it would
eventually recover, on drying, its original temperature, but by no
means become hotter than before. ‘Thus, to whatever period we
refer, we find the climate of Siberia or Yorkshire equally un-
adapted, as at the present day, for elephants, hyenas, §c., to
have lived in them, and “that discovery becomes collateral de-
monstration, that the animals, whose remains are found in them,
did not arrive there in a state of life, but of death, and therefore
at the period and by the means which we have been enabled to in-
vestigate and assign.”

In the German cave mentioned by Cuvier, scarcely any exuvize
of graminivorous animals were found; their contents consisted
chiefly of the bones of bears, mixed with those of the hyena, wolf,
fox, tiger, §c. The difference between these animal associations
and those of the Kirkdale cave, sufficiently indicates them all to
have been as fortuitous as those in the Val d’Arno confessedly
are; and although the hypothesis would account for the absence
of graminivora, by supposing the bears to have preferred vegetable
to animal food, the attempt cannot explain why they are associated

has been proposed by Mr. Miller. (Zrans. Wern. Soc. vol. iv. part 2; and
Annals of Philosophy, New Series, vol. vi.

The system of ventilation adopted in mines, causes a current of air to de-
scend from the surface, and to traverse the deepest workings, and afterwards
to ascend. ‘The air thus sent to the bottom is necessarily condensed in pro-
portion to the depth of the mine, and from its diminished capacity for heat, has
its temperature proportionately elevated. “ The air, thus heated, traverses the
works, and imparts its heat to the strata ; it then ascends, and is succeeded by
a fresh portion. of air from the surface, which in the same way hecomes heated,
and imparts its heat to the strata, and they, in turn, communicate it all around.
Thus in a long course of working in a deep mine, the air at the bottom is heated,
and also the rocks to a considerable depth ; and when the working ceases,
the mine takes along time to lose its temperature ; and this is found to be the
case, particularly when the mine becomes full of water, the water being found
at first of a high temperature, and gradually to lose its heat, which is in con-
sequence of the strata imparting theirs to the water, and as soon as they have
given out all their heat, the water indicates the mean temperature nearly of
the place.

“The reverse takes place in an old mine when re-worked ; in that case, the
temperature rises gradually as the working continues ; and in those mines
which are not worked, but in which the ventilation still goes on, I believe it
will be found that they do not lose more of their temperature than can be
placed to the abstraction of the other causes of heat in working mines, such
as that produced by the men and the lights.

“The exact quautity of heat given out by air in proportion to its conden-
sation, it is difficult to ascertain, but every day’s experience proves it to be
very considerable; and, I believe, this, added to the other obvious sources of
heat in mines in a state of working, will be found sufficient to account for their
high temperature.” f

We believe so too,

of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies. 319

in the same cave with hyenas and other carnivorous. animals.
But these German bones are never rolled or triturated, and there-
fore cannot have been brought from a distance by the waters. But
water can carry on its surface as well as drive along zts channel,
and bodies can be moved before, as well as after they are reduced
to skeletons.

We may add, that if naked skeletons had been transported by
being driven along by the waters over the bed of the tumultuous
ocean, it is hardly possible, but that all of them must have been
crumbled to dust before they could have travelled to any considera-
ble distance. In short, comparing all the evidence, we may safely
conclude, that ‘‘ the same cause that floated from a southern
latitude the solitary alligator, found within the limestone rock in
Dorsetshire, floated also, from the same quarter, the consociated
elephants and hyenas, found within a limestone rock in Yorkshire ;
and that the same operation that kneaded shells into the limestone
rocks of Portland, plunged both the individual and the compound
body in the limestone paste, in whose indurated substances, they
have at length been severally discovered :” and ‘ the concentrat-
ing weight and contractile force of the limestone, while drying,
settling, and consolidating its substance, appears completely to
account at once, both for the narrow space into which the mul-
titudinous exuvize have become compressed, and for the necessary
consequence of the bones, previously shattered and fractured in
their transport, being more extensively and variously split and
broken to pieces.” And such is the state of the fossil remains in
the close and solid strata of Paris, and so Cuvier accounts for
them, without the agency of “ hyenas to break them up in order to
extract the brains and marrow.”

For our author’s answer to Mr. Buckland’s conclusions that the
phenomena of the Kirkdale Cave decisively establish the fact that
the exuviee of the animals found in it, were not driven northwards
by diluvian currents from more equatorial regions, but that the
animals themselves were inhabitants of antediluvian Britain ;—
that a probable change of climate in the northern hemisphere;
seems to follow from this circumstance ; as well as the other im-
portant consequence, that the present sea and land have not
changed places, we must refer our readers to the Supplement itself,
lest we should do injustice to its logical precision and force, by
attempting to abridge it. From the same motive, we forbear to
dwell on his reasoning, to shew that the vertical fissures, in the
present surfaces of limestone rocks, together with their caverns,
are necessarily post diluvian, with a great mass of powerful argu-
ment against the general geological inferences contained in the
Reliquie Diluviane, and many minuter details from which those
inferences are deduced.

The following passage, however, is too forcible to be omitted or

320 Supplement to the Comparative Estimate

abridged. ‘ Had the cave with all its actual attendant cireum-
stances, occurred in a primitive rock, as granite, then, indeed, there
would have been a wide field for conjecture, (as to how the bones
got in,) and a heavy necessity for resorting to the invention of
hypothesis to find a plausible solution of the difficulty; then
indeed, we must perforce have conceded to him, (Professor
Buckland,) his proposition, that the ‘ bones found within it, were
lodged in the cavities which contain them at periods long subse-
quent to the formation and consolidation of the strata in which the
cavity occurs.’ But as soon as it is thoroughly ascertained that
the rock which encloses them is not of primitive but of secondary
formation, bearing its own demonstration of former fluidity in a sea
bed ; as soon as it is farther ascertained that all the rocks, in whose
interior similar acervations have been discovered, are of the same
secondary formation ; then we refuse to concede his proposition,
because all reason for making the concession is taken away, and
all necessity of resorting to the improbable anomaly, that tropical
animals once /ived in the northern regions where their bones are
found, ceases at once.” —‘‘ The consolidation of the Kirkdale lime-
stone subsequently to the introduction of the animals, is therefore to
be maintained on principles sounder, more simple, more probable,
and more strongly attested, than any which have been or can be
adduced to show, that indigenous hyenas once quartered indi-
genous elephants in the North Riding of Yorkshire ; which never-
theless constitutes the essence, nay, the very vital principle, of the
hypothesis.”

Having thus shewn that the phenomena altogether fail in proving,
that the Kirkdale cave ‘‘ was once a den inhabited by hyznas,” on
which authority alone, Professor Buckland considers that the
“rational idea that the fossil exuvize were driven northward by the
diluvial waters from the tropical regions, can be disproved,” our
author concludes this part of the subject in the following words.
“‘ With this great question, thus previously solved and settled for
our caution and guidance, with respect to the principles requisite
for correctly reading, interpreting, and resolving the important
geological phenomena described, we may securely take all the
benefit of the wonderful and awful monument of diluvial power and
destruction unveiled to us in the cave of Kirkdale by the energy
of its active explorer; and all the enjoyment of the stores of
antediluvian antiquity, which the Religuie Diluviane has so
liberally laid open to us, and for which our obligations are great
indeed, to its pious, able, and attractive author.”

The remaining pages of the Supplement are occupied by some
masterly observations on the consistency of a literal interpretation
of the terms in Scripture with philosophical inquiry—on the suffi-
ciency of two revolutions only to account for all the actual phe-
nomena of our earth, and the moral eyidence that the six days of

.

of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies. 321

creation are to be interpreted as six natural days, and not as so
many periods of indefinite length.

The last passage we have quoted from our author, will serve to
shew the gentlemanly tone he has assumed, and the respectful
terms in which he speaks of Professor Buckland, whenever he has
occasion to mention him personally—a respect most eminently his
due, and in which with all our heart, we sincerely concur. A
similar tone prevails throughout the whole work, and though the
arguments with whick Mr. Penn supports his own views, are
strong and powerful, they are urged with mildness and urbanity.
If they do not convince, they cannot offend.

But we must not in justice, either to our author, or ourselves,
take leave of him with mere negative commendation. We think
he has fully made out his case, and if any thing was wanting to
satisfy us of the stability of the reasonings contained in the Com-
parative Estimate, and the accuracy of the conclusions deduced
from them, they are in our opinion, amply supplied in the Supple-
ment to this admirable work.

Ill. Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, in which are explained
the Preparations in the Hunterian Collection, illustrated by
Engravings ; to which is subjoined ‘* Synopsis Systematis Regni
Animalis nunc primum ex Ovi Modificationibus propositum,”
by Sir Everarp Home, Bart., V,P.R.S., F.S.A., F.L.S., &e.

In resuming an account of this splendid work, we must, as in the
former article (p. 134), limit ourselves to its principal features only,
selecting especially for our readers’ notice the new facts which it
embraces, and the new views which it discloses and illustrates.

In the first place, we cannot omit recording in our pages the
extraordinary fact, first published by the author, ofan animal, (the
Dugong, in the Eastern Seas, and the Manatee in the great rivers
of the Western Continent,) in which the heart is divided into two
distinct portions of similar structure and equal force, the blood in
its passage through the lungs requiring the same impetus as in
passing through the different parts of the body. There is also a
curious account of a nearly complete fossil skeleton, illustrated by
engravings, which forms in itself, an important and distinct class
of the antediluvian animals no longer met with on our globe.
He gives it the name Proteosaurus, as the class to which it belongs
is intermediate between the lizard and Proteus.

On the subject of generation, the author has taken particular
pains, and has certainly been fortunate in his researches. ‘The
discovery of the human ovum appears to please him more than any

Vou, XVI. Y

322 Analysis of Scientific Books.

other he has made. In the lecture upon that subject, he expresses
himself thus :—

‘‘ The discovery I am about to promulgate, was most undoubt-
edly the result of accident; but similar accidents have before
occurred, without the discovery having been made, and now that
the fact is established, there will not be wanting in every country
of Europe, opportunities of confirming it. But without the aid of
the microscropical observations of a Bauer, the fact even now,
could not have been satisfactorily established, and with that assist-
ance I have met with it a second time. ;

** That the professor of Comparative Anatomy to this college,
should in his lectures be enabled to prove to demonstration the
origin of the human foetus, which the great Harvey, who gave
lectures upon the same subject in the neighbouring College of
Physicians, was unable to discover, must be gratifying to every
one of our members.”

The mode in which the discovery is detailed, is so clear and
distinct, and at the same time so interesting to ail who prosecute
anatomical pursuits, that we shall indulge our readers with it.

‘In this examination I was assisted by Mr. Clift: on observing
accurately the right ovarium, there was upon the most prominent
part of its external surface, a small ragged orifice; this induced
me to make a longitudinal incision in a line close to this orifice,
and a canal was found leading to a cavity filled with coagulated
blood, surrounded by a narrow yellow margin, in the structure of
which, the lines had a zigzag appearance.

“ The cavity of the uterus was then opened, by making an incision
through the coats from each angle, and where these met in the
middle, a third incision was continued down through the os tincze.
The three angles were turned back, so as to expose the cavity, and
the sides were gently separated from each other, The os tine
was completely blocked up by a plug of mucus, so that nothing
had escaped by that passage; the orifices leading to the fallopian
tubes were both open, and the inner surface of the cavity of the
uterus was composed of a beautiful efllorescence of coagulable
lymph, resembling the most delicate moss. This efflorescence had
fibres of a greater length on the posterior surface, a little way
beyond the os tincee than-at any other part. Being certain that
nothing could have escaped, I began gently shaking the efflorescent
fibres with a needle point, and said to Mr. Clift, that if we found
any thing it would be in that part. During this examination, the
whole of the uterus was immersed in spirit, and the needle point
in its movements brought. a small transparent body above the
surface of the efflorescence of coagulable lymph, but it immediately
sunk again; I raised it a second time, and saw distinctly that the
moment it was exposed to the spirit, it became opaque ; it had an

Home on Comparative Anatomy. 328

oval shape. I cried out, ‘We have got it;’ Mr. Clift less
sanguine, and not seeing the’ change of colour, my eye being
directly over the basin, believed it was only a little coagulated
lymph. Perfectly satisfied that I had got the ovum, I went imme-
diately to Mr. Bauer, that he might submit it to the test of the mi-
croscope, and by this means, have the fact completely confirmed.”

That all animals originate from an ovum, formed in the ovarium
of the female, and afterwards impregnated, has been an opi-
nion universally believed ever since the time of Harvey, but
it is to our author, that we are indebted for the demonstrative
proof of such an opinion; to him also is the merit due of having
ascertained the real use of the corpus luteum, which before was not
at all understood. He also has set to rest all the vague theories
respecting generation, having by his experiments and observations,
brought forward facts explanatory of all the occurrences, in the
different stages of that most curious and wonderful operation.

The mode of breeding of the marsupial animals, in which the
ovum never becomes attached to the uterus, and that of the orni-
thorhyncus which lays its eggs in the same manner as the bird,
while they connect classes of animals together, in other respects
so different from one another, will be found to be highly interest-
ing to the philosopher, and indeed to all those who are admirers
of the works of nature. That an animal should exist with so
many remarkable peculiarities is so extraordinary, that some
of the best anatomists of the present day, not having a concep=
tion that there could be such a construction of parts, and the
specimens under their examination not being well preserved,
entirely overlooked the fact. As we are not venturing to attempt
more in this short article than to point out to our readers the most
prominent facts which the author has laid before the public, we shall
pass over what is said upon the breeding of cold-blooded animals,
in which there are two sexes, and go at once to the account of
those that impregnate themselves. And in this place we are
ready to admit that there is a reason beyond those already given,
that prevents us from venturing too far into these terre incognite
of science, lest we should commit ourselves, either on the one side
in praising, or on the other in condemning opinions, because we
ourselves do not understand them; we therefore, repeat here, that
it will require the confirmation of future labourers in the wide field
of comparative anatomy, to confirm or refute the statements given
by the author.

That he was the first who had the opportunity of examining the
internal structure of the Teredines, and shewing, that an animal
of the same description was met with in India, of so gigantic a size
as to exceed inan equal degree the Teredo Navalis, met with in
our ships, as the Clamp of New South Wales does the common
oyster, is fully established by ai? account many years ago in the

2

324 Analysis of Scientific Books.

Philosophical Transactions, and, to him we also owe the discovery
of its possessing both male and female organs, and that it both
formed the ova in the ovarium, and afterwards impregnated them.
Having established this mode of generation in the teredines, he
found the lamprey, the common eel, and the conger, to be so
many different tribes of self impregnating animals. His merit
upon these subjects is, however, not all his own. He is indebted
to Mr. Bauer and Mr. Clift for their exertions in making drawings
illustrative of the facts he brings forward, and had he not been so
assisted, many doubts would certainly have hung over a great
part of his labours.

He has been the means of enabling Mr. Bauer to immortalize
his name, by a series of drawings of internal parts of the earth
worm, and the progress that takes place in the formation of the
chick, during the process of incubation, which we may venture to
say will probably never be excelled. That the first part formed
in that process is the brain and spinal marrow ; the heart, arteries,
and the other parts, being all secondary, their structure not aris-
ing out of the molecule itself, but depending upon the supplies
derived from the yelk and albumen, are so many original facts of
the highest physiological importance.

So much for our account of this valuable work, which were there
not one single word of letter press, would be a great accession to
anatomical science, since it contains more than three hundred
plates, by two such distinguished draftsmen as Bauer and Clift.

On the synopsis, which is subjoined, bringing forward a new
scheme for the classification of animals, we must let the author
speak for himself, before we venture upon any remarks of our own.

‘“‘ Every step we advance in the acquirement of knowledge in
comparative anatomy, makes us better acquainted with the
defects that exist in the general systems at present before the
public. The truth becomes obvious, of there being no organ
belonging to an animal except the brain, that will bear us out in
affording characters for a general classification, the structure of
the other organs being varied whenever it was necessary to adapt
the animal to the climate which it is to inhabit, or the food on
which it is to subsist; and the brain we are not sufficiently ac-
quainted with to take as our guide.—There is only one fixed
principle that admits of being laid hold of for that purpose, with-
out which the whole scheme of nature would have been thrown
into confusion. The principle I allude to, is that which prevents
animals differently constructed from breeding with one another at
all, and does not allow those that are more nearly allied, to carry
on the breed beyond one generation.—The ovula of plants was to
botanists, what the molecule in the ovum of the human species and
quadrupeds is to the anatomist ; and till that knowledge was ac-
quired, and the changes produced in it by impregnation, were

Home on Comparative Anatomy. 325

known, with the consequent process to be gone through, by which
the molecule was to become an animated being, no attempt could
be made by the most intelligent physiologist, not even by a Harvey
or a Hunter, in former times, or a Cuvier in our own, to form the
scheme of a general classification upon the principle which is now
brought forward.

The idea of such a scheme originated in finding that the
human ovum, and that of quadrupeds, consisted entirely of the
molecule.

In the kangaroo, that this molecule at its origin, was under the
same circumstances, but that an addition is made to it before it
arrives at the uterus, and in that cavity it is furnished with al-
bumen.

In the opossum of America, the molecule at its origin, has a
yelk connected with it in the ovarium, and in the uterus is sup-
plied with albumen.

In the ornithorhyncus the molecule has a yelk connected with
it in the ovarium, receives albumen in the uterus, passes through
the vagina, and at the cloacus is covered by a calcareous shell
and passes out of the body before it is hatchd.

In the bird the molecule has a yelk connected with it in the
ovarium, has a supply of albumen in the oviduct, and having
no uterus, a shell is formed in the cloacus and the egg is hatched
out of the body.

“So beautiful a series,” as the author calls it, must naturally
have made a strong impression upon his mind, bnt whether it will
bear him out in forming a new system of the animal kingdom, or
what time it will require to bring it to perfection, even if others
who follow after him, should adopt it, which in these cays of
novelty is very problematical, are questions we are not called
upon to answer, and we shall finish this article by an enumeration
of the twelve classes, into which, according to this ne stem
animals are divided.

SYSTEMA,
REGNI ANIMALIS.
NUNC PRIMUM EX OVI MODIFICATIONIBUS PROPOSITUM.

Classes.

1. Echemetroa. Embryo ex ovo in corpore luteo formato evolutus in
utero quocum adheret.

2. Emmetroa. Embryo ex ovo vel in corpore luteo vel in vitello formato,
evolutus in utero a quo solutus.

3, Ecmetroa. Embryo ex ovo vitello instructo et in utero impregnato
incubatione evolutus.

4. Exostoa. Embryo ex ovo vitello instructo et in oviducto impregnato,
incubatione erties :

326 Analysis of Scientific Books.

5. Enaerogenoa. Embryo ex ovo in oviducto impregnato, absque in-
cubatione evolutus.

6. Amphibigenoa. Embryo ex ovo in ovario formato, instructus pulmoni-
bus et branchiis nudis evolutus in aqua.

7. Enhydrogenoa. Embryo ex ovo in ovario formato, branchiis operculo
tectis instructus evolutus in aqua.

8. Metamorphogenoa. Embryo ex ovo in ovario formato, subjectus meta-
morphosi, stigmatibus respirans.

9. Monogenoa. Embryo ex ovo a mare monorchide impregnato, branchiis
instructus.

10. Hermaphoditogenoa. Embryo ex ovo hermaphroditi duplicis.

1]. Autogenoa. Embryo ex ovo hermaphroditi unici.

12. Cryptogenoa, Embryones quorum primordia ignota.

IV. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Jor the Year MDCCCXXIII. Parr.

This part of the Philosophical Transactions contains twelve
papers, illustrated by twenty engravings, the greater part of
which are very creditably executed. The following are the titles
and contents of the communications.

1. The Croonian Lecture. Microscopical Observations on the Suspen-
sion of the Muscular Motions of the Vibrio Tritici, By Francis
Bauer, Esq., F.R.S.

The animalcule described in this paper, is the cause of that disease
in wheat, called by farmers ear-cockles or purples. The diseased
grains include a white globular matter, which, when put into water
displays, in the field of the microscope, hundreds of minute worms
in lively motion, As the water evaporates they dry up and are
motionless, but become as lively as ever, when re-moistened, and
this after-a period of more than six years. By some ingenious
experiments Mr. Bauer shows that the eggs of these vermi-
culi are conveyed into the plant by the circulating sap, and he
succeeded in obtaining infected plants by inoculating healthy
grains of wheat with portions of the vermicular globules. For the
dimensions, aspects, and habits, of these worms we refer our
readers to the author's paper, and to the two beautiful plates
which illustrate it.

2. On Metallic Titanium. By W.H. Wollaston, M.D., V.P.R.S.

Certain small cubes occasionally observed in iron slag, had
generally been regarded as pyritical, but upon minute inspection
Dr. Wollaston observed, that neither their colour, crystallization,
nor hardness, were those of pyrites. ‘These crystals, purified from

Philosophical Transactions. 327

iron by muriatic acid, were insoluble in muriatic, nitric, nitro-
muriatic, and sulphuric acids. Infusible, but oxidated before the
blowpipe, especially by the aid of nitre. Their perfect solution
may be effected by the combined action of nitre and borax, since
the latter dissolves the oxide as fast as it is formed, and presents
a succession of clear surfaces, for fresh oxidation. But as these
salts do not unite by fusion, the addition of soda, as a medium of
union, shortens the process. The fused mass becomes opaque on
cooling by the deposition of a white oxide, which may either be
previously freed of the salts by boiling water, and then dissolyed
in muriatic acid, or the whole mass may at once be dissolved
together.

In either case alkalies precipitate from the solution a white oxide,
which is not soluble by excess of alkali, either pure or in a state
of carbonate. By evaporating the muriatic solution of the oxide
to dryness, at the heat of boiling water, it is freed of any redun-
dant acid, and the muriate which remains is perfectly soluble in
water, and in astate most favourable for exhibiting the charac-
teristic properties of the metal. Infusion of galls gives the well
known colour of gallate of titanium.—The colour occasioned by
triple prussiate of potash is also red, differing from prussiate of
copper, by inclining to orange instead of purple, while the colour
of prussiate of uranium is rather brown than red.

Such experiments show in a concise and satisfactory manner
that the small cubic crystals are titanium, in its metallic state,
which is further proved by their being perfect conductors of very
feeble electricity. ;

That titanium has no affinity for iron, seems evident from the
situation in which the above crystals occur, and “it seems,” says
Dr. Wollaston, “equally indisposed to unite with every other
metal that I have tried.”

Its extreme infusibility renders it improbable that the cubes
should have formed during cooling from a state of fusion; the
author thinks it probable that they have received their suc-
cessive increments by the reduction of the oxide dissolved in the
slag around them; ‘a mode of formation,” he observes, “ to which
we must haye recourse for conceiving rightly the formation in
nature of many other metallic crystals.”

3. On the Difference of Structure between the human Membrana Tym-
pani and that of the Elephant. By Sir Everard Home, Bt., V.P.R.S-

In man the drum of the ear is circular, and its muscular fibres
form radii of equal lengths passing from the centre to the cir-
cumference ; in the elephant it is oval and the muscular fibres are
of unequal lengths, some being more than twice the length of
others. The fine sensibility of the human car to musical sounds,

328 Analysis of Scientific Books.

depends, in the opinion of the author, upon the equality of the
muscles of the tympanum.

4. Corrections applied to the great Meridional Arc, extending from
_ latitude 8° 9' 38".39, to latitude 18° 3' 23.64, to reduce it to the par-
liamentary standard. By Lt. Col. W. Lambton, F.R.S., §c.

