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THE

QUARTE

JOURNAL

LITERATURE, AND ART.

JANUARY TO JUNE, 1827.

LONDON:
HENRY COLBURN, NEW BURLINGTON-STREET.

MDCCCXXVII.

LONDON :
William Clowes, Printeb,
Staraford-a

<z V

■ 4'

CONTENTS OF THE VOLUME.

No. I.

Sketch of the Life of the late Samuel Parkes, Esq. . . , l
On the Distribution of the Royal Society's Honours . . .11
Essays and Gleanings on Naval Architecture and Nautical Eco-
nomy, reviewea 18

On the Division of Labour as applied to Literature and Science . 37
.Mr. J. Lindley on the Orchideous Plants of Chile . ... ,43

A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy. By William Campbell

Ottley, reviewed . * . . . . . . .54

M. Gimbemat on the Mode of Extracting the Nutritious Portion of

Bones . .57

Hints respecting the Construction of Warm Baths . . .62

Dr. Fyfe's Manual of Chemistry, reviewed 70

Dr. .Harwood on the Structure and Habits of the Seal . . .71
Dr. Goring on Artificial Cobwebs for Micrometers . . .81

On the Importance of Preserving Facts connected with the Natural

History of Animals. By William Swainson, Esq. . . .83
Outlines of Human Phisiology. By Mr. Herbert Mayo, reviewed . 91
Professor Renwick's Report on the Subject of Weights and Mea-
sures, made to the Commissioners for revising the Laws of the

State of New York 101

On the Manufacture of Dies for Medals and Coinage. By Profes-
sor Brande . 116

Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

i. Table of the Depression of Mercury in the Tube of a Baro-
meter . . . 122

ii. Remarks on the Change of Inclination of the Dipping
' Needle 207

iii. Experiments on the Effect of the direct White Light of the
Sun in making Steel Magnetic. By M. A. Baumgartner, of
Vienna 125

The Life of Dr. Jenner, rm^z^^ec? , 141

Illustrations of the Elementary Principles of the Structure of

Language 163

An Account of the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian, which are

now measuring on the Continent of Europe . . .171

On the probable Decomposition of certain Gaseous Compounds of

Carbon and Hydrogen, during sudden Expansion . . 204

Proceedings of the Royal Society 207

Proceedihgisof the Royal Institution of Great Britain . . .209
Proceedings of the Horticultural Society . . . . .217

ly

CONTENTS OF THE VOLUME,

HISCELLANEOUS ARTICLE^.

I. Mechanical Science.

Page
1 Micrometrlcal Measurement of Sa-
turn and of Jupiter and its Sa-
tellites 220

J2 Diamond Microscope 221

3 Results of Observations on Falling

Stars 222

4 Experiments on the Resistance of

variousBodies to Rupture caused
by Longitudinal Tension .... 223

5 Magnetism of Watch-works cor-

rected 223

Page

6 Peculiar Construction of Shot-

cartridges 224

7 Elastic Mould for Castings. ... 225

8 Leslie's Apparatus for ascertaining

the Specific Gravity of Powders 226

9 Menstruum for Biting-in on

Plates of soft Steel ib.

10 Etching on Steel ib.

1 1 Method of Cutting Glass 227

12 Preservation of Skins ib,

13 Indian Method of Varnishing. . j6.

II. Chemical Science.

1 Heat evolved from Air by Com-

pression 228

2 On the Action of a Moving Me-

tallic Disc, upon a portion of a
Voltaic Conductor , ib.

3 Influence of the Aurora Borealis

on the Magnetic Needle 229

4 Electro-chemical Appearances ib.

5 Earthy Depositions from Water

influenced by the Electricity of
Metals in contact 230

6 Instance of a returning Stroke

by Lightning ib,

7 Phosphorescence of Fluate of

Lime 232

8 Chemical Compounds produced

by physical Powers ib.

9 Table of the Density of Vapours

and Gases ib.

10 On the Existence and Nature of

Bromine • 233

11 Preparation of Chloride of Bo-

ron 234

12 Chloride of Boron , ib.

13 Preparation of Chloride of Arse-

nic 234

14 Preparation of Oxyde of Chrome,

as a Figment • 235

15 Separation of Iron from Manga-

nese ib.

16 Pure Proto-Salt of Iron 236

17 Action of Potassium on Oxalates ib.

18 Analysis of the Triple Prussiate of

Potash ib,

19 Preparation of Medicinal Chlo-

ride of Soda ib»

20 Mode of Action of Disinfecting

Chlorides 237

21 Deleterious Eff"ects of Carbonic

Gas 238

22 New Acids obtained from Animal

Substances by Alkalies .... 239

23 Sugar of Melons ib»

24 Method of Destroying the Empy-

reumatic Odour of Alcohol . . ib,,
55 On the Colouring Matter of the

Madder. ib.

III. Natural History.

1 Subterraneous Noises heard at

Nakous 240

2 Italian Cavern containing Bones 241

3 Crystallization of Asbestus .... ib.

4 Dense Fogs ib.

5 Atmospheric Phenomenon 242

6 Effects of Cold ib.

7 Notice of Mr. Burchell's Travels

in South America • ib.

8 Note on the Motions and Actions

of Quadrupeds ,.....,...,, 243

9 Measurements and Weight of a

Sea-gull 244

10 Excision of Teeth ib.

1 1 Poisoned Wounds 245

12 Bites of venomous Reptiles, , , • 246

13 Poison of Rattlesnakes ib,

14 On Two new Kinds of Urinary

G ravel ib,

15 Conquest of Peru and Mexico,

by the Mongols, in the Thir-
teenth Century .......... 247

Meteorological t)iARY «••«•••• 248

CONTEKTS OF THE VOLCME.

No. II.

Page

On the supply of Water to the Western Parts of the Metropolis , 249

On the Cultivation and Improvement of Edible Fruits • . 265

•* The Gold^Headed Cane," rmeMJerf 278

Revised Arrangement of the Ornithological System of Cuvier and L^ / j
Dumeril, with reference only to the Genera and Species of the ^f y '
British Islands ..•»

Dr. Mac Culloch on Malaria 294

*' Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, Vol VI.

V^xi 5, '^ reviewed 317

On the Effect of certain Exercises on the Form, and then* |Influence
in preventing or curing Distortions of the Spine , , ,319

On the Introduction of Salt as an Agricultural Agent . , .337

Description of the Kaleidophone, or Phonic Kaleidoscope ; a new
philosophical Toy, for the illustration of several Interesting
and Amusing Acoustical and Optical Phenomena . .344

London in 1826, with respect to its present state of Architectural

Advancement . . 352

** DaPlantarum, praesertim Cryptogamicarum, Transitu etAnalo-

gia, Commentatio," rmei^erf 362

On the Chemical Composition of two Liquids lately proposed as
Disinfectants of great power. By Dr. Granville, F. R. S. &c. 371

Letter from Captain Sabine to Professor Renwick, on the Weights
and Measures of New York 382

Further Observations on the Use of the Gelatin of Bones as an Ar-
ticle of Food. By Charles de Gimbernat . • . . 386

'•Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, ou Classification des Peuples
Anciens et Modernes, d'apres leur Langues, par Adrien Balbi,"
reviewed • . • 329

Hieroglyphical Fragments 402

On Achromatic Microscopes, with a description of certain Objects
for trying their defining and penetrating Power. By Dr. Goring. 410

Astronomical and Nautical Collections;

i. Corrected method of computing an observed Occupation . 434

ii. Remarks on the Solar Tables. By Thomas Henderson, Esq. 438

iii. AnsAver to some Remarks of Mr. Ivory .... 439

iv. Elementary View ot the Undulatory Theory of Light. By
Mr. Fresnel 441

Proceedings of the Royal Society ...... 455

Proceedings of tlie Royal Institution of Great Britain . • ,456

^1

.CONTEXTS OF THE VOI.UM©.

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

I. Mechanical Science.

Page.

1 On the compression of Gases. . 467

2 On a N^w Optical Property of

Dichroite 468

Page.

3 Velocity of Cannon Balls 468

4 Security from Fire in Tiieatres ib.

5 Macadamized Roads. *...... 470

II. Chemical Science.

1 Determination of the Electro-

condueting power of Metals . . '470

2 On Lightning-rods and Com-

{)asses* ....'.....*..,.*.... "471

3 On the Transference of Ponder-

able Matter in Electric t)is-.
charge's 472

4 New Phenomena produced by

Vapour ih.

5 Transference of Heat by change

of capacity in Gas 474

6 On the change of Zero in Ther-

mometers 475

7 On Bromine and certain of its

Compounds 476

8 On Oxide of Iodine and lodous

Acid 477

• 9 Quantity of Charcdal obtained*

from Wood 479

10 Preparation of Cyanide of Iodine 480

11 0*a the Detection of Hydrocy-

anic Acid in the Bodies of Ani-
mals poisoned by it ib.

12 On the presence of Ammonia in

the natural Oxide of Iron 481

13 Volcanic Muriate of Ammonia"

of the Isle of Lanzerole .... ib,

14 On the Efflorescent Salts of Vol-

canic Rocks* ....'. 482

15 On the Nitrates of Ammonia and

Mercury ib.

If) Peroxide of Potash from Nitre

17 Crystallized Carbonate of Po-

tash

18 Sulphates of Manganese and

Soda ,

19 CompQsition of White Copper,

or Packfong

20 Method of Bronzing Tin

21 Chromate of Silver crystallized

22 Sulphate of Quinia

23 Adulteration of Sulphate of

Quinia with Sugar

24 Composition of Vegetable prox-

imate Principles

25 On Legumine

26 Substances contained in Essen-

tial Oils

27 t!hange of Oil of Turpentine by

exposure to Air

28 Preparation of Cafeine

29 Black Dye and Ink prepared

with Logwood

30 Improvement in Varnishes ....

31 Substances obtained from Cas-

tor Oil

32 Distillation of Fatty Bodies . .

33 Action of Nitric Acid on Hogs'

Lard

34 Ozraazome

483

ib.

id.

ib.
ib,

484

485
ib.

486

487

488

ib.
ib.

ib.
489

fb.
490

I [I. Natural History.

1 On Death by Insufljation. 491

2 Remarks on the Human Voice ib.

3 Sabulous formation in the Brain 492

4 Analysis of a Ferruginous Re-

nal Calculus ib.

5 Production and Preparation of

Pearls 493

6 Peculiar Cases of the Use of

Milk as Food ib.

7 Preparations of Henbane and

Belladbnna. *.....". ib.

8 On the Culture of Bees in Fo-

;-ests ^. ........... ., 494

9 Signs of Increase, Maturity, and

Cecajp in Trees ,,•.,.. .' ' ib.

10 Structure of Plants 496

11 Experiments on the Fecunda-

tion of Vegetables 497

12 On a natural Botanical Arrange-

ment dependent on chemical
characters 4&8

13 On the Application of a Liga-

ture to Fruit-trees and to Vines 499

14 Method of reviving Plants,

Shoots, &c ib.

15 Ancient Glass Bottles '. . . 500

16 Natural Prognostics of the Wea-
.ther 501

17 On Ancient Aerolites 502

18 Fresh Water found at Sea . . . ib.

TO OUR READERS AND CORRESPONDENTS.

The pages of this Journal are impartially open to all communications
upon the subjects of Science, Scientific Literature, and the Arts ; and it
is requested that they may be forwarded to the Editor, at least one
month previous to the period of the publication of each Number.

We shall be happy to receive papers from Provincial Scientific and
Literary Societies, and to publish them either on the part of the Society,
or of their respective authors.

Papers which are too long for insertion, as is the case with many
which we receive, or which are deemed unfit for this publication, will be
immediately retumed to the source whence we receive them, with our
reasons for their return.

Three letters have reached us upon the subject of the Grand Junction
Water Company's supplies. We quite agree with the writers as to the
state of the liquid furnished, but have had no time to inquu-e into its
cause. It certainly has at times " a most antient and fish-Hke smell." —
We shall notice the Dolphin in our next Number, recommending it,
in the mean time, to the serious consideration of those whom it
concerns.

Mr. Heineken's paper, from Madeu-a, reached us too late for inser-
tion, but an abstract of its contents will be given in our next Number.
We cannot take upon ourselves to transfer it to any other Journal
without the Author's special directions upon the subject.

Philochemicus has come to hand, but we cannot persuade our-
. selves to admit a mere chain of argument as evidence against experi-
ment. We allow the insufficiency of the views which he combats ; but
nevertheless the experiments upon which they are founded are stated —
if Philochemicus will repeat these, and show that the author is mistaken
in his conclusions, we shall immediately insert liis communication with
thanks.

TO READERS AND CORRESPONDENTS.

Communications have been received from Dr. Mac CuUoch, from the
Medico-Botanical Society, from Mr. Rmnbal, Mr. Swainson, Dr.
Goring, and several anonymous Correspondents, which, either from the
lateness of their arrival, or from want of space, wx have been under the
necessity of postponing.

It is quite out of oiu- power to comply with the wishes of many of our
Correspondents for extra copies of their papers. Were all their requests
acceded to, it would be impossible that this Journal could be printed and
published at the appointed time, and we obviously can make no distinc-
tion. We therefore trust that our refusal will be considered as a matter
of necessity, and not arising out of want of courtesy or consideration.

AH manuscripts sent us for publication are invariably destroyed as
soon as the number in which they are printed is published, except we
receive a special request that they may be returned to the authors,
which is always attended to.

We are much obliged by the trouble taken by our Correspondent,
N. R. D. The pump is certainly not new, and probably not good for
much, or it would have come into more general use. The other sug-
gestions are not forgotten,

A letter has reached us, signed " An Amateur." We trust that the
present Number will meet his views.

The communication upon the subject of the recent discussions in the
Royal Society is omitted, for reasons which w^e presume will be suffi-
ciently obvious to the communicator ; but the subject shall not be lost
sight of.

Works in the Press^

Some Account of the Science of Botany ; being the Substance of an Introductory
Lecture delivered in the Theatre of the Royal histitution of Great Britain, by John
Frost, F. A. S. and L.S., of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, &c. Dedicated, by per-
mission, to the King.

Malaria : an Essay on the Production and Propagation of this Poison, and on the
Nature and LocaUties of the Places by which it is produced j with an Enumeration
of the Diseases caused by it, and of the Means of preventing or diminishing them,
both at Home and in the Naval and Military Service. From the pen of Dr. Mac
Culloch.

THE

QUARTERLY JOURNAL

OP

SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART.

Sketch of the Life of the late Samuel Parkes, Esq.

Mr. Editor, Burton Crescenty Feb, 26, 1827.

Thinking that a short sketch of the life of a man so generally known
and deservedly esteemed, and whose chemical works had become so
universally popular, as those of the late Mr. Samuel Parkes, would not
be uninteresting to the readers of your valuable publication, I have
examined his diaries, and endeavoured to compress within as small a
compass as possible, those facts and circumstances which appear likely
to atford the most correct delineation of his character.
I remain, your's faithfully,

J. W. HODGETTS.

Mr. Parkes was the eldest son of Mr. Samuel Parkes, of
Stourbridge, in Worcestershire, where he was born on the 26th
of May, 1761. At the age of ten he was sent to a classical
school, kept by Dr. Addington, of Market Harborough, in
Leicestershire. For this gentleman, whom he describes as
having possessed " corsiderable oratorical talents," " and great
attainments, classical and literary," Mr. Parkes always ex-
pressed strong feelings of respect, and acknowledged that, to
his instructions and care, he was indebted for that love of
literature, and those habits of application which never deserted
him in after-life.

He continued at this school four years, when he was
taken away in order to be apprenticed to an ironmonger at
Ross, in Herefordshire ; in consequence of whose failure he

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. B

2 Sketch of the Life of

returned home, and remained in his father's business, that of
a grocer, till he settled for himself.

During this period of eighteen years, he appears to have
devoted himself assiduously to literary pursuits, and to have
spent much time in perusing standard works upon almost
every subject necessary to the completion of a liberal educa-
tion. He neglected no opportunity of collecting portraits for
his illustrations of Grainger, or of purchasing scarce and valu-
able books ; indeed he seems then to have commenced those
collections which he afterwards brought to such perfection.
His diaries contain a minute detail of each day's employment,
and a list of the books which he was reading ; and in com-
mon-place books, of the same dates, are inserted his opinions
of the contents, and transcriptions of every passage which he
deemed worthy of preservation. I can find no diary pre-
ceding 1783 ; but as others are referred to, am inclined to
believe that he commenced writing them at a considerably
earlier period.

In 1786, he seems to have given up a good deal of time in
concert with Mr. Isaac Hawkins Browne, late member for
Bridgnorth, in devising measures for the suppression of coun-
terfeit halfpence throughout the kingdom ; and soon after-
wards I find, from the Earl of Stamford's letter, accepting the
office of patron, that, after great labour, he succeeded in esta-
blishing a public library at Stourbridge, About this time, too,
he wrote many papers for the Gentleman's Magazine, chiefly
upon subjects of Theology, which was a favourite topic with
him in early life, and occupied a considerable portion of his
attention.

The large intervals of leisure which he enjoyed during the
time of his residence under his father's roof, being devoted
exclusively to the acquisition of knowledge, laid the solid
foundation of those attainments, which in after-fife rendered
his name so eminent.

In 1793, he settled at Stoke-upon-Trent, as a soap-maker,
and from this time he dated the commencement of his chemical
pursuits. He soon succeeded in obtaining his alkali from the
decomposition of the sulphates in a way very superior to any
which had previously been adopted, and introduced great im-

the late Samuel Parkes, Esq. •

provements into every branch of the manufacture. In 1794,
he married Miss Twamley, of Dudley, and remained at Stoke,
pursuing earnestly the study of chemistry, till 1802, when,
wishing to make his only child a proficient in his favourite
pursuit, and unable to find an elementary work calculated to
teach the rudiments of the science, he began to compile, with
great assiduity and care, what he thought better adapted for
a young person than any treatise which he had seen. Such
was the origin of the Chemical Catechism, its author not
having at that time the slightest view towards publication.

Being, from unforeseen events, unnecessary here to detail,
unfortunate at Stoke, where he paid but a small dividend to
his creditors, he came to London in 1803, and commenced
business as a manufacturing chemist, as he frequently used to
relate, with 30i. of his own, and 100^ borrowed of a friend ;
and with this trifling capital was so successful, that, within
three years, he was enabled to obey the dictates of his honour-
able feelings, by remitting to his creditors the amounts of
their debts, with interest from the time they had been due.
This business he continued during the remainder of his life;
and his rapid and uniform success may, perhaps, be in great
measure ascribed to the very accurate knowledge which he
acquired of almost every manufacture which is at all depend-
ant upon chemistry, and consequently of the precise nature of
those substances which might be beneficially employed. Soon
after his arrival, a much-esteemed friend, wishing to instruct
his children in chemistry, and not approving of any work
which he had been able to procure, applied to Mr. Parkes for
advice, who told him that he had himself been in a similar
difficulty, but willingly lent him the manuscript which he had
written to obviate it.

Pleased with the perusal, and convinced that it was exactly
the book that had so long been required, he became urgent in
his importunities with Mr. Parkes to publish it. At length,
though opposed by the fears and objections of his family, and
notwithstanding his retiring habits, so averse to appearing
before the public, he succeeded in persuading him. The
work was carefully revised, the notes, tables, experiments,
and index added ; and, indeed, whatever indefatigable assiduity

B 2

4 Sketch of the Life of

could attain to render it at once amusing and instructive, was
done. This edition of 1500 copies (the smallest that he ever
printed) was pubhshed in May, 1806, and sold so rapidly as
to make a second necessary in October, 1807. From that
period to the present, the demand has been incessant, eleven
editions having been called for within eighteen years ; none
of them were mere reprints, Mr. Parkes having always mate-
rially altered and enlarged them, and indeed several were
almost rewritten. The sale abroad has kept pace with that at
home, and copies have been transmitted to the author of edi-
tions published in several of the States of North America, in
various parts of Germany, in France, Spain, and Russia.

Perceiving how much a still more elementary work was
required, particularly by schools and young persons, which
might by its bulk and price be easily accessible to all classes
of readers, he wrote the Rudiments of Chemistry, in which
the arrangement of the Catechism is preserved, and indeed
the whole of the substance of the text, the catechetical form
being, for the sake of brevity, dispensed with, as are also the
notes and tables ; the principal facts and axioms are printed
in a large type, and under each, in a smaller letter, the expe-
riments and illustrations necessary to elucidate them. He
published the first edition in 1809, and so much was a book
of this nature wanted, and with such avidity was it received,
that, in the autumn of 1825, a fourth edition was called for;
besides which, it has been reprinted in New York and Phila-
delphia.

His other principal work is the Chemical Essays, which
were written in furtherance of the great object of which he
never lost sight, viz., the application of chemical science to
the arts and manufactures of the country ; they have passed
through two editions, and have been repubUshed in France and
elsewhere. The essays are on various subjects, and contain
detailed accounts of all the processes employed in many of
those manufactures which are most dependent on a correct
knowledge of the principle of chemistry : he takes every
opportunity of suggesting improvements in the different
methods of procedure, and had the satisfaction of hearing that
many manufacturers had profited by his suggestions, the adop-

the late Samuel Parkes, Esq. • 5^

tion of which had been attended with the most successful and
beneficial results.

Besides these standard works, he was a frequent contributor
of papers to the different j)eriodical scientific publications,
and to the numerous societies of which he was a member.
The readers of this Journal must be familiar with his articles,
as it is a work for which he always professed the highest
regard ; and perhaps the Royal Institution possessed no mem-
ber more warmly attached to its interests, or a more zealous
supporter of the objects for which it was established.

The Highland Society of Scotland presented him with a
silver inkstand for his essay " On the comparative value of
Kelp and Barilla, describing the component parts of each, and
the various uses to which they may be advantageously applied."
The Caledonian Horticultural Society also awarded him a
silver cup, in token of their approbation of his '* Essay on the
use of Salt in Horticulture."

In June, 1808, he was examined before the West Indian
Committee of the House of Commons, relative to the uses of
sugar in fattening cattle ; but more particularly on the preven-
tion of frauds upon the revenue, by the mixture of different
substances with it, to hinder it from being used for domestic
purposes, or for distillation, but at the same time without
injuring its nutritive qualities. His evidence, detailing at
length his experiments and opinions on this subject, was after-
wards published in the Philosophical Magazine : the paper
contained much very interesting and novel matter, and gained
him great credit with the public.

The investigation of the various uses of salt, and his anxious
wish for the abolition of the salt duties, were objects of his
most persevering and unremitting attention for a long series of
years. In 1817, he first turned the notice of the public
seriously to the subject, by the publication of his " Thoughts
on the Laws relating to Salt." In this work he describes the
numerous and important uses of salt in agriculture, in feeding
cattle, and in the manufactures of muriatic acid, oxymuriatic
acid, soap, and soda, with the great advantages which would
be derived if it were lawful to fabricate barilla and alkali by
the decomposition of sea-salt, without payment of duty : he

tf Sketch of the Life of

enumerates the divers other manufactures which would be
created by the repeal of those laws, and proceeds in a forcible
manner to show the baneful effects which they have had upon
those great nurseries of our seamen, the fisheries of Great
Britain. In February, 1819, he first published his " Letter
to Farmers and Graziers on the use of Salt in Agriculture,"
in which he details the methods of its advantageous applica-
tion as a manure, in feeding cattle, in preserving hay, in the
destruction of worms and insects, and even in rearing bees ;
he also inserts copious extracts from the evidence given on the
subject of the Salt Laws before the Board of Trade, in April,
1817, and before a Select Committee of the House of Com-
mons, in April, 1818, on both of which occasions he was
examined at great length for many days ; and the united testi-
mony of the most celebrated agriculturists and men of science
of whom England could boast, went to prove the inestimable
advantages that would accrue to the country from the repeal
of those laws.

The interest that was excited on the subject by this book,
and the consequent rapidity of its sale, were probably unpre-
cedented. The first edition, published on the 22nd of
February, sold off instantaneously ; the second came out in
March, the third on the 1st of May, and the fourth on the 1st
of November of the same year. The late Sir Thomas Ber-
nard was a fellow-labourer with him throughout this question,
and gave his time and attention assiduously to it. At length,
after twenty-eight years of unwearied exertion, during a con-
siderable portion of which period little hope had appeared of
ultimately obtaining any beneficial result, Mr. Parkes had the
satisfaction of seeing his labours crowned with success by the
total repeal of the laws in 1825, since which time the in-
creased consumption of salt has fully justified his statements,
and proved the correctness of his anticipations.

Engaged, as Mr. Parkes was, in the management and super-
intendance of an extensive chemical manufactory, which re-
quired unremitting attention and the greatest portion of his
time, his works were composed at those hours Avhich would
generally be devoted to amusement or repose ; but such was
(he • unwearied and indefatigable nature of his mind, that,

the late Samuel Parkes, Esq. 7

besides his books, which demanded his constant care in pre-
paring for new editions, in altering and adapting them to the
perpetually-improving state of the science, and his papers for
the periodical publications, which were all composed with more
than ordinary pains, (as, for instance, the last paper which he
ever wrote — " On the analysis of some Roman Coins," pub-
lished in the Quarterly Journal for July, 1826, during the com-
position of which he submitted to accurate analysis upwards of
twenty coins, costing him the incessant labour of many months,
as he made it an invariable rule never to place dependance upon
any experiment till it had been repeated, and the same result
again obtained) — besides all these avocations, which appear
amply sufficient to fill up the time of one man, he kept a regu-
lar diary of every action of his life, and from an early age
till within a few months of his death, never once retired to rest
until he had committed to writing all the events of the day.
He had common-place books, in which he entered everything
w^orthy of note, whether gathered from reading, observation,
or conversation, and he never performed a single chemical
experiment without registering every particular of the process
and the result. By these means he had always a mass oi
information collected upon most scientific subjects, and no
improvement or valuable fact, once known, could ever be lost
or forgotten, but, if it related particularly to chemistry, was
sure, if useful, to appear in the next edition of the Catechism.
As if all these occupations were insufficient to give full em-
ployment to his hours, his beautiful collections of Greek and
Roman coins, prints, autographs, minerals, and fossils, were
constantly and rapidly increasing, and, as fast as collected,
were arranged in the most methodical manner.

On several important trials, Mr. Parkes was a very material
witness ; and where the question at issue hinged on a chemical
point, as was so peculiarly the case in that between Messrs.
Severn, King, and Co. and the Insurance Offices, he never
hesitated to give up his time and attention for weeks and
months in studying the subject, and in trying the requisite
experiments with precision and accuracy. In the year 1818,
Mr. Parkes was applied to by Messrs. Turner, Woodhead, and
Co., of Rotherham, upon whom seizures had been made by

8 Sketch of the Life of

the Board of Excise of British gum which had been prepared
in their starch-manufactory, upon the pretence of its being
brown starch that had not paid duty ; the penalties sued for
amounted to upwards of 3000/. Samples were sent to him
for analysis, on a careful examination of which he found that
they possessed none of the properties of starch ; and when
the cause came on to be tried in the Court of Exchequer, in
which he was subpoenaed as an evidence for the defendants,
having obtained permission to repeat in court the experiments
by which he had ascertained the points in which British gum
differs from starch, the proofs were considered to be so deci-
sive, especially the one of the beautiful blue precipitate pro-
duced by the solution of iodine, that a verdict was imme-
diately pronounced for the defendants.

It is truly wonderful that one man should be capable of
doing all that he did ; that, actively engaged in business as he
was for so many years, he should be able to write so much,
and yet be always prepared to follow with ardour any scien-
tific investigation, or chemical analysis, that might present
itself In experiments he was delicate and sure, never dis-
heartened by failure or by the tediousness of the operations,
and rarely stated any fact in his books till he had previously
verified it himself.

The Chemical Catechism was the work to which its author
was the most fondly devoted ; it was his first production ; it
was the foundation on which his reputation as a chemist had
been raised : twenty years had not lessened the attachment of
the public to it, and the unusually large editions which he
published were called for with even more rapidity at last than
they had been at first. The Rudiments of Chemistry, and the
Chemical Essays, had both been received with unequivocal
marks of approval, — each had passed through large editions,
and been quickly sold ; the essays had been translated into
various languages, and both had been republished in different
parts of the United States : but the Catechism was, as it
were, identified with his very name, it bore all the character-
istics of his powerful and original mind ; to bring it nearer to
perfection had been his most assiduous labour, his most
cherished pleasure, for twenty years. The perusal of the Cate-

the late Samuel Parkes, Esq. 9

chism had induced the principal literary societies of both
hemispheres to present him with their diplomas, and to elect
him one of their members : the Government of Spain had
ordered it to be used in the schools and colleges ; and, in tes-
timony of his approbation of it, the Autocrat of the Russias
presented its author with a sj)lendid and valuable ring.

The preparation of the twelfth edition for the press was the
last avocation of its author. Although his body had for months
been fast sinking beneath the constant attacks of a long and
painful disease, which the foreboding fears of his friends too
truly predicted must at length terminate fatally, yet his mind,
unwearied and indefatigable as ever, preserving in full force
its characteristic activity and diligence, was sedulously em-
ployed in the revision and improvement of its favourite pro-
duction. The same anxiety to collect and insert all newly-
discovered facts, all recent improvements in the science to
which he had so long devoted his time and energies ; the same
ardour of research, and attentive examination of every source
whence he expected to derive useful information, were pos-
sessed by him during the performance of this last work as they
ever had been whilst in the full enjoyment of bodily health, nay,
existed in full force till within a few days of that fatal moment
when the scientific Avorld was for ever deprived of his talents
and acquirements, and his friends were left to deplore the loss
of an aifectionate relative, a sincere friend, and interesting
companion.

For several years preceding his death he had been collecting
and arranging materials for a work, the composition of which
he had long contemplated. He entitled it, "A History of
the Discoveries in the several branches of Natural Philosophy,
Astronomy, and Chemistry ; including an account of the intro-
duction of the various kinds of chemical apparatus, and the
invention of all philosophical, nautical, and astronomical instru-
ments, from the beginning of the Christian aira to the present
time, affording a general view of the progress of Science and
Literature during that period." It is to be regretted that he
did not live to complete it, as such a subject in his hands
must have proved a valuable acquisition to those who delight
in tracing the gradual but regular advances of knowledge.

10 Sketch of the Life of

Many other essays, on different subjects, which he never pub-
lished, attest the varied nature of his acquirements.

In June, 1825, Mr. Parlces, whose health had been for some
months past slowly declining, was taken ill at Edinburgh, and
brought to London by easy stages. All that could be done by
the most eminent physicians was done ; but the disease was too
deeply rooted to be eradicated, and his family had the pain of
watching him fast sinking away from his sphere of usefulness.
Throughout the whole of his acute and severe sufferings, he
was never heard to repine, but always expressed the most lively
pleasure at receiving the visits of his numerous friends ; and
the last sentence he uttered was to thank a gentleman for his
kindness in coming to see him. His friends, however, only
alleviated his pain, and after a severe struggle he closed his
active life on the 23rd of December, 1825.

Mr. Parkes was a man of an inquiring and unwearied mind,
persevering and ardent in the pursuit of knowledge, and happy
in his mode of imparting it to others. Not a moment of his
day was ever suffered to pass unemployed : after writing upon
one subject for a long series of hours he retired from his study,
not from the slightest feeling of fatigue, but because the time
for his meals, or for rest, was arrived. Whatever subject he
was perusing, he never abandoned it till he had fully accom-
plished his object, and till every source of information was
exhausted. By turns he had attended to almost every depart-
ment of literature, and of general science, indeed was well
versed in them ; but natural philosophy, and more particularly
the chemical branch of it, was his favourite pursuit, and en-
grossed most of his attention. His well-stored library afforded
him every facility of reference, and he bestowed much pains
on its selection and arrangement.

Probably no author ever attracted so many students to the
science on which he was treating, as Mr. Parkes did to the
study of chemistry by the publication of the catechism : the
easy familiarity of its style, the happy knack which he pos-
sessed of rendering the driest and otherwise most unattractive
parts inviting and pleasing, by interspersing them with useful
and interesting matter not immediately connected with his
subject, added to the admirable system of arrangement, adapted

the late Samu6l Parkes, Esq. 11

to lead imperceptibly from the rudiments to the higher branches
of the science, all conduced to allure the reader to pursue with
ardour so fascinating a research.

Few persons have been engaged in so extensive a literary
correspondence, both in Europe and America. He courted the
friendship and conversation of scientific men both at home and
abroad, considering them as some of the most valuable sources
of knowledge ; to him they were sources easily attained, as his
works had rendered his name familiar to an unusually large
circle.

In private life, he was benevolent, affectionate, and sincere,
warm and constant in his attachments, rarely offended, and
easily and quickly conciliated. To his servants he was an
indulgent and generous master, a contributor to, and supporter
of, every institution established for the purposes of charity,
education, or the promotion of knowledge. Few men have
ever departed this life whose loss will be felt in so wide and
varied a circle as Mr. Samuel Parkes; but that loss can only
be duly appreciated by those who possessed the gratifying
privilege of calling him by the name of friend.

On the recent Adjudgment of the Royal Medals, by the Presi^
dent and Council of the Royal Society.

Mr. Editor,

The destination of the Royal Medals, as lately determined
upon by the President and Council of the Royal Society, has
excited no small degree of surprise and dissatisfaction in the
minds of many of the Fellows, and of a large portion of the
scientific public ; and I am induced to request you will insert
this letter in the Quarterly Journal, lest silence on the part of
the malcontents be construed into acquiescence, and consi-
dered as justifying the singular proceedings of the Council, pro-
ceedings which, in my mind, are calculated to injure the cause
of science, to blunt emulation, dishearten activity, and rob zeal
and diligence of their fair prospects of success.

I must, in the first place, disclaim all personality towards

12 On the Distribution of the

Mr. Dalton, with whom I am utterly unacquainted. I am told
that some of his meteorological papers rise above mediocrity,
and that he is reserved and sagacious ; that his mind is stored
with important knowledge, which, either through indolence or
modesty, or both, he is prevented from producing to the world.
But these are matters little relevant to our present discussion.
— His New System of Chemical Philosophy I have read and
studied ; upon its disclosures we find his present claims are
founded, and to it we must refer as the standard of his ori-
ginality in discovery, and of his title to the high distinction
which has just been conferred upon him. I say high distinc-
tion, because, in the present case, there is something more than
the mere reward of an honorary medal. It is a medal
of Royal foundation ; it is now presented for the first time ;
and a kind of precedent is established, upon which future Pre-
sidents and Councils may act. It is, moreover, a distinction
conferred, not by a Society of to-day's creation, nor by an as-
sembly of artisans, nor by a school of mechanics, but by one of
the most ancient and respectable scientific bodies of Europe; so
that the fame thereof will go abroad, and will be sounded even
in the remotest corners of the earth. These are circumstances
which should have been well weighed and cautiously consi-
dered, by the bestowing parties; and, instead of obsequiously
adopting, as I fear they have, the biassed suggestions of some
one or twx) prejudiced individuals, they should have met the
case with manly and open independence, and, shaking off all
the prejudice of party, and all the petty jealousies of rivalry,
should have acted with fearless integrity up to the motto : —
*' Palmam qui meruit, fer at. ^^

I read, in your last Journal, " that the Council awarded the
first prize to Mr. John Dalton, of Manchester, for the deve-
lopment of the chemical theory of definite proportions, usually
called the Atomic Theory," and the President afterwards
alludes to Higgins, Richter, Wollaston, Gay-Lussac, Prout,
and some others, of minor notoriety, as labourers in that vine-
yard, of which Mr. Dalton is recognised as lord and master.

From the above statement, hoAvever, so little is to be ga-
thered, that I must endeavour to form some more exact scale
by which I may safely measure his pretensions, and satisfac-

Royal Society's Honours. 13

torily determine their weight and magnitude ; and for this
purpose it will be necessary to solve at least three questions : —
1. Is Mr. Dal ton the inventor of the Atomic Theory — is he the
discoverer of those peculiar laws of combination and decom-
position upon which it immediately rests ? — 2. Has Mr. Dalton
essentially contributed to its development — was it useless and
barren in the hands of its inventor, and was he the first to pro-
mulgate its importance as bearing upon the general laws of
chemical science — did he first show its practical applications,
and render it available to the manufacturer and to the arti-
san ? — 3. Has he disclosed any new views connected with the
applications of the theory to the more abstract branches of
chemical science ?

Of these questions, the first is the most essential to Mr.
Dalton' s claims ; but it unfortunately happens that they stand
negatived upon the most direct of all evidence, and that Mr.
Higgins is decidedly the discoverer of those principles of com-
bination upon which one part of the atomic theory is founded.
Upon him the grave has closed, and he is no longer able to
defend his personal pretensions. Had he been alive, I much
doubt whether sufficient effrontery could have been mustered
to venture upon the step I am discussing. Let us now
look a little into the matter, and listen first to the President
himself. —

" That the proportions in compound gases are definite, has
long been generally acknowledged; but Mr. Higgins is, I
believe, the first person who conceived that, ivhen gases com-
hined In more than one iiroportion, all the proportions of the
same element were equal ; and he founded this idea, which was
made public in 1789, on the corpuscular hypothesis that bodies
combine jmrticle with jyarticle^ or one with two, or three, or a
greater number of particles.'" Sir Humphry then adds, " Mr.
Dalton, about 1802, adopting a similar hypothesis, apparently
without the knowledge of what Mr. Higgins had written,
extended his views (Mr. Higgins's) to compounds in general*."

Let us now hear Mr. .Higginsf : '* These considerations,"

* Elements of Chemical Philosophy, p. 107.

•I- Experiments and Observations on the Atomic Theory and Electri-
cal Phenomena.

14 On the Distribution of the

(adverting to the views just quoted from Davy) *' gave birth
to that doctrine which Mr. Dalton, eighteen years after I had
written, claimed as originating from his own inventive genius.
^Vhat his pretensions are will be seen from the sketches which
will soon follow, and which have been taken from my book.

*' In the application of my system to chemical theory, I
expressed by numbers the relative forces of attraction subsist-
ing between the different kinds of ultimate particles and atoms
of matter to each other. This was of infinite use to me
during my researches, and, if followed up, would mature the
science into that mathematical precision in which it is at pre-
sent deficient.

*' This I consider as one of the most important features of
the system ; it has not even been mentioned by Mr. Dalton in
his work, and when he repeats experiments formerly made by
me, he does not even glance at the source from whence he
derived his information.

" I cannot with propriety or delicacy directly say that Mr.
Dalton is a plagiarist, although appearances are against him.
Probably he never read my book ; yet it appears extraordinary
that a person of Mr. Dalton' s industry and learning should
neglect one of the few works that were expressly written on
the subject of theory."

Lastly, Dr. Ure observes*: ^' Is there any law regulating
these various compounds (of nitrogen), so that, knowing the
first proportion, we may infer the whole series ? This question
was first considered in a work containing many curious antici-
pations of discoveries to which posterior writers have laid
claim. I mean Mr. Higgins's comparative view of the phlo-
gistic and antiphlogistic theory, printed in 1788, and published
early in 1789. Besides some additional facts decidedly hostile
to the hypothesis of phlogiston, this publication indicates the
doctrine of multiple proportion, with regard to the successive
compounds of the same constituents. This was likewise inter-
woven with new and ingenious views concerning gaseous and
atomical combination. Mr. Higgins, having felt himself ag-
grieved at seeing discoveries first announced by him in 1789,

* Dictionary— -Art. *' Equivalents,"

Royal Sociefifs Honours, li

brought forward nineteen years afterwards by Mr. Daltonin his
own name, published, in 1814, a book, entitled Experiments and
Observations on the Atomic Theory and Electrical Phenomena,
In this work he gives numerous quotations from his Compara-
tive View, which appear to cstabhsh his claim of priority to
the discovery of multijde jyroportions and the atomic theory
of chemistry'' Dr. lire then proceeds to quote and explain
Mr. Higgins's experiments, and leaves not the smallest doubt,
upon a candid and unprejudiced mind, of his claims of priority
and originality.

1 now presume to have shown that Mr. Dalton is not the
inventor of the atomic theory, nor the discoverer of those
laws of combination and decomposition upon which it is
immediately founded. I next ask, whether Mr. Dalton has
materially contributed to its development and extended appli-
cation ? Whether we owe to his suggestions those *' Tables
of Equivalents," which are so useful in the laboratory, and so
important to the manufacturer of chemical products ? — No :
all this is due to Dr..Wollaston, whose logometric scale of
chemical equivalents brought the theory into practice, and ren-
dered that, which was a mere abstract subject- of chemical
inquiry, little understood and less investigated — an instrument
of the utmost usefulness and value. He did that for the theory
of definite proportions which Mr. Watt effected for the steam-
engine : it was a comparatively useless and cumbersome
machine ; he rendered it generally applicable, and divested it
of its clogs and incongruities. Had Mr. Dalton stood in the
place of Dr. Wollaston, I should have gladly witnessed the
honour which has fallen upon him ; for the merit of those who
fertilise barren inventions, and bring them home ** to the
business and bosoms of men," I am inclined to rate very
highly, and even sometimes to consider it as superior to that
of the original inventor. Newton developed the theory of
gravitation, and magnificently did he apply it to practical
purposes ; but such excess of talent rarely falls to the human
lot:—

" For life doth rarely to one man allow
Time to discover worlds and conquer too."

And it generally happens that a great axiom or principle in

16 On the Distribution of the

science is iinfolded by one mind, and applied and extended,
as in the case before us, by others. The decomposing energies
of the pile of Volta were discovered by Nicholson, Carlisle,
and Cruickshank. They were extended and applied to chemi-
cal generalisations by the eminently superior talents of Davy.
Mr. Tennant discovered that explosions would not pass small
tubes ; and this is the clue to the mystery of the safety-lamp.
But every page of the history of science records analogous
instances, and shows that, however eminent may be the merit
of an inventor, he who applies and improves upon the inven-
tion, who extends its precincts, and levels it to the purposes
of common life, is the real benefactor, and that he it is who
should reap the praise and enjoy the renown ; but such, as I
have before said, is not Mr. Dalton.

My third query is directed to the applications of this theory
to the more abstract and refined departments of chemical
science ; and happy should I be, if, under this head, I could
find grounds of justifying the determination of the Council in
regard to this royal medal ; here it is that Richter comes in
for his share of conquest, and that Gay-Lussac stands pre-
eminent ; but here chiefly it is that we ascribe, as is most due,
much honour and credit to the laborious industry of Dr. Prout,
who has applied the theory of proportions to some intricate
questions of vegetable and animal composition, and who has
thrown out some singularly felicitous hints on the relations
between the specific gravities of bodies in their gaseous states,
and the weights of their atoms.

Thus, then, I have endeavoured candidly to weigh Mr. Dal-
ton's pretensions, as urged in the President's speech, and find
them, in their utmost latitude, insufficient and unsatisfactory.
Even his best friends and professed admirers must allow, if
they have condescended to read the preceding quotations, that
his claims are certainly not founded upon a rock, that at
least much suspicion hangs over their authenticity ; and if
there be any who are not satisfied with the evidence I have
adduced, let them attentively peruse " Higgins's Comparative
View," and afterwards the second volume of " Dalton 's New
System," " and then to breakfast with what ai)petite they
have." The fact is, that over the present question there should

Royal Society's Honours. 17

neither hang doubt nor discrepancy ; the title should be with-
out flaws, the claim without a drawback ; and that which
crowns the impropriety of the present adjudgment is, that a
list of names might easily be produced upon whom the dis-
tinction might have been conferred without a shadow of im-
propriety or inconsistency ; three or four such may be found
in the Council itself, and several in the lists of the Society :
Philosophers, whose discoveries are really their own, and who
have not only enlightened and enriched science, but have
exalted the name and fame of the Royal Society by their
splendid contributions to its published Transactions, a set of
volumes in which the name of Dalton scarcely appears, except
annexed to one or two unimportant and flimsy papers.

Of Mr. Ivory I have much less to say; he is universally
admitted to be a deep and skilful mathematician, but his
researches are, unfortunately, of a very abstract nature ; and
though of his abilities and originality there may be no doubt,
the usefulness of his inquiries is open to a query. Some may
find an interest in abstruse investigations, having for their
object the determination of the figure which the earth would
assume were it made of calf's-foot jelly instead of rock and
stone, and such a question may cost months of daily and
nightly labour to solve : much midnight oil, and much sweat
of the mental brow may be expended in its determination : but
when settled, where is the fruit of the demonstration ?

Upon the whole, it may, I think, fairly be assumed that,
although the claims of Mr. Ivory to the honour which has
now been bestowed, are far more substantial than those of
Mr. Dalton, they are yet open to objection, and that, upon the
present important occasion, he whose discoveries and inven-
tions have most largely contributed to the general extension
of science, or most decidedly bear upon the progress and per-
fection of the useful arts, should have taken precedence, and
should have been selected from among his less industrious
compeers as most worthy in himself, and most efficient as an
example to others.

I am, Sir, yours, &c.

F. R. S.

JAN.— MARCH, 1827, C

18 Naval Architecture and

Essays and Gleanings on Naval Architecture and Nautical

Economy.

The impulse which these branches of naval science have lately
received, is well exemplified in the above periodical work.
This work is worthy of particular notice at the present
eventful period of the arts. Not only do the national pros-
perity and honour depend on our naval ascendancy, but even
our safety and existence as a nation would be endangered by
signal defeats at sea. It may be asserted, without fear of
contradiction, that the whole range of nautical economy
never demanded more serious and ardent attention from our
government than at the present time. A vigorous branch of
the British stock now actually rivals us in commerce, and
has shown the native prowess of its descent by deeds in war,
worthy of the original and experienced parent. The junction
of France and Spain, uniting a long and contiguous coast
of ports to this country, and the internal aspect of affairs in
Britain, enforce on us the watchfulness of serious concern, if
they do not sound the tocsin of enthusiastic exertion. So
much is the present compound existence of the British nation
engrafted on her command of the seas, that a single defeat,
or a suspension for a short time of her domination, would
be a most convulsive crisis, fraught with ruin and inex*
pressible distress.

The progress of events and new discoveries render al-
terations expedient ; and it is only by constant examination
of these circumstances, and by fostering a knowledge of the
principles on which they depend, that we can determine on
the line of conduct to be adopted. Repeated epochs have
shown us, that the forms of our ships have frequently
become antiquated and unfit for further use. Such were
the lofty, broad, high-sterned vessels of the seventeenth
century. Subsequently, the forty-four gun ships, on two
decks, came into disuse. Then followed the sixty-fours;
and the seventy- fours are fast going out of vogue. The
same might be said of other descriptions of vessels, which
there is no occasion to particularise. It is worthy of re-
mark, that they were all rendered useless by the superiority,
in sailing qualities, of the vessels of our antagonists, who
adopted other descriptions of ships, which we were soon
obliged to imitate.

As all those manoeuvres which are performed in military
struggles by the marching of troops, are effected in naval

f Nautical Economy. 19

encounters by the sailing and the evolutions of ships, it is
evident that victory may greatly depend on the qualities and
characters of our floating batteries. On land it is not to be
expected that any advantage can be calculated on from in-
herent superior celerity of movement, as the agents in each
case must be supposed to be possessed of the same physical
powers ; in such case, it must be skill and valour alone that
can give the ascendant: but, at sea, not only is ability
advantageous, but increased facility of execution may be
possessed by the superior architecture and equipment of
vessels. In the instance of preponderating force being pos-
sessed by the enemy, celerity of motion in the retreat be-
comes of augmented benefit ; as it is also, when, from the
inferiority of the enemy, pursuit must be resorted to.

A large ship of superior velocity has the power of making
every ship of inferior force its easy prey. The same may
be said of fast-sailing fleets, which ought always to have the
ships composing them of equal powers of sailing ; as the
velocity of the whole must be regulated by that of the
slowest, in order to insure her protection.

Our enlightened naval historian. Captain Brenton, vol. i.
p. 40, of his work, says — " Whoever reads with attention
the history of our naval actions in the East or West Indies,
America, or the North Sea, will readily attribute the
failures of Hughes, Rodney, Graves, Byron, and Parker, to
the miserable state of our shipping." And further on, he
observes — «* The Dutch, Spanish, and R\i'ssian armaments of
1787, 1790, 1791, called forth men who applied themselves
with much assiduity to the improvement of the marine ; the
suggestions of officers of experience were attended to ; the
best and most approved models were selected and built
after; and the Cotirageux, of seventy -four gims, taken from
the French as far back as 1761, was the favourite of the
service : the Leviathan was as near a resemblance to her as
the builder of Chatham dock-yard could produce ; and in
the actions of 28th and 29th of May, and 1st of June, 1794,
under the command of that high-spirited nobleman, the
late Lord Hugh Seymour, this ship was one of the earliest
in action."

Captain Brenton attributes the glorious victory under
Lord Howe, in a principal degree, to the fast sailing of
the Queen Charlotte and Royal George, ships of enlarged
dimensions, which brought the enemy to action, by cutting
the line at the desired time before the others.

From the same work we extract the following remarks, as

C 2

20 Naval Architecture and

further proof of the lamentable comparative state of our
shipping, and our deficiency of knowledge in the prin-
ciples of the art. '* The Victory is one of the most perfect
vessels, of her size, we ever had ; but we have unfortunately
failed in our attempts to produce one exactly similar to her.
The Boyne was so intended, but, on being launched, was
discovered to be two feet narrower on the quarter-deck, and
found to sail wretchedly.''*

It is unnecessar}^ further to point out our degrading
inferiority. The cause of this is plain ; the nautical arts
and sciences have been less cultivated in this country than in
any maritime nation in the world. By the wise encourage-
ment of talent, foreign nations have produced men learned
in the art, and distinguished by their scientific acquire-
ments*. It is not, therefore, matter of surprise, that the
nation at large, and the navy in particular, have been loud
in their complaints on the subject. The evil was in con-
sequence remedied in part, by following the foreign nations
closely in their models, for which we have been indebted to
the unrivalled intrepidity of our sailors, who have captured
their vessels; but this uncertain expedient has necessarily
been accompanied with detracting attendants : our enemies
have in the mean time improved on their models ; and thus,
with all the expense of dispensing with badly-constructed
vessels, we have constantly been inferior to foreigners in the
qualities of our warlike navy.

This exasperating deficiency, which has been so often
reiterated throughout the nation, excited the ardent at-
tention of many public-spirited noblemen, who proposed
the formation of a " Society for the Improvement of
Naval Architecture ;" accordingly, a public meeting was
convened at the Crown and Anchor Tavern, on the 14th
of April, 1791, at which the late Marquis of Hastings
presided. The institution was unanimously established and
supported by numerous noblemen and gentlemen ; among
whom were. His Royal Highness the Duke of Clarence,
Earl Stanhope, Lord Mulgrave, Sir Joseph Banks, Sir
Charles Middleton, and Dr. Hutton. They all agreed to
a resolution — *' That the theory and art of ship- building
being objects of the first magnitude and importance to
these kingdoms, and not so well understood in this country
as matters of so much consequence deserve, a remedy

* When a bridge, or other national edifice, is contemplated, many
hundred pounds are given for plan and estimates; but how contrary is
the practice in ship-building 1

Nautical Economy. 21

for this radical deficiency merited the attention of every
well-wisher to the true interests of Great Britain." It
is with regret it must be remarked, that the society to-
tally failed in their object, by wasting all their energies and
funds, in attempting to investigate the laws of resistance.
In taking this step, they injured considerably the interests
of naval science in this country, as will be presently no-
ticed.

The murmurs and complaints, which we thus see rever-
berating through the nation, at length were made the sub-
ject of parliamentary interference. From the legislative
authorities it echoed to the throne ; and finally, by order of
council, the proper remedy was proposed, and carried into
effect, of expressly devoting young men of distinguished
talent to the professional art of ship-building. The country
at large, by public advertisement, detailing the most flat-
tering prospect, and encouraging treatment, was invited to
send its youth of education and ability to an open competi-
tion, in which the successful candidates were to be elected,
and further promoted, solely from their merit. This im-
portant measure, which had long been pointed out to us for
imitation, by the French and Spanish governments, with
whom it had been so successful, was definitively regulated
by the Board of Naval Revision in 4808. A school of
naval architecture was therefore attached to the Naval Col-
lege, Portsmouth ; in which the students, chosen as above
mentioned, are initiated in the elements and practice of
their profession. As their attainments are carried to a wide
extent in the mathematics, their capabilities are enlarged to
a full and competent examination of their professional
duties.

The work under consideration is the production of a few
of these gentlemen. Its object, as expressed in its intro-
ductory pages, is " utility." It not only comprises original
matter, but invites communications from all conversant with
naval matters ; and it leaves its pages open for the recep-
tion and collection of the vast quantity of valuable infor-
mation published in foreign works. Thus, while it diffuses
the principles of the art, it excites a spirit of inquiry. It
was thought preferable to publish its matter in small and
frequent portions, rather than in large numbers, for the
purpose of admitting more extensive circulation, and com-
municating earlier intelligence of passing occurrences in the
art. We are sorry to observe that there is now a suspension
of these interesting labours.

22 Naval Architecture and

Another periodical work was commenced on the same
day, January 1, 182G, entitled, Papers 07i Naval Architec-
ture. It appeared, however, that it was conducted on ex-
clusive principles, several papers having been refused inser-
tion in it, though coming from persons of undisputed at-
tainments in the art ; it was, therefore, judged expedient
and conducive to the best interests of the science, to con-
tinue tlie Essays and Gleanings, as it was founded on a liberal
and fair basis. Accordingly, the Essays and Gleanings made
its appearance every subsequent fortnight, offering to its
contributors a more convenient and beneficial opportunity
of adding information to the general stock. We are happy
to be able to say, that much good has been done by both
publications ; and, while we see emulation thus produced,
we cannot but think it highly beneficial.

One peculiar advantage of the Essays and Gleanings over
the Papers on Naval Architecture, consists, in the former
taking a wider scope, — in the admission of practical, as well
as theoretical knowledge — the actual construction of the
machine, as well as the design of it. By this means, able
practitioners have contributed their valuable observations in
the art ; among which may be particularly mentioned se-
veral interesting communications from Messrs. Harking and
Blake, who are superior officers in His Majesty's dock-
yards.

The Papers on Naval Architecture are almost wholly
confined to the enunciation of the theorems that have
been taught at the School of Naval Architecture, from the
works of Atwood and Chapman. It must be confessed,
however, that while all the problems so taught are proper
to be known, they form but a feeble instrument in guiding
the designer of ships. His information must proceed from
an enlarged view of ships used for war on the ocean; he
must be acquainted with the mutual relations of the dif-
ferent parts of a ship, and the relative proportions of the
various classes, in order to systematise his ideas, and form
a true theory from practice — for, in this case, theory must
be practice reduced to system. It is on this account, that
while we are glad to see Dr. Inman's translation of Chap-
man, with some vahiable notes and new theorems, we
regret that the materials to guide the constructor of our
floating batteries, v/hich may be found in that work, are of
so scanty a nature.

We conceive that the theory of projectiles, as applicable
to gunnery, previous to the experiments pf Robins, was in

Nautical Economy. 20

a similar state to that of naval architecture at present, in
relation to its practical use. In fact, the deficiency of data
to teach the science must be admitted in both cases. A theory
must be formed from facts. First, the facts must be col-
lected, vvith all their connexions ; they must then be analysed
and compared; and, by a clear, penetrating, and capacious
mind, inferences must be drawn of general and correct appli-
cation, or the nearest approximations sought to such general
deductions.

By the talents of Robins, the intricacies of the resist-
ance which the air opposes to cannon-balls were eluci-
dated ; and it is to similar deductions that we are to look
for a penetration through the obscurities which darken the
theory of naval architecture. When we turn to Dr. Inman's
work, with every respect for the learned gentleman, which
was published after he had been Professor to this National
Institution only ten years, we look in vain for principles of
this kind. From the example of construction given by
Dr. Inman, we apprehend, however, that the calculations
for ships, formed under his eye, have been nice to a degree,
in some immaterial points, while the more weighty elements
have been overlooked. Nothing is more necessary in the
construction of ships, as in all other things, than duly to
appreciate the importance of its different component parts
and uses, according to the amount of their effect on the
whole : to refine on minutiae, while the elements of great
consequence are neglected, is a mode perfectly erroneous ;
they may follow after, but ought not to go before. In order
to determine these things, we must say that our theories of
hydrodynamics and pneumatics are insufficient for the pur-
pose. To the analysis and comparison of ships, as proposed
by Mr. Major*, and approved by the Navy Board, we turn
with great expectations : some deductions, with respect to
increasing the dimensions of ships, have already been made
and acted on, from that mode of pursuing the subject,
which tend greatly to improve our navy ; and by pursuing
the subject in that way, we may hope to be placed at that
pre-eminence in the art which our nation's wants require,
and render so highly desirable. When the plan was first
proposed (five years ago), visionary and merely speculative
notions were attributed to it : the examination of ships has
since been found to be the true source of improvement ; and

while we see alterations made, we cannot but regret that

«
* For a more particular account of this plan, see Annals of PhilO'
sophy for November 1825, Januaiy 1826, and June 1826.

24 Naval Architecture and

they are made from partial views of the subject, and in
many cases from incomplete and incorrect data. If the
theory of Naval Architecture had been cultivated in Eng-
land as in other countries, a Digest of the Navy would not
have been so requisite, as calculations to a considerable extent
are made in foreign maritime nations ; but, in this country,
we are very hazardous in our procedures without it. *' Ex-
perience is a dear school," and it is the object of wise men
to foresee its dictates, and profit in the future from the
experience of the past, before they feel its severe lessons,
which often come too late for their beneficial operations.

Whilst, however, we are speaking of experience, we
must distinguish between experience in ship-carpentry and
experience in the proper formation of ships for their destined
purposes. In barbarous countries, fastening pieces of wood
together for the mere purpose of forming floating bodies, or
the imitation of other ships, with a crude idea of their fit-
ness for sailing purposes, forms the whole of ship-building;
but in civilised countries, where large ships of war are built
at a vast expense, the deduction of principles, and the applica-
tion of the exact sciences to the art, becomes an object of
the very first importance. It is, therefore, with much satis-
faction we look to the institution before spoken of — the
School of Naval Architecture.

The superintendence of the practical carpentry of our
floating citadels, together with that of their stores, &c., was
inevitably attended with great expenses, especially in time
of war ; but it is to be lamented that, until the year 1808,
none was avowedly bestowed for the purpose of insuring the
excellence of the sailing qualities of such costly fabrics. On
the contrary, every thing seems to have been left to chance ;
and, with regard to any foreknowledge of their properties,
we were left to float in the immense regions of uncertainty :
they were therefore as likely to turn out bad as good,
excepting when we submitted to the humiliating necessity of
making servile copies of foreign ships, which were so dearly
earned by the gallantry and skill of our seamen : thus copy-
ing those models which they had abandoned for improved
designs.

We observe that the conductors of the ** Papers on Naval
Architecture'' still cling to obsolete theories of resistance,
and recommend pursuing the mode of conduct of the
" Society for the Improvement of Naval Architecture;"
which, as we have before noticed, only produced disap-
pointment, though carried into effect with accumulated

Nautical Economy. 25'

talent. For onr own parts, without waiting to show the
extreme improbability of success by this means, we give our
decided preference, in the present state of the science, to de-
voting our energies to the application of the inductive phi-
losophy to ships, in which the vjhole of the causes and effects
are embodied. While on the subject, we cannot but remark
the want of judgment shown by these gentlemen in under-
rating the truly valuable experiments of Romme*, — experi-
ments which were made on a large scale, — were repeated,
and received the approbation of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Paris.

We perceive that the conductors of the ** Essays and
Gleanings on Naval Architecture" have avoided pretending
to develope the intricate laws of the resistance of fluids; and
for this we commend them. We are naturally led here to
say a few words on this subject, which must be very limited.
Newton was decidedly the best acquainted with this sub-
ject, as has been clearly shown by our eminent English
authors, Dr. Young and Professor Robison, and admitted
by the great foreign mathematicians. By experiment, and
the application of mechanical laws, he investigated the sub-
ject to a very great extent. He proves, and pronounces
positively, that depth from the surface has no additional
effect in producing resistance in water. Now, we cannot
but express our surprise that, after his clear experiments,
an attempt should be made to introduce the contrary notion
of Don Juan. It must be remarked, that Don Juan does
not himself apply his own theory to sliips, nor show its cor-
respondence with experiments that are subsequently detailed
in his book — and yet the student of naval architecture is to
be perplexed with all the undigested opinions of a verbose
and confused w^riter, who has not discovered one new pro-
blem, but has put forward and supported numerous errors.
Without wasting time on this subject, we remark, that there
is a great difference between a mathematician writing on
resistance, and a naval architect ; the one, if he displays
additional powers of mathematical analysis, advances ab-
stract knowledge ; the other, unless he succeeds in making
the practical application to ships, totally fails.

The " Essays and Gleanings" was designed, by a familiar
and interesting mode of treating its subjects, to obtain a
general circulation in all the various ship-building yards of
this country. It is not commonly known that, even to the

* The " Papers" in the 3rd Number retract this error.

26 Naval Architecture and

present period, the English ship-builders are not even fur-
nished with proper rules for the mensuration of the bottonis
of ships. Their practice, when they wish to measure the
solid contents of the submera;ed part of a ship, is to divide
the bottom, by model or draugiit, into sections of a foot
apart; they then divide these sections into square feet, by
ruling lines at a foot apart, and cou?it the number of square
feet, adding something for the gore pieces, or angular parts
at the edge of the sections ; afterwards, they add all the
square feet together, and allow a little more for the corner
pieces, for the whole number of cubic feet in the bottom ! ! !
We need not say, that the mathematician is in possession of
short and correct rules, as a substitute for this inaccurate,
although monstrously laborious method: these rules, by
means of this publication, have been made available to all
concerned in such computations.

The first number contains introductory remarks, diagrams
and explanations of Captain Philips's capstan, in which the
principle of the contrivance, understood by few, is lucidly
shown ; — a theoretical view of the influence of length on a
ship, being an analysis of Du Hamel's remarks on the sub-
ject ;- — the values of ships of all rates, as estimated by the
French, in the '' Archives Navales ;" — account of the dura-
bility of French ships, from the same work ; — notice of the
performance of the Enterprise, steam-vessel, in her voyage
to the East Indies ; — and finally, a very luminous historical
view of the origin, rise, and progress of steam-navigation.
The variety of subjects thus embraced, it is evident must
give a peculiar interest to the publication. In the same
manner the contents of the other numbers might be sepa-
rately cited, of which there are fifteen, to show that the
work offers attractions not exclusively to the theorist, nor
to the ship-builder, but to all concerned in the naval arts.
We especially notice Rotclfs lever-fid, Sir Robert Sep-
pings's diagonal system of ship-building, and other late
introductions, given, as projected by the inventors, with
further explanations.

There is also a peculiar benefit attached to the plan of
this work, which is, that scarce documents, naval tracts out
of print, are reproduced at a cheap rate. Of these, are to be
found the Outlines of Naval Philosophy of Sir Wilham
Petty, with an interesting account of his life ; and Sir Walter
Raleigh's valuable notes on the British navy, &c. Amongst
the original articles, is a good account of the origin and
advancement pf naval ordnance, and new and concise de-

Nautical Economy. B8

monstrations of the various problems of the stability of
floating bodies, with their practical applications to ships.
The tract on the stability opens with an interesting historical
account of this branch of hydrodynamics, from Archimedes to
the present day. For our parts, we are always advocates
for this manner of engaging the attention of the reader in
the cause of science, which renders even the most abstruse
subjects, in some degree, familiar with every body. We
thus enlist in its service the prime mover of human intellect
— curiosity ; and having once done that, investigation closely
follows. We see this method now employed in almost every
scientific treatise ; and much of the wonderful increase of
knowledge of these periods must be ascribed to it. The
subject of the disquisition under consideration is divided
into four sections ; the first section consists in the enun-
ciation of definitions and elementary truths ; the second
section contains a very clear, and in some degree original,
method of investigating the laws of the equilibrium of float-
ing bodies generally, when deflected from their quiescent
positions ; the equilibriums of stability, instability, and of
insensibilit}'', are clearly defined, and made comprehensible
to moderate capacities. The opening of this section strikes
us as being of general importance.

*' In preparing a draught for a ship, it becomes an object
of primary importance to ascertain and regulate, as we pro-
ceed in its construction, the properties which it would give
to the vessel, and especially whether she would be sufficiently
able to restore herself to the upright position, after having
been deflected from it by the usual causes. If a draught be
not constructed with due attention to this point, a ship may
be built which will prove inefficient in boisterous weather,
and endanger her own safety, and the lives of those on
board. An accurate knowledge of the laws by which the
equilibrium of floating bodies is governed, is therefore highly
necessary to the constructor; and, indeed, every person in-
trusted with the command of a ship ought to be acquainted
with, at least, the general principles by which the stowage,
especially of merchant-ships, should be governed. If we
suppose, for instance, that a ship is sailing with the wind
abeam, or in other words, propelled by a side wind, the
motive power not only gives the vessel head-way, but also
incHnes her from the upright ; if, therefore, this last men-
tioned effect be not sufficiently resisted, she will be in danger
of upsetting in sudden and violent squalls; and when under
a press of sail, will always heel so much, that the wind will

28 Naval Architecture and

lose a considerable portion of its impelling power, from the
obliquity with which it must strike the sails; hence, ccetens
paribus, the velocity of the vessel must also be diminished.
Thus, whether safety or good sailing be regarded, we see
how important it is to insure a counteraction to the inclining
power of the wind."

The third section comprises all the useful problems in
Atwood's paper on the subject, printed in the " Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society," for 1798 ; but a more
general and elegant analysis has been used, by means of
which the greater part of Atwood's Paper has been com-
pressed into a few octavo pages. It also gives two concise
rules for the mensuration of all irregular bodies. These
rules are deduced, not from the method of differences, as is
usually done, but by a simple algebraical process, which
can only be appreciated by those who are conversant with
the higher branches of this science.

The author of this tract then proceeds to give the method
of determining the displacement, &c., of a ship from its
design, which is effected in a manner intelligible to any
person acquainted with arithmetical operations; and there
can no longer, in our opinion, be any excuse, even for the
most ignorant shipbuilder, for neglecting the determination,
at any rate, of that important element of a ship — the dis-
placement.

The fourth and concluding section, professing to treat on
the metacentre and metacentric curve, is not yet published,
but we hope soon to see it. It is now well known, that
Atwood, in controverting the propositions of Bouguer, has
printed glaring errors* in the " Philosophical Transactions,"
while he has properly investigated the stabilities of the
isosceles wedge, in its upright and inverted states, which
Clairbois has erroneously discussed.

The enterprising, learned, and remarkably acute phi-
lospher, M. (J. Dupinf (since created peer of France) has
not escaped particular notice in the " Essays and Gleanings."
His account of the " Progress of the French Marine, since
the Peace," which was read in March, 1820, before the Royal
Academy of Sciences, forms the subject of an article, which

* In the observations on Atwood's Paper in the " Papers on Naval
Architecture," these errors are not admitted, but their justification is
attempted by the conductors.

t Dupin is the sixth peer created in France, of late times, for eminent
attainments in the sciences and literature — such is the encouragement to
science in that Qountry,

Nautical Economy. 'W

deserves considerable attention. On the instruction of the
French artisans, we extract the following : — *' The system
of mutual instruction among the working classes prospers in
the bosoms of our ports, and schools are founded for the
particular instruction of the sons of the inferior officers of
the arsenals, in the elements of calculation, of geometry, and
of design, as far as necessary for the plans of ships ; also the
principles of statics, so as to enable them to judge of the
action and effect of machinery. Frizes of gold medals and
special promotions are to be the rewards of the most deserv-
ing students.

** The plan of these schools, which may be cited as
models, is due to M. Tupinier, subdirector of the ports and
arsenals of France.

" With regard to the creation of estabhshments of general
utility to the progress of the marine, Brest was formerly the
only port properly furnished with them. Since the peace,
however, libraries are forming in each of the others ; and, in
almost all, cabinets of natural history and botanical gardens
are enriched at every voyage undertaken by our ships, either
to foreign coasts, or to those of our colonies." — '' iVn ob-
servatory has been given to Toulon ; and Rochfort is to be
similarly enriched. In both these ports naval museums are
formed, in order to preserve types of the most eminent
vessels, whose originals either are, or soon will be, destroyed
by time. Models of ingenious machines, representations of
interesting manoeuvres, a methodical collection of raw ma-
terials, of tools, and of the product of all the arts exercised
in a dock-yard, — such are the riches collected in these inte-
resting repositories."

We are of opinion, that the establishment of institutions
of learning, similar to those of France, at each of our three
great naval arsenals, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Chatham,
would be highly beneficial to the country. Advocates of a
fallacious economy would deplore the expense of such na-
tional undertakings ; and the malignant opposers of advance-
ment in knowledge would also object to it ; but it may be
asserted, that past experience, and a present view of naval
affairs, loudly call on the country for some struggles for
our attainment of superiority in naval science. Who could
remark a young naval power, like America, possessing supe-
rior vessels to our own, in the last war, without perceiving the
necessity of this step? — it reverberated through the houses of
parliament, with just complaint.

At the present time it is well known that ships of the United

'90 Naval Architecture and

States possess a far superior character to our own . HoW
many expensive alterations have been rendered expedient in
our ships, that a precedency in the theory of naval archi-
tecture would have rendered unnecessary ! Of what pur-
pose is it to copy models in the present" day, which were
taken from foreign nations thirty years ago, and are of a
still earlier date in point of design ? It is thus that we have
been always a step behind them ; improved models, we
know, replace, in the French navy, those of ancient con-
struction.

It is true that we have some names among us that are
cited as those of good ship-builders ; but it must be ob-
served, that as tapers shine in the dark, which are dimmed
by the approach of day, so it is impossible to determine the
relative merits of our naval artists till open competition
shall duly distinguish them. That time is now approaching :
nay, from the enlightened and judicious measures of our naval
administration, is now ushered in. Our public experimental
squadrons, in which direct contrast and impartial trial alone
decide on merit, are as fair and beneficial modes of ad-
vancing our attainments in the arts as probably could have
been devised. Again, we have a corps of naval engineers, who
are admitted into the service, solely on their general capa-
cities and mathematical abihties. At the School of Naval
Architecture they pass public examinations every year, the
accounts of which are communicated to the Lords Com-
missioners of the Admiralty ; and it is in the order in which
they stand at their final examination, under the Professor,
that they have hitherto been promoted. Although nothing
can be conceived more impartial than this plan at the pre-
sent period, yet it must be allowed that it does not give the
desired excitement to perseverance in science, subsequent to
their departure from the institution ; and we have no doubt,
for this reason, that some distinction will be made for
remedying this deficiency : already the theorems and prin-
ciples for ship-building have been explored to an extent far
surpassing what was known seven years since at the School
of Naval Architecture.

It must be remarked that superior genius, where it does
not meet with protection and reward, is always productive
of much real injury to the possessor : as an instance of
this, we cite the contempt and obscurity in which Mungo
Murray, our only native writer on the theory of sliip-build-
ing, lived and died, which is related by Mr. J. Knowles,
the present Secretary to the Committee of Surveyors of

Nautical Economy. 9t

the Navy, In the preface of his work on the *« Preservation

of the Navy." — " While the Dutch possessed and encou-
raged Witsen, — the French, Bouguer, Du Hamel, Clairbois,
Borda, and Romme, — the Spaniards, Juan, — the Germans,
Eliler, — and the Swedes, the celebrated Chapman ; the
English neglected the only work which they possess on this
subject, that can lay any claim to science*, and suffered its
author, whom tradition represents to have been a man of
the most amiable manners and correct conduct, to live and
die a working shipwright in Deptford Yard." In the fol-
lowing page, in adverting to the students of the School of
Naval Architecture, he says, " it is to be hoped that their
ardour may not be damped, but that the encouragement
will be extended to them which has hitherto, in this country,
been withheld from those who have endeavoured to promote
the difficult but useful science of constructing ships."

On the paper inserted by Sir Robert Seppings, in the
Phil. Trans, for 1814, on his diagonal system of ship-build*-
ing, which is here reprinted for convenient circulation, it
behoves us to make a few remarks. The adoption of this
plan is a great triumph over inveterate prejudices, and we
are inclined to bestow praise on the introduction of this
new mode of carpentry ; but we do not conceive we should
abandon investigation respecting it. The late writers on it,
in addition to Sir Robert, are Baron Dupin, Dr. Young,
and Mr. Knowles. Of these Dupin, being a naval archi-
tect, has by far surpassed the others in its discussion. Dr.
Young's more limited acquaintance with ships has neces-
sarily confined his illustrations, though his elegant analysis
has much enriched the subject. Mr. Knowles's descriptive
view is unassisted by mathematical investigation.

Dupin remarks, in his paper, in the Phil. Titans, of 1816,
that the princij^le has often been recommended in theory,
but found deficient in practice. He says, introducing the
subject, " The old French builders saw so distinctly the
truth of the principle now produced by Mr. Sep^^ings, that
they even put it in practice for the same purpose to
strengthen their ships, and to prevent arching." Again,
** Chaucot, a French ship-builder, obtained the prize, in
17.55 (of the Royal Academy), and in a Treatise very little
known, reproduced the idea (of Bouguer and Du Hamel)
on this point." In subsequent remarks he observes, that
Groignard, in 1759, proposed, and that Clairon des Lau-

* A Treatise on Ship-buildhig and Navigation, by Mungo Mum*
1754,

32 Naval Architecture and

riers put in practice, in 1772, similar principles. The cele-
brated Chapman also applied it.

We conceive that the subject cannot be decided a priori ;
but must be referred to general principles in ships. Hence,
Dupin remarks, its superiority must be determined by show-
ing that the efficient ship of war, on Sir Robert's adapta-
tion of this principle, is constructed with less timber and
fastening than on the old plan ; that it has the weight placed
lower ; that it is of less expense, or has improved qualities.
Now, we cannot avoid remarking, that this has never been
shown, but only asserted ; and that there is a great defi-
ciency of calculated data on these points. Dupin himself
only hazards an opinion on the subject ; but, as a mathema-
tician, he ought not to have been satisfied with anything less
than an accurate statement. He passes over the new plan of
attaching the beams to the side, as of little consequence,
without showing it to be attended with less weight than the
old methods ; whereas they must be estimated in the com-
parative weights of the ships. It is evident, from mere in-
spection, that the new mode is the heaviest, and that it con-
tributes, in too material a degree, to raise the centre of
gravity of the ship, and diminish its stability. To deter-
mine the efficacy of the diagonal riders to prevent arching,
Dupin ought to have shown that they are equal, for this
purpose, to the internal coat of planking, so boldly dis-
pensed with by Sir Robert, independent of the massy inte-
rior ranges of timber, between which the beam-ends are
confined; for it is evident, that these strong longitudinal
binders would of themselves effect the same object in a very
material degree. The shelf- pieces, which were used by
former English surveyors, are not of English introduction,
nor of French solely ; as, by reference to ships constructed
in the Archipelago and the Levant, they will be found to
have been used for ages.

We think it but justice to observe, that when some new
mode of fastening the beam-ends was required from the
scarcity of warden-knees, that Mr. Roberts proposed a plan
which was found to succeed so well as to obtain for him a
parliamentary grant of 800/. Whether Mr. Roberts derived
it from Du Hamel we are unable to decide — there is a simi-
larity in the plans; but the objection urged against the
plan by Mr. Knovvles, of the beams of free growth being
split by the bolts in the beam-arm, is certainly futile; as it
was easily remedied by placing them out of the same line
of fibre.

Nautical Economy, o3

A great deal of Irrelevant demonstration has been inju-
riously applied to prove the excellency of the diagonal
riders. There are no sources of error and confusion so pro-
lific as inappropriate analogies. To liken thirty bending
riders, in the curved bottom of a ship, to the straight cross-
bar of a common field-gate, is an assimilation so unapparent,
that we are surprised how it could ever be adduced *. If
the side of a ship were perpendicular, and one cross-timber
reached from the hold in midships to the extremity forward,
and another aft, the comparison would be more admis-
sible. But, in that case, there would still be great dis-
similarities : the side of a ship is planked from the top to the
bottom, and this coating is so close, as to prevent the ad-
mission of water; while the bars of a gate are only intended
to prevent cattle getting through. A ship is six or seven
times in length of hold what it is in depth ; whereas a gate
is only about twice the length of its height. In the case of
a ship dropping at its extremities, the upper-works must
lengthen ; whereas, in a gate, this deformation takes place
by a revolution on the fastenings, by which the bars ap-
proach each other, and which the planks of a ship are
prevented from doing by their immediate contiguity. —
If this train of reasoning can be allowed, it will only apply
to the mode of placing the diagonal riders, adopted by
surveyors, previously to Sir Robert, as exemplified in the
top-sides of the Caledonia, — a ship which has received an
universally good character. But the question can only be
determined, as we have observed, by general results.

Some persons have supposed, that, in the diagonal S3^stem,
the strains are transmitted endwise on the fibres, in which
direction wood is the strongest ; but it is evident, that if the
enormous angular momentum, producing the working of a
ship, depended for resistance on the bolts of a few cross-
riders, the strain would not be so well supported as by the
multiplicity of bolts in the thick stuff and ceiling covering
the concavity of the hold ; for this reason, we find Dupin,
in preference, recommending interior diagonal planking be-
tween wind and water.

The resistance to arching must depend on the distance
at which the opposing force is applied from the neutral

* A ship has been Hkened in this discussion to various other articles ;
even Indian rubber has been brought forward as an analogy, the appli-
cation of which we do not exactly perceive. By comparing it with the
moon, or any thing else, we may obtain any imaginable results we
may desire.

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. D

34 Naval Architecture and

axis. Thus, the upper planks afford more strength than
those at the water's edge, which cannot come into action
till those above or below are considerably stretched or
compressed. For this reason Dr. Young observes- — *' The
least obvious advantage attributable to the obliquity intro-
duced by Mr. Seppings, appears to be in his mode of laying
the planks of the decks ; parts which seem to be principally
required to co-operate with the sides of the ship as ties in a
longitudinal direction."

The fillings between the timbers certainly cannot afford
any strength to the ship ; their resistance to compression is
not equal to that of a coat of planking, which acts in the
direction of its fibres, with numerous fastenings, both to
prevent compression and extension — the latter of which the
fillings can have no sort of pretension to. As the ship is
not tilled up to the floatation, water is not excluded by
them in all cases from entering the ship. Their introduc-
tion only became necessary when the ceiling was dispensed
with; and thus forming a part of the new system, they
must stand or fall with it. It has been adduced in favour
of filling in a ship, that the weight being below the centre
of gravity, it must act as ballast : to this fallacious recom-
mendation it need only be observed, that one ton of bal-
last, placed at the bottom of the hold, would have the effect
of two or three tons placed in the situation of the fillings.

It must also be recollected, that an objection has arisen
to the interior planking on account of its weight, while the
same has not been alleged of the fillings ; but Dupin, who
notices this, sometimes writes with mere political views,
without a scrupulous regard to correctness ; for the truth
of which assertion we need only adduce his account of the
British treatment of French prisoners, and his omission of
taking the weight of the new fastenings of the beams into
consideration, so properly descanted on by Dr. Young,
which was mentioned before.

We cannot conceive with what propriety, persons can
say that a coat of planking contributes little to the strength
of a ship, when it is merely the four-inch planks of the
bottom of a ship that bind together and protect three or
four thousand tons of heterogeneous matter from all the
ravages of the winds and waves. Perhaps, there is no pa-
rallel to this prodigious combination of strength, with dis-
proportionably small substances, in the whole range of the
arts : the arch and the hoop, where the separating forces
are equally distributed and counteracted by the continuity

Nautical Economy. 95

of strength, appear to present some comparative idea of the
accumulation of its strength ; but it is in the construction
of the egg, in which the wisdom of the Divine Author is
exhibited, that we must probably look for the nearest re-
semblance to it. The decks of a ship contribute above
water, in the straight part of the planking, to maintain the
form, but its sole security under the water depends on that
peculiar species of support mentioned above.

It is proper to advert to one circumstance, hitherto not
noticed, in the discussion of this important subject, and
which appears to destroy the whole chain of reasoning ad-
duced for showing the strength of the diagonal system : —
we allude to the shrinking of the principal riders, against
which the secondary or truss timbers abut. This neces-
sarily leaves a vacancy at the extremities of the trusses, so
that they are totally ineffectual for their designed purposes,
till plates of iron, or other hard substances, are forced into
these interstices — a very common, we are told, and inconve-
nient practice. Abutments in ship-building are a very bad
species of support, as they receive the shocks to which a
ship is liable too suddenly ; but the diagonal system ap-
pears to be destitute even of the abutment, by the shrinking
of the principals.

Whether the expense of constructing the navy on this
new system is greater or less than on that of the old, we
are unable to determine. — We are glad to see a mixture of
the diagonal riders and the ceiling now adopted in fri-
gates, instead of all wooden riders.

As a convincing proof of the excellency of the diagonal
mode of placing part of the timbers of a ship, it has been
adduced that the French have again adopted it for trial, in
a few instances ; but here it must be remarked, that with
them time has not elapsed for the demonstration of its
value ; nor have wars, and other circumstances, occurred, to
decide the question. Our English merchant ship-builders, in
several cases of its adoption, have proved its inefficiency :
the steam-vessels, now built with it, sag, or drop down in
the middle, from six to twelve inches ; and we fear, on a full
view of the subject, its boasted advantages to our navy,
must fall to the ground.

A more complete examination of the cross-carpentry of
Sir Robert Seppings, than the sketches hitherto before the
nation, is much required ; and as it involves the construction
of an immense navy, which costs twenty millions sterling to
replace, we hope it will soon appear.

D 2

S^- Natal Architecture and

It IS not so much in a longitudinal direction as in atKwart-
ship one, that ships are weak. It would appear that this
was felt to be the case by Sir Robert Dudley, at the latter
end of the sixteenth century, when he proposed his con-
struction of ships from the galleon downwards, and endea-
voured to remedy the evil by struts, extending from the
keelson to the quarters of the beams of the different decks.
Mr. Snodgrass also, as shown in Steel's large work, brought
forward almost a similar plan, with this difference, that the
upper ends of the struts were fastened to the side of the
ship instead of the quarters of the beams. The latter me-
thod failed when put in practice, which, we may infer from
Charnock, was not the case in Sir Robert Dudley's mode.
— Vide Yol, ii. p. 177, of his Histo7y of Marine Architec-
ture.

If, however, we do not give our entire assent to all that
has been advanced respecting the diagonal system of Sir
Robert, we must still yield him the praise due to perseve-
rance in what he believes to be the true principles of con-
struction, and more particularly in that exerted in the be-
half of the round sterns of his introduction. We feel per-
suaded that, whatever modifications it may be found here-
after necessary to make in them, the curvilinear shape will
never be abandoned. We should prefer to see them, how-
ever, as the French have adopted it, without any external
projection, to load and hamper the ship abaft.

It is to be regretted that the accommodations of the offi-
cers should be infringed on ; but surely, in a ship of war,
every thing is of minor importance to her efficiency as such.
No doubt, deeply-rooted prejudice in favour of old customs
renders it obnoxious to many ; and when once that is over-
come, opinion will be as violently in favour of the round
stern, as it was previously inimical to it.

The remarks on dry rot seem to be written in true phi-
losophical spirit, — a determination to investigate the subject
with strict impartiality. We perfectly agree with the opi-
nion of the Noble Lord at the head of the Admiralty, ex-
pressed in Parliament — '' that all nostrums are ineffectual
towards the preservation of timber ; and that the dura-
bility of it depends on its quality, and on its being well
seasoned." For this reason we agree to what experience
has taught all ages respecting the time of felling oak-
timber ; namely, that period when the vegetating juices,
after spring and summer, are converted into ligneous fibre,
and not when they are in a state of action ascending the ca^

Nautical Economy. ffKI

pillary tubes. The high price of oak-bark alone operated
against this dictate of experience in the time of James II. ;
and subsequently has brought into use, even in the Royal
Navy, timber felled in the spring. All authors, except Mr.
Knowles, agree to this. The reader will find ample satisfac-
tion in the perusal of this article.

We cannot afford space for the mention of other papers,
on Steam Navigation, the Centre of Gravity, Blake's Mid-
ship Section for Fir Ships, and several practical improve-
ments.

We think His Majesty's navy may derive the greatest
advantages from scientific discussion ; and whether igno-
rance, envy, or prejudice, actuate the opposers of it, we
assert that they are no true friends to their country.
Every empirical introduction, without it, may pass for
the extension of science and discovery. But we nave too
much confidence in our enlightened naval administration,
to fear that the admirable beginning that has been made
in fostering the true principles of naval architecture will
ever be discontinued ; but, on the contrary, we believe
this country — that of Newton and Locke, — is now destined to
surpass every other, as much in the theory of the art, as in
the solid construction of her navy.

Remarks on the Principle of the Division of Labour as
applied to Literature and to Science. In a Letter to
the Editors of the British Critic. By a Correspondent.

Gentlemen,

I HAVE read with great interest, and generally with decided
approbation, your Review of the works of Mr. Champollion ;
but there are some particular passages in that Article which
have suggested to me a few observations which seem to me to
be of sufficient importance to be made public.

My first remark shall be on the passage (p. 152) in which
you say, that Mr. Champollion, treading in the steps of Dr.
Young, " and enjoying the very great advantage of having no-
thing to distract his attention, advanced still further;" a senti^
ment which is so natural and obvious, that you would scarcely
expect an objection to be raised to it, even by Dr. Young himself,
especially when it is compared with an expression respecting

38 On the Division of Labour as

this very study, which he has employed in his letter to the
Archduke John, dated in August, 1816 : ** They must however
remember, when they undertake such a task, that it is not by
the gigantic exertions of fancied talents, but by the stubborn
perseverance of indefatigable industry, that we can ever hope
to obtain, for ourselves and our successors, an admission into
the hidden treasuries of nature and art." (MuseumCriticum,vii.)

So far therefore as Mr. Champollion possessed more perse-
verance, or was able to concentrate on his researches a greater
portion of industry than Dr. Young, it would of necessity be
admitted by this gentleman, that his contemporary had an
advantage over him. However this may be, it appears to me
that the remark which you have made on the subject implies
an opinion which, though blindly adopted by many persons,
and very generally applied on various occasions in life and in
literature, is not only erroneous in theory, but is fraught also
with extensive practical mischief.

The great principle of the Division of Labour, which has
been so successfully introduced into commerce and into manu-
factures, and into mechanical operations in general, and of
which the importance has been so favourite a subject of exag-
geration with the political economists of modern times, has a
tendency to raise the operations of machinery into a rivalship
with those of intellect and science ; but I am mistaken if the
same principle, when applied too strictly to the human mind,
has not also a tendency to depress its faculties into the simili-
tude of mere inanimate machinery ; and it seems to me to lower
the energy of the understanding, as much as it increases the
flexibility of the fingers.

When a man devotes his whole life to a single pursuit, he is
quite secure of doing more in it than by a temporary applica-
tion ; but it is equally certain that he has less chance of doing
any thing great, than by taking a wider and more distant view
of collateral objects, and watching his opportunity to start the
game, which must rise of itself, before he can possibly hunt it
down.

A determination to follow a single object is a most abundant
source of the self deception so commonly seen in men em-
ployed in the professions. There is a disposition in regular

applied to Literature and to Science, 39

professional men to call a man a quacks who confines his prac-
tice, or even his investigations, to a single object ; and a senti-
ment, so apparently the offspring of an illiberal jealousy, is in
fact, not uncommonly, founded on the actual experience of the
unavoidable effect of such a division of labour, which is, first, to
cause the individual to deceive himself, and then to render him
an involuntary agent in deceiving others. If, on the other
hand, the profession is such as to require any proceeding of a
manual or mechanical nature, there is no doubt that this kind
of operative excellence must be most essentially advanced by a
considerable limitation of the pursuit, though not by a total
and exclusive devotion to one object only.

Now if learning were mere book making, and were to be
acquired by an immeasurable collection of words and autho-
rities, that man would indeed be the most learned who looked
over the most books, and copied the most words into the
margin of his dictionary, or into his common place book ; and
then the devotion of a life to a single language, or a single
investigation, would far outweigh, in its cultivation, the posses-
sion of any superior judgment or discrimination.

But where evidence is to be compared and appreciated, and
where conflicting probabilities are to be balanced against each
other, it does appear to me, that a familiarity with some other
pursuits, besides those of a mere linguist or historian, becomes
of value in making the labourer worthy of his hire ; for without
them he may labour a great deal, and may yet do worse than
nothing.

I am far from wishing to insinuate that all of Mr. Cham-
pollion's labours are of this kind, or even to assert that any of
them are so. But I cannot help thinking it morally impossible
that he should not have overrated his own successes ; and I
must confess that I have not yet been able to convince myself
that he has made out any thing whatever, besides the Greek
and Roman proper names, and one or two detached hiero-
glyphical characters ; and I doubt whether I shall be able to
satisfy myself, for ten or twenty years to come, whether he is
right or wrong in any thing further.

The evidence of what was done in this country is fully
before the public, not indeed in a very popular, but iu a suffi-

40 On the Division of Labour as

ciently intelligible form : that is, in the Index to the volume
of Hieroglyphics, *' collected by the Egyptian Society," and
now continued by the Royal Society of Literature. The
brackets, which join the words of this index, point out at once
the degree of agreement between the characters supposed to
be translated ; and by a reference to the plates there indicated,
the reader may judge for himself to what extent he may place
confidence in each interpretation. Some characters occur, for
instance, about a hundred times, some fifty, some ten ; some
two only : yet all of these may be fully authenticated by the
recurrence, if the identity of the forms is sufficiently apparent;
and sometimes the context may be such as to leave no doubt
whatever, where the character occurs but once. When Mr.
ChampoUion shall have leisure to do that, on the part of his
system, which Dr. Young's *' distracted attention" has still left
him time to perform for his interpretations, we shall be better
able to judge with confidence of the real progress that the
investigation has made in his hands.

In the mean time I shall proceed to consider, in the second
place, the character and internal evidence of the System,
concerning which so much has been said. (Brit. Crit. p. 142)
and which, so far as it is a system, seems to me to contain
within itself its own contradiction, for a system of phonetic
HIEROGLYPHICS ucvcr could havc been generally employed
but by a nation of children. Take, for example, the word
APPLE, expressed by an apple, two pears, a lion, and an egg,
all denoting an apple only ! Surely there must have been
some common sense among the Egyptians, though they seem
to have wanted no grammarians, and are reported to have
had neither orators nor poets ! And would common sense have
permitted them to add four superfluous characters, out of five,
in order to be mere echos of the sounds, denoting what is
already denoted by the first of the five ?

The truth is, that there never was a language that was
written altogether phonetically. A very numerous class of
our own characters are not phonetic : our Roman and Arabic
numerals, our stops, our parentheses, our marks of quotation,
and many other extraalphabetic signs ; and even our literal
characters are sometimes not simply phonetic : the sounds of

applied to Literature and to Science. 41

son and sun are precisely alike, so that we are every now and
then obliged, in speaking, to translate them into another lan-
guage, if we wish to distinguish them ; but the written words
have hieroglyphical significations totally distinct from each
other.

It is generally admitted that the Chinese characters were
originally, and still are, the signs of things only, and not of the
sounds of the words, being even read very differently in different
provinces, although in some particular cases, especially those
of foreign names, they are of necessity used phonetically,
if not altogether alphabetically. Mr. Champollion has very
ingeniously shown that the Egyptian Hieroglyphics were some-
times used to denote the sound of the first letter only of the
name of the thing depicted : but he has not shown that they
were generally so used, when they were employed phonetically ;
and it is certain that they were not always so read : the symbol
representing AMUN, or Jupiter, for example, was seldom if
ever u.:ed for A, but very commonly for MN, as Dr. Young
has observed. So much for the universal application, which
you give Mr. Champollion credit for having discovered
(p. 146).

With respect to the passage of Clement, so often quoted,
his words, in my opinion, could never have conveyed to a Greek
the sense attributed to them by Mr. Champollion ; nor do I
believe they were ever so understood by himself or by any
other person, until he had analysed the alphabetical names of
the Roman emperors, and obtained from his investigation the
interpretation which he assigns to the passage. What Clement
did mean I do not pretend to explain ; my conjecture is, that
like many other people, he talked of what he understood but
very imperfectly, and was therefore likely to express very ob-
scurely. If, however, he had heard accidentally of the manner
of expressing foreign names which had become usual in his
days, it would add little or nothing to the probability that the
same system could have been adopted two or three thousand
years before ; and the disagreement between Manetho and the
tablet of Abydus is sufficiently obvious, to my apprehension, to
destroy any inference in the affirmative from his authority.
But, as Dr. Young has somewhere obser\ed, (Journ. R. I.

42 On the Division of Labour as

Jan. 1823,) " It is better to make a few false steps than to
stand quite still."

There are some detached passages in your review, on which
I shall make a few remarks of a more miscellaneous nature.

P. 143. " There is no reason to * dispute' Mr. C.'s having,
in many cases, anticipated Dr. Y.'s discoveries." Now Mr.
C. does not profess to have anticipated anything that was done
in England : either he denies the accuracy of some of the con-
clusions, or he professes to have been unacquainted with them ;
but he does not suppose Dr. Y. to have made out any thing
which he had made out before : in that case the question might
easily be settled by priority of publication.

In the same page, you seem to take for granted that
Quatremere has been handled unfairly by Champollion. But
are there three persons in England who are capable to decide
that question ?

P. 145. " The hieroglyphics might be arranged from right
to left, or from left to right ; but the latter is the most preva-
lent order." It is not easy to say which order is prevalent in
the sculptured inscriptions ; but it may be questioned if the
Egyptians ever wrote from left to right with a pen. And this
fact gives some authority to the accuracy of Herodotus.

P. 150. IVhen you say that *' the kind of writing, which
expressed objects, by means of the letters of the alphabet, is
manifestly the enchorial of the Rosetta stone," you seem to
have forgotten your admission (in p. 144), that " Dr. Young
ascertained that the Egyptians had no [purely] alphabetical
characters whatever."

P. 154. " The connexion between the hieroglyphic and
alphabetic characters is pointed out, if we mistake not, in the
Supplement of the Encyclopaedia, published in 1819." It
appears to have been^rs^ pointed out in Dr. Young's letter to
the Archduke John, dated August 1816, where he observes, that
" a loose imitation of the hieroglyphical characters may even
be traced, by means of the intermediate steps, in the enchorial
name of Ptolemy."— P. 3. Mus. Crit. vii.

P. 156. You say that Petammon must probably be the
Egyptian word corresponding with Ammonius in Greek ; and
that the supposition becomes a certainty from the Greek in-

applied to Literature and to Science. 43

scription on a mummy. It is, however, remarkable, that the
words are not used as synonyms, but as distinct appellations,
which may be inferred from the also of the inscription ; and
Ammonius is written distinctly in Mr. Grey's enchorial manu-
script, where we might have expected to find Petammon, if
Ammonius had been merely a translation.

P. 162. " M. Champollion does not seem to have heard of
Mr. Bankes's copy of the Table of Abydos." On the con-
trary, Mr. C. distinctly states, that he had first heard of this
tablet from Dr. Young. The accuracy of Mr. Bankes's copy
is confirmed by that of Mr. Wilkinson, which is printed toge-
ther with it in the last fasciculus of the " Hieroglyphics :" a
work which contains a multitude of proofs of Mr. Wilkinson's
great industry and accuracy in preserving inscriptions so unac-
countably neglected in the great work of the French antiqua-
rians ; and which will contain a still greater multitude of his
communications as it proceeds.

Mr. Champollion's words are these : — " Tableau pr^cieux,
dont une copie est depuis plusieurs ann^es dans les porte-
feuilles de M. W. Bankes, en Angleterre, Je dus le premier
avis de son existence a I'amitid de M. le Docteur Young."
Lettre premiere au Due de Blacas, p. 15. This passage has
also been overlooked by the learned author of a late article in
the Edinburgh Review.

I am, Gentlemen, your very obedient servant,

*i^ *i* *i* •!*

Remarks upon the Orchideous Plants of Chile. By John
Lindley, Esq., F.L.S., <^c. ^c.

Much as has been done in investigating the vegetable produc-
tions of South America, it must be confessed that we still are
far from possessing any very definite notions of the botany of
that vast continent. But if this be true of the South American
Flora in general, it is much more so with respect to the more
southern provinces, and especially with regard to Chile. The
number of plants recorded in scientific works, as natives of that
region, are so few compared with what from analogy it may be

44 Mr. Lindley's RemarJcs upon ihe

presumed to contain, that its botany may be considered almost
entirely unknown. It is true, indeed, that a very considerable
addition to the published lists of Chilian plants might be made
from an examination of certain private herbaria; but as far as
the scientific world in general is concerned, the statement
above made is strictly accurate.

From the copious materials relating to the vegetation of
Chile which exist in this country, much information of the
most important nature is to be derived ; but from no source
so extensively, perhaps, as from the collections formed for the
Horticultural Society by Mr. James M'^Rae. From these I
have selected the highly curious tribe of Orchideous plants as
the subject of the following remarks.

The distribution of Orchidese w4th respect to the surface of
the globe, is one which has hitherto scarcely occupied the
attention of geographical botanists; nor can our notions respect-
ing it, for some time to come, be expected to acquire any con-
siderable degree of accuracy. So much difficulty exists in
preserving dried specimens of this tribe of plants, and in the
determination of them when preserved, that, with the exception
of Europe and North America, we can form no conception of
the proportion that they bear to the Flora of the world, or of
the relation which the forms of one Flora bear to those of
another.

A few striking facts appear, however, to be ascertained,
which may serve as the basis of future observations ; and which
are well worthy of consideration, as they seem to indicate
between the minuter parts of the structure of Orchidese, and
their general economy, a close connexion which is not at present
susceptible of explanation.

In all extra-tropical countries, where the species grow on the
earth among grassy herbage, and are supported by fleshy or
fasciculated roots, the greatest number belongs to genera with
decompound pollen-masses, or, more correctly speaking, with
their pollen in a very incomplete state of cohesion ; — those with
solid pollen masses and glandular appendages either not exist-
ing at all, as in Europe and the North of Asia, or constituting
not more than a thirteenth part of the whole, as in North Ame-
rica, and, perhaps, the Cape of Good Hope ; and those with

Orchideous Plants of ChiU. 4$

solid pollen, without appendages, not exceeding that propor-
tion, or being altogether unknown, as in the southern point of
Africa. Within the Tropics this order seems to be reversed :
there the species are, for the most part, found upon trees, or
growing on decayed wood ; their roots are no longer fasciculated
and fleshy, and fitted for deriving sustenance from the earth,
but filiform and dry, and adapted to clinging to foreign bodies
for support and nutriment ; in these the pollen is solid, and
generally fitted with a glandular apparatus. But whether in
intra or extra-tropical countries, it seems to be a general law that
species are everywhere to be found with their pollen and co-
lumna in five at least of the seven different modifications of
which those organs are susceptible. In this I do not include
Cypripedium, which is a genus altogether of a pecuhar charac-
ter, and only known in the Northern hemisphere.

To the law just stated I am aware of only two exceptions —
both very remarkable ; the one being the Cape of Good Hope,
and the other Chile. In Southern Africa, the Orchideae con-
sist almost entirely of Ophrydese, but of a structure quite pecu-
liar to that promontory; there is only one Neottiea and a very
few Vandege. The genera are all strictly what M. De Candolle
calls endemical ; they are numerous and extremely dissimilar
the one from the other, while no immediate affinity is to be
traced between them and the genera of other districts, except
the Isles of France and Madagascar, and the more equinoctial
districts of the African continent. Upon the whole, whatever
peculiarity may be found in the colony of the Cape of Good
Hope as to the genera which inhabit it, there is no great devia-
tion from the general proportion which genera and species bear
to the surface of the district they occupy.

But with Chile the case is widely different. In this country,
which, in the eyes of botanical geographers, forms a vegetative
region of itself, — which extends through twenty degrees of
southern latitude, and which has a surface varied with all the
irregularity of mountains covered with eternal snow, rich val-
lies, and extensive plains, no more than three species of Or-
chideae are at this moment recorded to exist, and these are
known only by the figures and imperfect descriptions of
Feuillee.

46 Mr. Lindley's Remarks upon the

To this number I have now to add nine new species, toge-^
ther with some observations upon the three previously recorded.
Upon referring to the end of these remarks, it Avill be seen, that
after taking into account both the pubhshed and unpubhsh^d
species of Chilian Orchidese, that portion of the Flora compre-
hends only four genera, three belonging to Arethusese, the other
to Neottieae ; and there is strong reason to believe that these, if
not the only orchideous genera to be discovered in Chile, do con-
stitute almost the entire feature of that part of vegetation which
they represent ; for among the extensive collection of drawings
made by Mr. Miers, during a long and active residence in the
country, I observed nothing to contradict such an opinion. Of
these Chloraea, Bipinnula and Asarca are absolutely confined
to the province, and to that of Buenos Ayres; while Spiranthes
is one of the most widely diffused of all known genera, species
of it having been found in the temperate parts of Europe
and Siberia, in Northern India and New Holland, in the
islands of the Indian Archipelago and off the coast of Southern
Africa, in North America and the West Indies, in Brazil, and
lastly, in Chile : in fine, there are not more than five of the
twenty botanical regions into which the surface of the globe is
divided by writers upon botanical geography, in which Spiran-
thes is not known to exist; and analogy leads us to believe
that in three of these five it will be found by future in-
quirers.

It is highly curious that the botanical affinities of Chlorsea,
Bipinnula, and Asarca, the endemical genera of the province,
are not so immediately with other South American genera as
with those of New Holland. While they totally disagree with
Stenorhynchus, Cranichis, Ponthieva, and Prescotia, all exclu-
sively American genera, they represent, on American ground,
the numerous tribes of Arethusese. peculiar to New Holland,
and especially Lyperanthus and Caladenia. Chloraea galeata
has very much the appearance of the New Holland Pterostylis
rufa in a gigan tic state ; and even Prasophyllum fimbriatum of
the same country has a closely analogous structure with that of
Bipinnula plumosa.

I now proceed to state the technical characters and botani-

Orchideous Plants of Chile, 47

cal history of the plants which are the subjects of these obser-
vations : —

CHLOR.EA.

Collectanea Botanicfi in App. No. 12. e/ Orch. Seel, sine charactere.
Char. Gen. PoUinia duo pulverea bipartita, caudicuU glandul^ue nullis.
Anthera terminalis opercularis bilocularis, loculis completis septulo incom-
pleto bipartitis. Stigma transversuin ovatum in apice columnae, Columna
semiteres membranaceo-marginata. Labellum anticum cucullatum basi cor-
datum, cum columna levissime connatum, cristatum, lobo medio saepissime
carnoso. Sepala subaequalia ringentia membranacea venosa : supremo
galeato ; interioribus sub galea conniventibus ; exterioribus labello suppositis
apice, anamorphose repressii, carnosis dilatatis. Herbce terrestres (Americae
australis temperatae) radicibus fasciculatis. Folia plana, radicalia, venosa.
Scapi multijlorif terminalea, squamosi. Hores aubherbacei (unde nomen.)

This is a genus, the characters of which have not been
before defined. It is only known to botanists as a name that
exists in the list of Orchideous genera printed at the end of
my Collectanea Botanica, with a reference to the " Epipactis
amplo flore luteo vulgo Gavilu" of Feuillee. At the time that
work was published, I had only examined one species, from
the inspection of which I referred the genus to Neottiese.
An analysis of the species now about to be described has
shown me that it ought rather to be placed with Arethuseae ;
if, indeed, these two sections are really sufficiently distinct.
The affinity of Chloraea to Lyperanthus and Caladenia has
been already noticed. From these, and all other known
genera of the same Natural Order, it is obviously distinguished
by the incrassated, often dilated apices of the two lower
sepals, and of the labellum.

1. C. disoides ; sepalis inferioribus porrectis apice emargi-
natis attenuatis, labello unguiculato cristato : lobis lateralibus
cucullatis membranaceis nudis, intermedio carnoso glanduloso.

Sponte crescit circa Valparaiso : Februario florentem legit M'Rae, (v. s. sp.)
Leaves erect, acute, sheathing, as long as the somewhat leafy scape,
which rises to the height of six or eight inches. SquamcB of the
scape membranous, inflated, acute. Mower ringent. Sepals mem-
branous, veiny, the three upper conniving, erect, lanceolate, somewhat
obtuse ; the two lower spreading with a tapering, fleshy, channelled,
obtuse end. Labellum stalked, cordate, cucullate, three-lobed, con-
tinuous with the base of the columna ; the two lateral lobes shorter
than the middle one, membranous, veiny, with the anterior margin
crenated and callous ; the middle lobe ovate, abruptly acuminate,
obtuse, fleshy, crested in the middle with numerous fleshy appendages ;

48 Mr. Lindley'5 Remarks upon the

the disk with seven rows of interrupted excrescences, the lateral rows
being shorter than the rest. Columna erect, long, linear, with a mem-
branous margin.
? 2. t C. Gavilu.

Epipactis amplo flore luteo vulgo Gavilu. FeuilUe. Peruv. 2. p. 29. t. 18.

Cymbidium luteum. Willd. sp. pi. 4, 106.

Sponte crescit in Chile, locis humidis. Feuill.

This is extremely like the last, from which it is certainly
possible that it may not be different; I, however, have seen
no specimens which fully agree with Feuillee's figure; but
while I think it necessary to separate this from C. disoides, till
something further shall have been ascertained, I am also
bound to add, that the grounds upon which I form my belief
are too vague to deserve being particularized.

3. C. longibracteata; foliis oblongis obtusis rosulatis, bracteis
acuminatis floribus longioribus, sepalis inferioribus ascenden-
tibus apice acuminatis linearibus, labello sessili basi bicalloso :
lobis lateralibus planis cristaque depauperatis ; medio sinuato
linguiformi nudo apice carnoso, columna nana.

Sponte crescentem juxta Co?iception, Octohre floridam legit M'^Rae (v. s. sp.)
A plant with the habit of Stenorhynchus speciosus. Stem nine inches
high, with long sheathing squamae. Bracteas with very tapering
points, much longer than the flowers. Sepals all ascending : the upper
membranous, veiny, oblong ; the lateral inner ones shorter, but of the
same form and texture ; the lower ovate-acuminate, erect, membra-
nous at the base, with fleshy, linear, obtuse flat ends. Labellum erect,
parallel with the columna, sessile, cordate at base, and connate with
the columna, slightly pubescent on each side ; at its base there are two
calli; the lateral lobes are rounded, narrow, slightly veiny, with a
single tooth in front ; the middle lobe is long, sinuated, fleshy at the
end, and veiny along the axis ; crest consisting of a few broken excre-
scences situated towards the base. Columna much shorter than the
labellum, half round, slightly pubescent, with an erect lobe on each
side at the apex.
4. C. galeata; bracteis membranaceis ventricosis, sepalo
supremo venoso falcato : lat. int. intus glandulosis ; inferioribus
divaricatis apice cochleatis carnosis, labello ascendente ungui-
culato ; lobis lateralibus cucullatis intus cristatis ; intermedio
rotundato carnoso nudo, column^ basi callos^.

Circa Cumbre, Andium claustrum, Novembre floridam invenit M'Rac, (v.
s. sp.)
Leaves numerous, obtuse, flat. Stem about one foot and a half high,
sparingly clothed with withered squamae. Spike lax, six or nine inches

Orchideous Plants of Chile. 49

long, with distant flowers, enwrapped in inflated membranous "bracteae.
Flowers small for the genus, galeate. Upper sepal falcate, inflexed,
membranous, three-veined ; the veins being strongly marked and con-
nected by distinct transverse venulae ; ifiner lateral sepals membranous,
obovate-rhomboid, unequal-sided, veiny, at the base obliquely attached
to the columna, with the veins in a high degree varicose ; lower sepals
at first erect, then divaricating, oblong, with broad, dilated, fleshy apices.
Labellum ascending, with a long incurved unguis, which has a double
tubercle at the base ; the lateral lobes cucuUate, each with two crests
on the inside, of which the innermost consists of a single lamella, and
the exterior of several glandular excrescences ; the middle lobe rounded,
fleshy, naked ; crest nearly obsolete, represented by three obscure
raised lines near the base. Columna erect, clavate, with a membranous
margin, having a large callus at the base.

The resemblance of this species to a gigantic Pterostylis rufa

has been already noticed.

5. C. lamellata; foliis erectis acutis abbreviatis, bracteis
flore longioribus, sepalo superiore lanceolato venoso ; inferio-
ribus porrectis apice dilatatis spatulatis carnosis, labello
oblongo unguiculato membranaceo crenato, crista lamellata.

Circa Conception, Octobre florentem invenit M'=Rae, (v. s. sp.)
About a foot high. Leaves veiy short, erect, acute. Scape leafy at
base, clothed with numerous somewhat inflated squamae. Spike nod-
ding, very compact, occasionally branched. Flowers connivent, longer
than the membranous acuminate bracteae. Sepals strongly marked
with distinct, nearly s mple veins ; the upper lanceolate, compressed,
tliree-nerved, reticulated ; innei' lateral membranous, oblong, with
slender simple veins ; lower narrow, parallel with the lip, at the apex
fleshy and deltoid. Labellum oblong, unguiculate, entirely membra-
nous, cucullate, wavy, crenate, obsoletely three-lobed ; the veins all
crested with compressed lamellar inten*upted processes, which dwindle
towards the margins into little nodosities. Columna with a membra-
nous margin, erect, shorter than the labellum.
This has an almost aphyllous habit, and is abundantly dis-
tinct from all the other species in its labellum, being wholly
membranous, and crested with lamellar appendages.

6. C multiflora ; foliis oblongis scapo longe brevioribus,
sepalis inferioribus lanceolatis patentibus apice carnosis dila-
tatis hinc membranaceis, labello oblongo membranaceo ungui-
culato : crista rar^ glandulos^ ; lobis lateralibus abbreviatis :
intermedio elongato obtuso crispo.

Sponte crescit circa Fa//?araj»o; Februario florentem copiose invenit M'^Rae,
(v. s. sp.)
Stem from a foot to a foot and a half in height. Leaves short, oblong
JAN.— MARCH, 1827. E

60 Mr. Lindley's Remarks upon the

lanceolate, spreading, rising a little way up the stem, which is clothed
with long appressed sheathing squamae. Spike oblong, many-flowered.
Flowers ringent, longer than bracteae. Upper sepal oblong, suddenly
acute ; lower fleshy, and dilated at the end, with the upper margin
membranous. Labellum ovate-lanceolate, obtuse, cucullate, mem-
branous, scarcely lobed, crenated, wavy, the veins being unequally
furnished with small glandular ;excrescences ; middle /o6<? linear obtuse.
7. C. alaris ; sepalis patentibus : interioribus rhombeis antror-
sis intus varicosis ; exterioribus reflexis ; inferioribas oblongis
apice cucuUatis carnosis, labello sessili cucuUato : lobis latera-
libus venosis intermedioque carnoso rotundato glandulosis.

Juxta Conception, Octobre floridam, invenit M*^Rae, (v. s. sp.)
Stem about a foot and a half in height. Leaves broad, short, ovate-
oblong, not rising up the stem, which is unusually stout, and clothed
with long and broad squamae. Spike nearly half the length of the
plant. Floicers distant, longer than the membranous bracteae. Sepals
much spreading; the outer reflexed; the upper lanceolate, veiny;
lower veiny, with a fleshy dilated cochleate apex ; inner, by a twist of
their unguis turned forward, and overlapping each other by their pos-
terior margins, rhomboid-lanceolate, slightly denticulate, painted as
it were with varicose anastomosing veins. Labellum three-lobed,
cucullate, unguiculate, the lateral lobes erect, membranous, crenated,
the middle one fleshy and densely crested.
8. C hletioides; foliis oblongo-lanceolatis obtusis, bracteis
membranaceis inflatis, sepalis oblongis retusis venosis : inferio-
ribus apice carnosis den talis, labello subsessili membranaceo
cordato, apice obsolete trilobo : lobis lateralibus membranaceis ;
intermedio carnoso dentato; cristse appendicibu spaucis lamelli-
formibus antice falcatis.

Ad Cumbre, Andium claustrum, Novembre floridam, copiose invenit, McRae ;
circa Valparaiso raro, Februarii fine (v. s. sp.)

Stem from a foot to a foot and a half in height. Leaves numerous,
spreading, three or four inches long, obtuse. Spike about six inches
long, and from six to eight flowered. Flowers very large, two-lipped,
enveloped in very broad, membranous, acuminate bracteae, which are
a little longer than the ovarium. Sepals all of an uniform figure, very
distinctly veiny, oblong, rounded at end ; the lower fleshy and toothed
at end. Labellum roundish oblong, slightly stalked, membranous,
strongly veined, three-lobed towards the end ; the lateral lobes membra-
nous, the middle one longer, rounded, fleshy and toothed towards the
middle ; crest consisting of a few large lamellae, tapering towards the
back, and falcate in front.

This is by far the finest species, the flowers, including the
ovarium, measuring three inches in length. The specimens

Orchideous Plants of Chile. M

found by Mr. M^'Rae about Valparaiso are more slender in all
their parts than those from Cumbre, which is a pass on the
Chilian side of the Cordilleras.
9. f C. virescens.

Epipactis flore virescente ct variegato vulgo Piquichen. FeuiU^e Peruv.2 p.
27. /. 19.

Cymbidium virescens ; folils radicalibus lanceolatis ; scapo erecto simpUci,
petalis tribus exterioribus lanceolatis acutis, binis interioribus oblongis ob-
tusis, labcllo ovato obtuso elevato sulcato. Willd. sp. pi. 4. 106.

Hab. in Chile. FeuUl6e.

This appears to be very distinct from any found by Mr. M<^Rae.
It is nearly related to C hletioideSy which it seems to emulate
in the size of the flowers.

BIPINNULA.
Juss. gen. 65.

Char. gen. PoUinia duo pulverea bipartita, caudicul^ glandulaque nuUig.

Anthera terminalis opercularis bilocularis . . . Stigma

Columna semiteres membranacoo-marginata. Labellum anticum cucuUatum
integrum cristatum appendicibus filiformibus fimbriatum. Sepala ringentia
membranacea ; suprcmis nanis ; inferioribus labello suppositis^ anamorphose
soluta, longissimis fimbriatis. Herhee tetreslres (America; Austral is tempe-
rsiite) radicibiis fasciculat is. Folia plana radica/ia. Scapi squamosi. Floret
colorati f

1. B. plumosa ; scapo folioso multifloro, sepalis inferioribus
labelloque plumosis.

In pascuis herbidis ad vicum Colina urbis Santiago finitimum semel vidit
McRae, Novembre floridam. (v, s. sp.)
Stem about a foot and a half high. Leaves erect, oblong-lanceolate,
somewhat obtuse, gradually changing to long, membranous, acumi-
nate, sheathing squamae. Spike about five inches long, eight or ten
flowered. Bractecs membranous, acuminate, neai'ly as long as the
upper sepals. Flowers ringent. Upper sepal lanceolate acute, inner
erect, rather shorter, obtuse ; lower sepals three times as long as the
upper ones^ ovate-acuminate, spreading, membranous, finely fringed
beyond the middle with long delicate filiform processes which arise
from the margin. Labellum ovate- acuminate, cucullate at base, about
one-third the length of the lower sepals, like which it is also bordered
with a fringe of long filiform cilise. Colu?nna erect, half the length
of the upper sepals.
Two specimens only of this noble species, one in flower, the
other in bud, were discovered by Mr. M°Rae in the grassy
pastures about the hot-baths of Colina, a small village on the
skirts of the plain which surrounds the town of Santiago. The
fine fringe that borders the lower sepals and the labellum caM

£2

52 Mr. Lindley's Remarks upon the

to mind some of the North American species of Habenaria.
The flowers measure, from the base of the ovarium to the apex
of the lower sepals, fully three inches.

2. B. Commersonii ; sepalis inferioribus ligulae formibus
apice iimbriatis, caule unifloro (aphyllo ?)

Aretlmsa biplumata. Linn, suppl, 405. Smith ic. ined. p. 23. t. 23.
Bipinnula Bonariensis. Spreng. syst. 3. 745.
Habitat in lionaria. Commerson.

This very obscure plant was originally described by the
younger Linnaeus from specimens communicated to him by the
late Mr. Thouin from Commerson' s Herbarium ; a figure of
it was subsequently published by Sir James Edward Smith.
By both these authors the native country was stated to be the
Straits of Magellan, an error which was soon corrected by M.
de Jussieu who affirms, from the examination of Commerson' s
original collection, that it was discovered in the neigh-
bourhood of Buenos Ayres. To this Professor Sprengel, upon
the very indifferent authority of Molina, adds Chili. But I
doubt whether Molina ever saw the plant; it is more probable
that he confounded the B. plumosa with this species.

ASARCA.

Char, gen, Pollinia duo pulverea bipartita, granulis triplicibus angulatis,
caudicula glandulaque nuUis. Anthera terminalis opercularis bilocularis.
Stigma rotundatum anticum convexum. Columna arcuata libera niembrana-
ceo-marginata apice dilatata. Labellum anticum liberum unguiculatum tri-
lobum, membranaceum : lobis lateralibus venosis intermedio elongate obtuso
cristato. Sepala subsequalia membranacea venosa ; interioribus paulo bre-
vioribus ,• inferioribus labello suppositis, anamorphose nulla. — Herba ter-
restris (Americae Australis temperatae). Scapus foliosus non squamosus.
F/ores coiorati ?

1. Asarca speciosa.

Serapias Gavilu. Pavon. in herb. Lamb.
Habitat in Chile. Pavon. (v. s. sp. in h. Lamb.)
Stem about a foot high, leafy. Leaves oblong, sheathing and amplexi-
caul at the base, becoming smaller by degi-ees till they assume the
habit, but not the texture, of the squamae of Chlorsea and Bipinnula.
Spike lax, about eight-flowered. Bractece oblong-lanceolate, shorter
than the ovarium. Sepals of the same figure, ovate-oblong, acumi-
nate, veiny, in no degree fleshy ; the two interior more obtuse and
shorter.
The only specimen of this plant which I have seen exists in
the Herbarium of Mr. Lambert, where it is marked in Pavon's

Orchideous Plants of Chile. 53

writing " Serapias Gavild de Chile sp. nov. ined." It is pro-
bably from the north of Chile, and is very different from the
Gavilu of Feuillee, which is a species of Chlorsea.

The three genera, Chlorsea, Bipinnula, and Asarca, represent
the form of Chilian Orchideaj under the three modifications to
which it is probable that they are subject. Collectively they
constitute a tribe of Arethusese with distinct sepals, having an
expansion which is always more or less ringent, with a columna
having membranous margins, and with a cucullate, crested la-
bellum. Individually they are recognised by the particular state
of the lower sepals, and the condition of their parenchymatous
matter. Chlora?a and Bipinnula are distinguished from Asarca
by a tendency in the anterior parts of the flower to anamor-
phosis, or an excessive production of parenchyma, while Asarca
is characterised by the want of such a tendency, except in the
labellum, in which anamorphosis exists in no greater degree
than in many other Orchideae. That the peculiarities of the
anterior sepals of both Chloraea and Bipinnula depend upon the
condition I have stated, may, I think, be easily shown, not-
withstanding their apparent difference of anatomical structure.
In the species of Chlorsea the sepals are entire, and the excess
of parenchyma is insufficient to overcome the resistance or
power of expansion of the cuticle ; while in Bipinnula, in which
the sepals are plumose, the anamorphosis is so much increased
as to overcome the resistance of the cuticle, and the paren-
chyma is consequently no longer confined within a narrow
space forming a sort of succulent bag, but pushes forth on all
sides with nearly equal power, in the form of a membranous fea-
thery fringe of the most beautiful symmetry. That these two
forms do in fact depend upon such a power of parenchymatous
development as I have assumed, seems to be in some measure
proved by this circumstance ; that while the anterior sepals
are entire (and the power of developement therefore weak),
they bear the same proportion to the other parts of the flower
as is usual in Orchideae ; but as soon as the anterior sepals
become feathery (and the power of developement therefore
excessive), they no longer bear the usual proportion to the
posterior sepals, but become elongated in the same degree as
they become fringed or laterally developed and membranous.

54 Ottley'5 Dictionary of Chemistry,

SPIRANTHES.

Richard Orch. amu p. 28 (1817.) Bot. Register, fol. 823.~Gyrostachys.

Pers. sijn. 2. 511 (1807).— Ibidiuin, Salisbury in Hort. Trans. 1. 261

(1812).

1. »S*. diuretica ; foliis petiolatis ovato-lanceolatis, scapo

apice piloso, spica ovato-lanceolata congesta, bracteis florum

longitudine, labello sessili undulato crispo venoso : callis linea-

ribus obtusis.

Epipactis floribus uno versu dispositis vulgo Null. Feuillee Peruv. 2 p. 26.
t.l7.

Neottia diuretica. Willd. sp. pi 4. 73.

Spiranthes Niiil. Richard. Orch. ann.
Circa Valparaiso, Februario florentem, legit McRae. (v. s. sp.)
General appearance of the plant like that of the Siberian Spiranthes
congesta. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, stalked, resembling those of Pe-
lexia adnata, but smaller and erect. Stem a foot high, clothed with
acuminate squamae, hairy at the upper part. Spike crowded, ovate-
acuminate, with taper-pointed bractese longer than the flowers. Sepals
downy externally, the three upper of equal length and firmly aggluti-
nated together, the two lower spreading, distinct. Lahellum erect,
sessile, recurved, membranous, crisp, with very strong bifurcate veins,
and two calli at the base, which are linear and obtuse, and apparently
veiny also. Columna unusually short, with a retuse rostellum, and a
large roundish cordate anthera.

A Dictionary of Chemistry, and of Mineralogy as con-
nected with it, in which is attempted a complete List of
the Names of Substances, according to the present as well
as former Systems ; with an Introduction, pointing out
the order in which the chief parts of the work may be
perused, so as to constitute a regular Course of Chemistry ;
and a Focabulaiy, in which the apparatus and processes
made use of are briefly described, — with copious Notes, 8fc.
8^c. .5y William Campbell Ottley, London, J 827.
This verbose title is, we are sorry to say, the prelude to a
very inadequate performance, — to a mere chemical scrap-
book. The task of writing a dictionary of chemistry is, at
the present day, serious and difficult ; and should only be
undertaken by those who are well read in the science, and
wlio, with just and accurate information of what has been
done by others, conjoin practical skill, experimental dexte-
rity, and much personal observation of the processes of the
chemical arts.

Ottley*^ Dictionary of Chemistry. 55

What may be Mr. Ottley's talents we know not, nor do
we recollect to have met with his name in the annals of che-
mistry : he has, at all events, on the present occasion,
entered upon an undertaking in which he has entirely failed ;
indeed we cannot even conceive his object in the present publi-
cation, which is only fit to keep company with Mr. Accum's
work of the same name and nature.

But now that the subject of chemical dictionaries is before
us, we cannot let tlie opportunity slip of giving a word or
two of advice to Messrs. Aikins and Dr. Ure, whose works,
excellent as far as they go, and in a great measure distinct
in their objects and execution, may still admit of improve-
ment.

To Messrs. Aikins we would remark, that chemists are
not fond of quartos ; and we are certain that an edition of
their dictionary in octavo, executed in the same excellent
spirit and style as the former, carefully worked up to the
present state of the science, and containing an extension of
their practical histories of the chemical arts, would meet
with unrivalled success. If we are not mistaken, two closely-
printed volumes would embrace every requisite ; for we re-
gard the plates of little consequence. Our advice to Dr.
Ure is, in his next edition, to get rid of as much more of Mr.
Nicholson as he conveniently can : if possible, to put him
altogether upon the shelf, and make the work his own. Dr.
Ure's original stores of chemical knowledge, the depth of his
reading and information, and the perspicuity of his style, are
all evilly influenced by the alloy of the old book upon which
they are grafted, and which operates upon them as lead upon
gold, — for, although it neither alters nor debases the pre-
cious metal, it deteriorates and discolours it.

In taking our leave of Mr, William Campbell Ottley, we
sincerely advise, that before he again comes forth in the shape
of an author, he should seriously consider whether or not he
has anything new to communicate, or whether he regards
himself peculiarly fitted for conveying known facts, in more
intelligible terms and perspicuous language than his prede-
cessors and contemporaries : — in short, whether his stock of
chemical knowledge and experience justify his undertaking
the compilation of a work above all others requiring them —
a Chemical Dictionary.

56

On the best Mode of extracting the Nutritious Portion of Bones,
tind on its Economical Applications. By M. Charles de
Gimbernat.

Fortified places, however well provisioned, are occasionally
exposed to scarcity in time of war, either in consequence
of the length of the blockade, or from the provisions being
spoiled and decayed, or destroyed by bombardment, where
the magazines are not bomb-proof. Tn these cases, it is
important that the garrisons should have some means of sub-
sistence without resorting to unwholesome and disgusting sub-
stances, in order to prolong the defence ; for, where the fate
of states depends on the preservation of their fortresses, mili-
tary annals attest that famine and epidemic diseases produce
greater ravages than the bayonet, or even than artillery. Thanks
to the progress of science, the effects of these scourges may now
be -avoided, or at least diminished. The discovery made by
Guyton-Morveau on the disinfecting property of chlorine, and
certain acids, renders it possible to preserve armies from conta-
gious diseases ; and since the Guytonian fumigations have
been practised in barracks and military hospitals, mortality from
such cause has considerably diminished. But, unfortunately,
the preservative against famine recommended by Dr. Papin more
than a century ago, has not been hitherto sufficiently attended
to : I allude to the use of bones in alimentary economy. True
it is that the difficulty of employing steam in extracting the
nutritious substance of bones prevented the application of
Papin's method ; but that is no excuse for the indifference
shown by military administrations as to so important an object ;
for all danger in the use of Papin's digester would long ago
have disappeared, had as much attention been given to it as
to the boiler of the steam-engine ; nor can another serious
inconvenience of this process, namely, the decomposition
of a great part of the gelatine, occasioned by the high tem-
perature of the steam, excuse the negligence of not having
profited by this resource in case of famine. The learned phi-
lanthropist. Cadet de Vaux, with a view to remedy the incon-
venience just mentioned, proposed to crush bones in the first

On the Nutritions Portion of Bones, 8fc. 57

instance, and then to extract the gelatine from them by the
action of boiling water. The Society for the Encouragement
of Industry in France considered this idea sufficiently import-
ant to offer a premium for the invention of the best instrument
for the purpose, and it was adjudged to Mons. Guerin, of
Strasbourg, in 1804. This machine has been employed in
several hospitals, as a means of providing the poor with an
economical nourishment ; but never made use of in for-
tresses distressed by famine. It is true that experience has
not answered the expectations which were formed of this
mechanical mode ; for the trituration of the bones in consider-
able quantities heats them, and excites a degree of fermenta-
tion, which gives a rank taste to broths prepared with gela-
tine obtained by this process. All such inconveniences are
avoided by the chemical process, Avhich consists in sepa-
rating the earthy part of the bones by means of muriatic acid,
an operation by which they are reduced to a state of a
cellular, flexible, and transparent albumino-gelatinous sub-
stance, almost perfectly soluble in boiling water. This method
has the advantage of affording more nutritive matter, and is
preferable from its simplicity, since it requires no extraor-
dinary or expensive apparatus, as where the digester and
the crushing-machine are employed. It may be practised
without difficulty wherever muriatic acid cai^ be obtained.
There is no doubt that this process offers great advantages to
the alimentary economy of charitable institutions, and to
those arts in which gelatine of a superior quality is required ;
but, in my opinion, its principal utility consists in offering to
military administrations an immense resource, in victualling gar-
risons when threatened with dearth or famine. With this view
I proposed and practised it at Strasbourg in December, 1813.
At that period, so critical for the safety of France, Stras-
bourg was very insufficiently provisioned, the sudden reverses
of the French being totally unexpected : on the invasion of the
French territory, Mons. de Lezay-Marnesia, Prefet of the
Lower Rhine, anxious to put the chief place of his depart-
ment in a condition to withstand a long siege, and not hav-
ing the means of obtaining provisions in sufficient quantity,
consulted several persons on the best mode of employing

58 Gimbernat on the Mode of extracting

bones as a means of subsistence for the garrison and inhabitants.
The processes of Papin and Cadet de Vaux were proposed,
the only ones then known: the second was more particu-
hirly recommended ; for as there was at Strasbourg the crush-
ing-machine, invented in that town, the trituration of bones
was more practicable than the process of softening them by
steam, an operation which could not conveniently have been
practised upon a large scale. The experiment did not answer,
the broth thus obtained having a rancid taste, for the reason
above-mentioned. Being at that time at Strasbourg, I was
asked by the Prefet if some other means could not be found
of accomplishing the object? I answered, that it might be
accomplished without difficulty, by dilute muriatic acid and
boiling water. The Prefet, pleased with this idea, desired me
immediately to make the experiment. I did so. My success
was complete ; two days afterwards, soup made from the animal
matter of bones, extracted by this process, was served at his
table, and highly approved. In consequence of this, imme-
diate measures were taken to obtain an abundant supply of
bones from the slaughter-houses and kitchens. I did every-
thing in my power to second the zeal of the Prefet, and
remained at Strasbourg, in order to co-operate with him in
protecting the inhabitants and the garrison from disease and
famine, the oaly enemies they had to fear. By degrees the
disinclination of the people to this form of food was overcome.
The process, of which I published the details, grew into general
use ; and the soups and jellies so made^ when properly sea-
soned and flavoured, were acknowledged to be of an unexcep-
tionable quality.

As Strasbourg was blockaded at the beginning of January,
1814, a short time only after the plan of bones had been sug-
gested, the quantity necessary for the relief of a garrison could
not be procured ; but all which could be obtained were carefully
employed during the blockade, for the nourishment of the poor,
who ate this kind of broth without repugnance, and liked it
better than the aqueous soups of Count Rumford: thus a
great quantity of meat and other provisions were daily econo-
mised. The blockade was fortunately raised before the scarcity
was felt ; these measures of precaution, therefore, became

the Nutritious Portion of Bones, 8fc. 59

superfluous for the moment, but they ought not to be over-
looked in future.

It was natural to presume that an experiment so important
would not be lost, but that it would attract the attention of the
military administrations, especially as the process was practised
at Paris as well as Strasbourg, whilst all communication
between the two towns was interrupted. But as soon as the
danger had disappeared it was no longer thought of. I at-
tribute the neglect into which it has fallen principally to the
death of the Prdfet, who acknowledged its importance, and
intended to have furnished the fortresses of his department in
peace-time with supplies of bones and acid. When Strasbourg
was again threatened, in 1815, I returned there, and made the
same proposal to the Duke of Albufera, who commanded the
military division of the Rhine. The Marshal expressed his in-
tention of profiting by it, but a few days afterwards he gave up
the command : on that occasion his principal staff-officer,
Baron de St. Cyr-Nugues, inserted in the Journal of Military
Medicine for 1815, printed in Paris, an account of what had
been done at Strasbourg in 1814. This was the first public
announcement of the advantages of my process. This process
was afterwards recommended by M. Michelot, in the Revue
Encydopedique for 1822, vol. xiii.

Still I am not aware that any country has adopted this
precaution, so easy of adoption and so important. I attribute
this neglect partly to habitual, but dangerous, indifference to
perils which are not immediate, and partly to the opposition of
private interests. A supply of bones and acid, which are not
liable to damage, holds out no temptation to speculators, and
little profit to commissaries. The French government, in 1817,
began to supply their colonial garrisons and their navy with
gelatine prepared in the manufactory of Robert and Co. in
Paris ; but this application, however good, is not what I recom-
mend— viz. the supplying fortresses, with gelatine, not prepared
by art, but gelatine contained in bones in their natural state,
together with a proportionate quantity of acid. This recom-
mendation is founded on this importiant circumstance, that the
mineral part of bones is the best preserver of their animal
substance. Bones are, therefore, an important resource against

60 Gimbernat on the Mode of extracting

famine ; because, as long as they are kept in their natural state,
a food as nutritious as fresh meat may be obtained from them.
For this reason, a supply of bones is preferable to cakes and
other preparations of gelatine, which cannot be so perfectly pre-
served, and are always liable to the attacks of vermin. It has
been ascertained that even bones, which are commonly reputed
antediluvial, furnish an unexceptionable jelly. We may, there-
fore, safely assume, that bones kept for ages will furnish man
with wholesome food, and that a large supply of these will be
a security against famine.

The subsistence of garrisons might always be provided for, if
there were in the fortresses a sufficient quantity of bones; which
might easily be procured in time of peace, and almost without
expense, for all that would be necessary would be to preserve
the bones left after the daily consumption of meat; and an order,
which prescribed to the garrisons such a measure, would render
the necessity of capitulating for want of provisions less frequent.
In a few years bones enough would be accumulated to feed
several thousand men for a considerable time ; the quantity
thus collected, indeed, Avould be immense ; but there would
be no difficulty or expense in preserving them : it is not
necessary to have magazines for an article, which can be
kept equally well above, or under ground, provided it be se-
cured from excessive humidity. The bones might be buried
in the dry ditches of the ramparts between two beds of sand,
together with a proportionate provision of acid.

Here, then, is a security against famine, which would at the
same time be proof against weather, shells, fire, and the
ravages of time. It is scarcely possible to have food better
preserved, than by this process, which might not improperly
be called a para-famine, by the French Academy, since they
allow the terms para-tonnerres and para-gr^les.

Recent events sufficiently show the importance of making
regulations for the preservation of the bones of the meat con-
sumed in fortresses. The garrisons of St. Jean d'Ulloa and
of Callao made a most honourable defence ; but famine at
length forced them to deliver up these places, the last posses-
sions of Spanish power, to the republics of Mexico and Peru.
Py their surrender, Spanish dominion has terminated in thq

the Nutritious Portion of Bones, 8^c. 61

vast continent of the New World ; and Missolonghi surrendered
under similar circumstances, notwithstanding the heroism of
its defenders.

Though the process which I have recommended for extract-
ing gelatine is generally the best, circumstances may render
the old method necessary ; and fortresses should consequently
be provided with crushing-machines and digesters. The
chemical process, for instance, would be impracticable where
the acid could not be obtained ; neither could it be used
without abundance of water, for the purpose of washing away
the acid from the animal texture, which is an operation indis-
pensably necessary.

In order to avoid all misconception, I beg distinctly to state,
that what I propose is not intended as a substitute for other
and better provisions, but merely as a precautionary suste-
nance, to which garrisons may have recourse when other means
are exhausted. It has been objected, that the gelatine of
bones is insipid, and, consequently, disagreeable ; but it
may be rendered savoury by means of different substances,
which are easily procured, such as salt, spices, and vegetables.
It must also be remembered, that man, exposed to famine, is
not so particular with regard to his nourishment; as is proved
by many instances of garrisons, which have been fed on sub-
stances the most insipid, unpalatable, and disgusting. As a
proof of this, a circumstance may be mentioned, related to me
by General Rapp, which took place during the last siege of
Dantzic : — that the French, when they had eaten horses, rats,
and dogs, had recourse at last to broth made of old planks, — a
dish, not merely unpalatable, but devoid of all nutritious matter.

The remaining portion of M. de Gimbernat's communica-
tion, which will appear in our ensuing number, is dedicated to
the friends of the Greeks. It impresses the necessity of the
utmost economy of provisions, and points out several important
applications of the process above described, by which the
author hopes that the surrender of fortresses, in consequence of
famine, may become a circumstance of comparatively rare oc-
currence.

62

Hints respecting the Construction of Warni'-Batlis.

Warm Baths have lately come into very general use, and
they are justly considered as indispensably necessary in all
modern houses of any magnitude, as also in club-houses,
hotels, and hospitals. But the mode of constructing these
baths, and of obtaining the necessary supplies of hot and
cold water, does not appear to me to have undergone an
improvement equal to the extension of their employment;
I trust, therefore, you will not consider a few pages of your
journal misapplied to a subject, which I think materially
affects the health and comfort of the community, and upon
which a variety of erroneous and conflicting opinions are
extant.

The several points which I propose briefly to touch upon,
in regard to warm baths, relate, —

1. To the materials of which they are constructed,

2. To their situation,

3. To the supply of cold water,

4. To the supply of hot water,

5. To minor comforts and conveniences.

1 . As to the materials of which they are constructed. — Of
these the best are slabs of polished marble, properly bedded
with good water-tight cement, in a seasoned wooden case,
and neatly and carefully united at their respective edges.
These, when originally well-constructed, form a durable,
pleasant, and agreeable-looking bath ; but the expense is
often objectionable, and in upper chambers the weight may
prove inconvenient. If of white or veined marble, they are
also apt to get yellow or discoloured by frequent use, and
cannot easily be cleansed ; so that large Dutch tiles, as they
are called, or square pieces of white earthenware, are some-
times substituted, which, however, are difficultly kept water-
tight ; so that, upon the whole, we recommend marble.

Where there are reasons for excluding marble, copper or
tinned iron plate are the usual materials resorted to. The
former is most expensive at the outset, but far more durable
than the latter, which is, moreover, liable to leakage at the

On the Construction of IVarm-Batlis. 63

joints, unless most excellently made. Either the one or the
other should be well covered outside and in, with several coats
of paint, which may then be marbled, or otherwise orna-
mented, as taste suggests.

Wooden tubs, square or oblong, and oval, are sometimes
used for warm baths, and are cheap and convenient, but
neither elegant nor cleanly: the wood always contracts a
mouldy smell ; and the difficulty and nuisance of keeping them
water-tight, and preventing shrinkage, is such as to exclude
them from all except extemporaneous application.

2. As to the situation of the bath ; or the part of the house
in which it is to be placed. — In hotels and club-houses, this is
a question easily determined : several baths are usually here*
required, and each should have annexed to it a properly-
warmed dressing-room. Whether they are up stairs or down
stairs is usually a mere question of convenience, but the
basement story, in which they are sometimes placed, should
always be avoided ; there is a coldness and dampness belong-
ing to it, in almost all weathers, which is not agreeable.

In hospitals, there should be at least two or three baths on each
side of the house (the men's and women's), and the supply of
hot water should be ready at a moment's notice. The rooms in
which the baths are placed should be light, and comparatively
large and airy, and such conveniences for getting into and out of
the bath should be adopted as the sick are well known to require.
The dimensions of the baths should also be larger than usual.

In private houses, the fittest places for warm baths are dres-
sing-rooms annexed to the principal bed-rooms ; or where
such convenience can be obtained, a separate bath-room,
connected with the dressing-room, and always vipon the bed-
room floor. All newly-built houses should be properly ar-
ranged for this purpose, and due attention should be paid
to the warming of the bath-room, which ought also to be pro-
perly ventilated. A temperature of 70° should be easily kept
up in it, and sufficient ventilation is absolutely requisite, to
prevent the deposition of moisture upon the walls and furniture.

The objection which formerly prevailed, in respect to the diffi-
culty of obtaining adequate supplies of water in the upper
rooms, has been entirely obviated, by ha\'ing cisterns at or near

64 Hints respecting) the

the top of the house ; and we would just hint that these should
be so contrived as to be placed out of the reach of frost — a pro-
vision of the utmost importance in every point of view, and
very easily effected in a newly-built house, though it unfortu-
nately happens that architect's usually regard these matters as
trifles, and treat them with neglect, as indeed they do the
warming and ventilation of buildings generally.

3. The supply of water, of proper quality and quantity, is a
very important point, as connected with the present subject.
The water should be soft, clean, and pure, and as free as
possible from all substances mechanically suspended in it. In
many cases, it answers to dig a well for the exclusive supply of
a large house with water : in most parts of London, this may
effectually be accomplished, at a comparatively moderate ex-
pense ; and if deep enough, the water will be abundant, soft,
and pellucid. The labour of forcing it by a pump to the top
of the house is the only drawback ; this, however, is very
easily done by a horse-engine ; or there are people enough about
town glad to undertake it at a shilling a-day. I am led to these
remarks by observing the filthy state of the water usually sup-
lied, at very extravagant lates, by the water companies. It
often partakes more of the appearance of pea-soup than of the
pure element ; fills our cisterns and pipes with mud and dirt ;
and even when cleared by subsidence is extremely unpalatable.
It deposits its nastiness in the pipes connected with warm
baths, and throws down a slippery deposite upon the bottom of
the vessel itself, to such an extent as often to preclude its being
used, at least as a luxury, which a clear and clean bath really
is. This inconvenience may in some measure be avoided, by
suffering the water to throw down its extraneous matters upon
the bottom of the cistern, and drawing our supplies from pipes
a little above it ; there will, however, always be more or less
deposite in the pipes themselves, and eveiy time the water runs
into the cistern the grouts are stirred up, and diffused through
its mass : this, from some cause or other, with which I am
unacquainted, has lately become a most intolerable grievance ;
and he who reflects upon the miscellaneous contents of Thames
water, will not have his appetite sharpened by a draught of the
Grand Junction beverage, nor feel reanimated and refreshed

Construction of Warm^Baths. ^

by bathing in a compound so heterogeneous and unsavoury.
Let us, however, to cut this matter short, suppose that we have
plenty of pure cold water to deal with, and proceed to our most
essential topic, namely, the best mode of* heating it in the
quantity required.

4. and 5. In public bathing-establishments, where numerous
and constant baths are required, the simplest and most effective
means of obtaining hot water for their supply consists in drawing
it directly into the baths from a large boiler, placed somewhere
above their level. This boiler should be supplied with proper
feeding pipes and gauges ; and above all things, its dimensions
should be ample : it should be of wrought-iron or copper, except
where sea-water is used, in which case the latter metal is some-
times objectionable ; but my remarks are at present intended
to apply to fresh-water baths only. The hot water should enter
the bath by a pipe at least an inch and a half in diameter, and
the cold water by one of the same dimension, or somewhat
larger, so that the bath may not be long in filling. The relative
proportions of the hot and cold water are, of course, to be
adjusted by a thermometer; and e^•ery bath should have a two-
inch waste pipe, opening about ejght inches from the top of the
bath, and suffering the excess of water freely to run off, so
that when a person is immersed in the bath, or when the sup-
plies of water are accidentally left open, there may be no danger
of an overflow.

Where there is a laundry in the upper story of the house, or
other convenient place for erecting a copper and its appurte-
nances, a plan similar to the above may often be conveniently
adopted in private houses for the supply of a bath upon the
principal bed-room floor. An attempt is sometimes made to
place boilers behind the fires of dressing-rooms, or otherwise
to erect them in the room itself, for the purpose of supplying
warm water — but this plan is always objectionable, from the
complexity of the means by which the supply of water is fur-
nished to the boiler, and often dangerous from the flues becom-
ing choaked with soot and taking fire ; steam is also apt in
such cases to escape in quantities into the room, so that it
becomes necessary in many cases to search for other methods

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. F

Q^ Hints respecting the

of heating the bath, one or two of the least objectionable qf
Tjtrhich I shall describe.

1. A contrivance of some ingenuity consists in suffering the
water for the supply of the bath to flow from a cistern above it,
through a leaden pipe of about one inch diameter, which is
conducted into the kitchen or other convenient place, where a
large boiler for the supply of hot water is required ; the bath-
pipe is immersed in this boiler, in which it makes many convo-
lutions, and, again emerging, ascends to the bath. The opera-
tion is simply this : — the cold water passing through the convo-
lutions of that part of the pipe which is immersed in the boiling
watery receives there sufficient heat for the purpose required,
and is delivered in that state by the ascending pipe into the
bath, which is also supplied with cold water and waste pipes as
usual. The pipe may be of lead, as far as the descending and
ascending parts are concerned ; but the portion forming the
worm or convolutions immersed in the boiler, should be as thin
as is consistent with security, in order that the water within it
may receive heat without impediment; it may therefore be
made of copper.

This plan is only plausible and economical where a large
boiler is constantly kept at worlc in the lower part of the house ;
otherwise the trouble and expense of heating such a boiler, for
the mere purpose of the bath, render it unavailable. The
worm-pipe is also apt to become furred upon the outside by
the deposition of the earthy impurities of the water in which it
is immersed ; it then becomes a bad conductor of heat, is
cleansed with difficulty, and the plan is rendered ineffective.
This system, however, has been adopted in some particular
cases with satisfaction and success.

2. A much more simple, economical, and independent mode
of heating a warm-bath by a fire placed at a distance from it
is the following, which I shall describe in detail, as it is found
to answer perfectly in private houses, as well as upon a more
extended scale in large establishments. It is certainly open
to some objections, but these are overbalanced by its pre-
ponderating advantages. A waggon-shaped boiler, holding
about six gallons of water, is properly placed over a small fur-

Construction of Warm-Baths.

m

nace in any convenient and safe part of the house, — the
kitchen, scullery, servants'-hall, or wash-house may be used for
the purpose. The bath itself, of the usual dimensions and
construction, is placed where it is wanted, with a due supply of
cold water from above : two pipes issue from within an inch of
the bottom of the bath at its opposite extremities ; one at the
head of the bath about one inch, and the other at the foot an
inch and one-eighth in diameter. These tubes descend to the
boiler, the smaller one entering it at the bottom, and the
larger one issuing from it as it were at the top.

Under these circumstan-
ces, supposing the pipes and
boiler every where perfectly
tight, when the bath is filled
the water will descend into
and expel the air from the
boiler, and completely fill it.
Now, upon making a gentle
fire under the boiler, an
ascending current of warm
water will necessarily pass
upwards through the larger
pipe issuing from its top,
and cold water will descend
by the pipe which enters at
bottom ; and in this way, by
the establishment of currents,
the mass of water in the bath
will become heated to the
desired point; or if above it,
it may easily be attained by
the admixture of cold water.

The annexed sectional
wood -cut will, perhaps, ren
der this description more in-
telligible. A is the bath. B
the level of the water in it.
C the descending nine of

descending

pipe

pipe of hot water. E the

cold water

copper boiler with its
F2

fire-

68 Hints respecting the

place. F G is the pipe admitting cold water into the bath
by the opening H, when the stopcock I is open, and K closed ;
but when I is closed, and K open, the same pipe serves to
empty the bath, the water flowing off through the general
waste-pipe L, which also carries away the overflowings of the
bath, through M.

The advantages of this form of bath are numerous. The
shorter the pipes of communication from the bath to the boiler
the better, but they may extend forty or fifty feet without any
inconvenience beyond that of expense : so that there is no
obstacle to the bath being near the bed-room while the boiler
is on the basement story. There is but little time required for
heating the bath, the water in which may, if requisite, be raised
to 100° in about half an hour from the time of lighting the
fire. The consumption of fuel is also trifling.

The following are the chief disadvantages attendant upon
this plan, and the means of obviating them : —

It is necessary, when the water has acquired its proper tem-
perature, to draw the fire from the boiler, and not to use the
bath immediately, as it will go on acquiring some heat from that
of the boiler.and its brickwork, so that we may become incon-
veniently hot in the bath. To obviate the necessity of raking
the fire from under the boiler, a flue may be so constructed as
to carry off" the heat directly into the chimney ; but this is
uneconomical and not very convenient. When, therefore, I
use this bath, I proceed as follows : — I heat the water in it,
about an hour before it is to be used, to about 100°, and the
fire below is then put out. The water will retain its tem-
perature, or nearly so, for three or four hours, especially if the
bath be shut up with a cover, so that when about to use it, I
let in cold water till the temperature is lowered to the required
point, and we thus avoid all the above inconveniences.

Another disadvantage of this bath arises from too fierce a
fire having been made under the boiler, so as to occasion the
water to boil within it, which ought always to be carefully
avoided. In that case, the steam rising to the upper part of^
the boiler, and into the pipe D, condenses there, and
occasions violent concussions, the noise of which often alarms
the whQle house, and leads to apprehensions of an explosion.

Construction of Warm-BaiJis, 69

which, however, is very unlikely to occur; but the concussions
thus produced injure the pipes, and may render them leaky;
so that in regard to these, and all other baths, &c. we may
remark, that the pipes should pass up and down in such parts
of the house as will not be injured if some leaking takes place ;
and under the bath itself should be a sufficiently large leaden tray
with a waste-pipe, to receive and carry off any accidental drip-
pings, which might injure the ceilings of the rooms below. In
all newly-built houses, two or three flues should be left in proper
places for the passage of ascending and descending water-pipes ;
and these flues should, in some way, receive at their lower part a
little warm air in winter, to prevent the pipes freezing ; the same
attention should also be paid to the situation of the cisterns of
water in houses, which should be kept within the house, and
always supplied with a very ample waste-pipe, to prevent the
danger of overflow. Cisterns thus properly placed, and care-
fully constructed, should be supplied from the water-mains by
pipes kept underground till they enter the house, and not car-
ried across the area, or immediately under the pavement, where
they are liable to freeze.

3. Baths are sometimes heated by steam, which has several
advantages : it may either be condensed directly into the water
of the bath ; or, if the bath be of copper or tinned iron, it may
be conducted into a casing upon its outside, usually called a
jacket ; in the latter case there must be a proper vent for the
condensed water, and for the escape of air and waste steam.
Steam is also sometimes passed through a serpentine pipe,
placed at the bottom of the bath ; but none of these methods
are to be recommended for adoption in private houses, and are
only advisable in hospitals, or establishments where steam-
boilers are worked for other purposes than the mere heating of
baths. A description of the different modes of employing steam
as a means of heating masses of water for baths and other uses,
would lead me into too wide a field of discussion for the present
paper, which, therefore, I shall here conclude.

C.

70

A Manual of Chemistry, chiefly for the Use of Pupils
of Mechanics' Institutions. By Andrew Fyfe, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., &c. Edinburgh, 1825.

This little book scarcely deserves the name which the author
has conferred upon it, — it is not a handful, but a mere pinch
of chemistry ; and though it may answer very well as a text-
book for his course of lectures, cannot be commended as a
work of reference, or as holding out any temptations to the
general scientific reader. It is, moreover, disfigured by a set
of villainous wood cuts, to which the doctor, however, seems
passionately attached ; for he repeats the same block several
successive times, where mere reference to it would have been
sufficient. — Thus, at page 15, is a most clumsy representa-
tion of a furnace, with a tube passing through it, for the
decomposition of vapours ; and this ugly thing is reiterated
at pages 109, 121, 129, 141, 165 (without the retort, but
the same cut), and lastly, at page 197 : and an equally unin-
telligible portrait of a retort and gas-receiver occurs at pages
5, 14, 17, 122, 151. This, in a little book of 300 pages, is
too bad.

But Dr. Fyfe*s information is not always correct, especially
upon points of importance and interest to those whom his
Manual immediately addresses. Hops, for instance, are de-
scribed as the seed-pods of a plant much cultivated in Eng-
land ; and at page 244, we are told that the brewing porter
is carried on in the same way as that of ale and beer, with
this difference, that the malt is prepared in a peculiar way.
-*« It has been already said, that that used for ale is dried by
the application of a slight heat. In making malt for porter,
a much higher temperature is applied, by which it is slightly
burned, so that the wort got from it has a dark colour, and
a peculiar bitter taste." We believe few porter-brewers
would grow rich if they thus employed slightly -burned malt.
But lastly, Dr. Fyfe says, that *' gin, or Hollands, is always
prepared by the Dutch :" this may possibly do for an Edin-
burgh audience, especially after the elaborate account of
** whiskey" which precedes the above quotation ; our Lon-
don mechanics, however, know better ; few of them, as we
apprehend, being unacquainted with the merits of Hodges'
full proof

Upon the whole, however, though there are many marks
of haste, and some of carelessness, visible in this compilation,
we are ready to admit that it is not ill adapted for a text-

Dr. Fyfe^s Manual of Chemistry. 71

book to the classes it is intended for. The arrangement is
well enough ; and when the deficiencies are filled up by ex-
perimental illustrations, or verbal descriptions, we dare say
that it will answer the purpose of enabling the student to
draw up, at his leisure, more copious notes and perspicuous
illustrations than those with whicnDr.Fyfe has supphedhim.

On the Structure and Habits of the Seal. By John Harwood,
M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal
Institution.

[This communication contains the outline of a discourse on the above
subject, delivered to the members of the Royal Institution, by Dr.
Harwood, on Friday evening, the 16th of February, 1827. It was
illustrated by numerous specimens of skeletons, and of stuffed ani-
mals from the Museum of the Royal Institution, and from the valuable
collection of Mr. Brookes.]

I HAVE principally been induced by two motives to select
the Seal as the subject of the present discourse : the one is,
that it has not attracted that general and popular notice with
which its habits and peculiarities deserve to be viewed ; and
the other, that throughout the whole extent of animal life we
discern no more beautiful and obvious adaptation in structure
to those peculiarities and habits than are presented to us in the
anatomy of this creature ; indeed, these striking appropriations
are so numerous, that it becomes difficult to make choice of
those most worthy of attention. Externally, the seal is of an
elongated form, its neck powerfully muscular and long, and its
body formed like that of a fish, broadest across the chest, and
gradually tapering to its hinder extremities. For the convenience
of swimming, its fore limbs are so short, as to appear destitute of
some of the bones and parts found in those of land-quadrupeds :
for we only see externally the feet, having their toes provided
with sharp claws ; but they are so enveloped in broad mem-
branes as not to be readily traced, though capable of free
motion. Such a capability, however, only applies to our
northern seals, and a few other species ; for the eared kinds of the
South Seas have their toes almost immovable, and furnished
with flat nails on the fore feet. After the gradual tapering of
the body, which terminates in a short flattened tail, the hinder

72 Br. Harwood on the Structure and

feet are observed to be furnished with still broader membranes,
which in many South Sea species are even extended beyond the
ends of the claws, whereby the extent of surface is greatly in-
creased ; but in all, aided by the powerful muscles of the spine,
these feet act with immense force on the surrounding fluid, and
produce an extremely rapid progression. From such external
characters, a beautiful connexion is at once observed be-
tween the seal and those aquatic animals which surround it,
its feet, for example, being intermediate in their structure
between the simply webbed ones of the otter and beaver, and the
flattened fin-like ones of the manati, the whales, and other ce-
tacious mammalia which are more exclusively adapted to a
watery element. But in the skeleton of the seal, these gradations
and adaptations are still more apparent : though composed of the
usual number of bones, the length and flexibility of its neck is
of the highest importance in its economy ; for, by the slightest
inclination of the head, at the end of this long lever, in any
direction, while diving, its centre of gravity becomes instantly
changed at its will ; and thus are its submarine chases, even
after the swift salmon, rendered so marvellously successful,
that its only mode of escape consists in darting into the shal-
lows. In the general form of the skeleton, seals bear no very
distant relation to the weasels, the chest having an unusual
extent of motion, by the free articulation of its vertebrae, and,
as in those animals, the liver and lungs are each divided into
several distinct lobes, that they may glide smoothly over each
other, and not oppose the great curvature to which their bodies
are liable. On the same principle, their ribs are placed farther
asunder than in most others ; while the lumbar regions and pel-
vis, as in all diving animals, are long and narrow, for the attach-
ment of powerful muscles. We now see that the limbs,
although so curiously shortened for aquatic operations, possess
the same number and arrangement of bones as those of animals
whose actions are terrestrial, subject, however, to interesting
modifications ; for instance, in the fore-feet, the thumb or inner
toe is the strongest, and the outer the weakest; but in the
hinder feet, to increase the force and extent of membranous
surface opposed to the water, the two outer toes are far the
longest and strongest.

Habits of the Seal. 7?

From such an aquatic conformation, then, it is sufficiently
obvious that the movements of the seal on the land are neces-
sarily slow and imperfect : they have been, not unaptly, com-
pared to those of a caterpillar, being chiefly effected by vertical
flexures of the spine. Nevertheless, even under these disad-
vantages, seals defend themselves and their young with their
teeth, with great courage and address ; thus I recollect having
seen a seaman who had been most severely wounded from
too daringly attacking a large seal. It was observed by Aris-
totle, that most animals have their fore teeth sharp and their
inward teeth broad ; but that the seal has them all pointed ;
now, in fact, in the different species of seal, the skull not only
affords much variety in its form, but their teeth differ so greatly
from each other, that nothing would be more easy, were it by
any means desirable, than to substitute new generic names for
almost every known species. These differences are well exem-
plified in the various specimens before you, in which we observe
their front teeth to vary in number, having either four or six above
and four below, while their molares vary from sixteen to twenty-
four, all of which, in common with their canine teeth, have more
or less pointed surfaces.

In the Northern seals, the front teeth above have single points;
but in the antarctic species, the four middle, upper, and, indeed,
lower front teeth have a double edge, the two outer ones having
single points : their molares are either simply conical, like those
of the common seal, or are each armed with three points as in
the Phoca Grcenlandica.

As sub-aquatic pursuits were those destined for the seal,
and as these were liable to be often accompanied with labour
and difficulty, it is obvious that they could not be carried on
by animals internally organized like those of the land ; for the
necessity for so frequently rising to the surface to breathe,
would have been an effectual impediment to their success.
The Creator has, therefore, so modified the mode of circulation
in the seal, that this inconvenience has been counteracted, and
yet this has not been effected as in the reptiles ; for in them
the vessels of the heart are so constructed, that the blood can
flow freely through them, without" going to the lungs, and
thereby occasioning a necessity for breathing; nor (which

74 Dr. Harwood on the Structure and

would produce the same efFect) do the auricles of the seal com-
municate, as was formerly thought. On the contrary, in the
seal the original type in the construction of the heart is still
retained, as also in the walrus and otter, and other aquatic
mammalia, with this exception, — that the veins which return the
blood to the heart are so much enlarged, that they are capable
of changing their office, and becoming reservoirs for receiving
and retaining the blood in its progress to the heart. Thus is
the right side of the latter, and the lungs, prevented from being
oppressed by its superabundance when the creature is under
water, and incapable of breathing, and thus is its life sus-
tained. The largest of these venous reservoirs exists in the
liver of the seal ; but its whole venous system, like that of the
walrus and the whales, is very greatly developed. If I may
be allowed the expression, like most other aquatic mammalia,
the seal appears to be literally gorged with blood ; its blood is
moreover of an unusually dark colour, being almost black,
which property it perhaps acquires by its constant liability to
become arrested in its course ; and hence, perhaps, the neces-
sity for so much blood in its circulating system — ^yet the animal
heat of the seal is very great.

We shall next briefly advert to some of the senses of this
animal. Its very large and dark eyes being directed more for-
wards than in any other aquatic quadruped, added to the round
and human appearance of its head, when raised above the
surface of the water, doubtless caused it to contribute greatly
towards the formation of those ideal marine monsters of which
the ancients have favoured us with so many accounts. The eye
of the seal is provided with a most perfect membrana nictitans,
or winking membrane, the use of which it is rather difficult to
conceive in aquatic animals, except to shield their delicate
organs from the too powerful effects of the light, in rapidly
rising from the depths to the surface. The pupil of the seal is
vertical, like that of the Cat ; but its soft expressive phy-
siognomy, which more nearly resembles that of the dog than
any other quadruped, and is equally expressive of superior in-
telligence, is not affected by the cat-like form of the pupil, in
consequence of the dark colour of the iris. But the greatest
peculiarity in the construction of its eye, is a narrow zone, or

Habits of the Seal 75

two zones, as in the Phoca monachus of the Grecian Islands,
encircling the globe, of a thinner texture, so much so as to be
only one-fourth part of the usual thickness, and more flexible
than the rest of the sclerotic coat ; and as the straight and
oblique muscles of the globe are inserted anteriorly to these
flexible zones into a thicker part of the tunic, it is probable
that their simultaneous contraction may alter the length of the
axis of the eye, and the form of the transparent cornea, by
approaching the latter to the retina, and by rendering it more
or less convex, and thus better adapt it to the different media
in which the creature lives. I think this the more likely,
because I have often observed that seals, on first appearing on
the surface of the water, appear somewhat bewildered, and do
not distinctly discern objects, till their eyes have had time to
adapt themselves to the more rare medium to which they are
exposed.

The nose of the seal is an organ of more perfect formation
than that of any other quadruped. The nostrils are most accu-
rately closed at the entrance by very perfect valves, to prevent
the ingress of water when it dives, and, indeed, at all other
times, except when it respires. Its breathing also, at all times,
occurs at very irregular intervals, often extending to half a
minute between each inspiration, but the quantity of air it then
receives is very great. As to the internal formation of the nose,
it possesses one of the most beautiful structures which the
whole class exhibits, especially from the amazing number of
the convolutions of those bones on which the infinite ramifica-
tions of the olfactory nerves are spread. It has, indeed, been
computed by Sir Busic Harwood, that the smelling surface in the
nose of a single seal amounts to the enormous extent of two hun-
dred and forty square inches. Now it is no less worthy of remark
that something of this curious complication in the organ of
smelling likewise obtains in other aquatic animals, and espe-
cially the otter, which is a very remarkable circumstance, when
we consider that, as before observed, their nostrils, like their
ears, are most accurately closed by valves, to prevent the en-
trance of the water when they dive, and, indeed, at all other
times, except during breathing. A question, therefore, natu-
rally arises, — that if, in the pursuit of their prey, or other sub-

76 Dr. Havwood on the Structure and

aquatic actions, they are at all governed by this greatly-deve-
loped faculty, in what way are odorous impressions conveyed
to the nose ? — an inquiry which has, I think, been by np
means satisfactorily explained by those who suppose odorous
impressions to be conveyed to the nose posteriorly, from the
entrance of the throat.

I really suspect, however visionary it may appear, that seals
hunt their prey, or discover its vicinity, by their sense of smell-
ing, when swimming on the surface of the water ; for if dogs
are very sensible to the scent of a small aquatic fowl on the
surface, as we know is the case, why should not the seal of a
distant shoal of fishes, sporting, as they constantly do, on the
surface, its proper prey, and by means of organs so far more
complicated ? The same view of the subject of course equally
applies to the delicate nasal organs of the otter and the Polar
bear. Vision, then, I would say, is the sense which governs
the seal in its actions beneath — smelling, when upon the sur-
face, and only when out of the water.

The seals of the Northern seas are almost entirely destitute
of outward ears. The opening into the organ is, like that of
the nose, accurately closed by means of a perfect valve. The
internal organ of hearing in the seal presents another beautiful
intervening gradation in structure between that of the entirely
aquatic and the entirely terrestrial quadrupeds : like the latter,
the ossicula are attached to the membrana tympani ; and like the
true whales, the inferior circumference of the tympanum consists
of bone, of unusual thickness and solidity. As to the faculty,
I have reason to believe that seals not only hear acutely, but
they are sensibly gratified by musical sounds. When I was
most amongst these animals, they much excited our amuse-
ment ; for, by uttering a whistling sound, we could readily
induce them to follow our boats very great distances, when
they would continue to raise their heads above the surface
nearer and nearer, and to fix their large eyes stedfastly
upon us.

The tongue of the seal is notched at its extremity, unlike that
of most other quadrupeds : it is perfectly smooth, yet is doubt-
less provided with a tolerably acute sense of taste. The predi-
lection of this animal for the salmon is manifest, from the cir-

Habits of the Seal. 77

cnmstance of that fish tempting it further within the reach of
human persecution than any other ; hence, I have often seen
seals rise to the surface to breathe with salmon in their
mouths, at that period of the year, when they lie in such num-
bers around the mouths of Irish and Scotch rivers, to cut off
the retreat of that fish into the sea, after depositing its eggs in
fresh water.

The seal's throat is so provided with a valve at its entrance,
that the creature has no difficulty in swallowing its prey when
under water, without admitting the latter into the stomach.

Of all aquatic genera of animals, the seal appears to be
the most widely distributed over the surface of the globe. The
common kind, although generally an inhabitant of temperate
seas, not only excites much interest by its annual and well-
conducted migrations from shore to shore, but often swims
northwards into very frigid regions, though seldom higher than
the 78th degree of latitude, where it associates with the Phocae
Greenland ica, cristata, and barbata.