It appears from Capt. Kater’s results that Col. Lambton’s
standard scale requires a multiplier of —,000018 to make it agree
with Bird’s standard; and that Ramsden’s bar, used in the tri-
gonometrical survey of Great Britain, requires the multiplier
+,00007. That is to say, with respect to a measurement on the
meridian the degree depending on Col. Lambton’s brass scale must
be multiplied by ,000018, and the product subtracted from the
measure given by the scale, to reduce it to the parliamentary
standard. And the degree depending on Ramsden’s bar, must be
multiplied by ,00007, and the product added to the measure
given by the bar, to reduce it to the standard measure. The au-
thor then proceeds to correct the different sections of his are by
the above factors.

5. On the Changes which have taken place in the Declination of some of
the principal fixed Stars. By John Pond, Esq., Astronomer Royal.

6. Appendix to the preceding Paper—by the same.

The mural circle having been pronounced by Mr. ‘Troughton as
perfect as when first erected, Mr. Pond: resumes his observations,
but finds the discordances which had so much perplexed him still
continue. To place, however, the accuracy of the instrument
beyond all doubt, he contrives an apparatus, which enables him to
observe most of the stars by reflection, from the surface of Mercury;
the result is, that several stars (and particularly those which had
exhibited the greatest anomalies) thus observed, have within a
fraction of a second, the same places assigned to them, as direct
measurement from the pole had previously given them. ‘Ten stars
situated near the zenith, give the horizontal point of the instrument
123° 30’ 29.54, whilst Sirius places at 123° 30’ 29".47, differing”
only seven hundredths of a second. Hence, neither flexure of the
telescope, or change of figure in the instrument, need be appre-
hended. The stars in which a very great deviation toward the
South is found, are Capella, Procyon, and Sirius.

In- the appendix to the above paper, Mr. Pond, finding that
recent observations confirm the results Iiinted at in his last paper,
investigates minutely how far the discordances between his pre-
sent catalogue, and that of Bradley of 1756, and his own of 1813,
may be accounted for, by instrumental error, or erroneous obser-
vation. The consequence of the inquiry is, that the present devia-

Philosophical Transactions. 329

tion of the stars to the south of their predicted places, cannot
originate either in the one, or the other—perceiving also that the
extent of southern deviation, to which any star was liable, might
better be predicted by a reference to its right ascension, than to its
declination, Mr. Pond attributes the discordances to some natural
cause. He observes, that instruments of well known celebrity, are
said to give different results; claims no superiority tor his own
catalogue, from the circumstance of its being nearly a mean he-
tween those of Dr. Brinkley and Mr. Bessel, but considers each of
the latter inaccurate, from flexure of the instruments, with which
they were made—and states that his confidence in the accuracy
of his present observations, and also in the superiority of the
Greenwich circle over all others with the history of which he is
acquainted, is derived from the coincidence in the results, obtained
by direct and reflected vision, each at the same time giving to the
instrument the same horizontal point.

7. On the Parallax of « Lyre, By John Pond, Esq., Astronomer Royal.

The mural circle is here employed, to determine the difference of
parallax, between y Draconis and « Lyre; and also the absolute
parallax of the latter star—every care was taken, to equalize the
temperature of the observatory with that of the outer air, and so
nearly was this effected, that it became a matter of indifference,
whether the observations were reduced by the employment of the
interior or exterior thermometer—and the same results were
obtained, whether two or six microscopes were used ; (a circum-
stance strongly proving, that no cause of error need be expected
from partial expansions of the limb of the instrument;) namely,
that the angular distance between the two stars, measured in
summer and winter, does not differ one tenth of a second—hence
y Draconis and « Lyre have the same parallax, or their difference
of parallax is = o.

Absolute Parallax of « Lyre.

The observations to determine this, were made by reflection as
well as by direct vision; equal pains were again taken to equalize
the temperature of the inner with the outer air, and with the same
success; the same results were procured, whether two or six
microscopes were employed. They indicate that the sensible
parallax of « Lyrze, cannot exceed a very small fraction of a second.
The reason why Dr. Brinkley finds no parallax in y Draconis, a
small quantity in « Cygni, morein « Lyre, &c., Mr. Pond attributes
to the nature of his instrument, which as far as the zenith point is
concerned, may be considered perfect, but which in proportion, as
it is directed from the zenith, becomes less and less perfect.
Mr. Pond concludes the paper thus: ‘ The history of annual

330 Analysis of Scientific Books.

parallax appears to me to be this: in proportion as instruments
have been imperfect in their construction, they have misled ob-
servers into the belief of the existence of sensible parallax. This
has happened in Italy, to astronomers of the very first reputation.
The Dublin instrument is superior to any of a similar construction
on the continent ; and, accordingly, it shews a much less parallax
than the Italian astronomers imagined they had detected. Con-
ceiving that I have established beyond a doubt, that the Greenwich
instrument approaches still nearer to perfection, I can come to no
other conclusion, than that this is the reason why it discovers no
parallax at all.”

8. Observations on the Heights of Places in the Trigonometrical Survey
of Great Britain, and upon the Latitude of Arbury Hill. By B. Bea-
van, Esq. Communicated by Sir H. Davy, Bt., P.R.S.

By levelling to the Grand Junction and other canals, the author
found the country to the north of Arbury Station, suddenly to fall
about four hundred feet, and to continue thus depressed for ten
miles. Such adefect of matter induced him to suppose a south-
ward deflection of the plumb-lime, and by calculating the latitude
of Arbury from that of Blenheim, as determined by previous obser-
vation, he found it five seconds less than shewn by the zenith
sector.

9. On some Fossil Bones discovered in Caverns in the Limestone Quar-
ries of Oreston, by J. Whidbey, Esq.,F.R.S. In a Letter addressed to
John Barrow, Esq., F.R.S. Zo which is added a Description of the
Bones. By Mr. W. Clift, Conservator of the Museum of the College
of Surgeons.

We owe to Mr. Whidbey the important geological fact of the ex-
istence of cavities containing bones, in the solid secondary lime-~
stone of Plymouth, which cavities exhibit no traces whatever of
any external outlet. In his description of the cavern containing
the bones of the rhinoceros, printed in the Philosophical Transac-
tions for 1817, he particularly insists upon the uniform solidity of
the surrounding rock. Sir E. Home tells us that Mr. Whidbey “* saw
no possibility of the cavern having had any external communica-
tion,” and this singular and important circumstance is further veri-
fied as follows. ‘ As in the contract for quarrying there are two
prices, one for rock, and another for clay, earth, and rubbish, and
two officers attend, one for the crown, and the other on the part of
the contractors, who measure the contents of all caverns that contain
clay or other soft materials, it is only necessary to mention that
these officers state, that the rock surrounding the cavern was equally

Philosophical Transactions. 331

hard with the other parts, requiring the same force to blast it;
and that the quarrying was paid for accordingly.’” Phil. Trans.
1817. p. 177.

In the Philosophical Traxsactions for 1821, Mr. Whidbey de-
scribes some similar caverns, all surrounded by compact limestone
rock, “ none of which had the smallest appearance of ever having
had any opening to the surface, or connexion with it whatever, or
with each other ;” he then goes on to say, that “ many caverns
have been met with in these quarries, the insides of which have
been crusted with stalactite, but there was no appearance of this
kind in the cavern were the bones were found, every part of it
being perfectly dry, and nearly clear of rubbish ; a circumstance
which clearly proves it had no connexion with the surface, as in
that case water would have found its way into it, the dropping of
which would have formed stalactite as in other instances.” Phil.
Trans. 1821. p. 134.

In the present communication a cavern is described which, like
the former, exhibits no evidence of any decided external commu-
nication or outlet, though the evidence to this point is perhaps not
so satisfactory as that adduced in the former papers, to which we
beg the particular attention of our geological readers, as impor-
tantly bearing upon Mr. Granville Penn’s arguments noticed in
a preceding article.

Mr. Clift has added to this communication a perspicuous de-
scription of the bones which are those of the bos, the deer, the horse,
the hyena, the wolf, and the fox. The bones formerly found
were those of the rhinoceros, bear, and antelope.

10. On the Chinese Year. By J. F. Davis, Esq., F.R.S.

One of Mr. Davis’s objects in this paper appears to be, to shew the
folly of attributing any thing original in astronomical science to the
Chinese, who were entirely ignorant of its objects and principles,
before its introduction into their empire by the Arabians, and
afterwards by the European missionaries. On this one subject, says
the author, that singular nation has deviated from its established
rejudices and maxims against introducing what is foreign,—they
pide eyen adopted the errors of European astronomy, for he dis-
covered in a Chinese book, the exact representation of the
Ptolemaic system,—he adds “ indeed it is impossible not to smile
at the idea of attributing any science to a people whose learned
books are filled with such trumpery as the diagrams of Fo-hi, and
a hundred other puerilities of the same kind.” Mr. Davis offers
several other proofs of the talent which the Chinese possess of
stealing the discoveries of other nations and appropriating them
to themselves. ;
The author proceeds to show that the Chinese have no solar

332 Analysis of Scientific Books.

year, but that the Chinese year is in fact a lunar year, consisting
of twelve months of twenty-nine and thirty days alternately,
with the triennial intercalation of a thirteenth month to make it
correspond more nearly with the sun’s course.

11. Experiments for ascertaining the Velocity of Sound at Madras in
the East Indies. By J. Goldingham, Esq., F.R.S,. ;

This paper is so full of minute details, and abounds in such ex-
tended tables of results, that we shall not attempt to abridge the
data upon which its conclusions are founded. The mean velocity
of sound, deduced from the experiments is 1142.34 feet in a
second.

12. Onthe Double Organs of Generation of the Lamprey, the Conger
Eel, the Common Eel, the Barnacle and Earthworm, &c, By Sir E.
Home, Bt., V.P.R.S.

It is impossible intelligibly to communicate to our readers the
curious contents of this paper, without the aid of the five magnifi-
cent plates engraved from Mr. Bauer’s drawings, with which it is
illustrated.

[The pressure of other matter, obliges us to postpone our ac-
count of the contents of the second part of the Philosophical
Transactions for 1823, (published in November,) until our next
Number. ]

V, The Elements of Experimental Chemistry. By William
Henry, M.D., F.R.S., &c. The ninth edition, comprehending all
the recent discoveries, and illustrated with ten plates, by Lowry,
and several engravings on wood. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1823.

Tue inertia of the human mind, and the power of prejudice, are
no where more conspicuous than in the pertinacity with which com-
pilers of scientific works continue in their successive editions to
retain their early classifications of facts, amid the revolutions of
the science itself. Having at first taken some pains to plan an
edifice, whose proportions and interior distribution they regarded
with complacency, they are unwilling to demolish and construct it
anew. For the most part, therefore, they content themselves with
some petty alterations in its exterior, which may harmonize it a
little with modern improvement, and with replacing the decayed
aud obsolete furniture of some of the apartments, by other more
substantial and appropriate.

Henry’s Chemistry. 333

The respectable author of the Elements of Experimental Che-
mistry had suffered himself, for the preceding two or three editions
of his popular work, to fall under the above description. A
book, however, intended especially for students, derives a great
part of its value from the justness and felicity of its arrangements.
Chemical phenomena have been, of late years, so repeatedly exhi-
bited to the world in so many publications, and are, generally
speaking, so clear and uncontroverted, that there is little merit in
their mere collection. It is the skilful initiation of the Tyro’s mind
into the methods of chemical research, and the natural collocation
and development of details, both as to the facts themselves, and
the means by which they were discovered, that are required and
expected from the author of an elementary work. In these re-
spects, the model offered by Lavoisier has been too little imitated
by late compilers of systems. By studying the elements of that
philosopher, the mind not only gets stored with a series of impor-
tant facts, but acquiring imperceptibly logical force and precision,
becomes fitted for conducting independent investigations. How
different an impression is made on the student’s mind, by some of
our late systematic performances. A multitude of objects is ex-
hibited to his view, like a phantasmagoreal dance, calculated to
bewilder and fatigue the most resolute ; and altogether to deter
the less zealous from entering this hermetic labyrinth.

The genuine principles of chemical classification were first
established by Davy, in his Bakerian Lectures of 1806, 1807,
and 1808. Here the electrical relations of the elementary or
undecompounded bodies, and of many compounds were demon-
strated ; relations which served as the basis of his arrangement in
the Elements of Chemical Philosophy, which he published in 1812,
Berzelius indeed has long regarded the electrical relations of
chemical bodies, as the ground-work of their classification, but
his notions on electro-chemistry are not unfrequently obscure and
hypothetical *.

Oxygen, chlorine, iodine, and fluorine, besides their electrical
properties, have other characters so prominently defined, as to
entitle them to a primary and peculiar place in chemical systems.

' *We are sorry to observe that our censure of some of the hypotheses of Ber-
zelius, and more especially of his system of symbols and formule, (which we
shall, nevertheless, continue duly to administer as occasion may require’ has
been mischievously misrepresented as a personal attack upon the Professor,
for whose talents, industry, and analytical skill we entertain the highest re-
spect, and therefore beg leave to deprecate any such interpretation of our re-
marks. The most useful, judicious, and skilful, are sometimes mistaken in
the estimate of their own powers ; “ optat Ephippia Bos piger; optat arare
caballus.” The high character of Berzelius as an acute and successful analyst,
and the ability with which he has handled some of the most abstruse theore-
tical departments of chemistry, gave a mischievous authority to his hypotheti-
cal speculations, and our animadversions have been, and willbe, solely con-
fined to the latter,

334 Analysis of Scientific Books.

All our respectable British compilers seem now fully possessed
with this idea. But M. Theeand, in his third edition (1821,) of his
excellent 7’raité, has neglected this principle of arrangement alto-
gether, and has consequently created a strange jumble among the
elementary substances. He begins, for instance, with oxygen, and
under this head discusses the theory of combustion and of flame,
as if these phenomena possessed that indispensable connexion with
oxygen, which was the leading article of the Lavoisierian creed.
His next great division comprehends the simple combustibles, non-
metallic, which are distributed in the following order; hydrogen,
boron, carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, selenium, chlorine, iodine, and
azote. Thus many of the most beautiful chemical analogies are
violated, to the no small perplexity of the student.

Dr. Henry has at length in this edition adopted as the basis of
his arrangement, that originally given in Sir H. Davy’s Elements,
and followed up and extended in Mr, Brande’s Manual. In the
sequel of the introduction (which is the introductory lecture long
ago delivered in Manchester, and reprinted in the former edi-
tions,) he has given a few paragraphs descriptive of the arrange-
ment of the work.

The first chapter entitled “‘ Of a chemical laboratory and appa-
ratus,” is chiefly a reprint from the former editions. Some formule
are now added by Mr. Dalton, for equating the volumes and spe
cific gravities of moist gases. Mr. Dalton assumes 0.620 as the
specific gravity of aqueous vapour in air at 60° F, and not 0.472
as Drs. Apjohn and Thomson would have it, (See Annals of
Philosophy, May, 1822.) ‘* The specific gravity,” says Mr. Dalton,
‘of pure steam compared with that of common air, under like
circumstances of temperature and pressure, is according to Gay-
Lussac as 0.620 to 1.0.”

But as each species of gaseous matter has its volume equally
affected by change of temperature, the relation 0.620 to 1, will
continue to be equally just at the temperature of 60° F, as at that
of 212°, at which point M. Gay-Lussac’s experiments were made.
Hence we perceive the fallacy of Dr. Thomson’s and Dr. Apjohn’s
determinations in the Annals of Philosophy for April and May,
1822. A more popular view of this important practical subject
should have been given in an elementary work. To a large propor-
tion of chemical students, Mr. Dalton’s exposition will be unin-
telligible. A table might have been given for reducing the volume
of moist air, to that of dry, between the ordinary range of experi-
menting on gases, vzz., from 50° to 70° Fahr.

The second chapter is entitled Chemical Affinity ; under which
head we scarcely expected to find cohesion and crystallization.
Here the principles of corpuscular philosophy are inculcated ; but
Wwe cannot compliment our author, either on the soundness or pro-
fundity of his yiews. His primary enunciation is incorrect, * All

Henry’s Chemisiry. 335

bodies composing the material system of the universe, have a mu-
tual tendency to approach each other, whatsoever may be the
distances at which they are placed.’’ Newton established, on the
contrary, that when these distances are diminished to a certain
point, the attractive forces cease to operate, and the repulsive
begin to act. This subject has been amply investigated by
Boscovich.

_ In the following sentence, Dr. Henry’s language is contrary to
the usage of all good chemical authors. “ By the affinity of aggre-
gation, the cohesive affinity, or more simply cohesion, is to be un-
derstood that force or power, by whicli particles or atoms of matter
of the same kind, attract each other, the cnly effect of this affinity
being an aggregate or mass.” The term affinity thus employed,
tends to introduce confusion into chemical discussions. Geoffroy
originally used it to designate those relationships between two or
more sets of heterogeneous particles, which caused them to unite
into a compound whole; and every chemical writer since, has we
believe, used affinity as synonymous with the attraction of com-
position, in contradistinction to the attraction of aggregation or
cohesive attraction. In fact, the expression cohesive affinity is a
solecism, for a thing cannot be said to have an affinity or relation-
ship to itself. We might as well say of a person, that he is related
to himself. Precision of language is a primary virtue in an ele-
mentary writer.

In the same paragraph, Dr. Henry goes on to say, ‘* But in com-
pound bodies, we may distinguish the force with which the prz-
mary or component atoms are united, from that which the compound
atoms exert towards each other; the former being united by che-
mical affinity, and the latter by the cohesive attraction.” This is
a metaphysical distinction, which he might as well have let alone,
for probability is against it. In considering for example an atom
of calcareous spar, we may contemplate its solidity as resulting
from the attractive affinity of an atom of carbonic acid for an atom
of lime; or of one atom of calcium, one of carbon, and three of
oxygen. Let a second atom of calcareous spar be brought into
intimate association with the first. The aggregate may be held
together either by the reciprocal affinities of the two ultimate atoms
of calcium, two of carbon, and six of oxygen, or by those of the
two atoms lime and carbonic acid, or by the cohesion of an atom
of carbonate of lime to carbonate of lime. We cannot help recog-
nising the co-operation at least, of the former set of forces in the
formation of the aggregate; for arrange the ultimate atoms in the
solid as we please, still one of carbonic acid will be situated
between several of lime, and will exert a greater or less aflinity
for them all, relative to its position and proximity, and be acted
on by several atoms of lime in return.

_ The first section of the Chapter on Chemical Affinity treats of

336 Analysis of Scientific Books.

cohesion, solution, and crystallization. ‘ The cohesive affinity,”
says Dr. Henry, ‘‘ is a property which is common to a great variety
of bodies. It is most strongly exerted in solids, and in them it is

proportionate to the mechanical force required for effecting their.

disunion. In liquids, it acts with considerably less energy ; and
in aériform bodies, we have no evidence that it exists at all ; for
their particles, as will afterwards be shewn, are mutually repulsive,
and if not held together by pressure, would probably separate to
immeasurable distances. Water also in a solid state has con-
siderable cohesion, which is much diminished when it becomes

liquid, and is entirely destroyed when itis changed into vapour.’ .

We have quoted this passage, not so much for the purpose of
exemplifying the practice too common with some systematists of
filling up their pages with trite and unmeaning generalities, as to

point out its false philosophy. Fully a year before Dr. Henry’s.

work appeared, Dr. Wollaston investigated the constitution
of elastic fluidity in a manner worthy of his genius, and had
shewn, that ‘all the phenomena accord entirely with the sup-
position that the earth’s atmosphere is of a finite extent, limited by
the weight of ultimate atoms of definite magnitude, no longer divi-
sible by repulsion of their parts*.’ It hence appears that air, not
‘“‘ held together by pressure, would (ot) probably separate to im-
measurable distances.”

“* Cohesive affinity,” says Dr. Henry, “ is in solids proportionate

to the mechanical force required for effecting their disunion.” He
should here have distinguished between hardness and tenacity.
He should likewise have bestowed at least a wooden cut or two on
Haiiy’s theory of crystallization; for want of which his account
o; the matter must merely perplex the student. The term reflecting,
however appropriate to the inventor of the goniometer, is not the
correct one for the instrument itself, which was originally named
reflective.

In section 3, of the chapter on Chemical Affinity, Dr. Henry
treats of the proportions in which bodies combine, and of the
atomic theory f.

* On the finite extent of the atmosphere, Read at the Royal Society.
January, 17, 1822.

t As persons, otherwise clear-headed and well-informed, are continually ex-

pressing their inability to comprehend this part of chemistry, we shall en-
deavour to divest it of rigmarol, and to shew them that itis a branch of chemi-

cal theory founded upon a very few and simple facts, which'when once in their

possession, will enable them not merely to understand its principles, but to

appreciate its usefulness and importance. If we subject any true chemical

compound to analysis, we shall find that its elements are always in the same
proportions, and that from whatever source it be derived, or under whatever
circumstances it be formed, they uniformly exhibit the same relative propor—
tion to each other. Water, for instance, is a compound of hydrogen and oxy-
gen, in which the former always bears to the latter, the proportion of | to 8.
In dry sulphate of magnesia or Epsom salt, the sulphuric acid is to the mag-
nesia uniformly as 40 to 20. Pure white marble, whether it comes from Paros

Henry's Chemistry. 337

‘« 3dly. There are many examples in which bodies unite in one
proportion only; and in all such cases, the proportion of the ele-

or from Carrara, or from the Pentelic hill, or from Sutherlandshire, or from
any other part of the world, is composed of 28 parts of lime united to 22 of
carbonic acid: and again 22 parts of carbonic acid, whether extracted from the
said marble, or generated by the respiration of animals, or by the combustion
of coal or wood, or of the diamond, whether poured forth from the surface of
fermenting liquors, or issuing from fissures in the earth, consist in all cases of
6 parts of carbon combined with 16 of oxygen. But it often occurs that bo-
dies combine in more than one proportion, and this happens to be the case
with carbon and oxygen, which besides carbonic acid produce carbonic oxide.
Now in respect to the latter, if we still suppose the weight of carbon to be 6,
that of oxygen is 8, thatis just half the quantity existing in carbonic acid ; and
as on the one hand we find the proportions of the elements of the same com-
pound always in the same relation to each other ; so when one substance com-
bines with another in different proportions, to form different compounds, the
numbers representing the greater proportions, are exact simple multiples of
that denoting the smallest proportion. This doctrine of multiples is of so much
consequence that we shall press another instance or two upon the attention of
our uninitiated readers. There are two oxides of mercury, the black and the
red ; in the former 200 parts of the metal are united to 8, and in the latter to
16 of oxygen. There are 5 compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, and if we
assume the weicht of the nitrogen to be 14, that of the oxygen in the several
compounds is respectively 8, 16, 24, 32, and 40; that is, one, two, three, four,
and five times 8. So much for the doctrine of multiples. To explain another
term used in these disquisitions, let us go back to the marble and Epsom salt.
In the former we have discovered 22 parts of carbonic acid united to 2s of lime,
forming 50 of carbonate of lime or marble, and in the latter we find 40 of sul-
phuric acid combined with 20 of magnesia, producing 60 parts of sulphate of
magnesia or Epsom salt. If we now suppose these elements differently ar-
ranged, forming, for instance, carbonate of magnesia and sulphate of lime, we
shall find them obedient to the same proportions, that is, 22 of carbonic ‘acid
will unite to 20 of magnesia to form 44 of carbonate of magnesia; and 40 of sul-
phuriec acid will be required by 28 of lime to form 68 of sulphate of lime.
Hence is is that the numbers which we have employed to represent the com-
bining weights of the above substances have been termed equivalent numbers.
If we now draw out alist of commonly occurring elementary or compound bo-
dies, and affix numbers to them representing the smallest proportions in which
they combine, in reference to some substance assumed as unity, itis obvious
that such a list will present much useful information ; for instance,

Hydrogen «+ 1 Lime . paag"s 2S
Oxygen... 8 Suda 8s, ae
Water) im, <2 tg Phosphoric acid 28
Sulphur...) 16 Nitricacid . , 54
Sulphuric acid . 40 Potassa , . . 48

Magnesia . + 20

Now from this table it will be manifest that 9 parts of water consist of 1 hy-
drogen ands oxygen.’ That 16 parts of sulphur combined with 24 (that is, 3 times
8) of oxygen constitute 40 of sulphuric acid ; and that 40 of sulphuric acid will
neutralize 90 of magnesia, 28 of lime, 32 of soda, and 48 of potassa, whereas the
same weight of these alkaline substances will be neutralized by 54 of nitric
acid, and by 98 of phosphoric acid. But whilst proceeding with these Iucubra-
tions we had almost forgotten the excellent illustrations of the uses and appli-
tions of sucha system of numbers which Dr. Wollaston has annexed to his
description of his logometric scale of chemical equivalents, published in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1814, to which we refer our readers as infinitely
luminous, and as rendering any rT e of our remarks unnecessary,

Vou. XVI.