If we regard the antarctic regions, we find them no less the
abode and resort of seals than the arctic, as has been lately
signally evinced by the hundreds of thousands which were dis-
covered on that vast tract of desert land south of Cape Horn,
W'hich has been called South Shetland, and which coiiemences
about the 70th degree of latitude, and from whence they have
already almost been extirpated by unceasing persecution. From
these seas Lord Anson first brought to Europe the immense
Phoca Leonina, the Sea Lion, or Sea Elephant, as it is more
frequently called, from its possessing a short trunk, and beinga
creature of no less than 20 feet in length, and the largest species
known. Lord Anson was also, I believe, the first who described
the poisonous effects of the liver of the South Sea seals ; and I
have been informed by a Greenland Captain, that he himself,
and one or two others suffered very severely from partaking of
the kidney of the common seal. The Phoca leonina, closing the
extremity of its short trunk, greatly inflates it w'hen enraged ; so
likewise, in the North seas, the Phoca cristata, or bladder-nosed
seal, has a kind of hood on the head, which it can inflate ^^^th
air, and with it protect its eyes and nose when attacked : it
measures eight feet in length, and is very ferocious. But the
largest seal of our own seas, is the Phoca barbata, the specieg

78 Dr. Harwood on the Structure and

which I think goes by the name- of ground seal among the
Greenland fishers, and of whose skin the Greenlanders are said
to make their thongs for fishing. A specimen of this seal was
shot on the North coast of Scotland, which measured twelve
feet in length. There is, I believe, one of these preserved on
the top of the staircase at the British Museum.

Among the seals, which are provided with external ears, of
the South Seas, and which have been associated under a new
name, are the Phoca jubata and the Phoca ursina. The
former being provided with a mane, and measuring fifteen feet
long ; while the latter is of much smaller size, and is destitute
of a mane.

I have been much surprised at the numbers of common
seals, from three to five feet in length, which frequent the
Western coast of Ireland, having often seen there more than
twenty reposing together on a rock. Their numbers appear not
only to be owing to the unfrequented nature of that interesting
part of Great Britain ; but certain superstitions of the fisher-
men induce them on all possible occasions to spare their lives.
The common seal also abounds on the North shores of Scot-
land, and the Hebrides ; but, of course, from increasing perse-
cution, rapidly decreases in numbers as we proceed south.

The brain of this animal is, I think, doubtless, of greater
proportionate magnitude, than in any other quadruped, and
not only does it exhibit in its countenance the appearance
of sagacity, but its intelligence is in reality far greater than
in most land quadrupeds : hence its domestication is rendered
much easier than that of other animals, and it is susceptible of
more powerful attachment. These circumstances do not excite
more interest among the naturalists of the present day, than
they did long ago with Aristotle, iElian, Pliny, and other
ancient observers of nature. It is evidently the common seal,
to which Aristotle alludes in his description ; and his obser-
vation, that it is the only quadruped which searches for its food
in the sea, would lead us to suppose that he had not an oppor-
tunity of acquainting himself with the walrus and sea otter.

The large seal, which was exhibited some time ago at Exeter
Change, appeared to me to understand the language of its
keeper as perfectly as the most faithful dog. When he entered
atone end of its long apartment, it raised its body from the water,

Habits of the Seal. 79

in which it was injudiciously too constantly kept, supporting
itself erect against the bars of its inclosure, and wheresoever
he moved, keeping its large, dark eyes stedfastly fixed upon
him. When desired to make obeisance to visitors, it quickly
threw itself on one side, and struck the opposite one several
times in quick succession with its fore foot, producing a loud
noise. The young seal again, which was kept on board the Alex-
ander, in one of the Northern expeditions, became so much
attached to its new mode of life, that after being thrown into
the sea, and it had become tired of swimming at liberty, it
regularly returned to the side of the boat, to be retaken on
board. Such examples might be greatly multiplied, but these
are amply sufficient for our purpose ; and I cannot help stating,
that aware of this disposition to become familiar, this partici-
pation in the good qualities of the dog, it is astonishing that
mankind have not chosen this intelligent and finely-organised
quadruped, for aquatic services scarcely less important than
some of those in which the dog is employed, on the surface of
the land.

The seal is among the few polygamous quadrupeds ; and like
the rest, the males, during the period of intercourse, enter into
violent conflicts. Two young ones are generally produced at a
time in the autumn. They are brought forth in caverns, ex-
tending from the sea above high-water mark, and here they
remain suckling during several weeks, before they venture into
the water. When they become fatigued by swimming, we are
assured that the parent supports them on her back.

The voice of the seal consists of a kind of bleating, whence
doubtless has the common seal obtained the name of the sea-
calf, the Phoca vitulina : the voice is, however, liable to great
variation, especially during changes in the state of the atmos-
phere, when they become extremely clamorous. Spending
their nights on the surfaces of rocks, or upon the shore, it is
during their very sound repose in these situations that they
are approached and destroyed with sticks ; and when thus
alarmed, they tumble their young ones before them into the
sea, and are themselves often sacrificed in the very act. But
the means by which they are captured in by far the greatest
numbers, is by cutting oiff their retreat to the sea at low water,
when, in apparent security, they lie in large herds within

80 Dr. Harwood on the Hahits of the Seal.

caverns : fire-arms, in these cases, are never had recourse to,
as a comparatively slight blow b)^ a stick on the head, or nose,
is sufficient to destroy life : this arises either from the thin and
fragile nature of the bones of the skull of the seal, or the great
and immediate nervous communication which exists between
its nose and its brain . Among more uncivilised nations, its
mode of destruction is far more tedious and less efficient.
Thus, for instance, the Esquimaux, after long watching, first
strikes a seal with his barbed spear, to which a line is attached,
having at its extremity a large floating buoy, composed of the
inflated skin of another seal ; thus entangled and opposed in
all its efforts to retreat far beneath, as often as it rises to
breathe, it receives a fresh wound from the unerring spear of
its destroyer.

We now proceed to say a few words on the uses to which
this animal is applied, when deprived of life, by the more civi-
lised nations of mankind. As to the benefits which the inhabit-
ants of frigid regions derive from it, they are far too numerous
and diversified to be particularized, as they supply them with
almost all the conveniences of life. We, on the contrary, so
persecute this animal, as to destroy hundreds of thousands
annually, for the sake of the pure and transparent oil with
which it abounds ; 2dly, for its tanned skin, which is appro-
priated to various purposes by different modes of preparation ;
and, 3rdly, we pursue it for its close and dense attire. In the
common seal, the hair of the adult is of one uniform kind,
so thickly arranged and imbued with oil, as to effectually
resist the action of the water ; while, on the contrary, in the
antarctic seals the hair is of two kinds : the longest, like
that of the northern seals ; the other, a delicate, soft fur,
growing between the roots of the former, close to the sur-
face of the skin, and not seen externally ; and this beautiful
fur constitutes an article of very increasing importance in
commerce ; — but not only does the clothing of the seal vary ma-
terially in colour, fineness, and commercial estimation, in the
different species, but not less so in reference to the age of the ani-
mal. The young of most kinds are usually of a very light colour,
or entirely white, and are altogether destitute of true hair, having
this substituted by a long and particularly soft fun

81

On Artificial Cobwebs for Micrometers.
By C. R. Goring, M.D.

A COMMON cobweb has always appeared to me to be a very
strong substance in proportion to its extreme tenuity, for a
bulky spider will frequently depend from a single fibre of great
length : — small insects are incapable of overcoming the resist-
ance of the meshes of a web ; — which will also endure for a
considerable time in wet and windy weather without requiring
much repair. Nevertheless, I have always found astronomers
extremely nervous about the threads of their micrometers, which,
it is said, may be destroyed by the trifling current of air which
passes through the tube of a telescope when its objective and
eye-glasses are displaced ; probably because the cobwebs, being
of animal origin, are subject to decomposition in course of time,
for I do not think a cobweb, fresh from the body of a spider,
could be so easily affected. Be this as it may, I have acciden-
tally discovered a mode of making artificial ones, which are not
subject to decomposition, which may be stretched by mechani-
cal violence to double their length without snapping, returning
again to their original dimensions — which maybe blown upon by
a powerful pair of bellows, with its nose close to them, without
injury, and which can be rendered of any degree of tenuity and
fineness, being a perfect substitute for the ordinary ones, as it
seems to me ; but as I am not a connoisseur in such matters, it
must be left to Messrs. Troughton and Sims, who have certainly
arrived at the extreme verge of improvement in the construction
of micrometers, to determine the point at issue between me and
the spider. The following is the receipt for making them : —
Procure some of the purest essential oil of turpentine, shave
some caoutchouc extremely thin, and put it into a small wide-
mouthed phial, observing not to fill it more than one quarter ;
pour in the turpentine to the top, and secure it carefully with a
cork and bladder. Let this be worn in the pocket for a few
days, and the India rubber will absorb the essential oil, and
become greatly increased in bulk ; then let a portion of it be
put into another bottle with some more turpentine, and in a few
days it will be completely dissolved. It is necessary that there
should be more turpentine employed in the first instance than

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. G

82 On Artificial Cobwebs for Micrometers.

is required to reduce the India rubber to the consistence neces-
saiy to form cobwebs, in order to allow impurities to subside to
the bottom of the phial, and to insure the complete solution of
the caoutchouc, for if any particles of it are left untouched,
smooth even cobwebs will not be obtained*. This solution
must be kept about the person till a good deal of the turpentine
has evaporated, to aid which process it will be advisable to have
the phial merely closed by a piece of paper tied over it : the
older it is the better. If any heat is employed to effect the
solution, exceeding that of the human body, the consequence
will be, that the caoutchouc will undergo a change, and will
never dry or return its original state. AVhen the India rubber
in the phial has assumed a viscid consistence, like that of bird-
lime, it is in a fit state for making cobwebs : the precise con-
dition in which it is most fit for that purpose may be known
by experiment, and by its sticking two other pieces of India
rubber together in such a manner, that they cannot be sepa-
rated when the interposed cement is dry.

The making of the cobwebs is the most simple affair imagin-
able ; all that is necessary is to take a small quantity of the
solution on the point of a bit of wood, and to stick it to a frame,
producing the viscid thread, which will proceed from it to the
opposite side : in this way any quantity may be made. This

* There will always be the same diiRculty in obtaining truly parallel
and even threads from the caoutchouc as there is from common cob-
webs. I have one of Messrs. Troughton and Sims's best micrometers by
me at this moment ; and the cobwebs, though, of course, picked and
abundantly even enough for practical purposes, are certainly far from
being of the same diameter throughout. I suspect, from microscopical
examination, that a common cobweb is a flat thread like a piece 6i tape,
not a round one, so that, if it is at all twisted, it must present different
apparent diameters to the eye. The best way of getting parallel threads
with the India rubber paste, appears to me to be to let it stand for a con-
siderable time without any agitation, or stirring up whatever, and when
the instrument is inserted to draw out a thread, to disturb the matter as
little as possible, touching only its surface ; the more the thread is drawn
out the more even and true it becomes. It may not be irrelevant to
mention, that in order to give the fibres their utmost degree of strength,
tliey should be put on in the lowest degree of tension possible ; in draw-
ing them out on the frame, therefore, let the instrument recoil as much
as it will before the end of the thread is fastened down, that at least the
caoutchouc may not be stretched till its ultimate attachment to the
micrometer is completed. Rectified white naphtha may be tried instead
of the turpentine.

On the Sludy of Natural History. 83

process should be carried on in a very warm room, otherwise
the liquid thread is apt to snap. The fibres thus prepared
should be carefully preserved from dust for a day or two, till
completely dry ; they may then be examined by a microscope,
and the most even and parallel selected. In this way we
obtain artificial cobwebs, having the same opacity, and the same
power- of enduring the solar spectrum as common ones, and
which appear to me to bear as much rough usage, damp, &c. as
can reasonably be desired in such delicate fibres ; for when the
turpentine has evaporated, they are lefl neither more nor less
than unchanged caoutchouc.

On the Importance of preserving Facts connected with the
Natural History of Animals. By William Swainson, Esq.,
F.R.S., F.L.S., ^c.

The chief reasons why the study of Natural History in this
country is less popular than others and much less attractive,
appears to be the prevalent notion that it is now become a
science too vast and too difficult for general cultivation ; — that
no sooner is one system established, than it begins to give place
to another : — ^that to discover the scientific cause of any one
object, expensive libraries must be consulted, or national mu-
seums referred to ; — that the student is unassisted by that pub-
lic instruction which is afforded him in every other department
of science ; — that its application to the comforts or conve-
niences of life is remote or indirect ; — and finally, that the
natural history of those animals we are daily in the habit of
seeing, is too well known to require any very particular attention.

With the hope of exciting more general attention to this sub-
ject than it at present receives it will be my object, in this
sketch, to show that many of these objections are magnified,
and that others are without real foundation.

To take such a comprehensive view of this, or any other
science, as will sensibly extend the boundaries of knowledge,
and remove its present land-marks, is, indeed, an eminence
which few, under the most favourable circumstances, can hope

G2

84 On the Study of Natural History,

to attain. The greatest talents are of little avail, without the
use of a costly library and a well-stored museum. Such
advantages will be seldom found ; and therefore the higher
departments of the science can only be prosecuted by those
few who possess them, and who devote their lives to this single
object.

When we look to the numerous changes that have taken
place in systems during the last ten years, and find that another
revolution is now going on, we may at first be tempted to ques-
tion its necessity, and to complain that so much time has been
lost in acquiring that which must be unlearnt. But a moment's
reflection will show the unreasonableness of such a conclusion.
Natural History, like every other branch of human knowledge,
advances by slow but steady paces. Had Dr. Johnson lived in
the nineteenth century, he would not have applied the epithet
adamant to any system but that of nature ; which, although
** unchanging and unchanged," can hardly be said to be yet
discovered. The truth is, that zoology is now undergoing a
similar revolution to that which chemistry experienced some
years ago. Nothing but facts are taken upon trust. l*he
authority of a name, however great, or the plausibility of a sys-
tem, however ingenious, avails nothing when unsupported by
such tests ; so that we now begin with doubting the solidity of
that basis upon which our predecessors built what they consi-
dered as improvements. In short. Natural History is a study
of facts ; and it is the right combination of these facts which
constitutes the true philosophy of the science. It may reason-
ably be supposed that, having at length chosen nature for our
guide, we shall make some advance towards the temple of truth ;
that when once those obstacles which have impeded our pro-
gress are cleared away, a system and a nomenclature will be
established, not indeed perfect, but sufficiently so to remain in
use, with little alteration, for the rest of our lives.

Yet admitting this supposition to its full extent, it may still
be said, that only a minor difficulty has been removed. A
library and museum are still necessary ; for, without such aids,
how can we hope to investigate any portion of the eighty thou-
sand species of living beings already described, the thousands of
others that are known to exist, and the tens of thousands which,

On the Study of Natural History. 85

in all probability, remain to be discovered? True. But the ob-
jection is, in part, groundless, because it implies the practicability
of doing that which, under any circumstances, is next to impos-
sible. No naturalist of the present day, however enthusiastic,
ever dreams of investigating every species in his cabinet, for the
mere object of giving them names. In proportion to the mag-
nitude of his subject, or to the extent of his collection, he limits
his inquiries. He is content to acquire a knowledge of generic
types, — of the species of any particular group, or of those only
which belong to one country. It is true that his studies will
not be attended with that variety which results from a more
general survey of nature ; but the real interest, by such a re-
striction, is rather increased : and, by confining his attention to
a smaller number of objects, he may feel assured of understand-
ing them, in the end, much better, and of being able to illustrate
their history with more truth, than any of his predecessors might
have done. Fewer points of reference, either from books or
specimens, are necessary. And the means of adding something
to the general store of knowledge is thus placed within the
power of every one who can provide himself with a few element-
ary works. Trembley immortalised his name by discovering
the reproductive powers of the polype * ; and the anatomical
treatise of Lyonnet, who fixed his attention on a single insect,
has been pointed out as a model of perfection.

Nevertheless, so varied are the channels by which informa-
tion is to be sought for, and so numerous are the paths which
centre in the portico of the temple of Nature, that the most un-
scientific observer has the power of contributing something to
illustrate the economy of creation. Natural History cannot be
learned from books, or from museums : these are, indeed, ne-
cessary to acquire what is termed a systematic acquaintance
with the subject, and so far may be considered essential. Yet
this constitutes but a small and comparatively uninterest-
ing portion of the science. The true naturalist does not con-
tent himself with making a tour of museums, — \\'\\h naming
their contents, with manufacturing names, or with framing inge-
nious theories from stuffed skins : he goes beyond the precincts

* A. Trembley, immortel par la decouverte de la reproduction du
polype, Cuvier. Reg. Anim. iv. p. 165.

86 On the Study of Natural History.

of his closet to view Nature in her true garb, and to contem-
plate the innumerable ways by which Ckeative Wisdom has
provided for the wants, the pleasures, and the protection of
*• every living thing that moveth upon the earth." Woods and
mountains, plains and valleys, each peopled by their own inha-
bitants, afford him never-failing instruction and delight ; — they
impart a freshness and interest to his Avritings, which not only
stamps them with a permanent value, but renders them interest-
ing, if not captivating, to all cultivated minds. There are few
who have not perused the " Natural History of Selbourne," a
collection of letters on the facts observed by its philosophic
author, respecting the animals of his native village *. Mr. White
was a country clergyman, who held little intercourse with the
world, and was almost unknown to the scientific. In truth, he
seems to have given little of his attention to system, and still
less to learned societies. Yet, with all these disadvantages
against a short-lived popularity, what book, ever published in
this country, has rendered Natural History more attractive, or
has, in consequence, been more generally read ? We feel inte-
rested in the little anecdotes this true philosopher has preserved
of every subject that crossed his path ; and almost fancy we
hear him narrate the incidents of his evening's walk, while
iseated in his own garden hermitage. His style is suited to his
subject — easy, chaste, and natural. The absence of system,
m point of fact, is the great charm of the book ; and this will
give it an interest when most of its learned brethren are con-
signed to oblivion. But this is not all. The observations of
such a man afford a perpetual source of information to natural-
ists of the highest order. In our attempts to grasp the general
system of nature, we must thread all those labyrinths by which
she passes, with so much subtlety, from one form to another, —
from genus to genus, and family to family, — till at last, ascend-
ing to the two great types of animal and vegetable life, she
blends f them so imperceptibly, that the most philosophic obser-

♦ The Natural History of Selboiirne. London, 1822. 2 vols. 8vo., the
last edition.

t In the observations of the learned Agard on the red snow, of which
my friend Professor Hooker has given an interesting abstract, is the fol-
lowing passage : — " Hence it follows, that this substance must be either
an alga or an animalcula, between which I know of no limits ; there are

On the Study of Natural History. U

vers have been unable to draw between them a hne of sepa-^
ration.

Now, to trace these innumerable threads of affinity, so far as
the economy of animated beings is concerned, we must have
recourse, upon every occasion, to the practical naturalist. I
have mentioned White, as being the first of our countrymen
who enriched the science with these genuine records of nature ;
but this is not the only instance. No one has thrown more
light upon the habits and economy of the ornithological portion
of our British Fauna than the late Colonel Montague. His
writings in general, and his supplementary volume to the Orni-
thological Dictionary in particular, afford a mine of information
to the philosophic naturalist, and of interest and amusement to
the general reader. He studied nature ; and, in recording what
he saw, thought it not beneath him to point out that one bird
hop[)ed while another walked ; or that the nest of another was
built in a low bush, instead of being placed upon a high tree. By
persons accustomed to look upon systems and learned names as
teaching everything, these humble anecdotes will be smiled upon
with contempt : but by those who have entered deep into the
study of nature, they will be prized as facts, trivial, indeed, in
themselves, but assuming an importance little dreamed of by
their narrators, when coupled with others, and interwoven in the
great scheme of Nature.

Were we, in fact, to single out all those naturalists of the last
century whose writings are of real value and authority at the
present day, we should find the list (with a few exceptions)
filled by the names of those who have drawn their observations
from nature, and made system a very secondary consideration.
The merits of the Baron de Geer * were long obscured, nay

forms, then, which may, with equal propriety, be ranked -with either or
both. There are algae which become animalciilae, and vice versa. Lastly,
there are infusoria, which, at one period of their existence, are endowed
with the power of movement, while in another they exist only in the cha-
racter of a vegetable." Brewster s Journal^ No. 7.

♦ An independent spirit, which prompted De Geer to refuse obsequious
submission to the authority even of Linnaeus, and an utter absence of any
partiality for nomenclature, seem, with a strong natural feeling for the
obser\'ation and anangemcnts of facts, to have been the principal causes
of the excellency of his works. M'Leayy Horcc Entomologiccv, vol. i.
part 1. xxvii.

88 On the Study of Natural History,

utterly unkno"\vn, in this country, for many years, so completely
was true science lost sight of in an overweening attachment to
Linnsean and Fabrician nomenclature. In later times, the ex-
tensive observations made by Le Vaillant on the birds of Africa,
and the still more delightful volumes of Wilson on those of Ame-
rica, have invested this department with an interest it never
before possessed.

But enough has been said to prove, first, that a very import-
ant and a very interesting department of the science can be
prosecuted without the aid of either libraries or collections, or
without the study of systems or names. Secondly, that the
most minute details in the economy of animals should not be
overlooked as trivial or unimportant. And, thirdly, that those
who have pursued this path have conferred lasting benefits upon
natural science.

It is unnecessary for me, in this place, to expatiate upon the
peculiar interest that attaches to natural history, even when
pursued as a mere recreation, or without any view of benefiting
others by our observations : the interest which it gives to a sum-
mer's walk or to a turn in the garden, the habits of quick obser-
vation which it excites in the youthful mind, or the expansion
it gives to the heart in more mature life, — all these, and many
more of its attractions, have been enlarged and illustrated by
abler pens than mine. The study of Nature is opposed to the
study of man, chiefly in this respect ; that the first presents
eveiything that is pure, lovely, and ** of good report,'' while the
latter is continually bringing before us fraud, duplicity, violence,
and all those passions which, without being imbibed, insensibly
blunt the better feelings of our nature.

But if all these arguments should fail, and people will only be
induced to take an interest in things which affect their immediate
comforts, we shall find that some acquaintance with natural
history is not only useful, but sometimes essential to the direct
interests of a large portion of the community. There is no one
class in whose success the interests of mankind are so much
involved as in that of the agricultural. By this I mean, that, as
food is the first necessary of life, eveiy question which concerns
its production deserves \ery serious attention. Now it is well
known, that every year some unexpected failure of crops, origi-

On the Study of Natural History. 89

nating in the depredations of the insect world, takes place ; that
the labours of the farmer, and the hopes of the planter, are con-
tinually destroyed by these minute and subtle enemies ; and that
a local scarcity, and often individual ruin, is generally the result.
With these evils upon record, and continually coming under our
notice, in one form or other, every year, any one would fancy
that that portion of natural history, at least, which related to
agriculture, planting, and gardening, had been well studied ;
that books had been written upon the subject ; that the history
and economy of all these insects had been well investigated, and
that effectual means had been pointed out for counteracting their
injuries. But what is the true state of the case ? Incredible as
it may appear, this subject has been almost neglected. No book
professing to give the agriculturist a right knowledge of the
animals useful or injurious to his labours, exists in our lan-
guage. By what unaccountable chance the various agricultural
societies have overlooked this matter I know not, nor is it my
present intention to inquire. This, however, may be safely
asserted, that it deserves to be made the subject of contention
for the greatest prize they have it in their power to bestow. That
I may not be supposed to attach to this part of natural history
more importance than it really deserves, I shall merely refer the
reader to several facts noticed by Mr. Kirby in his Introduction
to Entomology, vol. i. letter 6. But for the good sense of
government, in calling in the aid of the most consummate natu-
ralist in Europe, every elm tree in the royal parks round Lon-
don would, before this time, have been destroyed*. Fortu-
nately, in this latter case, the nature of the injury, and the whole
economy of the insect, could be studied on the spot. But it
generally happens, that when a naturalist is applied to for in-
formation on such points by those who are the immediate suf-
ferers, and he begins to put questions which can alone enable
him to form any opinion, he can seldom make out whether the
insect is a beetle, a fly, or a moth. He is told, " it may have
only two wings, or perhaps four ;" — or " it looks like a grub.''
If we turn again to books on gardening, how vague, and some-
times how absurd, are the general directions for preserving fruit

* See Mr. W. S. M'Leay's paper ** On the Insect which has destroyed
the Elms in St. James's and Hyde Parks," in Edinb. Ph. Journal, No.'20.

90 On the Study of Natural History,

trees from " the grub" and " the caterpillar;" as if all grubs and
all caterpillars were alike — appeared at the same season — and
were to be destroyed by the same means ! It is even lament-
able to see even respectable writers treat this subject in much
the same vague, loose sort of way. In this, as in medicine, the
disease or injury must be watched from its commencement
through all its stages; accurate observations must be noted
down, even on the most trivial point ; and finally, if the injury
does really originate in an insect, specimens of that insect, in
all its stages of growth, must be preserved. With such mate-
rials the naturalist's advice may be asked with some advantage.
But until the parties most interested will take this trouble upon
themselves, no reasonable hope can be entertained of curing the
evil.

To this general ignorance of the true nature of the most com-
mon animals, those, in fact, which we are daily in the habit of
seeing, must be attributed the prejudice which most farmers,
and many country gentlemen, entertain against crows and rooks
— birds which nature has kindly given us, to keep within due
limits the myriads of insects, which would otherwise devastate
and destroy our crops. But enough has been said to show how
usefully a slight knowledge of natural history may be applied to
subjects immediately affecting our interests or our comforts ;
and that so far from there being nothing left to record in the his-
tory of our native animals, there is yet a wide and inexhaustible
field open to those who are disposed to illustrate the subject,
either for their own gratification, or for the benefit of mankind.

Every admirer of nature must, however, rejoice to see that
natural history has assumed an importance in this country,
within the last few years, which it has hitherto never been
thought to possess, and that its cultivation is now spreading
with a zeal and a rapidity quite unexampled. To increase this
feeling, by showing that the science may be successfully prose-
cuted by all who have either leisure or inclination, and that
there are paths open to the most humble admirers, has been the
object of these pages. Nor shall I consider that time unpro-
fitably employed which has been given to a subject possessing,
as this assuredly does, so much general interest.
Warwick, Feb. 25, 1827.

91

Outlines of Human Physiology, by Herbert Mayo,
Surgeon, 8^c. 8fC. London, 1827.

Under this title, Mr. Mayo has published a system of
Physiology, distinguished no less by the clearness and per-
spicuity of its style, than by the sound and judicious views
of the human economy which it presents. Accustomed to
deliver lectures on Anatomy and Physiology, Mr. Mayo,
has learnt to state, at once lucidly and concisely, the body of
knowledge which has been long accumulated ; and the ad-
vantage which he possesses as a practical physiologist, en-
ables him to digest no less ably the facts included in more
recent discoveries, to which he has himself contributed.

The different parts of the subject are treated in the fol-
lowing order : — The properties of the blood ; the nature of
muscular action ; the forces which circulate the blood ; the
phenomena of the pulmonary circulation ; and the use of the
Bow of arterial blood through the body.

Digestion is next considered ; — the production of chyle ;
the elimination of the refuse matter: the former subject
leading to the history of the lacteal and lymphatic vessels ;
the latter to a description of the kidneys, and of the skin,
taken as excretory organs.

The functions of the brain and nerves, of the organs of
sense, and voluntary motion, are described afterwards.

The volume closes with a description of the function of
generation, and of the phenomena attending the growth and
reparation of parts.

The account of the circulation of the blood is, perhaps,
the cleverest part of the work, considering the great diver-
sity of interesting questions which it essentially involves.

Upon the nature of the irritability of the heart, Mr.
Mayo remarks : *' the alternate action and relaxation of the
muscular fibres of the heart appear not, like similar phe-
nomena in voluntary muscles, to depend upon a series of
impressions transmitted from the brain or spinal chord. If
the heart be taken from the body of an animal immediately
after death,— if the blood be carefully washed from its in-
ternal surface, — if, at the transverse furrow, the auricles be
separated from the ventricles by a clean incision, the alter-
nate states of action and relaxation continue to succeed each
other in each part as before. For the brief period during
which it is reasonable to suppose that the heart retains its
perfect organization, no stimulus seems required to excite it

92 Mr. Mayo on Human Physiology.

to contract. The alternations of action and repose seem
natural to it, or to be the result of its structure. It is re-
markable that if the heart, yet beating", be placed in warm
water, it continues to act more briskly, and for a longer
time, than if exposed to the air ; but that if water be in-
jected into its blood-vessels, its flesh becomes pale and
swollen, and after two or three beats hardens permanently :
if its fibres be transversely cut through, their action is
stopped at once."

The causes which combine to give motion to the blood are
summed up in the following manner.

'* During the systole of the ventricles, blood expelled
from their cavities and thrown into tlie arteries, urges on
that before contained in either arterial trunk, and in its
branches, in the capillary vessels, and in the veins, towards
the auricle of the opposite side of the heart. During
the succeeding diastole many forces continue to operate,
which tend to diminish the area of the vascular system,
and as the blood is prevented returning into the ven-
tricles by the semilunar valves, they serve to propel it
towards ihe auricles. These forces consist in the elasticity
of the arteries themselves, in the compression of surround-
ing elastic organs, in the contraction of muscular parts, in
the pressure of the atmosphere.

" Various causes combine to give effect to these forces in
filling the auricles with blood, which operate by taking off
or diminishing the atmospheric pressure upon their outer
surface. Each auricle during its diastole spontaneously
expands : the elasticity of the lungs constantly tends to
draw apart the walls of the auricles ; and at the time of
each inspiration, while the area of the chest is enlarging, the
heart is probably relieved of external atmospheric pressure
in the same manner as the lungs, although in a less degree."

The theory of absorption is a theme of warm discussion
up to the present moment.

The ancients believed, that the veins exercised the function
of absorption. In the beginning of the seventeenth century,
Asellius saw chyle in a separate and peculiar set of vessels
in the mesentery ; these vessels were termed lacteals, and
admitted to be the instruments intended for the removal
of chyle ; while absorption in other instances continued
to be attributed to the veins. In the latter part of the
last century? Dr. Hunter made out the universality of
the distribution of lymphatic vessels throughout the body,
and was led by analogy to suppose that they were the pro-

Mr. Mayo on Human Physiology, 93

per organs of absorption, not the veins; and his opinion was
confirmed by experiments made by Mr. John Hunter, which
went to show, that the lacteals would absorb other sub-
stances besides tlie chyle, from the cavity of the intestines.

But the recent experiments of MM. Flandrin, Ma-
jendie, Segalas, and Fodere, have sufficiently proved that
there was some error in the experiments of Hunter ; that
the lacteals absorb chyle alone ; and that every other
substance, which makes its way from the cavity of the in-
testines, or from a wound, into the system, directly enters
tlie blood-vessels

In repeating the Hunterian experiment, Mr. Mayo dis-
covered the fallacy which probably misled its distinguished
author. It appears that the lacteals, when empty, and seen
against an obscure medium, are of a blue colour. If a por-
tion of mesentery be examined, when the lacteals are full of
chyle, and they happen then to empty themselves, what
were before white lines, on expelling their contents, become
blue. But it happened that the fluid which Mr. Hunter
employed in almost all his experiments was a solution of
starch and indigo : he thought he saw the blue fluid ab-
sorbed ; when probably he only saw the vessel emptied of
its usual white contents.

M. Majendie supposes that his experiments prove not
only that the lacteals are employed exclusively in ab-
sorbing chyle, but that in every other instance, where ab-
sorption takes place, the veins alone are concerned.

A little reflection, however, as Mr. Mayo makes it ap-
pear, is sufficient to show, that no such sweeping inference
can be drawn from the data which we possess ; and that, on
the other hand, we have good reason to suppose that the
blood-vessels are in no instance absorbents, properly so
called ; the conclusiveness of M. Majendie's experiments
being set aside, by supposing the introduction of poisons
into the blood-vessels to be the simple result of inert transu-
dation, or to be of the same nature with the diftusion of the
bile after death, through the textures adjacent to the gall-
bladder.

Mr. Mayo proceeds further to argue in favour of the
reasonableness of Dr. Hunter's supposition, that the lym-
phatic vessels are the agents employed upon intersitial ab-
sorption.

When the flesh for a small extent has imbibed an acrid
virus, the poison of lues for instance, an ulcer takes place,
or, in other words, the poisoned part is absorbed ; — in tliis

94 Mr, Mayo on Human Physiology.

instance the lymphatic system, not the vascular system, be-
comes irritated, as if affected by transmitting an acrid sub-
stance.

When, as life advances, the substance of the lungs be-
comes mottled with black matter, the bronchial lymphatic
glands put on a similar appearance : at the same time the
lymphatics in other parts do not change their colour ; and
the vessels, which pass through the blackened bronchial
glands, are not the bronchial veins, but the lymphatics from
the lungs.

In examining the functions of the nervous system, Mr.
Mayo proposes as a subject for preliminary inquiry, What
are the moral phenomena common to human beings with the
lowest animals ?

*' We attribute consciousness to animals from the resem-
blance of their habits to our own. We form definite ideas
respecting the nature and extent of their moral properties,
by explaining their habits upon the simplest principles,
which produce the like in us.

'' The perception of a sensation is one of the simplest
affections of consciousness that we can conceive. Upon
analyzing this phenomenon, we distinguish three elements
contained in it : a material impression is communicated to
an organ sense, a change ensues in the physical condition of
the nervous system, and perception follows. Thus, in vision,
rays of light impinge upon the retina, an affection of the optic
nerve and brain ensues, and we see light or colour. Of the
three parts into which this phenomenon resolves itself, the
last alone is an affection of consciousness ; the two first are
affections of matter, the antecedence of which distinguishes
perception from mental phenomena, that resemble it. The
conception or imagination of objects in a dream is as vivid
and persuasive of their reality as actual perception, but is
not like the latter produced by impressions upon our organs
of sense.

** The term sensation is legitimately used in two senses;
either to denote the physical change in our organs which
precedes perception, or as synonymous with the term per-
ception. By blending these two ideas, sensation is fre-
quently understood to signify an affection of the mind
resulting from material impressions, which is supposed to
be the proper object of perception ; but the element thus
assumed is a logical fiction.

*' We can imagine a corporeal being, the moral properties
of which should be limited to sensation only ; it is possible,

Mr. Mayo on Human Fhysiology. 9.'^

for instance, that plants feel, although we have every rea-
son to believe the contrary to be the fact. In this and in
similar cases, however, we have no means of ascertaining
the existence of sensibility. Movements in other beings,
such as in ourselves are voluntary, constitute our only evi-
dence that they feel.

" Volition is another simple affection of consciousness, to
define the nature of which we have but to abstract from it
the phenomena usually presented to the mind in combination
with it. We that are blessed with health habitually con-
nect volition with a sense of muscular effort ; but when the
limbs are paralysed, the patient looks at them and wills in
vain their movement; with him the act of volition, like the
apprehension of an humorous conceit, or any other purely
intellectual operation, is unattended with sensation. Vo-
lition, in the sense to which it is commonly limited by
physiologists, means but the attempt to produce muscular
action ; and the affection of the mind, though, during health,
habitually followed by this result, may take place perfectly,
as happens on various occasions, including the instance
above selected, without a single muscular fibre moving.

'' Besides sensation and volition, a third element is wanted
to compose a scheme of consciousness analogous to our own.
Some cause must be supposed capable of determining the
occasions upon which the will energizes : motives must
exist to actuate the will.

** Upon referring to the ordinary operations of our own
minds, volition appears to take place, whenever we have
reason to anticipate a certain degree of gratification or
advantage from its exertion. We know, by experience, the
prompt influence of the will upon our muscular frame : —
we are able to conjecture, with more or less certainty, the
consequences of different voluntary actions ; and we will,
with a general or precise understanding of what the result
will be, and in order to obtain it. A hungry person
knows that the food he prepares to eat will gratify his
appetite ; a drowning person hopes that his cries will bring
people to his assistance. But there are other instances in
which conscious motives can be assigned for voluntary ac-
tions. The infant at the breast, or struggling when first
plunged into water, employs efforts for its sustenance or
preservation no less voluntary than those already instanced.
But in the infant, the motive which leads to the voluntary
effort is not a calculation of advantage, but a spontaneous
tendency, a blind inclination, an instinct.

96 Mr. Mayo 07i Human Physiology,

'^ Instinct appears to consist in a natural tendency to
the performance of definite voluntary movements upon the
occurrence of certain sensations or states of inward feeling.
We have experience of its influence in our own persons at
every period of life, and can analyze its nature, both under
circumstances where it does not admit of controul, and in
cases where we are capable of modifying or repressing its
impulses.'*

Having thus defined the simplest elements of a form of
consciousness analogous to our own, Mr. Mayo proceeds to
show, upon the concurring evidence of comparative anatomy,
of experiments made upon animals, and authentic his-
tories of acephalous children, that the parts of the human
nervous system essentially and exclusively connected with
sensation, volition, and the commonest instincts, are the
nerves, with the spinal marrow and medulla oblongata.
We have not room to extract the testimony upon which the
preceding position rests, nor to follow the numerous in-
teresting inquiries into which the subject branches. Let us
limit ourselves upon this head to a few remarks upon the
account of instinct, which Mr. Mayo adopts.

To consider instinct as a motive actuating the will, not as
a principle analogous to volition, and capable of superseding
it, has the recommendation of simplicity, and serves better
than other hypotheses to explain consistently several re-
markable cases. A singing-bird reared from the egg in
absolute solitude, or precluded from hearing the song of any
other bird, acquires self-taught the note belonging to its
kind. On the other hand, a singing-bird brought up ex-
clusively with birds of another species, learns the song of
that species without acquiring that of its own race. The
tendency to imitation is a remarkable characteristic of all
animals during the early part of life ; and we seem plausibly
and consistently to account for the modification of the instinct
here, by stating, that the pleasure attending the imitation of
the song of its fellows formed a stronger motive with the bird,
than the innate tendency to practise the notes of its kind.

Animals are led by Instinct to select particular haunts ;
if they have been frequently disturbed they desert these
haunts, for others naturally less eligible; in this, and si-
milar instances, the recollection of the alarm repeatedly
experienced, forms a motive for refraining from what the
instinct prompts.

The countenance naturally bears a definite expression for
every shade of feeling ; but when most excited, many men

Mr. Mayo on Human Phydology. 97

can, by an effort, preserve a perfect serenity of features.
In certain states of mind, we are instinctively led to throw-
certain muscles into action ; but suppose that we feel the
expediency of concealing our emotions, upon this stronger
motive we give the features a different character.

Habitually we breathe with a certain degree of frequency
upon instinct ; in other words, we draw our breath not
upon a specific calculation of what we shall gain by it, but
from an innate tendency to do so ; but if we have an ade-
quate object proposed, we breathe at a different rate : and
if we have breathed for a short time by a conscious effort of
the will with measured inspirations, we allow the function
to return to its usual rate without any abrupt transition, as
from one mode of action to a different mode.

It further deserves to be considered, that although some
parts may more commonly act upon instinct than others, yet
no distinction exists in the muscular frame between parts
that act on instinctive impulses, and parts which act only
on measured and conscious instigations of the will. The
muscles of the face commonly play instinctively, but during
violent emotion the whole frame partakes of the same un-
conscious expression.

And what is perhaps still more conclusive, — in those parts,
the muscles of which act alternately upon instinct or other-
wise, one nerve alone regulates equally each mode of action.
Mr. Mayo mentions having ascertained, upon dividing the
portio dura of the seventh nerve on each side of the head of
an ass, that the muscles of its face were absolutely and
entirely paralyzed for every kind of movement.

In the account of the special senses, the phenomena of
vision are elaborately explained. As extracts from this
chapter, we shall give Mr. Mayo's account of the rationale
of vision by inverted images, and of the nature of the action
of the iris.

Mr. Mayo quotes the following experiments made by
Scheiner from Dr. Reid.

1. If the head of a pin strongly illuminated be held at
the distance of four inches from the eye, the object appears
large and imperfectly defined. If a card be then interposed,
pierced with a pinhole, the object when seen through the
pinhole appears distinct at the same distance. If the inter-
posed card be pierced with two pinholes a line asunder, two
objects are seen instead of one ; and on closing one pinhole,
the object referred to the opposite side vanishes. In other
words, when an object is painted upon two distinct points

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. H

9S Mr. Mayo on Human Physiology.

of the retina, it appears double, and the direction to which
it is referred has a determinate relation to the place on
which its image falls.

2. If the head of a pin strongly illuminated be viewed at
the distance of eighteen inches, through a card perforated
with two pinholes, it appears not double but single ; and
its apparent place does not shift on closing one or other of
the pinholes.

In other words, the direction in which rays of light fall
upon the retina has no influence in determining the di-
rection in which we see the given point of an object ; or it
is a law in the constitution of the eye, that we refer all im-
pressions made upon a given point upon the retina to a
visual object seen in one and the same direction ; that di-
rection appears to be a line vertical to the point of the
retina, on which the impression is made. Thus, when we
produce an appearance of coloured circles, by pressure
upon the retina above, below, internally, or at the outer
part, the spectrum in succession shifts its place, being al-
ways seen in a direction exactly opposite or vertical to
the point where the pressure is made.

Education, therefore, which teaches us the real magnitude
and true distance of objects, has nothing to do with forming
our notions of their true direction from us, or of their
visual magnitude.

With reference to the second point adverted to, Mr. Mayo
remarks, *' that the readiest manner of accounting for the
alteration of the size of the pupil is to suppose the sub-
stance which forms the unattached margin of the iris irri-
table. In many instances the iris distinctly consists of two
portions, which appear from their colour to be differently
organized, of an outer broader part, and an inner narrow
ring. In birds especially, in which the pupil is as mobile
as their vision is perfect, the inner ring of the iris generally
presents a hue totally different from the outer, beginning
at an abrupt line. In the ring-necked parroquet, the inner
ring of the iris, which has a grey colour, becomes sensibly
narrower when the pupil contracts.

'* Upon watching the eye of a cat or hawk, the contraction
of the pupil appears often to be voluntary. When the eye
of the animal is bent upon an object that excites its attention,
yet which does not shift its position, the pupil may be seen
to enlarge and contract alternately. The animal is pro-
bably employed in examining the object under different
lights, by intentionally admitting more or fewer rays through
the pupil.

Mr. Mayo on Human Physiology. 99

"Another remarkable circumstance concurs with the
preceding, in establishing a resemblance between the action
of the iris and that of the voluntary muscles. The iris re-
ceives nerves from two sources, from the sentient part of
the fifth, and from the third : the main part of the latter is
distributed as a voluntary nerve to the muscles of the eye.
Now, if the head of a pigeon be cut off, and instantly
after the upper part of tne cranium be removed, and the
entire brain be taken out, on pinching the portion of the
third nerve, which remains attached to the eye, the iris acts
suddenly, just as the biceps flexor cubiti acts in an animal
recently killed, when the nerve which supplies that muscle
is pinched. A similar injury produced no visible effect.

'' If, again, the third nerve be divided in the cranial ca-
vity, while the animal is alive, the pupil immediately dilates
to the utmost, and remains immoveable, the ins being
seemingly paralyzed."

We shall pass over the account of the voluntary move-
ments of the body, to conclude our short notice of Mr.
Mayo's work, with the following extract upon the subject
of the reparation of broken or divided parts.

" When a considerable portion of skin is removed, the
cellular membrane inflames below the blood, which stiffens
on the raw surface, and secretes pus, and forms a crop of gra-
nulations; these gradually rise to the level of, and higher
than the surrounding skin ; the secreting surface appears to
diminish daily, and becomes in patches, or, at its edges, con-
verted into a tender whitish substance, which thickening be-
comes opake, and forms a cicatrix : on the day that a portion
of a cicatrix is completed, it is insensible ; about a fortnight
afterwards it feels as if pricked with a needle.

" Thus in the formation of a cicatrix after destruction of the
skin, the new material is produced, not by the neighbouring
cutis, but by a growth from the subcutaneous texture.

** When tendons, or nerves, cartilages, or bones, are di-
vided or broken across, the process of their reunion does not
resemble the adhesion of divided skin, but has more in com-
mon with the growth of a cicatrix. The disjoined surfaces
do not cohere immediately, but through the intervention of
a third substance, which appears produced from the neigh-
bouring cellular texture.

*' If the tendo achillis be examined in a dog forty-eight
hours after division, upon removing the skin, the subjacent
cellular membrane, which surrounds the tendon, appears
loaded with coagulable lymph and extravasated blood.

H 2

100 Mr. Mayo on Human Physiology.

Upon making a longitudinal section of the thickened sub-
stance, the cut ends of the tendon contained within it are
found to be about an inch apart, but connected together by
means of coagulated blood, and swollen cellular texture.

'' If the tendo achillis be examined seven days after divi-
sion, the ends of the divided tendon are found united by an
intervening substance of greater thickness than the tendon
itself, that is readily separable from the skin and subjacent
parts. Upon a longitudinal section being made, the inter-
vening substance appears of a dark red colour, firm, and to
a certain degree elastic : it coheres in some parts firmly, in
others slightly, with the cut ends of the tendon, but strongly
and inseparably with the cellular sheath of the tendon, which
is discoloured for some distance : so that either end of the
tendon admits, without much force, of being displaced from
a socket in the intervening substance.

*' At seventeen days after division, the intervening sub-
stance is found diminished in thickness, firmer, paler, and
inseparably coherent with the cut ends of the tendon, the
nature of which it gradually assumes.

*' When a nerve is divided, the process by which the ends
are joined exactly resembles the mode in v/hich tendons unite.
Without detailing the appearances on dissection at an earlier
period, let me describe the state of the part at the time,
when the return of its function first manifests itself.

^' The infraorbital nerve was divided on one end upon the
cheek of a cat, and a portion about a line in length was re-
moved from it. The skin of the upper lip immediately lost
sensation. The wound, however, readily cicatrized ; and by
the twentieth day sensation appeared entirely restored.
Upon examining the part at this period, the nervous fibrils
appeared to be united by a thick layer of tough grey semi-
transparent substance. On making a longitudinal section of
this substance, and of the nervous fibrils which entered it,
the extremities of the divided filaments appeared nearly two
lines asunder, and firmly coherent with the intervening sub-
stance : liere and there a whitish fibril seemed to extend fur-
ther into the connecting medium, but no restoration of con-
tinuity between the nervous fibrils was observable.

" When the portio dura is divided on the cheek, it unites
in a similar manner ; but the nerve does not begin under
four weeks to resume the office of transmitting the influence
of the will. About this time, however, the eye-lids, which
hitherto have been motionless, are observed to be slowly and
imperfectly drawn towards each other whenever the surface
of the conjunctiva is touched."

Mr. Mayo on Human Physiology, 101

The remarks which follow show that the adjacent cellular
texture is equally impo¥^nt in the reparation of cartilage
and of bone ; a conclusion, the justness of which is borne out
by (at the same time that it seems to explain) the want of
bony union in fractures of the neck of the femur within the
capsule.

We have thus given a few extracts or the substance of a few
passages in Mr. Mayo's Outlines of Physiology : but it is not
possible to convey, by these means, a just notion of the merits
of a systematic work ; and we recommend those who are
interested in medical science, to peruse for themselves the
volume to which we have thus called their attention.

Report on the subject of Weights and Measures made to the
Commissioners for Revising the Laws of the State of New
York. By James Renwick, Professor of Natural Philosophy
and Chemistry in Columbia College.

[Communicated by the Author, with the consent of the Commis-
sioners to whom it is addressed.]

(1.) It is conceived that it would be inexpedient, indeed it may
be said, impossible, to change the present denominations of
weight and measure. The terms foot, yard, pound, ounce,
bushel, gallon, quart, &c. are identified with our language ; and
it would be as easy to subvert the form and dialect of our ordi-
nary colloquial speech, as to introduce new standards of weight
and measure, with new names. All that could reasonably be
attempted, is to refer the units of the several denominations to
some measure in nature, constant, determinate and easily deter-
minable, making such slight changes, not appreciable in the
transactions of trade, as will tend to the facility of this determi-
nation ; and, in addition, the means by which the accuracy of
existing standards may be tested in future times, or the standards
themselves restored, if lost, must be defined. To do more
would be to attempt what is wholly beyond the reach of legisla-
tive power.

That this view of the subject is correct, may be shown by an
appeal to the experience of the people of France. At the
breaking out of the Revolution in that country, the steps neces-
sary to form a system of weights and measures entirely different

102 Professor Renwick on the

from those formerly existing, and resting not merely for their
standards, but for their absolute un-^J, upon a measure deduced
from a constant dimension in nature, were undertaken. The
result of this investigation was in a system that, if tested by
the facility of applying to it the principles of decimal arithmetic,
by the scientific and practical sldll of the parties employed in
the task, or by the great zeal and intelligence shown by them,
is deserving of all praise. But in spite of the favourable cir-
cumstances existing at that era, when the whole nation was
searching after novelties, and no prejudice in favour of any
ancient customs could be considered as opposing, it was found
that it could not be introduced m its full extent ; and that the
part on which the proposers most prided themselves, namely,
the decimal division, by which it became accommodated to the
existing scale of arithmetic magnitude, was the first which re-
quired modification. On the 12th of March, 1812, previous
to the downfall of the Emperor Napoleon, the ancient denomi-
nations of lineal dimension, toise, foot, inch, &c. were restored,
but appropriated to measures derived from the metrical system ;
and since the restoration of the Bourbons, that system has been
further modified by the application of the ancient name of
pound to the half kilogramme, with which that weight nearly
corresponds. Nor does the necessity of making these changes
arise from the inveteracy of prejudices, from which the French
nation might be considcrorl at the time as almost entirely free,
but from causes actually existing in nature. The decimal nota-
tion, although long use has made it habitual, is by no means
the most convenient for the calculations of arithmetic ; it seems
to have originated in no other cause than the habit of counting
upon the fingers in the infancy of society ; and although, from
established habit, it would be proper in the ascending scale of
weights and measures in ordinary use, and in the descending
scale in scientific inquiry, is not applicable to the divisions of
the unit in traffic. For this last purpose, a system admitting
of binary division is alone fitted ; and with this the duodecimal
division of the foot is sufficiently agreeable ; while it is found in
the full extent in the customary divisions of the yard, the avoir-
dupoise pound, and the bushel. Warned, therefore, by the
example of the French, we should attempt no change of names.

Weights and Measures of New York. 103

or new methods of division, for the several units of length,
weight, and capacity ; while, on the other hand, we learn that
slight modifications of the magnitudes of either of these, that
will render them more consistent with each other, and with a
standard existing in nature, if such be attainable, are perfectly

(2.) It is a well-known and estabUshed physical fact, that the
pendulum vibrating seconds of mean time in any given place,
is invariable in length. That is to say, that if made of a sub-
stance susceptible of variation in length with changes of tem-
perature, the variation of its length will be attended with cor-
responding variations In the time of its oscillations ; while, if so
constructed as to remain invariable in length, the duration of its
vibration in very small circular arcs, and in an atmosphere of
unvarying pressure, will be constant : and although no experi-
mental pendulum is invariable in length under differing tempe-
ratures, nor the pressure of the atmosphere constant, yet these
two circumstances may be abstracted from, by means of cor-
rections deduced from accurate experiments on the law of
expansion by heat, and on the buoyancy of the atmosphere.
The length of the seconds pendulum varies with the change of
latitude, according to a regular and well-known law ; and it has
lately been shown to be affected by local circumstances. Still,
however, the length of the seconds ppndulum in a given posi-
tion, when corrected for changes of temperature, and atmos-
pheric pressure for the magnitude of its arc of vibration, and
reduced to the level of the sea, is a standard, determinate and
invariable in its dimension, that does exist in nature : it is also
determinable, without any great difficulty, by persons furnished
with the proper instruments, and possessed of the requisite
scientific knowledge. For the best methods of determining the
length of the pendulum, the world is indebted to Borda and
Kater ; and the method of the last is more especially remark-
able as one of those brilliant discoveries that mark eras in
science, and confer immortality on their inventors. The pen-
dulum then should be recognised in the revised laws as the
instrument whereby the standards may be restored, if lost ; and
with whose dimensions they are to be at present compared, by

104 Professor Ren wick 071 f/ie

way of making them comparable with the measures of foreign
nations. In confirmation of this opinion, 1 may urge the
examples of the French, the Danish, and the British govern-
ments, and that, still more recent, of Sweden.

(3.) As to the mode of determining the unit of length in
relation to the standard existing in nature, and of deducing
thence the standard of weight, and of measures of capacity.

I shall assume that the unit of lineal dimension that will be
adopted by the State, is the yard in common use on the day of
the declaration of independence, as prescribed in the law of
1784. This was, no doubt, identical with the British parlia-
mentary yard made in 1760. It luckily so happens, that we
possess the measure of the seconds pendulum made in the
buildings of this institution in reference to that very standard,
and consequently the means of making a yard that shall be
identical with the yard of the Revolution. For this purpose it
will be sufficient that the law should recognise that the standard
yard shall bear a certain proportion to that measure of the
pendulum. When the necessary experiments shall have been
made to determine the true length of this yard, its extremities
should be marked upon disks of an imperishable material, (gold
or platinum, for instance,) inserted at a proper distance in a
bar of brass, or rather of a more durable alloy of copper than
what, in ordinary language, is called by that name. The dis-
tance betAveen the two extremities of a bar is inadmissible in a
standard, in consequence of the alteration in length that is
caused by wear, as known in practice in the history of the yard
preserved in the British Exchequer.

Such a bar will be subject to dilation and contraction by heat
and cold ; but the temperature at which its length is compared
with the pendulum should be given, and when it is to be com-
pared with, or its length transferred to, bars of the same mate-
rial, as both will be equally affected, no legal enactment is in
this case requisite ; but as measures in ordinary use are most
frequently of other materials, it will be necessary that the tem-
perature at which such comparisons must be made, or to which
they must be reduced by calculation, should be strictly speci-
fied. It would be proper to seek for this purpose a tempera-

Weights and Measures of New York. 105

ture, independent of the indications of instruments that, in the
improvement of science, may become obsolete, and constant
in all varieties of physical circumstances. Such a temperature
is marked in nature while the process of liquefaction is going
on, or what is commonly called the freezing point of water.
This, therefore, should be declared, in the new law, to be the
temperature at which such comparisons should be made, or to
which they should be reduced.

The extension in length of the unit of lineal dimension will
furnish the elements of measures of a larger size ; its square,
or that of one of its multiples, will be the unit of superficial
measure, and its cube of solid.

To determine the unit of weight, it will be necessary to have
recourse to some fluid that can at all times, and under all cir-
cunr tances, be obtained pure and homogeneous. Distilled
water is a fluid of this nature, and the law should declare that
the weight of a certain bulk of it shall be equal to a certain
defined proportion, or multiple of the unit of weight. To
make this declaration specific, the circumstances under which
the comparison is to be made, must be declared in the law ; for
water, like all other substances, will be of different weights
under equal bulks, at different temperatures ; and its apparent
weight will be affected by the varying pressure of the atmos-
phere, as well as that of the weights employed, while their
absolute gravity is that they would possess in vacuo. There
appears at first sight to be a practical difficulty in this determi-
nation, in consequence of its being almost impossible to ascer-
tain with the necessary precision the interior dimensions of a
vessel ; but we have a remedy in the well-known physical fact,
that a solid body loses, when weighed in a liquid, a portion of
its weight of an equal bulk of the liquid; and the exterior
dimensions of a regular solid are determinable within the requi-
site limits. But this experiment will be affected by the calorific
expansion of the substance employed, and by the buoyancy of
the air affecting its absolute weight. The law then must not
only express the absolute weight (in vacuo) of a certain bulk
of water in terms of the standard of weight, but must describe
the temperature of the water, and the substance of which the
weights and the experimental solid are to^be made. It so

• 106 Professor Renwick on the

happens, that in this case also we have a temperature, or rather
a state of Avater, defined by a physical fact independent of
instruments or extrinsic causes. Water does not follow the
general rule of contraction, by diminution of heat at all tem-
peratures, but, after contracting to a certain limit, again expands
while cooling for several degrees above its freezing point.
This fluid, therefore, has a maximum of density, and varies so
slowly in bulk on each side of this maximum, as to afford room
for the greatest accuracy of experiment.

Two methods exist of defining the magnitude of measures
of capacity. The first and most obvious would be to prescribe
the cubical dimensions of the unit in terms of the unit of
length; but this is liable to the objection already stated, viz.,
the great difficulty of ascertaining with accuracy the internal
dimensions of a vessel ; the second consists in prescribing the
weight of water that the measure shall hold, and this is in all
respects preferable, but especially so from the very great ease
with which the determination can be made. Here also it will
be necessary to declare the atmospheric pressure and tempera-
ture at which the experiment shall be made, and this may be
simply done by enacting that the water shall be at its maximum
density, and pressure of the atmosphere at a mean.

(4.) The law of the province of New York of 1703, the
act of 1784, and the revised law of 1813, recognise two
standards of weight, without prescribing their relation to each
other. Of these, the troy pound has long ceased to be used
in any purely mercantile transaction, except in the retail trade
of the apothecary ; gold and silver are indeed also weighed by
the troy pound : the former object is of very trifling importance,
and the latter being governed by the practice of the mint of
the United States, may be considered as a subject on which the
national government has virtually legislated, and on which it
would be improper for the state government to act. No other
unit of weight then should be retained but the avoirdupoise
pound ; and as the quintal of 112lbs. has been abolished in
practice, no other denomination of that species of weight,
except the usual binary subdivisions of the pound.

Did the original law of 1703, or the act of 1784, authorise

Weights and Measures of New YorJc, 107

two different units for liquid and dry measures of capacity, I
should recommend the abolition of one of them as useless, and
particularly from the confusion that arises from two dififerent
magnitudes being called by the same name. But it appears
evident from the law of 1784, that but one measure is contem-
plated for both objects. The introduction of the British wine
gallon is, therefore, unwarranted by the law of 1703, by the
ancient practice of the province, or by the law of 1784, and has
probably crept into the revised law of 1813, in consequence of
its being used in the Customs of the United States: it is,
therefore, consistent with the ancient law to prescribe but one
standard for measures of capacity ; but it might be expedient to
permit the retail of articles paying duties to the United States
in measures derived from the offices of the several surveyors of
the Customs.

(5.) The act of 1784 adopts, as the standards of the state,
certain weights and measures in the custody of William Har-
denbrook, the sealer of the city and county of New York ; and
directs that he shall deliver them to the clerk of the city, in the
presence of the mayor, recorder, and one or more aldermen,
declaring upon oath that they are the identical articles received
by him from the British exchequer. The importance of the
object justified the solemnity of the manner pointed out for the
transfer of these ancient and venerable standards of the province
to the custody of the authorities of the state. But no corre-
sponding means of preserving them were pointed out, and it is
to be believed that they are no longer in existence ; for a law of
the 24th of March, 1809, adopts as the standard yard a brass
measure, procured by the corporation of New York, in 1803,
from the British exchequer ; the hquid measures of capacity
in the custody of the Secretary of State bear date in 1822, (at
least nine years later than any existing law,) and the standards
of dry measure are dated 1804. Now, as it has been found
that the yard, purporting to be a copy of that described in the
law of 1809, and deposited in the Street-commissioner's office,
in this city, is shorter than the usual English yard of the begin-
ning of the present century, which was itself shorter than the
standard, as examined in 1760, and perpetuated by the cele-

!108 Professor Renwick on the

brated Bird, and as we know of no adequate means employed
in 1804 and 1822 to determine the truth of the new measures of
capacity, I conceive I am warranted in stating that the original
standards of weight and measure of this State, as they existed on
the day of the declaration of its independence, have been lost;
and the present is one of those junctures that call for scientific
investigations to recover such of the ancient denominations as it
may be expedient to restore identically, and to deduce from
them the others in the most unexceptionable manner. With a
view to this object, I have already stated that I consider the
parliamentaiy standard of 1760, as unquestionably identical
with the standard of our state as it existed at the Revolution,
and that the experiments of Sabine, in Columbia College, have
provided the facility, within our own state, of restoring the yard
to its original magnitude. After the experiment shall have been
made in this building, the measure should be transferred to
some proper public edifice, the site at least of which may, in
all succeeding ages, be resorted to, in order to confirm, or
restore to their primitive dimension, existing weights and mea-
sures.

If, however, it should be preferred that the yard at present in
the ofl5ce of the Secretary of State should be the standard, it
will be essential, in order to perpetuate it, to make similar
experiments of comparison with the pendulum, one set of which
should be made in this institution, as in this way alone its ratio
to foreign measures (particularly to those of England) can be
obtained. But I conceive this plan to be objectionable in seve-
ral points of view, particularly as more difficult and expensive,
and as adopting for a standard a measure whose authority
is at least questionable. It would also prevent any positive
legislation on the subject until after the experiments shall be
made. The English avoirdupoise pound, as a separate standard,
appears to have been lost. So long since as 1798, Sir George
Shuckburgh could find none in the public offices that could be
considered as authentic*, and it has, therefore, been customary
in England to deduce it from the troy pound, on the principle
that it was equal to 7000 grs., of which the troy pound contained
5760. The experiments of Graham, in 1743, on weights of
* Philosophical Transactions Abridged, vol. xviii.

Weights Und Measures of New York. 109

151bs., make the avoirdupoise pound of which, at that time,
authentic standards still remained, equal to 6998.5 grs. troy,
while on the comparison of the single pound it was equal to
7004 grs.* The avoirdupoise pound might, therefore, be fairly
taken at 7000 grs. troy. But this is evidently of the customary
weight as usually employed, and not of the pound discovered by
Kater, in the custody of the clerk of the British House of Com-
mons. Of the customary weight used in the mints of this country
and England, the weights of Sir George Shuckburgh made by the
celebrated Troughton may be considered as the most authentic
specimen. Assuming the true magnitude of the avoirdupoise
pound to be 7000 grs. troy, the weight of a cubic foot of
water, as calculated from the experiments of Shuckburgh, at its
maximum of density, and weighed with brass weights, is 999
ounces and -f'^^, the measure of the experimental solid being
performed upon a scale, whose standard temperature is 62° of
Fahrenheitf. The experiments of Shuckburgh have been
recently repeated by Kater;j;, and from these I have calcu-
lated the weight of a cubic foot of water at its maximum,
of density to be 999 ^^f^ ounces, assuming the measure of the
experimental solid to be made on a scale whose standard tem-
perature is the melting point of ice : no danger then need be
apprehended in taking the weight of a cubic foot of water at
1000 ounces avoirdupoise, and prescribing that the legal weight
shall be such as will give that determination.

The discrepancy between this and the present received
weights (if accurate transcripts of the former British standards)
will not exceed three-tenths of an ounce in a hundred pounds,
a quantity absolutely insensible in the course of traffic, less
than the difference in the current standards of the avoirdupoise
pound, in 1743, and far less than the amount of discrepancy
discovered in the several States of the Union, as detailed in the
able report of Mr. Adams.

For the unit of measures of capacity, I would propose the
adoption of the gallon. It is sufficiently large to prevent any

• Philosophical Transactions Abridged, vol. xviii.
t Young's Natural Philosophy, vol. ii.

% Third Report to the British Parliament on weights and measures.
Philosophical Transactions for 1821.

1 10 Professor Renwick on the

chance of error in the determination of the most usual denomi-
nation of dry measure (the bushel,) and it is itself the cus-
tomary unit of liquid.

We shall now proceed to consider what ought to be the size
of this unit. The Act of Parliament, of 13th William III. cap.
5. prescribes that the standard bushel shall contain 21 50 inches.
But among the standards preserved in the British Exchequer,
for the bushel and its several parts, considerable discrepancies
exist, and it would be difficult to determine from which of these
the bushel of the Revolution was derived. Their several magni-
tudes are as follows : —

Bushel. Oallon.

2215.2 276.9

2234.4 279.3

2163.2 274.4

2128.9 266.1

Mean 2180.4 272.5

Still greater discrepancies exist in the usual bushels of dif-
ferent parts of the United States, which vary in the two ex-
tremes from 1925 to 2358.6 inches, (giving the gallon the two
dimensions of 241.25 and 294.8,) as stated in the report of Mr.
Adams.

Instead, however, of prescribing the cubic contents of mea-
sures of capacity, it would, as has been already explained, be
much better to determine their magnitude by declaring the
number of pounds of distilled water at the maximum density
and mean pressure of the atmosphere that the unit should con-
tain. If this weight be taken at 80 lbs., the bushel will be
2214.36 cubic inches, and the gallon 276.8. These dimensions
differ less from the standard now adopted in England of 2217.6
and 277.2 than either of the above dimensions do from each
other.

This method has a great advantage over that of actual mea-
surement, inasmuch as the weight can be determined with suffi-
cient accuracy, wherever good balances and just weights are to
be had : while, to determine the cubic contents of a vessel is
one of the most difficult operations of practical geometry, and
is liable to such uncertainty, that in all recent investigations
into the magnitude of measures, their weight when filled with

Weights and Measures of New York. Ill

distilled water has been resorted to in preference as the surest
criterion.

It might, in this stage of the discussion, be asked, Why pro-
pose a system founded upon principles and facts requiring so
much accuracy of determination and knowledge of science ?
And, Why not have recourse to England at once, and obtain
thence their new standards ?

To the first of these it may be replied, that the practical ad-
justment of weights and measures is always liable to certain
errors ; that these, in the lapse of years, where no checks are
provided, would reach such an extent as wholly to obliterate
the recollection of the original standards. The more strict then
the provisions of the law, in respect to accuracy, the less will
be the danger of error, from the discouragement it will give to
rude and inartificial methods of comparison ; and the more
scientific the means of recovery and examination that are
pointed out, the greater will be the certainty of perpetuating
or restoring the standard in after-ages. As to a recurrence to
England, a variety of reasons would oppose, each of them valid
and sufficient in itself: a proper feeling of national pride would
forbid our asking aid of a foreign country, in a matter for
which our own artists and men of science are competent.
Economy also forbids it, as standards identical with those of the
British government could only be obtained by sending out a
competent person to superintend their construction, and com-
pare them strictly with the originals. The articles vended in
trade as accurate measures are not to be depended upon impli-
citly, and, however suitable to commerce, would be unfit for a
national object ; moreover, there are certain inaccuracies in the
English law itself, which I cannot but believe must ere long
require its revision in that country, and we should in that event
obtain and bring into use a system differing from that which
now exists among us, with every probability that it could not be
permanent. Neither is it likely that any agent of our State,
however fully authorised and accredited, could obtain all the
necessary facilities.

The errors I allude to in the English law, which are fatal to
its own permanence, are — ^that the comparison with the
pendidum that is used to define the unit of lineal dimension

112 Professor Renwick on the

has been made in a private house, that cannot be reasonably
considered as accessible for public purposes ; that the length
there determined has been assumed to be the univ^sal length
in the same parallel of latitude, while it has been conclusively
proved that this length is influenced by local causes, a fact,
that although not then absolutely demonstrated, was so far
foreseen by the French commission, that they define, as the
means of restoring the metrical system, if lost or impaired, not
the pendulum of the latitude of Paris, but that of a specific
place, tlie national observatory in that city ; that the unit of
weight (one nearly abandoned in this country) is derived from
an experiment that requires a legal enactment to define and
perpetuate an arbitrary thermometric scale, instead of taking,
as is here proposed, a temperature defined by a physical fact, or
law of nature, unsusceptible of modification or mistake under
any circumstances ; that the bulk of the water whose weight is
given (a cubic inch) is much too small for accuracy ; and that
the unit of measures of capacity is deduced from that of weight,
upon principles equally objectionable with those on which
the latter is derived from the lineal measure. In addition, it
is to be remarked, that the direct comparison and transfer of
measures of length is hardly susceptible of accuracy equal to
that obtained by means of the pendulum ; that the system pro-
posed, looking for its era to the date of the declaration of the
independence of our State, would be exclusively and pre-emi-
nently American. Another strong and important argument
may be used : the city of New York possesses artists adequate
to the construction of almost every part of the necessaiy ap-
paratus ; their skill and talent is now devoted to objects of
inferior importance, that neither enhance their reputation nor
add to the mechanical credit of the country : let them be em-
ployed upon an object of national, nay, universal, interest, and
the name they will acquire will probably create a branch of
commerce in similar articles, that will add much to the wealth
and resources of the state. The importance of this argument
was well understood by the French government, and such was
success of the attempt, that it transferred to France, for the
supply of its own demands, a branch of manufacture that had
previously carried large sums to Great Britain, and struck the

Weights and Measures of New York, 113

first blow to the hitherto pre-eminent reputation of the articles
of that country.

(6.) From what has already been stated, it will appear that
I am not of opinion that the pendulum of lat. 45°, the northern
boundary of our state, could be advantageously used, either as
the unit of lineal measure, or as the standard existing in nature
whence the unit of lineal measure is to be derived, and with it
all other measures.

This, however, is a subject on which I venture to speak not
without some hesitation ; the authority of Mr. Jefferson is so
high, both as a man of science and a statesman, that I do not
differ from him without a feeling of extreme diffidence. Still,
however, being satisfied that in the present state of knowledge,
he would have concurred with me, and that the difference is
one, not of opinion, but of existing facts, I do venture to differ
from his views, stated as long ago as 1790.

I do not conceive that the pendulum of that latitude is to be
preferred before that of any other as a standard existing in
nature, while, as the absolute unit of length, it must be rejected
upon the ground of the impossibility of introducing it, in con-
sequence of its discrepancy, and that of all its derivatives from
the habitual measures of the country. The latitude of 45''
appearing at the first view as the mean between that of
the Equator and the Pole, might been thought peculiarly
advantageous. On this head it is to be observed, that it is a
matter of question at the present moment between the govern-
ments of the United States and Great Britain, what this lat. of
45° is ; are we to take for it the latitude determined by Astro-
nomic observation at the surface of the earth, or the latitude
corrected for ellipticity which is known by the appropriate name
of Geocentric ? And in connexion with the present subject,
a third view of the question arises, for neither of these is distant
from the Equator, the half of the itineraiy distance between
that circle and the Pole, but the point of bisection falls between
them ; which, then, of these three positions are we to choose for
our experiments, particularly when the two most adapted, and
between which the choice would most reasonably appear to
fluctuate, are actually witliin the limits of possession of another

JAN. — MARCH, 182/. I

114 Professor Renwick on the

nation ? It is, besides, to be remarked, as has been before
stated, that it is now well known that the length of the seconds
pendulum does not depend upon the latitude merely, but is
affected by the geological and mineral structure of the place
where the experiment is performed, and its vicinity*.
Neither is the pendulum of 45°, even were the earth a sphere
and the density of its surface uniform, the mean pendulum, for
that would be found in the latitude of 35° 16'. For these
reasons I cannot see any important advantage to be gained from
naming the pendulum of 45*" in the revision of the statutes re-
lating to this subject.

For all immediate purposes, the inference drawn from the
experiments of Sabine in this institution may be received as
sufficient, and the liberal spirit of the trustees guarantees that
the place of experiment will be accessible for the purpose of
the first investigations, and the construction of the standards to
be deposited in the proper public office. But it cannot be too
strongly urged, that this measure should be transferred to a
building, the property of the state, as early as possible, and
that in it the instruments and documents connected with this
investigation should be deposited. For this purpose, a location
near the present seat of government, or perhaps one more
central, in relation to the ultimate population of the state,
should be chosen ; and a preliminary law should provide for this
important object.

(7.) The legislative provisions necessary to attain the objects
of a well-regulated system of measures, and its recovery, in
case of loss, would be most advantageously comprised in two
different acts ; one to become a permanent part of the revised
laws — the other to be preliminary and temporary. The pro-
visions of the first should be : —

1. That there shall be but one standard of measure of
length and surface, one of weight, and one of measures of
capacity, in this state.

2. That the unit of lineal measure shall be the yard, as
used in this State at the date of the declaration of its indepen-
dence, and that for its more precise definition, and in order to

* Sabine. Experiments on the Pendulum,

Weights and Measures of New York. 115

its recovery in case of loss, it is declared (until the measure of
the pendulum shall be transfered to some appropriate public
building), that the said yard has been found, by experiments
made with a pendulum, with a brass rod, at Columbia College,
New York, in the latitude of 40° 42' 43", to bear to the pen-
dulum of that place vibrating seconds in vacuo, and at the level
of the sea, at the temperature of melting ice, the proportion of
one million (1,000,000) to one million, eighty-six thousand,
one hundred, and fifty-eight (1,086,158).* That the yard shall
be divided into three equal parts, called feet, and each foot
into twelve equal parts, called inches, ^nd shall be measured
between two points, engraven upon golden disks, inserted into a
brass rod. ;

This yard will be identical with that adopted in England,
each being taken at its standard temperature, according to the
principle of comparison pointed out by Wollaston, and used by
Kater in his experiments on the measures of France. I am
not fully satisfied that this principle is correct, being rather
inclined to think that measures should be compared at a com-
mon temperature ; but it is that which is now received in prac-
tice, and has, besides, certain conveniences as applied to this
subject, in keeping the proposed system of weight and measures
of capacity more near in magnitude to those received in
England.

3. That the unit of weight shall be the pound of such mag-
nitude, that the weight of a cubic foot of distilled water at its
maximum density, weighed in vacuo with brass weights, shall
be sixty-two and a half (62^^) pounds, that the pound shall be
divided into sixteen equal parts, called ounces, of which parts
the cubic foot of distilled water, under the same circumstances,
shall weigh one thousand (1000) ounces,

4. The unit of measures of capacity, whether dry or
liquid, shall be the gallon, which shall be a vessel of such
capacity as to contain at the mean pressure of the atmosphere
at the level of the sea, ten pounds of distilled water at its
maximum density ; that all other measures of capacity shall be
deduced from the gallon by continual multiplication or division

• The length of the said pendulum is 39.10168 inches.

I 2

IJLp Professor Braiide on the Manufacture

by the number 2, being in the descending scale, half-gallons,
quarts, pints, half-pints, and gills ; and in the ascending scale,
pecks, half-bushels, and bushels. And that, for greater pre-
cision, the last, or measure of eight gallons, shall contain at
the mean pressure of the atmosphere at the level of the sea,
eighty pounds of distilled water at its maximum of density.

On the Manufacture of Dies for Medals and Coinage. By
W. T. Brande, F.R.S., Prof Chem. R. I., &c.

[The subject of this discourse is not, I apprehend, of any general
interest, but it has, as far as I know, been no where particularly
described, if we except a brief notice respecting it annexed to Mr.
Mushet's valuable paper on the art of coinage, printed in the supple-
ment to the Encyclopaedia Britannica. I therefore thought it worthy
the attention of the members of the Royal Institution, and trust that
the following outline will not be unacceptable to the readers of the
Journal.]

The first circumstance that claims particular attention in the
manufacture of dies is the selection of the best kind of steel
for the purpose, and this must in some measure be left to the
experience of the die-forger, who, if well skilled in his art,
will be able to form a tolerably correct judgment of the fitness
of the metal for the purpose, by the manner in which it works
upon the anvil. It should be rather fine-grained than otherwise,
and above all things perfectly even and uniform in its texture,
and free from spots and patches finer or coarser than the
general mass. But the veiy fine and uniform steel, with a
silky fracture, which is so much esteemed for some of the pur-
poses of cutlery, is unfit for our present purpose, from the
extreme facility with which it acquires great hardness by pres-
sure, and its liability to cracks and flaws. The very coarse
grained, or highly crystalline, steel, is also equally objectionable ;
it acquires fissures under the die-press, and seldom admits of
being equally and properly hardened. The object, therefore, is
to select a steel of a medium quality as to fineness of texture,
not too easily acted upon by dilute sulphuric acid, and exhibit-

of Dies for Medals and Coinage. 117

ing an uniform textnre, when its surface is washed over with a
little aqua-fortis, by which its freedom from pins of iron, and
other irregularities of composition, is sufficiently indicated.

The best kind of steel being thus selected, and properly
forged* into the rough die, it is softened by very careful ai-
nealing, and in that state, having been smoothed externally,
and brought to a table in the turning lathe, it is delivered to the
engraver.

The process of annealing the die consists in heating it to a
bright cherry red, and suffering it to cool gradually, which is
best effected by bedding it in a crucible or iron pot of coarsely-
poAvdered charcoal, that of animal substances being generally
preferred. In this operation it is sometimes supposed that thfe
die, or at least its superficial parts, becomes super-carbonized,
or highly-converted, steel, as it is sometimes called ; but expe-
rience does not justify such an opinion, and I believe the com-
2)Osition of the die is scarcely, certainly not materially, affected
by the process, for it does not remain long enough in the fire
for the purpose.

The engi-aver usually commence* his labours by working out
the device with small steel tools, in intaglio ; he rarely begins
in relief (though this is sometimes done) ; and having \dti-
mately completed his design, and satisfied himself of its
general effect and correctness, by impressions in clay, and
dabs, or casts.f in soft metal, the die is ready for the important
operation of hardening, which, from various causes, a few of
which I shall enumerate, is a process of much risk and diffi-
culty ; for should any accident now occur, the labour of many
months may be seriously injured, or even rendered quite
useless.

The process of hardening soft steel is in itself very simple,

♦ The art of forgins: dies requires much practice and experience, not
only as to tlie choice of steel, but as to the manual part of the operation.
They should be forced at a high heat, and great care should be taken to
give a perfect and dense texture to the upper part of the die.

t T\T3e metal is usually employed for this purpose. The die is warmed,
and placed in a convenient box, in which the melted metal may be
splashed, or dabbed, upon it. The impression is often extremely clear
and perfect, and exceeds in effect those which are taken in wax or
plaistcr.

118 Professor Brande on the Manufacture

though not Very easily explained upon mechanical or chemical
principles. We know by experience, that it is a property of
this highly valuable substance, to become excessively hard, if
heated and suddenly cooled ; if, therefore, we heat a bar of
soft malleable and ductile steel red hot, and then suddenly
quench it in a large quantity of cold water, it not only becomes
hard, but fragile and brittle. But as a die is a mass of steel
of considerable dimensions, this hardening is an operation
attended by many and peculiar difficulties, more especially as
we have at the same time to attend to the careful preservation
of the engraving. This is effected by covering the engraved
face of the die with a protecting paste, composed of fixed oil
of any kind, thickened with powdered charcoal : some persons
add pipe-clay, others use a pulp of garlic, but pure lamp-black
and linseed oil answer the purpose perfectly. This is thinly
spread upon the work of the die, which, if requisite, may be
further defended by an iron ring; the die is then placed with its
face downwards in a crucible, and completely surrounded by
powdered charcoal. It is heated to a proper temperature, that
is, about cherry red, and ii^hat state is taken out with proper
tongs, and plunged into a cistern of cold water, of such
dimensions as not to become materially increased in tempera-
ture ; here it is rapidly moved about, until all noise cease, and
then left in the water till quite cool. In this process it should
produce a bubbling and hissing noise ; if it pipes and sings, we
may generally apprehend a crack or fissure.

I have found no process answer better than the above simple
and common mode of hardening dies, though I have given
others repeated and fair trials. It has been proposed to keep up
currents and eddies of cold water in the hardening cistern, by
means of delivery-pipes, coming from a height ; and to subject
the hot die, with its face uppermost, to a sudden and copious
current of water, let upon it from a large pipe, supplied from
a high cistern ; but these means have not in any way
proved more successful, either in saving the die, or in giving it
any good qualities. It will be recollected, from the form of the
die, that it is necessarily only, as it were, case-hardened, the
hardest strata being outside, and the softer ones within, which
envelope a core, something in the manner of the successive

of Dies for Medals and Coinage. 119

coats of an onion ; an arrangement which wc sometimes have
an op[)ortunity of seeing displayed in dies which have been
smashed by a violent blow.

The hardening having been effected, and the die being for
the time safe, some further steps may be taken for its protection ;
one of these consists in a very mild kind of tempering, con-
sisting in putting it into water gradually raised to the boiling
point, till heated throughout, and then suffering it gradually to
cool. This operation renders the die less apt to crack in very
cold weather. A great safeguard is also obtained by thrusting
the cold die into a red-hot iron ring, which just fits it in that
state, and which, by contracting as it cools, keeps its parts
together under considerable pressure, preventing the spreading
of external cracks and fissures, and often enabling us to employ
a split die for obtaining punches, which would break to pieces
without the protecting ring.

If the die has been successfully hardened, and the protecting
paste has done its duty, by preserving the face from all injury
and oxydizement, or burning, as it is usually called, it is now to
be cleaned and polished, and in this state constitutes what is
technically termed a matrix : it may of course be used as a
source of medals, coins, or impressions, but it is not usually
thus employed, for fear of accidents happening to it in the
coining press, and because the artist has seldom perfected his
work upon it in this state. It is, therefore, resorted to for the
purpose of furnishing a punch, or a steel impression in relief.
For this purpose a proper block of steel is selected, of the
same quality, and with the same precautions as before, and
being carefully annealed, or softened, is turned like the matrix,
perfectly true and flat at the bottom, and obtusely conical at
top. In this state, its conical surface is carefully compressed
by powerful and proper machinery upon the matrix, which
being very hard, soon allows it to receive the commencement
of an impression ; but in thus receiving the impression,
it becomes itself so hard by condensation of texture, as to
require during the operation to be repeatedly annealed, or
softened, othenvise it would split into small superficial fissures,
or would injure the matrix. Much practical skill is therefore
required in taking this impression, and the punch, at each

120 Professor Brande on the Manufacture

annealing, must be carefully protected, so that the work may
not be injured.

Thus, after repeated blows in the die-press, and frequent
annealing, the impression from the matrix is at length per-
fected, or completely up, and having been touched up by the
engraver, is turned, hardened, and collared, as the matrix,
of which it is now a complete impression in relief, and, as we
have before said, is called a punch.

This punch becomes an inexhaustible source of dies, without
further reference to the original matrix ; for now by impressing
upon it plugs of soft steel, and by pursuing with them an
exactly similar operation to that by which the punch itself was
obtained, we procure impressions from it to any amount, which
of course are facsimiles of the matrix, and these dies being
turned, hardened, pohshed, and, if necessary, tempered, are
employed for the purposes of coinage.

The distinction between striking medals, and common coin, is
very essential, and the work upon the dies accordingly adjusted
to each. Medals are usually in veiy high relief, and the effect
is produced by a succession of blows ; and as the metal in
which they are struck, be it gold, silver, or copper, acquires
considerable hardness at each stroke of the press, they are re-
peatedly annealed during the progress of bringing them up.
In a beautiful medal, which, as well as the dies for it, I have
had lent me by Mr. Wyon, and which he has just completed
for the Royal Naval College, the obverse represents a head of
the King, in very bold relief; it required thirty blows of a very
powerful press to complete the impression, and it was necessary
to anneal each medal after every third blow, so that they went
ten times into the lire for that purpose. In striking a coin or
medal, the lateral spread of the metal, which otherwise would
ooze out as it were from between the dies, is prevented by the
application of a steel collar, accurately turned to the dimensions
of the dies, and which, when left plain, gives to the edge of the
piece a finished and pohshed appearance; it is sometimes
grooved, or milled, or otherwise ornamented, and occasionally
lettered, in which case it is made in three separate and moveable
pieces, confined by a ring, into which they are most accurately
fitted, and so adjusted that the metal may be forced into the

of Dies and Medals for Coinage. 121

letters by its lateral spread, at the same time that the coin re-
ceives the blow of the screw-press.

Coins are generally completed by one blow of the coining-
press. These presses are worked in the Royal Mint by ma-
chinery, so contrived that they shall strike, upon an average,
sixty blows in a minute ; the blank piece, previously properly
prepared and annealed, being placed between tlie dies by part
of the same mechanism. Of these presses, and of the other
machinery and operations used and carried on in the Mint,
an excellent account, with illustrative engravings, has been
given by Mr. Mushet, in the supplement to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica.

The number of pieces which may be struck by a single die
of good steel, properly hardened and duly tempered, not un-
frequently amounts at the Mint to between three and four
hundred thousand, but the average consumption of dies is of
course much greater, owing to the different qualities of steel,
and to the casualties to which the dies are liable : — thus, the
upper and lower die are often violently struck together, owing to
a fault in the layer-on, or that part of the machinery which
ought to put the blank into its place, but which now and then
fails so to do. This accident very commonly arises from the
boy who superintends the press neglecting to feed the hopper of
the layer-on with blank pieces. If a die is too hard, it is apt
to break or split, and especially subject to fissures, which run
from letter to letter upon the edge. If too soft, it swells, and
the collar will not rise and fall upon it, or it sinks in the centre,
and the work becomes distorted and faulty. He, therefore,
who supplies the dies for an extensive coinage has many
casualties and difficulties to encounter. There are eight presses
at the Mint, frequently at work for ten hours each day, and I
consider that the destruction of eight pair of dies per day (one
pair for each press), is a fair average result, though we much
more frequently fall short of than exceed this proportion. It
must be remembered, that each press produces 3600 pieces
per hour, but, making allowance for occasional stoppages, we
may reckon the daily produce of each press at 30,000 pieces ;
the eight presses therefore will furnish a diurnal average of
240,000 pieces.

122

ASTRONOMICAL AND NAUTICAL
COLLECTIONS.

1. Table of the Depression 0/ Mercury in the Tube of a
Barometer, including that of Mr. Bouvard fConn. des
Terns, 1829;.

PIAMETEB.

CENTRAL DEPRESSION.

Inches.
1.0000
.82SS
.8071
.8000
.7874
.7677
.7480
.7284
.7087
.7000
.6890
.6693
.6496
.6299
.6102
.6000
.5905
.5709
.5512
.5315
.5118
.5000
.4921
.4725
A59S
.4500
.4331
.4134
.4000
.3937
.3740
.3543

Millimetres.

25.401
21.000
20.530
20.321
20.000
19.500
19.000
18.500
18.000
17.780
17.500
17.030
16.500
16.000
15.500
15.240
15.000
14.500
14.000
13.500
13.000
12.701
12.500
12.000
11.500
11.430
11.000
10.500
10.160
10.000
9.500
9.000

Bouvard, 1826.

Mr. Ivory,
1820.

.028m??j
.032

.036
.041
.047
.053
.050

.068
.077
.087
.099
.112

.127
.143
.161
.181
.204

.230
.260
.293

.330
.372

.419
.473
.534

.001 lOi
.00126

[.00132]
.00142
.00161
.00185
.00209
.00236

[.00250]
.00267
.00303
.00343
.00390
.00441

[.00472]
.00500
.00563
.00634
.00713
.00803

[.00S63]
.00906
.01024
.01154

[.01175]
.01299
.01455

[.01590]
.01650
.01862
.02103

Dr. Youncf,
1818.

.00031e

Observed,
Ld. C. C.

.001 19e .00115

.00228 (.00220)

[.00431J .00416

.005/

.00835 (.00799) .007

.01117 (.010J9)

.01534

.01503

.015

Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

123

PL

kuiTzn.

CXNTRAL DEI'RESSIOK.

Mr. Ivory,
1820.

Dr. Young,
1818.

CihviarvaA

Inchp.s.

Milliinefrcs.

Bouvard, 1826.

L(l. C. C.

.3500

8.890

[.02163]

.02110

(.02083)

.0251

.3S46

8.500

.604mm

.02378

.3150

8.000

.684

.02693

.3000

7.620

[.02965]

.02916

(.02881)

.036

.2953

7.500

.775

.03051

.2756

7.000

.877

.03453

.2259

6.500

.995

.03917

.2500

6.350

[.04084]

.01075

(.04025)

.050

,2SQ2

6.030

1.136

.04473

.2165

5.500

1.306

.05142

.2000

5.0S0

[.05S06]

.05811

.05798

.057

.1969

5.000

1.507

.05933

.

.1772

4.500

1.752

.06898

.1575

4.000

2.053

.08083

.1500

3.810

[.08350]

.OS62S

(.08568)

.092

.1378

3.500

2.415

.09508

.1181

8.000

2.902

.11425

.1000

2.540

[.1.3910]

.14028

.14004

.140

.0984

2.500

3.594

.14149

.0787

2.000

4.579

.18028

.0500

1.270

.29494

(.29502)

The numbers inclosed within parentheses are derived from
an empirical interpolation.

If we compare this table with that which was published
in the Connaissance des Tems for 1812, and thence in the
Philosophical Magazine for February 1816, we shall be dis-
posed to admire the perseverance of Mr. Laplace and Mr.
Bouvard, in still adhering to the very inartificial mode of
calculation which was first employed by Dr. Young in this
country, but rejected by him as soon as he had discovered a
more correct, though an equally laborious method of solving
the problem.

The calculations of Dr. Young and of Mr. Ivory, as pub-
lished in the Supplement of the Encylopaedia, articles Cohe-
sion, and Fluids, are completely independent of each other,
and their errors appear in general to be of an opposite cha-
racter ; the greatest difference of the results, for the depres-
sion, is .00031, or less than the three-thousandth of an inch,
while the approximation of Mr. Bouvard differs from both

124 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

of them in one case as much as .00218, and in almost every
case much more than they differ from each other.

After all, however, it is only in one or two of the cases
computed, that any of the differences amount to one thou-
sandth of an inch, and either of the tables may therefore be
considered as sufficiently accurate for the practical correction
of the height of the barometer. The error of Lord Charles
Cavendish's experiments appears, in one or two cases, to
have been ten times as great as this, which may have hap-
pened without any particular negligence in the observer.

ii. Remarks on the Change of Inclination of the Dipping
Needle. ^?/Mr. Arago. Anmiaire, 182'7 . p. 207.

At Paris the declination of the compass disappeared alto-
gether in 1666, and, becoming westerly instead of easterly,
continued to increase until 1819, when it was 22j°, and has
ever since that time been slowly diminishing.

The dip has continually diminished, from the date of the
most ancient observations to the present time: it is now
about 68°.

When the horizontal needle was found to be stationary, it
" was natural to suppose,^' that the dipping needle would
become stationary also, and that its inclination would after-
wards be increased. But this conjecture has not been con-
firmed by observation ; and the dipping needle, on the con-
trary, continues, as in times past, to approach nearer to the
horizontal position. This is a circumstance which must be
explained by those who attempt to investigate the cause,
hitherto entirely unknown, of these singular changes.

[With all due deference to the opinion of so cautious and
accurate a natural philosopher as Mr. Arago, the law, if not
the cause i of these singular changes, may very easily be
accommodated to the facts in question. For the simplest
possible theory of the change of magnetism, is to suppose
that the magnetic pole performs a certain orbit round the
pole of the earth ; and whether regular or irregular in its
form, this orbit must, at some one point on each side, have
for itg tangent a great circle passing through the point of

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 125

observation. At the moment when the magnetic pole passes
through this point, the declination or variation will ob-
viously be a maximum, while the change of inclination will
as obviously be greater than in any other part of the orbit,
other things being supposed equal : since the pole will be
moving directly to or from the place of observation. On
the other hand, the change of declination will probably be
the most rapid when the dip is the greatest, as it probably
was in London and Paris, towards the middle of the 17th cen-
tury, or a little later, the declination itself being inconsider-
able, or somewhat westerly, because the nearest point of the
orbit seems to be on that side of the true meridian of London.
It is singular that this useful little almanac should an-
nually present to the public, among the ** Epochs of the
principal discoveries in Geography," that of the Canary-
Islands, by the Genoese and Catalonian navigators in 1345;
while there seems to be no reason for doubting that these
islands were well known to the ancients, one of them being
described by Pliny under the name of Canaria. (vi. 32.)]

iii. Experiments on the effect of the direct white Light of
the Sun in making Steel Magnetic. By Mr. A. Baum-
GARTNER, of Vienna. Ann. Chim. Nov. 1826.

When I was repeating, in the course of last summer, the
experiments of Mrs. Somerville, on the effect of the sun's
coloured light in making steel magnetic, I discovered a
process wliich appeared to succeed more rapidl}^ and more
certainly than that which Mr. Morichiniand Mrs. Somerville
employed. It led me to this conclusion, that a piece of
steel, of the size of a common knitting needle, of which one
or several parts are polished, and the remainder unpolished,
when exposed to the direct white light of the sun, acquires
the properties of a north pole at each polished part, and a
south pole at each unpolished part. The process that I have
employed is the following :

I took a piece of English steel, of the size of a common
knitting needle, and heated it till it became covered with
black oxyd ; I then removed the oxyd at one or more parts,
by rubbing it on a hone with oil, and finished the polishing

126 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

with chalk and a piece of lime-tree wood, so as to form on
it shining zones, about two or three lines in length. The
steel, thus prepared, being exposed in a place strongly-
enlightened by the sun, was found, after some time, to
become strongly magnetic in the way that has been de-
scribed. The time, other things being equal, seemed to
depend on the intensity of the solar light ; for when I con-
centrated the light, by means of a lens, on the polished
parts, I obtained as strong a magnetism in a few minutes, as
was produced by an exposure of several hours to the light
in its natural state.

A piece of steel, merely polished at one of its extremities,
receives a north pole at that end, and a south pole at the
other. If the polished part is in the middle, the two ex-
tremities become south poles, and the middle a north pole.
If the wire, on the contrary, is polished at the two ends,
they become north poles, while the middle is a south pole.
Lastly, if there are several polished zones, each of them
receives the boreal magnetism, and the dark zones which
separate them, the austral. In this manner we may obtain
an unlimited number of magnetic poles, provided that the
steel wire be of a length proportional to it. I have thus
easily procured eight poles, in a wire eight inches long,
although of unequal force : for I have constantly found that
the poles at the ends were stronger than the rest, and that
they preserved their magnetism for a longer time. I have
not been able to magnetize by the same means wires, either
entirely covered with oxyd, or perfectly polished, nor other
wires with longitudinal polished stripes.

The whole of these results were the same, whatever might
be the position of the wire with respect to the meridian ;
and each experiment was repeated several times without any
variation in its success. It is unnecessary to add, that be-
fore each wire was exposed to the sun's rays, I carefully
examined whether or no it was magnetic, and those wires
which possessed any magnetic properties were rejected as
unfit for the experiment.

Astronomical and Nautical Collectiom. 127

I V . Elementary view of theXJinDv l at ory Theory 0/ Li g h t .
By Mr. Fresnel. From the Supplement to the Trans-
lation of Thomson's Chemistry. 8. Par. 1822.

[The Council of the Royal Society having adjudged, on
the 8th of February, Count Rumford's prize medal to
Mr. Fresnel, for his application of the undulatory theory
of light to the phenomena of polarisation, and this decision
having probably tended to give new vi^eight to that theory
in the estimation of the British public; it is apprehended,
that a translation of Mr. Fresnel's very distinct and well-
arranged statement, of the grounds of that theory, will not
be judged an improper article for insertion in the Nautical
and Astronomical Collections.]

I. Nature of Light.

The Nature of Light has long been a subject of dispute
among natural philosophers : some of them suppose that it
is a material substance, darted out by luminous bodies ; and
others, that it consists in the vibrations of an infinitely subtile
elastic fluid diffused through all space, in the same way that
sound is known to be a vibration of the air. The system of un-
dulations, which was contrived by the genius of Descartes,
and which was more ably completed in its detail by Huy-
GENs, has also been adopted by Euler, and in more modern
times by Dr. Thomas Young, to whom the science of optics
is indebted for many important discoveries. The system of
emission, or that of Newton, supported by the great name
of its author, and I might almost say, by that reputation for
infallibility which his immortal Frincipia had earned for
him, has consequently been more generally adopted. The
other hypothesis was apparently altogether abandoned, when
Dr. Young recalled the attention of philosophers to it by
some curious experiments, which afford a striking confirma-
tion of it, and which appear at the same time to be scarcely
reconcilable with the system of emission.

A variety of new phenomena, observed since that time,
have continued to add to the probability of the truth of
the theory of undulations. Though long neglected, and
more difficult to be followed, in the detail of its applica-

128 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

tions, than the hypothesis of emission, it has already enabled
us to adapt our calculations much more correctly to the
phenomena ; and this is one of the least equivocal proofs of
the truth of any system. When a hypothesis is true, it
must lead us to numerical relations between facts the most
different in their appearances: while a false hypothesis, on
the contrary, may represent very accurately the class of
phenomena from which it has been deduced, in the same
way that an empirical formula may represent a limited
number of results that have afforded it ; but it can never
trace the secret relations which connect these phenomena
with others of a totally different class.

It was in this manner, for example, that Mr. Biot in-
vestigated, with as much sagacity as perseverance, the laws
of the beautiful phenomena of colours which Mr. Arago
had discovered in crystallized plates, and found that the
tints exhibited by them followed, with regard to their thick-
nesses, laws similar to those of the coloured rings already
known ; that is to say, that the thicknesses of two crystal-
lized plates of the same nature, which exhibited any given
tints, were in the same proportion as two plates of air,
which afforded similar tints in the production of coloured
rings. This relation, indicated by analogy, without any
regard to a particular theory, was without doubt very re-
markable and very important ; but Dr. Young advanced
much further, by means of the law of interferences, which is
an immediate consequence of the system of undulations.
He discovered a much more intimate relation between these
two classes of phenomena ; that is, that the difference of the
lengths of the paths of the rays ordinarily and extraor-
dinarily refracted, in the crystallized plate, is precisely
equal to the difference of the paths described by the rays re-
flected at the first and second surface of the plate of air that
exhibits the same tint as the crystal : and the phenomena,
instead of a simple analogy, are reduced to the predicament
of identity.

I might add that the laws, so complicated in appearance,
of the phenomena of diffraction, which liad escaped all at-
tempts to detect them with the assistance of experiments, as
combined with the theory of emission, are perfectly con-

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 129

sistent, in all their extent, with the simplest principles of
the theory of undulations. Without doubt observation has
assisted also in the discovery of this relation ; but observa-
tion alone could never have developed them ; while in this
case, as well as in many others, the theory of undulations
might easily have gone before the experiments, aud have
predicted beforehand the precise results in their minutest
details.

The example, which has already been mentioned, suffi-
ciently proves that the choice of a theory is not a matter
of indifference in the investigation of physical phenomena.
Its utility is not confined to the purpose of facilitating the
study of facts, by uniting them into groups more or less
numerous, according to the relation which they bear to
each other. Another no less important end of a good theory
must be to contribute to the essential advancement of
science, by the discovery of facts, and of relations between
classes of phenomena the most distinct, and in appearance
the most independent of each other. Now it is obvious that
if we set out with an imaginary hypothesis respecting the
cause of light, we shall not reach this end so readily, as if we
possessed the true secret of nature. A theory depending upon
a true fundamental hypothesis, however ill it may be suited
for the application of mathematical analysis to the mecha-
nical operations which it involves, will still lead us to inti-
mate relations between distant facts, which would for ever
have remained unknown upon any other suppositions.
Hence, to say nothing of our natural curiosity to know the
truth in all cases, we see how important it is to the progress
of optics, and of the kindred science of chemistry, to know
whether luminous molecules are actually projected from the
sources of light and enter our eyes, or if light is propagated
by the undulations of a continuous medium, to the particles
of which, the luminous bodies communicate their vibratory
motions. And we have no reason to believe that the de-
cision of this question is impossible, because it has long re-
mained unaccomplished: we may even venture to assert
that, as far as probability goes, .it is already determined ;
and that, after comparing attentively the application of the

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. K

130 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

two systems to all the facts which have been hitherto dis-
covered, an impartial judge will not hesitate to admit the
superiority of the theory of undulations.

In entering into the detail of the facts in question, it will
not be advisable to separate them from the theoretical
views which have led so immediately to their discovery ; and
it appears to be equally conducive to the purposes of in-
struction, and to the advancement of the science, to explain
the essential principles and foundations of a theory which
has been too long neglected and misunderstood : it will,
however, be proper on this occasion to omit many details of
calculation, for the sake of conciseness, and having reduced
each case to the condition of a mathematical problem, it will
be sufficient to take its solution for granted.

The diffraction of light will be considered in the first place,
because it relates to the simplest possible case of a shadow cast
by an opaque body illuminated by a single radiant point ; and
this case will be considered somewhat diffusely, as affording
the best test of the comparative value of the two theories.

II. Diffraction of Light,

The term Diffraction is applied to those modifications
which light undergoes in passing near the extremities of
bodies.

When we admit the rays of light by a very small aper-
ture into a dark room, we observe that the shadows of
bodies, instead of being terminated abruptly and distinctly
as they ought to be, if the light always passed by them in
right lines, are softened in their outlines, and bounded by
three very distinct fringes of colours, of unequal breadths,
the first being the widest, and the third the narrowest ; and
when the body intercepting the light is narrow, we see
fringes even in its shadow, which then appears to be di-
vided by darker and lighter stripes, placed at equal dis-
tances from each other. We may call this latter species
internal fringes, and the former external,

Grimaldi is the first philosopher that observed and
studied these fringes with care. Newton, who investigated
the subject of diffraction, and even devoted to it the last

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 131

book of his Optics, does not appear to have remarked the
internal fringes, although his researches were subsequent to
those of Grimaldi ; for he says in the 28th query of his third
book, where he states as an objection to the theory of undu-
lation, that the luminous waves ought to spread into the
shadow : " the rays which pass very near to the edges of
any body are bent a little by the action of the body, as we
showed above ; but this bending is not towards but from the
shadow, and is performed only in the passage of the ray by
the body, and at a very small distance from it : so soon as
the ray is past the body, it goes right on.'* It is difficult to
understand how the inflection of light into the shadow
should have escaped so accurate an observer, especially
when we consider that his experiments were made on very
narrow bodies, and sometimes even on hairs. We are almost
compelled to suspect, that his theoretical prejudices had, in
a certain degree, tended to shut his eyes to these important
phenomena, which contribute very much to do away the
objection, on which he so much depended for the superiority
of his system.

Since this inflection of the light into the shadow is a lead-
ing fact in the theory, it becomes necessary to insist on the
details of the experiment by which it is established. In
order to make it in the most unexceptionable manner, let
the sun's light be admitted into a dark room through a hole
in the window-shutter, covered with a piece of tin foil, in
which a hole is made with a pin, not exceeding ^io of an inch
in diameter ; instead of allowing the sun to shine directly
on this hole, let the light be first reflected by a small mirror
into a direction nearly horizontal. Place now in the lumi-
nous cone, formed by the rays thus introduced, a perfectly
opaque wire, about ^^ of an inch in diameter : suppose the
distance of the iron from the hole to be about a metre or
about a yard, and let the shadow be received on a screen of
white paper at the distance of two metres or of two yards.
If the small hole were of evanescent dimensions, it is plain
that the geometrical shadow as projected on the card would
be ^3, of an inch in diameter, that is, supposing the rays to
sufler no inflection.

K 2

132 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

Let us now calculate how much the breadth of the abso-
lute geometrical shadow must be reduced, on account of the
dimensions of the hole : since we have supposed its dia-
meter -2~}-u of an inch, the extreme rays will be at the dis-
tance of 3- J^ of an inch from the central raj^s, and the dis-
tance of the card from the wire being twice as great as that
of the hole, the breadth of the penumbra will be ^|^, and
the true shadow instead of ^\ will be 2% — -of-^, or .15 —.008
= .142; and this space ought to be perfectly dark if the
rays underwent no inflection. Now if we observe the
shadow attentively, we shall discover in it stripes slightly
illuminated, separating some dark lines, the middle line
being always bright : the term bright being always applied
to a stripe lying between two darker stripes, whatever the ac-
tual intensity of its light may be. This experiment, so easily
made, proves therefore that light is actually inflected into
the shadows of bodies, as Grimaldi had remarked. It is in-
deed very rapidly weakened as the angle of inflection is in-
creased ; but this rapid decrease has nothing in it unfavour-
able to the theory of undulations, which explains it easily
from the minute breadth of the separate undulations, and
even assigns the law of its gradation. It is, therefore, ob-
vious, that Newton was mistaken in denying the diflTusion
of light into the dark space behind an illuminated object,
and the objection to the theory of undulations, which he de-
rived from this observation, was founded on error.

In speaking of these internal fringes, it becomes necessary
to describe the ingenious experiment made on these fringes
by Dr. Young, and the important inference which he drew
from them.

Having intercepted, by the interposition of a screen, all
the light which passed on one side of the illuminated body,
he found that the fringes situated within the shadow com-
pletely disappeared without leaving any traces of their
existence, though only one half of the light concerned in
the experiment was withdrawn. Hence he inferred, that
the meeting of two beams of light was required for their
production, and they were the result of the influences exerted
by one of the two beams on the other : for since each of

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 133

them, taken separately, produced a uniform illumination
only, their joint effect would also be a uniform illumina-
tion, unless they exerted some particular influence on each
other.

If we supposed, as it is natural to do, in the system of
emission, that the different inflections of the luminous rays,
near the bodies, depend on a certain attractive or repul-
sive action, exerted by them on the particles of light, it
might be imagined that, in this experiment, the action of
the remoter edge of the wire might be modified by that of
the screen which touched it, so as to be deprived of the
property of producing the fringes. This objection might
be very much weakened by observing, that the external
fringes are not in the slightest degree afiected by the neigh-
bourhood of the screen; but Dr. Young removed it alto-
gether, by placing the screen at such a distance, that it could
not be supposed to have any effect of this kind, and inter-
cepting the beam of light either before or after its arrival
at the edge of the wire ; for in either case the internal fi'inges
were completely annihilated.

He also showed the mutual influence of two pencils of
light, by admitting them through two small holes near each
other, and receiving them on a card at some distance from
the window : the intermediate space was then occupied by
dark and bright lines, which were obviously occasioned by
the concourse of the two pencils, since they disappeared as
soon as either of the pencils was intercepted, by stopping
the hole that transmitted it.

The fringes are more distinct when, instead of making
two holes in the plate of tinfoil, we make in it two parallel
slits at the distance of ^V or ^V of an inch ; we then destroy
the fringes by stopping either of the slits, although the
light spreading from the other remains still perfectly sen-
sible. It often happens, when the slits are not very narrow,
and when the light is received on a card pretty near to the
window, that some fringes are still perceptible when one of the
slits is stopped : but ihey are not the fringes in question ;
being easily distinguishable from them while the sills remain
much narrower than the interval that separates them ; for in

134 Astronomical and Nautical Collections,

this case the internal fringes, which disappear, upon the in-
terception of either of the pencils, are much finer than the
others, which depend on each slit separately ; and it is to-
wards the middle of the space in which these coarser stripes
mix with each other, that the finer lines are generated.

It is always supposed that the whole of the light, em-
ployed in these experiments, is derived from the same lu-
minous point ; for if it were otherwise, if the two pencils
did not emanate from the same source, the efi*ects of which
we have spoken would no longer take place. The reason of
this will appear hereafter : for the present, it will be best to
confine ourselves to those facts which demonstrate, with the
strongest evidence, that, in certain cases, the rays of light
exert a sensible influence on each other.

In order to complete what belongs to this part of the
subject, it is necessary to describe another experiment which
exhibits this influence in a very neat manner, and has the
advantage of separating it from the phenomena of diff*rac-
tion properly so called. It consists in employing two mir-
rors, very slightly inclined to each other, for the reflection
of rays proceeding from the same luminous point; and it
will be best to premise an account of some more general im-
provements which may be made in the means of observa-
tion.

Instead of employing for a luminous point a small hole made
in a piece of tinfoil, or of card placed in a window-shutter,
it is much more convenient to insert in it a convex glass lens
of a very short focus, on which the sun's rays are thrown
horizontally by a mirror outside of the window. It is well
known that the efi*ect of such a lens is to unite into a point,
called its focus, all such rays as fall parallel to each other
on its surface ; and that this focus is situated in the ray which
passes through the centre of the lens, and is so much the
nearer to it as the lens is more convex. In order to have a
more distinct idea of the experiment, we may suppose this
focal distance to be a centimetre, or about ^*o of an inch.
If the sun, like the fixed stars, exhibited to us no appre-
ciable angular diameter, all the rays after refraction would be
united into a single focus ; but the sun actually subtends an

Astronomical and Nautical Collections, 135

angle of about 32'; that is, the rays coming from the opposite
extremities of any of its diameters make with each other an
angle of 32'. Now, in order to determine the magnitude of
the image, we have only to follow these rays through the
centre of the lens, till they arrive at the distance of the
focus, that is, -f^J of an inch, and the chord of a little arc
of 32' in extent, of this radius, will be about yu^^h of an
inch, that is, sj^: and such will be the diameter of the
little image of the sun formed in the focus of the lens, by
the rays thrown by the mirror upon its surface, which,
after crossing in this point, will diverge into a luminous cone
much more extensive than that which is formed by the sun's
rays simply admitted into the hole, especially if the lens is
of tolerable magnitude. This extension of the cone gives a
great facility to the experiment ; it was first pointed out to
me by Mr. Arago, and I have since always used it in my
experiments. It is also necessary to take the jDrecaution of
excluding the direct rays of the sun from the surface of the
lens, in order to avoid the confusion that might arise from
having a second luminous point producing a distinct series
of phenomena.

If it is desired to have the luminous point absolutely fixed,
as in the case of the accurate measurement of the relative
situation of the fringes, it will be proper to employ, instead
of a simple mirror, a heliostate, an instrument so called,
from keeping the reflected ray in a constant direction, not-
withstanding the diurnal motion of the sun. It is easy to
perceive, that without this precaution the reflected rays,
changing their direction with that of the incident rays,
would cause a small change of place in the image which is
formed by their convergence. But this perfect immobility
of the luminous point is only necessary in the case of our
wishing to measure the exact dimensions of the fringes : and
even for this purpose we might dispense with it, by taking
only a few measures at once ; so that each operation might
be performed in a short time, and by employing a lens of a
short focus only.

Having described the best manner of forming a luminous
point, I shall explain the most convenient mode of measuring

136 Astronomical and Nautical Collections,

the fringes, following the steps by which it occurred
to me.

Wishing to observe the external fringes very near the
opaque body, I attempted to receive the shadow on a plate
of ground glass, and to look at them from behind with a lens :
and in moving my eye till it had passed beyond the glass, I
remarked that they remained equally visible, and even more
distinctly, and that they were precisely similar to those
which appeared on the glass. Hence I inferred that the
glass was altogether superfluous, and that it was sufficient
to receive the light directly on the lens, looking at the lumi-
nous point from behind. The reason of this is very obvious:
the effect of a convex lens is to give a clear picture to the
eye of whatever is its focus, whether it may be a real object
or an image formed by any arrangement of rays of light; pro-
vided that these rays fall on the surface of the lens without
alteration. It is thus that the eye-glass of a telescope en-
ables us to see the aerial image of the objects depicted in
the focus of the object-glass ; an image which is seen in the
same form, though much less distinctly, when it is received on
white paper or on ground glass. This mode of observation,
which might have been suggested by theory only, is greatly
preferable to that which bad been commonly followed,
because it has the advantage of magnifying the fringes, and
of increasing their brilliancy at the same time ; which per-
mits us to distinguish them in a multitude of cases, when
they could not be distinguished on a piece of a white
paper, on account of their minuteness, or the weakness of
the hght. In order to see the fringes very distinctly, it is
necessary to take care that the focus of the rays converging
from the lens should fall on the middle of the pupil, by
placing the eye at such a distance from it, that all its surface
may appear illuminated when it is wholly exposed to the
light, and keeping the distance unchanged when the lens is
moved towards the shadow. It must also be observed, that
the margin of the wire must not be exactly in the focus of
the lens, since then the fringes disappear, for reasons which
will be easily understood hereafter.

In order to establish the superiority of this mode of ob-

Astronomical and Nautical Collections, 137

servation, it is sufficient to say that it readily exhibits the
fringes which are formed by the light of a star of moderate
brightness when an opaque body is interspersed, and even
divides the shadow of a wire into light and dark stripes,
when it is sufficiently fine, and far enough from the specta-
tor ; while even the shadow of such a wire would be imper-
ceptible to the nicest eye if it were simply projected on a
card. In order to see the fringes in the light of a star, it is
necessary to employ a lens of a pretty long focus, such as a
common spectacle-glass, of a focal length of a foot or two,
because, if the glass were more convex, the light would be
too much weakened ; but in this case the magnifying power
is not great, and it is impossible to observe very narrow
fringes in this manner. The glass, as already observed,
should be held for this experiment at such a distance from
the eye as to appear wholly illuminated, and to throw all the
light that it receives into the pupil.

In order to measure the breadth of the fringes, that is to
say, the distances between the middle of the light and dark
stripes, it is sufficient to employ a small moveable lens, car-
rying a fine wire in its focus, which serves as a point of com-
parison or index, and the displacement of which may be
measured by a vernier, or by a screw, constituting the ap-
paratus which is commonly called a micrometer. That which
I have employed in all my experiments, and which was exe-
cuted by Mr. Fortin, is provided with a plate of brass, which
slides in two fixed grooves : this plate is perforated in the
middle by a hole -^^ of an inch in diameter, to the edge of
which is fixed on one side a single silkworm's thread, to
serve as a mark, and on the other a little tube carrying
the lens, which may be moved towards or from the thread
till the proper focus is found. The plate, on which these
pieces are fixed, is moved by a very accurate micrometer-
screw: the breadth of the threads is exactly ascertained, and
each revolution is divided by an index into 100 parts, so that
in this manner the change of place of the mark may be mea-
sured within -j^Vjy of an inch. It will now be easy to
understand how we can measure, for example, the distance
between two dark stripes : we bring the thread in succession

138 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

to the middle of the first and that of the second, noting at
each the division at which the index stands, together with
the number of the entire turns, and by subtracting one of
these measures from the other, we shall obviously obtain the
required distance.

I might have begun by describing this mode of observa-
tion, but I was afraid of leaving some doubts respecting the
simplicity of the causes of the phenomena ; and I thought it
better to describe the experiments as they had been made
by Grimaldi and by Dr. Young, who received the shadows
on a white screen. It is easy to perceive that the mode of
observation makes no difference in the results : but it was
better to demonstrate, in an incontestable manner, the dif-
fraction of the light into the shadow, and the mutual influ-
ence of the rays of light on each other ; and I have there-
fore deferred the description of the new mode of observation
till I came to describe the new experiments that I had made.

By means, then, of two mirrors, we obtain a very strik-
ing example of the effects of the mutual influence of the rays
of light, by the reunion of two beams that have been regu-
larly reflected at their surfaces. We must not use silvered
glasses, but rather glasses blackened at the back, in order
that the second reflection may be destroyed ; and metallic
mirrors are still preferable. Having placed the two mirrors
side by side, so that their edges are in contact, they must be
brought very nearly into the same plane, but their faces
must be made to incline a very little towards each other, so as
to form an extremely obtuse angle. The magnitude of this
angle must be regulated according to the interval which
separates the images, and this interval must be small, if it
is required that the fringes should be broad. But the
point which requires the most particular attention is, that
the mirrors should not project one beyond the other at the
line of contact, for the difference of a few thousandths of
an inch might be sufficient to prevent the appearance of the
fringes ; and this condition is best fulfilled by the help of
the sense of touch, pressing by degrees that which appears
to project, against the soft wax by which they are fixed in
their places, and observing at the same time, by means of a

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 139

lens, if the fringes are properly formed. It would cer-
tainly be possible to construct an apparatus for performing
this adjustment with facility, but great care would be required
in its execution ; and if the process which I have described
is somewhat more troublesome, it has at least the advantage
of requiring no other instrument than two small mirrors,
either of metal or of black glass, which any person may
easily procure.

In this experiment, as in those upon diffraction, it is neces-
sary to employ the light of a single radiant point only ; and
in order that the fringes may be very distinct, it is necessary
that it should be the more minute or the more distant as
they are narrower. It is, however, of little consequence in
what direction the light of this point falls on the mirrors.
In order to see the fringes, we must go to a little distance
from the mirrors, and receive directly the rays which they
reflect on a lens of a short focus, behind which the eye must
be held in such a manner as to see all its surface illuminated.
The fringes will then be discoverable in the space illuminated
by both the mirrors, which is easily distinguished from the
neighbouring space by the greater brightness of the light.

The fringes present a series of bright and dark stripes,
parallel to each other, and at equal distances. In white light,
when care is taken to make the fringes broad enough, they
are embellished by very vivid colours, especially towards the
middle of the space ; for at a distance from the middle the co-
lours gradually become fainter, and disappear altogether after
about eight alternations. In a more homogeneous light, such
as may be obtained by means of a prism, or of certain red
glasses, the number of fringes becomes much greater, each
of them, however, consisting only of dark and bright spaces
of the same colour : and by employing a light as purely
homogeneous as possible, the phenomenon is obtained in
the greatest possible simplicity ; and it is in this form that
it will be most convenient to study it in the first instance.
It will afterwards be easy for us to understand the appear-
ances which are observed in white light by the superposition
of bright and dark stripes of each of the species of coloured
rays that compose it.

140 Astronomical and Nautical Collections,

The direction of these stripes is always perpendicular to a
right line, supposed to join the two images, at least in the
«pace enlightened by the rays that are regularly reflected,
\vhatever the direction of that line may be with regard to
the line of contact of the mirrors ; which is sufficient to show
that they do not depend on any influence exerted by the
edges of the mirrors on the light that passes near them. Be-
sides, by altering the angle which the mirrors form with
each other, we may separate the images so far from each
other, as to cause the rays which form them to be reflected
at too great a distance from the edges in contact, to allow us
to suppose that any sensible influence can be exerted on the
light by these edges.

The middle stripe is always brilliant, like that of the
fringes which are seen in the shadow of a narrow body, or
those which are obtained from a plate furnished with two
fine parallel slits very near each other. This bright stripe
is situated between two dark stripes of the deepest black,
when we employ homogeneous light : each of these is fol-
lowed by a bright stripe, and these again are succeeded by
dark stripes, and so forth. The dark stripes are still of a
dark black in the fringes of the second and third orders ;
but, in proportion as we go further from the middle, the
tint is less decidedly black, because the light employed is
never perfectly homogeneous.

It is sufficient to compare the three first pairs of dark
stripes with the light affi^rded by a single mirror, to con-
vince ourselves that they are much less enlightened, and that
in the places which they occupy, the addition of the rays of
one of the mirrors to those of the other, instead of increas-
ing the light, actually produces darkness. It is easy to make
this comparison by looking successively at the black stripes,
and at the enlightened parts situated to the right and left of
the space which is doubly illuminated, and in which the
fringes are found. If we were apprehensive that the con-
trast with the bright stripes in the neighbourhood might
occasion some fallacy in this respect, it would be sufficient
to place the thread of the micrometer successively in one of
the black stripes near the middle, and in the space enlight-

Astronomical and Nautical Collections* 141

ened by a single mirror ; for it will be much more visible in
this latter situation than in the former, especially if the
room is well darkened, and if all proper precautions have
been taken to exclude all the light but that which is the sub-
ject of the experiment.

It is then completely demonstrated, that, in certain cases,
light added to light produces darkness. This capital fact, which
did not escape Grimaldi, although Newton seems to have
been ignorant of it, had been sufficiently proved in our own
times by the experiments of Dr. Young ; but the phenomena
which I have related afford perhaps clearer evidence of its
truth, because the dark stripes that it exhibits are, in gene-
ral, blacker than those which are produced by diffraction,
properly so called, and because it supersedes every idea of
the operation of a diffractive force, which might be supposed
capable of expanding the beams of light in some places,
and condensing them upon others, since the effect is here
exhibited by rays which have been regularly reflected.

[To be continued,]

The Life of Edward Je7iner, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Phy-
sician Extraordinary to the King, Sfc. 8fc. ; with lllus^
trations of his Doctrines, and Selections from his Corre^
^/;o?2<i^?2C6'. j5y John Baron, M.D., F.R.S. London, 1827.

The close of the eighteenth century was rendered memorable
by the promulgation of a fact in the natural history of man,
the consequences of which have been, and continue to be, of
a magnitude quite incalculable. In every habitable part of
the earth its effects have been felt, and are still to be wit-
nessed. To the physiologist, studious of the analogies that
subsist among the different classes of animals, it opened a
wide field of interesting research. The physician viewed it,
as giving him a power over disease greater than any which
medical skill had brought to light during a period of two
thousand years. To the cyQ of the political economist, it
offered the prospect of a rapid and momentous increase in
the population of the country. The philanthropist hailed
it as affording tlie certain prospect of diminisliing the sum of
human misery ; and to those who were content to lopk on it
with other eyes than those of science, a spectacle was pre^

142 Life of Dr. Jenner.

sented, not less sublime than when the angel of the Lord
stayed the pestilence from the people of Israel.

The private and public life of the man who thus enlarged
the bounds of human knowledge, and circumscribed the
limits of human suffering, must possess interest with all
classes of readers, and that of no common kind ; and, in this
assurance, we enter on the review of the work before us. It
has every claim upon our attention. Dr. Baron was for
many years the intimate friend and companion of Dr. Jenner.
The whole of his notes and correspondence was unreservedly
placed by the executors in Dr. Baron's hands. Bred in the
same profession, and zealous in the same cause which occu-
pied the time and the thoughts of Jenner, Dr. Baron was
certainly the fittest man to whom the task could have been
intrusted of delineating his character and opinions. The
manner in which that task has been executed demands, in
the outset, our warmest approbation. No pains have been
spared to collect information. No marks of hurry are per-
ceptible in the filling up of details. Although the portion of
the work dedicated to abstruse medical discussions may per-
haps prove irksome to the general reader, and will certainly
appear to all out of fair proportion to the strictly biographi-
cal part, yet it would have been difficult for the author, in
any other way, to have elucidated fully the doctrines and
practice which it was the great object of Dr. Jenner's life to
inculcate. It is to be regretted that the work, in its present
state, is imperfect. Another volume, probably of equal
size, will be required to complete it. The present gives us
only the early history of Jenner, and the five first years of
vaccination. It closes at the most brilliant epoch of Jenner's
life, the very zenith of his career — Autumn, 1803 ; when his
name had become known to the remotest corners of the
earth, and when, from foreign countries, he was receiving-
every mark of honourable distinction, and reaping, in his
own, a rich harvest of professional reputation, with the more
substantial benefit of ten thousand pounds, granted by par-
liament. The reasons which the author adduces for publish-
ing the first, without waiting for the completion of the second
part, are such as must command our assent ; — an earnest hope,
that a more perfect acquaintance with the views of Jenner
may restore, and even increase, public confidence in the
virtues of cow-pox ; and the feeling, that his own profes-
sional avocations, and the disarranged state of the volumin-
ous documents which he has in his possession, will prevent
him, for some time to come, from completing the arduous
duty which he has undertaken.

Lz/<? o/Dr. Jenner. 143

We think it will be for the convenience of our readers, if
we separate the historical part of the work from the purely-
speculative and physiological discussions with which it
abounds. This arrangement will have the additional advan-
tage of enabling us to ofter, hereafter, a few criticisms on the
principal topics connected with vaccination, on which the
judgment of the world is now, in some measure, divided.
Dr. Edward Jenner, born at Berkeley, in Gloucestershire,
on the 17th May, 1749, was the third son of the Rev.
Stephen Jenner, A.M., the vicar of the parish. His mother
was the daughter of the Rev. H. Head, a former vicar of
Berkeley. Jenner's father possessed, besides his church
preferments, considerable landed property. He did not
long survive the birth of his son Edward, whose early years
were passed under the roof and guidance of his elder brother.
His instructors in classical literature were the Rev. Mr.
Clissold of Wootton-under-Edge, and the Rev. Dr. Wash-
bourn of Cirencester. In the elements of surgery and phar-
macy he was instructed by Mr. Ludlow, an eminent surgeon
of Sodbury, near Bristol. At the age of twenty-one he went
to London, where his professional studies were completed
under the direction and instruction of the celebrated John
Hunter, in whose family he resided for two years. We are
not favoured with any anecdotes of the early years of Jenner ;
but it is clear, from the whole tenor of his correspondence,
that he early imbibed a keen relish for a country life, which,
ere his arrival in London, had given a tone to his thoughts
and studies. John Hunter seems fully to have appreciated
the peculiar merits of his pupil. Through his recommen-
dation, Jenner was appointed to arrange the cabinet of natu-
ral history, the fruits of Captain Cook's first voyage, and
was even offered the situation of naturalist to the second
expedition. When he returned to Berkeley, and entered
upon the active duties of his profession, John Hunter em-
ployed him in making a variety of experiments, for which his
rural predilections especially fitted him. We must extract
one of John Hunter's letters to Jenner, w^hich, while it
evinces the confidence he placed in the talents and accurate
observation of his young friend, places also, in a strong
point of view, the extraordinary powers of the writer's mind,
which seems to have grasped, at once, the whole extent of
animated nature.

** Mr. Hunter to E. Jenner.
"Dear Jenner, — I received your salmon and very fresh, and just ex-
amined enough to want another, but will wait till another season. If I

144 Life of T>v, 3 QimQV,

was to have another, it should be one that had just spawned ; I will take
a cock salmon when you please.

" If you catch any bats let me have some of them ; and those you try
yourself, open a hole in the belly, just size enough to admit the ball ; put
the ball down towards the pelvis, and observe the heat there ; then up
towards the diaphragm, and observe the heat there; observe the fluidity
of the blood ; do all this in a cold place. Extraneous fossils are all ve-
getable and animal productions, found in a fossil state. See if you can
catch the number of pulsations and the frequency of breathing in the
bat, without tortiu-e. If the frost is hard, see what vegetables freeze ;
bore holes in large trees, and see whether the sap runs out, which will
show it is not frozen. I am afraid you have not a proper thermometer.
I will send you one.

" Your very much obliged servant,

" J. Hunter."

The friendship and example of such a man as John Hunter
must have had considerable influence over the mind of
Jenner. They stimulated him to prosecute actively different
branches of natural science ; and the three first chapters of
Dr. Baron's work present us with a very pleasing picture
of the various pursuits in which he occupied himself from the
age of twenty-three to that of forty-five. He devoted him-
self, with an earnestness truly admirable, to the duties of his
profession. For twenty years he practised, with great repu-
tation^ as a surgeon and apothecary. On one occasion he
was sent for to Gloucester, where he successfully performed
a difficult and delicate operation. He obtained the degree
of M.D. from St. Andrew's, in 1792^ to which honour he
was well entitled. He was, in truth, an excellent physician.
A long letter to his friend, the Rev. Mr. Clinch (published
at p. 88), gives us a sketch of his views concerning fever,
which are well worthy of his name. He appears to have the
merit of first detecting the pathology of that formidable
disease the angina pectoris. His notions concerning tuber-
culous disorganizations, and the disordered conditions of the
lymphatic system generally (alluded to at p. 99), are very
ingenious, and serve to display the extent and variety of his
powers. As a pharmaceutist, he is entitled to some praise,
having, early in life, introduced the mode of preparing tartar
emetic, from tlie glass of antimony, which is now adopted by
the London college. Those who are curious in such matters,
may perhaps trace to this little circumstance the peculiar
attachment to this remedy which Dr. Jenner shewed in the
latter periods of his life.

While his mind was thus occupied in the active duties of
an arduous profession, it is delightful to contemplate the
{irdour with which he pursued so many other objects of re-^

Life of Dr. Jenner. 145

search. He made some curious experiments in horticulture
(p. 76). He was devoted to thestudy of mineralogy (p. 59),
and spent a great deal of time in investigating the organic
remains witli which the oolitic and lias formations of the dis-
tricts in his neighbourhood abound. Occasionally he courted
the Muses ; and some very amusing specimens of his poetical
talents are afforded us at pp. 2.5 and 542. His greatest en-
joyment, however, was in the study of Ornithology, which
he pursued with uncommon industry, and no small share of
success. John Hunter urged him to investigate the habits
of the cuckoo ; and in the year 1788, his aamirable paper
on that subject was presented to the Royal Society. He
clearly proved the fact of \\\q fostering of the young bird,
and threw out the ingenious suggestion, that it was a pro-
vision of nature rendered necessary by the short residence
of the parent bird in this country. This essay was favour-
ably received by the scientific world, and procured him, the
following year, admission into the Royal Society. The
migration of birds occupied many of his leisure hours. In
his early years, at the instigation of John Hunter, he made
a variety of observations on the hedgehog, some account of
which still exists ; but, alas ! not one of his replies to his
patron's numerous letters, and still more numerous queries
are given ; and from what is stated at p. 99, there is too
much reason to fear they have all perished.

In 1788, Dr. Jenner married Miss Catharine Kingscote,
a lady of elegant manners and strong understanding, to
whom he was greatly attached. In domestic life he was
distinguished by an amiable disposition, which rendered him
an universal favourite. He was the founder and principal
supporter of two societies, where he and his professional
brethren discussed medical subjects, and cultivated each
other's acquaintance. These he called, quaintly enough,
the Convivio-Medical, and the Medico-Convivial Societies.
To the former, which was held at Alveston, a village about
ten miles from Bristol, we shall have occasion to refer
liereafter. The following account of Jenner's appearance
is given by one of his earliest friends. " When I hrst saw
him, it was on Frampton Green. I was somewhat his junior
in years, and had heard so much of Mr. Jenner of Berkeley,
that I had no small curiosity to see him. He was dressed
in a blue coat and yellow buttons, buckskins, well -polished
jockey-boots, with handsome silver spurs, and he carried
a smart whip with a silver handle. His hair, after the
fashion of the times, was done up in a club, and he wore

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. L

146 Life of Dr, Jenner.

a broad -brimmed hat. His height was rather under the
middle size. His person was robust, but active and well
formed. In his dress he was peculiarly neat ; and every-
thing about him showed the man intent and serious, and
well prepared to meet the duties of his calling. We were
introduced on that occasion, and I was delighted and as-
tonished. I was prepared to find him an accomplished man,
and all the country spoke of him as a skilful surgeon, and
a great naturalist, but I did not expect to find him so
much at home on other matters." His society was much
coveted and prized. '* He had," says his biographer, ** a
singular and happy union of scientific and original obser-
vation, with the playfulness, and mirth, and wit, of familiar
intercourse. His imagination was singularly vivid, and he
had a peculiar felicity, even in common conversation, of
clothing his remarks in the gay and lively colours of poetry.
He was a collector of old pictures, very fond of music, could
play on the violin and flute, and would now and then sing
one of his own ballads." Such a man was Dr. Jenner, the
discoverer of Vaccination. It is time that we give our
readers some idea of the progress of his own mind towards
that great event. The work before us is rich in illustrations
of this interesting topic.

In the green fields and shady lanes of the beautiful vale
where he resided, Jenner early obtained an acquaintance
with the popular rumours concerning cow-pox; but the
following circumstance first rivetted his attention. While
he was an apprentice at Sodbury, and probably about
sixteen, a young woman applied for advice. The subject
of small-pox was mentioned in her presence. She imme-
diately observed, "I cannot take that disease, for I have
had Cow-pox." He repeatedly mentioned this circumstance
to John Hunter, who advised him, we are told, to try,
but certainly gave him no great encouragement. In none
of his letters does he ever inquire, even in a postscript, how
the said trials with the Cow-pox proceed. We may fairly
presume, therefore, that John Hunter with all his learning,
disregarded the matter.

Of the precise amount of the popular opinions long pre-
valent^ concerning cow-pox and its influence, we shall say
something presently ; but the impression which they made
upon young Jenner was obviously very strong. In 1775,
he began to view it as a matter of scientific investigation,
and from that time, until 1796, when he made his first de-
cisive experiment, it was probably never altogether out of

Life of Dr. Jenner. 147

his mind. Eighteen years prior to that event, that is to
say, in the month of May, 1780, he had a glimpse of the
truth, and of the reputation that awaited him. He was
riding with his friend Gardner, on the road between
Gloucester and Bristol, when he briefly sketched out the
course which he hoped to pursue, and which he ultimately
lived to accomplished. At the meetings of the Alveston
club, formerly mentioned, he frequently brought forward
the subject of cow-pox, and earnestly recommended hig
friends to prosecute the inquiry ; but so little did they think
of it that they voted cow-pox a great bore, and threatened
to expel Jenner if he continued to harass them with so un-
profitable a subject, (p. 48.) To appreciate fully the merits
of Jenner, as the discoverer of vaccination, it should be
remembered, that he made no secret of his belief in its
virtues. In 1788, he took with him to London, a drawing
of the casual disease, as seen on the hands of the milkers,
and showed it to Sir Everard Home, and others. John
Hunter had often mentioned the fact in his lectures. Dr.
Adams heard of the cow-pox, both from Mr, Hunter and
Mr. Cline ; and in his treatise on the morbid poisons, pub-
lished in 1795, three years prior to the public announce-
ment of Jenner's views, mentions the principal facts then
known concerning it. Many other persons, too, (Dr. Hay-
garth for instance,) were acquainted generally with its
alleged powers ; yet no one had the boldness to stake his
fame and character upon this basis but Jenner. To what are
we to ascribe this? — not to the ambition of youth, for Jenner
was forty-seven, and had a comfortable independence when he
first published concerning cow-pox ; — not to mere vanity, for
Jenner was habitually of modest and retiring manners; but
it is to the confidence which science gave, that we are in-
debted for the introduction of vaccination. Jenner had
paid much attention to epizootic maladies, and the principles
which he had thence deduced emboldened him to perseveref
in an effort, in which he got no positive help and scarcely
any encouragement. He was thoroughly sensible, however,
of the heavy responsibility which he was incurring. His
feelings indeed, throughout his whole life, with reference
to this great event, do him the highest honour ; and we are
sure that our readers will be gratified by the picture which
he has himself left us of his own mind, soon after the suc-
cessful issue of his first and most important experiment.

** While the vaccine discovery was progressive, the joy I felt at thq[
prospect before me of being the instrument destined to take away front

L2

148 Life of T)t, Jeiiner.

the world one of its gi-eatest calamities, blended with the fond hope of
enjoying independence and domestic peace and happiness, was often so
excessive that, in pursuing my favourite subject among the meadows,
I have sometimes found myself in a kind of reverie. It is pleasant
to me to recollect that these reflections always ended in devout ac-
knowledgments to that Being from whom this and all other mercies
flow."— (p. 140.)

The 14th of May, 1796, is usually assigned as the birth-day
of vaccination. At Berlin, it is still annually celebrated.
On that day, James Phipps, a boy eight years old, was
vaccinated by Dr. Jenner ; on the first of July following,
he was inoculated with small- pox. We give the rest in the
words of Jenner himself : " Listen now to the most de-
lightful part of my story. The boy has been inoculated for
the small-pox, which, as I ventured to predict, produced no
effect ; I shall now pursue my experiments with redoubled
ardour." Most zealously, indeed, did he follow up this
auspicious beginning. Early in 1798, another opportunity
occurred of j)ursuing his inquiries, and he now prepared
for publication. Dr. Baron is silent as to the cause of the
non-appearance of his paper among the * Transactions of the
Royal Society ; ' the deficiency, however, is supplied by
Mr. Moore in his History of Vaccination, (p. 20.) He was
admonished not to present it, lest it should injure the credit
he had established for himself among scientific men by his
Essay on the Cuckoo ! Tlie work, having first been care-
fully scrutinized by a knot of his intimate associates, was at
length published, about the end of June, 1798. It was
entitled '' An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the
Variolae Vaccinae, a Disease discovered in some of the Wes-
tern Counties of England, particularly Gloucestershire, and
known by the name of the Cow-pox." The object of the
work was two-fold. First, to announce the security against
small-pox which the true cow-pox gives ; and secondly, to
trace the origin of that disease in the cow, to a similar
affection of the heel of the horse. An unassuming tone
pervades this first Essay on Vaccination which is very
striking. The author modestly suggests the probability of
its usefulness in certain cases which he points out, but he
never hints at the idea of its ultimately exterminating the
small-pox.

The late Mr. Cline, a steady friend and admirer of
Jenner, who had corresponded with him, several years be-
fore, on the subject of cow-pox, was the first person in
London who adopted the new practice. Two months prior
to the publication of his book. Dr. Jenner came to town,

Life of Dr. Jenner. 149

and he remained there for three weeks after its appearance;
yet strange to say, with all his own eiSbrts and those of his
friends, he was unable, during that long period, to procure one
person in the metropolis on whom he could exhibit the vac-
cine disease. Mr. Cline's acknowledged reputation gave the
bent to the public mind, and before the year was expired,
vaccination had made rapid advances in general esteem.

Mr. Chne and Sir Walter Farquhar now anxiously pressed
Dr. Jenner to settle as a physician in town, and it is cer-
tainly to be regretted that he did not act upon their advice.
Mucri of the evil which afterwards ensued, and some por-
tion of that professional jealousy which broke out and tar-
nished the rising glory of vaccination, would probably have
been checked, had Jenner been upon the spot. His presence
would have directed the public judgment, and nipped in
the bud the insidious designs of some who took a prominent
part in the extraordinary scene which presently displayed
itself. A rush towards vaccination succeeded to, and
strangely contrasted with, the apathy and distrust with
which it had hitherto been viewed. It was not only re-
commended, but practised, by persons of all ranks and
conditions, without any knowledge of what they were really
doing. That this was in some degree encouraged by the
confident tone of those, whose professional experience should
have taught them caution in all matters relating to the con-
jectural art of medicine, cannot indeed be denied. Even
Jenner himself is not free from this censure. Within two
years from the promulgation of his discovery, we find him
employing such strong expressions as these : *' The scep-
ticism that appeared even amongst the most enlightened of
medical men when my sentiments on the important subject
of the cow-pox were first promulgated, was highly laud-
able. To have admitted the truth of a doctrine at once so
novel and so unlike any thing that ever had appeared in the
annals of medicine, without the test of the most rigid scru-
tiny would have bordered on temerity ; but now when that
scrutiny has taken place, not only amongst ourselves, but
in the first professional circles in Europe, and when it has
been uniformly found, in such abundant instances, that the
human frame, when once it has felt the influence of the
genuine cow-pox in the way that has been described, is
never afterwards, at any 'period of its existence, assailable
by the small-pox, may I not with perfect confidence con-
gratulate my country and society at large, on their beholding,
in the mild form of the cow-pox, an antidote, that is ca-

16Q JL^y<?o/Dr. Jenner.

pable of extirpating from the earth a disease which is Gwevf
hour devouring its victims, a disease that has ever been
considered as the severest scourge of the human race ! "*

The early career of vaccination, though very brilliant,
was clouded by some disappointments. In the first ex-
periments at the Small-pox Hospital, the vaccine lymph
became contaminated with small-pox, which the physician
to that establishment could not be made to believe. Some
weak persons, with Dr. Moseley at their head, assailed it
with the shafts of ridicule ; but Dr. Jenner was more an-
noyed by the conduct of some of those who avowed them-
selves friends to vaccination, than by all the efforts of its
open enemies. Professional envy was at work, and a re-
gular attempt was made to wrest from Jenner's brow the
laurels which he had so fairly won. Instead of strictly
questioning the accuracy of some of Jenner's views, his
opponents joined in the loudest praise of vaccination, but
allowed to Jenner only just sufficient merit to entitle him
to the appointment of extra-corresponding physician to
a vaccine institution, with the privilege of recommending
patients, by proxy, on payment of one guinea per annum.
(p. 361.) The whole conduct of the physician who stood
prominently forward on this occasion, is animadverted on,
in very strong terms, by Dr. Baron, who with the honest
warmth of a biographer, is indignant at the slight thus
cast upon the hero of his history. On this painful part
of the subject, however, we will not dwell longer, but
proceed to record the gratifying tributes to his merit
which Dr. Jenner received from other quarters. A strong
testimony of confidence in the virtues of the Cow-pox was
signed so early as the summer of 1799, by thirty-three of
the most eminent physicians, and by forty distinguished
surgeons of the metropolis. Early in 1800 the Duke of
Clarence exerted himself greatly in the cause ; and in the
month of March that year, Dr. Jenner was successively in-
troduced to the Duke of York, the King, the Prince of
Wales, and, lastly, to the Queen, all of whom received him
with marked attention, and expressed the interest they felt
for the success of vaccination.

By these and similar proofs of the public feeling, individual
clamour was at length hushed ; and in the propagation of
Cow-pox to distant regions, Jenner quickly found ample
employment for his time and thoughts. Dr. Baron gives

* Jenner's " Continuation of Facts and Observations." 1800.

Life of Dr, Jenner. iSl

copious details concerning the mode in which this' object so
dear to his heart was effected ; as also concerning the per-
sons chiefly instrumental in carrying his views into effect.
Many of these details possess great interest, especially those
which concern the introduction of cow-pox into the great
continent of Asia (p. 420); but we have no space for them
here. Suffice it to say, that the late Dr. Gregory had the
merit of introducing vaccination into Scotland, through the
medium of Sir Matthew Tierney. Dr. Waterhouse under-
took to introduce it into America, and by his perseverance
and talents, fully succeeded in doing so about the year 1800.
The earliest supporter of vaccination on the continent of
Europe was Dr. De Carro of Vienna, whose exertions in the
cause are beyond all praise. To him our Indian possessions
are Indebted, for the introduction of the vaccine. Dr. Sacco,
of Milan, distinguished himself not merely as an active pro-
pagator of the new practice in Italy, but by his pathologi-
cal inquiries into the origin of cow-pox.

Dr. Baron dedicates one chapter of his book to a detail
of the events connected with the first parliamentary grant
to Dr. Jenner. A committee was appointed to examine and
report upon Dr. Jenner's claims for public remuneration.
Witnesses pro and con were examined. It was stated, that
a farmer of the name of Jesty had actually inoculated his
wife and children with cow-pock matter in 1774, and that a
Mrs. Rendall had caused five of her children to play with the
teat of a cow to secure them from small-pox ; but this, as
Dr. Baron observes, never advanced the cause of vaccina-
tion beyond what popular rumour had already done. Dr.
Jenner's merit consisted in this, that he divested popular
tradition of its obscurity and uncertainty, and gave the
aspect of science to what was formerly vague and valueless.
A pretty illustration of that kind of merit which belongs to
Jenner is given by Dr. Baron, at p. 562. A fish was pre-
paring for dinner In the kitchen of a medical man, and was
accidentally placed on a table In connexion with two metals.
The fish was thrown into convulsions. The doctor recorded
the circumstance, published an account of it, and there the
matter ended. The same sort of thing afterwards occurred
in the laboratory of Galvani. He set himself to investigate
the phenomenon, and the genius which this effort displayed
was soon rewarded by a rich harvest of discovery. But to
return to the Committee of the House of Commons, whom we
left discussing Dr. Jenner's claims. They considered him
well entitled to 20,000^., but Mr. Bankes, the Joseph Hume

152 Life of Dr. Jenner.

of those days, would not agree to more than ten. A vote
for ten thousand pounds in favour of Dr. Jenner, passed the
House on the 2d June ]802, by a majority of three.

It is a remarkable circumstance, that very few real im-
provements in the practice of vaccination have been intro-
duced since the discovery was first announced. One of the
most important was the practicabihty of propagating the
disease by scabs, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bryce of
Edinburgh. Of the value of this addition to our know-
ledge concerning cow-pox, Dr. Jenner was fully sensible,
but he attached comparatively little importance to the test,
as it is called, recommended by that gentleman, and known
to vaccinators by his name. In this opinion we think Jen-
ner fully borne out, as we have never been able to convince
ourselves that that supposed test furnishes any evidence of
the degree to which the constitution is affected. This still
remains a great desideratum. A very effectual mode of
preserving lymph for the use of distant countries, was
invented by two German physicians, and is detailed at
p. 430.

Honours began to pour in upon Dr. Jenner from the year
1801. The Dowager Empress of Russia sent him, in that
year, a ring set in diamonds. The Royal Society of Madrid
elected him an honorary member ; &c. &c. With a notice
of these blushing honours Dr. Baron's first volume con-
cludes. It is far from our intention to anticipate the con-
tents of that which is to come, but it may be satisfactory to
our readers, to have one or two dates, by way of filling up
the picture. In 1807 parliament reconsidered its former
vote, and granted to Dr. Jenner an additional sum of twenty
thousand pounds. In the following year, vaccination was
taken under the protection of government. The National
Vaccine Establishment was at first placed under the imme-
diate direction of Dr. Jenner, but difficulties ensued, and
Dr. Jenner resigned. During the latter years of his life,
he continued to devote a great deal of his time to the subject
of vaccination, but he did not publish anything of much
importance concerning it after the period to which Dr.
Baron brings down his life. He died at Berkeley, in Fe-
bruary 1823, suddenly, of apoplexy, in the seventy-fourth
year of his age. A statue has been erected to his memory
in his native county, but, hitherto, no adequate testimonial
of national approbation has been bestowed. An anxious
wish was expressed by many of the admirers of his genius,
that his remains should be deposited in Westminster Abbey,

Life OfDw Jeniler. 153

with the distinguished of the land, and government were well
disposed to accede to their wishes, but for some reason it was
thought unadvisable, and his body lies in the chancel of the
parisn church in Berkeley.

We have now gone through the task which we first pro-
posed to ourselves, — that of giving a brief sketch of the
principal events in Dr. Jenner's life. It remains that we
offer a few criticisms on the different speculative topics dis-
cussed, often at great length, in Dr. Baron's work ; and for
the sake of, brevity, as well as perspicuity, we shall take
them up in the following order : — 1. The antiquity of small-
pox. 2. The common origin of human and epizootic mala-
dies ; the identity of cow-pox and small-pox ; and the equine
origin of the former. 3. The possibility of exterminating
small-pox. 4. The causes of vaccine failure.

1. Of the antiquity of small-pox. — This is one of the
thorny points in medical literature, with which Dr. Baron
boldly grapples, and a whole chapter is devoted to its dis-
cussion. It is not made to appear, however, that the opi-
nions here delivered were really those of Dr. Jenner. We
would suggest, therefore, to the author, the propriety of
separating these details, in a subsequent edition, from the
body of the work, and of throwing them, with some others
of a similar kind, into an appendix. This will be a great
relief to the general reader, without impairing the value
of the work to the inquiring physician. Dr. Baron supports
the opinion of the late Dr. Willan, that the small-pox is a
disease of great antiquity, and that it is to be traced in the
earliest writings of the Hebrews and Greeks. He gives us
an abstract of the plague of Athens, as described by Thu-
cydides, and adds, ** in this quotation from the original, will
be found, if I mistake not, as accurate an account of the
leading symptoms of variola as could possibly be expected
from any historian not medical." With all deference, we
do think the author is mistaken here. We know of no dis-
ease, the prominent characters of which could be so easily
described by an unprofessional man, as small-pox. But it
is clear from what the historian says, that he watched the
symptoms of the complaint, not superficially, but very closely,
and he describes, in our judgment, with great accuracy, a
petechial typhus, or, perhaps, cynanche maligna. Accord-
ing to Dr. Baron, small-pox was seen by Hippocrates, and
commented upon by Galen, but it requires a great stretch of
ingenuity to trace in their writings any of the peculiar fea-
tures of this disease. Rhazes, the Arabian, the first ac-

154 Life of Dr. Jenner.

knowledged writer on the small-pox, struggles hard to prove
that Galen had seen it ; but even he, with all his enthusiasm
for his master, was sadly puzzled to account for the un-
wonted brevity and inaccuracy of his description. This, we
think, is of itself decisive of the question ; but when we fur-
ther call to mind the recorded opinions of the best 'modern
writers who have devoted their attention to the history of
physic, we mean Friend and Mead, we confess we have no
hesitation whatever on the subject. We regret that Dr.
Baron should have supported this side of the question^ as
by some it may be considered (however undeservedly) as an
impeachment of the general accuracy of Dr. Jenner's views.

The first notices of a disease which exhibits the well-
marked features of small-pox, are to be met with in the
historical writings of Procopius, who flourished during the
reign of Justinian the First. The obscurity of its origin,
the difficulty of its cure, the universality of its devasta-
tions, and above all, the complete immunity from second
attacks, bespeaks this epidemic to have been truly small-
pox. It began A.'D. 544, and was reported to have been
brought to Constantinople from ^Ethiopia. This corre-
sponds closely with the era commonly assigned in medical
books to the first appearance of small-pox; viz., A.D.
568, when the Abyssinian army, under Abrahah the viceroy,
besieged Mecca. Without going, therefore, deeply into his-
toric details of little general interest, we may say that small-
pox first appeared in the East about the middle of the sixth
century.

2. The next topic which we have set down for considera-
tion, is, the common origin of human and epizootic maladies.
This curious but uninviting branch of medical science was a
favourite subject of speculation with Dr. Jenner ; and, ac-
cordingly, repeated allusions are made to it in the work
before us. In the first volume of the Transactions of the
Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, there is a
paper by Dr. Jenner, on the distemper in dogs, a contagious
disease not communicable to man. There are certain other
epidemic maladies, however, which affect equally man and
the brute creation, of which the most important is, accord-
ing to Dr. Jenner, that which in its most malignant form we
call small-pox, and in its milder forms chicken-pox, swine-pox,
and cow-pox. It is, undoubtedly, a matter, not of mere
curiosity, but of serious reflection, that in their nomenclature
of certain diseases, the vulgar seem to have acknowledged this
doctrine of a common origin to human and epizootic epide-

Life of Dv, J enner. l55

mics. How else did the terms chicken-pox and swine-pox creep
into our language. ** In Bengal," says Dr. Jenner, (p. 237)
*' the poultry are subject to an epidemic eruption, which
Jjills them by hundreds. The natives have only one name for
this disease and the small-pox, gootry.'^ ** A traditionary
account is handed down to us by the Arabian physicians,
that the small-pox was originally derived from the camel."
(P. 522 ; Letter from Dr. Jenner to H. R. H. the Duke of
Clarence.) We have an account at p. 238, of some children
who were inoculated at Madrid in Marcli 1804, by order of
the king of Spain, with a goat-pock. We are not favoured,
however, with the result of the test-trials, or contra- proofs
as they are called by the professor Heydeck.

*' It seems certain, then," says Dr. Baron (p. 243), " that
there are at least four animals, namely, the horse, the cow,
the sheep, and the goat, which are affected by a disorder
communicable to man, and capable of securing him (to a
certain degree at least) from what appears to be a ma-
lignant form of the same disease." Into the many illustra-
tions given of this position we cannot here, of course, enter ;
but our readers will gather from the remarks now offered
some ideas of the reasoning by which Dr. Jenner was in-
duced to experiment on the influence of cow-pox. The sum
of his doctrine was briefly this. He not only considered
small-pox and cow-pox as essentially the same disease, but
he imagined ** that the former was only a malignant variety
of the latter, the parental root being the cow-pox." (p. 357.)
This notion of the identity of cow-pox and small-pox, so fre-
quently urged by Jenner, and so pointedly marked by his
phrase variolcz vaccince^ has been much questioned in later
times, and a few observations upon it may not be misplaced.
Diseases that mutually produce each other are clearly
referrible to the same source. The identity of swine-pox
and small-pox is, therefore, generally admitted. Dr. Adams,
however, entertained the opinion, that by successive inocu-
lations with a mild matter, a permanent modification of
small-pox might ultimately be obtained, and he actually
persuaded himself that he had succeeded in the attempt.
He called the disease pearl-pox, and it appears to have
been intermediate between cow-pox and distinct small-pox.
Some notion of the same kind probably influenced Jenner,
when, in 1789, he inoculated, his eldest son with the matter
of swine-pock. The child took a mild and modified disease,
and i-esisted the future action of variolous matter. Dr.
Jenner seems to have retained the same opinion as late as

156 Life ofJ^v, Jenner.

1799, for when detailing to Dr. Woodville a similar case,
he says, *< it would be unfair to draw positive conclu-
sions from such scanty precedents ; but yet they lead
one to hope, that a mild variety of the small-pox might thus
be actually created." The idea of a disease having fixed
and permanent characters, less virulent than small-pox,
and more obviously energetic than cow-pox, had often passed
through our minds, but until we read Dr. Baron, we were
imaware of the advance that had been made towards de-
termining the point. The cow-pox, however, is differently
circumstanced. It never produces small-pox, and small-pox
never produces it, at least in man ; and, therefore, it is cer-
tainly questionable whether these two disorders are essen-
tially the same ; — in other words, whether the cow-pox be a
permanent, as the swine-pox is a temporary, modification of
variola. In favour of such an opinion. Dr. Jenner appears,
as far as we can judge from the scattered discussions in Dr.
Baron's book, to rely principally on the two following argu-
ments:— 1. The cow-pox in the cow is not a local, but a
constitutional, and even sometimes a malignant disease, (p.
352.) 2. The cow-pox contaminated by small-pox will
sometimes lose its virulence, cease altogether to produce
eruptions, and at length become almost assimilated to the true
vaccine character, (p. 245.) Upon the whole, the question
of the identity of cow-pox and small-pox may be considered
as still undecided. The general voice of the profession is,
we think, rather against, than in favour of the doctrine.

The straits and difficulties of this inquiry, however, lie
still before us. We have yet to investigate the alleged
connexion of cow-pox with the disorder called the grease in
horses. In Jenner's first essay, this subject is brought pro-
minently forward, and not only is the identity of the two
afi'ections maintained, but it is confidently stated, that the
cow-pox Tzezj^r occurs in dairy countries, except where there is
access to horses. We cannot help thinking that the great stress
thus laid upon the equine origin of cow-pox was somewhat in-
judicious. The facts bearing upon the question were then only
imperfectly known to Jenner. (See p. 243.) The doctrine itself
had no obvious connexion with the great practical truth which
he laboured to establish. It could not tend in any degree to
strengthen public faith in the virtues of the cow-pox, and it
certainly gave a handle to the opposers of vaccination, of
which they were not slow to avail themselves. It gave oc-
casion to endless controversies and bickerings. We are told
(at p. 584), that in 1803, all the principal medical men in

Life of Dr. Jenner. 157

London were adverse to the opinion. Later observations
have, indeed, established the identity of the grease and the
cow-pox, but they have shewn, at the same time, the in-
correctness of some of Jenner's first ideas on the subject.
The following extract of a letter from Dr. De Carro, of
Vienna, to Dr. Monro of Edinburgh, written in 1825, (to
be found in the Edinburgh Journal of Medical Science),
may be quoted as a fair illustration of the importance of the
doctrine, and of the improved notions concerning it. *' The
source of our cow-pox (at Vienna) says Dr. De Carro, is
partly British, and partly originating from the grease of a
horse at Milan, without any intervention of a cow. The
efiect was so similar in every respect, that they were soon
mixed ; — that is to say, it was impossible to tell, after sev^eral
generations, and in the hands of innumerable practitioners,
what was equine and what was vaccine. The whole British
settlements in India have been equinated ; for the first liquid
drop which I sent twenty-five years ago to India was the
second generation of Milanese equine or greasy matter,
transplanted at Vienna. You know, by frequent reports
from the East, that the practice there is upon the best foot-
ing.'* But we fear we shall tire our readers if we prosecute
further the alleged connexion of human and epizootic ma-
ladies. We shall pass on, therefore, to another subject.

3. In several parts of Dr. Baron's work, the doctrine is
taught, that cow-pox possesses powers adequate to the com-
plete extirpation of small-pox from the face of the earth.
VVe have already given an extract from the earlier writings
of Jenner, in which this sentiment is strongly expressed. We
may point out one or two other passages in which the same
thing occurs. Dr. Jenner's petition to the house of com-
mons, in the year 1802, contains the following paragraph : —
*' The said inoculation hath already checked the progress of
the small-pox, and, from its Jiature, must finally eradicate
that dreadful disorder."" Dr. Baron, in p. 259, has the fal-
lowing remark: *' But the property, of all others, which
peculiarly distinguishes the variolse vaccinae from small-pox,
and which would enable us to banish the disease entirely^ is,
that they are not communicable by effluvia." This notion
very naturally made a strong impression upon the public
mind, and contributed, in no small degree, to encourage that
ardour in the cause of vaccination which was so honourable
to the country. We cannot, however, on the grounds of
physiology, or of plain common sense, understand how such
an eyeut could be brought about by the means suggested.

158 Life of Dr. J enner.

Mankind vaccinate their children to escape the dangers of
small-pox : when, by the gradual lessening of the disease, such
dangers were removed from view, those who know any thing
of human nature, will at once perceive, that the preservative
practice would fall into neglect ; and so in fact it has ever
proved in countries where government does not enforce vac-
cination under penalties. So much for the common sense
view of the question. But we suspect the correctness of the
physiological principle on which the idea was upheld. It
assumes, in the first place, that small-pox in man arises inva-
riably from contagion, a position which we are strongly in-
clined to favour, but which is at least open to discussion.
The grease in horses, and the pock in cows, are universally
admitted (we believe even by Jenner himself) to be some-
times of spontaneous or sporadic origin. How otherwise
did it happen that, from 1780 to 1796, Jenner could meet
with no opportunities of prosecuting his inquiries into the
cow-pox ? Now, if we admit the identity of small-pox,
grease, and cow-pox, it is difficult to understand the extra'-
ordinary diversities in their mode of origin. If, on the other
hand, to establish the possibility of exterminating small-pox,
we adhere to its propagation by contagion alone, the identity
of the two diseases is certainly brought into doubt.

But further, to show the correctness of this position of Dr.
Jenner, the state of small-pox in foreign countries is fre-
quently brought forward. It is confidently urged, that by
salutary regulations, and strong confidence in the public, the
desirable end proposed by Jenner has actually been accom-
plished, and that in some districts abroad small-pox is no
longer to be seen. We strongly suspect, however, that this
is what logicians call an argumentum ab ignoto. In Sweden,
one of the countries often referred to, they had a smart attack
of epidemic small-pox in 1824, affecting, in many cases,
those who had been vaccinated ; which, though it did not in
the least shake their faith in vaccination, yet proved very
efTectually the impossibility of exterminating the disease.
Within the last year or two, the Dutch government sent over
some young doctors to this country, to inquire concerning
vaccination, in consequence of meeting with difficulties of a
like kind. The medical men at Paris, who were long very
sceptical on the subject of small-pox after vaccination, under-
stand it now as well as we do here. We do not mention
these things out of any distrust of vaccination, but merely
that the superior good management of foreign powers, and
the greater good fortune of those who live under them (with

Ufe of Dr. Jenner, 159

reference to small pox), should not unfairly be cast in our
teeth.

4. We have now reached the last, and what some of our
readers may perhaps consider the most important branch of
the discussion — namely, the causes of vaccine failure. This
subject naturally belongs to Dr. Baron's second volume ; and
we shall wait with impatience for the detail of his own and
of Dr. Jenner's views concerning it ; but there are sufficient
allusions to it in the present volume, to entitle us to bring the
matter forward in this place. We must, in the first instance,
refer back, for a short time, to the views originally enter-
tained by Jenner concerning the complete efficiency of
vaccine protection. Popular rumour, we have seen, attri-
buted to cow-pox a certain degree of protecting power from
the small-])ox ; but it was only to a certain degree ; and the
great reason why Jenner failed in convincing his early friends
of the Alveston club, of the justness of his views, was, that
in their judgment, the quantum of protection which cow-pox
aflbrded was not sufficient. It is important to keep this in
view. The following extract will explain our meaning ; and
those who desire further information concerning the popular
opinions as to vaccine influence, may consult our author at
pages 48, 49, 131, 292, and 298.

" The state of feeling of those medical men in the district where he
resided, who had heard of the reported virtues of the cow-pox, and who
had also occasionally met with occurrences which seemed to con^oborate
the popular rumour, will have told the reader the sort of difficulties that
Jenner met with, and will likewise prove that it required a mind possessed
of all the firmness of purpose which he enjoyed, to induce him to perse-
vere in his pursuits. * We have all heard (they would observe) of what
you mention, and we have even seen examples which certainly do give
some sort of countenance to the notion to which you allude ; but we have
also known cases of a perfectly different nature, — many who were re-
ported to have had the cow-pox having subsequently caught the small-
pox. The supposed prophylactic powers probably, therefore, depend
upon some peculiarity in the constitution of the individual who has
escaped the small-pox ; and not on any efficacy of that disorder which
they may have received from the cow. In short, the evidence is alto-
gether so inconclusive and unsatisfactory, that we put no value on it, and
cannot think that it will lead to any thing but uncertainty and disap-
pointment.'" — pp. 125, 126.

From this and other passages we may learn, that there
were two supposed objections to vaccine inoculation : — I. The
temporary nature of the security afforded. — 2. Its occasional
want of power to saturate the system. Mr. Alsop of Calne,
told Dr. Ingenhousz, in 1798, *« that the casual cow-pox is
sometimes not severe enough to extinguish the susceptibility
to the small-pox." (p, 292.) It is certainly curious, that Dx^

160 Life ofDw Jenner.

Jenner should have acknowledged the full value of the po-
pular opinions regarding the security of cow-pox, but should
have neglected, or at least treated lightly, the qualifying
clauses. Experience has now shown that common observa-
tion was pretty nearly as successful in the one case as in the
other. But the question naturally occurs, how did Dr.
Jenner meet these objections 1 It was in the following man-
ner : — 1st, By adopting the notion of a true and spurious
cow-pox, one of which afforded full protection, and the other
little or none. (p. 132.) — 2d, When he afterwards learned that
the true cow-pox itself could not always be depended on, he
adopted the theory of deterioration of the virus, and contended
that cow-pox, in its deteriorated state, may have produced a
local disease, but *' no such influence upon the constitution as
is requisite to render the individual unsusceptible of vario-
lous contagion." (p. 133.) With these two qualifying expla-
nations, Dr. Jenner confidently announced the completeness
and the permanency of vaccine protection. The preamble
of the petition to parliament, formerly alluded to, runs
thus: — " Your petitioner having discovered that a disease,
known by the name of cow-pox, admits of being inoculated
on the human frame, and is attended with the singularly be-
neficial effect of rendering, throughlife, the persons so inocu-
lated perfectly secure from the infection of the small-pox,
therefore," &c. The same sentiment is no less strongly ex-
pressed at p. 294, in a letter to Dr. Ingenhousz, dated in
J 798. *' At present, says he, 1 have not the most distant
■doubt that any person who has once felt the influence of
perfect cow-pox matter, would ever be susceptible of the
small-pox.

In process of time, however, when some of those persons
vaccinated even by himself, took small-pox, a third explana-
tory principle was adopted, which, however, is not to be found
in any of Dr. Jenner's early letters. This we would term
the principle of variolous diathesis ; in other words, the
occasional imperfection in the security afforded by small-pox
itself. To give a strong instance, Louis XV. died of a se-
oond attack of small-pox, at the age of sixty-four, having
undergone that disease at the age of fourteen years. This
event made a great sensation throughout Europe." (Baron's
Life, p. 226.) Much importance has always been attached
to this circumstance as a source of vaccine failure. We do
not disregard it, but we think it very much overrated. Its
validity proceeds upon the assumption that small-pox and
cow-pox are essentially the same diseases, a position which

Life of Dr. Jenner. 161

we have already shown to be at least questionable. That it
is inapplicable upon a great scale is obvious, from the vast
disproportion between the cases of recurring small-pox, and
of small-pox after vaccination. Jenner was himself so
sensible of this, that, subsequent to the period comprised in
Dr. Baron's volume, he enlarged the theory of imperfect
vaccination, and admitted, as a fourth principle, diminishing
the influence of vaccination, pre-occupation of the skin, by
herpetic or other eruptions, during the progress of the cow-
pox. We are warranted by his own words * in stating,
that he attributed very great importance to this very pa-
thological doctrine. He calls it the grand impediment, and
expresses his pleasure that continental nations now begin to
estimate its influence."

Such are the views taken by Dr. Jenner, of the causes of
vaccine failure. We should close the argument here, if we
were not desirous to say a few words on an hypothesis which
is often brought forward in common conversation as capable
of explaining, in a great degree, the occurrence of small«pox
after vaccination. We mean deterioration of the virus from
passing through so many successive bodies ; and the remedy
proposed, is, of course, more frequent recurrence to the cow.
This idea, we believe, was never countenanced by Dr. Jenner,
and it is not generally adopted by medical men. It appears
to us altogether unworthy of credit ; for, first, some of those
who were vaccinated by Jenner himself, in the very infancy
of the practice, have since taken small-pox. The first lady
of rank who was vaccinated in this country (the present
Countess of Denbigh) had small-pox after vaccination, very
favourably, in 1822. A son of Admiral Barclay, the steady
friend and supporter of Jenner, vaccinated in 1806, to the
perfect satisfaction of Dr. Jenner, had small-pox also in
1822, somewhat more severely, but not at all dangerously.
2. Those who take cow-pox naturally, or direct from the
cow, are still sometimes attacked by small-pox. 3. It is
contrary to the analogy of small-pox, which is as virulent
now, as it was in the days of Rhazes and Avicenna. 4. We
have strong grounds for suspecting, that the cow-pox, in-
stead of deteriorating in quality by successive inoculations,
actually improves ; of this, at least, we are sure, that by
careful selection of healthy subjects, a pock comes at length
to be formed, which passes through its stages with a regu-
larity and beauty most gratifying to witness. But we must

* See Lond. Med. and Phys. Jguinal, for September, 1822. vol. 48. p. 194.
JAN.— MARCH, 182r. M

162 Life of Dr. Jenner.

draw this article to a close. We are afraid we may have
already wearied our readers, and find our only hope of par-
don in the great interest and paramount importance of the
subject. One word, however, byway of peroration.