338 Analysis of Scientific Books.

ments of a compound, must be uniform for the species. Thus hy-
drogen and oxygen unite in no other proportions than those con-
stituting water, which by weight are very nearly 114 of the former
to 884 of the latter, or 1 to 74.” In his preface he says, “¢ Every
new edition must reject whatever recent experience has proved to
be erroncous.” Now there are two very remarkable errors in the
above sentence. 1, Hydrogen and oxygen were shewn several years
ago by Thenard to unite in other proportions than those constituting
water; and 2, The proportions constituting water are known to be
not 1 to 74 but 1 to8. Chlorine and hydrogen would have fur-
nished Dr. Henry with a much better illustration of a definite soli-
tary combination of two elements.

The third section of the chapter on affinity is devoted to the
atomic theory. Aware of the familiar and daily intercourse which
Dr. Henry enjoys with Mr. Dalton, to whom, indeed he dedicates
his work, we naturally looked for a more elaborate and consistent
exposition of this fundamental subject, than he has given. We
regret also to observe that the name of Richter is suppressed,
though his labours were directed to the doctrines of chemical
equivalents, for some years before Mr. Dalton was known even
to have thought on the subject ; and though Richter furnished the
only rigid method of discovering the atomic weights of neutro-
saline bodies. As to Sir H. Davy’s ideas on chemical combination,
they are evidently (we donot say intentionally) misunderstood by Dr.
Henry. ‘‘ Sir H. Davy,” says he, “ has assumed with Mr. Dal-
ton, the atom of hydrogen as unity; but that philosopher, and
Berzelius, also have modified the theory, by taking for granted
that water is a compound of one proportion (atom) of oxygen, and
two proportions (atoms) of hydrogen.” We do not know where
Dr. Henry has learned this. Sir H. Davy says, ‘* As two volumes
of hydrogen to one of oxygen enter into the composition of water,
the ratio of the hydrogen in water will be to the oxygen as two to
fifteen ; and it may be regarded as composed of two proportions
of hydrogen, and one of oxygen; and the number representing
hydrogen will be 1, and that representing oxygen, 15*. Again,
“ Mr. Higgins has supposed that water is composed of one par-
ticle of oxygen, and one of hydrogen, and Mr. Dalton of an atom
of each; but in the doctrine of proportions derived from facts, it
is not necessary to consider the combining bodies either as com-
posed of indivisible particles, or even as always united one and
one, or one and two, or one and three proportions. Cases will
hereafter be pointed out, in which the ratios are very different ;
and at present, as we have no means whatever of judging either of
the relative numbers, figures, or weights of those particles of bodies
which are not in contact, our numerical expressions ought to relate
only to the results of experimentst.” Hence Sir H. Davy’s pro-

® Elemenia of Chim, Phil. p.112. Ibid. p. 114.

Henry’s Chemistry. 339

portional numbers are those given by experiment, of which the
lowest ratio is one volume of hydrogen. But what must excite
peculiar astonishment in every individual who has studied with any
care the principles of reciprocal and multiple combination, is the
manner in which Dr. Henry here speaks of Gay-Lussac’s theory
of volumes, which is, in truth, a legitimate corollary from the
atomic theory itself. ‘‘ In some instances, as in that of water, this
law (of gaseous volumes) is not inconsistent with the atomic theory;
but in other instances it cannot be reconciled with the rclative weights
assigned to the atoms of certain elementary bodies. In nitrous gas,
for example, which Mr. Dalton conceives to be formed by the
union of one atom of oxygen with one atom of nitrogen, equal
volumes of these gases would give for the relative weights of oxy-
gen and nitrogen, numbers widely differing from those derived by
other methods. The two hypotheses of atoms, and of volumes,
cannot, therefore, both be true; and from some well ascertained
exceptions to the latter, it appears to me that the theory of volumes
will scarcely be found tenable*.”

We really were astonished at this passage, in the ninth edition
of a book, of which the author says, ‘‘ no pains has been spared
to render these volumes a faithful abstract of the present state of
chemistry.” It is an indisputable fact that nitrous gas is con-
stituted by the union of one volume of oxygen, and one volume of
nitrogen, which, retaining their total bulk after combination, afford
a compound gas, of mean specific gravity. Itis another fact, equally
indisputable, that nitrous oxide is constituted by the union of two
volumes of nitrogen, and one of oxygen, which suffer a condensa-
tion equal to the volume of oxygen; whence the gas has a cor-
responding increase of specific gravity. In the first, the com-
parison of the weights of equal volumes, gives the ratio of oxygen
to that of nitrogen as 16 to 14; or 2 atoms to | on Dr. Henry’s
scale. In thesecond case, the same comparison gives the ratio of
8 to 14, or of 1 atom to1, on the same scale, Here, therefore, is
a perfect accordance between the atomic hypothesis, and the theory
of volumes.

But to examine the hypothesis a little more minutely: Let us
assume a volume of oxygen so small as to contain only one atom;
call its relative weight 16; then it will require for saturation, two
such volumes of hydrogen, whose weight will be 2. Next as
sume a yolume of nitrogen equal to the aboye volume of oxygen.
It will contain one atom, and have a relative weight of 14;
which will require for saturation three such volumes of hydrogen.
But three such volumes are impossible, because they imply the bi-
section of Mr. Dalton’s radical and primary atom, which is absurd.

The general fact of volumes requires no such mystifications, as
the Daltonian hypothesis does. In saying so, we do not mean in

Henry’s Hlem. 1.52.
: 79

“a

340 _ Analysis of Scientific Books.

the slightest degree, to disparage Mr. Dalton’s great merit in
establishing, so ably as he has done, the important system of re-
ciprocal and multiple combination. We wish merely to see it
stripped of all such trappings as disguise and disfigure it. Among
‘these, the following two positions of Mr. Dalton, expounded by
Dr. Henry, may be reckoned. 1. That an increase of the density
of a gas, indicates an increased number of simple atoms, associated
an the compound atom. 2. ‘* Moreover, it is universally observed
that of chemical compounds, the most simple are the most difficult
to be decomposed ; and this being the case with carbonic oxide,
we may naturallysuppose it to be more simple than carbonic acid *.”
Dr. Henry clenches the first position as follows :—‘ It would be
absurd to suppose carbonic acid, which is the heavier body, to be
only once compounded, and carbonic oxide, which is the lighter,
to be twice compounded t”

The first position goes to prove that nitrous oxide, a denser gas
than nitrous gas, has an increased number of simple atoms, or is
more than once compounded. Such is Mr. Dalton’s own decision
in this very case. The nitrous gas being the lighter, is the simpler
body, or is only once compounded.

By the second position, however, nitrous gas is no¢ the simpler
body, but is more than once compounded, for it is decomposable
by a great many substances which have no effect on nitrous oxide;
such as moistened iron or zinc filings, muriate of tin, alkaline sul-
phites, and aqueous solutions of sulphurets. Thus nitrous oxide is
*‘ the most simple, as it is the most difficult to be decomposed.”
But by the first Daltonian article, it is the most compounded, or
least simple; which is absurd. We shall leave the framer and
expositor of these fancied axioms, to assist each other in getting
off the horns of the dilemma at their leisure.

We felt, we must confess, a little alarmed when we first heard
Doctor Henry talk so boldly of the “ well-ascertained exceptions”
to the hypothesis of volumes, which were to render “ the theory of
volumes scarcely tenable.” But on hunting after his exceptions
with some curiosity, we could not find one of them forthcoming in
his two volumes. Truly, if the theory of volumes, as developed
by Gay-Lussac, shall be found scarcely tenable, we know of nothing
in chemical science to whith we can venture to attach the anchor
of our belief, for nothing is better demonstrated than that theory.

In the above instances our author has merely mistaken the par-
tial enactments of his ingenious friend, for the laws of nature. But
we shall see him presently enlist his ideas in foreign service, and
‘advance doctrines incompatible with the principles of his English
master, while he fondly imagines himself the true defender of the
faith, .

In section 5th, speaking of Berthollet’s doctrines of affinity, he
very properly quotes Professor Pfaff’s experiments, to prove that

* Henry’s Elem. I, 50. t Lbidem, loco citato.

Henry’s Chemistry. 34)

“ in various cases, when two acids are brought into contact with
one base, the base unites with one acid, to the entire exclusion of
the other.” Dr. Henry might have also adduced the mutual pre-
cipitation of metals from their saline combinations, in which the
displacement is complete, and not partial, as Berthollet’s doctrines
lead us to infer, when the force of cohesion is equally active. Yet
Dr. Henry, in his eighth section, entitled Experimental Illustrations
of Chemical Affinity, seems to lose sight of what he had previously
propounded ; for he prints the following axiom in italics as one to
be illustrated by experiment. “ XIV. In EVERY INSTANCE, in
comparing the affinities of two bodies for a third, a weaker affinity
in one of the two compared will be found to be compensated by
increasing its quantity.” We should like to know what quantity of
Silver or of oxalic acid may be requisite to decompose an ounce of
sulphate of lead.

Dr. Henry’s third chapter is dedicated to Caloric. The facts,
which are distributed into four sections, appear to be well selected,
and fairly stated. In describing M. Breguet’s thermometer, in the
second section, he appears to misunderstand its construction. ‘“ It
consists,” says he, ‘“ of a slip of silver, and another of platinum,
coiled into a spiral, one end of which is fixed, while the other is
connected with an index, which traverses a graduated circular
plate.” There is only one slip, in which the platina and silver are
united face to face with gold solder. The difference of expansion
between the two metals by variation of temperature, causes the
spiral to increase or diminish the degree of its curvature, and thus
makes the needle traverse the graduated circle, attached at right
angles to the axis of the spiral.

The 4th Chapter treats of light, the phenomena of the prismatic
spectrum, solar phosphori, &c.; and in the 5th we have brought
before us the important subject of ‘‘ the chemical agencies of com-
mon and galvanic electricity,” a title which would have pleased us
better, had the words *‘ common and galvanic” been omitted ;
but this is a trifle, and the chapter itself a very good one; it
treats in successive sections of the construction of galvanic appa-
ratus, ofthe identity of galvanism and common electricity ; of the
chemical agencies of electricity ; of the theory by which they are
best explained; of the hypothesis of the origin of electricity in
galvanic arrangements, and of the phenomena of electro-magnetic
‘motion: upon a few of the topics discussed in this chapter, we
must beg leave to offer a few observations.

And in the first place, we should advise our author in his next
edition, entirely to re-model the first section, in which we are
brought at once to the discussion of simple galvanic circles, and
compound galvanic circles, without a word of prefatory matter
respecting the laws of electrical excitation, and the new properties
which bodies acquire whilst under its influence ; we should also

342 Analysis of Scientific Books.

recommend him to erase the second section, and to enlarge and
extend the third, illustrating it by a few wood-cuts of the appara-
tus there referred to. The fourth section entitled ‘‘ Theory of the
changes produced by (galvanic) electricity ;” and the fifth, on the
theory of the action of the galvanic pile, touch upon some very in-
tricate and abstruse parts of chemical reasoning, but upon which
no very satisfactory or luminous conclusions have as yet been ar-
rived at. e are generally led to regard bodies as endowed with
certain inherent or natural electrical states, which render them
either attractive of each other, or of surfaces oppositely electrified ;
we consider these opposite electricities as partially or entirely an-
nihilated by combination, and to this source we may refer that re-
markable extrication of heat and light, which so commonly an-
nounces intense chemical action. We may account for the des-
truction of common chemical attraction between two bodies, by
supposing one of them to have an electrical state opposite to its
natural one conferred upon it; while by exalting the natural elec-
trical energies, we may explain their increased tendency to union,
But all these assumptions are purely hypothetical, and still more
so are those which our author has adduced in reference to the ac~
tion of the pile, that is, to the source of its electricity. When we
know what electricity is, we may presume to talk upon these mat-
ters, but at present we must rest content with a knowledge of
facts and effects, and our stock must be infinitely and diligently
multiplied before we can presume to determine upon the source of
electricity, either in the common machine, or in the pile of Volta.
The sixth section gives a succinct and tolerably correct account
of the most important electro-magnetic phenomena, in which, how-
ever, hypothesis and facts are rather too indiscriminately blended ;
and although we have great respect for Messrs. Arago and Ampere,
we think they have indulged in electro-magnetic speculations, which
border upon absurdity. Our information upon this very curious sub-
ject is extremely limited, and we do not hesitate to ascribe to the
researches of Oersted, Davy, Wollaston, Faraday, and Siebeck, all
that has really and actually been acquired in respect to it. The
grand and important fact that a metallic wire, through which a
current of electricity is passing, affects a magnetic needle, we owe
to M. Oersted. Let us imagine a wire of platinum placed in the
magnetic meridian, and a delicately-sispended magnetic needle
underneath, near and parallel to it; in this state of things nothing
particular. will happen either to the wire or the needle: let us now
connect the extremities of the wire with a voltaic battery, the
right-hand extremity being in contact with the last zinc plate and
the left-hand end with the last copper-plate, so that in the hypo-
thetical language of electricians, a current of electricity may tra-
verse the wire from the right to the left. Under these circum-
stances the magnetic needle will no longer remain pointing N. and

Henry’s Chemistry. 343

S., or in the magnetic meridian, but will be suddenly diverted from
its natural position and place itself at right angles to the wire, its
northern extremity becoming somewhat elevated, and its southern
depressed. If we now reverse the direction of the electric current,
we shall at the same time reverse the position of the needle; its
south end will veer round to the spot formerly occupied by the
N., and vice versd in regard to its, north end. From this statement
we may in some measure anticipate what would happen, when the
wire is placed vertically instead of horizontally, in respect to the
needle,—but we shall not enter into the details of position, least
we perplex the main argument. For all this and much more im-
portant information cofinected with it, we are indebted to Professor
Oersted. It might have been expected that a wire, under the influ«
ence of common electricity, would affect the needle in the same
way as the galvanic conductor; Sir H. Davy instituted experiments
which proved this to be the case, and he showed that to commu-
nicate strong and permanent polarity to a steel bar, it became ne~
cessary to attach it éransversely to the electrified wire, or to place
it in that position at a small distance from it. His researches led
him moreover to a number of curious facts connected with the
communication of magnetism by electricity, and his paper is full of
curious suggestions connected with this inquiry *.

We now come to Dr. Wollaston, who, upon hearing of Oersted’s
discovery, immediately proceeded to convince himself of its cor-
rectness, and to examine into;the theory of the phenomena ;_ the re-
sult of his inquiries led him to infer, if we mistake not, that a cur-
rent or vortex of magnetism was put into motion round the axis of
the conducting wire, consequently, that no fixed magnetic poles
could be observed ; but that the pole of a magnet, on approaching
the conducting wire, would cause it to attempt to revolve upon its
own axis, in a direction dependent upon that of the electric current.
Hence, the idea of magnetic rotation, which has since given rise to
such an amusing multiplicity of apparatus, certainly first occurred
to Dr. Wollaston ; but having established his very ingenious and
satisfactory theory, and having convinced himself and most of his
‘friends, of its adequacy to the explanation of the phenomena, he
seems to have dropped the inquiry, which in respect to rotation
was pursued upon other grounds by Mr. Faraday, who constructed
the first apparatus in which the pole of a magnet was made to revolve
about the axis ofa wire-transmitting electricity. In relation to this
subject, we refer our readers to his papers in this Journal+, and to
his ‘‘ Historical statement respecting Electro-magnetic Rotation. {”

In the course of last year Dr. Siebeck of Berlin, showed than the
electricity excited by heating compound metallic bars, might be
tendered evident by its effect upon a magnetic needle, and Messrs,

* Phil, Trans.1821). ‘+ Vol. xii p» 74 and 416. t Vol, xv. p, 288.

344 Analysis of Scientific Books.

Fourier and Oersted have extended these researches, and. de-
veloped a series of very interesting phenomena, connected with the
generation of electricity in metallic bars by change of temper-
ature. These circuits they call thermo-electric, in opposition to
the common galvanic arrangements which they properly enough
term hydro-electric. Some details of the experiments will be
found in a former Number, under the head of Foreign Science* .

Chapter 6th. On the electro-negative bodies, oxygen, chlorine,
iodine, and fluorine, is clearly and candidly drawn up. The next,
great division contains the electro-positive bodies, subdivided into
groups, each of which occupies a chapter.

Chapter 7th is entitled, ‘“‘ Of simple acidifiable bodies, (not
metallic,) and their combinations with oxygen, chlorine, iodine, and
fluorine.” Here we have the usual six bodies, hydrogen, nitrogen,
charcoal, boron, phosphorus, and sulphur, to which he has added se-
Jenium. We cannotapprove of the single term acidifiable applied to
characterize the above bodies. Nitrogen and hydrogen may as pro-
perly be styled alcalifiable bases, as acidifiable ; for they form ammo-
nia. And when hydrogen combines with chlorine, we may regard the
chlorine as the acidifiable base, as well as the hydrogen. Dr. Henry
should have contented himself with the title electro-positive bo-
dies (non-metallic,) which involves no hypothesis, and to. which no
objections can be urged. The metals, on account of their num-
ber, may indeed, be conveniently subdivided into such as afford
alkalis, earths, oxides, and acids. The details of this chapter
merit equal praise to that which we have bestowed on the pre-
ceding. Under the compound of hydrogen and nitrogen (ammo-
nia) he has introduced the salts formed with this alkali, and the
acids he had previously described. The reasons which he assigns
for this insulation of the ammoniacal salts among the non-me-
tallic electro-positives, and their compounds, do not appear to us
satisfactory.

Chapter 9th contains the metals with their oxides, chlorides,
iodides, and the combinations of the oxides with the previously
described acids, or the salts. His details appear to be correct,
and as minute as the size of his work would admit.

It is in the general discussions or philosophy of chemistry that
Dr. Henry seems to be least at home. Thus in the introductory sec-
tion on the general properties of metals, we find him retailing as
important special laws, propositions which have been long ago
merged. into the great system of chemical equivalents, of which
they constitute particular corollaries. Indeed one of the general
principles advanced by Dr. Henry, is manifestly no general prin-
ciple at all; as we shall presently see.

That the quantity of acid which different metals requre for
saturation is in dircct proportion to the quantity of oxygen in their

* Vol. xv. p.120.

Henry’s Chemistry, 34

oxides was an important fact, when M. Gay-Lussac first announced
it in the second volume of the Mémoires D’Arcueil. But a single
glance at Dr. Wollaston’s scale shews that fact to be merely one
particular aspect of the doctrine of equivalents; and Dr. Henry
should have therefore traced it to its source. The greater the pro-
portion of oxygen in a protoxide, the nearer does its atomic weight,
or equivalent, stand to the beginning of the scale, and of course,
the greater its saturating ratio. Thus, as 100 of lead take 7.7 of
oxygen to form litharge, while 100 of mercury take 4 to form the
black oxide, the former will take a quantity of acid compared to
the latter, as 7.7 to4; for7.7.:4:: 25:13; thatis, the propor-
tions of oxygen in protoxides are invariabiy as the atomic weights
of the metals; and the less the atomic weights, the less of them is
requisite to saturate a given portion of any acid.

“It has been deduced,” says Dr. Henry, ‘* by Berzelius, as a
general principle, from the comparison of a great number of facts,
that in all neutral salts, the oxygen of the acid is a multiplica-
tion of that of the base, by some entire number.’’ The law he ap-
prehends, may be expressed more generally in the following terms :
When two oxidated substances enter into a neutral combination, the
oxygen of that which, in a galvanic circle, would be attracted to the
positive pole, is a multiplication by an entire number of the oxygen
of that which would be deposited at the negative pole. ‘he chemical
associate of Mr. Dalton should have known that this is neither a
general principle, nor a just proposition. The particular facts in
unison with it, which originally misled Berzelius, are those ex-
hibited in the union of avids, containing two or three atoms of
oxygen, with bases containing only one. So far the thing is plain.
Thus sulphuric acid contains three proportions of oxygen, and
will hence afford a threefold multiple, (not multiplication,) of
oxygen, in its combinations with all the protoxides. But in some
of its combinations with the deutoxides, this fancied law is no
longer applicable, but would lead to serious errors. For in them,
the ratio of oxygen in the acid, is not unfrequently to that in the
base, as 3 to 2 or 14 to 1. Again, those acids which contain
two atoms of oxygen, will not, in their compounds with bases
also containing two atoms, give a multiple, but an equal propor-
tion of oxygen. Anhydrous carbonate of copper is in this predi-
cament. If again we consider those acids which contain only one
atom of oxygen, as the phosphorous, the oxygen will be either
a sub-multiple of that in the bases, or equal to it in quantity,
according as it is combined with a deutoxide or a protoxide.
This is also the case with the hyposulphites. Finally, with regard
to some of the nitrates, and chlorates of deutoxides, the relation
of oxygen in the acids, will be to that in the bases as 5 to 2. In
the subnitrate of copper, this relation is as 5 to 4, a proportion
which places in a striking point of view the absurdity of Berze-
lius’s law. If we excuse him on account of the early period when

346 Analysis of Scientifie Books.

it was promulgated, before the theory of equivalents was pro-
perly developed, what defence can Dr. Henry offer, for incorporat-
ing it in his systematic compilation of 1823?

Another supposed law of Berzelius’ which Dr. Henry calls im-
portant, is enunciated as follows: ‘‘ The quantities of different bases
required to saturate a given quantity of any actd, all contain the
same quantity of oxygen.” This is our old friend with a new face.
Let any one take up Dr. Wollaston’s scale, and slide any number op-
posite to a given acid, itis obvious that the number opposite oxygen
is the equivalent to all the protoxide bases in the list. By taking
such partial views, we may fabricate as many canons as we please.

In his general discussion on metallic alloys, Dr. Henry says,
“To estimate exactly, however, either the increase or diminution
of density, requires an attention to several circumstances.” He
then refers in a foot note to Aikin’s dictionary, article Alloy. Is
not Dr. Henry aware that the rule given in that respectable work,
for computing the mean density of an alloy, is a false one, and
leads to very erroneous results ?

We cannot approve of his systematic arrangement of the metals,
which he has indeed copied from Thenard, along with several
tables. His two general classes of the metals have been long received ;
the oxides of the first class are not reducible by heat alone, those of
the second are. The first class has three subdivisions. 1. ‘ Metals
that are either known from experiment, or believed from analogy, to
absorb oxygen, at high degrees of heat, and to decompose water at
common temperatures.” Here are placed the 6 metals, potassium,
sodium, lithium, calcium, barium, and strontium. Those presumed
by analogy to belong to this subdivision, are the metallic bases of
the earths proper. 2. ‘* The second subdivision includes those metals
which absorb oxygen from atmospheric air at high temperatures, and
decompose water, but Sot UNDER a red heat. These are 5 in number,
viz., manganese, zinc, iron, tin, and cadmium. _ 3. “ Metals of the
third subdivision are capable, like the foregoing, of absorbing
oxygen at high temperatures, but not of decomposing water at any
temperature.” Here we have 14 metals, out of 'Ihenard’s 15, Dr.
Hlenry having transferred nickel to the 2nd class of noble metals.