In the remarks which we have here ventured to offer on
a momentous question, we hope not to be misunderstood.
We deprecate the idea of being branded with the name of
enemies of vaccination, because we have freely canvassed its
merits, and in some instances exposed its weaknesses. If we
thought we really incurred such a danger, we would quickly
turn the tables upon our readers, and by a description of
the horrors of the natural small-pox, drawn, we can hardly
say, from the life, but at least, from nature, harrow up
their souls, and ** make each particular hair to stand on end,
like quills upon the fretful porcupine." We would refer to
books, and by a detail of the dreadful miseries which arose
out of the general practice of small-pox inoculation, make
them rather suffer patiently *' their present ills, than fly to
others which they know not of." If we spare our readers
these painful recitals, it is upon the understanding, that we
are not to be looked upon as the opposers, no, nor even as the
lukewarm friends, but as the zealous and firm supporters
of vaccination. What then, it may be asked, is the spirit
and tendency of our argument? We will answer, in lan-
guage which cannot be misunderstood. Our object has been
to impress upon the public mind an old fashioned, but very
important principle, which somehow or other has been
strangely neglected of late, — namely, that we live in a world,
in which, for truly wise but often inscrutable purposes, Pro-
vidence permits that good and evil should be blended to-
gether. We shall not be able to eradicate small-pox, but we
have been blessed with several means of lessening its viru-
lence. It has been our further design to show, that the
study of those means is an intricate and difficult one, and
peculiarly the duty of those who follow the profession of
physic.

In conclusion, we earnestly desire to instil into our read-
ers a firm reliance upon their professional advisers, in all
matters which concern the security of themselves and their
families from the small pox. We have attempted to show,
and, we trust, have succeeded in proving, that the subject
engages the earnest attention of medical men ; and we are
deeply impressed with the conviction, that so long as they
(with scarcely one dissentient voice) recommend ^ to others,
and in their own families practise the inoculation of the

Life of Dr. Jenner. 163

cow-pox, BO long will that practice deserve the confidence
of the public.

We beg pardon of Dr. Baron for having lost sight of him
80 long. After what has been said, we need not occupy-
much time in assuring him of the high regard in which we
hold his contribution to the literature of the day.

Illustrations of the Elementary Principles of the Structure of
Language.
[By a Friend of the Editor*.]

The following remarks refer, primarily, to the Elementary
Principles of the Structure of the Hebrew Language ; but, as
this is the most simple of tongues, as it is the primitive stock
from which other languages have sprung, it is evident that all
investigations respecting the first principles of the structure of
language must be founded upon an analysis of the composition
of that original fountain whence language in general is derived.
And it will be found, that the elementary principles which regu-
late the structure of the Hebrew language, form the basis also of
other languages, and furnish us with the key to etymology in
general.

Vocabularies and dictionaries of the Hebrew language pre-
sent a list of about two thousand primitive words which are
called roofsy from which the other words in the language are
constructed. Each of these j^rimitives or roots , is composed of
two or three letters only, or, in other words, is either a biliteraly
or a triliteral ; and each of these is usually regarded as an
arbitrary word, arbitrarily constructed, and endowed with an
arbitrary import. But it appears, even on the first view of the
subject, highly improbable, that so many biliterals and trili-
terals should be mere arbitrary combinations of letters ; such
simplicity of structure seems to argue the existence of some con-
nexion between the structure of each root, and its applied import
— a connexion between the assigned import of each word, and
the symbolical or ideal import of the letters which compose it.

* This Paper contains the outline of a communication which was read
before the Members of the Royal Institution, on Friday evening, the
second of March, 1827.

M 2

164 Elementary Principles of

Such was the impression which I received, when I first turned
my attention to the Hebrew language ; and, under the conviction
that such was the fact, I endeavoured to analyze the composi-
tion of each root, and to find out the powers of the letters, so as
to reduce each root to its primary elements. In conducting this
analysis, I have depended solely on the results of repeated com-
parisons of each root with other roots, and I have succeeded in
resolving the fri-literals (or roots of three letters) into Z^i-literals,
(or roots of two letters), and in resolving the biliterals into single
letters. In other words, it has been found that each triliteral is
a derivative of a biliteral ; and that each biliteral may be traced
to a single letter, of which it is to be regarded as a derivative,
and upon the symbolical or ideal import of which its ideal, and,
consequently, its assigned import is dependent. By this pro-
cess, all these roots may be resolved into a few simple elements,
may be reduced to the expression of a few general or leading
ideas, the extensions, or ramifications, of which form the whole
imagery of this simple and original language.

We proceed, then, to the consideration of the powers of the
letters.

Letters, or characters traced on a surface, are to be regarded
as signs, either of things, or of sounds. As signs of things,
they are to be considered as exhibiting some representation of
the thing which they are intended to denote, and as addressing
themselves to the eye. But, as every letter has a certain sound
assigned to it, by which it is expressed by the organs of speech,
it becomes the sign also of that sound, and, as such, it addresses
itself to the ear. So that the sign of a thing is the sign of a
sound also, and it addresses itself both to the ear and to the eye.

Now it is evident, that letters, or characters, regarded as the
signs of things, might be as numerous as the things which are
to be represented. The sounds, however, by which they can,
severally, be expressed by the organs of speech are few and
simple, and as these organs consist of the lips, the teeth^ the
tongue, the palate, and the fauces, or guttur, the vocal sounds,
as formed and modified by these organs, have been distinguished
as labial, dental, lingual, palatine, and guttural. So that these
five classes of sound embrace all the vocal sounds by which any
letters can be expressed.

(he Structure of Language. 165

The Hebrew alphabet contains twenty-two letters, each of
which has a certain sound assigned to it ; but, as there are but
five classes of vocal sounds, it follows that different letters must
be expressed by sounds belonging to the same class of sounds ;
the twenty-two sound's of which th& twenty-two letters are the
signs, must be arranged under ihe five classes of sounds which
have been enumerated. If, then, each letter were the sign of a
distinct thing, it is evident, that two letters, which represent two
distinct and dissimilar things, might be expressed by sounds of
the same class. So that although, if regarded as signs of
things, there might not be the slightest similarity or connexion
between them, yet, as signs o£ sounds, they might bear so close
an affinity to each other, as to be liable to be substituted
for each other by those who regarded them only as signs of
sound.

If each letter of the Hebrew alphabet were the sign^ or repre-
sentation of a distinct thing, the whole alphabet would present
the signs of twenty-two things only. Such a limited number of
signs of things being utterly insufficient for the purposes of lan-
guage, it was necessary to connect, with the thing represented^
some general, or leading idea, which bore some resemblance to,
or had some analogy with, the thing represented. So that a
letter which was the sign of a thing, was made also the sign or
symbol of some general idea which was associated with that
thing.

The letter D, for instance, which is called Caph (5)D), or bow,
represented, as both its name and its present form denote, a bent
bow :

t)o

This may be called its representative character.

With the representation of a bent, or strung bow, was natu-
rally connected the idea of curvature, and, consequently, this
letter (the bow-letter) was adopted as the symbol of curvature,
or incurvation. This jnay be called its ideal character.

With a bent or strung bow, was also associated the idea of

166 Elementary Principles of

' restriction, the instrument being strained or rigidly forced
into, and retained in the benty or curved form, by the string *.
Hence the bow-letter D was adopted as the symbol of restric-
tion also.

But the boiv was the in^imment of smiting, wounding, pier-
cing, or infixing with arrows f ; hence it was adopted also as the
symbol of smiting, wounding, or infixing generally.

Thus the representation of a bent bow became the sign or
symbol of three general leading ideas, namely — of incurvation,
of restriction, and of wounding, infixing, or smiting.

The bow-letter D, then, had a representative character, and it
had also a three-fold ideal character. But it was expressed by
a certain sound, of which it also became the sign, (a sound
answering to that of the Greek K and Latin C), and that sound
is referrible to the palatine class of sounds. The sound by
which any letter is expressed may be termed its phonic charac-
ter, and every letter which is the sign or symbol of an idea, or,
in other words, which is endowed with an ideal character, may
be called a significant.

The several characters of the significant D may, then, be ex-
pressed thus : —

Representative character : a bent Bow.

rl. Incurvation.

Ideal - - J II. Restriction.

[IIL Smiting.

Phonic - - - Palatine.

Being thus made the symbol of three general comprehensive
ideas, the bow-letter (which, when inverted, becomes the Roman
C) was made capable of very extensive application, and it will
be found that every word in the Hebrew language which is ex-
pressive of incurvation, of restriction, and of smiting or cutting,
may be traced to this significant.

* Thus the noun f. fii:'p, which also is used to denote a bow, signifies
rigid, or contracted, from ^p,the derivative of WD, which is formed from
a [See Table II. 2. 3. a.]

t So ntt^p, in Chaldee, is a verb, signifying, to smite with a dart.

the Structure of Language.

167

The following table shews the various extensions or ramifica-
tions of the three general ideas, of which the bow letter is the
symbol ; it is constructed from a general and particular review
of the various applications of the numerous words which may
be traced up to this significant.

a
o

*^

«3

I.

incurvationA

RESTRICTION.

III.
SMITING.

Incircling.

2.

Binding
round.

r I ' (Incasinq.

a. lnmsmq,\ „ „ . , ,, t*

{Collecting together. See 11.2. a.

b. Including,

c. Cohering.

d. Embracing,

e. Going round about,

f. Binding round.

g. Forming a circle,
h. Cutting round,

a. Arched.

b. Coved.

c. Curved.

d. Bent,

Restrain
ing,

2.

Contract

•train- \ ^

iS. ra.

string'} b,
ing, I c,

I

Checking,
Prohibiting.

GaJthering together,
Coagulaiing.

See I. I. a.

3

Constring
ing

4.
Fixing

a. Rigidity,
Binding.
Holding,

a. Affixing.^

b. Appointing.

c. Settling.

Firmness,

1.

Cutting.

2.

Hitting.

a. Cutting off.

b. Cleaving.

c. Striking in a sharp instru-\Staking.

ment. , J Biting.

168 Elementary Principles of

We now come to the consideration of the biliterals which are
constructed from this significant.

It is evident that, if this significant stood alone, it might be
the symbol of either, or of all the ideas which are associated
with it. In order to make it available for the purpose of ex-
pressing each ideal character distinctly, it was necessary to
couple it with different signs or letters. Nor was it necessary
that such adjunct signs or letters should exert any symbolical
character ; for if, for example, we possessed three letters which
were not endowed with any ideal character, we might affix or
prefix one of these to our significant, when we wished to employ
it with a reference to its first ideal character : we might use
another of these in conjunction with the same significant when
w^e intended to use it with a reference to its second ideal charac-
ter ; and the third might be connected with that significant when
it was used with a reference to its third ideal character. We
might thus construct three biliterals from this significant, in
each of which a different ideal character might be exerted, the
limitation of each biliteral to the expression of one particular
idea (to the exclusion of the two other ideas) being altogether
arbitrary, although, when once made, it would ever after re-
main fixed by the authority of usage. Auxiliary letters, such
as we have just supposed, for the sake of illustration, to exist,
actually do exist in the Hebrew alphabet ; letters which, al-
though they exert no symbolical character, are nevertheless
instrumental in enabling the same significant to exert, under
different combinations, its several ideal characters, or the
several modifications of which its single ideal character is
susceptible, separately and distinctly. Such letters are termed
formatives.

Some of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet act always the
part of formatives ; others always act the part of significants ;
and there are some letters which, under certain circumstances,
are mereXy formative, while, under other circumstances, they
act the part of significants.

Let us revert to the significant D, or the bow-letter.

If we affix to this significant the letter b, (which here acts the
part of a formative) we construct the biliteral ^D, or CL, which
is expressive of in-CLosing, in-CLuding, keeping CLosCj or

the Structure of Language. 169

restraining. Thus, in this biliteral, the bow-letter exerts its
ideal characters I and II. [See Table I. 1. a — e. II. 1. 2.]

Hence we have the Greek K Aeiw, to shut or CLose, (in Latin
CLaudoj in Welch KLoi) ; XwAos-, and KyAXor, CLaudus ;
KuAvco, to restrain ; KoAXrj, GLue ; KaAty^, a CaLyx, cup,
or thing in which something is kept, or inCLuded ; KaAcus, a
cable; KoiAor, cavus ; and the Latin CauLa, CeLla, CosLum,
CuLeus, CeLo, CoLo^ CuLo, &c. And as the biUteral bD is
also indicative of bending round, (Table 1.2,) it gives origin to
the Greek KAjvo;, whence the Latin in-CLino, and the English
in-CLine,

If we affix to the bow-letter the letter ^, (which here acts the
part of a formative) we construct the biliteral t^D (CS) which is
expressive o( in-CLosing, in-CLuding, in-CaSing, covering, or
contracting together. [See Table I. 1. a. b. II. 2.] Thus,
in this biliteral, the significant D exerts its ideal characters
I. and II.

Hence we have the Greek KaZw, orno ; KoS/xor , ordo ;
KjSto), CiSta, CheSt ; KiSaoy, ivy ; the Latin CaSsis, some-
thing which in-CaseSy or in-C Loses, a net, trap, helmet, or
cap ; CaSa, a HouSe ; the English CaSe, CaSh, &c.

If we affix to the bow-letter the letter 9, (which here is merely
constructive, it acting the part of a formative) we construct the
biliteral ^D (CP or CPIi), which is expressive of incurvation,
(and the various applications and modifications of that idea ; see
Table I. 1. 2.) Thus in this biliteral, the significant D exerts
its ideal character I.

Hence we have the Greek Kt/Oor, curvus ; KafjJJrco, to
bend ; Kyjllos-, an inclosed garden ; the Latin CaPio, to KeeP,
hold, compass, or retain [See Table I. 1, II. 3, c], HaBeo
also having the same assigned and ideal import; CoPia, a
quantity collected together. [See Table 1. 1. a. II. 2. 3.] CuPio,
to in-CLine towards, (mentally,) or to grasp at, cherish, or
embrace (mentally), HoPe having the latter ideal import, as
ChuSe the derivative of ti'D also has ; Ca Vus ; and the English
CaP, CaPe, CooP, CoPe, CoVe, CaFe, and a long list of other
words.

With the letter 1 affixed, (which here exerts little or no ideal
import, it being constructive only, or formative,) the bow-letter

170 Elementary Principles of

forms the biliteral ^^ (CE) which denotes : CiRcularity, or
in-CuRvation. So that in this bihteral the significant ^ exerts
its ideal character, I.

Hence we have the Greek XoPos-, TvFos, and KiPkos ; as
also XsiP, which in Hebrew is 5]3 ; the Latin CiRca, and
CiRcum, and the English CiRcle and CuRve.

This biliteral (ID) also denotes, cutting round, or amputat-
ing; (so the Greek JJeFi, signifies CiRcum, and IY?iaj, to Cm^;
and CaRve as well as CuEve is derived from ID). See Table
1. 1. h.] Hence we have the Greek KeiPw, abscindo.

With the formative letter T) affixed, the bow-letter forms the
biliteral f)^ (CT), which is expressive of smiting, CuTting, or
HiTting. So that in this biliteral, the significant D exerts its
ideal character HI, [See Table.]

Hence we have the obsolete Greek form KoTreo;^ (and, from
a figurative application of the idea, KoTsw ;) the Latin CceDo
and CuDo, and the English CuT and HIT.

With the formative letter 1£f prefixed, the bow-letter forms the
biliteral ^l^ (SC), which is expressive both of restricting (H.),
and of infixing, or piercing with a sharp or cutting instrument,
(IH. 1, a, b, c.) ; so that in this biliteral, the significant D exerts
its ideal characters IL and IIL [See Table].

Hence we have (as used in the former of these imports), the
English CheCk; and (as used in the latter of these imports)
the Latin SeCo.

These are the principal biliteral derivatives of the bow-letter.
There are some others which may be briefly enumerated.

With the aspirate H affixed, (which is here merely formative) the
bow-letter forms the biliteral HD, which is expressive of rigidity,
firmness, [H. 3. a. see Table.] So that, in this biliteral, the
significant D exerts its ideal character H.

With the formative D affixed, the bow-letter forms the biliteral
P (CN), which is expressive of fixing, establishing, making
firm, [H. 4. see Table]. So that, in this biliteral, the significant
D exerts its ideal character H.

With the formative H, the bow-letter forms the biliteral HD
(CE), which is expressive of restriction. (It is also a particle
of restriction, as D is also when it occurs alone as a prefix to
a word, or when it is followed by the formative ^ as ''J (CI).

the Structure of Language. V7\

So that, as a prefix, or when followed by the soft aspirate or
vowel rr, or by the vowel ^, the significant D exerts its ideal
character II.

With the formative K affixed, the bow-letter forms the bili-
teral ^3 (CA), which is expressive of smiting. So that, in this
biliteral, the significant D exerts its ideal character III.

With the formative 1 affixed, the bow-letter forms the biliteral
ID (CU or CV), which is used, in a figurative sense, to denote
the pungent action, or effect of heat. And with the formative
D affixed, as VJD (CM), the bow-letter is similarly applied.
So the English HoT and HeaThoxe the same primary import,
and the same common origin as HiT and CuT, they being
endowed with the import of nD (CT), the derivative of 3, from
which significant is also formed the Greek Kccicy, uro. So that
in the biliterals lO and DD, the significant D exerts its ideal
character III.

We have thus taken a hasty view of the mode in which bili-
terals are constructed from the significant under consideration.
In some of these, the significant exerts one only of its ideal cha-
racters ; in others, two of these.

Thus it exerts its ideal characters I. and II. in the biliterals
b^y WD, *^D, ID ; its ideal character II. in the biliterals
TlDy O, r\D, ]D, (p also, in some instances, conveys the ideal
character I.) ; it exerts its ideal characters II. and III. in the
biliteral ^ti;; while in the biliterals KD, *)D^ DD, and DD,
it exerts its ideal character, III.

These, then, are the Primary biliteral derivatives of the sig-
nificant D ; we now come to the consideration of the secondary
biliteral derivatives of the same significant.

We have seen that the bow-letter J is not only the sjnnbol or
sign of idea^, but that it is also the sign of a sound, which sound
belongs, as has been already stated, to the palatine class of
sounds. [See the phonic character of D.] Now there is a most
important rule, which is extensively prevalent in the Hebrew
language (as we at present find it) and in other languages, which
may be thus stated : letters of the same organ of speech (i. e.
letters whose phonic characters belong to the same doss of vocal
sounds) are mutable with, or liable to be substituted, or ex-

172 Elementary Principles of

changed for, each other. Hence it happens, that a letter, or
the letters, of a primary biliteral is, or are, exchanged for some
other letter, or letters, of similar phonic character : and, in this
way, secondary hiliterals are formed, which are endowed with
the import or imports of the primary hiliterals from which they
are respectively derived. We will illustrate this mode of con-
structing secondary hiliterals.

We have seen that the biliteral JlD is formed, by affixing the
formative D (T), to the significant D (C), and that, in this bili-
teral, this significant exerts its ideal character III. ; the biliteral
JHD, denoting CuTting or HiTting. This, then, is an example
of a primary hiliteral. But, examining this biliteral with a
reference to the phonic characters of its component letters, we
find that it consists of a palatine (D) followed by a dental (/I.)
If, then, taking this primary biliteral, we substitute for its first,
or palatine letter, some other |)aZaime letter ; or, if we substitute
for its final, or dental letter, some other dental letter ; we may
still construct a biliteral, which is endowed with all the import
of /ID, although the first letter, or the last letter of this latter
biliteral have been exchanged for another letter, or although
both its letters have been exchanged for two other letters, the
first of such substituted letters being a palatine, the second a
dental.

The other palatines are p, whose phonic character closely re-
sembles that of D, it being similar to that of the Latin K or Q ;
21 answering to the Latin G ; and the harsh aspirate H, answer*
ing to the Greek X, or the Latin Ch.

Thus from the primary biliteral J^D, we form (by substituting
the palatine :i or H, for the first or palatine letter D,) the se-
condary hiliterals D^ (GT) and Jin (HT or ChT), which are
endowed with the import of JlD. So, by substituting for the
final or dental letter of ilD some other dental letter, and by also
exchanging the first, or palatine letter, for some other palatine,
we also procure, from this primary biliteral, the secondary hili-
terals ^p (KT, KTh, QT, or QTh), yp (KZ, or KTs), yn
(HZ or ChTs), ?n (HZ or ChDs), O (GZ or GDs), in (ChD
or HD), all of which are endowed with the import of the pri-
mary biliteral JID (CT),

the Structure of Language . 173

In like manner, if we take the primary biliteral l^D (CS), and
if we substitute for its final letter t^, the cognate (or similarly-
sounded) letter D (S or Sh), we construct the secondary biliteral
DJ, which has the same import. So if, taking the same primary
biliteral, we substitute for its first, or palatine letter 3, some
other palatine, as p or X we still get a biliteral endowed with the
same import ; thus ti^p, and 1^11, possess the import of U^D. So
by exchanging the first letter of this primary biliteral for the
palatine aspirate H, and the final letter for its cognate D, we con-
struct the biliteral DH, which is endowed with the full import of
^2. From the primary biliteral t^^D, then, are formed the
secondary biliterals DD, ti^p, U^^, and DH.

So from the primary biliteral S]D (CP), we construct (by sub-
stitution of some other palatine for the palatine D ) the secondary
biliterals S]p, ^H, ^^ ; and (by substitution also of the labial 2
for its cognate S)) the secondary biliterals 2p, 3rT^ 2^ ; each of
these secondary biliterals being dependent for its import upon
the primary biliteral 5)D.

Secondary biliterals are formed from other primary biliteral
derivatives of D in a similar manner, but the enumeration of
these would extend this paper to too great a length.

Triliterals are formed from primary and secondary biliterals
in three ways. First, by affixing to the biliteral some formative
letter, (thus i^b2 and n^3 and Q^D are formed from ^J ; 3Z0p,
2)ip, and 3iin, from \fip, VPj> Y^ ; "Jt^P from Wp ;) or, by re-
peating the final letter (as bb2 from ^2 ; 5^33 from P|D.) Se-
condly, by inserting a formative letter (as br)2 from ^2, ]Ti2
from p, t^^D from ]D2.) Thirdly, by prefixing a formative
(as '^D^ "^Di, "73?^, from '^D). Such are the simple modes in
which triliterals are constructed from biliterals.

The observations which have been made respecting the con-
struction of secondary biliterals from primary biliterals, by sub-
stitution of letter or letters of similar phonic character, apply
also to triliterals. Thus a triliteral which has been constructed
from any biliteral (whether primary or secondary) may have one
or more of its letters exchanged for some other letter or letters of
similar phonic character ; and, in this way (as we observed when
treating of the construction of secondary biliterals) is formed o,

174 Elementary Principles of

secondary triliteral, or a second series of triliterals, and each
such secondary triliteral is endowed with the import of its parent.
Thus from the triliteral ^\Vp is formed (by exchanging its first,
or its second letter, or both these, for a letter or letters of similar
phonic character) a long string of secondary triliterals, all and
each of which derive their import as well as their origin from that
parent triliteral, which is the derivative of Wp, a secondary
biliteral, (who^e import is communicated to its derivative ^^p)^
which derives its origin and its import from the primary biliteral
t^D, which is formed from the significant D, whose ideal charac-
ters I. and II. are exerted in it.

These, then, are the modes in which triliterals are constructed^

In these several ways, then, the bow-letter 3 communicates
one or more of its ideal characters to biliterals and triliterals ;
and, in a similar manner, other significants impart their im-
port to their derivative biliterals and triliterals. The bow-letter
is, however, the most important of all the significants, inasmuch
as we may trace up to it a greater number of what are called
rootSj than can be traced to any other significant. The phonic
character of this significant (d) is, as we have stated, palatine,
(it having the sound of the Latin C or K, and it being, hence,
mutable with the palatines p, ^, and H, which answer to Q or
K, G, harsh H or Ch.) But the harsh sound of D seems to have
been sometimes exchanged for a softer sound, approaching to
that of a sibilant.

So the letter C (which is formed by inverting the bow-letter)
is both a palatine and a sibilant, (" aut comix aut serpens,^') in
English as well as in Latin (a palatine in cup, a sibilant in
city), and in the older Greek alphabet, the sibilant S was de-
noted by the character C.

For we find, not only that there is a set o£ secondary biliterals
formed from the primary biliteral derivatives of D, by exchang-
ing the significant D for some other palatine (as when C]p_, 5)J>
P)rf, are formed from 5)j), but that there is also, in some
instances, a second series of secondary biliterals, which is
also formed from a primary bililiteral derivative of this bow-
letter, but which is constructed by the substitution of a sibi-
lant or dental letter for the bow-letter. Such we find to be

the Structure of Language. 175

the case with i-egard to the primary biliterals 5)D (CP), and
-)D (CR).

Thus, from t]^, we not only get the biliterals t)p, t\^, PjH, yp,
a:i, nn but also the biliterals 5)D, ID^ ^V, P)^j> ^^j» (^I^^ ^^»)
^2i, (nii), each of these being primarily dependent for its im-
port on the primary biliteral P]D, to which the significant D im-
parts its ideal characters I. and II.

So "ID (CR), not only communicates its import to its deriva-
tive in (and, in several instances, to "1p and to ")j), but it
imparts it also to the biliterals ID, *1D^ 11, l'^, and, in many
instances, to "1t_, It:^, and "1J1.

Thus a second set of secondary biliterals is derived from the
significant D, and from each of these (as from the other bilite-
rals, both primary or secondary) are formed various triliterals,
which are constructed in the manner already pointed out,
namely, by adding a formative letter, either as an affix, or as an
epenthetic, or as a prefix.

Jn these several ways, then, are triliterals, (both primary and
secondary) constructed from biliterals, which biliterals are either
primary or secondary (there being, as we have seen, both a first
and a second class of secondary biliterals in some instances) ;
and thus, from about eight or nine primary biliterals, which
owe all their import to one single significant (the bow-letter D),
may be derived and constructed above five hundred of those
words which are set down in the dictionaries and vocabularies
of the Hebrew language as arbitrary roots. So that from
this apparently simple symbol, from the extension of the
three general ideas — incurvation, restriction, smiting or fw-
fixing, is constructed more than a fourth part of the whole
language.

In a similar manner, as we have before obsened, do other
significants communicate their imports to the biliterals and tri-
literals which are derived from them. But the great length to
which this paper has already been extended, obliges us to reserve,
for some other communication, all remarks respecting them. I
may briefly observe, that the same simplicity of structure which
has been traced out in the formation of biliteral and triliteral de-
rivatives of the bow-letter, is also seen in the construction of

176 Of the Structure of Language.

those biliterals and triliterals which derive their origin and their
import from other significants. And I may remark, that the
analysis, of which the preceding pages afford a cursory specimen,
is not offered to the notice of the pubhc as an example of inge-
nuity, or of fanciful speculation, but as something which, I think,
approaches very nearly to truth and correctness. Those who
can form an estimate of the labour and difficulty which attend a
general and particular analysis of the whole of a primitive lan-
guage, and especially an analysis, in the conduct of which no
assistance has been derived from any other source than that of
repeated comparisons of each word with other words, will not too
severely scan those inaccuracies which further emendation may
correct. A specimen of the analysis (comprising the deri-
vatives of the four palatine significants, 3^ p^ H^ r\,) is, in manu-
script, in the hands of the Editor of this Journal, and it may
be examined by any one who feels interested on the subject of
language in general, or of the Hebrew language in particular.
With regard to the latter language, I may state, that the analysis
to which this paper refers, exhibits the whole of this language
under a simple arrangement, which will enable any one to
acquire a thorough knowledge of it in a very short time with
little or no labour, and will furnish an easy guide through the
labyrinths of etymology in general. There is nothing in it which
can tend, in the slightest degree, to obscure or mysticise the
contents of the sacred volume ; on the contrary, it simplifies
greatly the study of the Scriptures in that original language in
which they ought to be studied, while it tends to confirm most
strongjy the faith of the believer, and to illustrate the divine
origin of our holy religion.

An Account of the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian, which
are now measurimj on the Continent of Europe.

It has been known that, for several years past, France, in
conjunction with Austria and the governments of Northern
Italy, has been engaged in the measurement of two arcs per-
pendicular to the meridian, commencing on the shores of the
Atlantic. Of these, the southernmost, in the latitude of forty-
five degrees, the mean latitude between the equator and the
pole, crosses France, Italy, and the Austrian dominions east
of the Adriatic, until it impinges on the Turkish frontier ; the
other, in the parallel nearly of Paris and Vienna, crosses the
territories of France and Austria, until it reaches the Russian
frontier.

The geodesical measurements of these arcs originated in
the early part of the present century, and have been since
unremittingly prosecuted, excepting during the years 1813
and 1814, when the great political events of that period occa-
sioned their suspension : on the restoration of tranquillity in
Europe they were resumed with increased activity, so as to
be now far advanced towards their completion. Since that
period also, the necessary operations have been commenced,
and carried on in concert by the respective nations, wherever
such concert was required, for the determination of the celes-
tial amplitudes, corresponding to the portions of the parallels
which have been geodesically measured. Within the last few
months both series of operations, the astronomical and the
geodesical, have been completed on those portions of the arcs
which are comprised within the French territory ; and the
details, necessarily very voluminous, are in preparation for the
press. Meanwhile, public curiosity has been greatly interested
to learn the tendency at least of the evidence, which this
method of research on the figure of the earth, now for the
first time employed, may afford in regard to the amount of
the compression ; and in consequence it has been judged
proper, by the French authorities, to anticipate the final pub-
lication, and to communicate, in the present stage, such par-
ticulars concerning the portions completed, on the authority of

JAN.—MARCH, 1827. N

178 On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian^

the persons who have conducted the observations, and who
are charged with the subsequent calculations, as they deem
themselves to have satisfactorily deduced from the observed
elements, and which will be ultimately justified by the publi-
cation of the elements themselves. For this purpose, reports
have been drawn up by the superior officers of the Corps des
Ing6nieurs-g^ographes, charged with the operations within
the territory of France on both the parallels, and have been
published by order of the French government, in the eighth
volume of the Memorial Topographique et Militaire redige
au D^pot General de la Guerre.

A memoir has also been printed on the measure of the arc of
the parallel of forty-five degrees, which had been previously
read to the Academy of Sciences, by Colonel Brousseaud, of
the Ingenieurs-geographes, and M. Nicollet, membre du
Bureau des Longitudes, who had been employed in the deter-
mination of the celestial arc of that parallel comprised within
the limits of France. By the courtesy of the French govern-
ment, copies of the eighth volume of the Memorial Topogra-
phique et Militaire have been received by individuals in this
country, who have been engaged in operations, or in investi-
gations having the same ultimate purpose ; and by the per-
sonal kindness and attention of M. Nicollet, copies of his
highly interesting memoir have also been received. We avail
ourselves of the occasion to make more extensively known in
England the progress of undertakings, in the accomplishment
of which several of the principal states of the continent are
united ; as well as the decided tendency of the results which
have been hitherto obtained, to indicate, in accordance with
Pendulum experiments, and the general deduction from the
best arcs of the meridian that have been measured, a much
greater compression than - J <-, in which, until the last three or
four years, the general belief appeared to be almost fully
established.

We shall commence with the arc of the parallel of forty-
five degrees. The western extremity of this arc is determined
by its intersection with the meridian of Marennes, a town of
France, on the shores of the Atlantic, situated a few miles
north of the discharge of the waters of the Garonne. Tra-
versing France, Piedmont, and Northern Italy, and connecting

now measuring on the Continent. 179

itself in passing with the fixed observatories of Geneva and
Milan, its eastern limit has already reached Fiume, on the
shores of the Adriatic ; and, by the operations with which
the Austrian government has charged itself, and which are in
progress, it is designed to be still further extended to Orsowa,
a town of Transylvania, on the frontiers of Turkey. The
portion of the parallel comprised between the meridians of
Marennes and Fiume, is between fifteen and sixteen degrees l
between Marennes and Orsowa, twenty-three degrees and a
half The geodesical operations applied to the measurement
of this arc were commenced in Italy, Piedmont, and Savoy, in
1802, having for their object the formation of a topographical
map of those countries, corresponding to that of France by
Cassini ; the project of measuring so extensive an arc perpen-
dicular to the meridian, not having been then formed. Their
execution was confided to the officers of the French corps
des Ingenieurs-geographes, who by the year 1814 had
covered the greater part of Italy, Piedmont, and Istria, with a
triangulation, resting on abase of 9998 metres, measured near
the course of the Ticino, between Milan and the Lake Mag-
giore ; and had thereby connected Fiume on the Adriatic,
with Rivoli between Milan and the Alps. In 1811, the
project of extending the triangulation across France to the
Atlantic, and making it subservient, in conjunction with a
determination of the corresponding celestial arc, to the deduc-
tion of the figure of the earth, w^as discussed at the instance
of M. de Laplace, and adopted by the French government.
Accordingly, in 1811, 1812, and 1813, a suite of triangles
detaching itself from the great chain of the French meridian,
in the parallel of forty-five degrees, was carried to the frontiers
of France and Savoy; and in 1818, 1819, and 1821, similai*
operations connected the chain of the French meridian with
the shores of the Atlantic. Finally, in consequence of a com-
munication from M. de Laplace to the academy at Turin in
1820, the Piedmontese government appointed a commission,
composed of astronomers and officers of the Austrian and
Sardinian etat-major, who in 1821 and 1822 connected the
operations in France and Italy by a triangulation carried
across the Alps : thus uniting Marennes on the Atlantic with

N2

180 On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian,

Fiume on the Adriatic, by an uninterrupted series of one hun*
dred and six triangles, of which ninety were executed by the
French officers, and sixteen by the Austro-Sardinian commis-
sion. The excellence of the instruments that are now em-
ployed in geodesical operations, and the great experience that
the French officers in particular have had in them, might be a
sufficient warrant that the terrestrial measurement has been
executed with the requisite exactness. MM. Brousseaud and
Nicollet have, however, placed this beyond question, by employ-
ing as bases of verification the sides of the triangles of the great
chain of the meridian, which are common also to the triangula-
tion of the parallel resting on the base near Milan *. Contemplat-
ing the prolongation of the arc from Fiume to Orsowa, it has been
considered preferable to calculate from the triangles the length
of the arc of the parallel of 45° 43' 12", instead of that of forty-
five degrees exactly, as by that means a portion of the Turkish
territory between the thirteenth and seventeenth degrees of
longitude east of Paris is avoided : the parallel of 45" 43' 12"
is also that which intersects the greatest number of triangles.

The operations for the measurement of the celestial arc
were not commenced until 1821 ; the method adopted for this
purpose was, by the explosion of small quantities of powder,
on summits of such elevation, that the flash might be simulta-
neously seen at two stations, including between them consi-
able differences of longitude ; when, the instant of the appa-
rition being registered at each station in its own sidereal time
accurately known, the comparison of the registers might show
the difference of time, or, in other words, the celestial arc,
included between the two stations. That this might be accom-
plished with the greater certainty as well as exactness, several
explosions were made in the same night, at nearly equal and
appointed intervals of time, and the signals were also repeated
on several successive nights. By this method of proceeding,
the total arc, the amplitude of which it is desired to measure,
becomes divided into several portions, each of which is suc-

♦ Since the above was written, we have learnt that a base of above
14,000 metres was measured in the last summer by Colonel Brousseaud
near Bourdeaux, and is to be corrected in the next summer by a chain of
triangles with the western extremity of the arc at Marennes, as an addi-
tional verification.

now measuring on the Continent. 181

cessively and independently determined ; when the sum of the
several portions is the ampHtude due to the total arc. The
disadvantage under which a result so obtained labours is, that
it is necessarily chargeable with the accumulated sum of the
errors, which may have occurred in the determination of the
time, at each extremity of each of the portions into which the
arc is divided: in which accumulation, however, the errors
that have contrary signs will liave mutually destroyed one
another, proportionally to their respective amounts. As the
same method was adopted in all the portions into which the
arc between Marennes and Fiume was divided, differing only
in the heights and in the distances apart of the stations, and
occasionally in the number of signals employed, we shall limit
ourselves to a notice of the stations, and of the periods at
which the several determinations were accomplished.

By means of signals made at La Ferlanderie in October,
1823, the difference between the meridians of the steeple of
Marennes, and a temporary observatory established at the
mill of St. Preuil, was ascertained by M. Nicollet, and Co-
lonel Brousseaud, as follows : —

October 6th, mean of 10 signals 3' 48'',831

15th, 10 signals 3' 48",969

16th, 10 signals 3'49',207

17th, 16 signals 3 49,030

Mean of the 4 series, 46 signals 3' 49",012

Reduction to the steeple of Marennes . . . . — 00 ',022

Difference of meridians between the Observatory

of St. Preuil and the steeple of Marennes. . . 3' 48'', 99

In the month preceding, namely, in September, 1823, the
difference between the meridians of the observatory at St.
Preuil and a temporary observatory established at La Jonchere,
was ascertained by the same observers, by signals made on the
Puy Cogneux. In this instance, from accidental circum-
stances, the signals were visible at both stations on a single
night only, that of the 10th of September* ; and the arc between

* In selecting the summit of the Puy Cogneux as a station for the
signals, Colonel Brousseaud had assured himself, by personal observa^
tion from the summit of the mountain, that the mill of St. Preuil was
visible from it, and had concluded, conseciuently, that witliout doubt th^'

182 On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian^

them Is consequently determined by the mean of not more
than ten comparisons : but as all the circumstances attendant
on the observations of that night were very favourable, and as
the extreme discordance of the particular results amounts only
to 0",33, the determination may deserve to be received with
the satisfaction which is expressed respecting it by the obser-
vers themselves. The difference of meridians thus deduced is
G' 28",341, which, diminished by 5",247, the reduction of the
observatory at La Jonchere to the neighbouring trigonometrical
station on thePuy de Sauvagnac, makes the difference of longi-
tude between the observatory of St. Preuil and the station at
Sauvagnac, 6' 23",094.

In August, 1823, the same observers determined the differ-
ence of longitude between the observatory of La Jonchere and
a temporary observatory at the village of Solignat, by signals
made, on the 19th and 22d, on the summit of the Mont d'Or, ■
ten signals on each night : the results were as follow : —

August 19, mean of 10 signals . * . . 6' 49",808

22, 10 signals . . . . 6' 50",17l

Mean of 20 signals .... 6' 49",9895
Reduction to the Trigonometrical Station on the Puy

d'Isson, adjoining the observatory of Solignat . — 3'',846

Reductionto the Trigonometrical Station of Sauvagnac + 5',247

Difference between the meridians of the Trigonome-
trical Station of Isson and Sauvagnac . . 6' 51",391

On the 6th and 7th of September, 1822, signals made on the
mountain Pierre-sur-Autre, and observed at Solignat by MM.
Brousseaud and Nicollet, and at a temporary observatory on
Mont Colombier by M. Carlini, one of the members of the
Austro-Sardinian Commission, gave the following results: six

summit would be reciprocally visible without difficulty from the mill.
It appeared, however, subsequently, that this was very rarely the case,
and only in certain states of the atmosphere ; as, during the forty-eight
days which M. Nicollet remained at St. Preuil, the Puy Cogneux was
only once seen, and that for an instant, at six in the morning, the
sky being slightly clouded. On the night on which the signals were ob-
served, the sky was also clouded, and the horizon appeared by no means
favourable ; nevertheless the signals were very distinctly visible, although
. made with only a quai'ter of a pound of powder, being half the quantity
that had been tried before.

now measvring on the Continent 183

signals were made on each night, but five only were seen from
both stations on the night of the 7th : —

Sept. 6 . . .6 signals ♦ . . .10' 18",90
Sept. 7 . . .6 signals . . . .10' 18 ',81

Mean ofthe two series, 11 signals . . . .10' 18',86
Reduction to the station of Isson . . . . + 3 ",85

Difference of lon2:itude between the station at

Isson and the observatory on Mont Colombier . 10' 22'',71

At the same period that the difference of longitude was thus
ascertained between Isson and Mont Colombier, signals made
on Mont Colombier, and having the time of their apparition
noted by M. Carlini, were also observed at Geneva by MM.
Pictet and Gautier, giving the difference between the meridians
of Mont Colombier and the observatory of Geneva: whilst other
signals made on Mont Tabor, and observed by M. Carlini on
Mont Colombier, and by M. Plana at a temporary observatory
at the Hospice on Mont Cenis, gave the difference between the
meridians of the temporary observatories of Mont Colombier and
Mont Cenis, at which those gentlemen were respectively esta-
blished. The following are the results of these several obser-
vations : —

Between Mont Colombier and Geneva.
Sept. 4 . . .6 signals .... 1' 35",27
Sept. 5 . . .6 signals .... 1' 35'',60
Sept. 6 . . . 6 signals . . . . l' 35",10
Sept. 7 . . .6 signals .... 1' 35",12

Between Mont Colombier and Mont Cenis.
Sept. 5 . . .6 signals .... 4' 43'', 96
Sept. 7 . . .6 signals . ... 4' 44' ,28
Sept. 11 . . . 6 signals .... 4' 43 ',01

Mean of three series, 18 signals .... 4' 43",75
The unfavourable circumstances of the weather having caused
a more than ordinary uncertainty to attend the determination of
the time at the observatory on Mont Colombier, elevated 1434
metres above the sea, MM. Brousseaud and Nicollet have deemed
it preferable to substitute Geneva as the eastern extremity of the
arc, of which the western is the trigonometrical station at Isson,
and to consider Mont Colombier as a station of transmission only.

184 On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian^

The observations of the 6th and 7th Sept. had made the difference
of longitude between Isson and Mont Colombier 10' 22",7i ; the
signals given on Mont Colombier on the same nights as the
observations between Isson and Mont Colombier, and observed
simultaneously there and at Geneva, made the difference of
longitude between those two places V 35",11. The sum,
10'22",71 + r35"ll = ir 57",82, will therefore be the dif-
ference of longitude between Isson and Geneva, independently
of any error which may have existed in the comparison of the
clock at Mont Colombier with sidereal time. There then
remains to be elicited from the preceding observations the arc
between Geneva and Mont Cenis, in which Mont Colombier
serves again as a station of transmission ; and taking, as before,
the observations of those nights only when the communication
with Mont Colombier was effected both from Geneva and from
Mont Cenis ; and when, by such means, the sidereal time at
Geneva became immediately compared with the sidereal time at
Mont Cenis, we have, by the observations of the 5th and 7th of
September, between Geneva and Mont Colombier, 1' 35",36, and
between Mont Colombier and Mont Cenis, 4' 44",12, whence
the difference of longitude between the observatories of Geneva
and Mont Cenis appears 3' 08", 76.

In September, 1821, MM. Plana and Carlini ascertained
the amplitude of the arc between the Hospice on Mont Cenis
and the observatory at Milan, by means of thirty signals made
on the Roche Melon, of which ten were on the night of the 1st,
ten on that of the 2d, and ten on that of the 3d September ;
the results were as follow : —

Sept. 1 .

.

. 10 signals

Sept. 2 ,

.

. 10 signals

Sept. 3 .

.

. 10 signals

9'

00",24

9'

00",28

9'

00",08

9'

00",2

+

00'',606

Mean of . .30 signals ....

Reduction to the Dome of Milan ....

Difference of longitude between the observatory on

Mont Cenis and the Dome of Milan . . . 9' 00",806

For reasons that are not given, but probably on account of
the small extent of the arc between Geneva and Mont Cenis,
the determination of its amplitude, accomplished, as we have

now measuring on the Continent. 185

seen, in 1822, is united in M. Nicollet's Memoir to the ampli-
tude between Mont Cenis and Milan, ascertained in the foUow-
in^ year, — making but one arc between the observatory at
Geneva and the Dome of Milan, — the amplitude of which is
3' 08",76 + 9' 00",81 = 12' 09^57.

In August, 1824, by direction of the Austrian government,
the difference of longitude between the observatories of Milan
and Padua was determined as follows by signals made on the
Monte Baldo : —

August 23 .

. 10 signals .

. 10' 43",72

August 25 .

. 10 signals .

. 10' 43 ',11

August 26 .

. 10 signals .

. 10' 43",08

August 27 .

. 10 signals .

. 10' 43",20

Mean of four series . 40 signals . . . 10' 43",277
Reduction to the Dome at Milan ... — 0'',606

Reduction to the steeple of Sainte Justine at Padua + 2 ',712

Diiference of longitude between the Dome of Milan

and the steeple of Sainte Justine at Padua . 10' 45'',383

There remains but a single portion more, namely, that between
Padua and Fiume, to complete the entire amplitude between
Marennes and Fiume ; this portion has been measured by
signals on Monte Baldo, visible at the same time at Milan,
Padua, and Fiume ; but the results are not yet reported.

The rate of the clock, and its difference on sidereal time,
was ascertained at each of the temporary observatories, by
zenith distances of the principal stars, east and west of the
meridian, never under 30° or above 60° of altitude. Several
stars were observed on the same night whenever the weather
permitted, and the clocks were always established several days
before the signals were commenced. As far as was possible,
the apparition of the signals was noted by the clock itself; but
when not visible from the spot where the observatory, was
placed, two chronometers were always employed, which were
compared with the clock immediately before and immediately
afler the signals.

We have been thus particular in relating in detail the pro-
ceedings by which the celestial amplitude was ascertained, for
t-wQ reasons ; first, because it i^ the first ti?ne that the attempt

186 On the Area perpendicular to the Meridian^

has been made to determine the difference of longitude between
the extreme stations on a line of such considerable extent, by
the method of instantaneous signals; and, second, because the
value of the ultimate deduction, as to the figure of the earth, is
in fact chiefly dependent on the degree of exactitude which
has been practically attained in the determination of the celes-
tial arc, inasmuch as errors in that determination of such small
amount as it would seem almost impossible altogether to avoid,
far outweigh, in their consequences, the utmost error, which, in
the present advanced state of geodesical measurement, could
be possibly apprehended as likely to arise from that source.
In the parallel of 45° a single second of time is equivalent to
about 324 metres ; and, of course, in an arc of 13°, which rather
exceeds that comprised between Marennes and Padua, an error
of 1" in the celestial arc (could such an error be supposed to
exist as the sum of all the errors of the separate determinations
into which the arc has been divided) will equal 25 metres in the
length of the mean degree of the parallel; the influence of
which on the fraction expressing the ellipticity, deduced from
the comparison of the degree of the parallel with the degree
of the meridian, will amount to between 22 and 23 in the
denominator of the fraction. We have therefore considered
it the preferable course to enable our readers, as far as it is in
our power, to form their own estimate of the measure of accu-
racy which has been attained.

We recapitulate, in order to present in one view, the ampli-
tudes of the several portions forming the total arc between
Marennes and Padua : —

1st Arc . . Marennes and St. Preuil . . 3' 48",990

2d Arc . . St. Preuil and Sauvagnac . 6' 23",094

3d Arc . . Sauvagnac and Isson . . 6' 5l",391

4th Arc . . Isson and Geneva . . 11' 57",820

5th Arc . . Geneva and Milan . . 12' 09 ',5 70

6th Arc . . Milan and Padua . .10' 45,383

Total . Marennes and Padua . .51' 56",248

The following are the geodesical measures, expressed in
metres, comprised on the parallel of 45° 43' 12" between the
meridians of the stations which form the limits of the several

now measuring on the ContinenL

187

arcs ; with the corresponding length of a degree of the parallel,
as separately deduced from each of the arcs : —

1st Arc

74407,385 .

. 77984,95

2d Arc

. 124182,225 .

77797,44

3d Arc

. 133345,511 .

. 77792,00

4th Arc

. 233087,384 .

. 77931,76

5th Arc

. 236717,395 .

. 77870,77

6lh Arc

. 209256,276 .

. 77807,32

Total

. 1010996,176

In order to obtain from these results the most probable
value of the degree of the parallel, MM. Brousseaudand Nicollet
have followed a method recommended by Lieutenant- Colonel
Puissant, of the Corps of Ingenieurs-geographes, in a memoir on
the determination of the figure of the earth, inserted in the eighth
volume of the Memorial Topographique et Militaire. This
method consists in making as many equations of condition as
there are partial arcs, of the form : —
^__r__ e_

rr "" 240 " 240
wherein b is the arc in metres, T the observed celestial ampli-
tude in seconds of time, e the probable error of that deter-
mination, and X the most probable value of the degree ; and
these equations being treated by the method of least squares,
the value of a; is obtained*.

By this process the most probable value of the degree of
the parallel deduced from the six preceding results is 77865,75
differing 3.15 met. from 77862,60, the value deduced from
1010996,176, the total arc in metres divided by 59', 56", 948,
the sum of the several celestial amplitudes ; and 1,71 met. from
77864,04 m^t., the value obtained by taking an arithmetical

♦ Or substituting for a?, /S + a*, in which a value is taken for /S, diflpering
not more than a few units from the most probable vahie of the degree,
and X a quantity so small that its square may be neglected ; the equa-
tions of condition may then be made of the following more convenient
form : —

240. b. 240. b.

from whence the value of x being ascertained, and added to that as-
sumed for /S, tlie most probable mean value of the degi-ee is obtained.

188 On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian,

mean of the six partial results ; differences which, in respect
to the ultimate employment of the number itself in the deduc-
tion of the EUipticity, may be regarded as altogether incon-
siderable.

Applying, then, the value of the degree so deduced to the
several equations of condition formed from the subdivisions of
the total arc, the probable error assigned by the calculation
to each of those determinations is shown as follows :

Marennes and Saint Preuil . . correction + 0",351

Saint Preuil and Sauvagnac
Sauvagnac and Isson
Isson and Geneva
Geneva and Milan .
Milan and Padua

- 0 ,336
■- 0 ,390
+ 0 ,608
+ 0 ,047

- 0 ,407

These corrections, assigned on the system of the least
probable errors, must be regarded in each case as applicable
to the sum of the errors arising from three sources ; namely,
in the comparison of the clocks with sidereal time at the two
extremities of the arc, and in their comparison with each
other by means of the intermediate signals : the average cor-
rection to each arc is 0,35".

For the deduction of the EUipticity from the combined
values of a degree of the parallel and a degree of the meri-
dian, MM. Brousseaud and Nicollet have employed the formula
given by M. Puissant, in the memoir to which we have already
referred.

i (B - A cos H )

a :rr

^ { i ■<- ; — — I + i A cos H sin2 H

wherein A is the mean degree of the meridian betAveen the
latitudes X and x" ; B the mean degree of the parallel in the
latitude H ; tt the circumference of a circle of which the
radius is unity ; and a the ellipticity. Combining then
77865,75 m^t. as the mean value of the degree of the parallel
in the latitude of 45° 43' 12", with 111140,51 met., the mean de-
gree of the meridian between the latitudes of Dunkirk 51° 02'
09",2, and Mont-Jouy 41° 21' 46",58, (which is the measured
arc of the meridian passing through France,) the ellipticity is

obtained r^;— ^. Substituting, in the combination, the ^rc of

.:ttv now measuring on the Continent. 189

the meridian between Greenwich 51° 28' 40", and Formentera
38° 39' 56", 11, of which the mean length of a degree is

111115.08 met., the ellipticity deduced ^s ——. Such are

the results of the comparison of the arc of the parallel in the
latitude of 45°, with arcs of the meridian which intersect the
parallel, and are measured on the same part of the globe with
itself. If we would now compare it with arcs of the meridian
measured in latitudes widely different from its own, — with
that of India, between the latitudes of 8° 9' 38",39 and
18" 3' 23",G4, of which the mean degree is 110628,60 met.,

we shall obtain by the same formula -rrr-r ; and if with that
•' 290,5 '

of Peru, of which the limits are 0° 2' 31" S. and 3° 4' 32" N.,
and the mean degree 110582,10, we obtain-——-.

® 294,7

An attempt to investigate with precision the Ellipticity which
might best conform to the combination of this new element with
preceding determinations, would obviously be to anticipate
that period when the value of the degree itself shall be ascer-
tained with the additional accuracy, which the prolongation
of the arc to Orsowa, nearly doubling its present extent, will
produce : in the meantime M. Nicollet has assumed the
arithmetical mean between the four results which we have given

above, , as, provisionally, the indication of the general

Ellipticity of the globe, afforded by the combination. Thus
much we may at least infer, that as no one of the results

approaches so small an ellipticity as-—, and as it would

require an alteration in the length of the degree of the parallel

of nearly 30 metres to produce —— as the mean result of

the combinations, it is the decided tendency of this method
of inquiry, no less than that of the Pendulum experiments,
to be irreconcileable to that proportion between the earth's
axes, with which it was so lately supposed that all methods of
experimental inquiry were in accordance. We have now the

result of the pendulum experiments -— ; of those meridian
arcs which have been most accurately measured 278?' ^^

190 On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian,

lately shown by Mr. Airey ; and of the arc in the mean parallel,

as combined with the principal of these, -r^r-r.

AVe are struck by the progress that this great question, so long
the subject of scientific research, is now making, when we re-
member that at the period at which the Pendulum experiments
were published, their results stood alone as an indication, de-
rived from an extensive combination, of a much greater Compres-
sion than was then almost established in the general belief; two
years have not since elapsed, and already closer investigation,
and experiments not then reported, have brought the evidence
of two other methods of inquiry in approximation to its own ;
indeed, in the present state of the inquiry, the Pendulum
result, which was the greatest, now appears the least. The
differences, however, are only of that nature and amount, that
WC may reasonably expect will gradually give way to the
further progress of experiment. The measurement of parallel
arcs is carrying on by the states of the continent with great
spirit. The Pendulum is now in the hands of almost every
nation. The measurement of meridian arcs alone is stationary;
and there can be no question that those which ha\e been
hitherto measured are insufficient for the determination of
the figure of the earth. We rejoice that in this country the
subject has engaged the attention of Mr. Airey ; and we
cannot but anticipate an increased interest in it from his
discussion, published in the Philosophical Transactions of the
past year.

The project of measuring an arc perpendicular to the
meridian on the parallel which is common, or nearly so, to
the capitals of France and Austria, appears to have originated
in France ; having been made the subject of a communication
from the French to the Austrian government, in the year
1809, by which its conjoint execution was proposed, and
was readily acceded to on the part of Austria.

The arc which has resulted from this proposition has its
western extremity determined by the meridian of the obser-
vatory of Brest. From thence it crosses France to Stras-
bourg, intersecting the meridian of Paris a few miles south of

,5^iV' now measuring on the Continent. 19l!

that capital. At Strasbourg, it enters the territory of Baden,
which it crosses to that of Wirtemburg ; and successively the
territories of Wirtemburg and Bavaria, to those of Austria ;
connecting itself in its progress with the observatory of Mu-
nich. Proceeding onwards through Austria, it is successively
connected with the observatories of Vienna and Buda, and is
carried across all the countries subject to the Austrian domi-
nion, until it reaches the frontiers of Russia, between Mol-
davia and Gallicia, where its eastern limit is for the present
detei-mined by the meridian of Czernowitz. The extent of
the arc comprised between Brest and Czernowitz is not less
than 30 degrees, being a twelfth part of the entire parallel.
Its importance, therefore, is at the least not inferior to that of
the arc of the mean parallel of which the amplitude does
not attain 24 degrees. Nor are the operations less advanced ;
but as the accounts of them that have hitherto appeared are
far less systematic, or complete in the details, than those of the
mean parallel, we have been under the necessity of giving it
the second place in the present notice. For the particulars
with which we are acquainted, we are principally indebted to
two Memoirs, printed in the eighth volume of the Memorial
Topographique et Militaire, by Colonel Bonne, of the Inge-
nieurs-g^ographes, the survivor of the superior officers of that
corps intrusted with the conduct of the operations in France
and Bavaria; and to the correspondence of M. Littrow of
Vienna, with the Baron de Zach, published in the third cahier
of the third number of the Correspondance Astronomique,
&c., for 1822.

When, in 1809, the Austrian government acceded to the
proposition of France^ the geodesical operations which the
measurement of the portion of the arc passing through Austria
would require were already far advanced ; having been under-
taken in reference to the topographical map of the Austrian
dominions. In France they were immediately commenced,
and their execution between Brest and Strasbourg was com-
pleted in 1823, forming a suite of upwards of 60 triangles,
resting on bases, measured near Paris for the centre, and near
Brest and Manheim for the extremities of the arc passing
through France. At the same period also the connexion

192 On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian,

between the French and Austrian portions had been esta-
blished under the direction of the intermediate governments.
In 1822, the measurement of the corresponding celestial
amplitude was commenced by the Austrians, on the portion of
the arc comprised between Munich and Buda, in Hungary.
The method of determining the celestial amplitude on this
parallel was essentially the same as on the arc of the mean
parallel ; that is to say, it was accomplished by comparisons of
the sidereal time of selected stations, effected by instantaneous
signals given at intermediate points. The mode of accom-
plishing the comparison, however, and the arrangement of the
intermediate signals, differed greatly on all points of this parallel
from that pursued on the parallel of 45 degrees : nor were the
proceedings upon the French and Austrian portions of the
parallel less different from each other in their details of execu-
tion, than both were from the proceedings on the other parallel
which have been already described. Viewing the subject as
interesting alike from its novelty, and from the probability that
the method will be frequently and extensively resorted to
hereafter, for the determination of differences of longitude, we
shall briefly describe the variations which have taken place,
and the practical inferences that present experience appears to
warrant. Without doubt, theoretically, the most advantageous
application of the method of instantaneous signals to the
determination of the celestial amplitude corresponding to an
arc of considerable extent, would be by the same arrangement
of stations as was adopted on the parallel of 45*^ ; namely, the
total arc divided into portions by astronomical stations, each
provided with a clock, accurately compared with the heavens
by astronomical observations, and with each other by signals
from one intermediate station, the apparition being registered
directly by the clocks ; but in the execution of the operations,
it would be preferable, that, instead of the several portions of
the arc being determined successively and independently, the
whole should be accomplished at the same time, the signals
being given and observed along the whole extent of the line on
the same nights. By this means no other errors committed in
the determination of time, except those at the extremities of
the total arc, would influence the ultimate result ; whilst, by

now measurimj on the Continent. 193

the time being ascertained with all due care at each of the
stations, whatever interruption might take place in the con-
tinuity of transmission, from circumstances of weather or other
casualties, would be confined in its effect to the spot at which
the chain should be broken ; leaving, in such case, the partial
determinations, as well as those in which no such interruption
should have taken place, available in the general conclusion.
Such, in theory, may be considered the most advantageous
arrangement. The practical objection to it is : — the number
of persons, of competent astronomical qualifications, whom it
requires to station simultaneously on different points of the
arc. It was the very limited number of such persons that
occasioned the successive determinations of the portions of
the parallel of 45°, and which rendered the succession a con-
sequence of necessity, not of choice.

Next to the above arrangement, is a second, scarcely infe-
rior to it in the certainty, or in the accuracy, of the result, in
which the whole line may be covered by the same number of
individuals, but having amongst them a smaller proportion of
highly qualified observers. It is the mode adopted by the
Austrians on their portion of the parallel between Munich and
Czernowitz : it consists in deciding, that every alternate observ-
ing-station shall be a station of transmission only ; and fur-
nishing it accordingly with chronometers, instead of an
astronomical clock, and with the more simple apparatus by
which the daily rates of chronometers are ascertained, instead
of the transit, or repeating circle. The arc is still divided
into portions, but these are of greater extent than in the
former arrangement, inasmuch as every two stations at which
the time is determined, comprehend between them two stations
at which signals are given, and a third, intermediate between
the two latter, provided with chronometers, and charged to
make known the exact interval of time elapsing between the
signals on either hand; for which purpose the rates of the
chronometers may easily be sufficiently ascertained. If the
operations be established along the whole extent of the line at
the same period, the astronomical stations may still be cm-
ployed, as in the former case, as stations of transmission only,
and the total arc be chargeable with the errors only of the

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. O

194 On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian^

extreme stations. This advantage, however, was not derived
by the Austrians, who, apparently from the different states of
preparation of different parts of the arc between Munich and
Czernowitz, determined it in separate portions independently
of each other. Thus, in May, 1822, the difference of longi-
tude between the observations of Vienna and Buda was ascer-
tained by explosions of powder, at the chapel of St. Rosalia,
on a mountain on the frontiers of Austria and Hungary, seven
and a half German miles from Vienna, the apparition of which
was noted at Vienna, and by chronometers stationed on a
mountain near Dotis, in Hungary ; and by other explosions
on the Nasnal, six German miles from Buda, the apparition ot
which was noted by the chronometers at Dotis, and at the
observatory at Buda. The observations were made on the
nights of the 12th, 21st, 22nd, and 23rd of May, giving, as
the result of ten comparisons, 10' 40",699. A second trial
was made in August of the same year, in which an alteration
was made in the locahty, but not in the arrangement of the
intermediate stations, by which twenty-eight comparisons were
effected of thirty attempted, on the nights of the 17th, 18th,
and 19th ; the result was 10' 40",7, which may be considered
as identical with the former determination, and is a good spe-
cimen of the confidence to which this method of determining
differences of longitude is entitled. In the same month, but
not on the same days, the difference of the meridians of the
observatories of Vienna, and Bogenhausen near Munich, was
ascertained, by a similar arrangement of intermediate stations,
to be 19' 05",202. No report has yet been made of the signals
between Buda and Czernowitz.

The arrangement adopted on the French portion of the
parallel is an extension of that introduced by the Austrians (of
substituting chronometrical for astronomical stations) to all
the stations intermediate between the extreme ones of the
total arc, where alone consequently the absolute time is deter-
mined. It may be regarded as a mode of covering an arc of
considerable extent, where there is no deficiency of individuals
capable of noting correctly the apparition of signals by a chro-
nometer, but with the smallest possible number of observers
competent to. determine absolute time, — rather than as, on the

now measuring on the Continent 195

whole, an eligible mode of procedure. A single link failing
in the chain of transmission, nothing is accomplished, and the
whole line has to be re-established for another attempt. Ex-
perience has fully shown, we think, the inconvenience and
inexpediency of attempting too extended a transmission, with-
out providing for the security of a part, should the whole
transmission fail. In 1824, the determination was attempted
between Strasbourg and Paris, having two intermediate stations
of transmission, and, by consequence, three intermediate
signal-stations : the signals were continued for ten successive
nights, ten in each night, at each post, making altogether one
hundred signals. And in the same year the arc between Paris
and Brest was attempted by an arrangement altogether similar.
The latter failed wholly, nothing whatsoever being accom-
plished ; and in the arc between Paris and Strasbourg, six
transmissions only succeeded, giving a result which it has
since been found necessary to reject. The following year,
1825, both arcs were again attempted, two additional stations,
one a signal, and the other a chronometrical station, having
been introduced on the line between Paris and Brest ; and a
fresh arrangement of the stations, but not increasing their
number, between Paris and Strasbourg. The number of suc-
cessive nights was also increased to twelve, making one hun-
dred and twenty signals throughout the line. Of these, thirty-
five succeeded, on the line between Strasbourg and Paris ; but
between Paris and Brest the transmission again failed altoge-
ther on eleven nights out of the twelve, and the result obtained
on the single night was not considered sufficiently satisfactory
to prevent the necessity of an entire repetition of the whole in
the summer of 1826. The details of the third and success-
ful attempt have not yet been published ; but we have learnt,
that the precaution was adopted on this occasion of virtually
dividing the arc into two portions, by an astronomical station
midway between Paris and Brest.

The measurement of the arc, .between Paris and Brest, gave
rise to a similar undertaking between Paris and Greenwich, to
determine the long- agitated question of the difference of longitude
between the respective national observatories. This was accom-
plished in 1825, by Colonel Bonne and M. Largeteau, on the part

02

196 On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian,

of the French government, and by Mr. Herschel and Captain
Sabine, on that of the British. The arrangement of the interme-
diate stations was the same as that which we are now considering ;
viz. three signal and two chronometdcal stations. The execu-
tion took place at the same period as the unsuccessful attempt
of that year, between Paris and Brest, one of the signal stations
(that nearest to Paris) being common to both arcs. In this
case also, four nights only of the twelve succeeded, although,
from the accordance of the partial results obtained on those
nights, the general conclusion is considered as satisfactory, and
as not requiring repetition.

It may not be without its use to collect, in one view, what
experience has shown as to the proportion of powder proper to
be employed in the signals ; because, whilst on the one hand
the quantity must be sufficient to insure the visibility of the sig-
nals, it is desirable also on the other to be guarded against
excess, since the smaller the quantity of powder the more instan-
taneous is the inflammation. In the instructions given by the
6t^t-major-general, at Vienna (Ephem. di Milano, 1826, Ap-
pendix, p. 46,) to the Officers employed to make the signals on
Monte Baldo, which were to be seen at Milan, a distance of
seventy-two geographic miles, the quantity of powder directed
to be used was f of a Viennese pound, to be increased to a pound
in unfavourable states of the atmosphere. The signals were seen
at Milan, by M. Carlini, who makes no particular comment con-
cerning them ; but in the report of Professor Santini {idem.
Appendix, p. 67,) by whom they were also observed at Padua,
forty- three geographic miles from Monte Baldo, after noticing
that the signals were so distinctly visible as to be observed by the
naked eye, as well as with glasses, he remarks, that they could
not be said to be absolutely instantaneous ; that the progress of
the inflammation was perceptible, and that the illumination
lasted, from its first appearance to its total extinction, about a
quarter of a second, or, perhaps, even one-third of a second ;
which obliged him to endeavour, as far as was possible, to ap-
preciate and register the instant of the greatest splendour. We
conclude, therefore, that, for distances of from forty to fifty
miles at least, the quantity directed by the authorities at Vienna
was excessive ; and this is further confirmed by the fact, that

now measuring on the Continent 197

MM. Brousseaud and Nicollet employed, for distances from
sixty to eighty geographic miles, half a French pound, and
even between a quarter and a half, finding that quantity ample
for visibility. By experiments made at St. Preuil, by M.
Nicollet, we learn that, at distances of twenty geographic
miles, the inflammation of so small a quantity of powder as the
sixteenth of an ounce was distinctly seen by the naked eye ; and
that even the flash of the priming of a musket was visible, at the
same distance, by the aid of glasses. It is related by the Baron
de Zach, (Cor. Ast. 1822, p. 273,) that, in experiments made
in 1804, the illumination made by six ounces of powder fired
on Mount Brocken, was seen without glasses on the Keulen-
berg, a distance of one hundred and thirty geographic miles,
although^ the Mount Brocken itself is not visible from Keu-
lenberg, being below its horizon ; a fact which, related upon
less authority, might appear almost incredible. More general
experience, however, has shown that the illumination alone, dif-
fused by the inflammation, cannot be relied upon as a signal,
but that it is necessary that the inflammation itself should be
actually within the view.

The knowledge of the least quantity of powder that will secure
visibility becomes the more important, when, from the absence
of hills of sufficient height, it is necessary to give the signals an
artificial elevation by means of rockets : this was the case on
the whole extent of the arc between Brest and Strasbourg,
except at a single station, Donon, where the arc is crossed by
the chain of the Vosges ; at all the other stations of this parallel
in France rockets were employed, varying in diameter from 15
to 18 and 24 French lines, and calculated to carry eight ounces
of powder to the respective heights of 200, 300, and 400 toises,
previous to its explosion, which was rendered the more instan-
taneous by a contrivance in the rocket to carry the spark, by
which it is fired, at once into the middle of the powder.

In a country, in which there are no hills of sufficient height to
direct the choice of stations, and where, in order to avoid the too
great multiplication of posts, the stations are necessarily taken
not visible from each other, the selection may still, in some
degree, be guided by the consideration, that those places are
most eligible as stations of observation, which have a low hori-

198 Oa ihe Arcs perpondiculdr to the Meridian^

feoti in the two directions in which it is desired to establish the
signals ; in consequence of which a less elevation is required to
be produced by the rockets.

• To calculate this elevation, or the height to which a signal
must be raised at a station A, in order to be visible at a post of
observation B, if we take d = the difference of level between
the stations ; K = their distance apart ; N = 0.08, the mean
refraction ; Z = the observed zenith distance of the horizon,
viewed from B, in the direction A ; and z = the zenith dis^
tance at which A would be visible from B, were it not for the

intervention of the horizon; then is cot. ^ =-i> 0.0000000658

K, all the measures being expressed in metres ; and z — Z
t= a is the vertical angle which the rocket must pass through to
bring the signal in view from B ; and from which angle the
height in metres is found by K tan, a. The greatest height re-
quired on the French arc was about 600 metresj for which
rockets of 24 lines diameter were employed.

If we would take an average of the distances on the parallel,
intercepted between the meridian of the stations, so as to be in
Bome measure guided in judging of the number of stations that
an arc of given extent would require, we find 72200 metres for
the average distance on the parallel of 45° ; and 70370 for that
on the parallel of Vienna and Paris, of which the German
portion averages 73000, and the French portion (in which the
countries may be considered as remarkably deficient in natural
advantages for such operations) 67850 metres. These num-
bers are all between 36.5 and 39.5 geographical miles ; and, of
course, are something less than the average direct distance
between the signals and the posts at which they were observed;

We learn from Colonel Bonne that the Heliostat has been
introduced with success on the portion of the arc that passes
through Baden and Wirtemberg, the disappearance of the
reflection of the sun (rendered ' instantaneous by the rapid
motion of an intercepting screen) being substituted as signals
for the explosion of powder. We perceive also that the em-
ployment of M. Fresnel's lamp is recommended both by Colonel
Bonne and Colonel Puissant, to answer the same purpose by
night as the Heliostat does in the day ; a recommendation enti-

ttm\f:n6w measurihg on the Continent 199

tied to the more consideration, since tlie invention of Mr. Drum-
mond's lamp, employed since 1825 in the geodesical operations
in Great Britain, the light from which, compared with the light
from M. Fresnel's, is in the proportion of 20 to J .

We come now to the consideration of the ellipticity with which
the measurements on this parallel correspond, so far, at least,
as the authorities of which we have spoken enable us to draw a
conclusion. Commencing with the arc between Buda and
Munich, as the most easterly of which we have any particulars
whatsoever, we are informed by M. Littrow (Corr. Ast. Zach.
1. c.) that the geodesical distance measured between the obser-
vatories of Buda and Vienna, calculated on an assumed ellipti-
ticity of -^-fj, was found equal to a difference of meridians of
10' 41",292 ; and that the distance measured between Vienna
and Bogenhausen (near Munich), computed on the same
assumed ellipticity, was found equal to 19' 05",26 ; making
together a geodesical amplitude between Buda and Bogen-
hausen, of 29' 46",552, on the supposition of the ellipticity
being -^jj. It is not difficult to learn from hence the value of
the arc in metres from which this deduction must have been
derived : by combining this number of metres with the true
difference of meridians, or the celestial amplitude obtained by
the fire-signals, 29' 45",9, we obtain the value of a mean
degree of the parallel ; by combining this again with the mean
degree of the meridian between Greenwich and Formentera,
we find that the operations on the parallel between Buda and
Munich, taken in concert with those between Greenwich and
Formentera, correspond to an ellipticity of -^-l^.

We find in Colonel Bonne's report the celestial arc between
Bogenhausen and Strasbourg, 15' 29",42, apparently the most
satisfactorily determined of any of the portions on either of the
pamllels. Unfortunately, we are nowhere favoured with the
results of the corresponding geodesical measurement ; nor with
any deduction or inference, from which we might obtain it, by
treading back the steps of a calculation. This is the more to
be regretted, as it is the only result which is wanting to enable
the combination of the three portions, viz., between Paris and
Stmsbourg, Strasbourg and Bogenhausen, and Bogenhausen
and Buda, which would malie a connected arc of between six-

2QQ On the Arcs perpendicular to the Meridian,

teen and seventeen degrees. From this portion, therefore, we
can draw no conchision whatsoever.

We are informed by Colonel Bonne, that the difference of
tlie meridians between Strasbourg and Paris, computed from the
triangles on the assumed ellipticity of ^i^, amounts to 21'
35",88 ; in which estimate we are enabled, in the manner before
noticed, to acquaint ourselves with the value of the arc in metres
from which it was originally made. The first attempt to ascer-
tain the celestial amplitude of this arc was made in 1824, under
the direction of Colonel Henry, when, of one hundred signals,
six only were transmitted throughout the line, viz., three on the
25th of August, and three on the 26th. The six transmissions,
however, presented so satisfactory an accord with each other,
that, in the first of the two memoirs published by Colonel
Bonne, in the Memorial Topographique et Militaire, namely, in
the one which records the proceedings up to the end of 1824,
the presumption is expressed, that the mean result so obtained
would scarcely be altered by a new attempt. The attempt was,
however, renewed in the following year, under the direction of
Colonel Bonne, Colonel Henry being dead intermediately, when
the result of that year was proved to differ nearly eight-tenths
of a second from that of the preceding year ; of which it is
stated in explanation, in the second memoir of Colonel Bonne,
that the unfavourable weather of the preceding year had not
permitted Colonel Henry to ascertain the correction of his clock
with sufficient exactness. We have been induced to notice this
circumstance, because it strengthens our view (to which we shall
presently advert) of the expediency of providing some check,
at least, upon the total arc. It would have been hard to have
judged that an amplitude derived from the observations of two
different days, the partial results of which, as well as the mean
of each day, presented so satisfactory an accord, and in the
report of which no circumstance indicative of doubt was men-
tioned, was inferior to other determinations, especially on the
parallel of 45®, which have not been so tested by repetition :
nevertheless, the error that repetition in this case discovered,
was of a magnitude that, distributed on the whole extent of the
arc, from Brest to Czernowitz, would still have very materially
influenced the ultimate conclusion, not less indeed than eight in

now measuring on the Continent. 201

the denominator of the fraction expressing the ellipticity. Nor
could the discordance, which the comparison of so erroneous a
result with other portions of the parallel would have manifested,
have insured a repetition ; since we observe the anomaly little
less in amount which exists in the portion of the parallel of
forty-five, between Isson and Geneva, has not been considered
to require a re-examination.

The extension of the number of intermediate chronometrical
stations, as practised in France, has given rise to a question
of some nicety, of which the solution was not at first very
obvious, but which has been well and clearly discussed by Mr.
Herschel, in the account which he has given (Phil. Trans.,
1826) of the operations in which he was engaged, for deter-
mining the difference of meridians between Greenwich and
Paris. The desideratum which he has there supplied is the
most advantageous way of employing a broken series of obser-
vations ; that is to say, a series made on a line, on which there
are two or more stations of transmission, and on which failures
in the complete transmission have taken place occasionally at
different parts of the line. To reject all but complete trans-
missions is obviously to reject a part of the evidence, when it
is most important to preserve all that the observations will
afford ; and it does, in fact, frequently happen, that the cases
in which a link fails, and which will give no result at all if
taken singly, form the principal part of tiie actual observations,
and being treated properly, are not less capable of yielding a
correct result than the complete transmissions. Did the chro-
nometers keep strict sidereal time, it is evident that the differ-
ence between any two of them would be constant ; and that it
would be indifferent whether the time at which they were com-
pared with each other was earlier or later than the comparisons
of each with the others next in succession in the line : that
all the comparisons, at all parts of the line, on the same night,
whensoever occurring, might, in fact, be regarded as simulta-
neous. The chronometers, however, do not keep strict time ;
which renders it necessarj^ particularly if the series be much
broken, to take into the account their rates, and the intervals
elapsing between the comparisons at different parts of the line.
We may perhaps render this clearer by an illustration : — Suppose

202 On the Arcs 'perpendicular to the Meridian,

three chronometers, A, B, and C ; A and C keeping true
time, B intermediate between the others, gaining five seconds
in the 24 hours : suppose, further, that the three first signals
given on any particular night are the only ones seen by A and

B, and that in like manner these signals only are seen by B and

C, but that those signals are the three last given on that night ;
the number of signals in each night being ten, the interval
between each ten minutes, and the signals between B and C
given always five minutes later than those between A and B.
In this case, the comparison between B and C takes place
one hour, fifteen minutes after that between A and B, B having

gained intermediately on each of its neighbours — ^^ = o',s.
Now the sidereal time arriving from one extremity of the line
has to be conveyed to the other extremity, by being successively
transferred from A to B and from B to C, by means of their
respective differences. But the difference between B and C,
taken 1 hour 15 minutes after the comparison of B with A»
differs 0',3 from what it would have been had the comparisons
been simultaneous. The sidereal time will, therefore, be re-
peated from C, charged with the whole of the error arising
from the rate of B in the interval of comparison, unless a cor-
rection, proportioned to the rate and interval, be applied to the
differences. The rates of the chronometers adopted in this
illustration are such as actually did exist in the operations
between Paris and Greenwich ; and but for the corrections ap-
phed, would have introduced a considerable error.

We consider, therefore, that Mr. Herschel has rendered a
valuable service to those engaged in operations of this nature,
by giving a short and easy method, whereby the result of such
a broken series may be computed, Avith a due consideration of
the respective rates and intervals, and without rejecting any
observations but such as, having been seen only at a single
post, must of course be wholly useless.

From the 120 signals given in 1825 between Paris and Stras-
bourg may be derived 35 results, either of complete trans-
missions, or from signals, between which the intervals were so
small as to admit of their being combined, to represent complete
transmissions. The mean of the 35 results is 21' 35",4. View-

now measuring on the Confment. 203

ing, however, with Mr. Herschel, the impropriety of rejecting
all those observations which did not admit of being so com-
bined, Colonel Bonne has investigated the general result which
the whole body of evidence will afford : the method that he has
pursued for this purj)Ose is not explained, but we may suppose
that it is analogous at least to that of Mr. Herschel, because he
states that all the intervals between the signals shewn by the
«<3hronometers were reduced to sidereal time, and corrected for
the several rates. The result thus obtained, and which we must
presume to be much preferable to the former, is 21' 35",55.

The clocks at Strasbourg and Paris having been compared
with astronomical time, by means of different stars, the ques-
tion of their right ascension becomes involved, and the differ-
ences in that respect that exist in the catalogues of Maskelyne,
Bessel, and Pond. The amplitude of 21' 35",55, which is
given by the mean of the three catalogues, when separately
computed by each, is as follows :

Maskelyne . . 21' 35",55 ^

Bessel . . . 21 35 ,62 I 21' 35^55.

Pond .... 21 35 ,49 J

For these differences there is of course no other remedy than
to take the mean ; but it would be a preferable course, on
future occasions, to avoid them, by concerting to employ the
same stars.

The amplitude 21' 35",55, combined with the value of the
arc in metres deduced from the triangles, gives the mean value
of a degree of the parallel, which, combined with the mean
^iegree of the meridian between Greenwich and Formentera,
corresponds tO an ellipticity of — - .

The celestial amplitude between Paris and Brest, having
only been determined in the course of the last summer, is not
yet reported.

We have had great satisfaction in learning that a communi-
-nication very recently made by the French government to
Russia, proposing the further extension of the arc from Czer-
nowitz, through the Russian dominions, where the parallel
passes north of the Caspian, has been favourably received ;
ftnd that an examination of the country, preparatory to its
being undertaken, is arranging for the ensuing summer, to be

204 On the Decomposition of

executed by Russian officers, accompanied by one or more of
the French officers, who have been engaged in the operations
which we have described.

It is obvious, however, that even for the deductions to be
drawn from the arcs of the parallel, the extension and multi-
plication of the measurements on the meridian are already
become more requisite than of those on the parallel.

We merely avail ourselves of the occasion to express a hope,
that before the operations on either parallel are considered to
be concluded, the endeavour may have been made to obtain
the celestial amplitude of each, by astronomical observations,
executed in concert at the extreme stations. For arcs of small
extent, there cannot be a doubt that the determination by sig-
nals is far preferable to every other method ; but there must be
a term in the extension of the distance to be measured, when
the celestial reference from the extremities equals in value, and
in still greater extensions must be regarded as preferable to the
method by signals. We are not prepared to say which method
might deserve the preference on arcs of the magnitude of those
of Marennes and Orsowa, Brest and Czernowitz ; because we
could assign by conjecture only the degree of accuracy attain-
able in several months of diligent and concerted observation, to
determine the difference of meridians of the extreme stations,
by all possible phenomena, particularly by lunar transits and
occupations. But we cannot doubt that the attempt, which
would be far less costly than the operation by the other method,
would lead to highly valuable conclusions, not only in producing
just notions of the relative value of the methods ; but in fur-
nishing a result, which, in comparison with that obtained by the
instantaneous signals, could not fail to be most advantageous and
important to the arcs themselves.

E. S.

On the Probable Decomposition of certain Gaseous Com-
pounds of Carbon and Hydrogen, during sudden expansion.

Some very singular appearances have been observed by Mr.
Gordon, of the Portable Gas Works, which have led him to
believe- that chemical changes are occasioned by the sudden

certain Gaseous Compounds. 205

expansion of oil gas, which do not happen when the expansion
is gradual ; a striking result of the change being the separa-
tion of carbon from the gas. The effect referred to is exhibited
when oil gas, compressed into vessels by a power equal to
that of 30 atmospheres, is suddenly allowed to escape through
a small aperture into the air. It was first observed accidentally,
in consequence of the derangement of the valve of a large
apparatus, into which the gas had been compressed to 27
atmospheres. The gas escaped with immense velocity, and
when an examination took place of what had happened, it was
found that all the metallic part of the valve upon which the
gas had rushed was covered with a black, moist carbonaceous
substance, and the contiguous brick wall with dry, black carbon,
the moisture in this case having been absorbed by the brick.
Since that time, Mr. Gordon has repeatedly shewn the effect,
by allowing the gas to rush out with very great violence from a
portable lamp against a piece of white paper, which becomes
immediately covered with black carbonaceous deposit.