We beg leave to remark, that the metals of the first subdivision
absorb oxygen, not merely at high degrees of heat, but at ordinary
temperatures. Potassium and sodium, tarnish and oxidize speedily
in dry air. Their characteristic property is to decompose cold
water with explosive violence. ‘The metals of the second sub-
division are not truly represented by Dr. Henry, when he says,
“ they absorb oxygen from the air, at high temperatures, and de-
compose water, but not under a red heat.” We shall give him
‘three authorities for our opinion, which he will not venture to
gainsay, ‘‘* Manganese, when exposed to the air, attracts oxygen

% Thomson's System of Chem. 6th Edit. I. 416.

Henry’s Chemistry. 347

with considerable rapidity. When thrown into water, it decom-
poses that liquid, with considerable rapidity.”

«By exposure to the air for some time, zinc acquires a greyish
colour on the surface, which is owing to a partial oxidizement.
Zinc filings very slowly decompose water, hydrogen gas is evolved,
and oxygen combines with the metal *.”

‘A ‘temperature of, from 120° to 140° Fahr., renders water
decomposable by iron, especially when the metal bears a con-
siderable proportion to the water+.”

We apprehend that the arrangement of the metals, best adapted
for students, would be to begin with the alkalifiable, next to
proceed to the geofiable, whereby a knowledge of the alkaline
and earthy re-agents, so useful in metallic research, would be ac-
quired at the outset. So far our plan agrees with Dr. Henry’s.
The ordinary metals might then be examined as nearly as possi-
ble in the order of their affinities for oxygen, terminating the list
with platinum, and its companion metals. The old distinctions of
metals, and semi-metals, perfect and imperfect, base and noble,
should be for ever banished from chemical discourse. They are
all the perfect and noble productions of nature, and the multipli-
cation of their species is one of the chief achievements of modern
science.

We have looked over our author’s 10th and 11th chapters on
vegetable substances, and their decomposition, as well as the
12th, on animal substances, and the 13th on animal products.
We think that the facts are judiciously abridged, and fairly stated.
The 14th chapter on chemical analysis is divided into 3 sections ;
of which the first treats of gaseous analysis, the second of that
of mineral waters, and the third of that of minerals. In these
details, he has followed Thenard and other writers on analysis
with fidelity. We could have wished him to have been a little
less sparing of references to the works from which he has bor-
rowed. ‘*Nothing,” says poor Richard, “ gives an author so
great pleasure as to find his works respectfully quoted by others.”

In the preceding article we have diligently exposed what to us
appear the prominent errors and principal failures in Dr. Henry’s
book, in the hope that our remarks may influence the merits of his
tenth edition, and in the belief that he will not be offended with the
freedom of our strictures. Inconclusion, we must add that there
is very much more to praise than to censure, in this work ; in mat-
ters of detail it will furnish a valuable guide to the chemical stu-
dent, and will uphold the reputation of its author, asa candid and
eateful compiler, who speaks of his own inquiries without egotism,
and who discusses controyerted, abstruse, and uncertain points,
with that becoming diffidence and candour which shows him (with
the Daltonian exceptions above-named) “ nullius addictus in
verba magistri.”

* Sir H. Davy’s Elements, 374. + Henry's Elements, 9th Edit. LL, 17.

348

Art. XVI. ASTRONOMICAL AND NAUTICAL
COLLECTIONS.

No. XVI.

i. Description of a New Tipu Gavuce.

It is proposed to fix a pipe, with an open mouth, and a triangular
orifice (4) at its side, in contact with any convenient part of a
bridge or pier that is situated below low-water mark, and to bring
from it a pipe, resembling those which are used for the distribution
of gas, into any room of a neighbouring house, that may be chosen
for the purpose of observation, and there to let it terminate in a
well closed reservoir, provided with a little forcing syringe, and
with an open barometer gauge, to which a manometrical gauge
may be added, if required. ;

Immediately before each observation, it will be proper to work
the syringe, until the gauge becomes stationary, by the escape of the
air under the water, so that the column of compressed dir may
always begin from the level of the upper angle of the triangular
orifice ; the height of the gauge will then obviously indicate the
height of the surface of the water above this level. It would only
be necessary, if the height of the reservoir above the orifice were
considerable, to apply a small correction for the excess of the weight
of the air in the pipe, above a similar column of the external air;
this correction being always additive. The gauge might have a
double graduation, one for its own height, the other for that of an
equivalent column of water. ;

Brighton, 22d Oct. 1823.

ii. Catalogue of the Onxits of all the Comers hitherto computed.
By Dr. OLzens and Professor ScnumacueER. Astr. Abh. I.

(Concluded from page 154.)

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Catalogue of the Orbits of Comets.

352

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Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 367

iii. Copy of a Report to the Board of Customs, containing a de=
scription of an improved Suipinc Rute for GAUGING Casks.

Sir,

In the Report which I addressed to you a few months since,
stating my opinion of Mr. Watts’s proposals for the improvement
of gauging, I promised to send some further observations for the
consideration of the Board of Customs, .as soon as the legislature
should have come to a decision respecting the alterations which
have been proposed in the system of weights and measures; and
though it seems that the wine gallon must remain for the present
in use, yet as there is every reason to imagine that an imperial gal-
lon, exactly one fifth larger, will ultimately be adopted, it might
be right to suspend the introduction of any new instruments into
general use, until the proposed regulations shall have been more
fully appreciated by the House of Lords, and to ascertain in the
mean time how far the instrument, which I have the honour to pre-
sent to the Board, is likely to fulfil the purposes for which I have
constructed it, that is, for determining, upon principles which are
entirely new, and with the greatest possible simplicity and expe-
dition, the approximate content of any cask whatever, subject to
any further corrections which either theory or experience may
dictate in particular cases. ,

My sliding rule contains four graduated lines, marked, pune
DIAMETER IN INCHES AND TENTHS, HEAD DIAMETER, LENGTH,
and CONTENT IN GALLONS.

The computation is performed by merely bringing the head di-
ameter of the given cask to the bung, on the respective lines ; the
content may then be read off opposite to the length of the cask.

The degree of accuracy of the result may be inferred from the
contents of twenty-one casks, as very carefully determined by
Mr. Watts, at my suggestion, and by order of the Board.

Content Sliding
No. Bung Head Length (Wake) by weight Rule Error

'§ 30.0 21.8 46.8 1.3 115.3 116.3 + 1.0
Il. 28.6 21.7 47.0 1.4 108.0 109.4+4 14
WII.- 31.7 22.9 50.1 1.7 141.2 138,38 - 2.9

358 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

: Content Slidipg
No. Bang Head Length (Wake) by weight Rule Error

IV. 31.4 266 46.4 0.4 137.4 139.4 + 2.0.
Ve 32.6 24.5 442° 1,4) 13b7 ©1323 +06
VI. 32.3 24.4 48.5 04 142.5 143.2 4 0.7
VII. 29.4 25.3 45:8 0.3 122.4 121.9 & 0.5
VII. 32.7. 20.0. 424 1.1 Toao 1990 & OT
TX. 28.6 22.4 48.5 1.0 114.7 115.04 0.3
32.4 26.8 35.9 0.9 112.8 113.1 + 0.3
39.8 33.0 51.9 1.0 248.0 247.2 — 0.8
30.6 26.1 45.8 0.4 130.8 131.4 + 0.6
30.9 26.0 47.2 0.2 136.8 136.6 + 0.2
29.1 23.1 48.8 0.2 120.9 120.8 — 0.1
Jl.2 204 45.4 0.3 134.7 “1342223
32.7 26.0 43.1 0.6 133.8 134.7 + 0.9
32.0 27.9 34.6 0.4 1160.0 1114 — 14
32.1 27.5° 35.0 0.30° 110.0 T1163 16
29.5 21.7 47.1 1,5 116.0 1140 29
31.6 202 + 50-1 9:9 140.7 “sees
10 29.7 25.3° 47.3 0.2 125.8 128.0 + 2.2

It appears from this table that the error of the sliding rule is less
than a gallon in twelve out of the twenty-one pipes, and that it
never amounts to three gallons, including the effect of whatever
accidental irregularities there may have been in the form of the
staves. The whole sum of the errors, for the twenty-one pipes,
amounts to twenty-two gallons: the errors of the common mode of

OOO TO Cr A OD tO ee PS DM

computing amount to twenty-six, with all the allowances made
by the most experienced gaugers : so that by one simple operation,
the new sliding rule gives at once a result at least as correct, as the
best methods now in use by two or three ; and this result remains
susceptible of correction, by any further computations that may be
thought necessary.

It may be proper, if great accuracy in the result be required,
and be thought attainable, that a table of corrections should here-
after be computed which would be entered with the difference of
the bung and head diameters, and also with the * wake,” that is,
as I haye already applied the term in a former communication, the

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 359

fall of the bung below a line touching the staves at the head. The
rule itself gives a perfectly correct result in casks that differ but
little from a cylinder; and it may be observed in the IIId and IVth
examples, that a great wake appears to require some little addi-
tion to be made to the content, and a small wake some subtraction :
and the casks 8 and 9, compared with 10, will also serve to indi-
cate the propriety of a similar correction. I shall explain, in a
separate note, the principles on which such a computation may be
made, if required; but I am not confident, from the result of all the
cases I have examined, that the advantage of these minute correc
tions would not be perfectly inconsiderable, in comparison with the
unavoidable irregularities of the forms of the casks, and the pro-
bable errors in their admeasurement; especially as in any large
number of casks that are to be gauged at the same time, the errors
of the different casks being most commonly divided between the
opposite sides of the truth, would have a general tendency to neu~
tralise each other.

On the whole, therefore, I have reason, to believe that the new
sliding rule alone will be found quite as accurate as can be required
for the ordinary purposes of the revenue, and that the simplicity of
its operation will be found to save much time and labour, and to
avoid all chance of error in computation; and I trust that the
Board of Customs will be pleased to order some of its officers to
make trial of it in their practice on a large scale.

I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your obedient humble servant,
P. Delavaud, Esq., Tuomas YounGc.
Ke, ke. Ke.

Nore on the new Sliding Rule.

The formula represented by the sliding rule is this, a Log.
9)

B a —— Log. H + Log. L — Log. ae) = Log. Content:
353 1.G

or win Bi3533 yx H-6467 x» L 3 294 = Content. The

360 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

different lines are therefore laid down from three different loga=
rithmic scales, such that the distance from 1 to 2 on the line B is

to the distance from 1 to 2 on the lines L and C, as a to1,the

97
150

of these distances on the Jines B and H amounting to ae so that

if B and H were equal, this sum would represent their square, as
it obviously ought to do, while in other cases it would approach

similar distance on the line H being only

as great; the sum

very near to the square of a mean diameter equal to H + E

(B — BH).

The same result might also be obtained from a table constructed
according to this formula as from the rule, adding together the
logarithm of B, H, and L, that of 294 being previously subtracted
throughout from the numbers of one of the former columns, so that
the third might serve both for Land for C.

Table for graduating the Sliding Rule.

Inches 1.8, IH. WLLL AVC. Inches 1. B IH. WEL. 1V. Ce
10.0 0.000 22.0 13.830 16.359 3.057
5 1.012 -> 14,806 16.825 3.779
11.0 1.978 23.0 15.761 17.281 4,484
3 2.900 0 16.695 17.728 5.199
12.0 3.783 24.0 17.609 18.165 5.850
5 4.625 -0 18.505 18.093 6.536
13.0 5.443 25.0 19.382 19.011 7.159
5 6.225 -5 20.242 19.420 7.794
14.0 6.980 26.0 21.085 19.825 8.417
5 7.709 -D 21.913 20.221 9.029
15.0 8.412 27.0 22,724 20.608 9.627
5 9.092 0 23.521 20.990 10.192
16.0 0.000 9.752 28.0 24.304 21.363 10.795
-5 , 1.336 10.390 5 25.072 21.730 11.362
17.0 2.633 11.008 29.0 25.828 22.086 11.922
-5 3.892 11.611 35 26.570 22.445 12.469
18.0 5.115 12.193 50.0 27.300 22'794 13,008
3 6.305 12.764 -0 28.018 23.138 13.539
19.0 7.463 13.316 81.0 28.724 23475 14.060
5 8.591 13.856 + 29.419 23.806 14.574
20.0 9.691 14.381 0.000 32.0 39.103 24.133 15.079
- 10.763 14.897 0.791 0 30.776 24.455 15.576

21.0 11.810 15.394 1.565 33.0 31.439 24,772 16.066
0 12,8382 15.886 2.320 0 82.092 25.083 16.548

daches

34.0
Oo
35.0

Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

'L. B.

32.736
33.370
33.995
34.611
35.218
35.817
36.408
36.991
37.565
38.134
38.694
39.248
39.794
40.334
40.866
41.393
41.913
42,427
42.935
43.437
43.933
44,424
44.909

Il. He

25.392
25.694
25.993
26.286
26.577
26.863
27.145
27,424
27.699
27.970
28.238
28.502
28.763
29.021
29.275
29.527
29.776
30.021
39.264
30.504
30.741
30.975
31.207

III. L. IV. Cy

17.027
17.517
17.929
18.412
18.863
19.300
19.736
20.167
20.592
21.012
21.426
21.835
22.236
22.637
23.029
23.420
23.806
24.183
24.559
24.932
25.296
25.658
26.017
26.371
26.722
27.069
27.412
27.707
28.083
28.420
28.750
29.075
29.398
29.717
30.033
30.346
30.655
30.963
31.267
31.568
31.869
32.162
32.455
32.746
33.034
33.319

Inches

57.0
Bs)
58.0
oO
59.0

LB.

Il. H.

361

UL LIV...

33.601
33.882
34.159
34.435
34.708
34.979
35.247
35.514
35.775
36.010
35.299
36.557
36.812
37.065
37.318
37.567
37.815
38.051
38.329
38.547
38.789
39.026
39.263
39.498
39.731
39.960
40.193
40.421
40.643
40.873
41.096
41.319
41,539
41.758
41.975
42.192
42.406
42.619
42.831
43.066
43.251
43.458
43.689
43.870
44.073
44.276
44,477

362 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

The first three lines may begin from any given points; the fourth
must be so placed that when B 28 and H 28 are brought together,
L 80 may stand exactly against C 80.

Mode of computing the content of a Cask from the waxt.

The wake is the drop of the bung below the cone touching the cask
at the head, or half the difference between the bung diameter and
that of the base of a cone in which the half cask is inscribed, so as
to touch it exactly at the head. This element may be measured
without much difficulty by means of a straight rod; with two fixed
nails, of equal length, projecting from it near one end, and a third
nail sliding along it, so as to stand over the bung when the former
two are pressed down upon the stave between the hoops at the
head, while the distance of its point from the bung is measured by
a scale, or by a pair of compasses.

The direction of the surface of the staves being given in three
given points through which it passes, we shall only have to as-
sume that the curvature varies in a uniform manner, from its
ereatest magnitude at the bung, to its least magnitude at the head,
in order to obtain a form which must very nearly coincide with the
whole outline of the staves. The most convenient supposition re-
specting the curve is that it is of the nature of a parabola, either
of an order inferior to the common parabola, and beginning at the
bung, or of a higher order, beginning at the head, and meeting its
companion at the bung in a direction parallel to the axis; and the
latter form will be found, on examination, to be the most applica-
ble to practical cases, the former approaching too much to a cone.

Now in all parabolas, when the ordinate is ax”, the distance of
the tangent from the curve, on the axis, or, in other words, the
wake of the cask, is (x — 1) aa”; since the fluxion of the ordinate
is naz" dx, and, as dz is to this, so is the absciss x to naz”, the
sum of the ordinate, and of the distance in question; and making

b—h we have atee:

this distance = k, the ordinate being here

while (zn — 1) aa" = k; consequently xn —1 = — or, ifb —h
t

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 363:

=dn=—-1= and n= 1 +: Ee = 2H 2s On the other

hand, for a parabola having its vertex at the head, the wake be-

comes the ordinate, and < assumes its place, so that n, or rather m,

will-bed ate a Ft 2
Qh

For the inferior parabola, the diameter of the cask, at the dis-
tance x from the middle, is always b — ax”; its square b°—2abxz"
+ a2", and the content, considering the section as a square,

2 aba" + us ad
n+l 2n+1

='¢ (x)= d, and we have, for the whole content, 2 (6° i _

br — aa"; but when z = = an”

2 1 1 1
Rg Bae Doky ploy epee wwe jy
liestaa Sto: Redes ag tes te
=71g9 — 2 bd ¢ es,

d+k 4k +3

For the superior parabola, the diameter, at the distance x from

the head, ish + cv — ex”; c being such, that c Be may be equal to

d + 2k, and e ( u y being = 2k. Then the square of the dia-

meter will be A? + 2cha + c®2® — 2eha™ — Qcex™*' + e%2%", and

the content h?x + cha? + pe Cn Z eha™t — =
3 m+ I m+ 2
cey™t? 4 ext ; which, for the whole length, becomes

2m +1

1 1
BRP eh eS oP
ell alla +58

a(t se ping te

1 m+1 1 ef ye 5 ]

LF dudes of? bo Pn adi, a+r y~ +

(+) TL Saciclset DT Forties fucadi
4 4

d+ 2h)? — pall j=

rhs") ppg ne a

364: Astronomical und Nautical Collections.

1 4k 8k
LOR. 4 d+ Qhyh + — (d 42k)? + + hk
( ( ) 3 | ) d+ 3k ~ d +4k

8k
iss 0 tae Qk) k).
= pr einai

iv. Remarks on Professor Struve’s Observations to determine the
Parallax of the fixed Stars. By J. Pond, Esq., Astr. Royal.

Or the various attempts to discover the parallax of the fixed
stars, the observations of Professor Struve must be regarded as
among the best and most judicious. [Obs. Vol. II. II.]

His object is, by means of an excellent transit instrument
furnished with seven wires, to determine the sum of the parallaxes
of several fixed stars, differing nearly 12 hours in right ascension
from each other.

The results which he obtains seem to verify a remark which I
have often had occasion to make; that in proportion as any im-
provement takes place either in our instruments or our processes
the resulting parallax becomes proportionally less.

Of fourteen sets of opposite stars thus compared, Mr. UES
finds seven, which give the parallax negative ; this circumstance
alone should suggest great caution in attributing to the effects of
parallax the small positive quantities that are derived from the
remaining seven. Mr. Struve however is inclined to assign 0”.16
of space as the parallax of Urs Minoris, and 0".45 for the
sum of the parallaxes of « Cygni, and + Ursee Majoris. His
learned coadjutor, M. Walbeck, who, it appears, has undertaken
the calculations, is disposed to attribute the greatest portion of
this parallax to the smaller star; a circumstance so improbable
requires yery strong evidence for its support.

But whatever reasonable doubt we may entertain as to* any
one given result relating to such extremely minute quantities, yet
the mean of the whole must be admitted to deserve very great
confidence ; and it is to this view of the subject (omitted by the
learned author,) that I wish to direct the attention of Astronomers.

* It should be remembered, that ina series of observations, it generally
happens that some results will be erroneous by a greater quantity than the
mean probable error.

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 365

If we take the mean of the fourteen results as relating generally
to stars from the Ist to the 4th magnitude, it will appear that the
mean sum of the parallaxes of two opposite stars is equal to
0”.036 of space, or the parallax of a single star equal to 0".018.

If any reliance can be placed on these observations, every
attempt to determine the parallax of these stars in declination
must be entirely hopeless ; since in this case we can only measure
the shorter axis of the Ellipse, and the uncertainty of refraction
must amount, at least, to twenty times the quantity we are in
search of.

v. An account of some Parhelia seen at the Cape of Good Hope.
By the Rev. Fearon Fallows, A.M.
June 21, 1823,

My dear Sir, Cape Town.

If you think the following worthy of insertion in any Scientific
Journal, it is at the Editor’s service.

Iam, my dear Sir,
To Dr. T. Young, Yours most truly,
&c. &c. &e. F, Fatows.

Wednesday Evening, May 7, 1823.—During my ride this evening
toward Sea-point, I was favoured with a most beautiful sight at
sunset. The sky was delightfully clear ;—not a cloud was visi-
ble, and the sea horizon remarkably distinct. When the sun’s
lower limb had just dipped the water-edge, immediately several
parhelia made their appearauce,—four on the left hand, and three
on the right. They assumed the same shape as the real sun, and
were as bright, but not so large. When the upper limb of the sun
came in contact with the horizon, it, and the mock suns, appeared
as bright points upon the water edge, and then, in an instant, all
vanished together. Upon my return home, I made a diagram of
this phenomenon, as seen at short intervals after each other, a
copy of which (in preference to a minute description,) I beg here
to subjoin.

H R the horizon, S the real sun. The remaining figures upon
H R are the mock suns. Bar. 30.2 inches. Ther. 64 inches.

366 Astronomical and Nautical Collections,

8

The morning of the 8th of May was cloudy, and indicated rain,
quite contrary to what might have been expected from the clear-
ness of the preceding evening.

N. B. On the evening of the 8th, we had a great deal of thunder
and lightning.

Note by Dr. Younc. There is every reason to suppose that
these parhelia must in reality have been only fragments of corone,
formed by the diffraction of a cloud rising but little above the
horizon: the absence of colours may easily have depended on the
absorption of all the light, except the red, in its long passage
through ahazy atmosphere. I have seen a rainbow at sunrise,
or rather a little before sunrise, in which no other colour a
but red was perceptible.

vi. Error in Tay tor’s LoGaRITHsS,
Cosine of 37° 29° 2”, for 5503, read 5603. H. J.

367

Ant. XVIII.—MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

I. Mecuanicau Science.

1. Experiment on the tenacity of Iron Wire, by Colonel Dufour,—
The extreme economy and facility of construction of wire bridges *
are circumstances which cannot but tend to introduce them into very
general use: hence a knowledge of the strength of iron wire as gene-
rally prepared by the manufacturers, and the circumstances which
have an influence over it, cannot but possess great interest. The fol-
lowing experiments by M. Dufour, being made with a practical
view, are, therefore, very valuable, and have already assisted in fur-
nishing data for the construction of two wire bridges across the for-
tification ditch of Geneva,

The object of the experiments were to determine the absolute

strength of wires of different diameters ; their elongation when sus-
taining a given weight; the effects of a sudden concussion; the
influence of annealing at a red heat, and the effect of a fold, or re-
turn, or junction of the wire, in determining rupture when in these
circumstances.
_ Four kinds of iron wire were chosen, having the respective diame-
ters of 1, 2, 3, and 4 millimetres nearly. Six experiments on the
finest wire, of which the diameter was 0.85, mm. (0.033 of an inch,)
proved that the strength was independent of the length ; that the
mean absolute force of such a wire was 106lbs. avoirdupois, the ex-
tremes being 103.7 and 120; and that when annealed, it sustained
only 46.3lbs. Ten experiments on the second wire diameter 1.9
mm. or 0.748 of an inch gave 432.5lbs as the mean weight it could
sustain, the extremes being 397 and 457; from which it would appear
that the first wire had a seventh more of strength in proportion to its
diameter than the second. The second wire, when annealed, sustained
only 223lbs., which is to its strength when unannealed, as 100 to 194,
The third wire about -118 of an inch in diameter, sustained as the
mean of six experiments 843lbs. : when annealed its strength was to
that of the unannealed wire, as 100 to 195. ‘The fourth wire, of a
diameter of .145 of an inch, supported 1713lbs. when unannealed,
and 889lbs. when annealed, the ratio in the two states being as 100
to 192. ©

From these experiments Colonel Dufour concludes that iron wires
from 1 to 4 millimetres in diameter, support at least 132lbs. for each
Square millimetre of their section, But according to known ex-
periments on forged bars of iron, it has been ascertained, that those
which are not more than 6 mm. square, do not support more than
from 88 to 100|bs. per square millemetre, and those which are larger
only from 55 to 66lbs., a circumstance which sufficiently proves the

* See Vol. XV. pp. 136—873 of this Journal.