The general conclusion is, that as the gas thus rapidly expands,
a partial decomposition takes place, and carbon !s separated.
If this explanation should ultimately prove, by further experi-
ments, to be true, it will be highly important, as affording an
instance of the exertion of mechanical and chemical powers
in those circumstances where they most closely verge upon each
other. At present, we have but little knowledge of such
phenomena, though the announcement in France of the pro-
duction of several new compound bodies, possessed of peculiar
properties, solely by the exertion of physical powers, may lead
us to hope for an accession of information on the subject; that
which we thought we had, was in part rendered uncertain by
the contrary conclusions arrived at by Mr. Perkins and Dr.
Brewster, the one believing that in a case of crystallization the
effect was produced entirely in consequence of pressure * ; the
other, that pressure had been the only cause why bodies,
othenvise ready to crystallize, had retained the fluid state.

A natural suspicion, upon first hearing of and seeing the
results obtained by Mr. Gordon, was, that the rapidity of the
current of gas had carried away a minute portion of the metal

* Philosophical Transactions.

206 On the Decomposition of certain Hydro-carbons.

from the surface of the valve past which it rushed, or of the
interior of the air- way against which it was thrown, and that
that metal had caused the stain upon the paper ; but upon exa-
mination, this proved not to be the case ; for the black deposit
upon a card, when subjected to acids, remained insoluble, and
when burnt and tested chemically, gave no traces of copper.

Further examination of the substance showed that it was not
a pure carbon, but one of those compounds, containing a very
large proportion of carbon, combined with a small quantity of
hydrogen analogous to tar, pitch, or asphaltum, for it dissolved
readily in the fluid^hydro-carbons obtained by the compression of
oil-gas. As these black carbonaceous compounds are formed in
the process of making oil-gas, a suspicion cannot but arise, that
the effect observed may have been produced by the current of
gas having swept off small portions of such substances pre-
viously deposited, or slowly formed in the interior of the vessels
at former periods ; and have left them upon the wall in the acci-
dental result, or upon the paper placed in the current of the
gas, when the effect has been purposely shown.

It may, however, be remarked that, in experiments made in
the laboratory of the Royal Institution, upon the fluid product
obtained by condensing oil-gas at high pressures, it was observed
that, after rectifying the products arid separating the more fixed
from the more volatile, that although they were perfectly clear
and transparent at first, yet by spontaneous evaporation
through the corks which closed the vessels, and after a lapse of
time, chemical changes were produced; for, ultimately, there
remained nothing in several of the receivers but a broAvn sub-
stance, heavy, adhesive, like honey or treacle, and in certain
cases even almost solid. From the circumstances of the experi-
ments, no hesitation could arise in concluding that a sponta-
neous chemical change had taken place ; and it does not seem
at all unlikely that a similar change, or one to a much greater
extent, may have occurred suddenly during the rapid alteration
in the mechanical condition of the gas in Mr. Gordon's experi-
ment ; the most condensible of the substances in the mixture of
elastic matters which constitute oil-gas, being perhaps those
which are most altered, and in that case Mr. Gordon's account
of the plienomena would be correct.

207 niMxivs*!

Proceedings of the Royal Society.

In consequence of the lamented death of H. R. H. the Duke of
York, the business of the Royal Society was not resumed until the
25th of January ,when a paper was communicated by Davies Gilbert,
Esq., *• On the Expediency of assigning Specific Names to all
such Functions of Simple Elements as represent definite Physical
Properties ; illustrated by an Investigation of the Machine moved
by recoil, and also by some Observations on the Steam-Engine.**

In this paper the author presses the necessity of distinguishing
by separate appellations all functions which measure the intensity
of physical properties, and adduces, in favour of his argument, the
controversy which ensued soon after the application of mathemati-
cal expression to the laws of motion, when it was contended, on
the one hand, that the weight of a moving body multiplied into its
velocity, was the measure of the motion ; and on the other, that the
weight should be multiplied into the square of the velocity, to obtain
such measure. At length it was ascertained that these views were
not really discordant, and the terms momentum and impetus, respec-
tively applied to them, ended the discussion. The author then
observes, that neither of these terms is a correct measure of the
efiective action of machines, the criterion of which is the force
exerted, multiplied by the space through which it acts. Mr. Watt
expresses this numerically, in reference to the steam-engine, by
the term duty ; and the raising of a pound weight to the height of
one foot has been made by him the dynamic unit. For this
measure, Mr. Gilbert proposes the term efficiency^ and retains
the term duty for a similar function, indicative of the work per-
formed ; and by comparing these two functions, a measure of the
actual work performed by any machine may be obtained.

Mr. Gilbert then illustrates the utility of this term in investi-
gating the mechanical power of the recoil-engine, and shows the
impossibility of economically applying steam on such a principle.

Some observations on the efliciency of steam, and on the com-
parative powers of different engines, concluded this communi-
cation.

At this meeting. Professor Jameson s name was ordered to be
inserted in the printed lists of the Society, he being unable at
present to attend in London for personal admission.

208 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

Thursday, February 1.

A paper was communicated by D. Moore, Esq., F. R. S., giving
an Account of a new genus of Serpentiform Sea Animals, by J.
Harwood, Esq., M. D., F. L. S., Prof. Nat. Hist. R. I.

This singular animal was taken up at sea by Capt. Sawyer, in
lat. 62° N. and long. 57° W. It was in an exhausted state, ap-
parently in consequence of having gorged a very large fish.

Dr. Harwood observes, that in several characters this animal
resembles the ophidian reptiles, especially in the structure of the
jaws, which are truly serpentiform, with the exception of the
interarticular bones. From this resemblance, und from the large
sac with which it is provided. Dr. Harwood gives it the generic
name of Ophiognathus, with the following characters : —

Corpus, nudum lubricum, colubriforme, compressum, sacco amplo
abdominali.

Caput, antice depressum ; maxilla superiore (paulo) longiore.

Dentes, in maxilla inferiore, et ossibus intermaxillaribus j subulati
retroflexi.

Maxillae elongatae, patulae, dilatabiles (serpentium instar).

Lingua, vix conspicua.

Spiracula, ante et sub pinnas pectorales ; magna.

Pinnae pectorales, dorsales, analesque, radiis mollibus. Ventrales,
nullae.

Oculi minimi ; prope extremitatem maxillae superioris positi.

Cauda elongata, in filamentum apterum producta.

The author then enters into a detailed description of the animal,
to which he gives the specific name AmpuUaceics^ and which is
illustrated by three drawings.

G. Poulett Scrope, Esq., was admitted a Fellow of the Society.

Friday, Feb. 8.

Sir Everard Home communicated a paper, entitled " An Exami-
nation into the Structure of the Cells of the Human Lungs, with
a view to ascertain the office they perform in Respiration ; illus-
trated by microscopical observations." By J. Bauer, Esq., F.R.S.

The author*s chief object in this paper appeared to be, the dis-
proval of the usually-accepted chemical theories of respiration,
and to show that air, or at least oxygen, is actually absorbed in
that function. This view of the subject he principally founds upon
the anatomical structure of the air-cells, respecting which some
new facts are brought forward, to which we shall take another
opportunity of calling the attention of our readers.

209 ^i

Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.

The Evening Meetings of the members of this Institution were
resumed on

Friday, January 26ihy

when Mr. Faraday gave " A General Account, accompanied with
experimental ilhistrations, of the late Extension of our Know-
ledge relative to Magnetism, founded on the discovery of M. Arago,
of the effects of metal when in motion."

The magnetic phenomena with which we were acquainted prior
to the year 1818, consisted of the various effects produced by
the action of natural and artificial magnets upon each other, and
upon the metals iron and nickel, with some effects, very feeble
and uncertain, (as to their origin), produced by the mutual
action of magnets and bodies in general. In the year 1819,
Oersted discovered that a current of electricity produced magnetic
effects of an extraordinary kind. Upon the extension of the dis-
covery by himself and others, it was found that the current
was able to influence the magnetic needle, and permanently to
magnetize steel bars, but that the power was disposed in a manner
entirely unknown till then, and best expressed by the term, first
applied to it by Dr. Wollaston, of Vertiginous Magnetism. In the
year 1821, Seebeck first discovered such an arrangement of matter,
that a metallic ring could be made vertiginously magnetic in
every part, in a manner so analogous to that occasioned by a
current of electricity, that though no other evidence of the elec-
tricity could be obtained than the existence of the magnetism, still
it was generally admitted to be sufficient, and the dependance
of the latter upon the former inferred. It was in 1824, that
M. Arago added an entirely new fact to this branch of knowledge,
by showing, that when a magnet was brought near a plate or ring
of copper, or other substance not usually considered magnetic, and
the one made to assume a rotary motion, that it immediately
exerted a powerful influence on the other, which it had not whilst
in a state of rest, and either tended to make it move, or was
itself retarded. The effect was shown by making magnets and
plates revolve or vibrate near each other. A horse-shoe magnet,
weighing several pounds, was made to rotate rapidly by a thin
copper plate ; and a circular copper plate, which, being suspended
according to Mr. Sturgeons method, by an axis not in the centre
of gravity, would vibrate, when moved, 60 or 70 times before it ac-
quired a state of test, would not vibrate more than six times when

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. P

210 Proceedings of the

inserted between the poles of the same magnet. The experiments
by Messrs. Babbage, Hersehel, Nobili, Christie, and others, were
referred to, and M. Arago's objections to the theory which has been
advanced stated and illustrated. The opinion entertained has been,
that the magnet produces poles of an opposite nature to its own at
the parts where they approach nearest to the copper, and that these
poles are not assumed and destroyed instantaneously, but require
a certain portion of time for their formation and destruction, in
consequence of which they exert an attractive force on the poles
which are passing over and from them, and drag, as it were, after
them. M. Arago, however, shows, by the use of the dipping
needle, and by long magnetic needles suspended to balances, that
the force brought into action is not an attractive, but a repulsive,
one ; and states his original objection to the same theory, when
it first suggested itself to him, by inquiring how it is that a metal,
which, like copper, cannot, when in a state of rest relative to the
needle, deflect the latter a single second, can, when in a state of
motion, carry it 90° or more.

An Ornamental Lamp, recently constructed by Mr. Bartholomew,
was placed upon the library table at this meeting. Some very
elegant transparent paintings and spiral devices were kept in
rotary motion, by the action of the current of heated air issuing
from the chimney of the lamp. The contrivance appears well
adapted to a number of purposes of ornamental illumination. A
Night Lamp was also shown, invented by Mr. Blackadder. The
flame is supplied with oil by capillary attraction, independent of the
use of a wick.

Numerous Books, presented to the Institution by the Duke of
Buckingham, Mr. Smith, and others, were also upon the table.

Some specimens of Dried Plants, from Massachusetts, were pre-
sented by Mr. Sharpe, of Boston. They were in the form of lon-
gitudinal cakes, about eight inches long, four wide, and two in
thickness : each cake consisted of the leaves or flowers of a par-
ticular herb, which, after being dried and prepared in a peculiar
manner, had been then accumulated and pressed together in these
forms. The colours were not much injured, and the odours were
strong and pure : prepared in this way, it is said that the
herbs can be preserved unchanged for a great length of time,
whilst they are rendered very portable. The specimens consisted of
Thorough- wort leaves, Eupatorium perfoliatum ; Spear-mint, Men-
tha viridisi and Elder flowers, Sambucus nigrus.

Royal Institution of Great Britain. 211

The secret of preparing these vegetable cakes is said to be
possessed exclusively by the peculiar sect of people called the
Shaking; Quakers, and from whom the specimens in question had
been obtained.

Friday^ February 2nd.

" An Account of the Extensive Applications lately made in Paris
of the Chlorides or Chlorurets of Lime and Soda, as disinfecting
agents," was given by Mr. Alcock. It appears that the well-
known power possessed by chlorine, of destroying putrid or in-
fectious miasmata, is retained by it, even when it is in combination
with lime, in the substance usually known in this country by the
name of bleaching powder ; or when in a similar state of combi-
nation with a weak alkaline solution. If the bleaching powder
(chloride of lime) be sprinkled about a place in which putrescent
or infectious vapours are floating, they soon disappear; or if it
be dissolved in water, and then cloths be dipped in the solution,
and afterwards brought into the infected atmosphere, they produce
the same good result. These properties, combined with the inno-
cuous nature of the chloride itself, renders it available in many
cases where disinfection is required, where the use of free chlorine
would be attended with inconvenience. Thus, in disinterring a
corpse for the purpose of judicial inquiry, a cloth dipped into the
solution of the chloride, and placed over the body for an hour or
two, will prevent the developement of unpleasant effluvia ; or in
descending into pits, sewers, or cesspools, if the air breathed be
passed through a sponge imbibed with the same fluid, the person
can remain some time without injury in situations where others,
not so provided, would infallibly be destroyed. The application
of the compound or mixture of chlorine with solution of carbonate
of soda* to ulcers or putrescent sores, was also lightly touched
upon, and the good effects stated to have been obtained by others
confirmed by Mr. Alcock.

The Library Tables were furnished with a very elaborate pen and
ink drawing of a Holy Family, by Mr. Train ; with numerous books
presented by members and friends of the Institution ; with speci-
mens of new and unpublished works ; with scarce manuscripts and
books ; and with a specimen of deadly vegetable poison from
Assam, used by the Assamese to tip their arrows and spears. This
specimen consisted of several small amylaceous roots in a dried
state, which, when cut open, were found to be intersected with

♦ Which has received the name of chloruret of oxide of sodium.

P2

2lJd Frnceedi?2gs of the

darker-coloured portions. The roots were secured in a delicate
little cane basket, and have not as yet been examined with re-
spect to their powers or composition.

Friday, February 9 th.

Mr. Ainger delivered a Discourse, the subject of which was,
*' The Principle of Security in the various kinds of Locks :" the
following is an outline of this communication : —

The means of giving security to locks are of two sorts. The first
consists in numerous obstacles (commonly called wards) ^to the
passage of the key, which requires, therefore, a peculiar form to
evade them.

The second consists in a number of impediments to the motion
of the bolt ; those impediments being so contrived that their abso-
lute and relative positions must be changed before the bolt can be
withdrawn.

Means of the first class are defective, because a surreptitious in-
strument need not thread the mazes of the obstacles or wards ; it
escapes them by taking a path on the outside of them, which is
unavoidably left for the passage of the extremity of the key. Com-
plexity in the form of the wards, therefore, does not increase se-
curity, neither does it add to the difficulty of imitating the key,
because in all keys of this sort nearly two-thirds of the metal is
superfluous, and requires not to be copied.

Means of the second sort are the most ancient, having been
known in Egypt above four thousand years, as was inferred by M.
Denon, from some sculptures on the great temple at Karnac, repre-
senting locks similar to those now used in that country, in which
means of this sort are employed. The bolt, and a fixed part of the
lock are each pierced with any number of holes, arranged in any
chosen form, those in the bolt and in the fixed part coinciding when
the bolt is locked. These holes are occupied by pins which are
contained in the fixed part and descend into the bolt, so as to pre-
vent its motion till they are removed wholly into the fixed part.
This is effected by a key having the same number and arrangement
of pins, and of such a length that they elevate the ends of the pins
in the lock to the plane of motion between the bolt and the fixed
part. This key is introduced laterally through a long tube, at the
end of which it acts vertically upon the pins, whose position, there-
fore, it is difficult to ascertain.

This principle of security was not generally known in this country
or in Europe, till it was re-invented by Mr. Barron, and applied by

Royal Institution of Great Britain, 213

him in conjunction with wards to the security of a lock, for which
he obtained a patent in 1774. The same principle was afterwards
adopted by Mr. Bramah, without the assistance of wards or ob-
stacles to the key, but the mode of application was very different
from the Eg'y])tian. In the latter, the security arose from a con-
cealment of the number and position of the impediments ; in Mr.
Bramah's, these were discoverable on inspection, and the security
depended on the various degrees of motion which the several impe-
diments required before the bolt could be moved.

These gradual improvements induced a corresponding attention
to the art of picking, which would have been fatal to the reputation
of the new locks, but for the almost simultaneous invention of a
very simple and costless alteration, by which the required position
of the impediments is rendered utterly undiscoverable.

There are a few contrivances which do not come within either of
these classes: such as the detectors, which give notice of any attempt
to introduce a false instrument, and the sliding curtain of Mr.
Lawson, by which the key-hole is so perfectly closed, during the act
of unlocking, that it would be impossible to move the bolt while a
pick remained in the aperture.

Locks have also been made which required that the key should be
a powerful magnet ; others in which an unusual and complicated
motion must be given to the key ; others in which an improper key
or instrument would fire a pistol or ring an alarum.

These expedients are, however, more curious than useful. There
is no difficulty in making a lock perfectly inviolable, and nearly all
those of any estimation now before the public are, when well made,
quite secure.

Models and diagrams illustrating the two principles or means of
security, as also of the methods of picking, together with specimens
and models of the Egyptian and nearly all the modern locks, were
exhibited in the Lecture Room.

It was stated, in the course of the evening, by Mr. Trevelyan, a
gentleman of Cornwall, that a lock, resembling the Egyptian, is
used in that county ; that he has also seen it in the Faro Islands, to
both which places it was probably taken by the Phoenicians.

A specimen of a fungus, separated by Mr. Trevelyan from a beech
tree, was laid upon the table. The whole of its upper surface was
covered by a layer of brown resinous matter, which extended also a
little way round the edge over the under surface. When separated
by a knife and examined, it was found to be combustible, with

214 Proceedings of the

much flame and smoke, and soluble in alcohol ; insoluble in water ;
nearly tasteless, and, indeed, to have all the general properties of
resins.

Several books, presented to the Institution, were laid upon the
table, with numerous specimens of works still in the press, and some
rare copies of ancient works.

Friday, February I6th.

Mr. Brande gave an account of the art of making dies for medals
and coinage. (See page 116.)

A specimen of the Meleagris Ocellata, of Cuvier, Dindon Oeille,
or Honduras Turkey, was placed upon the table. As this very
brilliant bird is not only very rare, but comparatively recently
described in the Planches Colorizes of Temminck, a work in the
hands of comparatively few, we think that we shall serve both the
objects of this Institution, and those of the science of natural his-
tory, by inserting part of the description therein contained, which is
from the pen of Baron Cuvier.

" Meleagris Ocellata. (Cuvier.) This magnificent bird unites
the singular form of the turkey to a brilliance of colour which
hardly yields to that of the peacock. Its height and carriage are
the same as in the common turkey ; but its tail is not so broad ;
the beak is also surmounted by a caruncle ; the head and neck,
two-thirds down, are naked, and coloured blue and red ; upon each
eyelid are five or six fleshy tubercles, and on the middle of the head
five or six others ; it has no vestige of the bunch of coarse hair on
the breast, which characterises the male domestic turkey. All the
feathers resemble in form those of the turkey ; the feathers on the
lower part of the throat, upper part of the back, the scapulars, and
those on all the inferior part of the body, are of a bronzed green
colour, and bordered with two lines, the inner black, the outer
golden bronze ; those on the middle and lower part of the back
have the same distribution of colours, but are more beautiful, their
green bronze gradually, in descending the back, becoming of a
sapphirine blue, which, according to the reflections of the light,
change into emerald green ; and their bronzed borders, enlarging
more and more, exhibit on the superior part of the back the bright-
ness of gold ; and towards its base, still increasing in extent of sur-
face, they present a reddish copper colour, little inferior in bril-
liancy to that of some humming-bird's, which effect is still height-

Royal Institution of Great Britain, ZUf

ened by their being separated from the rest of the green and blue,
by a line of velvet black. The feathers of the tail coverts have
those parts, which are least exposed, of a gray colour, but the gray
is rendered more conspicuous in such as approach the extremity of
the tail, in which, as in the true tail feathers, the extremities, having
their blue and green parts surrounded by a black circle, and bor-
dered on their outward edge with a beautiful golden green, repre-
sent the eyelike embellishments of the pavo bicalcaratus ; there are
four transverse rows of these eyes, separated by gray ; the lesser
wing coverts are of emerald green, with a narrow border of black ;
the greater coverts of the secondaries are of metallic copper, with
golden reflections : internally, near the quill, they are emerald
green ; externally, grayish white : the primary coverts are blackish
brown, with narrow oblique bands of white, as are also all the quills,
except the external borders of the last primaries, and nearly all the
secondaries, which are white : the secondaries nearest the back are
tinted with golden green ; the tail has fourteen feathers, and is
round at the extremity ; the feathers of the thighs are blackish ;
the legs are rather longer and stronger than in the common turkey,
and have much larger and more pointed spurs ; their colour is a
fine red."

The most beautiful wild turkeys are entirely destitute of eyelike
spots, and have the ground of their plumage of a bronze colour,
changing into copper, each feather having a broad dark border, and
another narrower border of a lighter colour ; the tail is also composed
of longer and stronger feathers.

The specimen placed on the table was also sent alive from the
Bay of Honduras, as a present ; it arrived in this country, in Fe-
bruary, 1818, and, dying on its arrival, was stuffed, and placed in a
room, in an elevated situation, where it remained unnoticed until
the present time. It is also a male.

A third specimen is to be found in the Museum of Natural His-
tory, at Charleston, South Carolina ; but the neck is so imperfect,
as to have caused Mr. Say, the naturalist, to reject a memorandum
which he had taken from it, with the view to publication, some
years antecedently to the description, and thus to lose the credit of
having been the first to make this brilliant bird known. The speci-
men is also a male, and from the great length of its spur, and the
more decided development of the eyelike markings on the feathers
of the lower part of the belly, as well as on the tail coverts, it
is supposed to be a bird of mature plumage.

Since the specimen has remained at the Royal Institution it has

216 Proceedings of the

been visited by many persons, and among them one gentleman who
had seen the identical bird alive at the Bay of Honduras, in the
latter part of the year 1817.

He states, that these birds are found in the interior in the woods,
that they are very rare and remarkably shy. That two were brought
to the Bay, in the latter part of 1817, where he saw them in the
possession of the gentleman by whom it has been ascertained that
the specimen was sent to England, and that one of them was killed
by running against the bars of the place of its confinement, when
approached to be viewed. He cannot say positively whether the
birds were taken by the woodcutters, or by the natives, but he rather
believes by the woodcutters.

There is also reason to believe that another specimen was taken
alive to Philadelphia in the year 1804, where it met with a similar
fate to the last, being killed by running against the bars of the place
of its confinement.

When it is added, that a gentleman, resident thirty years in the
Bay of Honduras, never saw a single specimen of this bird ; and
that Charles Buonaparte, who has so distinguished himself as a
naturalist, by his able continuation of Wilson's Ornithology, has
recently sent persons thither expressly to procure a specimen, and
that without success, it is hoped that this attempt to collect in-
formation in regard to it Will not be without interest.

Lastly, when we consider how completely we have succeeded
in domesticating the common turkey, as well as the great variety of
other birds, with which our farm-yards abound, and which, in their
wild state, were probably as shy as these, it may not be too much
to hope, that this notice may fall into the hands of some of those
who may hereafter have the means of procuring either the birds or
their eggs, and by leading them to make attempts at their domes-
tication, become the indirect means of making another most bril-
liant addition to such as have thus become more peculiarly subser-
vient to the uses of man.

Friday, February 2Srd.

Dr. Harwood gave, in the Lecture Room, *' A Description of
the Anatomy and Habits of several Species of the Seal :'' the out-
line of this discourse, with which he has favoured us, will be found
in another part of this Journal. (See page 71.)

General Tolley presented some interesting specimens of Egyptian
antiquities to the Museum of the Institution.

Royal Insfitution of Great Britain. 217

Friday, March 2ncl.

Some observations on the Principles of the Structure of Lan-
guage, communicated by a Member of the Royal Institution, were
read and illustrated by Diagrams by Mr. Singer, the Principal
Librarian of the Royal Institution. An abstract of these observa-
tions, for which we are indebted to the author, will be found in the
present Number. (See page 163.)

Friday, March 9th.

Some observations upon Ship-building, illustrated by Models and
Drawings, were delivered in the Lecture Room, by Mr. Holds-
worth. The remarks offered this evening were merely preliminary
to a more extended discussion of the subject.

In the Library, a portable gas lamp was exhibited, furnished
with the condensed gas obtained by the decomposition of resin, an
invention for which a patent has lately been obtained by Mr. F.
Daniell, and which promises to be of considerable importance in an
economical view. The gas is extremely free from smell, and
appears to surpass even oil gas in brilliancy.

Proceedings of the Horticultural Society.
January 2nd, 1 827.

A PAPER was read upon the grafting pears upon quince stocks.
The writer strongly called the attention of the Society to the im-
portance of this practice, and pointed out the great advantages
attending it. It is really surprising that English gardeners should
so long have neglected a practice which has long been followed in
France, and to which the excellence of French pears is, in a great
degree to be attributed. The quince used as a stock, has the pro-
perty of stunting the growth of pears, of forcing them to produce
bearing branches, instead of sterile ones, and of accelerating the
maturity of the fruit. No small garden should contain pear-trees
grafted in any other way, nor any large garden be without them
to a considerable extent.

Various seeds were distributed to the members present, as is
the custom in this Society, and a number of different fruits were
exhibited. Of these the gloux morecsea and the bruni ranee, new

218 Proceedings of the

varieties of pears of the highest excellence, obtained by the per-
severance of our Flemish neighbours, offered a gratifying example
of the important results to which industry and patience, combined
upon scientific principles, are sure to lead in horticulture, as well
as other arts.

January IBth.

No meeting was held, in consequence of the decease of his Royal
Highness the Duke of York, one of the few honorary members of
the Society.

February 6th,
A number of short papers upon various horticultural matters
were read. There was laid upon the table a specimen of coarse
netting, for protecting fruit-trees, that had been manufactured in
North Wales, at a very low price. This was the best material that
has yet been produced for the purpose, and less than half the price
of the cheapest of all similar manufactures.

Various flowers and fruits of the season were exhibited, and
cuttings and seeds of choice fruits and vegetables were distributed
among the members.

February 20th,

A paper was read upon the cultivation of camellias in the open
air, in Yorkshire, and another upon metallic hot-houses. The latter,
by Mr. William M'Murtrie, gardener to Lord Anson, and a very
experienced cultivator, excited great attention. The author pointed
out the great disadvantages attending hot-houses constructed of
iron, if to be used as forcing-houses ; showed them to be more
expensive, and not more durable than houses of wood ; and finally,
declared his belief that they were, if considered as forcing-houses,
totally inapplicable to such objects. In this he maybe right ; but
with regard to iron houses for objects of ornament, and for the cul-
tivation of flowering, and perhaps tropical fruiting-plants, we ap-
prehend that there can be no doubt that they are, under good ma-
nagement, of the greatest advantage, while it must be admitted
that, under careless or unskilful management, they are very much
the reverse. In construction and maintenance they are expensive,
and in management they are uncertain ; but for appearance, and
for promoting the health of the plants they contain, they are unri-
valled.

Horticultural Society. 219

An account was laid before the meeting*, of a Meteorological
Journal, which had been kept in the garden, for the year 1826.
This was stated to have been kept upon the plan recommended by
Mr. Daniell, in his Meteorological Essays, and appeared to have
been managed with much care. Its contents will not bear an
abstract, but we may mention that, from the results of the whole
year's observations, it appeared that, in 1826, the mean dew point
was 3.2, also the mean of Mr. Howard's twenty years' observations,
and the mean temperature 2.5 above the same.

A large collection of the best late varieties of the apple, as grown
in America, was exhibited. It was a remarkable circumstance
that, while these fruits are unusually handsome, none of them,
with the exception of the Newtown pippin, were, although sweet
and pleasant, comparable to our fine European apples ; and yet
the Newtown pippin, the only good variety, is as much superior
to any variety of apple known in Europe, as the others were
inferior.

March 6th.

A paper from the Society's gardener was read, upon the best
method of forcing rhubarb for tarts, and fine specimens of the
leaves, forced in the manner described, were placed upon the table.
The method was simply this : The seed is sown in a rich border,
in the first week in April ; the young plants are kept thin and
clean during the summer, and before the growing season is fully
over, they are taken up, put into common forcing-pots, three in
each, and placed in a shaded border till they are wanted. In
January or February they are put in the forcing-house, and sub-
mitted to a very gentle heat. This is the most simple, effectual,
and certain mode of forcing rhubarb yet known.

Seeds of various curious vegetables were given away, and some
new varieties of Chinese camellias, from the Society's garden, were
placed on the table for exhibition.

220

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

I. Mechanical Science.

I. Micrometrical Measurement of Saturn, and of Jupiter and its
Satellites. — These measurements were made at Dorpat, by M.
Striive, with the great achromatic telescope of Fraimhofer, and a
micrometer furnished with the threads of a spider's web. By cor-
recting^ the relative measures of Saturn and his double ring which
were obtained, to the mean distance of that planet, M. Struve brought
out the following values in seconds of a degree, and decimals of the
second*.

External diameter of the outer ring 40.215

Internal diameter 35.395

External diameter of the inner ring 34.579

Internal diameter 26.748

Equatorial diameter of Saturn 18.045

Width of the outer ring 2.410

Width of the inner ring 3.915

Interval between the two rings 0.408

Interval between the planet and inner ring .... 4.352
By combining the observations with certain results given by Bessel,
M. Struve deduces that the inclination of the plane of the ring to
the ecliptic is 28'. 5'.9, supposing the ring to be of insensible thick-
ness, which agrees within 28'. 2 with the result obtained by M.
Bessel, with much less powerful instruments. But if Schroter be
correct in his supposition, that the ring is 0".125 in thickness, then
the inclination will be only 27° 5 5'. 3.

M. Struve observes, that he has not been able to trace any sub-
divisions of the ring. The external ring is sensibly less luminous
than the inner ring. The inner ring also appears rather pale on the
edge towards the planet, and not so distinctly limited as on the
outer edge, circumstances which induce the supposition that the
internal edge is less regular than the outer. No distinct spot could
be observed on the ring, by which to ascertain its rotation. The
five well-known satellites were well observed by the instrument ;
the sixth was seen several times ; the seventh, discovered by
Herschel, during the disappearance of the ring, never. The fourth
presented a small disc, with a diameter of about three-fourths of a
second.

Measurement of Jupiter. — The whole of the observations reduced
to the mean distance of the planet, gavet.

Equatorial diameter of Jupiter. . 38".442
Polar diameter 35". 645

* These angular measurements may be converted into measures of length,
by observing, that, at the distance of Saturn, a second of a degree corresponds
to about 1600 leagues of 26 to a degree.

t The second of a degree corresponds, at the distance of Jupiter, to about
870 leagues.

Mechanical Science. 221

from which it would appear that the flattening of the planet is 0.078,
or TS^.TT' *^^^ laro-er diameter bein*^ taken as ninety. M. Struve
has ascertained, by direct measurement, that the irrej^ular appear-
ance of ellipticity sometimes presented by the disc of this planet, is
merely an optical illusion.

Of the satelHtes, the third had evidently the largest diameter, and
was nearly the same in that respect as the fourth, but it is decidedly
inferior in luminosity to all the others, and sometimes had a very
pale appearance. The first satellite is rather larger than the se-
cond. The following are the results obtained by actual measure-
ment : —

Diameter of the first satellite 1.018

„ „ second .... 0.914

„ „ third 1.492

„ „ fourth 1.277 Bih, Univ. xxxiii. 97

2. Diamond Microscope. — Of all the various substances furnished,
either by nature or art, the diamond seems to be that most pre-
eminently calculated to form small deep lenses for single microscopes,
possessing a most enormous refractive power, combined with a low
dispersive one, together with a very little longitudinal aberration.
Mr. Andrew Pritchard, 18, Picket-street, Strand, has succeeded in
forming a very thin double convex lens, of equal radii, and about
l-25th inch focus, from a very perfect stone of the finest water. Its
polish is very beautiful, and, by its strong reflective power, at once
informs us of the peculiar and invulnerable material of which it
consists, while the large angle of aperture which it bears attests
the faintness of its spherical and chromatic aberration. It appears
from experiment, that, though the refractive power of different
stones varies considerably, if a diamond and a piece of plate-glass
are ground in tools of the same figure and radius, the magnifying
power of the former will surpass that of the latter, at the rate of
eight to three ; so that if the power of tiie glass -microscope should
be 24, that of the diamond one will be 64 ! What a lifl does this
give us in the construction of deep single microscopes ! If a dia-
mond was ground in the same tools which had produced a glass-
lens of 1-7 5th of an inch focus, (which it would be very possible to
do, and which we believe Mr. P. would undertake to effect,) it would
turn out about l-200th of an inch focus ; but this is by no means
the only valuable property it would possess ; for Mr. G. Francis
has been at the pains of calculating the value of the spherical aber-
ration of a plano-convex diamond, with its curvature exposed to
parallel rays, and finds it only 0.949 of its thickness, while that of
glass is known to be 1.166, cceteris paribus. This difference
would be very considerable, even if the thickness of a glass and
diamond lens of the same focus and diameter was the same ; but
this is, of course, i^ar from being the case, owing to the inmiense
refraction of the diamond, which gives u very short focus, with a

222 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

very shallow curve, and proportional thinness. If a dia^am is
made of the curves of any two lenses of the sa7ne penetrating and
amplifying' power, formed of glass and adamant separately, it will
at once show what their spherical aberration amounts to ; being
enunciated in terms of their thickness, as stated above, and which
of course is the same, whether they have their curved surfaces
exposed to parallel rays, or their flat sides to divergent ones, from
a radiant point in their focus, when used as magnifiers. If we se-
lect a hemisphere of glass, having its aperture equivalent to its focus,
which is absolutely necessary for exhibiting certain test objects,
and calculate the longitudinal aberration of a diamond of the same
power and calibre, it will be found less than one-sixth of that of the
glass ! Again, the chromatic aberration of the adamant is very
little more than that of a drop of Water of the same radius, which
is scarcely felt at all, when the stone is used only as a single mi-
croscope ; so that we thus obtain a kind of natural aplanatic lenji,
capable of being carried to an enormous power, which is, in fact,
the very beau ideal of the single microscope, necessarily the most
perfect instrument of all, when divested of aberration. Of all the
improvements in microscopes which have been originated by Dr.
Goring, this is perhaps the most important, and the most likely to
extend discoveries in minute nature.

As many individuals have chosen to doubt of the possibility of
working diamonds into spherical curves, Mr. Pritchard will be proud
to exhibit his instrument to amateurs of microscopic science.

3. Results of Observations on Falling Stars, made by Professor
Brandes, of Breslau. — i. Falling stars move in all directions, rela-
tive to a vertical line ; but the number which approach the earth
is greater than that of those which move from it. From this it
would appear to result that, during the short time for which they
are visible, they are subject to the attractive power of the earth.

ii. Let the real direction according to which these bodies move be
ascertained, being referred each time to that of the motion of the
earth at the time of observation ; then let a mean be taken of these
partial results. If the results are sufficiently numerous, the direc-
tion which they will indicate will be diametrically opposed to that
of the motion of the earth.

Falling stars undoubtedly have a real velocity ; but it appears to
result, from the preceding observations, that the greater part of
their apparent velocity is a mere illusion, dependant upon the mo-
tion of the earth. May it not be worthy of remark, that we arrive
at a new proof of the movement of our globe, by observing these
fugitive and inconstant phenomena ?

I have no occasion here to call to mind that the true line of
motion of the meteor in azimuth and in height, requires the compari-
son of simultaneous observations made at distant places. j^iin,

de Chimie, xxxiii. 413.

Mechanical Science. 223

4. Experiments on the Resistance of various Bodies to rupture,
caused by Longitudinal Tension, by M. Navier. — According to
these experiments, iron has not its tenacity increased when la-
minated, as ha])pens when it is drawn into wire. Six experiments
on iron-])late, with the power applied in the direction of the length
of the sheets, indicated a mean force of 41 kilogrammes for each
square millemetre* of the transverse section. Four experiments
on iron-plate, drawn perpendicularly to the length of the sheets,
indicated a force of 36 kilogrammes.

Two experiments on sheet-copper indicated a force of 21 kilo-
grammes for each square millemetre.

Six experiments on laminated lead indicated a force of 1.33
kilogrammes for each square millemetre. It may be concluded,
that the lead resists less for equal sectional surfaces, as it is rendered
thinner.

Seven experiments on tubes and rods of glass indicated a force
of 2 1 kilogrammes per square millemetre.

Generally the iron began to lengthen sensibly, and to alter, with
charges equal to about two-thirds, at least, of that required to effect
the rupture. The same effect happened with copper, charged with
a weight equal to half that required to occasion rupture. With
lead, the effect was produced by rather less than half the final charge.
These three substances presented very different appearances during
and after rupture. The lengthening of the iron before it broke was
irregular, and varied from l-2()th to 1-lOth of the original length.
The copper lengthened about 2-5ths of its first length before it
broke, its other dimensions diminishing in consequence. The lead
increased by about 1-lOth of its original length, with a force a little
less than sufficient to break it ; but with a slightly-increased charge
it gradually and progressively diminished in breadth and width, and
when separated, the two parts presented a kind of cutting edge, by
the gradual diminution of thickness, whereas the other substances

broke suddenly with a transverse fracture. Annates de Chimie,

xxxiii. 225.

5. Magnetism of Watch Works corrected. — It is an important
matter with watch and chronometer makers to neutralize concen-
trated magnetism, in the most minute parts of the steel works of
time-keepers, as chronometers, &c. without the aid of heat. The
endeavour to perform this is usually made by touching the part mag-
netised with the similar pole of a small magnet; but so unsuccessful
is the operation generally, that it is avoided as often as possible.
Mr. Abraham was induced, by the consideration that " time-pieces
generally become actively magnetical, without being brought into
contact with the agent that concentrates the fluid," to conceive that
the magnetism developed might be dissipated in a similar way, and

* A miliemetiejs 0*03937 inches; a kilogramme is 15406 grains.

224 Miscellaneous Inteliiyence.

at last succeeded to a degree which had been previously unknown
to chronometer makers. The process consists in dipping the part
to be divested of magnetism, as a balance-wheel, into line steel
filings, and then presenting a fine magnet to the part clothed with
filings, at the distance of from one inch to a (Quarter of an inch, ac-
cording to the power to be neutralized. It will immediately be per-
ceived whether the polarity of the magnet be of the same kind as
that in the apparatus ; if so, the filings will gradually fall from the
part as the power becomes neutralized. When all the filings have
fallen from the part submitted to experiment, dip it again into the
filings, to prove whether it has acquired opposite polarity by re-
maining too long in the vicinity of the magnet ; if that be the case,
present the contrary end of the magnet at a distance in proportion
to the power to be diffused. — Trans. Soc. Arts, xliv. 19.

6. Peculiar Construction of Shot Cartridges. — An ingenious con-
struction of shot cartridges has been devised by Mr. Jenour, for the
purpose of shooting at much greater distances than can be accom-
plished in the present way of discharging guns. It deserves to be
examined, audits advantages, if it possess any, proved by repeated
experiments, for which reason the following brief account of it is
given : — The unwinding of a cord or twine, a chain or wire from a
spiral groove infolding the charge of shot, constitutes the chief
principle, by means of which they are thrown from the gun in a
mass, and dispersed at various distances. Two or more pieces of
metal are so constructed as, when bound together by the twine, &c.
to form a cylindrical case, inclosing the charge of shot correspond-
ing to the size of the gun, and having a regular spiral groove from
end to end, similar to a common screw. One end of the twine is
made fast, and the other is left free to be unwound by the resistance
of the air acting upon it during the passage of the cartridge. The
unwinding of the twine being completed, the centrifugal force
occasioned thereby opens the case and liberates the contents. One
of the subordinate points of the construction is, that of filling the
interstices of the charge with fine sand, or other matter, either
mixed or not with tallow, in order to prevent the fired powder from
penetrating into, and deranging the construction of the cartridge ;
and also for the purpose of preserving the spherical form of the shot,
whereby the penetrating force is increased.

The distance to which the shot are to be conveyed in a body is to
be regulated by the number of turns, or length of the binding ;
also by its specific gravity, texture, and size, and by the charge
of powder. The shorter the binding, the less will be the distance
to which the shot are conveyed in a body, and vice versa. The
case should be of the least possible weight to possess sufficient
strength to resist any compression by the action of the discharge,
and sliould retain the whole of its contents, until the last turn of the
binding is unwound.

The cartridge cases are formed in two halves, which when put

Mechanical Science. 225

together produce a cylindrical chamber, with hemispherical ends ;
they are stamped by a punch, so as to have the necessary groove
running round each pair ; and the two lialves, when put together, are
tied with a piece of string, or a copper wire, passing through two
holes at the extremity of the cartridge, so as to form a hinge, which
permits the case to open longitudinally when the string or twine is
unwound. — Trans. Soc. ArtSy xliv. 89.

7. Elastic Mould for Castings. — Being much engaged in taking
casts from anatomical preparations, Mr. D. Fox found great diffi-
culty, principally with hard bodies, which, when undercut, or having
considerable overlaps, did not admit of the removal of moulds of the
ordinary kind, except with injury. These difficulties suggested to
him the use of elastic moulds, which, giving way as they were with-
drawn from complicated parts, would return to their proper shape ;
and he ultimately succeeded in making such moulds of glue, which
not only relieved him from all his difficulties, but were attended with
great advantages, in consequence of the small number of pieces into
which it was necessary to divide the mould.

The body to be moulded, previously oiled, must be secured one
inch above the surface of a board, and then surrounded by a wall of
clay, about an inch distant from its sides. The clay must also extend
rather higher than the contained body; into this, warm melted
glue, as tliick as possible, so that it will run, is to be poured, so
as to completely cover the body to be moulded ; the glue is to
remain till cold, when it will have set into an elastic mass, just such
as is required.

Having removed the clay, the glue is to be cut into as many pieces
as may be necessary for its removal, either by a sharp-pointed knife,
or by having placed threads in the requisite situations on the body
to be moulded, which may be drawn away when the glue is set, so as
to cut it in any way that may be required.

The portions of the glue mould having been removed from the
original are to be placed together and bound round by tape.

In some instances it is well to run small wood pegs through the
portions of glue, so as to keep them exactly in their proper posi-
tions. If the mould be of considerable size, it is better to let it
be bound with moderate tightness upon a board to prevent it
bending whilst in use ; having done as above described, the plaster
of Paris, as in common casting, is to be poured into the mould
and left to set.

In many instances wax may also be cast in glue, if it is not
poured in whilst too hot ; as the wax cools so rapidly when applied
to the cold glue, that the sharpness of the impression is not injured.

Glue has been described as succeeding well where an elastic mould
is alone applicable ; but many modifications are admissible. When
the moulds are not used soon after being made, treacle should be
previously mixed with the glue (as employed by printers) to prevent
it becoming hard.

JAN. — MARCH, 1827. Q

226 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

The description thus given is with reference to moulding those
bodies which cannot be so done by any other than an elastic mould ;
but glue moulds will be found greatly to facilitate casting in many
departments, as a mould may be frequently taken by this method
in two or three pieces, which would, on any other principle, require
many. — Trans. Soc. Arts, xliv. 38.

8. Leslie* s Apparatus for ascertaining the Specijic Gravity of
Powders*. — Relative to the instrument constructed lately by Mr.
Leslie, for the purpose of ascertaining the density of powders, the
Bulletin Universelle observes, that it is the same with the Stereo-
meter of M. H. Say, the description of which with figures may be
found in the 23rd volume of the Annales de Chimie, (1797,) at
page 1. The instrument was made and often used, especially in
ascertaining the specific gravity of gunpowder ; it still exists in the
collection of I'Ecole Polytechnique. — Bull. Univ. A. tome vi. p.
361.

9. Menstruum for Biting-in on Plates of soft Steel. — This men-
struum, the result of the investigations of Mr. Humphrys, consists of
a quarter of an ounce of corrosive subHmate powdered, and a
quarter of an ounce of alum powdered, dissolved in half a pint of
hot water. It must be allowed to cool before being used, and when
on the plate, it is to be stirred continually with a camel's-hair
brushj and the plate washed perfectly after each biting. As the
acid, though clear at first, becomes turbid during its action on
the steel, it may be prudent, in fine works, to throw away each
portion of acid after it has been on the plate. The taste and ex-
perience of the artist must dictate the length of time he may leave
it on his plate ; delicate tints are obtained in about three minutes.
The process of biting is much more difficult of performance on
soft, than on hard, steel, perhaps in consequence of the proportion
of carbon in the latter, which affects the state of the iron when
taken into solution : for, by soft steel, engravers mean not a steel
that has been heated and cooled slowly, in contradistinction to one
that has been hardened, for they always work upon steel as soft as
it can be rendered, without change of composition ; but he under-
stands a steel that has been decarbonised, and brought back
towards the state of iron. The difficulties which have usually
occurred with such partially-decarbonised steel are removed, ac-
cording to the experience of the artists who have tried Mr.
Humphry's menstruum, by its substitution for the solvents pre-
viously resorted to. — Trans. Soc. Arts, xliv. 53.

10. Etching on Ivory. — The usual mode of ornamenting ivory
in black is to engrave the pattern or design, and to fill up the
cavities thus produced with hard black varnish. The demand for

* See Quarterly Journabxxi. 374.

Mechanical Sciencf^. 227

ivory thus engraved is considerable. Mr. Cathery has much im-
proved and simplified the process, by coverini^ the ivory with
engraver's varnish, and drawing" the design with an etching
needle; he then pours on a menstruum, composed of 120 grains
of fine silver, dissolved in an ounce measure of nitric acid, and
diluted with one quart of pure distilled water. After half an
hour, more or less, ticcording to the required depth of tint, the
liquor is to be poured off, and the surface is to be washed with
distilled water, and dried with blotting paper. It is then to be
exposed to the light for an hour, after which the varnish may be
removed by means of oil of turj^entine. The design will now
appear permanently impressed on the ivory, and of a black or
blackish-brown colour, which will come to its full tint after ex-
posure for a day or two to the light. Varieties of colour may be
given by substituting the salt of gold, platina, copper, &c. for the
solution of silver. — Trans. Soc, Arts, xliv. 57.

11. Method of Cuiiing Glass. — If a tube, a goblet, ot other round
glass body is to be cut, a line is to be marked with a gun-flint
Iiaving a sharp angle, an agate, a diamond, or a file, exactly on the
place where it is to be cut. A long thread, covered with sulphur,
is then to be passed two or three times round the circular line,
is to be inflamed, and burnt ; when the glass is well heated,
some drops of cold water are to be thrown on to it, when the pieces
will separate in an exact manner, as if cut with scissors. It is by
this means that glasses are cut circularly into thin bands, which
may either be separated from, or repose upon, each other, at
pleasure, in the manner of a spring. — Jour, de Connaissances
usuelleSy iv. p. 15,

12. Preservation of Skins. — I. Stegar, a tanner, at Tyman, in
Hungary, uses with great advantage the pyroligneous acid, in pre-
serving skins from putrefaction, and in recovering them when
attacked. They are deprived of none of their useful qualities, if
covered by means of a brush with the acid, which they absorb very
readily.

13. Indian Method of Varnishing. — The uncivilised Indians,
called Andoquies, who live near the sources of the river Magda-
lena, in Columbia, South America, use a vegetable substance as a
varnish, a specimen of which has been sent to the Society of Arts.
When taken from the shrub on which it grows, it is kept in water
to preserve it moist : when perfectly dry it is considered useless, as
those who work it up have no means of reducing it again to a
soft state. When about to be used, it is put into boiling water, to
separate from it the oily matter it contains. When eftectually
freed from the oil, it is taken out, and the varnisher puts a small
quantity into his mouth, and continues to chew it as he goes on
with his work. After thus chewing a bit of the varnish for some

Q2

228 Miscellaneous Intelligence,

time, he takes it out, and draws and extends it between his hands
till it becomes exceedingly thin, thinner, perhaps, than the finest
paper. In this state it is laid on the article to be varnished, and
to which it adheres. When used with gold and silver leaf, as is
often the case, the gold or silver is placed between two folds of the
varnish, and thus applied : the fold on the inside is to make the
whole adhere, and that on the outside is to varnish and protect the
gold and silver, which shine through, and produce a good effect.
The varnish combines readily with various colouring substances,
which the people there use with it. — Trans. Soc. ArtSy xliv. 192.

II. Chemical Science.

1. Heat evoloedfrom Air by Compression. — By a mathematical
investigation of the heat extricated from air, when it undergoes a
given condensation, and by a reference to the experiments of Cle-
ment, Gay-Lussac, and others, Mr. Ivory finds, that " the heat
extricated from air, when it undergoes a given condensation, is equal
to three-eighths of the diminution ^temperature required to produce
the same condensation, the pressure being constant!^ Air, under a
constant pressure, diminishes l-480th of its volume*, for every
degree of depression on Fahrenheit's scale ; and therefore one
degree of heat will be extricated from air, when it undergoes a con-
densation equal to T-ku X4- ^xl-o-. If a mass of air were suddenly
reduced to half its bulk, the heat evolved would be -^ -r- -riir = 90°,
^Phil. Mag. N. S. i. 89.

2. On the Action of a Moving Metallic Disc, upon a portion of a
Voltaic Conductor. — Immediately after the highly interesting dis-
covery made by M. Arago, relative to the efl^ects produced recipro-
cally by magnets and metallic plates, when the one or the other
were put into a state of motion, M. Ampere was led by his views
of the nature of magnetism, to look for a similar effect, when the
magnet was removed and replaced by a conducting wire formed
into a helix, for when an electric current is sent through such a wire,
it is found to possess all the properties of a magnet. A double
spiral was formed from wire, and delicately suspended above a ho-
rizontal disc of copper, to which a rotary motion was given by
convenient apparatus, also of copper. The two extremities of the
wire forming the helix were plunged into two circular cups, or
troughs, filled with mercury, and placed in communication with the
poles of a voltaic battery ; a screen was placed between the copper-
plate and the suspended spiral. Immediately upon moving the
plate, the spiral began to turn in the same direction, precisely like
a magnetic bar, or like the assemblage of two vertical magnets
attached to a horizontal lever. Ultimately the rotary movement
became accelerated and continuous. Upon altering the direction

* At 32° F,— Ed.

Chemical Science. 229

of the motion in the disc, the motion of the spiral immediately
chan^red, in all cases continuine: the same as that of the plate. This
satisfactory fact is a powerful addition to those by which M. Ampere
supports his views of the natureof magnetism generally, and its ori-
gin in all cases from currents of electricity. — Bull. Phi. 1826, p. 134.

3. Influence of the Aurora Borealis on the Magnetic Needle. — A
luminous arc produced by an aurora borealis was seen on the 29th
of April, 1826, at Carlisle and in Roxburghshire. This phenome-
non was not seen at Gosport, though the sky was very clear. At
7 h. 50' P.M. of the 29th April at Paris, the north point of the needle
indicating diurnal variations was 4 to the east of its ordinary posi-
tion ; at half past eight o'clock it passed westward with a ready
movement ; at three-quarters past eleven o'clock it had returned
within half a minute to the position it had at half-past eight. Long
experience has taught me that these great oscillations, at hours
when the needle is generally stationary, is an indication almost cer-
tain of the existence of an aurora borealis. M. Arago, the author
of these observations, then ventures to announce, solely from the
effects he has observed upon the magnetic needle, that brilliant
aurora boreales will have been observed in some part in the north
on the following days of the year 1826 : the 16th of January, the
10th and 13th of February, the day of the 9th of March, the morn-
ing and evening of the 23rd of March, and the 29th of the same
month, the 9th and 13th of April, the nights of the 17th and 18th
of April, the 24th of the same month, &c. — Annales de Chimie,
xxxiii. 421.

4. Electro-chemical Appearances. — M. Nobili has been induced
to contract one of the poles of the voltaic pile in the manner first
pointed out by Dr. Wollaston, namely, by inclosing a wire within
a glass tube, and exposing only a sectional surface, and has ob-
served the effects which occur when such a pole is used in the de-
composition of various saline solutions, the other pole being a plate
of metal, brought very near to it. The general results appear to
be two in immber. The first consists in the property remarked of
certain electro-negative substances to attach themselves, in cer-
tain determinate circumstances, to the surface of those metals
which are least oxidable, in thin regular layers, so as to present the
beautiful phenomenon of coloured rings in a splendid manner. This
effect, it is supposed, may be applicable in the ornamental arts.
The second is, that when electro-negative substances are not depo-
sited in thin plates upon the metals, they generally attack their
surfaces, not in an uniform manner, as might be supposed, but by a
gradation of intensity from the centre, continued and decreasing, but
at irregular intervals, following, as it were, a law analogous to that
of interferences. The same phenomenon is observed in the attach-
ment of electro-positive substances to the negative pole, namely, an
alternation in the circles of oxide and of metal. M, Nobili then

230 Miscellaneeus Intelliyencc.

inquires, whether it can be true that radiation of the electric currents
is subject to a law of interference, and acknowledges, notwithstand-
ing the alternations he has obtained, that new experiments are re-
quired.— Bib. Univ. xxxiii. 302.

5. Earthy Bepositiona from Water influenced by the Electricity of
Metals in contact. — M. Dumas has noticed an interesting- case of
voltaic action, which has occurred with water contained in metaUic
tanks and tubes. The water from the springs in the neighbourhood
of the Seine are strongly charged with carbonate of lime, held in
solution by carbonic acid. When it is received and retained as be-
fore mentioned, it occasions incrustations, which, however, are not
indifferent as to the places on which they occur, but are governed
by the electrical relations of the metals forming the vessels. The
Sevres porcelain works are supplied with water of this kind, which is
received and retained in a leaden reservoir ; the general internal sur-
face of the lead presents scarcely a trace of deposit, but a thick coat
has been formed on the lines of solder by which the plates of lead are
joined. The incrustation is irregular, but evidently crystalline ; it
is slightly coloured by oxide of iron, and dissolves entirely, with
effervescence, in nitric acid. A bar of iron used to raise a valve, and
consequently plunged in the water, was covered with a layer five
or six lines in thickness, the lead in the immediate neighbourhood
being nearly free from the deposit.

In the tubes which conduct the water, the deposit occurs only at
the soldered joints. The plumbers know this fact, and when the
pipes appear to be stopped up, always go to these places. The
copper cocks are also the localities of deposition.

Abuiidant proof was obtained that these effects were, voltaic, by
immersing simple combinations of metals into portions of the water ;
and M. Dumas proposes a remedy for the evil occasioned by the
deposition, by causing it to take place in unimportant or acces-
sible situations. For this purpose he considers the assemblage of
tubes as an immense plate, and proposes to attach lateral tubes to it,
at intervals from twenty to thirty feet ; these are to be closed by
metallic plugs, containing rods affixed to them projecting into the
water, of such a nature as to become the negative part of the ar-
rangement ; all the depositions will then take place on these stop-
pers and rods, and none upon the lead. From the effects observed,
it is concluded that cast-iron will well answer the purpose. — Annates
de Chimie, xxxiii. 265.

6. Instance of a returning Stroke by Lightning. — The returning
stroke of lightning is well known to be due to the restoration of the
natural electric state, after it has been disturbed by induction.
Thus if a person be brought into a highly electric and negative state
by induction, from the approximation of a body highly charged
positively, and then the latter be discharged by means having, no
connexion with the negatively electrified person, the negative state

Chemical Science, S8J

of the latter will be immediately destroyed, and an effect, in part
analogous to that of a positive discharge of electricity, will be pro-
duced. Some of the most serious accidents which occur, from, light-
ning are supposed to be produced in this way, not by the mere
disturbance of electricity in a person only, but of the electricity of
those bodies with which the person may be in contact, and to which
he accidentally serves as a conductor.

On the 24th of Sept. 1826, at the moment when the lip;htning

struck the ground, at the farm of Gali, near Versailles, M. B

was violently affected by a returninp: stroke, at the distance of half
a league from the place. The following are the circumstances of
the case : — A violent storm occurred at Versailles and the neigh-
bouring parts, at half past nine o'clock. M. B., aged seventy-two
years, was passing the Rue Dauphine, at a little distance from the
church of Notre Dame, when one of those whirlwinds so common
in the neighbourhood of large buildings, obliged him to turn round.
He was then close to the party-wall of the houses 13 and 14, his
right side being at a small distance from it. A metal water-pipe
was fixed up the front of the house in this place, bringing the rain
from the roof to the level of the pavement. In this position M. B.
felt a commotion, which he describes as if all the right side of his
body was roughly thrown towards the left, feeling, at the same
time, much oppression, and vertigo, resembling that of drunkenness.
The immediate effects were, difficulty of motion in all the left side,
and a disturbed respiration ; and it was with much difficulty, and
only by resting frequently, that M. B. could reach the house
of a neighbouring friend. It was there observed, that the tongue
was embarrassed in its motions as well as the left side, but by the aid
of attention the agitation of the mind was calmed ; the night passed
moderately, and the next morning all was nearly in its ordinary
state. In the evening, however, at the hour when the circumstance
occurred, all the symptoms returned, and the same results occurred
daily until the end of the week, when a physician was consulted.
He immediately recognised the symptoms of compression on the
brain and spinal-marrow, from which had resulted an incomplete
paralysis of the tongue and the left arm and leg. This speedily
gave way under the hands of the physician, but the periodical
returns occurred until the cure was completed.

It would be difficult to prove the identity of the electric discharge
which fired the farm of Gali, and struck M. B., but the latter cannot
■be attributed to a direct stroke ; for at the moment when it hap-
pened, the intervals between the lightning and thunder were such
as to shew that the storm was not over Versailles. By a coinci-
dence of circumstances, M. Demonfcrrand, who describes the case,
was in the house No. 15, the whole of the evening, in an apart-
ment contiguous to the metal-pipe which appears to have served
as a conductor for the electricity, but neither he nor any other per-
son in the house felt the slightest disturbance. In the op})osite
house was a person in a bad state of healtli, and therefore, perhaps,

232 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

more sensible to electric changes, but neither did he experience
any change in his feelings at the moment. — Annales de Chimie,
xxxiii. 417.

7. Phosphorescence ofFluateofLime. — Fluate of lime, though a
highly phosphorescent substance, requires either to be heated or
rubbed, for the emission of the light. A fluate of lime obtained
from Odonschclon, in Daourie, was, however, found to be luminous
without this preparation, the light being of such intensity as to ren-
der the piece visible without being placed in perfect obscurity. Its
luminous state has continued ever since, and nothing indicates that
it will cease. The intensity of the light is not always the same, and
appears to be changed by changes in the atmosphere ; it is greatest
in wet and stormy weather. The contact of air appears to exert
an influence on the light, for pieces of the fluor closed in a drawer
for eight days, were found scarcely luminous, but being exposed to
air became equally brilliant as at first. When plunged into water
the degree of phosphorescence appeared to be much more constant.
The light was of a feeble yellowish-green colour; a piece of the
substance two inches in diameter gave light sufficient to permit
words to be read at some lines distance. According to the obser-
vations of M. Becquerel, heat has great influence over the phos-
phorescence: at zero the light is scarcely visible ; plunged into boil-
ing water, it became very luminous ; upon mercury heated to 300°
C.(572°F.), the light was so strong as to allow printed characters to
be read at seven inches and a half distance. This high temperature
injured the phosphorescent power of the substance at common tem-
peratures for a short time ; but it was restored to its full intensity
by exposure for a few hours to solar light : finally, it appeared
that atmospheric causes, not as yet understood, exert a great influ-
ence upon the substance.

The object of the note is to point out the curious property pos-
sessed by this fluate of lime, of remaining permanently luminous.
It is found in a primitive granitic rock, in company with beryl,
topaz, wolfram, &c., and differs, in appearance, from the ordinary
varities of fluor spar, by its peculiar waxy or resinous lustre. It is
found massive, having a structure more interlaced than the ordi-
nary varieties, and sometimes crystallised ; it then has very com-
plicated forms.— Bull. Philomat. 1826, 104.

8. Chemical Compounds produced by physical Powers. — " Sitting
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, 11th December, 1826.
M. Becquerel announced, that he had succeeded in producing new
compounds, by means of physical powers only. Each of the new
compounds has a peculiar crystalline system, and most of them have
the property of being decomposed by water." — Annales de Chimie,
xxxiii. 439.

9. Table of the Density of Vapours and GaseSt examined by M.

Chemical Science, 233

Dumas. — Tliis table gives the specific p^ravity of vapours and gases,
as compared to air, and also the density, as calculated from the
weights of their elements, and from certain experiments. There is
likewise in the table a column indicating the weight of a litre of
each gas, or vapour, at the temperature of 32^ F., and barometric
pressure of 29.92 inches, the weight being expressed in grammes.

Observed. Calculated. Weight.

Iodine 8.716 8.6118 11.3230

Mercury 6.976 6.9783 9.0625

Proto-chloride of phosphorus 4.875 4.8076 6.3532

Arsenuretted hydrogen 2.695 2.6950 3.5023

Proto-chloride of arsenic .... 6.3006 6.2969 8.1852

Chloride of silicium 5.939 5.9599 7.7154

Fluo-silicic acid 3 . 600 3 . 5973

Chloride of boron 3.942 4.0793 5.1212

Fluo-boric acid 2.3124 2.3075

Per-chlorideoftin 9.1997 8.9930 11.9514

Per-chloride of titanium 6.856 7.0470 8.881

Phosphorus 2.2052

Arsenic 5.1839

Silicium 1.0197

Boron 0.7487

Tin 4.0530

Titanium 2 . 1070

Annates de Chimie^wxuu 39 1.

The litre is equal to 61.02525 cubic inches ; the gramme to 15.44

grains.

10. Oji the Existence and Nature of Bromine. — Professor Liebig
has repeated the experiments of M. Balard, relative to the produc-
tion of this peculiar body upon the mother waters of the salt-works
of Theodorshalle, near Kreutznach, and has obtained as much as
20 grammes (308.8 grains) of bromine from 30 pounds of the fluid.
The process adopted was that of M. Balard. After repeating most
of the experiments of M. Balard, with consistent and satisfactory
results, M. Liebeg proceeded to some which he considers as sup-
porting the simple view of the nature of the substance. Iron was
heated to redness in a glass tube, and the vapour of bromine dried
by chloride of calcium, passed over it; on coming into contact
with the metal, the latter became incandescent, without any dis-
engagement of gaseous matter ; the mass fused into a body of a
clear yellow colour, having, when cold, a lamellar structure, and
dissolving readily in water. It was proto-bromide of iron, and
yielded bromine on the action of chlorine. Platina and lamp-black
did not act on the vapours of bromine : 2.521 parts of the bromide
of potassium being decomposed by nitrate of silver, gave 4.041
parts of bromide of silver, which, by calculation, gives 94.11 as the
atom of bromine oxygen being 10. — Annates de Chimiey xxxiii. 331,

Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, Oct, 2, — M. Cbevruel

234 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

announced to the academy that M. Dumas had discovered a
chloride of iodine, having* all the properties of the bromine recently
described as a simple body by M. Balard. — Bull Univ., c. ix. 277.

11. Preparation of Chloride of Boron. — M.Dumas obtains chlo-
ride of boron by passing dry chlorine over an incandescent mixture
of charcoal and boracic acid. It is a g-aseous body, which may be
collected over mercury, and corresponds in its composition with
fluo-boric acid. The apparatus used consisted of a porcelain tube,
containing" the mixture. The dry chlorine was introduced at one
extremity, the other was attached to an adopter, and that to a
bent tube, plung'ed into mercury. The tube was first heated for
some time, to expel all humidity, then the gas introduced, and
when it had continued to pass for about a quarter of an hour, the
adopter and bent tube were attached, and the gas collected. When
the small tube became obstructed by flocculi resulting from the
action of water, it was replaced by another. — Ann. de Chimiey
xxxiii. 378.

12. Chloride of Boron. — M. Despretz lays claim to the discovery
of the chloride of boron, which, according to a letter to the Editor
of the Annales de Chimie, he announced to the Societe Philoma-
tique, some years ago. He obtained this compound by passing
dry chlorine, at a high temperature, either over boruret of iron or
a mixture of charcoal with boracic acid or borax. In the first
case, the chloride of boron is mixed with a certain quantity of
chlorine, which may, however, be absorbed by mercury : in the
second case, the gas collected contains oxide of carbon, carbonic
acid, and muriatic acid. The apparatus consists of a balloon, in
which the chlorine is to be generated ; a porcelain tube, containing
the mixture ; an adopter destined for the condensation of the
chloride of iron or boracic acid disengaged during the operation ;
and finally, a tube, the end of which dips into mercury. The gas
collected by either of the processes is colourless, denser than the
air, decomposable by water, fuming in contact with air, resisting a
high temperature, &c. — A?Ln. de Chimie, xxxiii. 442.

13. Preparation of Chloride of Arsenic. — One part of arsenious
acid, with ten parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, is to be put into
a tubulated retort, and the temperature raised to nearly 212° F.
Fragments of fused common salt are then to be thrown in
by the tubular. By continuing the heat, and successively adding
common salt, proto-chloride of arsenic is obtained ; it falls drop
by drop from the beak of the retort, and may be collected in
cooled vessels. Little, if any, muriatic acid is disengaged ; but
towards the end of the operation a portion of hydrated chloride of
arsenic is frequently produced, which collects in the vessel, above
the pure chloride. The two bodies do not mix ; the hydrate is
liquid, transparent, and colom"less, and more viscid than the

Chemical Science. 235

dry chloride. The hydrate itiay be decomposed, and a pure
chloride obtained, by distilling: the mixture from a sufficient quan-
tity of conceutrated sulphuric acid. — Dumas, Ami. de Chimie,
xxxiii. 360.

14. Preparation of Oxide of Chrome, as a Pigment^M. Nasse
recommends that a chromate of mercury should be formed, ac-
cording^ to the usual process, by precipitation from a chromate of
potash and a nitrate of mercury, as neutral and concentrated as
possible. The oxide of chrome, obtained by heating" the chromate
of mercury, will have the greatest perfection of colour, if it be
put into an unglazed porcelain crucible, and exposed to the heat
of the furnace during the time required for baking the porcelain.
The oxide produced will have a fine grass-^een colour.

The following directions are given for the preparation of the
blue oxide : the concentrated alkaline solution of chrome is to be
saturated with weak sulphuric acid , and then to every 8lbs. is to be
added lib. of common salt and half a pound of concentrated sul-
phuric acid ; the liquid will then acquire a green colour. To be
certain that the yellow colour is totally destroyed, a small quan-
tity of the liquor is to have potash added to it, and filtered ; if
the fluid is still yellow, a fresh portion of salt and of sulphuric
acid is to be added : the fluid is then to be evaporated to dry-
ness, re-dissolved and filtered ; the oxide of chrome is then to be
precipitated by caustic potash. It will be of a greenish-blue
colour, and being washed, must be collected upon a filter. —
BuU. Univ. E., vi.275.

15. Separation of Iron from Manganese, — The novelty of situ-
ation in which the chemical analyst is frequently ])laced, in pur-
suing his intricate experimental inquiries, often renders one process
for the separation of substances useful, when another of a gene-
rally superior character is inadmissible. It is for this reason that
we insert at present a mode of separating iron from manganese,
proposed by M. Quesnevile, jun. : — Dissolve both oxides in muri-
atic acid, and boil the solution for some time, to expel all excess
of acid, in order to render the solution as neutral as possible.
Dilute the solution with a large quantity of water, and pass
chlorine gas through it, to peroxidize the iron entirely ; then pre-
cipitate the liquor by arseniate of potash : the precipitate is of
a greenish-white colour, and consists entirely of arseniate of iron.
After some hours, filter the liquor, and wash the precipitate with
a large quantity of boiling water ; dry it, and calcine it strongly,
to obtain the oxide of iron ; evaporate the solution, which con -
taius the arseniate of manganese, almost to dryness, and add water to
it ; if there remain by accident any traces of arseniate of iron, it
separates : then filter and decompose the solution by caustic
potash, and the oxide of manganese, when well washed, is then
i^erfectly pure. — Jour, de P/iar., Sept., 182(5.

236 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

16. Pure ProiO' Salt of Iron. — A solution of protoxide of iron,
without any admixture of peroxide, may be obtained by putting
iron into an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, and suffering
the mixture to remain for a short time without contact of the air.
When a solution of the ferro-cyanate of potash is added, a per-
fectly white precipitate is formed, which is the proto-ferrocyanate
of iron. — Phillips, Phil. Mag., N. S.,\. 72.

17. Action of Potassium on Oxalates. — When well-dried oxalate
of lead, mixed with very small portions of potassium perfectly
freed from naphtha, is heated in the bottom of a glass tube, air
being carefully excluded by excess of the oxalate, a violent detonation
suddenly takes place, before the heat is sufficiently great to effect
the decomposition of the oxalate, when no potassium is present.
The tube is spotted with metallic lead, the potassium is oxidized,
and there is no carbon deposited. An examination of the gas
resulting from this instantaneous decomposition may elucidate
the nature of the oxalates, but hitherto the apparatus employed
has always been broken by the explosion. Oxalate of copper,
treated in the same way, has always occasioned strong detona-
tions, and metallic copper appears. — Jour, de Phar., Phil. Mag.
N. S., i. 145.

18. Analysis of the Triple Prussiate of Potash. — Mr. Phillips,
by carefully experimenting with the crystallized triple prussiate
of potash, obtained the following proportions per cent, of three
of its elements : —

Iron 13.58

Potassium 36.75

Water ! 12.50

the remaining 37.17 parts are assumed, according to the analysis
of Berzelius, to be cyanogen. The nature and composition of
the salt, which he considers as most probable, is as follows : —

6 atoms carbon 36

3 „ azote 42

3 „ hydrogen 3

1 atom oxygen 8

1 „ iron 28

117 = 1 atom ferro-cyanic acid

2 atoms potash 96

213

Viewing this as the constitution of the salt, it is a di-ferrocyanate
of potash, or composed of one atom of sand and two atoms of
base.— PM. Mag. N. -S., i. 110.

19. Preparation of Medicinal Chloride of Soda. — Mr. Pay en
has published a process, by which he prepares tlii^ substance of

Chemical Science. 237

uniform stren^h, without involvint^ the trouble of first preparing
chlorine gas. For this purpose he has recourse to the mutual
action of carbonate of soda and chloride of lime. M. Payen first
ascertained the mean proportion of chlorine in the medicinal
solutions of M. Labarraque, and then compared it with the pro-
portion of chlorine in chloride of lime, represented by 98 degrees
of Gay-Lussac's chlorometer. These experiments showed that
1 part by weight of chloride of lime of 98° was equivalent to 20
parts of medicinal chloride of soda; that 100 parts of this
chloride of lime are completely decomposed by 138 parts of crys-
tallized sub-carbonate of soda ; and finally, that, by adding 62
parts of the last salt to the neutral solution of the chloride, its
excess was sufficient to render the compound permanent. The
following is therefore the formula for the preparation of the chloride
of soda : —

Chloride of lime at 98° 100 by weight

Crystallized sub-carbonate of soda 138 „

Water 1800

The chloride of lime is to be dissolved, and the sediment well
washed ; carbonate of soda dissolved by heat is to be poured into
the solution, the precipitate allowed to subside, the clear fluid
decanted, and the solid matter washed on a filter. The collected
solutions are neutral chloride of soda ; 62 parts of the sub-carbo-
nate of soda are then to be dissolved in the remainder of the water,
and added to the preparation; the whole being then filtered, a
limpid solution is obtained, indicating 5° by the areometer of
Baume. It is the pure chloride of soda.

If the chloride of lime be of any other strength than 98°, then
the relation is easily ascertained by the chlorometer and a brief
calculation, and the equivalent of the quantity above directed
must be used.— Bull. Philom., 1826, 1.^1.

20. Mode of Action of Disinfecting Chlorides. — The combinations
of chlorine with lime and with the carbonate of soda, have lately
been highly recommended as disinfecting agents, and apparently
with some reason. The names which have been given to the sub-
stances, and the statement of their effects and mode of action
have, however, been singularly irregular, vague, and uncertain ;
and it is, therefore, with some pleasure we refer to certain experi-
ments and observations of a clear and satisfactory nature, by M.
Gaultier de Claubry.

Well-saturated chloride of lime, being dissolved in water, was
submitted to the action of a current of carbonic acid gas ; chlorine
was quickly disengaged, and by continuing the operation a suffi-
cient length of time the whole was expelled; the li()uor no longer
possessed bleaching powers, and carbonate of lime had l)een formed
and precipitated, except a small portion dissolved by the excess of
carbonic acid.

238 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Air passed slowly through a saturated solution of caustic potash,
was then made to traverse a solution of the chloride of lime : no
chlorine was liberated ; no effect of any kind produced.

The carbonate of lime resulting^ from the decomposition of the
chloride of lime by carbonic acid, retains no chlorine in combi-
nation.

The chloride of soda is equally decomposed by carbonic acid, only
more slowly, in consequence of the solubility of the salt produced.
A specimen of chloride of lime, being- examined as to the quantity of
muriate that it might contain, was found to have exactly the same
quantity before and after decomposition by carbonic acid gas.

A filtered solution of the chloride of lime was exposed to air on
the 13th of August ; on the 10th of October it no longer contained
chlorine, did not affect litmus, and the precipitate from it proved to be
carbonate of lime, A stronger solution of the same chloride, exposed
to air, on the 16th of August, was found in the same state as the
last on the 10th of October.

Notwithstanding that these experiments sufficiently indicated the
manner in which these compounds acted on the putrid miasmata
floating in foul air, some further experiments were made in
the following manner : — Air was passed through blood, which had
been left to putrefy for eight days ; being then passed through a
solution of the chloride of lime, carbonate of lime was deposited,
and the air was rendered inodorous and completely purified. In a
second similar experiment, the fetid air was passed through a satu-
rated solution of caustic potash, before it arrived at the solution of
chloride ; the latter then had no effect upon it, and the air retained
its insupportable odour. Another experiment was made with air
left for twenty hours over putrescent blood ; the portion of it, which
was passed directly through the chloride, was perfectly purified, but
when previously freed from carbonic acid, the chloride had no effect
upon it.

It is easy to explain the preference given in many cases to the
application of chlorides, as disinfecting agents, above fumigation by
chlorine. The carbonic acid in the air, arising from the decomposition
of animal matter, liberates the chlorine from its combination ; and
as this action is slow, the chlorine is less susceptible of affecting the
animal economy, but readily decomposes putrid miasmata. It is,
therefore, a true fumigation by chlorine, only less violent than those
made directly by the gas, and continuing for a longer time. — Annates
de Chimiey xxxiii. 171.

21. Deleteriom Effects of Carbonic Acid Gas. — The conclusions
to a memoir, by M. Collard, on this subject, are as follows : —
i. Animals plunged into carbonic acid gas do not die, as in hydrogen
or nitrogen, from the want of air only. ii. That the experiments
by which Bichat,Nysten, and other modern authors, have endeavoured
to establish a contrary statement, are inexact in numerous points.
iii. That carbonic acid gas exerts a special deleterious action.

Chemical Science, 2.39

iv. That this action principally affects the brain and nervous system.
V. That the best remedial process for accidents occasioned by car-
bonic acid i^as, consists, probably, in excitations of the diaphragm
produced by the voltaic pile. — Bull. Univ. C* ix. 321.

22. NeiD Acids obtained from Animal Substances by Alkalies. —
MM. Chevreul and Gay-Lussac, by treatint^ animal substances with
alkalies, have obtained various acids remarkable for their property of
neutralizing; bases, and in which nitrogen enters as an element.
They are occupied, at present, with these acids, and will publish
their results as soon as they are completed. — Amiales de ChimiCj
xxxiii. 335.

23. Sugar of Melons. — The melon has occasionally been thought
of as a source of sugar, and its juice submitted to processes calcu-
lated to separate that principle from the accompanying but deterio-
rating matters. M. Payen has lately applied analytical processes to
the juice of a melon cultivated near Paris, and from 100 parts of
the Hcjuid obtained IJ parts of sugar, perfectly well crystallized in
rhomboidal parallelopipeds, and having the taste and other proper-
ties of cane-sugar, with which it appeared to be identical. — Bull,
P/«7om. 1826,p. 135.

24. Method of Destroying the Empyreumatic Odour of Alcohol, by
Dr. Witting. — The purification of alcohol by chloride of lime is not
expensive. The action is chemical, and analogous to that of bleach-
ing ; the empyreumatic parts are entirely destroyed. The following is
the manner in which it has been employed : two ounces of the chloride
were mixed with spirit into a uniform clear fluid, which was then put
into a divStillatory apparatus, with 150 measures of spirit; all the
joints were then luted, and the distillation commenced. The first
measure of product had a slight odour of chlorine, and was preserved
apart for rectification ; the rest of the produce was perfectly pure.
The chloride made use of should, when dissolved in 26 parts of
water, bleach vegetable colour with which it may be mixed. — Bvll.
Univ.E.\\. 333.

25. On the Colouring Matter of the Madder, by MM. Robiquet
and Colin. — Diffuse the ground madder in three or four parts of
water, submit the whole to strong pressure, and repeat the washing
thrice ; macerate the residue in a water-bath in five or six parts
of water, containing half a pint of alum ; filter, and precipitate the
fluid by sub-carbonate of soda. The precipitate should be carefully
washed ; the macerations are to be repeated in alum-water until the
colour is cNhausted. By this means a result is obtained in three
hours, which otherwise would require months, and everything induces
the supposition that the diminution in price of madder lakes, result-
ing from such simple methods, will permit their employment even
on stained papers. — Globe, Nov, 11.

240 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

III. Natural History.

1. Subterraneous Noises heard at Nakous. — Nakous is situated
three leagues from Tor, on the Red Sea. This place is celebrated
because of certain sounds produced there at all hours of the day
and nii^ht. When Mr. Gray, of Oxford, visited Nakous, he heard
from beneath his feet a continued dull noise, which soon changed
into pulsations, more and more intense, similar to the beats of a
time-piece. The next day, Mr. Gray heard the sounds during a
whole hour, the weather being clear and serene ; and he concluded
that the effect could not be produced by the passage of air through
certain crevices in the soil and rock, every examination for such
fissures in the soil or rock having failed.

The following account of the same place is by M. Seetzen, and
was published in 1812: — There is near Tor, a mountain, not only
the most remarkable in certain respects of any in Arabia Petraea,
but in the whole world. It is called el Nakous^ and is three leagues
north of Tor : two years ago I had heard it spoken of by the
Greeks, first, of the convent of Sinai, afterwards, at Suez ; but
the description being accompanied with fabulous recitals, induced
me to suppose the whole a monkish invention. When I gained
more information at Wady el Nachel, not only were these first
accounts confirmed, but new prodigies added.

M. Seetzen then goes on to state, that, " accompanied by a
Christian Greek and some Bedouins, I departed for the mountain
on the 17th of June, at five o'clock in the morning : after a
quarter of an hour's progress, we arrived at the foot of a ma-
jestic rock of sandstone ; the mountain, perfectly naked, was en-
tirely composed of it. I found many Greek and Arabic names
on the rock, and some even in Coptic characters, proving that
the place had been visited for ages. At mid-day we arrived at the
part of the mountain called Nakous : here, at the foot of the
chain, we found an insulated rock. On two sides the moun-
tain presented two surfaces, so highly inclined that the white
and slightly-adhering sand which covered them was scarcely sup-
ported, and slided at the slightest vibration, or when the burning
rays of the sun destroyed their slight adherence. These two sandy
surfaces were about 150 feet in height ; they re-united behind the
insulated rock, forming a sharp angle, and, as well as the adjacent
surfaces, were mingled with steep rocks, most frequently formed of
a friable white sandstone.

*' The first sound was heard at one hour and a quarter after mid-
day. We climbed with difficulty up the sand-bank, a height of
70 or 80 feet, and stopped under certain rocks, at which it is
the custom to listen. Whilst creeping, I heard the sound from
under my knees, which induced me to suppose that the slipping of
the sand was the cause, and not the eff'ect of the sonorous vibra-
tion. At three o'clock, the sound was again heard more strongly,
and continued for six minutes ; then ceasing for about ten minutes,

Natural History. 24l

it was again produced. It appeared to me like that of a hum-
ming-top, and increased and diminished, like the sounds of an
iEolian harp. To convince myself of the truth of my conjecture,
I crawled with the utmost difficulty up to the highest rocks, and
then allowed myself to slide as rapidly as possible, endeavouring
with my feet and hands to put the sand in motion. The effect
thus produced was so great, and the sand rolling beneath me
caused a sound so intense, that the earth appeared to tremble,
and I should have been dismayed if the cause had been unknown
to me.

"But how can this motion of the sand produce so intense an
effect, and one observed, I believe, no where else? Does the
rolling layer of sand act like a bow, which by its friction on a
plate of glass will cause the powder spread over it to tremble
and acquire determinate figures ? Does the fixed and adhering
layer of sand perform the part of the glass plate, and the neigh-
bouring rocks that of the resounding body? These are questions
which the natural philosopher must decide. — Ann. de Chimie^
xxxiii. 435.

2. Italian Cavern containing Bones. — With the exception of a
small cavern in the island of Elba, none containing bones like
those which have become so celebrated in England and Germany,
had been discovered in Italy. Lately, however. Professor Gae-
tano Savi has discovered one in one of the mountains which sur-
round the gulf of Spezia, opposite to Cassana, a village not far
removed from Casale. Many of the bones contained in this
cavern belong to the same species of bear of which the bones
have been found in such large quantities in the caverns of northern
Europe. Other bones belong to the ruminantia, others to herbi-
vorous animals, and apparently to the stag. All these bones are
broken and incrusted. — Giornale deFisica, ix. 154.

3. Crystallization of Asbestus. — M. Hess, of Dorpat, has ex-
amined a mineral from the village of Pitkaranda, near the lake
Ladoga, and has determined it to be a crystallized variety of
asbestus. He describes its primitive form as an oblique rhom-
boidal prism, of 84° 36', of which the base is inclined on the
obtuse sides, with angles of 104°. Its analysis gave him, silica,
45.57 ; protoxide of iron, 19.73 ; alumine, 3 ; lime, 4.4 ; mag-
nesia, 23.4 ; water, 2. — Archives des S. Nat. v. 321.

4. Dense Fogs. — ^There have been remarked at different times in
the winter season such dense fogs as to occasion serious acci-
dents fi-om their interference with distinct vision. These are
observed in and about large towns only, and are supposed by
M. Defranc to originate from the stagnation of the smoke and
vapours generated in such situations. On certain calm winter
days, it may be observed that the smoke, on leaving the chimneys,

JAN.— MARCH, 1827. R

242 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

falls to the ground ; and that downward currents set through those
flues, at the bottom of which there is no fire ; and it is supposed
that when this takes place in a town, it occasions the fogs
peculiar to those accumulations of houses. Many instances are
then quoted, according with these views, but M. Arago objects
to the conclusion, remarking, that, in the first place, these fogs
often form in a few minutes ; and in the next, that they frequently
do not occur in the calmest, and according to M. Defranc's sup-
position, most favourable, weather. — Ami. de Chimie^ xxxiii. 415.

5. Atmospheric Phenomenon ; Ohio, U.S. — The following effect
is described by Mr. Atwater ; *' Before a storm here I have often
noticed in an evening of the latter part of Autumn, and some-
times in the winter, a phenomenon not recollected by me to have
been seen on the east side of the Alleganies. Some one spot
or spots near the horizon, in a cloudy night, appeared so lighted
up, that the common people believed there was some great fire
in the direction from which the light came. I have seen at once two
or three of these luminous spots not far from each other ; generally,
there is but one, and a storm, invariably proceeding from the same
point near the horizon, succeeds in a few hours. — SillimaiV s Jour-
nal, xi. 226.

6. Effects of Cold. — The following natural temperature, and its
effects, which occurred at Marietta, in the state of Ohio, are re-
corded by Dr. Hildreth, of that place. Feb. 9th, 1818, at 7 A.M.,
Fahrenheit's thermometer sunk to 20° below zero. On the 10th, at
half-past 6 A. M., it was down to 22° below zero, in the open air,
and suspended to the limb of a tree. With all this severity of cold,
the Ohio river was not frozen across ; it was full of floating ice,
and during the night and morning of the 9th and 10th, threw up a
continual cloud of vapour, which darkened the air ; and freezing
as it ascended, fell again in a moderate shower of snow. So in-
tense was the cold, that there was a continual cracking and
snapping, by the contraction of wood in buildings and in trees.
Very strong brandy, exposed in a tea-saucer to the open air,
through the night of the 9th, was found frozen to ice the next
morning. The weather was colder at this time, by ten or twelve
degrees, than has been known since the country was first inhabited."
— Silliman's Journal xi. 232.

7. Notice of Mr. BurchelVs Travels in South America. — It will be
gratifying to our scientific readers to know that, notwithstanding the
liberal encouragement given by the continental governments to
researches in South America, some portion of the harvest will be
reaped by this country, by the enterprise and unassisted exertions of
her scientific sons. Mr. Swainson explored the provinces on the
north-east coast of that vast empire a few years ago. But a far
more interesting and hazardous journey is now performing by Mr.

Natural History. 243

Burchell, the well-known African traveller. It is not generally
known that this learned naturalist accompanied Sir Charles Stuart,
on his diplomatic mission to Rio de Janeiro, two years ago ; carry-
ing with him, among other things, a collection of astronomical and
mathematical instruments by the first makers, with an intention of
using them on the Cordilleras of Peru and Paraguay. Mr. Bur-
chell remained some time at Rio, to become seasoned to the climate,
and to make preparations for his arduous undertaking. In a recent
letter, dated at that place on the 7th September last, received by Mr.
Swainson, he thus sketches out his route: —

*' I have made large collections here, and in the neighbouring
country, and shall embark to-morrow morning for Santos, and travel
thence to St. Paul's, where (or at Jundiahy) I shall purchase about
twenty mules, to carry my baggage, consisting of thirty-three
packages, mostly weighing a hundred pounds each ; these will be
accompanied by a proportionate number of muleteers and attendants.
My plan is to traverse Brazil ; and passing through Matto Grosso
(i. e. the Great Wood,) the central province, enter Peru, and visit
the city of Cusco, the lake Titicaca, and the various ruins of the times
of the Incas. I am not certain whether I shall go so far northward
as Lima ; but if nothing untoward occurs to derange my plans, I
shall go to Arcquipa, Potosi, Solta, &c. &c., and thence to Buenos
Ayres, where my South American journey will end."

Looking upon Mr .Burchell as the most scientific and accomplished
traveller, next to the celebrated Humboldt, that this age has pro-
duced, we anxiously look forward to his success and return, as to
a period when every branch of science will derive advantage from
his accuracy and research.

8. Note on the Motions and Actions of Quadrupeds. — It is
asserted by physiologists that the right side of animals is ge-
nerally stronger than the left ; and it is said by riding-masters
that horses most naturally gallop with the left foot foremost, which
they attribute to the foal being commonly placed, before birth,
with its head to the left. All these facts, however, must be admitted
with some hesitation : the first thing to be asked is, what is meant by
galloping with the right or left foot foremost ; and we shall find
that the foremost foot is always most bent, and is put down singly,
and then, after some pause, the foot diagonally opposite, and then,
after a shorter pause, the two others almost at the same instant; these
two remaining parallel to each other, and appearing to be the most
energetically employed in the progressive motion. So that, in fact,
when the horse gallops with the left foot foremost, the principal
effort seems to be made by the right foot before, and the left foot
behind, and neither the right nor left, side of the body in general can
be said to be called into action more than the other.

It is curious to observe the association of ideas, or of impressions^
by which the actions of horses are sometimes regulated. A young
horse, which had been very 2/;e^/ taught to go in the usual manner with

R2

244 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

the right leg foremost, could not be persuaded by any art to depart
from his instructions ; till, after vain efforts for several months to
make his paces more classical, his rider recollected that he had
once or twice slightly started at a particular spot in the road, and
gone off with the left foot ; he determined to make trial of the
association with this spot, and having succeeded almost at once in
the experiment, he put out his lefl hand to caress the animal's neck ;
and this motion was soon understood as a signal for the same pace,
so that by thrusting forwards the left hand, the object was attained
in any other part of the road, until the leg was substituted for the
arm, in the regular manner.

9. Measurements and Weight of a Sea-gull. — These measurements
being taken with reference to the means by which a bird sustains
itself in the air do not profess to be particularly accurate. The
object was to ascertain generally the proportion of surface exposed
to the air, and the weight it had to sustain.

f. in.

Between the tips of the wings 4 10

From the beak to the end of the tail 2 4

Estimated average width of the wings through the

4 f 10 in 0 7i

From the end of the tail to the setting on of the wings 0 9
Width of the tail part near the wings, i. e. of the body

there 0 5

Width of the extremity of the tail when moderately

extended 0 9

Length of each wing . . , , 2 3

Thickness of the body 0 5

The weight of the bird, with all its feathers, was 3 lb. 4 J^ ounces,
or 52 J ounces avoirdupois.

10. Excision of Teeth. — We copy the following remarks from Mr.
Fay's communication on the subject to the Society of Arts : — " In
the centre of every tooth is a little cavity, in which is expanded a
nervous pulp, forming the principal seat of sensation in that organ ;
the nervous twigs pass through the roots of the teeth by very minute
passages into this cavity, where they are spread out. The base of
this cavity is situated a little above the level of the neck of the tooth,
and it struck me that when caries had extended so far as to expose this
nervous matter to the various agencies, from which, in the healthy
state of the parts, it is protected, it would be easy to remove that part
of the tooth containing the cavity, the seat of the pain, and thus allow
the sound roots to remain in their sockets undisturbed, to support
the adjoining teeth ; as it is a notorious fact that the entire removal
of one tooth, however easily performed, causes the adjoining ones
to become prematurely loose, and ultimately to fall out, in conse-
quence principally of the absorption of the alveolar process.
Minutely to describe how this happens would occupy too much

Natural History. 245

space, and I mention it merely as a well-known fact, to show the
value of allowinfif the root or fangs of a tooth to remain. This ope-
ration I have called the operation of excision, and I recommend it as
a most valuable substitute for the extraction of the teeth in the
majority of cases of caries ; but by no means to supersede it alto-
gether, as there are, and must ever be cases requiring the entire
extraction of the teeth, when disease has proceeded beyond a
certain point, as for example, beyond the common cavity, which I
have cursorily described ; or when the jaw itself is diseased.

The instruments employed by me in this operation are forceps
accurately iitted, like those for extraction, to the necks of the teeth,
but having fine well-tempered cutting edges ; these edges must be
carefully applied on the necks of the teeth as close to the gums as pos-
sible, taking care to keep the edges parallel to the edges of the gums,
which are to be depressed a little with the inferior surface of the
blades of the forceps, so as to bring the cutting edges fairly beneath
the enamel, which in the adult is the criterion of being below the
common cavity of the tooth. Then, with a gradual application of
pressure on the handles of the forceps, the tooth is in an instant
snapped off at the neck, and the common cavity, the seat of pain,
is thus removed, leaving the patient a painless bony surface for
mastication, a firm prop for the support of the adjoining teeth,
and a basis for an artificial tooth if it should be required. I may
mention here a fact never before noticed, namely, that the openings
by which the minute canals terminate in the common cavity, become,
soon after the excision of the crown, plvgged up with bony matter,
which thus affords a permanent protection to the interior of the
stump, and presents a continuous and firm surface for after-life.
In addition to these advantages, the operation is performed even
on the largest teeth in a moment, and, consequently, at a great
saving of suffering, which should be the grand object of all sound
surgery. — Trans. Soc, Arts. xliv. 70.

11. Poisoned Wounds. — At the Academic Royale de Medecine,
M. Bouilland lately read a paper on some experiments relative to
the effect of compression on poisoned wounds. Nine experiments
were made. In the first five M. Bouilland introduced two or three
grains of strychnia into the cellular tissue of the thigh of a hare, so
that he could at will use compression on the limb, either by a liga-
ture above the wound, or with an unexhausted cupping-glass, or
with the hand alone placed on the wound ; and he found that he
could, by applying the compression or not, either prevent or pro-
duce the effects of the poison. He found, by many trials, the good
effects of compression in causing the symptoms to cease or re-appear
alternately according as he applied or removed the instruments.

In a sixth experiment six leeches were applied around the little
wound, into which the strychnia was introduced, and it was re-
marked that, though none of them would bite, yet they all died.

In the three last experiments M. Bouilland used half a teaspoon-

246 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

ful of hydrocyanic acid, instead of strychnia, and found the same
results. He conchides, i. That these effects furnish new arguments
in favour of the idea, that many poisons are absorbed, ii. That
their deleterious effect would be prevented by hindering their ab-
sorption, or arresting- the circulation in the part to which they are
applied, and that it is in this way the cupping-glasses used by Dr.
Barry act. iii. That in cases of poisoned wounds, a ligature above
the wound would have the same effect as the cupping-glasses.— Jfec?.
Jour, Ivii. 84.

12. Bites of Venomous Reptiles. — M. le Dr. Record, sen,, dis-
covered, during a long residence in America, what he considers a
sure mode of preventing mischief from such bites. *' It is sufficient,"
he says, " to pour a few drops of tincture of cantharides on the
wound, to cause a redness and vesication ; not only is the poison ren-
dered harmless, but the stings of the reptiles are removed with the
epidermis that the blister raises." — Revue Med. ; Med. Jour. Ivii. 88.

13. Poison of Rattlesnakes. — M. E. Rousseau has ascertained, by
experiments made with the fangs of a dead rattlesnake, that the
venom of these animals preserves its injurious qualities for a long
time, even in our climates, and at a very advanced part of the year.
A pigeon wounded by them died in a very short period. — Bull. Phil,
1826, p. 141.

14. On Two new Kinds of Urinary Gravel. — These new varieties
of calculi were observed by M. Majendie. The first occurred with
a man of rank, a lover of good eating, who, being in circumstances
in which he gave way to his inclinations, thought it right to eat
each morning a large plateful of sorrel. After following this plan
for more than a year, severe pains were felt in the loins and ureters,
and shortly after a calculus was voided, six or seven lines in length,
and two in width. It was hard, had an orange colour, and being
analysed, was found to consist of oxalate of lime nearly pure. The
oxalic acid introduced into the system by the sorrel was evidently
the cause of this calculus, and an effectual remedy was found in
change of diet.

The second kind of gravel was of much more uncertain origin.
In this disease (as yet undescribed) the saline deposit of the urine
assumed two forms, being sometimes a fine white powder, mixed
with a large quantity of small hairs, varying in length from a line
to an inch or more ; and sometimes, on the contrary, forming white
pieces, of unequal and irregular form, having no great degree of
consistency, and crushing between the fingers. The fragments did
not, however, separate entirely, but adhered together by means of a
multitude of small hairs like those described, which, being mixed
with, made a part of the mass.

Maceration separates these hairs from both varieties of the hairy
gravel, as they have been named. They are then found to differ
but little from ordinary hair, except in being finer, and of a grey

Natural History. 247

cinder colour. They are so numerous, that the smallest fragments
exhibit their extremities, and, in certain instances, the surface of the
stone is visibly covered with them. The accompanying matter be-
ing analysed, was found to be phosphate of lime, united to a small
quantity of phosphate of magnesia, and uric acid.

Each of these varieties has been observed by M. Majendie but
once; the patient from whom the first kind came rendered an enor-
mous quantity daily. The phosphate of lime common to both
varieties is, according to M . Majendie, a result of the excessive use
of animal food ; as to the origin of the hairs he does not even form
a conjecture. The formation of these calculi was readily pre-
vented by prescribing an almost exclusive regimen of vegetable
food and alkalis. — BuU. Univ. c. iv. 297.

15. Conquest of Peril and Mexico by the Mongols, in the Thir-
teenth Century. — No historical discovery that has ever occurred, is
more important than that which is just now published regarding
America. In this volume we are told, that the Incas of Peru and
the Kings of Mexico were derived from the generals of the Grand
Khan Kublai, who sent a mighty expedition to subdue Japan ; but
a furious storm having dispersed the ships, many of them reached
America, where the troops and the elephants landed ; and these
statements accord entirely with the histories and traditions of the
Peruvians and Mexicans. The numerous identifications given in
this work leave no room to doubt the truth of these assertions ;
and this curious fact accounts for many circumstances in the history
of those two empires, which have hitherto puzzled and perplexed
all those who have written on that subject.

The lovers of zoology will be peculiarly interested in thus finding
that Mastodontes were living at so recent a period, their remains
being found, mixed with those of the elephant, on the spots where
the battles were fought, by troops who are decidedly known by the
history not to have arrived in those kingdoms till the thirteenth
century.

By what appears in this volume, in addition to a former work by
the same author, a new light may be thrown on the subject of the
quadruj)eds employed in the wars and amphitheatrical sports of the
Mongols and the Romans, all of which, it is rational to suppose,
are still in existence. The inference of their being extinct has
arisen from inquiries on that subject having been too much confined
to geological, instead of historical examination, to 'the latter of
which these particular quadrupeds more especially belong. The
curiosity thus excited will open a wide field for a considerable ad-
dition to our present stock of knowledge on the important and
highly interesting pursuit of zoological studies. It ai)pears like-
wise that the Romans had the means to procure tapirs from Suma-
tra, and the long-sought unicorn is described from two living ani-
mals sent by an African monarch to the Sultan of Mecca, in the
year 1503.

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TO OUR READERS AND CORRESPONDENTS.

The pages of this Journal are impartially open to all communication?
upon the subjects of Science, Scientific Literature, and the Arts ; and it
is requested that they may be forwarded to the Editor, at least one
month previous to the period of the pubHcation of eachl^umber.

We shall be happy to receive papers from Provincial Scientific and
Literary Societies, and to publish them either on the part of the Society,
or of their respective authors.

' Papers which are too long for insertion, as ig the case with jnany
which we receive, or which are deemed unfit for this publication, will be
hnmediately returned to the source whence we receive them, with our
reasons for their retvim.

We are indebted to Mr. Merrett, of Liverpool, for the article on ** the
Architecture of London," and hope again to hear fi*om him.

The communication upon the subject of Gymnastic Exercises we have
been obliged to abridge more than we could have wished. It is chiefly
extracted fi-om the works of Mr. Shaw, surgeon to the Middlesex
Hospital.

The short notice from E. S., upon the subject of Captain Head's
" Rough Notes," was unfortunately mislaid, and not found again till too
late for publication.

We cannot exactly see the advantage of the plan proposed by our
correspondent at Droitwich ; and, therefore, decline pubhshing his letter
till we are more satisfactorily informed upon the subject.

Mr. Mac Mullen's additional observations upon the existence of
chlorine in black oxide of manganese, arrived too late for insertion in the
present Number.

TO READERS AND CORRESPONDENTS,

■Reviews of the Philosophical Transactions, of Dr. Tui'ner's Elements
of Chemistry, of Mr. Faraday's Essay on Chemical Manipulation, and of
several other scientific works, have been postponed for want of room.
We shall certainly notice them in our ensuing Number.

The letter of F. R. S., and the paper signed ** Inquisitory' are in re-
serve, as we conclude some material change must soon take place.

An account of the several Courses of Lectures delivered during the
season in the Royal Institution, and of the proceedings of the general
and other meetings of the members, was intended for this Number, but
the pressure of oth6r matter, and the length of our report of the weekly
evening meetings, has obliged us to delay its insertion.

We are requested by Mr. Faraday to publish the following errors which
occur in his work, entitled Chemical Manipulation , with their corrections.
They are errors of the press, which are not self-evident, and might lead pupils
into mistakes.

Page 83, line 22, /or 39.87039, read 39.37079
„ „ „ 23 „ 3.93704 „ 3.93708
„ „ „ 26 „ 39.12929 „ 39.1S929
„ 140 „ 9 „ high „ low

249

On the Supply of Water to the Western Part of the Metro-
polis by the Grand Junction Water- Works Company.

We are always ready and anxious to assist in redressing any
public grievance which comes within the reach of our means,
and the scope of our publication, but we must be left to do so
in our own way, and upon perfectly independent principles :
** nullius jurare in verba, " is a sentiment which we have always
adhered to, and which, upon the present occasion especially, must
not be lost sight of The little pamphlet * which has given rise
to this article, is naturally calculated to excite much apprehen-
sion and alarm amongst the inhabitants of no inconsiderable
portion of the West-end of London. It will be our business to
determine whether its vehement asseverations are founded in
truth — ^whether they are exaggerated — whether they are " wilful
misrepresentations." It has been replied to by a short mani-
festo, circulated by the Grand Junction Company, and con-
taining some statements which it will also be our business to sift
and examine ; and lastly, we shall lay before our readers the
result of our own experience, observations, and experiments,
touching the several matters alluded to.

The author of The Dolphin begins, as Mrs. Glasse advises,
by first catching his fish ; and gives some interesting and novel
anecdotes of its habits and propensities : — " It is a certain fish
of the whale tribe : the ancients consecrated it to the gods.
Now-a-days, its boundings and springings are looked upon as
sure prognostics of an approaching storm. — It swallows greedily
whatever scraps are thrown to it ; and is caught by a hook baited
with garbage. Its sides are dingy, and it spouts water from a
hole in the centre of its head." After this, and more of the same,
the author proceeds as follows : — we shall condense and abridge
the rest of the work, but we quote these paragraphs as a sample
of its style and tenor : — "^

Of a widely different genus is " The Dolphin " which gives

• The Dolphin ; or. Grand Junction Nuisance : proving that seven
thousand Families, in Westminster and its Subiu-bs, are supplied with
Water, in a State offensive to the Sight, disgusting to the Imagination,
and destructive to Healtli. — *' There is such a thing as common sense I"
Abernethy.

APRIL— JUNE, 1827. S

260 Supply of Water to the Metropolis.

birth to this little manual. Its virtues have been recorded neither
by historian, philosopher, nor poet. It has never distinguished
itself by any extraordinary attachment to the human race. Instead
of bounding and springing, its position on the surface of the water
is stationary." Instead of being fleshy, its head is ligneous. Like
its namesake, it ingulphs immense portions of filth and garbage ;
but, so far is it from being esteemed a delicacy, that not only the
Duke of Norfolk, but more than seven thousand families, at the
court end of the town, have it constantly served into their houses.

Allegory apart — " Dolphin," in the Joint-Stock vocabulary, is
the word used by certain conscientious gentlemen who exclusively
supply the metropolis with that pabulum of life — Water — to de-
signate the source or head, in the river, from whence they draw
the supply of the article in which they deal. To this Dolphin —
to this wooden-headed, dingy-coloured, ill-shapen, insidious engine
of destruction, fraught with more mischief to the inhabitants of
Westminster and its suburbs than the wooden horse of the Greeks to
the unfortunate citizens of Troy — ^to this box, more crammed with
the seeds of all kinds of diseases — '-'"macies et nova cohors febrium" —
than that of Pandora, I entreat the earnest attention of every man
who considers the Public Health an object of paramount regard.

That, at a moment like the present, when both the Legislature
and the Government are endeavouring to unfetter the commerce
of the country, by removing oppressive prohibitions and inconve-
nient restrictions, and thereby giving greater facility and encou-
ragement to the skill, the capital, and the industry of the people
of England — that, at such a moment, there should exist, in the
very seat of that Government, a Monopoly of an element of nature,
cannot but be matter of just astonishment.

There then follow some observations upon the penal laws
applicable to monopolists, and of the mischief which has re-
sulted from the well-known arrangement of the Water Compa-
nies; who, to prevent entire ruin, divided the supply of the
town into districts, each limiting its service within a line agreed
upon, and exchanging, with the others, the pipes beyond its
boundary. "Thus," says the Dolphin, " were the customers
counted out, and handed over by these jobbers in one of God's
choicest blessings, from one set of monopolists to another, like
so many negroes on a West-Indian estate, or so many head of
cattle at a fair."

But we are principally anxious to call our readers' notice to
the factSj or supposed facts, developed by the author of this
pamphlet, and we shall adhere to his own arrangement of them;
remarking, by the way, that the most serious and grave accu-

Supply of Water to the Metropolis. 251

sations against the Company are frequently blended with such
irrelevant and silly remarks, as to throw no inconsiderable sus-
picion upon their general veracity and correctness ; as for in^
stance in the following paragraph : —

With praiseworthy zeal, and laudable exactitude, they follow
the instructions of Mrs. Rundell *, and other eminent professors,
for the making of puddings, pies, broths, soups, jellies and caudle $
and the boiling of meats, poultry, fish, and vegetables. They cal-
culate, to a grain, the proportion that one ingredient ought to
bear to another ingredient : they know, to the fourth part of a
minute, how long each article should remain in the saucepan :
but — mirabile didu ! — to the quality of the water of which those
puddings are made, and in which those meats are boiled, the fair
house- keepers of Westminster are less attentive — as I shall pre-
sently show — than the inhabitants of rude and uncultivated coun-
tries. In the integrity of their hearts, it never enters into their
imagination, that any set of men should be so mercenary, so des-
perately wicked, as to sell to their customers a gift of Heaven, in
a polluted and unwholesome state. They will now see, that their
confidence has been abused, and that their indifference is culpable.
— pp. 9, 10.

** Part I." of The Dolphin embraces three very important sub-
jects of inquiry, under the general title of " the importance of
pure and wholesome water for all domestic purposes." It first
calls our attention to the " importance of this inquiry to the
inhabitants of a thickly-populated metropolis :" and here we
are told, upon the authorities of Mr. Abernethy, Dr. Paris, anci
other writers on health and diet, that most people are better
for an occasional dose of country air ; that exercise is essential
to health ; that pure water is an agreeable and wholesome
beverage ; that people continually confined within doors by
sedentary business, are usually pale and sallow and dyspeptic ;
and that narrow alleys and dirty cellars are very comfortless
and insalubrious.

As we are not indebted to the Grand Junction Company for
the supply of foul air as well as of foul water, we cannot see
the fairness of mixing up these two inquiries ; however, the
advantages of pure water are elaborately set forth a few pages

* Some idea of the demand for this lady's writings may be formed
from the fact, that, first and last, one hundred and twenty ihousafid
copies of her ♦• New System of Domestic Cookery," have been printed;
and of its companion, ♦' The Family Receipt-Book," about fifty thousand.

S 2

252^ ' Supply of Water to the Metropolis.

further on, not upon the threadbare authority of the peptic
empirics of the present day, but upon that of Hippocrates and
Sir George Staunton, and of the " amiable Izaak AValton,"
and the unamiable Count Rumford. These conflicting evi-
dences agree in the main point of showing that pure and clear
water is much more agreeable than that which is loaded with
filth and soluble impurities : and, as most of our readers will
probably grant this point without further proof, we shall not
waste their time in extended remarks ; observing, however, by
the way, that it was probably after reading the convincing facts
detailed in these sections, that Sir H. Halford Avas induced to
move, atone of the anti-junctionist meetings, '^ That a constant
supply of pure and wholesome water is essential to the health
and comfort of the inhabitants of this great and thickly-peopled
metropohs !"

The second part of this pamphlet contains a common-place
account of the different water-companies ; and the third is
particularly devoted to the Dolphin, or Grand Junction Nui-
sance : to this we must at present confine our attention, as it is
here that the heavy accusations to which we have above alluded
are embodied.

It is well known, that the different water-companies being
upon the brink of ruin, entered into a mutual agreement to
partition out the town amongst them : this bold, and we must
call it, unconstitutional step was carried into effect towards the
close of 1817, by the simultaneous retirement from each al-
lotted district, of all the companies previously employed, ex-
cept the individual one thenceforward to be left in the exclu-
sive possession of the field.

The companies gave no previous notice whatever of tlieir inten-
tions : and, in reply to the remonstrances of their customers, they
were informed, that, for the future, they could only be supplied by
the one-continuing Company ; and they were also given to under-
stand, that an increased rate would be shortly exacted. The in-
decency of the proceeding produced a temporary burst of indig-
nation ; but, so deadening are the effects of monopoly, that the
imposition was tamely submitted to, and the nefarious scheme
brought to completion.

That a combination, bottomed in such a total disregard for the
public welfare, should exist for any long period, without producing
the train of evils ever attendant upon monopoly, was not to be

Supply of Water to the Metropolis. 253

expected ; but that, in the space of less than nine years, it should
have given birth to the frightful enormity which I am about to
expose, could not have entered into the imagination.

The Grand Junction Water- Works Company, as I have already
shown, was not set on foot by any portion of the inhabitants of
the metropolis, who felt themselves aggrieved by the conduct of
the existing companies, but originated in a set of " Manchester
gentlemen,*' holding a board in some alley in the City, and look-
ing for their profits solely to an increase in the market-price of
the shares, and by realizing the premiums which they could obtain
upon a transfer of those shares.

That seven thousand families, in such a city as Westminster,
should be bound hand and foot, and placed at the mercy of jobbers
of this stamp, for a supply of an article, without the daily use of
which they can have no life, is a state of things too frightful to
contemplate. That it will be endured, when those families shall
see how their comforts and their lives have been sported with by
those jobbers, is impossible. — p. 40-42.

This is very strong language, — in our opinion much too
strong : we wonder the author risked it ; however, it is followed
up by what may to some appear its justification, namely, a
contrast between the promises and performances of the said
Grand Junction Company. These we shall condense as far
as is consistent with perspicuity.

They promise, by advertisement under the date of November
15, 1810, to supply abundance of pure and excellent water,
even in the upper stories of houses ; and to do this at a com-
paratively small expense : and in a second advertisement, they
promise to give a supply so copious and regular, that the water
is always on, pure in the pipes, and constantly fresh. They
moreover undertake to make no additional charge for high
service^ and to avoid all delay in cases of fire, by keeping the
pipes constantly full, and the supply always on. The water,
they say, being perfectly clear^ would not, in case of fire,
tarnish the furniture. (This savours of quackery.) They
then tell us that " the annexed analyses show the water to be
peculiarly adapted to all domestic purposes :" but to us these
analyses are sadly disappointing ; in fact, they are merely a few
lines signed by Mr. Aikin and Mr. Accum, attesting its general
purity and fitness for domestic use ; but what it contains, or
what are its impurities, we are not told : this deficiency we
shall therefore endeavour in due time to supply.

254 Supply of Water to the Metropolis.

These, and others which we have not thought it necessary to
transcribe, were the tempting promises held out by the Grand
Junction Company. Come we now to their performances as
enumerated by the author of The Dolphin.

No sooner was the confederacy completely established, than
the Grand Junction Company began to give proof of the mischief
ever attendant upon the possession of exclusive powers. Instead
of the promised " daily supply" of water, it was sent into the
houses of their customers only three days out of the seven. In-
stead of " increased security against the ravages of fire," it is a
singular fact, that after almost every fire that has happened in the
division, since the combination of the companies, complaints have
been made in the public journals, of the much greater delay which
has taken place, than was formerly known. Instead of selling it
at a " comparatively small charge," they exacted, in August 1819,
an increased rate, equivalent, in no case, to less than 50 per cent.,
and extending, in most instances, to 99 and 100 per cent. In-
stead of making " no additional charge for high service," an ad-
vance, in some instances, amounting to 100, 150, and even 200
per cent, was demanded. — pp. 49, 50.

We are afraid that most of this statement is not true, but we
shall for the present reserve our own opinion, and hasten to the
pith of the pamphlet, which is contained between the fifty-
eighth and eighty-seventh pages.

It is here maintained that the Company instead of supplying
the pure streams of the Colne and Brent, and valley of Ruislip,
draw their water from the Thames, at the foot of Chelsea Hos-
pital, and within a few yards of a large common sewer, thus
sending to the inhabitants of London " a fluid saturated with
the impurities of fifty thousand houses ; a dilute solution of
animal and vegetable substances in a state of putrefaction,
alike offensive to the sight, disgusting to the imagination, and
destructive to health." Now, to substantiate this thundering
accusation, we did hope that the author of The Dolphin would
have had a careful analysis made of the said water, and that
its results would have justified the violence of his assertions.
But no such thing ; his analysis is still less satisfactory than
that which we have above complained of, as published by the
Company. It was performed by Mr. Joyce, the successor of
Mr. Accum, and the following is its amount : — " The water
sent for assay was found to be loaded with decomposed vege-
table matter, and in such quantity as to be unfit for use without

Supply of Water to the Metropolis. 255

tedious purifications." The right way of proceeding in these
cases would have been, not to send a bottle of the water in
question to the first person that occurred, but to have requested
one or more respectable chemists to have examined the water
as coming directly from the mains of the Company, and to col-
lect and experiment upon it in their own way. We think,
therefore, that no weight whatever can be attached to the
above, or any analogous analysis ; nor are the opinions of the
medical men which follow of much more importance, for they
are but opinions after all, and those upon one side of the ques-
tion only, for we could easily obtain a similar number of
equally respectable certificates in favour of the water, as are
here so formidably arrayed against it : however, it is but fair
to let some of these gentlemen speak for themselves.

Mr. Abernethy here stands forth in the foremost rank, to
whom our author addressed a letter, with a sample of the water,
informing him, that instead of pure water the Grand Junction
Company supplied a fluid loaded with all sorts of filth and im-
purities, drawn from within a few yards of the great common
sewer : he then proceeds to inquire whether such water is not
more fit to engender disease than to make soups and puddings.
Now for the answer :

Scarcely had I put the above letter into Mr. Abernethy's hand,
when I unfortunately held up the specimen bottle, and asked him,
** whether he thought such water could be wholesome/* Never
shall I forget the countenance of this eminent man at that moment !
The very sight of the turbid fluid seemed to occasion a turmoil in
his stomach. He began pacing the room backward and forward,
and the only words I could extract from him were, " How can you
ask me such a question ? How can you ask me such a question ?
There is such a thing as Common Sense ! There is such a thing
as Common Sense !"

Mr. Pope tells us, that

" Great wits sometimes may gloriously offend.
And rise to faults true critics dare not mend — "

and so may great professional men. There was a sort of honest
hrusquerie in Mr. Abernethy's conduct, that pleased me beyond
measure ; and I left his house, satisfied that I had not only esta-
blished my case, but supplied my intended publication with an
excellent motto.

In a communication which I have since been favoured with from
Mr. Abernethy, he has had the goodness to confirm my interpre-

25§ Supply of Water to the Metropolis.

tation of his exclamation, and to express his sincere wishes for the
success of, what he is kind enough to call, my " public- spirited
exertions."

We have transcribed this "Scena" between Messrs. Aber-
nethy and Wright, inasmuch as the latter gentleman has placed
it first upon his medical evidence, and has taken from it the
motto of his pamphlet. The impression that it leaves upon us
is, that if there be such a thing as " common sense," there is
also such a thing as nonsense, and that Mr. Wright is wrong in
publishing such rhodomontade.

Now for the rest of the medical opinions. Dr. William
Lambe says, " the water must be unwholesome;" but Dr. Wil-
son Philip more circumspectly observes, that *' good water is
essential to health." Mr. Thomas and Dr. Hooper represent
the use of the Grand Junction water as prejudicial to health,
and the latter, especially, complains of the live insects in which
it abounds ; and Mr. Brodie conceives it to be unwholesome,
and altogether unfit for culinary purposes.

Dr. Paris says that the water in question is extremely im-
pure and unwholesome, and that he cannot find terms expres-
sive of the awful effects it may be likely to produce upon the
health, and even lives of the inhabitants of the Metropolis.

Mr. Keate is yet more decided : he says the water is so
filthy and impure, as to be unfit for the breakfast table, or for
culinary purposes ; and that it adds so much to the other im-
pure and unwholesome constituents of bread, as to render every
meal injurious to the health of thousands. He adds, *' by the
aid of filtering machines, and a steam kitchen, I endeavour to
avert from my family the mischiefs and dangers which I should
otherwise apprehend from the use of the sad compound which
is laid into my house."

Doctors Turner, Hume, Macmichael, Holland, Bree, and
Johnson, close this formidable catalogue with evidence couched
in nearly similar terms to that above given ; but Sir H. Hal-
ford is somewhat more circumspect : the following is his reply
to Mr. Wright : —

" Curzon Street, March 1, 1827.
** Sir,

" I have been disgusted, for some time past, by the filthy fluid
which has been served to my house by the Grand Junction Water

Supply of Water to the Metropolis, 257:

Company ; and, although I am not prepared to prove that its in-
fluence on the health of the inhabitants of the west-end of the
town has been deleterious, I conceive it likely to become so, if it
continue to be supplied in the same foul and muddy condition, in
which it comes into our houses at present.

*' I must add, Sir, that I think the Public is under great obliga-
tions to you for bringing this subject of the supply of water to
the Metropolis, to the notice of Parliament.
" I am, Sir, your's truly,

(Signed) " Henry Halford."

Now, throughout this evidence, two circumstances have forci-
bly struck us, and greatly tend, in our opinion, to invalidate its
evident object, — the first is, that no analysis of the water was
undertaken by, or at the request of, any of the above gentlemen ;
that no chemist was consulted, and that we are studiously
kept in the dark as to its nature and composition ; — the second,
that not one actual instance of the poisonous and mischievous
qualities of the said water is adduced, or even hinted at ; nay,
even the "Doctors militant" upon the above formidable list
are, themselves, not the least healthy specimens of the inhabi-
tants of the parishes of St. George and St. James, though they
have now, for several years, had no other aqueous supplies than
those of the horrible common sewer to which they refer.

The fourth and last part of The Dolphin, proposes to treat of
the " abatement of the nuisance, and of the best mode of pro-
curing a pure and wholesome supply of water for Westminster
and its suburbs/' To this we turned with much eagerness, in
the hope of finding some plausible suggestions or practicable
plans for the improvement of the supply of water to the Metro-
polis generally ; but the author has here merely recapitulated
his former statements, without suggesting any thing plausible
in the shape of remedy for the grievances which he has detailed :
the remedy, indeed, is not very obvious ; but before we ven-
ture to throw out a suggestion or two respecting it, we are in
duty bound to make a few observations upon the conduct of the
directors of the Grand Junction Water- Works Company.

At a meeting held at Willis's Rooms, on Monday the 9th of
April, " to take into consideration the means of supplying pure
and wholesome water to the inhabitants of the western portion
of the Metropolis," certain resolutions were passed, which we

259 Supply of Water to the Metropolis.

have annexed in a note,* and upon which the directors have
published a series of ** remarks," some of which are much to
the point.

In the first place, the said directors have been held out to
their customers as a most obdurate and inflexible body of gen-
tlemen, quite inaccessible to all remonstrance, and deaf to the
reiterated complaints of their customers ; but here we find, that
immediately upon a notice being given in the House of Com-

* " Resolved :

" 1st. That a constant supply of pure and wholesome water is essen-
tial to the health and comfort of the inhabitants of this great and thickly-
peopled metropolis.

" 2d. That the principle of tlie Acts of Parliament, under which the
several companies supplying the metropolis with water were instituted,
was to encourage competition ; seeing that it is only from competition,
that a perfect security can be had for a good, a cheap, and a plentiful
supply.

*' 3d. That, nevertheless, by an arrangement entered into, about the
year 1817, between the several companies supplying the metropolis with
water, all competition was put an end to, and a monopoly of this neces-
sary of life virtually established.

*' 4th. That the water taken up from the river Thames, at Chelsea,
for the use oi' the inhabitants of the western portion of the metropolis,
being charged with the contents of the great common sewers, the drain-
ings from dung-hills and lay-stalls, the refuse of hospitals, slaughter-
houses, colour, lead, and soap works, drug-mills and manufactories,
and with all sorts of decomposed animal and vegetable substances, ren-
dering the said water offensive, and destructive to health, ought no
longer to be taken up by any of the Water Companies from so foul a
source.

" 5th. That the Grand Junction Water- Works Company, having en-
gaged to supply their customers with water of the purest and most
wholesome quality, to be drawn from the rivers Colne and Brent, and
from an immense reservoir of nearly one hundred acres, fed by the
streams of the Vale of Ruislip, have, nevertheless, since the month of
September 1820, drawn their supply from the Thames, at the foot of
Chelsea Hospital, and nearly adjoining to the mouth of the Great Rane-
lagh Common Sewer.

*• 6th. That the water supplied by the Grand Junction Company, to
more than seven thousand families, has been pronounced, by profes-
sional men of the first eminence, to be a filthy fluid, loaded with decayed
vegetable matter and other substances equally deleterious to health, and
unfit for domestic purposes.

•* 7th. That the Grand Junction Company, having promised to supply
their customers with water, at a comparatively small charge, have,
nevertheless, exacted an increased rate, equivalent, in no case, to less
than fifty per cent., and extending, in most instances, to ninety and a
hundred per cent. ; and that th^ obtained, in May last, the sanction of
the legislature to a new table of rates, by which an addition of fifty per
cent, may be levied on their customers.

Supply of Water to the Metropolis. 259

mons, by Sir F. Burdett, of his intention to move for a com-
mittee of inquiry into the conduct of the Water Companies, the
chainnan of the Grand Junction Works, requested an interview
with that gentleman, and stated to him the readiness and
anxiety of the directors to afford the means of the fullest inves-
tigation to any committee or deputation of householders in their
district of every point connected with the powers of supply,
or rates charged by the Company. To this proposition, Sir
Francis did not accede ; and the directors say that they have
neither the right, nor the wish to complain of his determination ;
but the householders, in our opinion, have both, for we are
assured that many of the most respectable in the district would
have been very glad of such a conference, in whatever way it
might have terminated, and that the impression upon their
minds, apparently warranted by the silence of the Company,
was that the latter blinked the question, and would condescend
to no compromise.

The Company's " Circular," after some remarks upon their
charges, which we, at present, shall not meddle with, tells us,
that until they ceased to take their supply from the Grand
Junction Canal, frequent complaints were made of the quality
of the watery and the directors were constantly importuned to
resort to the Thames. Now, this statement is not very consistent

** 8th. That a petition be presented to both houses of parliament,
praying that a full inquiry into the constitution and practices of the
several companies supplying the metropolis with this all-important ne-
cessary of life may be instituted ; in order that the nuisance complained
of may be speedily abated, and the supply of pure and wholesome water
to the western portion of the metropolis be henceforward placed on a
sure and lasting foundation.

" 9th. That a subscription be entered into to defray the expenses
which must be incurred in preparatory measures connected with the
object of the present meeting, and that the following noblemen and gen-
tlemen be a committee to receive and appropriate the same (Here fol-
lows a list of the names of the committee) : —

" 10th. That the thanks of this meeting be given to Mr. J. Wright, of
Regent- street, for having directed the pubUc attention to this important
subject.

" 11th. That Sir Francis Burdett, Bart., and John Cam Hobhoiise,
Esq., our representatives in parliament, be instructed to support the
prayer of the said petition.

" 12th. That the thanks of this meeting be given to Sir Francis Bur-
dett, Bart., for his impartial conduct in the chair.

{Signed) " Francis Burdett."

260 Supply of Water to the Metropolis.

with their former eulogium upon the pure streams of the Brent
and Colne, and of the immense reservoir, fed by the streams of
the Vale of Ruislfp ; all which formed the grand decoy-duck of
their original manifesto, and induced their customers to hope
for a supply of water purer than that of the purest part of the
Thames.

In reply to the direct charge of the nastiness of their water,
that is, to the sixth resolution of the public meeting (see page
258), we have the following statement — we must apologise for
the length of the quotation, on account of its importance : —

" The directors will commence what they have to observe upon
this head with admitting frankly, and at once, that, daring a cer-
tain period of the year, the water of the Thames is not such as in
their opinion ought to be delivered to the inhabitants of London,
— denying at the same time most distinctly that the foulness of
the water supplied by the Grand Junction Water Company, at
such times, is attributable to any other cause than the turbid state
of the river during the prevalence of floods, or has been greater
in degree, or different in quality from the foulness observable in
the water supplied by other companies during the same periods :
upon this head the directors can well afford to show the most com-
plete candour, when they add (what they will presently more fully
allude to, and hereafter establish by evidence before the commit-
tee) that, to remedy this evil, they have advised with the most
eminent engineers, and have devoted the patient and laborious
attention of between two and three years, and an expenditure
little short of 50,0001. Whilst admitting thus much, however,
they cannot but animadvert (and they do so with regret) upon
the loose mode in which the opinions of some individuals, alike
eminent for professional skill and private respectability, who
spoke at the meeting at Willis's Rooms on the quality of the
water, seemed to have been formed. That by the person who has
excited the public mind on this matter, miserably unfair means
should have been taken to obtain from professional men, whose
names have justly great weight with the public, opinions unfa-
vourable to the quality of the water, was only what the directors
might have expected, and is consistent with the whole tenor of
his conduct as regards this Company ; but that, in a public meet-
ing, respectable individuals should have spoken in strong terms
upon the bad quality of the water, without even knowing in what
state it was at that moment flowing into their own houses, the
directors have perceived with no inconsiderable surprise.

" One highly respectable individual, whose judgment, from his
having recently paid attention to this subject, cannot but have
had much influence, and who spoke at the meeting with great ani-
mation upon the foulness of the water, the directors have reason

Supply of Water to the Metropolis. 261

to believe, must have formed his opinion, not from the supply of
the Company, but from the contents of a cistern in want of
cleansing.

" To neglect in cleansing out cisterns they have indeed, in num-
berless instances, been enabled to trace a complaint of the quality
of the water, and they do in consequence protest most decidedly
against any judgment upon the water supplied by the Company,
unless it shall have been formed from specimens fairly taken, and
in the presence of their own officers. Without going at present
into greater length to point out the causes which may have misled
the judgments of the respectable authors of the very extraordinary
opinions which have been published upon this head, the directors
pledge themselves to prove satisfactorily before the committee the
utter incorrectness of those opinions.

" In fact, whilst it is true that, during a part of the winter, water
drawn from the Thames is turbid, it is no less true that, except
during floods, it is, even when fresh drawn from the stream, ex-
ceedingly good, and that the water served by the Company is at
this moment, as it has been for many weeks, bright and pure.

*' To be foul from floods during a portion of the year, is of course
common to all rivers, though not in an equal degree : the waters
of a large river, and which derives its supply from a vast extent
of country, will be less likely to become completely turbid than
the waters of a smaller stream, all the sources of which may be
affected by the influence of one heavy rain ; and the directors are
well persuaded, that of all the rivers that could be made available
for the supply of London, the Thames ranks decidedly the first;
indeed it was reserved for this occasion to impeach the quality of
the waters of this noble stream, which has hitherto been supposed
to stand as unrivalled in this as in all other respects.

" To remedy this defect, and to enable the Company to supply
bright water at all seasons, the directors have for now nearly three
years been devoting an unremitting attention. In 1824 the opi-
nions of three of the most eminent engineers were taken as to
the best mode of effecting this object; two of them recommended
additional reservoirs at Paddington, with a feeding main from the
river, distinct from the mains that supply the Company's district
from the reservoirs ; — the third recommended reservoirs at Chel-
sea : in either case it was pronounced the Company would possess
unrivalled means of affording to London a supply of water pure
and abundant.

" The Company in the end adopted, not one^ but both of these
plans ; and the additional works were commenced in the beginning
of 1825. The Company now possess, at Paddington, three reser-
voirs of eight acres, and are about to make three additional reser-
voirs, at Chelsea, of four acres : when all are completed, they
will afford such means of giving a supply of pure water, as have
never yet been equalled, or, they might say, even approached in
ancient or modern times.

262 Supply of Water to the Metropolis,

" The water, from the time allowed for repose, will be bright at
all seasons, whilst from the ample reserve at either end of the
line of communication (Chelsea and Paddington) the supply of the
town will run no risk of being disturbed by accident to any part
of the works/'

Lastly, the directors state, and our analysis of the water
proves them correct, that all that has been said respecting
the influence of the Ranelagh drain upon the supplies drawn
through their Dolphin, is either utterly false or grossly exag-
gerated.

*' 1. The Dolphin is so placed with reference to the Ranelagh
Drain, that it cannot possibly be affected by the drainage water ;
during the ebb tide not a drop can come near it (unless it were to
flow against the stream), and during the flood, the rising water of
the river stops the egress of the current of the drainage.

" Sndly. If the water delivered by the Company were affected
by the Ranelagh drainage, it would be more affected in summer,
when less water came down the sewer to dilute its impurities, than
during the floods: — on the contrary, the water supplied by the
Company in winter was turbid in common with the supply of the
other companies, and now, in common also with their supply, it is
bright.

" Srdly. If when the Dolphin were first placed in its present
situation, it had been supposed that the supply of the Company
could be affected by it, is it credible that men of sound mind
would have permitted it to be so placed? or what temptation
could the Company have had strong enough to induce them to dis-
gust the town, which it was of such paramount importance to
them to conciliate."

We shall now offer a few brief remarks upon the above dis-
cussion, promising to keep an eye over the parties concerned,
and to resume the subject whenever occasion requires ; pre-
mising that we are actuated by no kind of antipathy to Mr.
Wright, nor affection to the company. We trust, in short,
that we are, and shall remain, " candid and unprejudiced ob-
servers of passing events."

First, we must in justice allow that the supply of the Grand
Junction Water Company is frequently unexceptionable
that it is abundant, clear, and free from any smell or taste,
and quite fit for all domestic and culinary applications ; and
we set out with this statement, verified by repeated trials, and
analyses, to show that, if they choose, the Company have the
power of supplying unobjectionable water. To what extent

Supply of Water to the Metropolis. 263

this power may be limited, or by what circumstances it is in-
fluenced, we recommend them most seriously to investigate
and consider.

But, secondly, it must be admitted, that the water is also
frequently sent into the houses in a very objectionable state,
extremely turbid, abounding in shrimps, worms, and other
aquatic insects. Here is the grievance; people are dis-
gusted at seeing live animals twisting about the bottoms of
their pitchers ; and the diffused mud gradually subsiding,
fouls the cisterns, in which, if not repeatedly cleaned, it soon
constitutes a most annoying deposite ; it is necessarily stirred
up and diffused whenever the water comes in, and often putre-
fies, rendering the whole contents of the cistern fetid and un-
wholesome. All this the Company allow ; but they tell us,
that the cisterns should be frequently cleansed : but this is
often no easy operation ; it is requisite at least once a month,
and is constantly leading to the disturbance of water-closet
machinery, and other expensive inconveniences. Besides,
many cisterns are not easily accessible. We also must here beg
leave to remark, that if the Company did their duty towards
the public, they never would throw in their water, thus loaded
with mechanical impurities ; they would make such arrange-
ments of reservoirs, as might enable them to supply such
water only as had completely clarified itself by deposition,
and we should then suffer so little inconvenience from sedi-
ments in cisterns, that an annual cleansing would probably be
sufficient.

This grand desideratum we are happy to say the Company
promise to effect, as will be seen in one of our preceding quo-
tations from their ** Circular ;" and if they keep their promise,
and we see no reason why they should not, we are convinced
that the majority of their unprejudiced opponents will with-
draw from the field.

But there are certain theoretical ultra-chemists who tell us
that all such precautions go but little way to amend the mis-
chief; and that though mechanically suspended impurities may
be separated by subsidence and filtration, the matters which-
are actually dissolved in the water can never be got rid of by
any such operation : they then go on to represent the horrible

264 Supply of Water to the Metropolis.

things which may thus be held in solution, but are never at
the pains of actually experimenting upon the subject, which
might enable them to state what really is there found. The
result of several experiments upon the Grand Junction water
leads us to believe that it is not objectionable when its mecha-
nical impurities have been separated ; we have found none of
4;hat abundance of animal and vegetable matter which the said
chemists had led us to anticipate. Carbonic acid, carbonate
of lime, a little sulphate of lime, and some common salt, are
the leading ingredients which we have detected ; and these, in
no alarming relative proportions to the whole mass, a pint of
the water yielding upon an average a grain and a half of so-
luble matter, and always less than two grains. We therefore
repeat, that whenever the Company have so far improved their
arrangements as to enable them to supply no other water than
that which has completely deposited its suspended matters,
there will be no longer any grounds of complaint, provided
they neither increase their rates, which are already enor-
mous, nor diminish the quantity, nor alter the regularity
of their service. We have been at the pains of examining
water from other parts of the river between Chelsea and Lon-
don Bridge, and the results are not unfavourable to the state-
ments of the Grand Junction Company ; it is neither chemi-
cally purer, nor mechanically cleaner. In the supplies of the
West Middlesex Company we have not discerned any import-
ant shade of improvement ; the water is neither softer nor
cleaner. To conclude, we have no hesitation in saying, that
the only source whence the metropolis can obtain river water
in sufficient abundance, and of unobjectionable purity, is
from the Thames, and the higher up the river the better.
Some years ago a plan was suggested for carrying Thames
water from the vicinity of Teddington to the top of Hampstead
Hill, and thence supplying London and its environs ; it was
deemed visionary, and laid upon the shelf The fact is, that
the difference between the water there and at Chelsea, is not
such as would justify the outlay of a million of money, and
a proportionate increase of the rates.

265

On the Cultivation and Improvement of Edible Fruits.

There is nothing, perhaps, in the whole range of human exer-
tion which equals, or that exhibits the value and utility of the
horticultural art so conspicuously, as the improvements which
have been made in the melioration of our edible fruits. Not
one of the numerous kinds and varieties of fruit which our gar-
dens and orchards produce, are what they were in their aboriginal
state; and several there are, which appear to be absolutely
new creations : — the offspring of accident or skill, rather than
the spontaneous productions of nature.

To present the reader with a general view of this curious and
interesting subject, is the object of this paper; and it is intended
to be, not only a theoretical display of the effects of cultivation,
but also a practical exposition of the means employed to obtain
such results, — marking the steps which have progressively led
to the completion of the present system of pomological im-
provement ; and, in order to make the detail as concise as
possible, it will be necessary to trace the efforts of the first cul-
tivators in the management of their favourite fruits, which will
lead to the consideration of all the expedients now practised for
the purposes of improvement.

It may be naturally supposed that the native fruits of the
woods were first transplanted from their indigenous stations to
be, as it were, domesticated near the habitations of man : — here
they received protection, and a certain degree of cultivation ;
were free from the encroachment of other trees, and weeds, and
had other care bestowed upon them. — This treatment would
increase their growth, enlarge their fruit, and, perhaps, improve
its flavour: — ^thus repaying the first attention of the planter.

We may next suppose, that the planter, finding the fruit
useful, or perhaps necessary to his existence, might imitate na-
ture in his desire to increase his primitive orchard, (if no suckers
rose from the roots,) by saving and sowing the seeds of his pro-
tegees. Among the produce, he might observe some individual
seedlings of stronger growth, and broader leaves than the rest ;
to such he would, very probably, give a preference, not from
previous experience that such would be superior sorts, but merely

APRIL — JUNE, 1827. T

268 On the Cultivation and

from their more kindly appearance and habit. Haply, they
might turn out improvements of the original ; and, elated with
his success, would repeat his experiment, but in succeeding
trials, he might not be so fortunate ; and would be driven by
his wishes, to devise some other scheme to extend or propagate
his already acquired favourite fruit. In this pursuit he might,
perhaps, have noticed, that parts of plants severed from the
parent, if placed by accident in the ground, and in a suitable
situation, would strike root, grow, and become a tree, in all
respects like that which produced it: — or he might observe,
(which is a circumstance more frequently seen) that branches
of trees, partly buried in the soil, would become trees after a
time, independent entirely of their original. On these circum-
stances, our modern custom of propagation by cuttings and
layering, have undoubtedly originated ; and no doubt our pri-
mitive gardener, witnessing those instances of reproduction,
would be insensibly led to the knowledge of some of the proper-
ties of plants, and soon would arrive at the cognizance, that
some were individ,ual essences, and that others were a congeries
of essences, distinct in themselves and from each other, and
divisible without destruction to each other.

When, however, with this slender stock of knowledge, and
means of propagation, any of these processes became impracti-
cable, or inconvenient, he would be urged on to other expedients
for the extension and perpetuation of his improved fruits ; — in
the course of time and experience, he, or some of his juniors,
in the same pursuit in succeeding generations perhaps, might
hit upon the idea and practice of grafting. This discovery
would be considered as a prodigy, as it would be productive of
unbounded facilities in the propagation and distribution of im-
proved fruits ; and would lead to most beneficial results, in
every department, and for every object of the pomologist's art.

The practice of grafting is of great antiquity ; but the exact
period of time or place when it was first performed, is un-
known : — for though gardens have been described, both by
sacred and profane writers of the earliest ages ; and though they
have been the theme of kings, and priests, and prophets, as well
as poets ; — as paradise — Hesperides — and Paphian bowers ; yet
of grafting, the earliest annals are silent. It appears, however,

Improvement of Edible Fruits. 267

that it (as well as the effects of it) was known eighteen hundred
years back : — witness what St. Paul has written in the eleventh
chapter of his Epistle to the Romans ; from which passage, it
is to the English reader, evident that something like grafting
was known in his days. I am, however, not aware of the strict
meaning of the Greek verb used by the Apostle in this passage,
and which is rendered "grafting," by our translators. But
however this may be, is a point of no importance in the present
detail ; the art itself is one of the most useful operations in the
management of trees, not only to perpetuate the most approved
kinds of fruit for a long series of years, but is also productive of
great advantages in the right adaptation of the stock and graft,
and by which they can be made to counteract the exuberances
of each other.

Another remarkable process of improving fruits has occurred
to cultivators, since the discovery of the sexual system of plants
by the celebrated Linnseus. — That there existed such a thing as
sex in the vegetable kingdom, was known, or rather apprehended
before his time, is sufficiently evident from the writings of na-
turalists ; but it remained for his eminently scrutinizing mind to
confirm and illustrate "this curious fact, in the economy of nature.
On this, he arranged his system and classification of plants ;
and though it be a more artificial (and too homely, perhaps)
mode of distinction than that of some other botanists, and is,
consequently, rather giving way to the more natural arrange-
ment of Jussieu ; yet the leading fact of Linnseus's system is
so far proved, and taken advantage of by improvers, that many
valuable varieties of new fruits have been obtained, by simply
impregnating the female parts of one kind with the farina of
another ; thus producing a new progeny, which is neither one
or other, though partaking of the qualities of both.

It is astonishing how far this means of improvement and
fertilization has already been carried, and inconceivable how
extensively it may be exercised in the farther amelioration of
fruits ; — the prospect is boundless, and future generations only,
will witness the consequences of this easy and certain method
of improvement ! To the silent and unheeded operation of this
circumstance, whatever may have been the agents, we are
doubtless indebted for many varieties^ which have been found

T 2

268 On the Cultivation and

in situations far from all interference of art, and brought into
existence by fortuitous causes alone.

• The fertility of plants, as well as the quality of the fruit, can
also be improved by checking the luxuriancy of the growth. —
This is accomplished in various ways ; — by frequent transplant-
ation— by wounding or cutting off some of the principal roots —
by circumcision, or ringing the stem, or branches — by double
working, i. e., grafting or budding twice or thrice on them-
selves— and lastly, by planting in light, shallow, dry soils. The
effect of all these violences is to check the cresive energies of
the plants, and, consequently, and necessarily, bringing the
fructiferous or reproductive essences into action. Why this
should be so, is a curious question, and can be better answered
by the anatomist, than it has hitherto been by vegetable physio-
logists. An exactly similar case exists in animal economy ;
and if a reason can be given for the one, it will equally apply,
by analogy, to the other. The robustly corpulent and obesious
are not the subjects of facilitous fecundity.

There remains to be noticed the external means which have
been practised for the maturation and preservation of fruit-
trees ; and these are, defending them from the attacks of insects ;
placing them in such soils and situations as are most conge-
nial to their natural constitutions ; and protecting them from
the extremes of the weather, by walls and skreens of hedges,
&c. ; and for the more delicate fruits, providing glass cases,

" Where blooms perpetual spring, and summer shines
*' In months not hers "

in which all the fruits of our own clime, as well as some of the
most valuable of all others, are brought to the greatest perfec-
tion ; and even rival, in excellence, those produced under the
influence of their native skies.

We next proceed to show the effects and results of the above-
noticed means of improvement ; and beginning among the more
humble growths, notice first —

The Strawberry. — This favourite, fragrant, and delicious
fruit is found wild over this, and many other countries of the
globe. In its wild state, it is found in woods, and on hills ;
hence the two grand divisions of sylvan and alpine strawberries.

Improvement of Edible Fraits. 269

Naturally, their growth is diminutive, — the fruit small, — and,
except on very dry situations, very tasteless. When trans-
planted into the garden, where they have the advantage of a
rich soil and suitable cultivation, they are improved in all
respects : — many varieties have been imported from other coun-
tries, and a far greater number have been obtained in this, chiefly
from seeds properly prepared by cross impregnation : by which
means, the strawberry has been wonderfully improved ; instance
the hautboys, scarlet, chilli, but particularly the splendid vari-
eties, called " Wilmot's superb," and " Keen's seedlings."

Of the Raspberry. — This is also found wild in the British
isles, on its native site, (with its companions, the bramble, and
dewberry) — its shoots and fruit are diminutive, though the flavour
of the berry is rich. No plant requires the skilful hand of the
pruner more than this ; of all others, it is, perhaps, the most
viviparous, throwing up, annually, a vast redundancy of shoots,
which, if not displaced at the proper season, would impoverish
not only the fruit of the present, but also the bearing wood of
the next year. The flavour of the fruit is much esteemed, and
no product of the garden is of more use to the confectioner.
The Dutch fruiterers have been successful in obtaining two or
three fine varieties from seeds ; and as this field of improve-
ment is open, no doubt further exertions will bring forth new
and valuable sorts.

Of the Gooseberry. — ^This is another indigenous produc-
tion of this country. In its wild state, we find it a low irre-
gular bush, thickly set with spines, and bearing small, rough,
insij)id berries. When introduced into the garden, the richer
soil, pruning, defending from insects, &c., produces a wonder-
ful change ; the growth becomes more robust and luxuriant,
the leaves are larger, and the fruit is increased in size, improved
in flavour, and the whole plant assumes a new character ; no
domesticated fruit sports into greater variety than this: the
endless lists of new sorts is a proof of this, and many large and
excellent sorts there are, particularly the old Warrington red.

Of the Currant. — The native place of this useful fruit is
not exactly ascertained ; nearly allied to the gooseberry, it re-
ceives the same treatment, shows the same changes, and may
be further improved by the same means ; a cross between the

270 On the Cultivation and

white Dutch and red, might be a vahiable mule. It is probable
the black also may be induced to sport from that steady cha-
racter it has hitherto maintained ; there are but few domesti-
cated plants but which (like animals) depart, in some way or
other, from their native caste.

Of the Cherry. — Cultivation has accomplished wonders in
the improvement of this beautiful native fruit. Instead of a
lofty forest-tree bearing small bitter fruit, it has been long in-
troduced to our orchards, is changed in appearance and habit,
and even in its manner of bearing ; has sported into many va-
rieties, as numerous as they are excellent — nor is such im-
provement at an end : several new varieties have lately started
into existence, children of the experiments of the first orchadist
in the world, whose practical abilities are only equalled by his
superlatively scientific knowledge, and whose extensive useful-
ness in rural economy can only be compared with his amenity
of character as an English gentleman ; and who, it is hoped,
may long live to complete his tmmerous improvements, and to
lead and direct the current of pomology, which is now, more
than ever, finding its way over the whole land.

Of the Plum. — The lowest grade of this class of fruits is the
almost useless sloe in the hedge ; and none but those in some
degree acquainted with the matter could, on beholding the
acidous, puny sloe, and the ample, luscious magnum bonum
plum, together, readily believe that they were kindred, or that
the former was the primitive representative of the latter. The
intermediate links of this connection are the bullace, muscle,
damacene, &c., of all which there are many varieties. In nur-
serymen's lists, there are many improved sorts, not only excel-
lent plums, but excellent fruit, — the green gage and imperatrice
are admirable ; and as it is more than probable that many of
our dessert sorts have been the mere offspring of chance, what
may we not expect, when the ingenuity and judgment of the
practitioner is applied to accomplish such an end ?

Of the Pear. — This well-known garden-fruit was originally
an inhabitant of European forests : there it grew to be a middle-
sized tree, with small leaves, and hard, crude-tasted, petty fruit:
since its introduction and naturalization irt the orchard, it has
well repaid the planter's care : the keeping quality of the fruit,

Improvement of Edible Fruits, 271

and the thirst-quenching virtues of its juice, have made it uni-
versally a favourite. The French gardeners have been long
celebrated for their success and indefatigable perseverance in
the cultivation of the pear ; almost all our superior sorts are
from that country. The monastic institutions all over Europe,
but particularly in France, were the sources from whence
flowed many excellent horticultural rules, as well as objects.
The great variety of this fruit all over Britain, and the still
greater diversity of provincial names, have rendered our lists
most inexplicable ; but it is hoped that such confusion and
misnomers will not be allowed much longer to exist.

Of the Apple. — It is difficult to find adequate terms to set
forth the value of the advantages which have accrued to man-
kind from the cultivation of this deservedly high-prized fruit.
In our woods and hedges, the crab and wilding are everywhere
found ; crooked, hostile, rigid in figure and quality ; — with
numerous, small, austere fruit, which even the hog will hardly
eat; but, transplanted into the garden, and subjected to the
corrections of the husbandman, they have, in the course of
time, been divested of their savage character, — forming a
goodly tree, and yielding crops of goodly fruit, fit for many pur-
poses of life. Many of the newest sorts have been spontane-
ously produced, and a great number by the art of fertilising
the flowers of one with the pollen of another. One circum-
stance in the history of the apple must not pass unnoticed
here; viz., the deterioration of the old sorts, which regaled and
were the boast of our forefathers a century ago. It is the
opinion of an eminent orchardist that as the apple is an arti-
ficial production, and, as such, has its stages of youth, maturity,
and old age, it cannot, in its period of decrepitude, be by any
means renovated to its pristine state, either by pruning or cut-
ting down, changing its place, or by transferring its parts to
young and vigorous stocks ; and that, in whatever station it
may be placed, it carries with it the decay and diseases of its
parent. This is the most rational account which has been given
of this indisputable fact ; and though its accuracy has been
called in question by some naturalists, the general failure in
our old orchards, and the difficulties in forming new ones with
the old favourite sorts, is a decisive proof that such deteriora-

272 On the Cultivation and

tion exists. It is therefore the chief object of the modern po-
mologist, to obtain from seeds of the best wildings new varieties
wherewith to form new and profitable orchards ; and which
may be expected to continue in health and fertility, as the old
sorts have done, for the next century. The preservation of
this useful fruit is now brought to great perfection, by keeping
them in jars secured from the action of the air : but there is
one method of preserving them for culinary purposes, which,
as it is not practised in this country, may be noticed here.
Any good baking sort, which is liable to rot, if peeled and cut
into slices about the thickness of one-sixth of an inch, and
dried in the sun, or in a slow oven, till sufficiently desiccated,
may be aftenvards kept in boxes in a dry place, for a con-
siderable time ; and only require to be soaked in water for an
hour or two, before using.

The foregoing are the fruits found wild in our climate ; the
difference in their aboriginal and cultivated state has been
pointed out ; we shall now give short descriptions of foreign
fruits, which have been partly naturalised, the management of
which forms so considerable a share of the gardener's art and
attention.

Of the Apricot. — It is supposed that this fruit is a native of
Africa : from thence it appears to have come through Persia
and Greece to us, with the name *'a praecox," significant of
its earliness. It is one of our wall-fruits ; though, in favour-
able situations, it will ripen its produce, either planted as a
standard, or trained as an espalier. There are several varieties
which have been obtained by means similar to those already
mentioned ; and there is room for further exertion in endea-
vouring to improve the size of the fruit, or any other desirable
quality.

Of the Peach. — ^This delicate and excellent fruit is a strik-
ing instance of what judicious cultivation may produce. The
common almond has always been considered the original stock
of this monument of skill and assiduity. The estimation in
which it is held, and the care and expense incurred in its cul-
tivation both in forcing-houses and in the open air, is proof of
its superiority : and no fruit repays the labour of the attend-
ant, or expense of the owner, more bountifully than this.

Improvement of Edible Fruits, 273

Seedlings of this fruit are, if we can credit what is written and
said of it, less inclined to depart from the properties or quali-
ties of the parent, than most others of our improved fruits.
In America, they are in common and general cultivation. No
trouble is bestowed in either layering (which is practicable), or
budding them. Sowing a quantity of the stones, they are sure
to pick out from among the seedlings as many good sorts as
they may wish to cultivate : few of these may be exactly like
the parent ; some may be superior, but all are passable, espe-
cially if the young trees have been selected by a skilful hand ;
and this he is enabled to do, merely from the appearance of
the wood and leaves. Many new sorts have lately been ob-
tained and brought into notice in this country ; and this facility
of the peach to multiply its varieties will no doubt be taken
advantage of by propagators.

Of the Nectarine. — ^This, it is allowed by all writers, is
certainly a child of cultivation : there being no wild plant from
which it could be derived, except the almond. It is therefore
a collateral branch with, or rather of, the peach : of this no
better proof can be given, than the circumstance that necta-
rines are sometimes produced by a peach tree. It is, however,
a variety, as distinct in appearance as in some other of its
delectable qualities ; and altogether a valuable acquisition,
worthy its name, and a place in every collection.

Of the Vine. — ^The value and transcendant excellence of
this foreign fruit is too well known to require any extended ac-
count in this paper ; as a native of the southern verge of the
northern temperate zone, it only requires its natural degree of
heat to bring it to perfection. The growth is luxuriant, is fer-
tile, easy of management, and as it requires support, obedient
to the trainer's will. Many excellent varieties are in our stoves
and vineries ; differing in hardness, size of bunches, and in
colour and flavour of fruit. These, it is likely, have been
gained from seeds ; and as its cultivation has been primaeval
with the inhabitants of the earth, no wonder it received, for its
unequalled utility, their chiefest care. The favourite sorts are
commonly propagated by layering, though it is capable of being
both grafted and budded ; and these latter modes are particu-
larly useful where it is wished to have different sorts on the

274 On the Cultivation and

same tree, either for the sake of variety, or, for what is much
more valuable, an extended vintage. The acclimatizing, or
enuring superior sorts to our seasons, is a desideratum among
horticulturists at this time ; and there cannot be a more laud-
able object.

That the climate of this country has undergone a consider-
able change within the last hundred years, is allowed by all
who have considered the subject ; and nothing furnishes a more
convincing proof of this, than the history of the vine. Pre-
vious to the reign of Henry VIIL, every abbey and monastery
had its vineyard. In the rent-rolls of church property in those
days, and long afterwards, considerable quantities of grapes
were paid as tithe ; and the vestiges of some of those vine-
yards remain to this day. They were usually placed on the
south side of a hill, in a light dry soil, having the surface
covered with sand ; the vines being trained near the ground.
But with such inclement and changeable springs, and long
protracted winters, as have been experienced of late, even such
frost as is seen at the moment I am writing (24th April), vines
as standards m the open air, would be destroyed ; or, at least,
no dependence could be placed upon them for a crop. But
vineyards in the country could neither be so profitable, nor are
they so necessary as they were in those days ; international
intercourse is now more open, and corporations, whether reli-
gious or civil, can be supplied with grapes in any shape, and
their precious juice in any quantity, at a cheaper rate than
either home-grown or home-made. In their cultivation in
this country, practitioners are more liable to err in planting
them in too rich, than in too poor a soil ; the first adds too
much to their natural luxuriance of growth, and always reduces
the flavour of the fruit.

Of the Mulberry. — ^This fruit has not been subjected to
the operations and attention of the improver so much, per-
haps, as it deserves ; true, it has been planted against walls,
and as espaliers ; and in both places has done well. It may
also be grafted, &c. ; and whether, by the knowledge and means
of improvement which we now possess, any further meliora-
tion can be made, is yet to be seen.

Of the Orange, — ^This endless family of fruits it is pro-

Improvement of Edible Fruits, 275

bable had the small but useful wild lime for its progenitor.
The monstrous shaddock, citrons of all shapes and sizes,'
oranges and lemons, are all varieties, obtained in the course of
long cultivation. The plant is kept in this country more for its
evergreen and ever-fruitful beauty and fragrance, than for use ;
and although there are orangeries in some noblemen's and gen-
tlemen's gardens, where they are cultivated to the greatest
perfection, still they are only considered as curiosities ; as the
immense importations of the fruit from the continent render
the cultivation here totally useless.

The same may be said of the pomegranate and olive ; they
may be both cultivated in this country, but their cost would be
more than their worth.

Of the Fig.- — This fruit has been long in our gardens ; a
very ancient one is still alive in the garden of one of the col-
leges at Oxford. In its native country it produces two crops
in the year, and this property makes its management rather
difficult in a country where it can but with difficulty be made
to produce one ; and especially when trained in the common
way to a wall, where the crop is often sacrificed to the useless
symmetry of the tree. But improvements have been success-
fully made to obviate such mismanagement both in pruning
and training. It is impatient of frost, and requires protection
during winter ; and is also impatient of the knife, and more,
perhaps, than any other tree, is disposed to form its own
natural head. When kept in a glass case, either planted in
the ground- or in pots, it well repays the trouble bestowed
upon it.

Of the Quince. — ^This fruit remains very steadily in cha-
racter to what it has always been known to be ; the taste is too
austere to be used alone from the tree ; but with other fruits in
pastry, or in the shape of preserves or marmalade, it is useful.
There seems to be a very fair opening for the improvement of
this fruit by the proper means. It is an excellent stock for
over-luxuriant growing pears.

Of the Medlar. — Two or three sorts of this tree are in cul-
tivation : they are placed in the lowest grade of fruits ; though,
when they are perfectly mature, they are much relished by

276 On the Cultivation and

some palates. The azarola, service, and two or three others
used in the south of Europe, are not worth notice here.

Of the Filbert. — The common wild hazle of our hedges
has been improved, by chance or cultivation, into the several
varieties of red and white filberds and cob-nuts. Working
them upon the hazle, or upon themselves, is necessary ; be-
cause, it not only makes them more fruitful, but also brings
them sooner into bearing.

Of the Walnut. — This nuciferous tree has been cultivated
in England more for the value of the timber than for its fruit.
Its fine flavoured nut is, however, an agreeable addition to the
dessert, and is often preferred to more luscious articles. With
wine, it is not only a suitable accompaniment, but also affords
a kind of amusement in extracting the kernel. There are
several varieties, differing chiefly in the size of the nut, from
the diminutive ben-nut, to the large or double French sort.
The only improvement which can be expected in this, is a
hardier sort which would be less susceptible of damage from
frost.

Of the Chestnut. — The description of the walnut may be
applied to this, as they are natives of the same climate ; and
their flowers are alike impatient of frost. The fruit of this is,
however, inferior to that of the walnut, and seldom arrives at
the same degree of perfection. The tree grows to a great size,
and is one of the most valuable of our forest trees. In '* days
of yore," it must have been much more plentiful in this coun-
try, or more plentifully imported, than it now is ; as the prin-
cipal timbers of abbeys, cathedrals, and other ancient build-
ings, are chiefly formed of it : being equally durable as the
oak, which it so much resembles, that they can hardly be dis-
tinguished from each other, but by the test of the wet edge of
a chissel being stained by the oak, and not at all by the chest-
nut. Arborists have suggested the possibility of procuring
from this, as well as from its congener the beech, larger fruit,
by sowing only the largest kinds of nuts which can be se-
lected.

Of the Melon and Cucumber. — These exotic fruits are
extensively cultivated ; the latter takes various shapes in our

Improvement of Edible Fruits, 277

bills of fare ; the former is more a luxury than a fruit for gene-
ral use ; their culture on hot-beds forms a material branch of
modern gardening, and with that of the gourd, pumpkin,
squash, vegetable marrow, &c., is well known.

Of the Pine-Apple. — This sovereign of fruits is, and can
only be, in this country, an appendage to opulence and rank.
Several varieties are cultivated in our forcing-stoves, and grace
the tables of the rich, and in as great perfection as they can
be had between the tropics. In their wild state, they affect
the sides of rivulets, and often under the shade of lofty trees ;
but are of inferior flavour, unless the weather is very dry when
they are ripening off; and when cultivated, they receive little
or no water during the last stage of their growth.

As the introduction of other intertropical fruits begins to
interest the admirers of such productions ; and as trials may be
made without much additional expense in our stoves appro-
priated to botanical collections ; it may be necessary here to
mention the names of a few of them, for the information of
those who have the means and the desire of making such trials.

Of the banana, or plantain. This has been fruited in Britain
nearly forty years ago, and several times since. When the
pinery or stove is lofty enough, they are a magnificent plant,
and in appearance far surpassing what tliey are in their natural
place in the open air ; for then the winds tear their ample
leaves to pieces, and give the plant a most unsightly appearance.

The mangoe has been also fruited both in France and Eng-
land : there are several much improved varieties of it in Ja-
maica ; and if a few worked plants could be had from thence,
and a stove, or part of a stove, fitted up for them, there can be
no doubt but that the mangoe may be had on the table as
easily as the pine-apple.

The mangosteen is one of the most delicious fruits in the
world. It has been fruited, according to report, in France. It
requires the same treatment as the mangoe. To these may be
added the jambosteen, rambosteen, and decku ; they are na-
tives of the oriental archipelago, and when obtained, might be
cultivated along with the preceding. They are all superior fmits.

The following list are inferior compared with the others, but

278 On the Cultivation of Edible Fruits,

are objects of curiosity, as novelties ; and therefore deserve a
trial, viz.

Custard-apple, two sorts.

Bread-fruit, the cut-leaved.

Do. the entire leaved, or jack-fruit.

Papaw. N.B., a male and female plant should be placed
together.

Guava and granadilla.

Litchee, with its varieties, the whongee, \

ayee, and chuchee . . . l^i. n -.

\ 1 ^ / Chmese fruits.

Loungan, sour and sweet , . I

Loquat .....

Cocoa nut '\

Date, and \ supplied as articles of commerce.

Tamarind I

I have only to repeat that it is necessary, in trying to bring
tropical trees into bearing, they be grafted or budded on them-
selves, or on any congenial stock, (such as the rose-apple, per-
haps,) in order that they may be brought into a fruitful habit,
more expeditiously. The plantain, papaw, and granadilla are
excepted. All botanical names and physiological terms have
been intentionally omitted. J. M.

Chelsea, April 28th, 1827.

The Gold-Headed Cane. Murray. 1827.
Small 8vo. pp. 179.

Some of our readers will be surprised at the apparent incon-
gruity of this title with the usual materials of our Journal,
and may imagine, for a moment, that we are ambitious of
variegating the level scenery of science with some undulating
forms of romance. The apprehension is groundless, — since,
beneath this sportive mask are concealed some features
of sterling and prominent characters; eyes, full of mean-
ing, which have been keenly fixed on many remarkable
events; and lips that, in their time, have uttered not a little
wisdom. The author, indeed, has not followed the prevailing
mode of deluding the unsuspicious reader by a certain ma-
jestic importance of front : he conducts us through a humble
gateway into elegant apartments, and familiar converse with

The Gold-Headed Cane, 279

the great and learned, — ^while, too often, alas ! in the course
of our literary rambles, are we tempted by the columns of
some prouder portico, to stumble over paltry furniture, or
to pine in ungenial society.

The Gold-Headed Cane, then, which is the hero of this
little volume, was once grasped by the well-curved palms of
Radcliffe, Mead, Askew, Pitcairn, and Baillie, — but is now
condemned to the obscurity of dust in a corner of the new
College of Physicians. Mortified by the disuse into which
this ancient appendage of the art of healing has fallen, while
the wig of the jurist still retains its honours, he consoles his
retirement by reviewing the transactions of which he had
been a party while sustaining the weight of his former illus-
trious patrons. We are thus presented with an entertaining
picture of several of the most celebrated physicians of the
last hundred and fifty years, — and of not a few of the poli-
tical or literary contemporaries with whom they were occa-
sionally placed in contact. The outline is medical ; but some
traits of general life are intermingled — some fleeting tints of
society are scattered throughout, to complete the design.
We are introduced behind the scenes, to glance over the
actors and the audience of other times : the general impres-
sion is analogous to that produced by the Private Memoirs
which the French have so voluminously multiplied, and
which we are at present so industriously emulating, — except-
ing, always, that our author has offered not a single sacrifice
on the altar of party, prejudice, or pique. The urbanity
of tone which moderates the whole strain of the composition,
distinguishes it from every collection of anecdotes witn which
we are acquainted. An inventive raillery might, on this
ground, have found ample room to amuse the living at the
expense of the departed ; but the author has wisely avoided
this cheap avenue to popularity, and has clothed his person-
ages in their genuine vestments, — in that easy dress which
human nature usually wears in every age and place, never
perfectly symmetrical and dignified, ana never entirely dis-
proportionate and mean.

A chasm existed in the medical biography of England,
which the present volume fills up with taste and accuracy,
if not with minuteness. The admirable History of Freind
extends no farther than to the foundation of the College of
Physicians of London. Dr. Aikin, while engaged in the
practice of surgery, produced an elaborate, but neglected,
volume, which commences with the life of Richardus Angli-
cus, and terminates with that of Harvey and of Glisson.

280 The Gold-Headed Cane.

He pursued the track of his eminent predecessor with much
success : in the happy association of easy elegance of style,
of entertaining narrative, and of profound criticism, these
authors maintain the first place amongst their rivals in the
same career, and have distanced both Cabanis and Sprengel.
But we may remark, that the obscure fate which the
Memoirs of Aikin have incurred, — the rarity of the History
of Freind, and the long interval which has elapsed since a
new edition has been demanded, afford a severe evidence of
the diminished value which the medical public of this coun-
try attach to the annals and literature of their profession.
The press of Germany and France, on the contrary, is daily
teeming with books of this description, — an abundance
whose origin is partly to be traced to the larger proportion
of regularly organised medical schools, where the ablest pro-
fessors are contented, on the recompense of a scanty salary, to
devote an entire life to the cultivation and diffusion of medical
erudition. In most of the German Universities a professor
is found, whose sole or principal office is to illustrate the
history of medicine. The present ingenious volume adds a
new link to the chain commenced by Freind, and continued
by Aikin : less practical in its details, it is more calculated to
attract the general reader ; and the faithful record which it
exhibits of the brilliant progress, the public and private
virtues, and the patriotic influence of a long series of physi-
cians, must tend to impress on his mind an increased respect
for the profession at large, and a more attentive considera-
tion of its interests and importance.

We are first ushered into the dignified presence of Rad-
cliffe, and accompany him on his visits to King William and
Queen Mary, as well as in less awful peregrinations, where
he sometimes drew on the pharmacopoeia of his bold and
ready humour for the most efficient remedies. His prog-
nosis was singular in confidence and success. He was once
sent for to attend the Duke of Beaufort, at Bodminton, but
declared to the gentleman who brought the summons, that
his presence was unnecessary, since the duke had died at a
particular hour on the preceding day — an assertion which
was verified by the messenger on his return. Radcliffe had
occasion to see the King, after his return from the continent
in 1697, and insinuated to him that he ought not to indulge
the hope of a speedy recovery; but added, " if your majesty
will forbear making long visits to the Earl of Bradford,
(where, to tell the truth, the King was wont to drink very
hard,) FU engage to make you live three or four years longer;

The Gold-Headed Cane. 281

but beyond that time no physic can protract your Majesty's
existence.'* This daring prediction was accomplished in
1702, when a curious glimpse is afforded to us of the prac-
tice of that period, and of Dutch, French, and English art
vainly struggling to prolong the life of a monarch.