*

368 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

advantage of employing iron drawn into wires, rather than forged into
bars, when the question relates to its tenacity.

The second object of the experiments was to ascertain the elonga-
tion of a wire when submitted to a weight, less than that sufficient to
break it. The elongation due to the mere rectification of the sinuo-
sities and curves in the wire itself, was found to be ;43, of the original
length, when a bundle of twelve wires-of the second kind before re—
ferred to and 30 feet long, was charged with a weight of 6621]bs,
Another kind of elongation immediately precedes the rupture, and is
due to a slight diminution of diameter. It may be perceived when
the wire is charged with two-thirds of the weight, itis capable of sup-
porting ; and varies between 35 and 57 ten-thousandths of the length.
When the wire is annealed the elongation is very considerable, and
about thirteen- hundredths of the total length in all the wires tried.

The influence of folds, returns, &c., on the tenacity of the wire was
of great importance considering the object of the experiments : the fol-
lowing are some of the practical results obtained. When a wire is passed
round a ring or cylinder, so as to return parallel to itself, and bear a
force applied to the two extremities nearly double that supported by the
single wire, it requires that the diameter of the cylinder round which
it passes should be at least 13 inches. In proportion as the diameter
is smaller, or the curvature of the wire greater, its tenacity diminishes,
and the wire will constantly break at that place. One or more entire
revolutions of the wire on the same cylinder must be avoided, because
the friction resulting from such an arrangement, opposes the equality
of stress which is required upon each of the several wires constitut-
ing a bundle.

After many experiments on the different means of joining wires
together, experience pointed out as the most efficient, one which
would perhaps not have been indicated by theory. ‘The method was
to lay the ends side by side one over the other, and bind them round
for the space of at least 13 of an inch, by a smaller annealed iron
wire. Such a junction always resisted the proofs applied, the wires
constantly giving way at some other place.

The preceding experiments were made with weights gradually ac-
cumulating, and unaccompanied by any sudden impulse or momen-
tum, but as in their application to the construction of bridges, effects of
the latter kind, wou!d be continually occurring, further experiments
were made of this nature. ‘The wires were therefore charged with
about half the entire weight they were able to support, and then other
weights dropped from different heights into the box containing the
previous charge. The latter force was always estimated by its mo-
mentum, and experiment proved that the second wire, for instance,
charged with half the weight it was just able to bear, could sustain
without risk a quantity of momentum equivalent to 3000, the weight
being given in killograms (2.207lbs.) and the velocity by the cente-
metres traversed in a second,

Mechanical Science. 369

Other experiments were made with reference to the effect of tempe-
rature on the tenacity of the wire, but for results of this kind, we refer
our readers to p. 373, vol. xv., of this Journal: the results there stated
are the same as those quoted with the above.x—Bzb. Univ. xxiii. 305.

2. Suspension Bridge of Iron Wire at Geneva.—The preceding
researches have been applied with the greatest success, in the con-
struction of two bridges across the dry ditches of the fortifications of
Geneva. ‘The first ofthese ditches is 33 feet deep and 108 feet
wide at the site of the bridge ; the second is 22 feet deep and 77 feet
wide ; they are separated by what is called the countergard, which is
about 70 feet wide, and the top of which is level with the surround-
ing soil. A stone building is erected on the city edge of the first
ditch, which serves as a point of attachment for the wires, as a gate to
the city, and also as a station for the persons who have charge of the
bridge ; a piece of masonry is erected on the countergard, as a point
of support for both bridges ; and a third erection of a similar kind,
serves as an outer gate, and for a support to the end of the outer
bridge. The wire used is of the kind called No. 14 in commerce,
very nearly of the diameter of the second sort referred to in the pre-
ceding experiments; it is made up into lengths or bundles, each
containing 100 wires, and there are three such collections on
each side of the bridge. As the line of suspension proceeds uninter-
ruptedly across both ditches and the intervening bank, the length was
found too great. for one bundle; they were therefore made in
shorter lengihs, terminating at each end with a ring, and were con-
nected by placing these rings side by side, and passing a strong iron
bolt throughthem. Each single wire was first stretched by a weight
of 220|bs., then made up into the bundles of 100 each, which were
united by iron ties at successive intervals, and the whole rolled round
with iron wire, which gives to them the appearance of cords. The
longest of these bundles are 120 fect each, the others were made
shorter, as being more convenient for the situation they would
occupy in the line of suspension. From this arrangement it is evident
that each of the six main lines of suspension may be considered as one
bundle, though consisting of many parts; they are made fast at one
extremity to a plate of iron firmly attached to the stone gate before
mentioned, then pass over the first ditch, across the stone support on
the countergard, over the second ditch, over the second standard, and
are finally made fast to iron bars, which being attached to plates, are
Joaded with masses of stone and buried in the earth.

From the six principal lines other lines descend consisting each of
twelve wires only; these are made fast to the traverses, or pieces of
wood which form the bases of the bridges. On these are mortised long
pieces of carpentry, which are bolted together with them, and to which
are fastened the railings of the bridges, and then other planks are
fastened across these again, forming the path of the bridge.

The rapid and complete success of this undertaking, does great

VoL XVI. 2B

870 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

honour to M. Dufour. It was not quite finished at the time when
M. Pictet wrote his account of it, but would be completed in a few
days more. It had been planned and executed in the short space
of six months. Its expense was previously extimated at 16,000
francs, and the cost amounted to within one or two hundred francs of
that sum. This accuracy of estimation is not the least merit of M.
Dufour, the engineer. ‘Ihe expectations with regard to the duration
ofthe bridges are allin their favour; the iron is defended from rust
by a thick coat of paint, which is to be renewed when required ; the
wood-work is of select materials, and not being any where in contact
with the earth is not liable to rot.

Before constructing the large bridges, a model was made 38 feet
long, and having only two suspending lines each composed of 12
wires of .073 of an inch in diameter. The foot-way was constructed
on 11 wooden traverses, which hung from the suspension lines each
by only four single wires, two at each end, This bridge was sub-
mitted to the roughest trials on the part of those persons who were cu-
rious to examine it, such as leaping, marching, §c., but without the
least accident or failure.— Bib. Univ. xxiii. 305.

3. Hydraulic Experiments on the Propagation of Waves, by M.
Bidone of Turin.—The following is the translation of an extract
made by M. Hachette, and inserted in the proceedings of the Philo-
matic Society. M. Bidone proposed to compare the results of expe-
riments on the propagation of waves, with those deduced from the
theory published by M. Poisson, in the Mémoires of the Academy
1816. This theory supposed that the waves were produced by a
solid segment of a given figure slightly immersed in the fluid, and
which after having allowed time for the fluid to assume a state of re=
pose, is suddenly withdrawn in a vertical dire¢tion.

M. Bidone observes, that the body rapidly withdrawn, is followed
by a column of water which rises above the level, and produces on
descending, waves which are propagated in the same time with the
primitive waves. ‘Two causes concur in this elevation of the column
of water, the pressure of the atmosphere, and the adhesion of the
fluid particles to each other and to the body immersed. The height,
the volume, and form of the column, depend on the figure of the
segment immersed, and principally on the rapidity with which it is
withdrawn. M. Bidone mentions many examples of raised columns
of water, obtained by plunging successively a cone, a paraboloide of
revolution, a cylinder and hemispheres, but his principal object being
to produce undulations due to the cavity of the plunged segment, and
the mere action of gravity, and to approach as nearly as possible to
the hypothesis of M. Poisson, he has observed the primitive waves
propagated at the surface of the liquid, at the instant when the re-
moval of the body from the water commenced. The time which
intervenes before the adhering column of water begins to fall, is more
or less according to the height and figure of the column. When the

. Mechanical Science. 371

immersed body is not withdrawn rapidly, but slowly, the waves
are not produced, but at the instant when the body is detached from
the water.

The duration of the experiments on the primitive waves varied
from one to six seconds ; and the results were found by M. Bidone to
accord with the theory of M, Poisson, when such experiments could be
made, as satisfied the conditions serving as a foundation for the theory.
M. Bidone terminates his memoir by remarks on the figure of waves
obtained by striking the surface of water with prismatic segments, hav-
ing triangular, square, and elliptical bases; they present phenomena
similar to those exhibited by apertures, with their edges of the same
_ forms. On comparing, for example, the square base of the prismatic
segment to the wave formed by this segment, it was seen that the wave
had the form of a quadrangle with rounded angles, and that the
summits of the angles of the square base corresponded to the middle
of the sides of the quadrangle.

The first part of the memoir of M. Bidone contains a verification
of a formula, given by M. Eytelwein of Berlin, for calculating the
velocity of water in a rectilinear canal; the section of the current
and its perimeter, and the inclination of the canal taken at the upper
surface of the water, or at the bottom of the canal parallel to that
surface, being known. ‘The accordance between the velocities ob-
served and calculated according to the formula is remarkable.
The difference is at most, only a forty-eighth of the first quantity.

4. On a Phenomena of Shadows, by M. Mongez.—When the sun
is free from clouds, the shadow of bodies is surrounded by a penum-
bra, very sensible, though much more obscure than the shadow ; when
two bodies, each producing a shadow, are made to approach.each
other, at the moment preceding the contact the shadows advance
towards each other, and change their form at the point of contact;
the shadow of a right line thus becomes a curve, and that of a globe
like the summit of a paraboloid. M. Arago attributes the effect to
the superposition of the penumbras accompanying the bodies; thus
if the intensity of the penumbras was only half that of the shadow,
it would be doubled at the instant when the two were superposed,
and thus produce an obscure part of equal depth with the shadow,
which being added to it, would alter its form in that place.— Bib.
Univ. xxiii. 323. ;

5. On the Vibration of Air.—M. Y’, Sayart has published a variety
of experimental researches into the nature of the vibrations performed
by air, both in tubes and also in spaces of irregular form, but bounded
by solid bodies; the latter are entirely new, and, with the former,
possess great interest to those who delight in this branch of science.
We cannot give a better idea of the nature of these results than by

2B 2

372: Miscellaneous Intelligence.

quoting the conclusion of the memoir of M. Savart. The memoir
itself is long, and will probably engage our attention again at a future
time, in the progress of foreign science.

“ Tt results from these researches that masscs of air, limited at every
point of their extent, or even only at part of their extent, can enter
into a state of vibration by communication, like those which are con-
tained in tubes ; and that when one is in an apartment where a sound
is produced, one is, as it were, in a large organ-pipe, where the
sonorous vibrations encountering each other, without doubt, in various
directions, form centres of vibration and nodal surfaces, of which the
form and direction vary almost infinitely, according to the form of the
place where the phenomenon occurs, and according to its extent and
the position of the different bodies which the vibrations may meet
with, and which by themselves may, either by acting as vibrating
bodies or not, influence the position of the vibrating parts and the in-
tensity of the motion ; for it is almost always observed in the spaces of
which we speak, that there are parts of the mass of air often of a very
small extent where the motion is incomparably stronger than else-
where. Nevertheless the irregularity in the distribution of the vi-
brating parts is not observed except in places, furnished, or of an
irregular form; for in other places, and especially in long galleries,
the vibrating zones appear to exist generally and regularly.”—Ann. de
Chimie, xxiv. 50.

II. CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

1. Thermo-electric Rotation, by Professor Cumming.—The following
is an apparatus for the exhibition of thermo-magnetic rotation, in-
vented by Professor Cumming, and described by him in a letter to the
Editor of the Annals of Philosophy, N.S.

vi. 436. AB platina, BC F D A silver,
these are made into a parallelogram, Ss
which is afterwards bent into a semi-
circular form. F Eis a wire less than
the radius of the curve, proceeding ho-
rizontally from the frame, and E is an
agate cap by which the instrument
may be suspended freely on a point.
A lamp and magnet being placed op-
posite to cach other are sufficient to
produce rotation, but the effect is im- N
proved by adding another magnet at
gv° from the first, having its poles in
the contrary direction, and being connected with it by a bar of soft
iron placed beneath them. With this arrangement the rotation will
be from right to left, or from left to right, according to the position of

Chemical Science. ~ 373

the lamp. The seeond magnet is placed near F G, having ‘its N end
upwards. Ifthe lamp be beneath B, the rotation is in the direction
BG A; but if it be opposite to F G, the rotation is AGB. The
apparatus without the agate cap weighs 4 grains.

2. Thermo-clectric Rotation.—Mr. Marsh, of Woolwich, has also
constructed a variety of apparatus for the exhibition of rotation by
thermo-electricity. By the directions of Mr. Barlow, he endeavoured
to make an apparatus according to the former instructions of Professor
Cumming, but, failing almost entirely in making it act, he constructed
some according to his own suggestion, which succceded perfectly.
Tig. 1, will give an idea of this appa-

ratus; the double linc represents silver
wire, the single line platina wire. They oN
are soldered together and made into a Ca z

rectangle, having a ring in the lower
gie, g g

part for the introduction of the support.

A fine point is attached to the upper part |
of the rectangle, and resting on an agate
cap on the top of the support, allows of |
free motion. When the pole of a mag-
net was placed as in the figure, and a I
lamp applied at D, the instrument im-
mediately moved round until the side
E came to the flame, and then it moved
back again, at last resting at right an-
gles to the lamp and magnet. Whena
second magnet was placed in a similar
position at D, and then the lamp ap-
plied either at D or E, rotation began,
which was cither in one direction or
the other, according as the lamp was
applied to one end or the other, and soon amounted to thirty revo-
lutions in a minute.

Compound rectangles were then made, having four branches, and
performed extremely well: the length of the rectangle is about two
inches, the dept an inch, the diameter of the platinum wire. sip of
an inch, and that of the silver 4. When two rectangles were ar-
ranged on the poles of a horse-shoe magnet, as in Fig. 2, and the lamp
applicd between them, they continue to revolve as long as the lamp
remains burning, ,

Mr. Barlow has made many experiments with these apparatus,
and finds them to accord perfectly with the laws he has laid down in
his Essay on Magnetic Attractions. Some singular appearances of
motion are produced with the compound rectangle, when the mag-
netic pole being considered as stationary, the lamp is applied bencath
the four branches in suceession, but they are all reducible to

374 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

one simple effect, and subject to one general law.—Phil. Mag.
Ixii, 321.

3. Thermo-electric Phenomenon with Iron.—Professor Cumming
has remarked, that if in the compound piece of two wires used to
produce electro-magnetic effects by heating, one of the pieces be iron,
and they be heated by a spirit lamp, the deviation, in some cases,
gradually attains a maximum, then returns through zero, and at a red
heat assumes an opposite direction; resembling in this respect the
deviations before observed with an alloy of antimony and bismuth.
These effects took place when iron was connected with silver, copper,
gold, zinc, and brass, but not with platina or lead, and has not been
observed in other cases where neither of the wires were iron.

The table which we copied in our last Number of the relations of
the thermo-electric bodies should be corrected, by having galena put
above bismuth, and silver between zinc and ore of iridium and
osmium.—Ann. Phil., N.S, vi. 321.

4. Dobereiner’s Eudiometer.—Professor Dobereiner has suggested
the use of finely divided platina for the purpose of detecting minute
portions of oxygen in a gaseous mixture, in which hydrogen also is
present. Its effect is immediate ; the moment the substance rises
above the surface of the mercury in the tube containing the mixture,
the combination of the oxygen and hydrogen begins, and in a few
minutes is completed ; and, as Professor D. has stated, it seems capa-
ble of detecting the smallest quantity of oxygen. Its utility in the
analysis of atmospheric air, and compounds containing oxygen, is
obvious, provided no combination also takes place between the hy-
drogen in excess, and the nitrogen (or other gas) that may be present,
as does in fact happen, according to Dobereiner, when protoxide of
platinum is so employed.

Messrs. Daniell and Children mixed 20 measures of atmospheric
air, with 37 measures of hydrogen gas, and passed up to the mixture a
small portion of the platina powder, procured by heating the ammonia
muriate to redness, and made into a ball with precipitated alumina.
The pellet was heated red by the blowpipe, immediately before it was
used, its size about that of a small pea. The absorption amounted
to 13 measures = 4.3 oxygen, being 0.1 of a measure more than
the quantity of oxygen in 20 measures of atmospheric air, which may
probably have arisen from a slight impurity in the hydrogen, or from
some minute unperceived bubbles of air, entangled in the mercury.

Another mixture of common air end hydrogen, in which the latter
was in considerable excess, was deprived of its oxygen by the pellets,
and when the absorption was complete, 38 measures of the residual
gas were taken, and a fresh pellet, heated to redness, immediately
before it was used, passed up. After standing about a quarter of an
hour, no absorption had taken place. The tube and the mercury

Chemical Science. 375

were then placed before the fire, till the whole apparatus was too
hot to be touched with the naked hand. It was then removed from
the fire, and when cooled to its original temperature, the mixture
occupied, as before, exactly 38 measures. The powder of platina
with hydrogen seems, therefore, to be admirably calculated for
eudiometrical purposes. Its application is extremely simple and
easy, it is speedy in its effect, and no error need be apprehended from
the formation of ammonia, even at considerably elevated temperatures.
It appears also to be well calculated for ascertaining the purity of
simple gases, at least as far as regards admixture of atmospheric air.
The oxygen of a very minute portion of common air, mixed with
carbonic acid gas, and a little hydrogen, was immediately absorbed,
on passing up one of the little pellets to the mixture.

5. On the Action of Platina on Mixtures of Oxygen, Hydrogen, and
other Gases.—We noticed in our last Number, p. 179, the singular
experiments made by M. Dobereiner, on the ignition of platinum by a
jet of hydrogen. Several papers have appeared since then, on the
same subject, of the matter of which we purpose giving a very con-
densed account, in the following lines.

The preparation of platinum observed by Mr. E. Davy, which
ignites in contact with the vapour of alcohol, is well known. M. Do-
bereiner*, by precipitating a solution of platina by sulphuretted
hydrogen, and exposing the dry precipitate to the air for a few weeks,
obtained an oxidized sulphuret, having similar properties, and further
ascertained that both these substances enabled the alcohol to attract
oxygen gas, producing acetic acid and water at the same time with
the phenomena of ignition before referred to. By further experi-~
ments, it was ascertained that neither oxygen nor carbonic acid gas
was absorbed by these two substances, but that every inflammable
gas was; and 100 grains of the protoxide of platinum (Mr. Davy’s
substance,) absorbed from 15 to 20 ¢. 2. of hydrogen-gas with igni-
tion of the substance, and also of the hydrogen, if previously mixed
with air or oxygen. The preparation of platinum charged with hy-
drogen readily attracts as much oxygen as will combine with the
hydrogen it contains, so that air being admitted, the oxygen in-
stantly disappears ; and even ammonia is formed, if there be not enough
oxygen for the hydrogen ia the platina. The platina immediately
reduced, loses some of the properties it before possessed, but retains
the power of determining the combination of hydrogen gas with oxygen
gas, and with the evolution of so much heat, as, if the experiment be
made properly, to ignite the platinum. M. Dobereiner immediately
concluded that the platina obtained by heating the ammonia-muriate
would have the same effect, and found his expectations confirmed by
experiment. This experiment was made July 27, 1823.

M, Dobereiner considers the phenomenon as an electric one, and that

% Annales de Chimie, xxiv. 91,

376 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

the hydrogen and platina form a voltaic combination, in which the
former represents the zinc. Another remarkable result was obtained
with the oxidized sulphuret of platina. Placed in contact with car-
bonic oxide, the gas diminished to one half, and became carbonic
acid; hence it is decarbonized by the solid substance. In a supple-
ment.to the paper just abstracted, in whick M. Dobereiner describes
the mode of making the experiment, as we have stated, by a jet of
hydrogen, he mentions also, that he had applied it to the construction
of a new apparatus for procuring fire.

In a further communication to the public*, on this subject, M.
Dobereiner says, that the energy of hydrogen is so much increased
by the presence of platina in powder, that it will in a few minutes
completely separate one part of oxygen, from 99 of nitrogen, an
effect which the strongest electrical spark will not produce. In these
experiments, platinain powder is mixed with potters’clay, moistened,
and made into small balls, about as large as a pea, these are. dried
and then heated to redness, one of these balls, weighing from 2 to 6
grains, will convert any quantity of detonating gas into water, and
may be employed above a thousand times, if dried carefully after
each operation.—The compound gases, containing hydrogen, do
not combine with oxygen, when in contact with platina. A jet of
hydrogen on the platina, precipitated by zinc from a solution, made
it red hot, with a crackling noise and sparks ; this powder is a mix-
ture of platina and its oxide, and converts alcohol, when oxygen is
present, into acetic acid. Nickel prepared from the oxalate, has
the property of converting oxygen and hydrogen gases slowly into
water.

MM. Dulong and Thenard+, have verified the experiment, of
the ignition of platina by a jet of hydrogen, and haye added some
other facts on the same subject. They remarked, as M. Dobereiner
had done, that introduced into a mixture‘of oxygen and hydrogen,
it determined the combination of the gascs sometimes with ignition ;
that the platina, strongly calcined, loses the property of becoming in-
candescent, but still slowly causes condensation ; that fincly-divided
platina, obtained by other means, or wires, or lamine, had no action
at common temperatures, but that very thin leaf platina crumpled up
together acted instantly, although the same leaf rolled round a cylin-
der of glass, or suspended freely inthe gases, had no action ; but the
leaves, wires, powder and plates, all acted slowly at temperatures
between 400° and 572° F. Palladium in thin pieces acted at an
elevated temperature, as well as platinum of the same thickness.

Rhodium caused the formation of water at about 464° F. Gold and.

silver, in leaf, acted at a temperature somewhat under that of boiling
mercury.

« Annales de Chimie, xxiv.91. Bib, Univ. xxiy. 54,
+ Annales de Chimie, xxiii. 440,

Chemical Science. 377

Carbonic oxide and oxygen form carbonic acid; nitrous gas is
decomposed by hydrogen at the common temperature, by con-
tact with spongy platinum; and a mixture of olefiant gas, with suf-
ficient oxygen is changed into water and carbonic acid at 572° F.

These philosophers then observe that certain metals have the
property of decomposing ammonia, without absorbing either of
its elements, at a temperature at which the ammonia by itself would
be quite unchanged ; 150 grains of iron wire are thus sufficient for
decomposing nearly the whole of a rapid current of ammoniacal
gas, continued for 8 or 10 hours, whilst thrice as much platina wire
does not produce a like effect, even at a much higher temperature.
These results depend, perhaps, on the same causes which make
gold and silver effectual in combining oxygen and hydrogen, at 572°
F., massive platinium at 518° F., and spongy platinum at common
temperatures. Now as iron so well separates the elements of am-
monia, and scarcely at all effects the combination of hydrogen with
oxygen, whilst with platinum it is the reverse ; the authors are induced
to suppose that some gases tend to combine under the influence of
metals, and others to separate, the effect varying with the nature of
each ; but they refrain from offering conjectures until supported by
experiments.

MM. Dulong and Thenard, have also ascertained that spongy
palladium will inflame hydrogen as platina does; that iridium in
the same form became hot and produced water; that cobalt and
nickel in masses, cause the gases to combine at about 300° F, ; that
cold spongy platina formed water and ammonia, with nitrous gas
and hydrogen ; and acted also on mixed hydrogen and nitrous oxide
gases.

Mr. W. Herapath* has made experiments on this subject, most
of which being of a similar nature to some of those already des-
cribed, we omit to specify. His attention was particularly directed
to the temperature at which the effect first began to take place, and
he states as the results of his experiments on this point, that if the
gases have a temperature of 55°, the platina requires a tempcra~
ture so high as 98° to cause them to unite.

Mr. Garden of Oxford Street, has also experimented on this
subjectt, and has found, that the black powder, consisting of iridium
and osmium, left when crude platina is digested in nitro-muriatic
acid, if heated red hot and then suffered to cool, acts as well as
spongy platina itself. He also ascertained that a jet of hydrogen
cooled to 32°; if thrown upon spongy platina cooled also to 32°,
quickly heated it to whiteness, and became inflamed, a result which
contradicts Mr. Herapath’s statement, and shews that the limit of
temperature at which spongy platina ceases to act on mixed oxygen
and hydrogen gas has not yet been attained.

* Philosophical Mag. \xii. 286. t Annals Phil. N.S., vi. 466,

378 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

6. Solar Light and Heat.—Mr. Powel has been engaged for
some time in experiments on solar light and heat. He has examined
the heating power of the prismatic rays, but chiefly with respect to
the effects, said to be produced, beyond the red end of the spectrum.
He has found thaf such effects are really produced, but has accounted
for their being observed in some cases and not in others, from cer-
tain differences in the coatings of the thermometers employed. He
has concluded from a number of experiments with different coatings
that this heating effect is similar in its relation to surfaces to common
radiant heat, and differs essentially in this respect from the heating
power within the spectrum. He has made other experiments from
which the nature and origin of this effect, may, with great proba-
bility, be inferred. The details will soon be made public.—Ann,
Phil. N.S.

7. Benzoic Acid in the ripe Fruit of the Clove Tree—The clove
is the flower bud of the Eugenia Caryophillata, and the ripe fruit
used formerly to be used in medicine under the name of Antophylli.
In the latter, Mr. W. Bollaert has observed crystals of benzoic acid
lining the cavity between the shell and kernel.

8. Certainty of Chemical Analysis—We mentioned at page 164,
the conclusions to which M. Longchamps had arrived, as the results
of his experiments on the uncertainty of the means of chemical
analysis, at present in the possession of chemists. His experiments
convinced him that no certainty could be obtained, Mr. Phillips, who
has alsu examined this question, considers the inferences of M. Long-
champs as unsupported even by his own Mémoire, and from his own
experiments is satisfied of their inaccuracy. Some sulphuric acid was
diluted and divided into eight parts, four ofthese were precipitated by
nitrate of baryta, and four by the muriate of baryta ; the precipitates
were carefully washed and dried, and then weighed, those from the
nitrate were 128.7 3 128.0; 128.3; 128.6 grains, mean 128.4: those
from the muriate, 128.1; 128.7; 128.0; 128.5; mean 128.325.
These results are certainly very different to M. Longchamp’s.—-dan.
Phil., N.S., vi., 289.

9. Correction of bulk of Gases for Temperature.—Some of our
elementary treatises on chemistry contain an inaccurate mode of
estimating the change of bulk in a gas, occasioned by variation of
temperature, ‘They have directed that the bulk of the gas be divided
by 480, the quotient multiplied by the number of degrees by which
the temperature of the gas differs from the temperature to which it
js to. be reduced, and the product added, or subtracted, according as
the actual temperature is’ below or above that referred to. But as
the expansion of a gas, for each degree of Fahrenheit is ~45.0f its
bulk at 32° only, and at no other temperature the aboye rule is not

Chemical Science. 379

correct, except for cases where gas at 32° is to be estimated at some
other temperature. Mr. Biggs has pointed out this error m the
Annals of Philosophy, vi. 415, and has given the following more cor-
rect rule. Add the degrees which the gas is above 32° to 480, add
also the degrees which the required temperature is above 32° to 480,
then as the first number is to the second, so is the volume of the gas
to the volume required. Another rule for making the correction is,
to add the number of degrees between 32° and the temperature of
the gas to 480, divide the volume of the gas by the sum, and multi-
ply the quotient (which will be the expansion for each degree) by

_the number of degrees between the temperature of the gas, and the
required temperature ; if the latter be greater than the former, add
the product to the volume of gas, if it be less subtract it, and the
corrected volume will be given.

10. Supports for Ignition of Particles by the Blow-pipe.—The
sappare is a substance recommended by M. de Saussure, for the sup-
port of minute particles intended to be subjected to the action of the
blow-pipe, but is seldom used in consequence of the difficulty of
making the particle adhere to it. In place of the water, saliva, or
gum-water, generally used, Mr. Smithson recommends the use of a
mixture of water and refractory clay ; a little of the moist clay is to
be taken up on the end of the splinier of sappare, and the particle to
be heated being touched by it adheres, the whole is laid aside for a
few minutes, and is then dry and may be heated. Mr. Smithson also
recommends small triangles, or slender slips of baked clay in lieu of
sappare, which is not always to be had. Another more recent pro-
cess is, to file the very end of a platina wire flat, place the minutest
portion of the moist clay on it, and then touch the particle to be
heated. In a few moments it is dry, and may be put into the flame
without flying off, unless too much clay has been taken.

Mr. Smithson points out a remarkable difference between quartz
and flint before the blow-pipe. Quartz is almost refractory, but flint
fuses with facility, swells, and even froths. Itis aked whether flint
does not, like pitch-stone, contain bitumen, which at a certain heat
tends to tumely it?—dnn, Phil. N.S. vi. 412.

11. Solubility of Substances induced by Tartaric Acid.—The fol-
lowing observations on solubility conferred by tartaric acid, are given
ina note by M. Rose, in a Memoir on Titanium, ‘* It is known that
a solution of peroxide of iron containing tartaric acid, cannot be
precipitated by caustic alkalies, by their carbonates, or succinates ; its
presence is indicated only by tincture of galls, ferro-prussiate of iron
and hydro-sulphurets. 1 thought, therefore, 1 should obtain an oxide
of titanium perfectly pure, by mixing tartaric acid with a solution
containing the oxides of iron and titanium, and then adding ammonia
to precipitate the oxide of titanium, But I found that many solutions

380 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

of oxides containing tartaric acid could not be precipitated by alka-
lies or their carbonates, though they fell immediately if that acid were
away. Among these is the oxide of titanium, which is not then
precipitated by the alkalies or carbonates; also alumine, of which the
presence cannot be discovered ina solution containing tartaric acid ;
oxide of manganese, oxide of cerium , yitria, oxide of cobalt, oxide of
nickel, magnesia, protoxide of iron, ‘oxide of lead, when the solution
contains nitric acid to keep the tartrate from precipitating, oxide of
copper, and finally oxide of antimony, of which the solutions con-
taining tartaric acid are not precepitated, either by alkalies or any
abundance of water, 1 have employed this property of oxide of an-
timony with much success, in the analysis of the salts and ores of that
metal. Though oxide of bismuth does not possess this property, it
does not afford a means of separating it exactly from oxide of anti-
mony. ‘There is scarcely any acid but the tartaric which possesses
this remarkable property of forming salts with many oxides, which
cannot be precipitated by the alkalies. ‘The phosphoric and arsenic
acids are the only ones which in this respect, present any analogy.—
Ann. de Chim, xxiii. 356.

12. On two New Coloured Test Papers.—The following account of
these test papers is abridged from the description given of them by
M. C. Pagot des Charmes, who has used them for many years with
advantage in testing for acids and alkalies.

The first is obtained from the violet pellicle, which covers the root
of the small radish, (raphanus sativus oblongus,) the second from the
skin of the common red radish (raphanus vulgaris.) The directions
with respect to the small radish, are to scrape offthe coloured skin with
a knife, and as it soon changes in the air, to collect them rapidly,
put them in a piece of clean linen, and compress them, when a clear
transparent blue fluid will be obtained. This test fluid may be pre-
served as itis out of the contact of air, or made into a syrup, or laid
on paper by a brush ; and the paper thus prepared, preserves its fine
sky-blue colour in contact with the air for any length of time. ~ ‘This
test is extremely sensible to acids and alkalies.

The scrapings of the common radish require to be bruised in a
mortar before pressure ; they do not yield so much juice, but the
tint is very fine either in the fluid state, or on paper, and the test it
affords is a very delicate one. ‘These preparations are recommended
above litmus, by their being equally sensible, and yet unaltered
in the air, and by being readily obtained every where.—Jour. des
Phys. xcvi. 130.

13. On the Presence of Ammonia in Rust of Iron, formed in habited
Houses, —M. Vauquelin was called upon to examine some red spots
found on a sabre, which was supposed to have been used in the com-
mission of a murder, the spots being produced by blood; a small

Chemical Science. 381

portion of the red matter was introduced into a glass tube, closed at
one end and heated, the other being occupied by a strip of litimus
paper, reddened by an acid; a yellow vapour rose, from the sub-
stance which changed the red colour of the paper to blue,

A second experiment was made with the matter of some red spots
found on a knife which was supposed to have been put to the same
use as the sabre, being found in the house where a murder had been
committed, and exactly the same results were obtained.

These facts tended to strengthen the suspicions previously raised ;
but although a medical man did not hesitate to assert that the spots
were actually blood, yet they resembled rust much more than blood.
The experiment was therefore repeated with common rust from a
piece of iron found by accident in the judge’s cabinct ; this rust gave
exactly the same result as the former, and the suspicions before ex-
isting were of course destroyed.

The fact proves that rust formed within houses is capable of ab-
sorbing and strongly retaining the ammoniacal vapours there de-
veloped. It also absorbs animal vapours, for in all these experi-
ments vestiges of a brown oil were constantly observed on the sur-
face of the tube.

M. Laugier has confirmed this result with rust found in his labora-
tory,and has further observed the development ultimately of sul-
phuric acid in the experiment.— Ann. de Chim. xxiv. 99.

14. New Carburetied Hydrogen Gas.—M. Clement states as in-
formation which he had received directly from Mr, Dalton, that the
latter chemist had found a new carburetted hydrogen gas in oil gas,
‘This new gas contains twice as much carbon as olefiant gas, and has
been named by Mr. Dalton super-olefiant gas. ‘There is a great
quantity of it in oil gas.

In reference to this subject we may refer our readers to a paper in
the Annals of Philosophy, N.S. iii. 37, where a gas of the same che-
mical composition as olefiant gas, but of twice its density, is, from the
experiments of Dr. Henry, inferred as existing in oil gas.

15. On Titanium, by M. Rose.—Oxide of titanium was obtained
pure by fusing powdered rutilite with thrice its weight of carbonate
of potash, dissolving the compound in muriatic acid, precipitating
by caustic ammonia, digesting the precipitate for a certain time with
hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, and then digesting the solid matter left
in weak muriatic acid, which leaves the oxide of titanum pure. In
this way only as yetcan the iron be removed. The pure oxide re-
mains perfectly white when heated and cooled, and is then untouched
by acids ; fused with carbonate of potash, and then treated with mu-
riatic acid, it sometimes gelatinizes, though not so strongly as silica.
It becomes red by touching moistened litmus, and with alkalies

382 Miscellaneous Intelligence

acts precisely as an acid. It has therefore been called by M. Rose,
titanic acid.

Titanates. When fused with carbonate of potash in excess, two sub-=
stances are obtained in the crucible ; the upper is the excess of carbo
nate, the lower the neutral titanate of potash. In neutral titanate thus
prepared, the oxygen of the acid is to that of the base as 2 to 1, and
as titanic acid was found by calculation from experiments on the sul-
phuret of titanum, to contain 33.95 per cent. of oxygen, its capacity
of saturation was considered consequently as being 16.98.

These neutral titanates are decomposed by water, which removes
part of the potash, and leaves insoluble acid titanates. The acid ti-
tanate of soda contained titanic acid 83.15

Soda . «16.85

100.

acted on by muriatic acid, a further portion of soda was remoyed
leaving a salt composed of titanic acid 96.38
Soda.) $ ysingosGe

ear
The acid titanate of potash gave titanic acid 82.33
Potash . . 17.77

100.

There are no salts with base of titanic acid ; those compounds which
have been taken for such, resulted from the presence of alkali in the
titanic acid; but when the acid titanate of potash is dissolved in mu-
riatic acid and diluted, precipitates may be obtained by adding the
sulphuric, arsenic, phosphoric, oxalic, and tartaric acids, which are
binary compounds of these acids with titanic acid. ‘The compound
with sulphuric acid when heated, yields pure titanic acid ; when mo-
derately dried, it strongly attracts moisture from the atmosphere. It
contains Titanicacid . . 76.67

Sulphuric acid . 7.67
Waters "Shr. 10a" CoS SI00.

100.00.
The compound with oxalic acid contains

Titanic acid . . 74.10
Oxalic acid . . 10.40
Water, <2) 6 5.5.30

100.00

Sulphuret of Titanum.—M. Rose did not succeed in reducing tita-
nium : but by passing the yapour of sulphuret of carbon over it ata
very intense heat, succeeded after many trials in forming an uniform
and perfect sulphuret. It was of a deep green-colour, and on the

Chemical Science. 883

slightest touch with a hard body, exhibited a strong metallic lustre,
similar to that of yellow copper. Heated with access of air it burnt,
producing sulphurous acid and leaving titanic acid. Nitric acid
converted it into titanic acid, liberating sulphur. When analyzed by
combustion it gave as its elements

SLCADUN sou eu, «| BOeLZ.
Sulphur . . . 50.83

10.000

and for the elements of titanic acid

LitgBHM.> . «>», 00.09
OS IRE: a. ood

Asa test that the degree of oxidation in titanic acid corresponds
with that of the sulphuration in the sulphuret, a portion of the latter
was boiled in'solution of caustic potash ; the sulphuret was soon de-
composed, and titanate of potash was deposited ; and the liquor being
acted on by muriatic acid, gave sulphuretted hydrogen without any
deposition of sulphur.— dun. de Chim. xxiii. 353.

16. Cadmium from Zinc Works.—Mr. Herapath formerly stated the
presence of cadmium in the zinc works of Bristol, (see vol. xiii. p.
427.) He finds that if the powder there referred to be introduced
into an iron bottle and tube similar to that used for obtaining oxygen
from manganese, a piece of paper pushed down upon it, and the ap-
paratus placed above the neck in any furnace or fire-place, where a
bright red heat can be produced; the cadmium will be found in the
cold part of the tube, or resting on the charred paper, if a larger
quantity has sublimed than can support itself. It now exists in small
globules, and may be cbtained in a button, in the way formerly
described. It is requisite that paper or some substance be introduced
to remove the oxygen of the atmosphere in the bottle. After this
process the powder still contains cadmium, which may be separated
by solution in muriatic acid, and precipitation by zinc; iron and
cadmium precipitate and tle mixture distilled as before furnishes more
cadmium.

The sulphuret is proposed as a pigment nearly equalling in beauty
the chromate of lead.—Phil. Mag. xii. 167.

17, Alloy of Zinc and Iron—This alloy was collected by M. Hera-
path ina zine manufactory at Bristol. It lined the tube leading
from the retort. It was hard and brittle, the fracture shewing broad
facets like zinc, but of a duller grey colour, with surfaces more rough
and granular. Its specific gravity 7.172. It was composed of 92.6
zinc, and 7,4iron per cent,—Phil, Mag. Ixii, 168,

384 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

18. Muriates of Baryta, Strontia, and Lime.—Mr. Phillips has
examined the various statements given of the composition of the salt
sometimes called chloride of barium, and sometimes muriate of baryta.
Although the relative proportions of chlorine and barium existing in
it as achloride, and of muriatic acid and baryta afforded by it when
considered as a muriate, have been ascertained with considerable pre-
cision, yet the accurate proportions of the crystallized salt have not
been stated. Mr. Phillips, on a careful comparison of the various
analysis that have been made, states its composition to be as a
chloride,

1 atom chloride barium 106 Chlorine .-.... . 29:03

2 water ity. fim: 8 “or Barium “2°... 56.45
— Water... . Tale

124
100.00

or as a muriate,
1 atom mur. barytes . 115 Muriatic acid . 29.84

Ly WateR. v tessa 9 or Barytes .... 62.90
= WeatGr. c, eon. eee

124

100.00

The equivalent numbers of crystallized muriate of strontia are
1 atom chloride stront. 36 + 44—= 80
6 —— water 9 6.6, «6 6) ..0h-s, == D4

>
154
or; 1_atompmitr:, strontia: so). «<0 O7 Of = .80
5 NV IED leh nc. a haces Soe Re eh a
134

The equivalent numbers of crystallized muriate of lime are
1 atom chloride of calcium .. 36 + 20 = 56

6 WRUETHiAh faceutt: cissasit 8 Dun ae
100
or 1 atom.mur. lime. . 37 +. 28.= 65
5 WAUCE 5.1. eco HOW Cie Ay

——os

-110—Ann. Phil. N.S. vi. 339.

19. On a Quadruple Salt——Whilst separating cadmium from the
metals which always accompany it, M. Tassaert had occasion to
observe the formation of a singular salt. The ore of zinc had been
dissolved in sulphuric acid and ammonia added, but not to nevtraliza-
tion; a plate of zinc was then added, which, after some time, was
found covered with colourless transparent crystals. These, separated
and examined, were found to contain ammonia, sulphuric acid, oxide

Chemical Science. — 385

of iron, oxide of zinc, and water: when analyzed, the following pros
portions were obtained :—

Water of crystallization ...... 30.90
Sulphate ofiron..... Pep Se Mia Br
AIG ANC bo ve ores, \ision 3-00)
Sulphate of ammonia ....... 26.94

100.00

The water of crystallization surpasses the quantity which would be
required by the sulphates separately, and this fact is adduced by M.
Tassdert, as an argument in favour of the whole being the result of
chemical combination, and not a mere mixture.—Ann. de Chim. xxiv.
100.

20. Pyrophorus from Tartrate of Lead.—Dr. Gobel, whilst work
ing with the tartrate of lead, remarked that when heated in a glass
tube, a very perfect and beautiful pyrophorus was produced. When
some of the dark-brown mass thus formed was shaken out into the air
it immediately inflamed, and brilliant globules of lead covered the
ignited surface ; some of these changing by degrees into litharge,
offered a very beautiful appearance. The ignition continues much
longer than with other pyrophori, which circumstance, with the faci-
lity of preparation, may make it a convenient means of obtaining fire,

The inflammation of these substances, as Dr. Gobel remarks, has
been attributed principally to the presence of potassium, but this sub-
Stance affords a new proof that other metallic compounds are sus-
ceptible of spontaneous inflammation on the accession of air.

21, Ona Green Pigment.—The preparation of a beautiful green
colour is described in our last volume, at p. 309 ; but an easier pro-
cess for the production of the same colour having been given by Dr.
Liebig, we insert it beneath. A given weight of verdigris is to be
dissolved by heat in a copper vessel in a sufficient quantity of pure
vinegar, and then an aqueous solution of an equal quantity of white
arsenic added ; generally a dull green precipitate falls, which must be
redissolved by adding more vinegar. The mixture is then to be
boiled, and after some time a crystalline precipitate appears, of the
finest green colour, which, separated, washed, and dried, is the sub-
stance in question. If the liquor still contains copper, arsenic is
again to be added; or if it contains an excess of arsenic, the prepara-
tion of copper must be added, and the process carried on as before.
Sometimes the liquor contains an excess of acetic acid, and may then
be employed to dissolve verdigris, as at first.

Thus prepared, the colour has a bluish tint, but it may be ob-
tained of a deeper and more yellow tint, yet with the same bril-
liancy and beauty ; for this purpose a pound of common pearlash is

Vou. XVI, 2C

386 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

to be dissolved in a convenient quantity of water, ten pounds of the
colour obtained as above added to it, and the whole heated over a
moderate fire ; the colour will soon change and take the tint required,
If boiled too long, the colour approaches that of Scheele’s green, but
always surpassesit. The alkaline liquor remaining may be used in
the preparation of Scheele’s green—~Ann. de Chim. xxiii. 412.

22. Peculiar Effects of burning on Limestone or Chalk.—M. Vicat,
of whose excellent work on Cements and Mortars we gave a short
account, vol. x. p. 407, has lately obtained some singular results in
the burning of lime. Many years since he observed, whilst burning
pure lime with charcoal and coal in a small furnace, that if the
fragments of lime on passing through the furnace into the ash-pit,
were again put in with fresh fuel, and this many times successively, a

- lime was obtained incapable of slaking, but which, broken up and
made into a paste, had the remarkable character of setting under
water.

It is an old opinion among lime-burners that limestone which has
cooled before it has been completely burnt, cannot by any quantity
of fuel be converted into quick lime, and M. Vicat considers this
opinion as supported by the experiment above. It appears to result,
M. Vicat says, that pure calcareous matter, as chalk or marble for
instance, may be brought by fire into an intermediate state, being
neither lime nor a carbonate, and that in this state it has the pro-
perty, when pulverised and made into a paste, of setting under water.

Chalk converted into lime, and slaked in the usual way, yields
a hydrate, which, made into a paste, will not harden in water ;
but the same lime left to fall into powder by long exposure to the
air, and then made into a stiff paste with water, will solidify very
sensibly after immersion. The action of the air here occasions the
formation of a compound analogous to that afforded by imperfectly
burnt chalk, being like that, neither completely lime or completely
carbonate ; and it enjoys the same hydraulic properties.

Ten equal portions of finely-powdered chalk were taken, and a
plate of cast iron being heated red hot, they were placed upon it ;
one portion was allowed to remain three minutes, another six, a
third nine, and so on, and during the time they remained on the plate
they were continually stirred, that all parts might be equally cal-
cined. These portions were mixed up, with a small quantity of
water, into pastes of equal consistency, no signs of slaking were ob-=
served ; the first portions gave the ordinary odour of moistened chalk,
the latter portions gave the alkaline odour belonging to lime, and were
decidedly alkaline. After twenty-four hours of immersion in water
all the numbers, except the first had set, as hydraulic lime would
have done, and became harder daily, whilst the first remained soft.
When, after some time, the comparative hardness of the second and
the tenth were tried, no apparent. difference could be perceiyed.

Chemical Science. . 387

‘Viewing these substances as mixtures, in various proportions of
lime and carbonate of lime, M. Vicat thought it probable they
might be imitated, but no mixture made by adding lime and carbo-
nate of lime, to each other, gave the least signs of solidification
under water.

Very analogous results to these were obtained by M. Raucourt
de Charleville ; but the most remarkable effect was observed when
the fuel used was charcoal, He had prepared a mixture of pure
lime and clay; which, when dry was broken into small pieces, and
burnt, either on a heated plate or in a furnace, all the results
furnished hydraulic lime, except those which had been burnt in
contact with charcoal. Hence, observes M. Vicat, the contact of
the charcoal had deranged the action which occurs between lime
and clay in the ordinary mode of burning, and presents a pheno~
menon very difficult to explain. At first, it might be supposed that
the iron required per-oxidation, before it would combine with the
lime, and that the charcoal prevented this ; but the experiments of
M. Berthier prove that the iron is nearly passive in these and
similar cases.—Ann. de Chim. xxiii, 424.

Tn addition to these experiments, it may be remarked, that M.
Clement, whilst stating the occurrence of a substance in France fit
for the fabrication of Roman cement, and which was discovered by
M. Minard, gives an opinion formed by M. Minard, from many ex=
periments, * that Roman cement owes its quality to a sub-carbonate
of lime, produced by the action of fire on the natural carbonate.” —
Ann. de Chim. xxiv. 106.

23. New vegetable principle, Dalhine.—M. Payen has discovered
a new substance in the bulbs of the Dalhia, which has been called
dalhine and besides it, an uncrystallizable sugar, aroma, a volatile,
and a fixed oil, albumen, silica, and several calcareous salts.

To extract the dalhine, the pulp of the bulbs is to be diffused in
its weight of water, filtered through cloth, the liquid mixed with one
twentieth its weight of common chalk, boiled for half an hour, and
filtered. The residuum of the bulbs is then to be pressed, the solutions
united and evaporated to three fourths of their volume ; 4 per cent
of animal charcoal must then be added, and the whole clarified by
the white of an egg. The liquor filtered and evaporated, until a
film form on the surface, deposits dalhine on cooling. All the
washings are to be treated in the same way and thus 4 per cent of
dalhine, will be obtained from the bulbs.

This substance when pure, is white, inodorous, pulverulent, taste-
less, of a specific gravity 1.356, more soluble in hot, than in cold
water, not soluble in alcohol, but precipitated by it from aqucous
solutions. Potash dissolves it, ammonia does not, sulphuric acid con-
verts it ipto an uncrystallizable sugar more sweet than that of starch,

2C2

388 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

' This substance has some analogy with. starch, inuline, gelatine,
&c., but differs from them in forming a granulated mass when its
aqueous solution is evaporated, by its specific gravity, and other
qualities—Ann, de Chimie, xxiv. 209.

III. Naturat History.

- 1, Amici’s Microscopical Observations.—Professor Amici, of Mo-
dena, has published the results of his microscopical’observations on
various plants, in the Proceedings of the Italian Society of Sciences at
Modena, We have only seen an account of these researches in the
Bibliotheque Universelle, xxiii., and have made the following abstracts
from it. The work of Amici is illustrated by several large plates, of
the accuracy of which, and also of the descriptions, his abilities and
means are securities.

Circulation of the Sap in Vegetables. Caulinea fragilis. — Corti first
discovered the motion of the sap in plants, and among others in an
aquatic plant of which he has not given the name, but only an im-
perfect figure ; it proved to be that of which Wildenow made a genera
under the name of Caulinea. Some time since Amici observed and
described a similar phenomenon, in the chara vulgaris: the circulation
was seen in the vessels of this plant, always in the same direction, and
was supposed to be caused by small crowns of green particles lining
the internal membrane of the tube.

A transverse section of the Caulinea, viewed by powers of 60 and
150, appeared as a polygon of 8 rays, each formed by a range of
circular bodies ; the centre was occupied by a large tube, surrounded
by a bundle of smaller tubes parallel to each other, and in which
were diaphragms at a considerable distance one from another, These
yessels contained only air, which escaped in bubbles, when they were
cut under water; all the other apertures in the section, are those
of the vessels which conduct the sap, and which also have dia-
phragms, more or less distant from each other. No proper trachee
or porous tube was discovered.

Each cavity of the Caulinea formed a particular vessel, in. which
the liquid moved, independent of the circulation in the neighbouring
vessel, and in a manner analogous to the movements before observed
in the vessels of the Chara. The fluid contains visible concretions
which moving with it indicate its course, and the velocity of its
motion in different parts. These particles are globular, of the same
size in the same vessel, but varying in different parts of the plant.
The motion is as follows:—globules ascend on the one side of the
tube containing them and the liquid until they reach a diaphragm,
when they move horizortally to the opposite side, and descend,
until coming to a diaphragm beneath, they move horizontally in the

Natural History. 389

opposite direction to the first horizontal motion, and again ascend
as before. This effect continues as long as the plant is alive. All
the globules are not in contact with the surface of the tube ; those
which are at some little distance, circulate as well as the others,
but less rapidly ; and their motions were slower, as they were
nearer to a plane, which may be supposed to pass through the
tube, and separate the two currents. Sometimes the globules dis-
placed each other, at other times they passed from the one side to
the other, before they reached the diaphragm. ‘The directions of the
motion in two parallel and contiguous vessels appeared to have no
relation to each other. ‘The rapidity is variable, according to the
size and length of the canal, and the degree of injury it may have
suffered in preparing it, a complete circulation has been observed in
a vessel 1 of a line, in length, in 30”, this velocity is not more than
a third of that observed in the chara vulgaris. It is to be remarked
that when the plant is cut, to submit it to observation, the circulation
is suspended for a time and requires some hours to be renewed.

The circulation of the sap takes place in the cellular tissue as
well as in the vessels, the globules move along the surface of the
cell, changing their direction when they arrive at the angles of the
polygons. Sometimes a mass of globules collect in the centre and
rotate with a motion ‘common to the whole. Observations on the
leaves are more delicate, than those on the stalks of the plants, they
require to be made whilst the leaf is attached to the plant, and the
light must be thrown from above, as for opaque objects.

Thus each vessel presents two currents, one ascending, the other
descending, which are not separated by any division: the interior
is studded with small crowns, composed of particles which are very
difficult to discover, because of their tenuity and transparency, and the
nature of the motion shews it to arise from the surface of the tube, and
precisely from those points occupicd by the crowns, for there may be
observed the maximum of the velocity with which the globules move.

M. Amici does not state that no liquid passes from one cavity to
another, he is indeed convinced of the contrary; but the transfusion
takes place through invisible apertures, through which the globules
cannot pass. He has remarked two varieties of limpid fluid in the
Caulinea, one white and one red, contained in different vessels, though
ofthe same form. He attributes the distinct green colour of the
plant, to globules very green themselves, floating in the fluid ; they
are greener towards the exterior of the plant, than in the interior.
There is this difference between the Chara and the Caulinea, that in
the first the globules are white, and the particles of the small crowns
green, the latter colour the plant ; but in the second, the globules are
green, and the crowns yellow. Oil and alcohol do not alter the
form of the globules of the Caulinea but discolour them entirely.

Chara flexilis. The organization of this plant is exceedingly sim=
ple, a section of the root, the trunk, the branches, or the leaves, pre

390 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

sents but a single circular aperture belonging to a tube transparent
as glass, and furnished in the interior with small crowns of green
particles as in the Chara vulgaris. ‘This tube contains a colourless
liquor and white globules of various dimensions, some of them far
surpassing, in size, the green globules adhering to the surface. These
appearances are easily perceived, without any preparation of the
plant, and with a common microscope. ‘This plant has flowers,
in the organs of which the circulation of the sap may be per-
ceived in all their stages. The regular order preserved in the
tubes by the two series of crowns, those of the ascending, and those
of the descending, side is yery remarkable and evident, The
circulations in the vessels are independent of each other, so that
if one is injured, the others still preserve their functions.

Of the Pollen. The principal object of M. Amici, under this
head, is to describe a phenomenon, which he is anxious should be
verified by other naturalists, but he forewarns them that a linear
power of 300 is necessary for its observation; the drawing he has
himself given was from a specimen magnified 1000 times. The
Pollen was from the Portulaca oleracia. ‘The figure represents a
globe, 2% inches in diameter, attached laterally to a curved tube,
which descends vertically ; between the tube and the globe and in
contact with both is the superior extremity of a hair of the stigma,
which forms also a transparent tube, filled with small corpuscules
circulating slowly in it, On first observing it the author remarked
nothing particular, but on a sudden the globe opened, and a tubular
tail extended from it, which passing above the extremity of the
hair of the stigma returned beneath it, thus applying itself to it
and doubling its diameter; the membrane forming this tube was
very transparent. This tube was filled with globules, which after
circulating through it, passed into the globe of pollen, which itself
was full of corpuscules in motion, and fresh globules supplied their
places from it. The same kind of motion was observed in the
vessels of the stigma, ‘This phenomenon continued for three hours,
after which time the corpuscules disappeared from the tube. M,
Amici could not decide whether they had returned to the globe, or
entered the cells of the stigma, or been otherwise disposed of.

It is necessary to an observation of this kind, that the flower be
gathered a short time before it fades, the interior pistil separated and
placed under the microscope; the most favourable light is that of
the sun: if then the globules of pollen already adhering to the ex-
tremities of the hairs of the stigma, be placed at the focus of distinct
vision, and all humidity excluded, they will appear perfectly spheri-
cal, but shortly they will be seen to explode and develop the tube-
like tail, and the phenomena will appear as above described. The
effect takes place more readily as the weather is warmer. The flower
gathered about eight A.M., preserves for nearly three hours the power
of exhibiting this phenomenon.—M. Amici considers the globules

Natural’ History. 391:

which he saw circulating in the tail, as the same as those which other
observers have remarked as a little cloud, when a globe of pollen has
been broken.

The pollen of the flower of the cucurbita pepo, are globes, which
when moistened presented, at different points of their surface, very
transparent vesicles, at the summit of which were adapted small
Opaque covers with a projecting spine in the middle; this cover ap-
pears to act asa valve whilst the vesicle is within the globules. If
the pollen be dipped in alcohol, before being placed in water
they do not break, and the phenomena of the vesicles are better
observed.

The pollen of the cichorium inlybus‘is of a regular dodecaédral
form, with pentagonal faces; put on to water it bursts at one of the
faces and throws a liquid to a distance twice its own diameter, some
of the other faces swell and produce vesicles, analogous to those
before mentioned, but without the operculum.

On the Epidermis. The epidermis of the leaves of a great number
of plants examined by M. Amici, is a tissue formed of a layer of
cells, independent of those of the parenchyma which are covered by
it. It is white, transparent, and may be removed without laceration
of the subjacent parenchymatous layers, of which each has its par-
ticular membrane, which adheres only by contact to the epidermis.

M. Amici refutes the opinion of those who affirm the common
nature of these two substances, by pointing out that in many cases
(dianthus caryophyllus for one,) the cells of the epidermis are quadri-~
lateral, whilst those of the parenchyma are cylindrical tubes, of vari-
ous lengths, perpendicular to the plan of the epidermis. But these
vary in different plants, and are sometimes very singular. The dif-
ference in the figures of these cells may readily be seen without re-
moving the epidermis, by only changing the focus of the microscope
by a quantity equal to the thickness of the epidermis; they are thus
presented alternately to the eye, and their want of correspondence
made evident. The spaces which the varied dispositions of the pa-
renchyma produces are filled with air; and they correspond with
areas of an oval form in the epidermis, in the centre of which may
be observed apertures, sometimes open and sometimes closed. In
leaves of the ranunculus repens and ruta graveolens, the organ ter=
minated by these orifices is a small bag or purse, which is opened or
clesed by a sphincter according to circumstances, not métely spen-
taneously in the living plant, but at the will of the observer. They
are generally open in sun light, closed in darkness; large when the
leaf is dry, narrow when it is moistened. In the ruta graveolens,
when the pores are open, the parenchyma composed of small green
tubes may be seen, when closed the green disappears, and the ori-
fices take an ash colour.

With regard to the functions of these pores, it is concluded, that
they are not intended for absorption of water, because they close

392 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

when moistened, and open to light and dry air; because roots and
plants living under water have them not, floating leaves have them:
only on their upper surface ; and because (with reference to rain and.
dew) they are more abundant on the under surface of leaves, than on
the upper. That they are not intended for evaporation is assumed,
because the plant being separated from the root they close, although
evaporation still goes on. ‘That they are not excretory organs, ap-
pears from their corresponding with cavities containing neither fluid
nor solid matter. It is therefore concluded that they are intended
for the passage of air, but whether for its entrance or exit is difficult
to determine. At night when the large pores of the epidermis are
closed, the leaves absorb the carbonic acid dissolved in the dew, whilst
by day when they are open, the same leaves decompose the gas;
hence, perhaps, they may be destined, M. Amici thinks, to the emis-
sion of the oxygen gas resulting from this decomposition ; an opinion
favoured by the remark of M. De Candolle, that the corolla which
has no pores produces no oxygen.

Mode of Union inthe vegetableStructure.—It has been a question whe-

ther the vessels of plants are all constructed of one continuous and single:

membrane, or whether each vessel has a complete membrane of its
own. M. Amiciin examining this point has not only ascertained the
latter to be the case, and shewn that the membrane between two
vessels is in consequence always double, as well at the diaphragms

as at the sides; but has. shewn that they frequently are really sepa-’

rated, having curved surfaces and spaces between them : these inter-

vals never contain any thing but air, and they put the existence—

of the vasa revehentia of Hedwig, and the meatus intercellulares of
Link beyond doubt.

On the Air Vessels of Plants:—M. Amici considers every vessel
or vacuity whatever may be its form, tubular or cellular, in which the
microscope discovers orifices, or openings more or less long, as air
vessels. This class comprehends the spiral vessels, the false trache,
the porous tubes, the vessels with false partitions, those with small
crowns, those with false cells, and a great variety of others. A recent
section of a plant shews these vessels empty and dry, and very dis-
tinct from the fibrous vessels, and the cells containing their re-

spective juices; and if the section be put under water, air is seen to.

issue from them.

There are cases when the elastic fluid in these vessels cannot have,

been obtained from the atmosphere, as in the caulinea fragilis, which
grows under water. The author thinks it possible that the small
crowns discovered in the interior of the sap vessels, may, perhaps,
be the organs by which the air is in these cases separated from the
water.

It isa constant law in the general system of vessels, that those
which are fibrous surround those, which are aeériform. In. ligneous

plants nature has substituted other channels for the intercellular pass:

| Natural History. 393:

sages found in the herbaceous plants, these are the medullary rays of
which an example is offered by the hemp, which may be seen by
three sections, one transverse, one down the axis of the plant, and a
third parellel to it, but on one side. The asclapias syriaca offers a
similar structure.

M. Amici believes that in all vegetables, water and their own fluids
pass into the vessels through pores in their respective membranes,
which the eye cannot discover, but which many facts prove to ex-
ist. He affirms the integrity of the vessels during the whole exist-
ence of the plant, and denies any change in their nature. As to the
question whether the spirals of trache. are themselves tubular, and
conduct sap, he thinks it undeterminable until the optical means we
possess, are such as to develop the structure of the vegetable mem-
brane, for the dimensions of the spiral of the trachze does uot exceed
the thickness of the membrane of the other tubes, in which as yet no
one has found vessels containing fluids.

2. Dry Rot. We have been favoured by Mr. Baker of Hamp-
stead, with some valuable observations on the above subject, which
want of room prevents our publishing in detail. He adduces a
number of instances, in which the following application effectually
prevented the disease, and cured it where it had made considerable
ravages.

Take two ounces of white arsenic in powder, dissolve it by boil-
ng in one gallon of soft water; if boiled in an iron or tinned yessel,
add half an ounce of copper filings, but if in au untinned copper vessel
the filings are not necessary ; to a quart of size and half a pound of
common tar, add asmall quantity of fresh-slacked stone-lime, sifted
pretty fine, beat them well into a paste, which should be then nicely
dissolved with the above solution, gradually adding during the pro-
cess (by small portions,) as much more of the pulverized lime as will
give the whole a proper (rather diluted) body, to be laid on with a
painter’s brush. New work when finished as a preventative should
be dressed with the composition, at least twice after well drying the
first coat ; old work as a curative when removed and repaired, (such
as diseased wainscott) should be perfectly dried by exposition to
the air, and then well dressed on its back before it is returned to its
place.

_ 3. Insects in Amber.—M. Schweigger having very attentively ex~
amined the insects contained in the bits of yellow amber of the coasts
of Prussia, and which at first sight might be thought to be the same as
the present insects of that country, has found that they in fact often
belong to the same genera, but not to the same species as those living
in the present day. Among the small number of insects described
and figured in the work of this author, we observe in particular an un-
known species of scorpion, and a spider which diflers from all the

394, Miscellaneous Intelligence.

species living at present, in not having the head of a single piece with’
the thorax. M. Germar, professor, at Halle, has given the result of
a similar investigation in an Entomological Journal, where he tries:
to determine some species of those amber insects, the analogies
of which are not found alive at the present day.—£din. Journ.
ix. 408.

4, Analyses by M. Arfwedson.—Cinnamon stone of Malsjé :
Silica fé »..eiwrrr. en Jem onan 87
Alauminal? «1 aig, she ROS
Rimes vee spor sete! 38.94
Oxideiof Iron’) sg) Vea § 898
Oxide manganese and magnesia —.39

100.70

Brazilian chrysoberyl-Alumina . . 81.43
Si|s gars, anad, LES

100.16

Boracite from Liineburg-boracic acid . . 69.7
Magnesia. . . 30.3

100.0

Borax, deprived of its water of crystallization, consists of

Boracit acid: -". . 68.9
SOU ie a ae eo ae

100.0

The borates were analyzed by being mixed with three or four
times their weight of finely-powdered fluor spar free from silica, and
a sufficient quantity of sulphuric acid ; on evaporating the mixture
and exposing it to a red heat, all the boracic acid was expelled as
fluoboric acid gas. ‘The quantity of base’ was then determined in
the usual way.

5. Loose Crystals in a Cavity in Quartz.—Dr. Brewster has re-
marked the existence of a group of moveable crystals of carbonate of
lime lying in a fluid in a cavity of a quartz crystal from Quebec, now
in the collection of Mr, Allan. The crystal was perfectly sound about
the cavity, which was of a triangular form, one side being about the
tenth of an inch long. The fluid was transparent, and as it did not ex-=
pand much by heat, was probably water. The crystals were trans~
parent to a considerable degree, and had a white milky tint when viewed
by reflected light. Their composition is inferred from the presence of

Natural History. 395

similar crystals in other speciments of quartz, which have been ascer-
tained by experiment to be carbonate of lime. Some years ago Dr,
Brewster had occasion to remark the existence of spherical groups of
white crystals, both in the solid mass of quartz crystal from Quebec,
and in cavities in them; these exactly resembled the crystals in Mr.
Allan’s specimen, and when analyzed, were found to be calcareous
spar.—Edin. Jour. ix. 208.

6. Chloride of Potassium.—Myr. Smithson, on examining a mass
said to have been thrown out of Vesuvius, found it to be a red fer-
ruginous spongy lava, with here and there a crystal of augite, pyroxine,
or hornblende, and containing veins of a white crystalline matter,
which, on examination, proved to be chloride of potassium. Mr.
Smithson supposes this substance to have been sublimed into the
lava.—Ann, Phil. N.S. vi. 258.

7. Chlorine a Remedy in Scarlet Fever.—Dr. Brown employs chlo-
rine in solution in cases of the scarlet fever, he says with the utmost
success. From a tea-spoonful to a table-spoonful is given every
two or three hours, without the addition of any other substance. The
solution should be fresh and swallowed quickly to avoid coughing; in
the sore throat sometimes accompanying the fever, it is more easily
swallowed than mucilaginous drinks. As the disease declines, the
quantity of medicine is diminished: the whole quantity in the cases
of children has neyer exceeded two ounces, and in adults five
ounces.

8. Effects of the Chloride of Lime as a Disinfector—MM. Orfila
Leseure, Gerdy and Hennelle, having to examine the body of an in-
dividual who was supposed to have been poisoned, and who had been
dead for nearly a month, found the smell so insupportable that they
were induced to try the application of the chloride of lime, as recom-
mended by M. Labarraque. A solution of this substance was fre-
quently sprinkled over the body, and produced quite a wonderful
effect, for scarcely had they made a few aspersions when the un-
pleasant odour was instantly destroyed, and the operation could be
proceeded in with comparative comfort.

9. Use of Sugar as an Antidote to Lead in Cases of Potsoning.—The
following fact has been stated by M. Reynard to the Société des
Sciences of Lisle. During the campaign of Russia several loaves of
sugar had been enclosed in a chest containing some flasks of extract
of lead. One of these flasks having been broken, the liquid escaped,
and the sugar became impregnated with it. During the distresses of
the campaign it was necessary to have recourse to this sugar; but far
from producing the fatal results which were expected, the sugar
formed a salutary article of nourishment to those who made use of it,

396 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

and gave them a degree of vigour and activity which was of the greatest
service in enabling them to support the fatigues of marching. Hence
M. Reynard thinks that sugar might be adopted for preventing the
effects of subacetate of lead, instead of the sulphates of soda, and of
magnesia, which are not always at hand.— Med. Rep. xx. 441, or
Journal d’ Agriculture, &c. ;

10. Volcanic Eruption in Iceland.—On the 22d of June last, a great
noise began in Myrdals Jokel, on the south side of Iccland, and on
the 26th there was a dreadful volcanic eruption from the Crater
Kotlugian, which had been quiet since 1775. Pumice and ashes
were thrown to a great distance, and even covered ships that were’
90 miles from the coast. The ice on the sammit of the mountain was’
torn asunder, prodigious masses rolled into the sea, while torrents of
water thrown from the crater covered the adjacent country with mud
and slime. ‘There were three distinct eruptions, since which the
mountain has been tranquil. This new volcano lies from six to eight
leagues to the east of Eyafalle Jokel, which broke out in December
last, and about twelve leagues south-east of Hecla.

11. Periodical Rise and Fall of the Barometer.—Colonel Wright,
member of the Ceylon Literary and Agricultural Society, is said to
have discovered that within the tropics, the mercury rises and falls
twice within the twenty-four hours, with such regularity as to
afford almost an opportunity of measuring the lapse of time by this
Instrument. :

12. Periodical Thunder Storms.—Mr. Ronalds has quoted the curi-
ous remarks of Volta on the re-appearance of thunder storms for many
days together, at the same hour and in the same place. ‘“ It is necessary
to inhabit a mountainous country, and particularly the neighbourhood
of Jakes, such as Como, the precincts of Lario, Verbano, Varese,
Lugano, Lecco, and the whole mountains of Bianza, Bergama, &c.,
in order to be convinced of such periods and fixations (so to speak)
of thunder storms at this or that valley or opening of a mountain,
which Jast until some wind or remarkable change in the atmosphere
shall occur to destroy them.” Volta ascribes the effect to a state of
the atmosphere produced by the storms of the preceding day.

13. Voyage of Discovery.—Capt. Otto von Kotzebue is again about
to circumnavigate the world, having already been twice round it. The
present.ex pedition is appointed by the Russian government, and is well
furnished with every thing that can promote its object. The object
is rather to make accurate surveys than new discoveries, but an astro-
nomer, mineralogist, and naturalist, from the University of Dorpat go
with it, as well as other scientific men. The instruments are by
Troughton and Jones, of London,

Natural History. 397

14. Animalcule of Conferea Comoides—M. Bose read a report to
the Royal Academy of Sciences, in the name of a commission, of a
Memoir of M. Gaillon, of Dieppe, relative to that species of marine
conferva which M. Decandolle has ranged in the genera ceramion,
and which Dillwyn has figured under the name of Conferva Comoides.

M. Gaillon having observed at very short intervals for a whole
year the filaments of the Conferva Comoide saw the green corpuscules,
which are sometimes ovoide and sometimes square, and which form
the central line, leave the filaments of themselves, move slowly or
rapidly, change their direction, and act indeed like the animalcula
of infusions, observed by Muller. Then taking entire filaments of the
conferva comoide, he forcedthe animalculz to separate before their
time, and observed the same phenomenon. Such is the necessity of
association, that as soon as the young ones can, they place themselves
end to end in a line, and then exude a mucus, which, becoming
membranous, envelopes them entirely. The bifurcations are formed
in the same manner.—Ann, de Chimie, xxiv. 208,

LITERARY NOTICES.

Mr. John Curtis has in the press the first No. of his Illustrations
of English Insects. We understand the intention of the author is
to publish highly-finished figures of such species of insects (with ,
the plants upon which they are found,) as constitute the British
genera, with accurate representations of the parts on which the
characters are founded, and descriptive letter-press to each plate,
giving, as far as possible, the habits and economy of the subjects
selected. The work will be published monthly, to commence the
first of January, 1824.

Mr. Frost intends publishing a Quarterly Botanical Journal, with
occasional plates.

A geographical, statistical, and historical description of the
Empire of China, and its Dependencies: by Julius Klaproth, mem-
ber of the Asiatic Societies of London and Paris; of the Royal
Society of Gottingen; of the Imperial Society of Naturalists, in
Moscow ; is preparing for publication, in 2 vols., quarto.

398

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INDEX,

ACID of the triple prussiates, experiments on, 102, 103. On the
purpuric acid, 104. New mode of forming cyanic acid, dbid.,
105, 106. Influence of tartaric acid in certain cases of ana-
lysis, 107-109. Comparative examination of the acids of but-
ter, of the phocenic, and hircic, acids, 112, 113. Action of
nitric acid on charcoal, 161. Hydriodic acid, a test for pla-
tinum in solution, 166. On the carbonic and muriatic acids of

- the Atmosphere, 172

Aérolite, notice of, 184

Air, experiments on the vibration of, 371, 372

Alkali, vegetable, discovered in rhubarb, 172

Amalgamation of nickel and cobalt, by arsenic, 166

Amber, on animals preserved in, 41-44, 393, 394. Remarks on
the nature and origin of that substance, 44-48

Amici (Professor,) abstract of the microscopical observations of,
388-393

Ammonia, on the presence of, in the rust of iron formed in houses,
380, 381

Ammoniacal- Gas, inflammability of, 165, 166

Analysis (chemical,) uncertainty of, 164, 165; 378. Various
analyses by M. Arfwedson, 394

Analyses of scientific books, 134-138, 301-347

Animal Kingdom, outlines of Sir Everard Home’s system of, pro=
posed from the modification of the human ovum, 324-326

Animalcule of the conferva comoides, notice of, 397

Anthracite, fusion of, 160

Apothecaries’ Company, historical notice of, 193-195. In what
manner its affairs are conducted, 196-198. Description of the
laboratories at Apothecaries’-hall, 199-202

Aquatic salamander, the process of the re-production of the mem-
bers of, described, 84-96

Arenaceo-calcareous substance fcund near Delvine, in Perthshire,
account of, 79-84

Arfwedson (M.) various chemical analyses by, 394

Arsenic, nickel and cobalt amalgamated by, 166

Astronomical collections, 139-154, 348-366. Tables of astronomi-
cal phenomena for the first three months of the year 1824,

* 286-297

Astronomy, (physical,) observations on the modern theory of,

=* 270-272 :

400 INDEX.

Barometer, periodical rise and fall of, 396. Description of a
mountain-barometer, 277-279

Baryta, composition of the muriate of, 384

Bauer (Francis, Esq.,) microscopical observations of, on the sus=
pension of the muscular motions of the vibrio tritici, 326

Beavan (B., esq.) Notice of the observations of, on the heights of
places in the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain, 330

Benzoic Acid found in the ripe fruit of the clove-tree, 378

Berthier (M. P.) On the sulphurets .resulting from the reduction
of some sulphates, by means of charcoal, 100-102

Berthoud (F.) Observations of, on the dead escapement, with re-
marks, 2-8

Bidone (M.) Hydraulic experiments of, on the propagation of
waves, 370,371

Bizio (M.), experiments of, on the colouring matter of the blood,
173, 174, and onevitrogene, 174, 175, 176

Blood, examination of, and of its action on the different phenomena
of life, 115-123. On the colouring matter of the blood, 173,
174

Blowpipe, combustion by, under water, 167. Supports for the ig-
nition of particles by, 379

Boa Constrictor, urate of ammonia found in the excrement of, 177

Boletus Igniarius, observations on, 185

Books, (scientific), analysis of, 134-138, 301-347

Borax, constituent parts of, when deprived of its water of crystal-
lization, 394

Boracete, analysis of, 394

Boyd (Mr. Wm.), observations of, on Mr. Rider’s rotatory steam
engine, 268-270

Brande, (W. T., esq.), outline of his course of lectures on chemis-
try at the Royal Institution, 191, 192. Observations on the ul-
timate analysis of certain vegetable salifiable bases, 279-286.
Notice of his course at Apothecaries’ Hall, 399

Brooke (H. J. A., esq.), description by, of some undescribed mi-
nerals, 274-277

Butter, comparative examination of the acid of, 112,113. Facts
subservient to the history of cow-butter, 114, 115

Cadmium, from zinc works, 383 ;
Camp, (Roman), at Mitchley, near Birmingham, described, 24-
26

Cape of Good Hope, account of some parhelia seen at, 365, 366.
_ And of a remarkable grotto in the interior of that country, 272-
274 ;
Carbon, experiments with the sulphurets of, 99. Notice of crys-
tallized carbon, 162 ; : : :
Carbonate of magnesia, existence of, in the urinary calculi_of her;

INDEX. 401

bivorous animals, 109. Native carbonate of soda found in India,
178 .

Carburetted hydrogen gas, notice of a new one, 381

Casks, report on an improved sliding rule for, with rules for its use,
357-361. Mode of computing the contents of a cask from the
wake, 362, 363

Caulinea fragilio, circulation of the sap, discovered in, 388, 389

Chalk, effects of burning on, 386, 387

Chara flexilis, organization of, 389, 390

Charcoal, fusion of, 158,159. The action of nitric acid on, 161,
162. Charcoal discovered in the cinders of Vesuvius, 180. Ex-
periments on the proportion of charcoal obtained from woods of
a greater specific gravity than box, 264, 265

Chemical Science, miscellaneous intelligence in, 156-177, 372-388

Chevreul, (M.), memoir of, on the causes of the diversities found
in soaps, and on a new group of organic acids, 109-113. Facts
collected by him, relative to the history of cow-butter, 114, 115

Childrenite, a non-descript mineral, account of, 274, 275

Chimnies, extinction of fires in, 156

Chinese year, remarks on, 331

Chloride of potassium thrown out by Vesuvius, 395. Effects of
chloride of lime, as a disinfector, 395

Chlorine, a remedy in scarlet fever, 395

Chrysobery/, Brazilian, analysis of, 394

Cinchona, analysis of, 279-282, 285, 286

Cinnamon Stone of Malsjo, analysis of, 394

Cloth, process for making water-proof, 155

Clove-Trce, Benzoic acid found in the ripe frait of, 378

Cobalt and nickel, amalgamation of, by arsenic, 166 ~

Comets, catalogue of the orbits of, which have hitherto been com-
puted, 149-154, 349-356

Corn, prevention of smut in, 156

Crystals, loose, discovered in quartz, 394

Cumming (M.), observations of, on the dead escapement, 9, 10

Cumming (Professor), table of thermo-electrics, by, 171. On
thermo-electric rotation, 372, 373. And ona thermo-electric
phenomenon with iron, 374

Cutbush (Dr.), experimeus by, with nitric acid, on charcoal, 161.

Cyanic Acid, new mode of forming, 104-106

Cyanogen, production of, 161

Cystic Oxide, compounds of, 176, 177

Dahline, a new vegetable principle, account of, 387

— (J. F. Esq.), notice of his remarks on the Chinese year, 331,
32

Davy (Sir Humphrey), address of, on delivering the Copley Me-
dal, 298, 299, F ao

Vou, XVI. 2D

402 INDEX.

Dead Escapement, theory of, and on the reducing it to practice for
clocks with seconds and longer pendulums, 1-24

Delvine, account of an arenaceo-calcareous substance found near,
79-84 +.

Dew, remarks on the deposition of, 35-41 :

Diamond, fusion of, 160. Matrix of the Brazilian diamond, 178

Dobereiner (M.), extraordinary experiment by, on the ignition of
platinum by a jet of hydrogen, 179, And on the action of pla-
tina, on mixtures of oxygen, hydrogen, and other gases, 375,
376. Notice of his eudiometer, 374

Dufour (Colonel), experiments of, on the tenacity of iron wire,
367, 368. Account of the iron wire bridge of suspension, con-
structed by him at Geneva, 369, 370

Dumbness, case of, cured by electricity, 187-189

Earth, acid, of Persia, experiments on, 179

Earthquake, shock of, at sea, 184

Eaton (Professor), observations of, on the boletus igniarius, 185

Electrical Machine, horizontal plate, notice of, 171

Electricity, on the employment of, in the treatment of calculous
eases, 185-187. Instance of dumbness cured by, 187-189

Electro-Magnetism, observations on the electro-magnetic multi-
plier of Schweigger, and on some of its applications, 123-126.
Experiments on thermo-electric magnetism, 126-130. Table of
thermo-electrics, 171.. Electro-magnetic effects of alkalies,
acids, and salts, 168-170. Notice of recent electro-magnetical
experiments by Oérsted, Wollaston, and Sebech, 342-344, On
thermo-electric rotation, 372-373. Thermo-electrie phenome-
non, with iron, 374

Epidermis of plants, microscopical observations on, 391, 392

Eritrogene, experiments on, 174-176

Escapement, see Dead Escapement

Ether, experiments on, made by the simultaneous application of
heat and compression, 98,99. Remarks thereon, 100

Eudiometer, notice of a new one, 374

Fallows (Rev. F.), account of some parhelia, seen at the Cape of
Good Hope, 365, 366 x ,

Fat, change of, by water, heat, and pressure, 172

Faraday (M.), on change of musket balls in shapneli shells, 163.
On action of gunpowder on lead, 163. On change of colour of
plate glass by light, 164, Historical statement respecting the
liquefaction of gases, 229-240

February 13824, astronomical phenomena for, 292-294

Finch (John, Esq.), description of a Roman camp by, at Mitchley,
near Birmingham, 24-26 ;

Fires, extinction of, in chimnies, 156

INDEX. 403

Fourier (Baron), account of some thermo-electric experiments,
126-130

Gas, evolution of, during metallic precipitation, 168. Historical
statement of the liquefaction of gases, 229-240. Correction of
the bulk of gases for temperature, 378, 379

Gauging casks, report on a new sliding rule for, with problems,
357-365

Gay Lussac (M.), experiments of, on the acid of the triple prus-
siates, 102-104

Geneva, notice of a bridge of suspension at, 369, 370

Goldingham (J. Esq.), experiments of, for ascertaining the velocity
of sound, 332

Graham (George), inventor of the dead escapement, 1. Biogra-
phical notice of him, 2

Great Britain, remarks on the numerical changes of population
in, 203-210

Greenwich mural circle, accuracy of, 189

Griffiths (Mr. T.), experiments of, on the proportion of ehitteal
obtained from woods having a greater specific gravity than box,
264, 265

Groombridge’s (Mr.), transit circle, accuracy of, determined, 189

Grotto in the interior of the Cape of Good Hope, described, 272-
274

Gunpowder, action of, on lead, 163. Inflammation of gunpowder
by slacking lime, zbid

Gurney, (Goldsworthy), lectures of, on chemical science, analysed;
301. Extravagant eulogies of them, in some newspapers, ted.
Specimens of the author’s originality in treating of the higher
departments of chemistry, 3801-305, And of his ibignders’ in the
practical parts of that science, 305-309

Harvey, (George, Esq.,) remarks on the deposition of dew, 35-41.
And on the numerical changes of the population of Great Bri-
tain, 203-210

Heat, effects of the simultaneous application of, to certain liquids.
98-99. Remarks thereen, 100. Solubility diminished by heat, 165

Henry, (Dr. Wm.,) elements of Chemistry, (ninth edition,) ana-
lyzed, 332-347, Plan ef this edition, 334. Remarks on the
formulee adopted for equating the volumes and specific gravity
_of gases, ebid, And on Dr. Henry’s chapter on chemical affi-
nity, 334-337. On his account of the atomic theory, 338-341.
On his view of electricity, 341-346. And on his arrangement of
the metals, 344-347

Herriny-Fishery, natural history and nayigation of, 210-221.
Observations on the present commercial and political state of the
herring fishery, 222-228.

2D 2

404 INDEX.

Hircic acid, comparative examination of 112-113

Home, (Sir Everard,) lectures on comparative anatomy, analysis
of, 134. Plan of the work, with extracts and remarks, 134-
138. His discovery of the human ovum, 321-323. And of the
breeding of marsupial and of cold-blooded animals, 323, 324.
Remarks on, and outline of, his synopsis of the system of the
animal kingdom, proposed from his modification of ovum, 324-
326. On the difference of structure between the human mem-
branum tympani, and that of the elephant, 327, 328. On the
double organs of generation of the lamprey, 332

Hornstone, extraordinary formation of the 178

Hydriodic acid, a test for platinum in solution, 156

Iceland, notice of volcanic eruptions in, 396

Inflammability of ammoniacal gas, 165, 166

Inflammation of gunpowder, by slacking lime, 163

Intelligence, see Miscellaneous Intelligence

Inverse Series, extension of, for the computation of refraction, to-
gether with a direct solution of the problem, 139-148

Iodine, presence of, in the waters of Sales, 168.

Tron, alloys of zine with, 383

Iron Wire, experiment on the tenacity of, 367, 368, _ Account of
the suspension bridge of iron wire, at Geneva, 369, 370

James’s powders, composition of, 167

January, 1824, astronomical phenomena for, 289-291

Jassaert, (M.,) notice of a quadruple salt discovered by, 384,385

Jumotri, notice of the hot-springs of, 183, 184

Kotzebue, (Captain,) voyage of circumnavigation by, announced,
396

Kupferschaum, analysis of, 277

Laboratories at Apothecaries’ Hall described, 199-202

Lamarck’s genera of shells, translated, 49-78, 241-258. Remarks
on his system, 258, 259. Explanation of the plates illustrating
the genera of shells, 260-264

Lambton, (Lieut. Col.,) corrections by, applied to the great merio-
dinal arc, to reduce it to the parliamentary standard, 328

Lassaigne, (M.,) on the purpuric acid, 104. On the existence of
carbonate of magnesia in the urinary calculi of herbivorous ani-
mals, 109. On the compounds of cystic oxide, 176,177

Latour, (M. de,) on the effects obtained from the simultaneous ap-
plication of heat and compression to. certain liquids, 98-100.
Experiments of, with certain substances under high pressures,
156, 157

Lava of Vesuvius, examination of, 180, 181

Lead, action of gunpowder on, 163. Pyrophorus, obtained from

INDEX. 405

the tartrate of lead, 385. Sugar an antidote to, in case of
poisoning, 395

Limestone, effects’ of burning on, 386, 387

Light, influence of, on the purple tint of plate glass, 164

Lightning, on the direction of, 185

Lime, composition of the mnriates of, 384, Effects of the chloride
of, as a disinfector, 395

Liquefaction of gases, historical statement respecting, 229-240

Interary Notices, 397 ;

Lobel, (Dr.,) notice of a green pigment, invented by, 385

London Bridge, Observations on the project for taking down and
rebuilding, and on the late Mr. Rennie’s design for a new Bridge
27-35.

Longchamp, (M.,) on the uncertainty of chemical analysis, 164,
165

Mac Culloch, (Dr.,) on animals preserved in amber, 41-44. Re-
marks‘on the nature and origin of that substance, 44-48. On an
arenaceo-calcareous substance found near Delvine in Perthshire,
79-84. On the migrations and natural history of the. herring,
210-221. And on the present commercial and political state of
the herring fishery, 222-228.

March, 1824, astronomical phenomena for, 295-297

Marsh, (Mr.,) experiments of, on thermo-electric rotation, 373-374

Mechanical Science, intelligence in, 155, 156, 367-372

Meteorological Diary for June, July, and August, 1823, 190. For
September, October, and November, 398

Miscellaneous Intelligence in mechanical science, 155, 156, 367-372.
In chemical science, 156-177, 372. In natural history, 178-189

Mitchley, Remains of Roman camp at, described, 24-26

Monticelli and Covelli, (MM.,) examination of the recent lava of
Vesuvius by, 180, 181. Of its volcanic electricity, 18], 182.
And of its eruption in October 1822, 182, 183

Morphia, analysis of, 283, 284, 285

Moryez, (M.,) on the phenomena of Shadows, 371

Mountain Barometer, description of, 277-279

Muriates of baryta, strontia, and lime, composition of, 384

_Musket Bulls, charge of, in shrapnell shells, 163

Natural History, miscellaneous intelligence in, 177-189, 388-398

Nautical collections, 139-154

Newman, (J.,) description of a mountain barometer, with an iron
cistern, 277-279

Nickel and cobalt, amalgamation of, by arsenic, 166

Oersted (M.), observations of, on Schweiggcer’s electro-magnetic
multiplier, 123-126, Experiments of, on thermo-electric mag~

406 INDEX.

netism, 126-130. Account of his experiments with the magne-
tic needle, 342, 343

Oils, new process for extracting elaine from, 109

Olbers, (Dr.), catalogue of the orbits of all the comets hitherto

_ computed, 149-154, 349-356

Ovum, human, notice of Sir Everard Home’s discovery of, 321-
323

Painting on pottery, experiments on, 156

Pajot des Charmes (M.C.), notice of the new coloured test papers
invented by, 380

Parhelia seen at the Cape of Good Hope, account of; 365, 366

Partington (Miles, esq.}, case of dumbness cured by, by means of
electricity, 187-189

Payne (M.), new vegetable principle discovered by, 387

Peclet (M.), new process by, for extracting elainé from oils, 109

Penn (Granville), supplement to the comparative estimate of the
mineral and mosaical genealogies, analysis of, with remarks, 309-
321

Perkins’s engine, change of fat in, by water, heat, and pressure,
172, 173

Phillips (Mr.), experiments of, to determine the certainty of che-
mical analysis, 378. On the composition of the muriates of
Baryta, Strontia, and Lime, 384

Phocenic acid, comparative examination of, 112, 113

Pigment (Green), directions for preparing, 385, 386

Plants, experiments on the circulation of the sap in, 388-391. On
their epidermis, 391. Mode of union in their vegetable struc-
ture, 392. Ontheir air-vessels, 392, 393

Plate-Glass, purple tint of, affected by light, 164

Platinum, chromium detected in the ore of, 166. Hydriodie acid,
atest for; in solution, ibid. Extraordinary experiment on the
ignition of, by a jet of hydrogen, 179. And its action on mix-
tures of oxygen, hydrogen, and other gases, 375, 376-378

Plumbago, fusion of, 157, 158. Notice of artificial plumbago,
162

Poland, notice of organic remains in, 179

Pollen of the Portluca Oleracea, microscopical observations on,
390, 391

Pond (John, esq.), address to, on his receiving the Copley medal,
298,299. Observations of, on the changes which have taken
place in the declination of some of the principal fixed stars, 328,
329. And on the parallax ofa lyre, 329, 330

Population of Great Britain, remarks on the changes of, as divided
into the classes of agriculturists, manufactures, and non-produc-
tive Jabourers, 203-210

Prevost (Dr.), and Dumas (M.), examination by, of the blood,

INDEX. 407

and of its action on the different phenomena of life, 115-123.
Experiments of, on the employment of electricity in calculous
cases, 185-187

Prize Questions, by the Royal Academy of Sciences, at Paris, 177

Prussian Blue, discovered in urine, 177

Prussiates, (triple), experiments on the acid of, 102, 103

Purpuric acid, note on, 104

Pyrophorus, obtained from the tartrate of lead, 385

Quinia, analysis of, 283-285

Rennie (Mr.,) remarks on the design of, for London bridge, 28-35

Rhubarb, vegetable alkali discovered in, 172

Rider (Mr. J.,) description of the rotatory steam-engine, invented.
by, 267, 268. Remarks thereon, 269, 270

Rose (G.) observations of, on felspar, albite, labradore, and anor-
thite, 106, 107

Rose (Mr. H.,) on titanium and its combinations with oxygen, and
sulphur, 97, 98. Further experiments on titanium, 381. Ti-
tanates, 382. Sulphuret of titanium, 382, 383. On the in-
fluence of tartaric acid in certain cases of analysis, 107-109. On
the solubility of substances induced by the tartaric acid, 379

Royal Society of London, Proceedings of, 297-299. Officers of,

299, 300. Analysis of their philosophical transactions for the
year 1823, Part I., 326-332

Rust of iron, on the presence of ammonia in, 380,381

Salamander (Aquatic,) the general process of the re-production of
the members of, described, 84-89. Variations in that process,
89-92. Comparison of the process of re-production in diffe-
rent animals possessing this power, 92-94. General observa-
tions, 94-96

Salt, new quadruple, notice of, 384, 385

Sap, circulation of, in vegetables, experiments on, 388-390

Savart (M. F.,) experimental researches of, on the vibration of air

Scarlet-Fever, chlorine a remedy for, 395

Schumacher (Professor,) catalogue of the orbits of all the comets
hitherto computed, 149-154, 349-356 .

Schweigger’s electro-magnetic multiple or, observations on, 123-
126. Notice of insects discovered by him in amber, 393

Science (Foreign,) Progress of, 97-133

Scientific Books, analysis of, 134-138; 301-347

Shadows, on the phenomena of, 371

Shells, genera of, described, 49-79, 241-258. Observations thereon
258, 259. Description of the plates illustrating them, 260-264.

Shrapnell-Shells, change of musket-balls in, 163

408 INDEX.

Silliman (Professor,) fusion of charcoal, plumbago, anthracite,
and diamond by, 157-161
Sliding-Rule for gauging casks, report on an improved one,
357-361
- Smut, prevention of, in corn, 156
Soaps, causes of the diversities of, 110, 111. Considered with re~
gard to smell, 111, 112
Soda, native carbonate of, found in India, 178
Solubility diminshed by heat, 165
Somervillite, a non-descript mineral, account of, 275, 276
South (James, Esq.,) astronomical phenomena arranged by, for
first three months in the year 1824, 286-297
Spars, observations on the different species of, 106, 107
Steam, action of, on solutions of silver and gold, 162
Steel, cutting of, by soft iron, 155
Sugar, use of, as an antidote to lead, 395
Sulphurets, experiments on, resulting from the reduction of some
sulphates by means of charcoal, 100-102

Tamar (river,) notice of an intended chain bridge over, 155

Tartaric acid, influence of, in certain cases of analysis, 107-109

Tartrate of lead, pyrophorus obtained from, 385

Taylor’s Theorem, demonstration of, 229

Temperature, increased of mines, hypothesis to account for, 317,
318, note

Tenacity of iron wire, experiments on, 367, 368

Test Papers, notice of two new coloured ones, 380

Thames (river,) probable mischiefs from, on taking down and re-
building London bridge, 27. Remarks on Mr. Rennie’s design
for a new bridge over this river, 28-35

Thermo-electrics, table of, 171. Experiments on thermo-electric
magnetism, 126-130. And on thermo-electric rotation, 372,
373. Thermo-electric phenomenon, with iron, 374

Thompson (Mr. G.), description of a grotto in the interior of the
Cape of Good Hope, 272-274

Thunder Storm, periodical, notice of, 396

Tide-Gauge, new, description of, 348

Titanium, combinations of, with oxygen and sulphur, 97, 98.
Experiments and observations on metallic titanium, 326, 327,
381, 382

Todd (Dr. T. J.), on the process of the reproduction of the members
of the aquatic salamander, 84-96

Touchwood, observations on, 185

Ultramarine, adulteration of, 167

INDEX, 409

Vauquelin (M.), reflections on volcanoes by, 130-133

Vegetables, see Plants

Vesuvius, examination of recent lava of, 180,181. Charcoal dis-
covered in its cinders, 180. Electric phenomena of this moun-
tain, 181, 182. Account of its eruptions in October, 1822, 182,
183. Chloride of potassium, thrown out of, 395

Vibrio Tritici, microscopical observations on the suspension of the
muscular motions of, 326

Vicat (M.), on the peculiar effects of burning, on lime, 386, 387

Volcanic Phenomena, hypothesis on the cause of, 130, 131. Re-
marks on volcanoes, 131-133. And on volcanic electricity, 181,
182. Volcanic eruption in Iceland 396

Vulliamy (B. L.), on the theory of the dead escapement, and the
reducing it to practice for clocks with seconds and larger pendu-
lums, 1-24

Wake of a cask, what, 362. Mode of computing the contents of a
cask therefrom, ibid, 363

Walsh (John, Esq.), observations of, on the modern theory of phy-
sical astronomy, 270-272

Water-proof cloth, notice of, 155

Waves, hydraulic experiments on the propagation of, 370, 371

Whidby (J. Esq.), abstract of the observations of, on the fossil
bones found in the limestone quarries of Oreston, 330, 331

Wilmot (Edward, Esq.), demonstration of Taylor’s theorem by, 229

Wohler (F.), new mode of forming cyanic acid by, 102-104

Wollaston (Dr.), experiments and observations of, on metallic tita-
nium, 326, 327

Wollaston (Dr.), notice of the researches of, in electro-magnetism,
343

Year of the Chinese, remarks on, 331

Young (Dr. Thomas), report of, on an improved sliding rule for
gauging casks, 357-361. Mode of computing the contents of a
cask from the wake, 362, 363

Zinc, alloys of, with iron, 383. Cadmium obtained from zinc
works, zbid.

END OF VOL, XVI.

Vou. XVI. 2k

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