" In addition to many other infirmities under which the King
laboured, he was troubled with boils that formed in different parts
of his body ; and for these Bidloo directed that his feet and legs
should be rubbed night and morning with flannel covered with
powder of crabs' eyes, flour, and cummin-seed. As to diet, the
doctor was exceedingly indulgent, allowing his master to drink
cider, ale— in short, all sorts of strong beer ; and to take crude
aliments before going to bed. It was in vain that Doctors Hutton,
Millington,Blakemore,and Laurence, remonstrated. On the King's
return to Hampton Court, the dropsical swelling of the inferior
extremities extended upwards, for which Bidloo prescribed a
vapour-bath, and inclosed the legs of the patient in a wooden box
constructed for that purpose. In a constitution so weak, which
this treatment was reported to have still more debilitated, an ac-
cident was likely to prove fatal. On the 27th of Februt^ry,
1702-3, while hunting, the King fell from his horse, and broke
his right clavicle near the acromion. This occurred in the
neighbourhood of Hampton Court; but the French surgeon Ron-
jat was at hand, and soon reduced the fracture. But when he
wanted to bleed his Majesty, a new obstacle arose, for it was
necessary not only to have the sanction of some one of the court
physicians, but also the authority of the privy-council, for the per-
formance of that operation. Notwithstanding the necessity and

advantage of rest, the King persisted in his wish to return to
Kensington, where he arrived between nine and ten o'clock in the
evening: here a discussion arose between Bidloo and the surgeon,
as to whether there had been really any fracture or not. Ronjat
stoutly maintained the affirmative; the Dutch doctor as stoutly
denied it. This point was, however, at length settled, when a new
difference of opinion occurred as to the mode of applying the
bandages. Bidloo wished himself to apply them, but the surgeon
said no ; — ' you are here either in the character of a physician or
in that of a surgeon : if the former, you have nothing to do
with bandages ; if the latter, " c'est moi qui suis le premier
chirurgien du Roi." ' After the death of the King, a paper war

took place on the one hand Bidloo put forth

a pamphlet, published at Leyden, written in Low Dutch, in order,
as his enemies said, that few might read it in this country: the
year after, M. Ronjat entered the field in a French reply." —
p. 24—26.

The cane is next carried by Mead, — perhaps the greatest
physician who ever flourished. The students who feel a
APRIL— JUNE, 1827, U

282 The Gold-Headed Cane.

generous pride in their profession will pause with pleasure
over the numerous and shining passages which here delineate
his habits, his qualities, and his conversation. A very good
account is given of the precautions which he recommended
against the plague, afterwards adopted by an act of parlia-
ment;— of his experiments on, and recommendation of,
inoculation ; — and of his introduction of the plan of ban-
daging after the operation of tapping. In a trying moment,
Mead evinced that his heart was even more exalted than his
understanding. Dr. Freind had been committed to the
Tower, in consequence of his warm and able opposition in
parliament (the habeas corpus act being at that time sus-
pended) ; and, during several months of confinement, his
valuable practice fell chiefly into the hands of his rival
Mead. What was the conduct of this admirable man ?
After having employed every effort to release the prisoner, — •
he was at length summoned to relieve an indisposition of
Walpole, but refused to prescribe for the minister unless
Freind was set at liberty; and, having accomplished this
object, presented him with five thousand guineas, the fruit of
his attendance on the patients of the captive. No physician
had ever obtained so brilliant a recompense of his labours; — •
he generally received between five and six thousand pounds
per annum — a sum which must be at least quadrupled in
order to approach the present value of money. But his
reputation, both domestic and foreign, exceeded his revenue:
Blumenhach — no vulgar judge — thus designates him, thirty
years after his death : — '* Inter Anglos hujus periodi maxime
praefulgit, vir undique doctissimus, et qui innumeris modis
de augmento scientiarum meruit." Such opportunities as
he enjoyed will probably never again occur to an individual,
because the domains of medicine are more numerously, more
ably, more equally cultivated than in his time; — but we may
all aspire to imitate, in various shades of capacity, his gene-
rous patronage of obscure merit, his disregard of selfish
accumulation, his frank commerce with his scientific brethren,
his kindness to the humble client, and his dignified deport-
ment towards the titled one.

We have taken pains, in some instances, to verify the
authenticity of anecdotes and facts recorded by our bio-
grapher, and have uniformly found reason to commend his
fidelity. As a specimen we may mention that, in the account
of the interview at the Tower (p. 75), the remark with
which Freind receives Mead, is an exact translation of the
postscript of the Letter which he addressed to him during
his detention: — *< Ego scribo hoc, cum permissione atque

The Gold-Headed Cane. 283

etiam indulgentift Praefecti, in prsesentid Warderi, qui cum
in scribendo me non multum adjuvit, facit, quod tibi gratum
fore reor, ne longior sim." (J. F. ad R. M. De quibusdam
Variolorum Generibus.)

England is richer than any other country in anatomical
preparations, — and our anatomists have always maintained a
Iiigh reputation for their skill in this department. In 1823,
the late Earl of Winchilsea presented to the College of Phy-
sicians some curious specimens which belonged to his ances-
tor Dr. Harvey. —

** The preparations themselves consist of six tables, or boards,
upon which are spread the different nerves and blood-vessels,
carefully dissected out of the body: in one of them, the semilunar
valves of the aorta are distinctly to be seen. When Harvey deli-
vered his Lumleian Lectures, he may frequently have exhibited
these preparations, and, by their help, explained some points of
his new doctrine of the circulation of the blood. They were most
probably made by Harvey himself; and he might have learned the
art in Italy, for he studied at Padua in 1602. A few years after-
wards, on his return to England, he was appointed anatomical
and surgical lecturer to the College of Physicians, and, in 1616,
read a course of lectures there, of which the original manuscripts
are preserved in the British Museum. In the College of Surgeons
are some preparations, similar to those of Harvey, which originally
belonged to the Museum of the Royal Society, kept at Gresham
College. They were the generous gift of John Evelyn, Esquire,
who bouglit them at Padua, where he saw them, with great industry
and exactness, (according to the best method then used,) taken out
of the body of a man, and very curiously spread upon four large
tables. They were the work of Fabricius Bartoletus, then Veslin-
gius's assistant there, and afterwards physician to the King of
Poland The history of the art would be a sub-
ject of curious investigation. In the Philosophical Transactions
for May, 1666, Mr. Boyle mentions a method he had invented of
preserving or embalminp^ the embryo of a chick, in a glass filled
with spirit of wine, to which he sometimes added a little sal am-
moniac, as he observed it never coagulated the spirit of wine.
Ruysch, the professor at Amsterdam, if not the discoverer of the
use of injections, for the display of vascular and other structures,
contributed, together with the suggestions of De Graaf and Swam-
nierdam, by his own ingenuity and industry, to introduce that
important practice among anatomists. His museum became ulti-
mately the most magnificent that any private individual had ever,

at that time, accumulated It was purchased in

1717, by the Czar Peter the Great, for thirty thousand florins,
and sent to Petersburg. Dr. Frank NichoUs, who married a
daughter of Mead's, was the inventor of corroded anatomical pre-

U2

284 The Gold-Headed Cane.

parations. He was at one time professor of anatomy at Oxford,
and author of a treatise De Anima 3Iedicd." — (p. 102 — 104. )

We pass over some annusing anecdotes in the chapters
dedicated to Askew and Pitcairn, and shall approach the
death-bed of the latter, of whom a most amiable portrait is
previously drawn.

" Pitcairn had never published anything himself ; hut the pecu-
liar and melancholy privilege was reserved for him, to enlighten
his profession in the very act of dying. On the thirteenth of
April, he complained of a soreness in his throat; which, however,
he thought so lightly of, that he continued his professional visits
during that and the two following days. In the night of the fifteenth,
his throat became worse, in consequence of which he was co-
piously bled, at his own desire, and had a large blister applied
over the throat. On the evening of the sixteenth, Dr. Baillie
called upon him accidentally, . . . and even then observed no
symptom that indicated danger. But the disease advanced in the
course of that night, and a number of leeches were applied to the
throat early in the morning. At eleven o'clock in the forenoon.
Dr. Baillie again saw him. His countenance was now sunk, his
pulse feeble and unequal, his breathing laborious, and his voice
nearly gone. In this lamentable state, he wrote upon a piece of
paper, that he conceived his windpipe to be the principal seat of
his complaint, and that this was the croup. The tonsils were
punctured, some blood obtained, and a little relief appeared to
have been derived from the operation. Between four and live
o'clock in the afternoon his situation seemed considerably im-
proved; but soon afterwards a slight drowsiness came on. At
eight, the patient's breathing became suddenly more difficult, and
in a few minutes he was dead. This was the first case of this pecu-
liar affection of the throat that has been distinctly recognized and
described. It was an inflammation of the larynx. . ." — (p. 148.)

Dr. Baillie was remarkable for clearness of expression in
the delivery of Lectures, and conveyed his information to
his pupils in the most simple language : —

" For this talent he was greatly indebted to the assiduous in-
struction of his uncle, w^ho spared no pains in cultivating in his
young pupil a habit of ready and exact explanation; and was
accustomed to teach him in this manner : — ' Matthew, do you
know anything of to-day's lecture?' demanded Dr. Hunter of his
nepheAv. — * Yes, sir, I hope I do.' * Well, then, demonstrate to
me.* — * I will go and fetch the preparation, sir.' ' Oh, no, Mat-
thew, if you know the subject really, you will know it whether the
preparation be absent or present.' Dr. Hunter then stood with
his back to the fire, and his nephew demonstrated." — (p. 153.)

We shall close our quotations with some detached sen-
tences from the observations with which the President accom-

The Gold-Headed Cane. 285

panied his announcement of the bequests of Dr. Baillie to
the College.

" His purse and his personal services were always at the com-
mand of those who could prefer a proper claim to them ; and every

branch of the profession met with equal attention la

consultation he was liberal and candid in the highest degree ; and
so industriously gave credit to the previous treatment of the
patient (if he could approve of it), that the physician who called
him in never failed to find himself in the same possession of the
good opinion of the family as he was before the circumstances of
the case had made a consultation necessary. His manner of ex-
plaining the disease, and tlie remedies recommended, was peculiar
to himself, and singularly happy. It was a short, compressed lec-
ture Before his time it was not usual for a phy-
sician to do much more than prescribe remedies for the malady,

and to encourage the patient But as the assumed

gravity and outward signs of the profession were now considered
obsolete customs, and were, by general consent, laid aside by the
physicians, and as a more curious anxiety began to be observed on
the part of the patient, to learn everything connected with his
complaint, arising naturally from the improved state of general
knowledge, a different conduct became necessary in the sick room.
But justice cannot be done to his medical character, unless that
important feature in it which appeared in every part of his conduct
and demeanour, his religious principle, be distinctly stated and
recognized." — (p. 170 — 176.)

The wood-engravings with which this volume is sprinkled,
are not without interest to the physiognomist and the
antiquarian. We hope, ere long, again to encounter Dr.
Macmichael in the field of anecdote^ where he is so active
and cheerful a sportsman; — and that, in a future edition, he
will find time to double the number of his pages, and to
wander more freely over the deserted, but fertile, territory
of medical antiquities. The last hundred years may procure
ample exercise for his remark, either in watching the move-
ments of the regular service, or in tracing to their secret
haunts the guerrilla corps of Magnetism and Metallic Tractor,
the poachers on Longevity, or the smugglers of the Tea of
Life. His reminiscences of the medical world will be equally
pleasing to the veteran who is reposing on his oar, and
mstructive to the younger mariner who is about to launch his
skiff. England has been stigmatized as the paradise of
quackery, — with more justice she might be styled the para-
aise of medicine ; and it would be a mark of real ingratitude,
if a country, where fame and fortune so largely remunerate
the professors, could find no one ambitious of celebrating the
progress of the science.

286

Revised Arrangement of the Ornithological System of Cuvier
and Dumerily with reference only to the Genera and Species
of the British Islands.

Birds are vertebral and oviparous animals, with lungs and
warm blood, producing their young enveloped in a calcareous
shell, requiring a heat of 100° Fahrenheit to mature their for-
mation. In other respects there is a great analogy with the
mammiferous class of animals.

Their bones are generally hollow, containing air ; their lungs
are attached to the ribs, perforated externally, by which this
fluid is distributed through every part of the body, but chiefly
into two large membranaceous vessels, or sacs, situated in the
thorax and abdomen, by which the body is much enlarged, and
rendered considerably lighter. This provision of air affords,
in some degree, an additional power of respiration and vigour.
It is even supposed that the increased temperature which
birds acquire during incubation, and the extensive flights they
are enabled to undertake in their periodical migrations, depend
much upon the action of air on the blood. It has been ascer-
tained that two sparrows consumed, in a given time, as much
air as a guinea-pig.

They sleep resting on one foot, the weight of the body being
sufficient to act upon a series of muscles, extending through
the thigh to the extremity of the toes, which, in proportion to
the pressure of the body, contract and adhere to the perch on
which they rest.

The neck is amply supplied with vertebrae moving in all direc-
tions, but in the back-bone they are connected and motionless.

The breast-bone, with which the muscles of the wings are
connected, is of considerable size and strength; it is composed
of five parts ; the degree of ossification in the posterior lateral
pieces is proportioned to the power of flight in each species.

The wing is divided into three principal parts, — the shoulder
(brachiumjf the arm (cubitus), the hand (carpus). The fea-
thers on the hand are always ten in number, called Primary;
those on the arm. Secondary; those on the shoulder, Scapu-
lary ; those on a small projection from the hand form what is
tailed the bastard wing.

British Ornithology, 287

The tail usually consists of twelve feathers, sometimes ten
or fourteen, and in the gallinaceous order, eighteen.

The senses of touch and taste must be very weak, the claws
c^nd feet being covered with a hard skin, approaching in some
species to a homy or scaly substance ; but the deficiency in
these two senses is compensated by great acuteness in the
remaining three.

The eye is furnished with a thin membranaceous veil, which
the bird can draw and remove at pleasure, easily discernible
in the hawk tribe. Its probable use is to guard the eye in
rapid flights, or to moderate the effect of light. By a peculiar
additional mechanism, birds are also enabled to regulate the
sight for near or distant vision.

The digestive organs merit particular notice. The throat
terminates in a large membranaceous bag, called the crop*.
Here the food is collected and softened, preparatory to its pass-
ing into the gizzard, where it is reduced to a pulp. This organ
consists of two very powerful muscles, lined and covered with
a strong tendinous coat, furrowed within. In rapacious birds,
the gizzard is, however, wanting, their stomach being nearly
allied to those of quadrupeds. The power of this organ almost
exceeds belief, it having been proved by experiment, that very
hard and sharp substances are unable to resist its action*
It has been observed, that stones which birds are in the habit
of swallowing are seldom known to pass with the faeces. They,
therefore, probably contribute to their health by affording an
additional supply of calcareous matter; and digestive organs
of this singular character are consequently requisite for the
purpose of pulverizing them sufficiently for admission into
the system.

The channel conveying air to the breast is called the Trachea,
and differs from that of other animals. The organ producing
sound is situated immediately below the point where the trachea
separates into two channels, and is called the Larynx inferior;
so that a bird might emit its characteristic note after decapita-
tion. \ J* S.

• It is of so light and close a texture, that the crops of tiirkies are
prepared and sold in London as small balloons ; when filled with hydro-
gen gas they will rise with great rapidity, and retain the gas for a consi-
derable time, particularly if slightly varnished.

288

Briiish Ornithology,

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t '^ ,-< -^ • JQ

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ll

British Ornithology*

289

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I

British Ornithology,

British Ornithology,

291

2

II

3

292

British Ornithology,

British Ornithology.

293

294

On Malaria,
[Communicated by J. Mac Culloch, M. D., F.R.S., &c. &c.]

It Is a familiar fact, not merely to physicians, but to the people
at large, that there is produced from marshy lands a peculiar
substance, called marsh miasma, in physic, and to which Italy
has given the term Malaria ; from the effect of which on the
human body, there are excited fevers of different characters,
but generally divided under the two great leading heads of m-
termittentaxid remittent. What the chemical nature of this sub-
stance is, has not been discovered, though numerous experi-
ments have been instituted for this purpose ; yet, with respect
to its properties, we know enough to believe that it is a com-
pound gas, decomposable by certain agencies, a,nd also capable
of being conducted to certain distances from the place of its
production, by the winds. Further, it is ascertained that it can
be condensed or accumulated in particular places ; that it can
form a certain attachment to the soil, or to peculiar solid
bodies, although this is not permanent, as happens with respect
to the matter of contagions ; and lastly, that it is particularly
affected, both in respect to its propagation and production, by
certain qualities of the atmosphere, consisting in its conditions
as to temperature and hygrometrical moisture.

Thus, although ignorant of its nature, we are in possession of
certain facts appertaining to its natural history, which we can
convert to use in warding off its evil influences, or preventing
the attacks of the diseases which it produces ; while, if one
class of precautions depend on this knowledge, the other con-
sists in that remaining branch of its natural history, which re-
lates to the causes through which it is, in the first instance,
produced, and in the next, propagated.

Being, as I have remarked, produced by marshy lands very
especially, it has been naturally concluded that its immediate
cause was the mutual action of vegetables and water, though it
has been disputed in what that precise action consisted. To
ascertain this is, however, of some importance, as on the nature
of that action must, in a great measure, depend under what
particular circumstances it is produced ; consequently, what

On Malaria: 295

places ought to be suspected, Bud, in the view to prevention^
avoided.

That it is the produce of vegetable decomposition cannot,
apparently, be questioned, because, if it were extricated from
living plants, it should be found in thousands of situations
where it is unknown ; and that it belongs to wet soils, and also
to hot countries, or to a high temperature, further proves that it
depends on that process of decomposition which notedly occurs,
in these circumstances, most rapidly and extensively. But a
difficulty remains in attempting to determine what is the pecu-
har quality or stage of this decomposition under which it is
produced; whether it is the process commonly called putrefac-
tion, or some change among the elements of plants of a different
nature.

One point is at least proved ; viz,., that it is not necessarily
accompanied by any smell, or that it is not an odorous substance
in itself. It may exist in abundance and virulence, without
being sensible in this manner ; and hence it had been thought
this arose from some mutual action of vegetables and water,
which was independent of proper decomposition. This, how-
ever, must be an incorrect opinion ; or the living vegetable is
not required for its production : since it is fully proved to be
generated in abundance by vegetable fragments long dead and
detached from the plant, by mere mud impregnated with un-
assignable vegetable matter, and also by such chemical sub-
stances as contain some of the elements of plants, without
belonging to them ; of which sugar, as I shall presently notice,
offers a conspicuous instance.

To ascertain these facts is important, because they form
the groundwork for precautionary measures as to disease, as
will speedily appear ; while I may here make one remark as an
example of the utility of this knowledge : it is, that while there
is a popular fear with respect to putrid and stagnant waters,
there is none respecting clear waters, under whatever form,
producing living vegetables, and free of smell, while the danger,
in reality, may be scarcely less in the one case than in the
other.

Generally, therefore, we must conclude, that wherever plants
in contact with water undergo decomposition, even as to their

296 On Malaria.

expended and dead portions ; or wherever fragments of plants
are exposed to moisture ; or wherever mud, impregnated with
invisible or dissolved vegetable matter exists ; or, finally, where-
ever any chemical compound of the vegetable elements is
wetted or held in solution in water, there the poison in question
may be, or will be produced, provided the temperature be suffi-
ciently high : and it is this necessity for a certain temperature,
which is the cause why that peculiar decomposition of vegeta-
bles which forms peat, does not produce malaria, however it
may occur in peaty lands, because, generally speaking, the
formation of peat is limited to climates or regions of a low tem-
perature. The nature and cause of the exception now made
will be explained immediately.

I need not attempt to inquire further into the nature of this
decomposition, since there are no facts on which to found an
inquiry. What we must conclude, is, that some of the vegetable
elements are let loose and re-combined into a new gaseous
compound, while experiments carefully conducted (as ought
not to be doubted when Vauquelin has been engaged in them)
have not detected even the presence of such a new substance
in the atmosphere of marshes, far less its nature. It is, how-
ever, evident that it cannot be any of the hydrocarburetted or
other chemical gases which it has, at different times, been
supposed ; while, remaining thus in darkness, the only test of
its presence continues to be the effects as to disease which it
produces on the human body.

But, as I remarked, we possess enough knowledge of its na-
tural history to assist us in guarding ourselves against its effects ;
and as that question, utility, is the object of the present paper, I
will proceed to describe as much of that as is admissible in so
limited a space. To know all the classes or kinds of places
which are capable of producing malaria, is the first and main
object as to prevention : to know by what means it is propa-
gated is the next, while the contingent circumstances necessary
to its production, or to its effects on the body, consisting chiefly
in temperature and moisture under various modes, will also de-
mand attention. All these things being known, we have laid the
preliminary knowledge, requisite to prevention, as far as that is
in our power ; without them, we are subject to those hazards

On Malaria. 297

which arise from ignorance ; and what those hazards and their
effects are, cannot be very obscure, when it is computed, and,
perhaps, truly, that half the entire mortality of the world is the
consequence of malaria : of the fevers chiefly which are its
produce.

But one circumstance requires to be premised ; and this is,
to prove that our own country can produce malaria, and is sub-
ject to its diseases : because, were this not the fact, the state-
ments of this paper could possess but very little interest to general
readers, whatever it might to physicians or philosophers. I
think I shall prove that we are all interested in them, and that,
also, to a considerable degree.

The chief disorders produced by malaria are intermittent
fevers, and what are called by physicians, remittent fevers:
writing to general readers, we should call them fevers simply :
while further, it is usual among the people, for them to receive
the term typhus ; a name implying, strictly, contagious fever,
and, as thus misapplied, a source, not of confusion merely, but
of considerable evil in various ways. Not to enter into medical
discussions, which would here be inadmissible, I must be con-
tent with simply saying what is easily proved ; that the fevers,
generally, which appear in summer, or from June to November,
are of this class, and the produce of malaria ; while, that agues,
as they are popularly called, are produced by the same cause,
is admitted on all hands.

Now, every one knows that such fevers do occur in summer,
in many parts of England, and in certain districts, very conspi-
cuously ; and further, that while they have been peculiarly
abundant and severe during the three or four last years, they
were, in 1826, unusually destructive and numerous, having
been the cause of a mortality, which, in England, must be
deemed considerable. Every one also knows that agues occur
in England, and very especially in certain districts, so well
known as not to require being named : whence it cannot be
doubted, that although, compared to France or Italy, we may
be considered, comparatively, exempt from this cause of dis-
ease— we are very far indeed from not suffering by it ; and that
also to an extent, which, the more it is investigated, will appear
the more serious.

APRIL— JUNE, 1827. X

298 On Malaria.

But to put this out of all doubt, while it serves to prove also
the power which we possess over this cause of mortality and
disease, it is sufficient to review the history of our own country,
or even of London, to be convinced that our climate is capable
of producing malaria wherever the other necessary circumstances
are present ; and that, in as far as we are now exempted, it
has been the consequence of an attention directed to these cir-
cumstances. Hence the reasons, and the inducements also, to
further attention of the same nature, for which it is primarily
necessary that we should possess an accurate knowledge of
them.

How enormous and nearly incredible the diminution of agues
and fevers has been in Lincolnshire, Essex, Kent, or generally
in the fenny and marshy counties of England, since the agri-
cultural improvements of those lands, is matter of notoriety,
since much of it has even occurred in our own days : but even
in London, on Burnett's authority, the intermittent raged like a
plague in the reign of Mary ; while, from Sydenham, Morton,
and others, to whom we may add the testimony of Short, and
more recently, the facts collected by Heberden, the years 1658,
1664, and those from 1667 to 1692, were years of a mortality
from this cause, which, could that act now as it then did, would,
probably, in any one year, destroy twenty or thirty thousand
persons in London alone. And this national mortality from
fevers, from the fevers of malaria, extended even down to the
year 1729, according to Short's testimony — so recent are the
improvements by which it has been diminished.

Here, then, it is at last proved, that the climate of England
did not then exempt it from malaria; and as that climate
remains the same, so must this poison be still produced ; what-
ever exemption we do possess, being the consequence of having
corrected or destroyed some of those places or soils by which it
is generated ; but we have not corrected them all, nor have we
exterminated the disorders which we have diminished. This is
the task which yet remains for us, and for that end it is, that I
shall here endeavour to point out the circumstances which do
produce malaria ; since I have, I trust, proved that it does
exist among us ; too generally overlooked, and not unfrequently
denied or even ridiculed, while the chief cause of this oversight

On Malaria. 299

is the error to which I here allude of misstating the cause and
nature of the summer fevers.

It is this error chiefly, and further, that of looking for the
evidences of malaria in the production of intermittent solely,
which prevents a correct judgment from being formed of the
existence of this poison, and of the places producing it, though^
in addition to the fevers of summer, I could, had 1 here sufficient
space, and were this a proper place for it, easily show that
a great many other disorders, often little suspected as conse-
quences of malaria, are equally produced by it, and are equally
the evidences of pernicious soils. But as I have no room for
detailing all this evidence, I must be content with saying, that
wherever I here mark any particular mode of land or water as
productive of malaria, it is, that in some one or more cases of
that variety, I have ascertained, by this very evidence, that it
was present, and the cause of disease ; while nearly all, perhaps
the whole, are further admitted or proved to be truly pernicious,
by the various French and Italian physicians, who have bestowed
on this subject an attention which has been utterly withdrawn
from it in England. And if this detail is general, rather than
special, it is not for want of special instances and proofs in
abundance, that I have not noticed these ; but from the recol-
lection, that to point out the insalubrity of certain spots, might
injure the properties, by affecting the value of those, should
that which is here adduced succeed in commanding belief.

It is plain, to commence, that there is no mystery or charm
in the term, marsh ; and that if such a tract of land can pro-
duce disease, it is because it contains vegetables growing and
decomposing in a moist soil : this is the general analysis of the
cause ; and wherever, therefore, the same circumstances occur,
that spot must be, as to all the objects in view, a marsh, or a
source of malaria. A minuter analysis of the facts can scarcely
be necessary, either as to the plants that grow in marshes, or
to the mode in which the moisture exists : since, generally, the
plants are similar, while all vegetables appear indiscriminately
to produce the poison in question.

In the next place, a marsh, in the popular sense of the term,
possesses a certain extent ; and in the popular view also, this
extent is judged necessary to the production of disease. .Facts,

X 2

300 On Malaria.

without number, prove that space, bulk, or extent is not essen-
tial ; but that the smallest spot of the same character, or of the
proper character, is sufficient to produce disease, though the
extent of its influence must be expected to vary in consequence :
and even without these facts, this would be judged true from
the following argument.

It is ascertained that a marshy spot can influence to disease
a place situated at a considerable distance from it ; and this
extent, in Italy, has been ascertained to amount to at least
three miles. Now it is plain, that whatever the original body
of malaria was, it must have been diluted by the atmosphere
during such a course, to a very great degree, or that the quan-
tity reaching any individual must be very minute. It must be
indifferent, therefore, whether that minute quantity which thus
acts, is a portion of a great body of the same substance, or
whether it is the whole which was generated ; and this must, in
reality, be indifferent in any case, even without transportation.
It is ascertained, that a single inspiration will produce the
disease; and, therefore, whether in this case, or in that of
dilution under transportation, the exposed person receives the
whole produce of a square yard, or any other given space, or
the same quantity out of a mass produced by twenty thousand
or a million of square yards, the consequence will be the same.
It is a mere question of arithmetic; and moreover, as the whole
malaria of any marsh is the collective sum of the portions pro-
duced by each plant or fragment, whatever can act on the
exposed individual will be sufficient to the effect, though it
were the entire quantity in existence, or the single part will
act as effectually as if it was accompanied by a thousand
similar ones.

Thus it is of no consequence how small the marshy or per-
nicious spot is, provided it can act ; and the only difference is,
that a smaller spot will act on fewer persons ; and also, that
from the greater dilution which it must undergo on trans-
portation, it must act at shorter distances, or may require abso-
lute proximity or contact.

Having premised these two necessary considerations, it is
sufficient now to inquire what are the modifications and forms of
soil or water, or of certain spots and places generally, which

On Malaria* 301

contain the elements of a marsh, or are distmguished by a
vegetation accompanied by water. Whatever these may be,
let their names be what they may, or their appearances as
deceptive, they are at least suspicious, and in very many cases
they will be found to be real causes of the diseases of malaria,
wherever the temperature, or the season and climate, are
favourable, while that these are so with us I have just shown.

In a general enumeration, I may name the following places
or soils, before proceeding to such particulars as may be neces-
sary in explanation. Besides proper marshes, fresh and salt,
meadows, or wet pasture-lands generally, however situated,
there are woods, coppices, and thickets, plashy and limited
spots of grounds, sea walls and river embankments ; and, as
falling better under the head of water, lakes, rivers, and ponds,
including mill-dams, ornamental waters, canals, and the pools
of insignificant dimensions which occupy commons, gravel-pits,
or other similar places, together with agricultural ditches and
drains of all kinds. To these, I must also add, as coming under
the heads of vegetable matter without vegetation, sewers and
town-drains, dunghills, tide-harbours, flax-ponds, or other re-
ceptacles of putrefying vegetables, and lastly, at sea, bilge water.

With respect to the most common of causes, though it is often
thought, in England, that salt marshes are not insalubrious,
and, very particularly, that security is obtained whenever they
are daily washed by the tide : an ample experience shows that
they are as pernicious as fresh-water ones, and that a daily tide
is no security. Some of the most poisonous tracts in Europe,
indeed, in France, Spain, Italy, and Greece, are salt marshes;
and of how little value or protection the sea is, is fully proved
by the tide-rivers of the tropical climates, most notoriously the
most pestilential places that exist, even in those destructive
regions. Where such tracts are found in England I need not
say, as they are always both obvious and well known.

It is not believed with us, that meadows can produce malaria :
this is to be questioned, in the first place, on general principles,
and from other European experience ; and secondly, it can be
proved by domestic experience, that they actually are the
causes of fevers with us ; and even independently of their ditches
or drains, which, it must be observed, may often produce

302 On Malaria:

disease, where the soil which they intersect may be incapable
of that. In Italy, in France, in Spain, and in Greece, and
almost invariably in the American states, they are not only
qauses of malaria, but among the most common ones. The
great seats of that poison in those countries, are the vallies and
plains which give passage to rivers, whether on entering the sea
or otherwise ; and out of these, there is a very small proportion
marshy, compared to those which are merely meadow and
pasture, and which, very often also, are the seats of cultivation.
Did meadow lands not produce malaria, there could be few
of those tracts abandoned in summer, compared to those which
it is nearly impossible to inhabit after the heats are once esta-
blished, while, to refer to individual places, would be to form a
catalogue of no small length.

With respect to our own country, whoever shall please to
inquire, will find that fevers occur in autumn, in those situations,
particularly in hot seasons, when they are unknown in the drier
lands, and more especially in the cultivated ones ; nor can
there be any reason to doubt that it should be so, when our
climate has been proved capable, like the southern countries of
Europe, of producing this poison from the same class of soils.
And whoever also will inquire, will often find great surprise
expressed by country practitioners, at the occurrence of fevers
in rural and detached situations, where the commonly esteemed
cause, contagion, cannot be suspected ; while he who may
pursue his inquiries on this principle, will be able to explain
the causes without difficulty, from the presence of some spot or
tract of this nature. And, I must add, that it is not even
necessary that such pasture-lands should be flat meadows, as
I could easily produce instances of endemic fevers, almost
amounting to epidemics in the last summer, where the lands,
being wet and poachy however, were not only elevated, but
formed the declivities of hills.

There is one case of land, which, as to ourselves, is not worth
noticing, as it does not occur among us. — I mean rice-fields ;
and if I here enumerate them, it is for the sake of preserving
the integrity of the subject. But it gives me an opportunity of
introducing one or two remarks which do concern us : the most
important of which is, that meadow-lands will be pernicious in

On Malaria, 303

summer, in J)roportion as they have been wet the preceding
winter, and that the danger will be especially considerable,
should they have been inundated, as is often the case in some
of our flatter counties. The other is, that the act of breaking
up such moist pasture-lands for cultivation, is often hazardous,
as it is amply proved that malaria is thus produced or extricated
in unusual quantity or virulence: this effect, in the hotter
climates, being often such as to produce the almost immediate
death of the labourers employed in it. Hence, to note a pre-
caution as to the prevention of disease, for which no opportunity
will here occur in noticing the ordinary remedies against mal-
aria, it is a matter of prudence in all such cases to break up
meadow-lands in winter, when malaria is not produced ; or, if
this cannot be done, in the early part of the summer, rather than,
in spring or autumn, the two seasons in which the disorders
produced by malaria are most active.

Woods, including coppices and thickets of whatever nature,
comprise the next class of soils or places which I may notice
as productive of malaria. Of the pernicious properties of those
in warm chmates, the evidence is too abundant to admit of doubt.
In Africa, in the East Indies, and generally in the torrid cli-
mates, woods, forests, jungles, bamboo and reed thickets, and many
more varieties than I need distinguish, are the most noted causes
of the fevers which have so generally been the sources of disease,
whether to permanent residents, or to armies engaged in such
territories. They are, in fact, proverbial : the question is,
whether they are similarly pernicious in our own country. On
general principles, they ought to be so, though, in the same
proportion as any other pernicious soils are, less extensively and
severely ; and that they are in reality injurious, is proved by a
variety of experience. Sussex is one of the counties well
known to be productive of autumnal fevers, and even of inter-
mittents, if less popularly celebrated than the fens of Lincoln-
shire or the marshes of Essex. The inhabitants, at least, know
this full well ; and he who may examine into the localities, will
easily find, that if they are not produced by the woods, there is
no other cause ; while, to confirm the reality of this cause, I
could easily point out, in various parts of England, endemic
diseases the produce of such woods and coppices, even in dis-

304 On Malaria.

tricts that would be less suspected than Sussex. There cannot
be much stronger language on this subject, than that of a medical
friend in Wales ; who, after a long residence in India, complains
that he is still vexed by the jungle-fever, in the woody districts
in which he practises, and who, without system on this subject,
entertains no doubt that the cause lies in the close and damp
coppices of his neighbourhood.

If I have noted, in the preceding catalogue, plashes of moist
ground, meaning, under that term, to comprise all kinds of
insignificant wet or marshy spots, I need not specify more
minutely what they consist in ; while their abundance every
where renders all reference to places unnecessary. They are
in reality marshes, though small ones ; and if what I have
said respecting space or bulk as to a marsh, is valid, then are
they sufficient to produce disease, provided the proximity is
sufficient. And if it would be fruitless to quote examples of
disease produced by them, from the impossibility of reference,
I must trust that my own experience of such events, combined
with the general argument, will be a sufficient warranty.

The last variety of mere-land production of malaria, and
requiring enumeration, comprises sea-walls and river-embank-
ments ; and the reasons for pointing it out are, chiefly, that
being very often implicated with the remedy for marshy lands,
it is the more apt to be unsuspected. Yet it is a species of
land extremely productive of malaria ; and not unfrequently
the sole or principal cause of that which continues to be gene-
rated after the reformation of such lands, while seldom viewed
as such. Such walls are, in truth, very generally petty marshes
in themselves, as is easily seen along the banks of the Thames ;
and there is abundant proof that the reeds and other rank
vegetation which occupy them, are a frequent source of the
same disorders as those lands were accustomed to produce be-
fore their drainage and embankment. To know this cannot
but fail to be useful : since it is possible, at least, to avoid such
places, and often not difficult to manage those necessary works
so as to diminish the hazard of evil.

I may pass to the localities or situations which have a nearer
reference to water than to land. What relates to lakes is
simple ; and if it little concerns us, inasmuch as our own lakes

On Malaria. 30&

lie in a climate scarcely productive of malaria, the demonstra-
tion of their pernicious qualities in Italy and Switzerland is
ample. The causes, immediately, are various ; and I need
not do more than name them. Their deltas, whether at the
exits or entrances of the rivers, are meadows of the worst kind,
because subject to inundation ; their borders are often marshy;
and, in addition, they frequently contain creeks or shallow
places, productive of putrefying aquatic vegetables and stag-
nant water ; while, in some situations, as diminished by the
heat of summer, they often also expose offensive mud, gene-
rative of the same poison.

With respect to rivers, I may commence by one general re-
mark. It is the observation of Volney, that there is not a river
in America that does not produce malaria ; and when, after
enumerating in addition, vaUies, woods, mill-ponds, meadows
and lakes, he says that, through his whole circuit, he did not
find a dozen houses without fevers ; it is a testimony which is
too pointed not to be quoted as to this and many other of the
facts and places which have here been enumerated. And in
France and Italy, the same opinion prevails ; while, if we con-
sider the reasons, it is apparent in the nature of their banks,
producing a marshy vegetation ; in the diminution, during
summer, of their waters, exposing mud ; in their casual inun-
dations, rendering the inclosing lands wet ; and in the general
character of the soil and vegetation by which they are bounded.
How these circumstances may exist and act in our own coun-
try, I must now leave to the judgment of others to determine;
and it will be easy to see what variety of river may be suspi-
cious or insalubrious. We need not look for danger in a
rapid stream, a northern climate, or a hilly region ; but the
Ouse, the Lea, and similar rivers, cannot possibly be exempt,
unless England claims an exemption on some principle diffe-*
rent from that which exists in France and Italy.

But to this I must add one remark. It is an universal pre-
judice in England that there is no hazard from running water ;
as it is, that clear water cannot be insalubrious, and that stag-
nation and putrefaction are essential to the production of
malaria. It would be fortunate, indeed, for France and Italy
were this true ; and fortunate for all the tropical climates, even

306 On Malaria.

in a greater degree. I have already said that putrefaction is
not necessary ; while the fact that the most pernicious situa-
tions in the world are the banks of the tropical rivers, and the
lands perpetually washed by a clear green sea, shows con-
vincingly the little truth of this popular judgment. The rivers
which I have just named, and many more among us, includ-
ing the Thames in many places, are decidedly productive of
disease, though running streams ; but the evidences are too
notorious everywhere to need urging. And therefore, when,
with regard to mill-dams or other ponds, forming the class of
waters next to be noticed, it is popularly said that ^hey cannot
be pernicious, because the water is constantly refreshed by a
stream, it is a false as well as a dangerous opinion. Should
such a receptacle admit a stream that replaced the whole water
in a few hours, which is rarely the case, it would, even then,
be no other than a slow river, and therefore no more free of
danger than the worst of those.

In proportion as any species of soil or place is least sus-
pected, and most common, it seems the more necessary to be
careful in pointing it out and dwelling on it ; and hence it is,
that I am more desirous of urging the dangers arising from
what will, I know, be despised, as I have experienced it to be.
I allude here to a great variety of apparently insignificant
waters, comprising mill-ponds, for various purposes, and on
all scales ; ornamental waters and fish-ponds, canals, and the
endless pools and ponds found all over the country, in deserted
gravel pits, and in various other casual situations not worth
detailing.

It is always useful to examine any case of this nature by re-
ducing it to its principles, or by a philosophical analysis, and
to inquire whether it ought not to be insalubrious, before in^
quiring whether it actually is so. Now all these waters, be
they what they may, include the elements of a marsh or of a
water productive of malaria. Their margins are marshes, they
contain aquatic and putrefying plants ; and under the heat of
summer, they disclose mud impregnated with vegetable matter.
And this is true of the whole, whatever their extent or charac-
ter may be : while, if plainly shown that bulk or space is not
necessary even to a marsh, and that our climate is adequate to

Oh Malaria.

the production of malaria, there is no reason, a priori^ why
they should not produce it.

Now let us see how the experience confirms this ; and if it
does, then are we in possession of a very extensive class of
causes of disease, and of one which very especially we have in
our power as to correction, which, and not the excitement of
useless alarm, is the object of this paper,

Volney's testimony as to the pernicious nature of millponds
is decided, as to America; and I have just quoted it. Mon-
falcon is equally decided as to the poisonous qualities of all
duch waters in France ; and all the Italian writers agree that
it is the same in their own country. And the evil does not de-
pend on the name by which they are known, or upon their
physiognomy, or uses, any more than it does on their dimen-?
sions. Let me mark a few of specific kinds which are con-
demned in foreign countries, as a guide to our judgments re-
specting our own.

, There are many extensive districts in France occupied by
ponds rather than lakes, maintained and farmed for an inland
fishery, where the diseases from malaria prevail to such an ex-
tent, that the average of life does not exceed twenty years ;
where the people are decimated in every year ; where absolute
old age, in those who survive so long, takes place at forty ;
and where the aspect of twenty is that of fifty or sixty in coun-
tries such as our own ; where even the children are diseased
from their births, becoming subject to unceasing fevers if tliey
live to seven, and thus continuing till the not far distant period
of death arrives to terminate the literally long disease of life.
I can here refer to Mon falcon for details that I dare not en-
large on, and for authority that no one will question.

Here is proof of the effect of such waters : and I will use
the same writer's authority as to condemnation of all canals,
ponds, and ornamental waters, of whatever nature ; besides
which, as to those who desire facts more specific, his word and
that of other French physicians, will probably be taken for the
fact, that the " canal" at Versailles, and the similar water at
Chantilly, which are mere ponds scarcely exceeding that in
St. James's Square, are the common causes of severe inter-
mittent and remittent fevers.

308 On Malaria.

I need not quote further foreign authorities. They who
doubt, may not, perhaps, take my word for the fact ; but while
I could point out, in this country of ours, the same occurrences
in abundance everywhere, from many waters of this nature,
I shall prefer trusting to the examination of others here-
after : since a conviction derived from such a source will be of
much more value than a behef founded on any evidence which
I could produce ; marked as that is, and easy as it would be,
to point out the very places, often familiar to the inhabitants
even of this capital.

But that I may make these remarks of the more utility, let
me note one or two other particulars ; since, as far as reforma-
tion or avoidance of the cause is attainable, the value of these
remarks must depend on their specific nature.

If any one will be at the trouble of examining the condition
of health and the characters of the disorders, and further, the
time of the year, and the particular kind of seasons in which
these prevail, as these relate to the inhabitants of such spots,
more particularly if he will compare the results with what
occurs among the same classes of people in dry situations, I
cannot doubt that he will find everywhere such proofs as I
might easily have brought before him, did I not dislike to name
the places. Such are the houses of the opulent in such dis-
tricts as those which border the Thames, the Ouse, or other
slow rivers ; houses where ornamental water has been intro-
duced, and more especially, where these are confined by
woods ; ancient castles surrounded by moats, and, among the
poorer classes, those placed by canals, mill-ponds, and in
other analogous places : to which I might add, what, however,
is rare in our own country, if common on the continent of
Europe, fortifications ; the diseases of which, when the ditch
is wet, are notorious everywhere. And to these I may sub-
join, what will excite more surprise from their apparent insig-
nificance, the ponds of gravel pits, which will be very often
found the causes of those fevers that occur in such situations.

What will be observed in all such cases, is, that the inhabi-
tants, even where opulent, are subject to what is called vaguely,
ill health ; while, to use a common, if a vulgar phrase, they
are places where " the apothecary is never out of the house."

Oh Malaria, <9Q0

And this ill health, where least marked, will be found to con-
sist in a succession of petty and almost indescribable fevers,
being, in reality, the very condition which torments the inha-
bitants of the pestilential parts of France and Italy, from their
cradles to their graves, in a variety of painful disorders, in-
cluding rheumatism and sciatica ; and in what, if difficult to
ascertain absolutely, is well known to those familiar with Italy
and France, namely, visceral obstructions, and very particu-
larly, disordered spleen : well marked to those who know these
countries, in the peculiar sullen complexions and physiognomies
of the individuals.

If such is the general character of this ill health, I might
easily explain its action at greater length : while it will be re-
marked by any one who will make the inquiries, that, very fre-
quently, whole families, which were formerly healthy, have be-
come thus disordered on taking up such a situation ; and that
others have, reversely, recovered health by leaving it for a drier
one. But if all this is too little marked to attract ordinary no-
tice, particularly where the cause is unsuspected, (though even
popular opinion agrees in the insalubrity of low and damp
situations,) there is disease enough produced by all the class
of places which I have been enumerating, to satisfy any one
who is really acquainted with the disorders arising from mal-
aria ; I allude to the fevers, the dysenteries, and diarrhoeas,
and the choleras of autumn, which will be always found pecu-
liarly attached to situations of this kind, and often in so marked
a manner, that it is wonderful the fact has not excited attention
long ago. Let any one attempt to recollect where it was, that,
in the last summer, he has seen a whole street, a whole vil-
lage, or the whole of the inhabitants of one house, suffering
under fever, and he will as surely find that such street, village,
or house, was situated near water in some shape ; and that
water, perhaps, not more than the pond belonging to the gold
fishes, or the gravel-pit on the common.

But to remove one doubt which will naturally arise, let me
make one remark on gravel-pits which will explain every other
objection of a similar nature.

It is objected that waters or wet lands cannot be productive
of malaria, because they do not excite ague ; since this, un-

310 On Malaria:

fortunately, in England, is too commonly reckoned the sole
test of its presence. So far is this from being true, that in the
most pestiferous parts of France and Italy, simple and original
intermittent is a rare disease ; so little is this the proof, and
the sole one, of an insalubrious soil. To omit the various
other disorders which malaria excites, it is the summer fevers
which are the great tests, as they are the produce of this
poison ; and but for which, the malaria of Italy or any other
pestilential country would be of little moment indeed. And it
is in these, therefore, that we must chiefly look for the evidences
of insalubrious spots among ourselves : while unfortunately, as
they are too generally termed t3rphus with us, or else attri-
buted to heat, fruit, or other fanciful causes, the real malaria
which produced them is overlooked or denied, as the place by
which it was generated remains unsuspected.

And though, with us, malaria does produce intermittents in
spring, as it excites common or remittent fevers in autumn,
there is a reason why the same waters or places do not excite
the former disorders while they are the causes of the latter,
and hence also why they remain unsuspected, or why their
pernicious properties are denied : this is, that from the winter-
rains, many of these receptacles of water, and gravel-pits very
particularly, are filled to the margins, and are often also void
of vegetation in spring : while, from the heats of summer, the
shrinking of the water and the growth of aquatic vegetables
converts them into so many petty marshes — often also exposing
to the sun their noxious mud.

Thus have I explained what will be found applicable to nu-
merous cases of a similar nature : while it must be remembered
in addition, that heat is necessary to the generation of malaria,
and therefore, that many places and lands will produce it in
autumn, which would not have done so in spring. And if
English physicians, and the people also, forget or deny that
their autumnal and summer fevers are the produce of this
poison, it is not wonderful that they doubt or deny its exist-
ence ; while this dangerous and destructive error is confirmed
by their similarly overlooking the visceral disorders, and the
remainder of that long train of affections which arise from the
same cause, and which are most fully proved to arise from it

On Malaria. 311

by the unquestionable, and no less wide and severe experience
of France and Italy.

To proceed with similarly unsuspected places, I may name all
kinds of ditches and drains, as these are constructed for agricul-
tural or other objects. These are, in their very essence, marshes,
and often of the worst quality ; since often in a state of putre-
faction which is more rare in a real marsh of any extent. And
very often they are the real cause of the fevers which continue
in a country after those operations by which it has been drained ;
Bs would easily be proved by a corresponding examination.
To know this fact, is, as in all other cases, to know the remedy,
as far as that is in our power; avoidance as the one generally
most easy, and further attention to keeping them clean and
free from weeds, — an attention not less required for agricultural
reasons. And that such is their power in exciting disease is
proved, not merely by the experience of modern France and
Italy, but by the remarkable fact that, in the times of ancient
Rome, perfectly informed at all times on this subject, such
regulations formed a part of the laws, both as to these recep-
tacles, and as to all canals. I need scarcely say that, in such
cases, a clean earthen bank is the easy remedy ; as, in the
case of ornamental waters, a stone margin is an effectual se-
curity— as far, at least, as the margins are concerned — since it
is equally necessary to avoid the growth of sub-aquatic plants
and the exposure of mud to the sun.

I have thug described as minutely as I dare within these
narrow limits, the chief places or forms of land and water
which, as producing a living vegetation, are the sources of
malaria; reserving what relates to remedial processes, to a
future paper on this subject ; and I may now point out what
remains, consisting in vegetable decomposition independently
of vegetation.

Among these, the sewers of towns are assuredly to be
reckoned : and as I can take a proof from France without the
hazard of offence, it is sufficient to mention, that the Salpe-
triere was formerly subject to intermittent fevers, which at-
tacked the inmates within the house ; and that these being
suspected to arise from the drains, these were closed up, with
the immediate consequence of exterminating the disease. It

31 2 On Malaria.

is to be suspected that the object of the great cloacae of ancient
Rome was the same, though their history has not reached us ;
and it would be easy to confirm the same opinion, by the his-
tory of the diseases of towns without end, and by that of their
reforms on this point. Our own capital offers a striking ex-
ample of the improvement of its health from this cause ; while
the history of Fleet-ditch is familiar. It had indeed been
thought, and is still, that the fevers thus produced were typhus,
or contagious fever : but while it is obvious that remittent or
marsh-fever will explain the effects equally, so must it be re-
membered that these fevers occurred in summer ; that they
were peculiar to those particular vicinities ; and that, from the
reports of Sydenham and Morton, the fevers of London were
of this very character. And the whole analogy of fevers pro-
duced by such repositories of putrefying vegetable matter, not
altered as to its effects because mixed with animal matter,
seems to prove, as clearly as anything can be proved, that these
town-fevers, from this cause, are truly fevers from malaria, and
not from contagion ; while the deception which considered
them such, from occurring in the same houses or streets espe-
cially, is easily explained. It is just the same now as to rural
situations ; and the errors are the same. The whole inmates
of a house are affected with a fever, not because it is conta-
gious, but because they have all been exposed to the same
cause : while, unluckily, the occurrence of petechiae and so
forth, in bad cases, assists in perpetuating the error ; as if
this was not a common symptom in the marsh fevers of Italy,
Holland, and France.

If I cannot prove, in this country, that the dunghills and
pools so often found in farmyards and before the doors of
cottages, are productive of malaria, I can at least quote the
very decided and numerous testimonies of French physicians to
this purpose : nor, indeed, would it often be easy to account
for the fevers occurring in this country, and among the lower
orders, without having recourse to this cause ; while the whole
analogy of the subject leaves no reason to doubt that it ought
to be one.

And let me make one or two remarks here which apply to
all the cases of mud and putrefaction of whatever nature, I have

On Malaria. 813

already noticed that odour was not necessary to the existence
of malaria ; and the proof is, that while all such putrefying
matters, even to marshes, possess as much smell in winter as
in summer, the poison is produced only in hot weather. The
other is, as to mud, that, without any visible vegetation, not
only does its exposure to the sun in summer produce malaria
and fevers, but that this can be disengaged, even through the
water, provided that it is not very deep, and without absolute
exposure. Thus, in the former case, have some of the most
severe epidemics on record been produced by the stinking of
lakes and rivers, and the exposure of their mud ; as also hap-
pens often, and in the tropical climates very especially, from
that brief exposure which follows the recess of the tide : while,
in the West Indies, it is observed that fevers are invariably
produced by certain pools, as soon as they are so far diminished
in depth as to allow the air of the bottoms to escape through
the water. Now, though our climate is less active in this evil,
these are facts of value to us in the way of precaution, while
they are among the least suspected causes of evil ; since it
,has been ascertained, that fevers are produced where no other
causes than these are present. And if I notice another fact,
that, in the West Indies, the mere exposure of the naked soil,
by removing stones which covered it, has produced a sudden
and deadly fever ; so have I, in this country, seen agues pro-
duced, immediately and decidedly, by the simple and little-
suspected accident of the inundation and drying of a cellar.

But of fevers produced by the exposure of mud containing
vegetable matter, the most frequent instances in our own
country are those which occur in tide-harbours. In the
warmer climates, this is as notorious and deadly a cause as
any one that exists : and under this head, nothing can be more
notorious than that which occurs in the tide- rivers of Africa
and the East, or within the tropics generally ; since this is the
very analysis of those most pestilential of all spots, mangrove
sea-beaches and rivers. Here, there is no proper vegetation in
contact with the water, whether that be fresh or salt, as the
stems of the trees rise out of the naked mud : while it is
ascertained by endless experience, that such a river or beach
is safe as long as the mud is covered, but that the fever seizes

APRIL— JUJfS, 1827. . Y

314 On Malaria,

on the boats' crews at the very instant of the recess of the
tide ; while its cause is rendered immediately sensible, by a
peculiar earthy smell, well known, even many miles at sea, as
brought off by the land-winds, and equally exciting fevers
among the ships' crews.

Now, it is familiar that in our own country, fevers, and in
summer as usual, are common in our sea-ports ; while, from
the persistent errors on this subject, always attributed to
poverty, filth, confinement, and, of course, to contagion. That
this is not the real cause, is proved partly by the season to
which they are confined, if it was not by the fact that they
are really not contagious, but mistaken for such by being at-
tached to particular spots or houses ; and partly by that other
fact, that they will be found to appertain to the very kind of
sea-ports which I have described, and not to occur in deep
harbours or on clean and rocky shores. It is easy for any one
to conjecture where they ought to happen ; and any one who
■will inquire, will find that the experience corresponds to the
theory as derived from the present view.

It is so important, for many reasons obvious to medical
men, to distinguish between contagious fevers and those which
are not such, and the evils which arise from misstating marsh-
fever for typhus are so numerous, that I must be excused for
urging this subject as to all these last cases, and as to one also
of very great importance which is about to follow. And, in-
dependently of this medical importance, it is particularly neces-
sary in all that relates to prevention : since, as long as these
fevers shall be believed to be typhus, or to arise from any
other cause than what they really do, it is plain that it will be
impossible to apply any means of diminishing their numbers,
whether by avoidance of the causes, or by directly removing
or checking the influence of these. And I am sure that a
more accurate attention, recently bestowed on fevers by prac-
titioners, will confirm what I have said respecting the compa-
rative rarity of proper contagious fevers ; if these persons
have not yet agreed to refer them to malaria, and have not
learned to discover the various sources whence this is pro*
duced, and which I have here been attempting to point out
and explain.

On Malaria, 3lD

There is yet one important source of malaria, arising in
rural situations, which I am bound to explain, and which will
complete what I have to say of the causes of its diseases on
shore : this is the steeping of flax and of hemp ; though,
with \is, the latter is rare, and the former not very common ;
except in Ireland and in Scotland, where, from the nature of
the climate, it is probably not very pernicious. In Germany,
France, and Italy, this has been fully proved to be one of the
most active and severe causes of fevers of this character ; as,
in New York and elsewhere, it has been similarly proved that
the same consequences, productive also of mortal epidemics,
have arisen from the putrefaction of coffee, potatoes, the re*,
fuse of the indigo manufacture, and other similar causes.

It remains to notice but one case, and that an unsuspected
one,^ — a case also which will probably be disputed — while I
cannot help thinking that it is one of very extensive and seri-
ous importance : this is, bilge-water. It is remarked, in the
first place, that sugar-ships are peculiarly subject to bad fevers,
and it is well known that the bilge-water from this substance is
the most offensive that exists. Further, when a ship is what
is termed sickly, at sea, it is always found that she is what is
called afoul ship ; of which it would be easy to produce specific
examples in abundance from the history of the navy, were it
not from the hazard of personal offence. And to confirm this,
when it has been found that the same ship was sickly under
one commander, and healthy under another, the cause has been
equally traced to the neglect of cleanliness. And how destruc-
tive fevers have often been at sea, both in the naval and the
commercial service, needs not be said ; as it is unnecessary
to point out the great loss of lives, the serious inconveniences,
and, what is here especially necessary, the absence of every
other cause of fever in such a situation as the open sea.

Now, if this class of fever is not the marsh fever, or the
produce of a vegetable malaria, it would form a singular ex-
ception to all the analogies recently pointed out ; while, further,
if it is not so, whence does it occur in exact proportion to the
presence of vegetable matter acted on by water, and whence
especially does it occur in so marked a manner in sugar-ships ?

Y 2

316 On Malaria^

But it is generally, perhaps always, considered as a contagious
fever, and perhaps not unnaturally, under the neglect of this
cause ; since amidst such a crowd, it is an easy conclusion that
the disease is communicated from one to another. Yet, if it
were so, the cleanliness to which I have alluded would not be
ia prevention ; and in which, were it a contagious fever, it
would far more often spread to the people on shore, after reach-
ing harbour, than it is found to do. That there are sometimes
contagious fevers on shipboard is most certain ; but such cases
and their consequences must not be allowed to mislead us on
so important point as this, — since this would be to deprive us of
the means of prevention which are in our power, and which are
as simple as they are efficacious.

But not to dwell any longer on this case, important as it is,
I cannot help thinking, that when naval surgeons shall have
duly considered this subject, they will learn to coincide in the
same opinion ; and if it should prove so, then may we learn to
prevent at sea, that which has been a most grievous evil in
more ways than it is necessary to point out. And if ships were
to be duly fumigated with sulphurous acid before receiving
fresh crews in harbour, with such further precautions as to
the people themselves are well understood ; and if, in addi-
tion, care was taken, daily, to wash the ship, so as that the
pump should bring up water as clear as the sea without, it is
almost impossible that diseases of this character should ever
make their appearance, or impossible, at least, that they should
ever again be a cause of serious suffering.

But I must terminate a paper which is rapidly exceeding its
stipulated bounds ; intending, in a future communication, to
complete the subject, by describing what belongs to the pro-
pagation of malaria ; what relates to the effects of climate ; and
what further may be done as concerns what is the real object
of this paper, — the prevention or diminution of disease.

317

Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London,
Vol. vi. Part 5.

This Part terminates the sixth volume of the Transactions of
this Society ; it contains the Preface, Index, and other ma-
terials for completing the volume, and a few miscellaneous
papers, which will be noticed presently.

The Preface acquaints us with the progress of the Society
since the termination of the fifth volume, and of the influence
which its proceedings have exercised over similar institutions
in various districts of the country. We are told that ** from
an anxious desire to hold out assistance and countenance to
the efforts of all such bodies, wherever they may exist, the
Council of this Society has lately determined to give annually
to each local Horticultural Society whose affairs are directed
by a president and council or committee, one of their large
silver medals, to be awarded by the local society to some
one individual in their own district whose skill in gardening
shall appear to them to be most deserving of the distinction."
This is a measure which we hope will conduce most mate-
rially to the fostering and encouraging of horticulture in
every corner of the country. We are also informed, that of
the expeditions undertaken at the expense of the Society in
foreign countries, one is still in operation and the other has
terminated. The former, under the charge of Mr. David
Douglas, extracts from whose very curious Journal we laid
before our readers in our last number, is expected to produce
the most valuable additions to the ornamental plantations of
Great Britain ; and, to use the words of the preface, '* it is
hoped that from this expedition our gardens will become as
well filled with the beautiful vegetation of the borders of the
Columbus and of the Rocky Mountains, as it is already with
that of the Ohio and Mississipi." Of that which has termi-
nated under the direction of Mr. James M*Kar, who accom-
panied the Sandwich Island Chieftains on their return from
this country, it is stated that this individual
•' successively visited Rio Janeiro and St. Catharine's in Brazil, several
ports on the coasts oi Chili and the Sandwich Islands. On his return,
he landed upon Albemarle Island, one of the Gallipsyos, touched at
Chorillo Bay, on the coast oi Peru, and revisited Chili, when he found an
opportunity of reaching Santiago, and botanizing among the little-known
region of the Cordilleras. Upon this occasion, Mr. M'Kar succeeded in
procuring a supply of fresh nuts of the highly-prized Araucaria Pine,
which arrived m England in a living state, and fiom which a considerable
distribution has already been made by the Society. The collection of

318 Transactions of the

trees and plants of all kinds was very large, and of the greatest value to
science. To the Sandwich Islands this expedition has produced advan-
tages which it is hoped that these countries will long continue to enjoy,
and which may be no inconsiderable means of hastening the civilization
of the natives. In addition to a large supply of European fruits and
vegetables, Mr. M'Kar succeeded in transplanting safely most of the
valuable productions of the same kind which are found in Brazil."

The Papers are these —

LXIV. Notices of Communications to the Horticultural Society, be-
tween Jan. 1, 1823, and Jan. 1, 1824, of which separate accounts have
not been published in the Transactions.

This consists, as its title purports, of miscellaneous notices
upon a great variety of Horticultural subjects, most of which
are quite incapable of abridgement. Mr. Williams finds
the Siberian crab the proper stock upon which to graft
the much-valued golden pippin. Mr. Gregory repre-
sents a mode of preparing temporary protections to flued-
walls, by building into the top of such walls wooden blocks
of a particular construction, to which rafters can be easily
attached when required. This is a very ingenious and useful
plan, and of great importance in our northern counties.
Mr. Lambert preserved nuts during the winter by placing
them in a large brown earthenware pan, which, when filled,
was placed in a deep hole in the garden ; the top of the pan
being covered with a flat piece of wood on which was put a
heavy weight, the hole was filled with earth. By this me-
thod, nuts may be kept in a fresh state till the season of
their maturity returns. Captain Rainier recommends medlar
stocks for grafting pears upon. We suspect, however, that
the objection to this is, that the pear will not, as the gar-
deners say, stand upon such a stock.

liXV. Notice of the Siberian Bittersweet, a new and valuable Cider
Apple. By Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq., F.R.S., President.

This variety Mr. Knight considers of the greatest import-
ance in cider counties. * If the juice is made to evaporate in
9- moderately low temperature, it affords a large quantity
of jelly of intense sweetness, which to my palate is extremely
Agreeable ; and which might be applied to purposes similar
to those to which the inspissated juice of the grape is applied
in France.'

LXVI. An account of two varieties of the Mango Fruit, which ripened
in the garden of the Earl ofPowis. By Joseph Sabine, Esq.

A description of the two mangoes which, as we stated in
our last number, were exhibited in the autumn of 1826 by

Horticultural Society of London, 319

the Earl of Powis. It is illustrated by beautiful coloured
figures of the two varieties.

LXVII. An account often varieties of Persian Melons. By Mr. John
Lindley, F.L.S., &c. &c.

The varieties described in this paper are said to be for the
most part of surpassing excellence, with great delicacy, but
at the same time richness of flavour. There appears, how-
ever, to be greater difficulty in cultivating the melon of
Persia than the less excellent but more robust varieties of
Europe. The writer recommends a particular mode of
treatment, and describes the ten varieties in detail.

LXVIII. Report on new or remarkable Esculent Vegetables cultivated
in the garden of the Horticultural Society y during the year terminating
* . on the 3\st of March, 1826.

One of the most striking horticultural features of this age
is the high degree of perfection to which esculent vegetables
have been brought. The leeks, onions, cabbages, and kail
of our forefathers exist, indeed, after their kind, but in so
altered and improved a state, that we doubt whether their
identity could be easily recognised if opportunities for actual
comparison could be found. The object of this Report is to
put the public in possession of information upon this head,
derived m the garden, from an examination of the numerous
collections that are yearly cultivated there. For an account
of the numerous varieties mentioned in it, we must refer our
readers to the paper itself. It is the first of a series of Re-
ports on the subject, which are intended to be annually
published.

On the Effect of certain Exercises on the Form, and their In-
fluence in preventing or curing Distortions of the Spine.

A DISCUSSION on exercise comprehends several questions: —
first, the necessity of exercise to the preservation of the health
and form ; secondly, how far those plans at present in fashion
are calculated to improve the figure generally ; thirdly, whether
there is any danger in the performance of some of them ; and
lastly, how far they are beneficial in cases of distortion.

The importance of well-regulated exercise is acknowledged by
all : for it is only by exercise that the several parts of the body

320 On Gymnastic ^xGrcises:

ere fully developed, perfected, and preserved from falling into
decay. In this climate we cannot enjoy the fresh air unless
we, at the same time, keep our bodies in active exercise ; and
every one knows how much this conduces to the general acti-
vity of the frame, and assists in the operations of the digestive
organs'*^. It is also the most effectual remedy for that morbid
excess of nervous irritability which is sometimes observed even
at an early age.

The works of Locke, of Addison, indeed of all the most
eminent writers on education, contain admirable examples of the
influences which activity of the body has over the operations
of the mind. Even Hippocrates, who wrote a philippic
against violent exercises, says, moderate exertion gives firmness
and strength to the body, and vigour to the mind ; and in Pliny
there is an observation to the same effect. *' Mirum est ut
animus agitatione motuque corporis excitetur." But the most
forcible remark is made by Rousseau in his Emilius : " The
weaker the body, the more it commands ; the stronger it is,
the more it obeys ; the body must possess vigour to be obedient
to the mind ; a good servant should be robust."

These views have not always been admitted ; Tor although it
has been allowed, that the mental energies of the eastern
nations correspond to the inactive and indolent life which they
lead, it has been argued that the savage, who possesses bodily
strength, agility, health, and all the animal faculties in greater
perfection than man in the more advanced state of society, is
but little removed above the brutes in regard to intellectual
faculties. But this question has been so often and so well met,
that it would be almost presuming, and certainly unnecessary,

• The following is rather a curious instance of the necessity of exer-
cise ; it is in the life of Eumenes, by Cornelius Nepos. " Hinc tamen,
multis suis amissis, se expedivit, et in eastellum Phrygiae quod Nora ap-
pellatur, confugit. In quo cum consederetur, et vereretur ne uno loco
manens equos militares perderet, quod spatium non esse agitandi ; calli-
dum ejus fuit inventum quemadmodum stans jumentum calefieri exer-
cerique posset, quo libentius et cibo uteretur et a corporis motu non
removeretur. Substringebat caput loro altius, quam ut prioribus pedi-
bus plane terram posset attingere ; deinde post verberibus cogebat
exultare, et calces remittere, qui motus non minus sudorem excutiebat
quam si in spatio decurreret. Quo factum est, quod omnibus mirabile
est visum, ut jumenta ex castello educeret, quum complures menses in
obsidione fuisset, ac si in campestribus ea locis habuisset,"

On Gymnastic Exercises, 321*

to enter upon it. In tnith a vigorous and healthy constitution,
with all the bodily and animal powers in their full perfection,
which can only be acquired and preserved by properly-regu-
lated exercise, are quite compatible with the nobler and more
distinguishing faculties of human nature.

The question of the necessity of exercise to the preservation
of the form may be considered in a point of view which bears
directly on the subject of distortion.

It is a law of the animal economy, " that the exercise of an
organ is necessary not only to its perfection but even to its pre-«
servation." This is often exemplified by parts which are not
kept in due activity ; for if they are not exercised, they degene-
rate so as even to lose their peculiar characters. For exam-
ple : as long as a joint is kept in activity, the apparatus con-
tinues perfect ; but when the motion of the joint has ceased
for some time, all its complex parts degenerate ; their peculiar
characters and structure disappear. In a joint which has be-
come stiff or anchylosed, the character of every part is changed ;
— the bone is no longer hard, but softened and cellular ; and
the bursas, the capsules, and the ligaments, form one indistinct
mass of cellular membrane.

The converse of the above proposition holds — that, by ex-
ercise, the organs may be renovated, or even new ones may
be formed. If a bone be dislocated, new cartilages, capsules,
bursse, sheaths, ligaments, all may be formed ; and if these
parts, constituting a new joint, be kept in activity, although
they may not have the regularity of the apparatus of the origi-
nal joint, they assume all the characters of the several parts.

A variety of facts show that not only the muscles and liga-
ments, but the bones, arteries, and nenes degenerate if they
are not duly exercised ; and it is even possible to distinguish
between the bones of a person who has died in full vigour, and
of those who have been long bedridden*. If a soldier in active

* A German author makes the following remarks on the skeletons
still exposed on the field of battle at Mm-ten, where Charles the Bold,
with his Burgundians, fell a sacrifice to the patriotic valour of the Swiss.
V The three hundred years during which they have been exposed, in great
measure, to the open air, have little affected their prodigious fimmess of
structure. Instead of mouldering down in a few years of exposure,,
they were evidently firmer than in the recent subject. From rubbing

328t Qn Gymnastic Exercises.

i^ervice receives a wound for which immediate amputation is
necessary, or if the same operation be performed on a strong
labourer while he is in full health and exercise, the bone is
found hard and compact in structure. But if either the sol-
dier or the hospital patient should, in consequence of the acci-
dent, be confined to bed for some time before the leg is ampu-
tated, the bone is found soft and spongy as that of a scrofulous
person. Analogous facts may be observed in animals, and it
is well known that the bones of the leg of the race-horse when
he is in full vigour are as hard as ivory.

In no part of the system is this law better exemplified than
in the history of the curvatures of the Spine. The muscles of
the spine, which, with the exception of those of the heart, are
most constantly in action, and whose office is to support the
vertebrae, may be so weakened by want of exercise as to be-
come incapable of performing their function. When they are
reduced to this state, the ligaments which bind the vertebrae
together yield to the superincumbent weight ; for the liga-
ments are affected in a secondary manner by the same causes
which produce debility in the muscles ; weakness of the
muscles is therefore one of the most frequent forerunners of
distortion.*

together in my box, they acquired here and there the polish of the
enamel of the teeth. Out of the charnel-house at Murten, I selected
skulls that attested the strength of the stroke by which, as appeared
from the marks, the helmet was cleft, and which, being pierced in the
orbits by the point of the spear, probably belonged to knights, since the
spear would be directed against this as the most vulnerable part. I
still possess these specimens, and I consider them as an incontrovertible
answer to the question, how these knights could wcjar armour insup-
portable by the present race ? They were more hardy and athletic than
we are." — Ebell.

This is a more rational account of the prowess of our ancestors than
the incredible histories which would make us believe that we had dege-
nerated from their outward appearance and gigantic stature. The truth
k, that the bones become closer in their texture, the whole frame of the
body is more intimately knitted, and greatly strengthened, by that life of
exertion and fatigue which om* forefathers led.

* This sentence must not be construed to imply that one set of mus-
cles becomes weak, and the other so strong as to pull the spine to one
side. When the muscles of the back have not been exercised, they be-
come equally weak on both sides ; the spine, being consequently not
supported, must sink.

On Gymnastic Exerciaet. 823

: How far are Gymnastic Feats calculated to improve the
form ?

We have frequent opportunities of observing the actual de-
formity which arises from the disproportinate developement of
any particular class of muscles. For example : the legs of
those opera-dancers, who pride themselves on their powers of
making extraordinary leaps and pirouettes, are almost Hercu-
lean, while their arms are comparatively diminutive. The same
effects are produced on the form of those who practise horse-
manship and tumbling, although these persons are sometimes
better proportioned than the dancers, from their muscular
system being more generally exercised ; still their muscles are
so unnaturally increased, by the violent exertions necessary
to their feats of strength, that their appearance may also be
considered as approaching to deformity.

Climbing a rope or pole, or swinging by the hands on a
triangle, are the exercises now most frequently recommended.
Mounting a rope-ladder is also proposed ; few feats are so diffi-
cult to perform as this : for although the ladder hangs perpendi-
cularly, being pliable in every part and not fixed at the bottom,
when the climber attempts to mount the first steps they are
pushed forward and the body falls backwards. The weight would
now be sustained principally by the hands, if the chmber did
not attempt to keep the body in an extended line and nearly
perpendicular. By these combined efforts, the exertion both
to the muscles of the arms and of the loins is very great ; this
necessarily tends to strengthen these muscles. To this there
may be no objection, as they are not seen ; but in performing
this exercise, and in climbing a rope, or pole, without using the
knees as sailors do, a set of muscles are brought into action, the
increased developement of which, instead of improving, tends to
destroy the elegance of the figure. Is it desirable that a young
lady should have a strong and short neck similar to that of a
sailor-boy? for such will inevitably be her condition if she
should ever attain any expertness in such exercises. When
she attempts to raise herself on the ladder, or the pole, the
head must, in some degree, be made a fixed point ; and this is
done by the action of the muscles between the head and the

S24

On Gymnastic Exercises,

shoulders*. These muscles, being then called into violent
action to raise the body, are necessarily increased in power,
and gradually become so much enlarged, as to give a peculiar
roundness to the shoulders and back of the neck. This may
be exemplified by the accompanying figure.

The jaws are also firmly clenched by their muscles, which,
when increased in size, give the stringiness and harshness to

* Although it can scarcely be credited that mothers would permit
their daughters to perform such an exercise as is represented here, it has
of late been often practised, in the expectation that distortion would be
cured by it. It is easy to show that such an exercise tends rather to
increase than diminish the curve in the upper part of the spine.
Although mothers could not be judges of this, they might have seen
that there was some danger of the girl falling. About four months ago,
a young lady in a family of distinction mounted the rope nearly as high
as the ceiling, slipped, and fell on her back. She gradually recovered
from the immediate shock, but she now suffers from a peculiar pain and
weakness in the spine. Although it is to be hoped that this is merely
symptomatic of an injury to the ligaments, still when the cases of the
Count Lordat and others are recollected, we cannot help fearing that
the membranes of the spinal marrow may become affected.

On Gymnastic Exercises* S2S

the expression, that may be observed in porters, or more par-»
ticularly in the women who carry burdens suspended by a strap
round the forehead ; but the stringiness of the neck is from
another cause, which will be explained in the observations on
stooping.

The same objections apply to the plan of making those, who
are slightly deformed, practise themselves in hanging by one
or both arms.

The spine may appear more straight for the time ; but the
exertion to support the whole body is so great in the muscles
of the shoulders and neck, that the effect is similar to that pro-
duced by climbing a rope or ladder. Indeed any one may be
satisfied of this being the effect, by trying either of those exer-»
cises.*

Medical men are now often asked to give an opinion on the
effect of certain postures and exercises, which have got the fine
sounding name of Calisthenics.

Although it was not to be expected that those who proposed
the exercises should be acquainted with the action of the seve*
ral classes of muscles, it would not have been surprising if they
had hit on some plans of exercising the muscles of the spine
and ribs, that would have been useful in cases of distortion;
but the principal exercises scarcely produce any effect on those
muscles. Even some medical men who have proposed exer-
cises of the arms for the cure of distortion, seem to have for-
gotten that many of the muscles of the shoulder have little or
no effect on the spine or ribs. Unless exercises bring the
muscles of the spine and ribs immediately into action, they
have little effect on the position of the shoulders.

Ail that can be said in favour of the Calisthenics, is, that they
are not attended with any danger, and that they may assist in
improving the figure of a girl, who is merely sluggish and
awkward ; but the exercises proposed some years ago by Mr.
Jenkins, who has been long known as a dancing-master, are

* Even the turning a wheel, which is considered one of the most
simple and innocent modes of strengthening the muscles of the chest,
may be injurious, unless it. be judiciously managed. When the handle
of the wheel is held by both hands, nearly in contact with each other,
the effect of tiurning it, is rather to contract than dilate the area of th^
chest ...--.

On Gymnastic Exercises*

much better calculated for this purpose. He seems to under-
stand, that the position of the head and of the shoulders
depends on the form of the spine and ribs ; and, therefore, in-
stead of bringing only the muscles of the arms and legs into
action, he puts the figure into such positions as tend to bring
out and develope the ribs. In this way, the spine is necessa-
rily acted on, while, in the Calisthenics, scarcely any effect is
produced on it.

This opinion on the Calisthenics is founded on a careful ex-
amination of the effects of the postures, and of the exercises
with the cane and triangle on the individual muscles of the
chest and spine, while they were performed by several young
ladies, (five in number,) w^ho, being slightly twisted, had been
taught how to do them.

Mr. Jenkins's plan of exercise is certainly more useful for
girls who have a tendency to become twisted, and will probably
prevent perfect figures from becoming crooked ; but the attempt
to remedy a distinct serpentine twist by such means is a mere
loss of time.

Is there any danger in performing those exercises which
have of late years been recommended ?

The bad effects of working a young horse too early, and so
as to call for occasional violent exertion, are so generally known,
that a valuable animal is seldom put to a trial of its powers
before it has attained its full growth ; but children, and espe-
cially those of the poor, are often put upon tasks far beyond
their natural powers. The bad consequences are soon appa-
rent, for children who are thus treated seldom grow up vigor-
ously, but are stinted in their giowth, and often have some
bodily defect, or the elasticity and tone of their muscles are
lost, long before the period at which they would have attained
their full strength. Indeed, it is not uncommon for the poor to
be worn out at an early age ; and often may the face of twenty
be seen on the shoulders of thirteen.

It may, perhaps, be said, that such children have not only
been over-worked, but have been badly fed and clothed. There
is no doubt that these causes will have the worst effects ; but
even nourishing food is not sufficient to avert the consequence^

On Gymnastic Exercises*

of premature over-exertion, especially if it be sudden, and
entered upon without previous training*.

In considering this question, in relation to those who are not
hkely to be put to hard labour, we have particularly to fear
that a child of high spirit, while climbing, a rope, or mounting
a cross-bar placed high above its head, may over-exert itself.
The state of violent action that all the muscles, and particularly
those of the abdomen, are thrown into, by attempting to raise
the body on a cross-pole, or on the triangle, may be imagined
by examining the sketch below, which is taken from one of the
late works on gymnastics.

Within the last two years, several cases of rupture have
occurred among those who have practised such feats ; this acci-
dent has not been confined to young men, nor to boys, but one
of the Directors of the exercises, a very powerful and muscular
man, suffered in this way. But, although such serious acci-
dents may not frequently happen, there are other circumstances
which must not be forgotten in considering the propriety qf

♦ The miserable appearance of some of the farmers* boys proves that
even fresh air and plenty of good food will not counteract the bad effects
of early and hard labour.

328 On Gymnastic Exerciser,

young persons practising gymnastics, — the changes which may
be produced in the condition of the Hgaraents of the joints.
"When muscles are gradually increased in strength, the liga-
ments become strong in proportion; but the ligaments are as
likely to be hurt from the muscles being suddenly called into
violent action and at an early age, as by any accidental twist
or strain. They are in this way liable to become spongy and
relaxed, so as to produce weakness, or a condition similar to
the joints of a young horse which has been galloped hard, or
obliged to take great leaps before he has acquired his full
strength ; indeed, there is much resemblance in the condition
of a joint with the ligaments strained, to that of a horse which
is brokeft down or wind-galled*.

A violent sprain may be guarded against by gradually in-
creasing the degree of exertion ; but, however great the care in
this respect, the joints may be injured in another way, which it
is highly important to understand.

If any exercise, however good, be continued for a long time,
and regularly repeated while a young person is growing, certain
ligaments may become unnaturally lengthened and elastic. As,
for example, we may observe, that in the bolero dance, upon
the stage, some of the performers can nearly touch the floor
with the inner ankle, which no person with a fine and strongly
formed ankle can do.

The ligaments of the foot, and especially the lateral liga-
ments of the ankle, become so unnaturally long, that the foot
can be turned in every direction as easily as the hand. The
bad consequences resulting from this looseness of the joints, do
not appear when the performer is dancing or strutting along
the stage, as the muscles of the leg are then in an artificial
state of exertion, and for a time preserve the bones in a proper
relation to each other; but the effect is quite obvious when the
dancers are walking in the streets, for then, while attempting
to walk naturally, they have a shuffling gait. This is particu-
larly the case in old dancers, who have retired from the stage ;
for the muscles having by disuse lost their tone, the bad effects

* Small bunyons or ganglions, which are similar to what the farrier cdls
wind-galls, are sometimes found about the ankle joints of delicate girls,
who have over-exerted themselves in dancings ...

On Gymnastic Exercises. 329

of lengthening and straining the ligaments are then distinctly
marked. Indeed these evils are not confined to a peculiarity
of gait, for the feet of almost every opera-dancer, excepting
those called the pantomimes^ are deformed, and even some of
the dancers, while in full vigour and most admired, are actually
lame. This seems a bold assertion ; but if a high instep be im-
portant to a well-formed foot, these dancers' feet are deformed,
for, with few exceptions, they are quite flat; and that they are
lame cannot be denied, as they have, almost all, a halt in their
gait. If we consider the manner in which they are taught, we
shall not be surprised at this. They commence their discipline
at a very early age, and endeavour, for many hours daily, to
stretch the ligaments of the feet and ankles. This is done in
various ways, but chiefly by standing on the tips of their toes,
their only respite being occasional attempts to push the ankle
bones towards the floor. In this way the power of the muscles
is soon exhausted, and the whole weight of the body being then
sustained by the ligaments, they yield; and hence those which
bind the bones of the foot together become unnaturally length-
ened. As a necessary consequence of the stretching and
elongation of the ligaments, the bones are separated from each
other, and the feet are thus rendered nearly as flat as those of
a monkey *. Although the shuffling gait and the lameness ap-
parent in walking depend principally on the condition of the
ligaments and of the muscles forming the calf of the leg, they

• The feet of those who wear strong shoes are frequently deformed,
but in a different manner. The bones are pressed together, and the
hgaments and small muscles, instead of being unduly developed, are
nearly destroyed ; this results from the shoes almost entirely preventing
the natural action of the muscles. The eifect of encasing the feet in the
manner practised in China is generally known ; there was an opportu-
nity of proving, by examination of the feet of the Chinese woman, who
died in Pall Mall, that the stucco models, brought from China, give a
very correct idea of their form.

In connection with this subject, the curious difference between the
foot and leg of an Irish haymaker and that of an English peasant may be
noted. The effects produced by the heavy unyielding shoe, and the tight
leather gaiters, which the Englishman wears, are very evident in the
shape of his leg, for he has scarcely any calf, and when he runs, he
drags his leg after him as if it were a lifeless mass attached to his
thigh ; while the Irishman, or a Scotch shepherd, being seldom encum-
bered with shoes, has strong and well-formed feet and legs, and, in run-»
ning, bounds or. springs from the toes,

APRIL— JUNE, 1827. Z

330 On Gymnastic Exercises*

may, in some degree, result from the dancer being so much
accustomed to move on the tips of his toes, that it has become
almost unnatural for him to bring his heel to the ground. In-*
deed the gait of an opera-dancer in walking may be said to
resemble, in some respects, that of a bear dancing; for this
animal, which, like all other quadmpeds, walks on the tips of
his toes, when obliged to dance, must bring his heel, or os
calcis, to the ground.

Some facts important to the question of the propriety of
young persons performing gymnastics, may be learnt by ob-
serving the manner dancers prepare for exhibition on the stage.
The many hours engaged in practice during the day is not suf-
ficient, but they find it necessary to bring their muscles and
ligaments into a certain condition, by gradually exerting and
stretching them for an hour or more, immediately before
appearing. All who have gone behind the scenes in the Opera
must have observed the dancers in the green-room pass from
simple postures and gentle exercises to those requiring the
greatest exertion. By thus gradually suppling the joints, and
exciting the muscles, the dancer is enabled, without danger of
breaking a tendon, to enter with a bounding leap upon the
stage, and to spring at once into full activity. But, notwith-
standing all these preparations, dancers after a time appear
lame ; they seldom suffer from the violent sprain which is im-
mediately attended with pain and swelling, but their ligaments
become gradually over-extended. There is little danger of
boys or girls falling into this state ; but is it to be expected
that thoughtless boys running out of school will submit to go
through the necessary preparatory exercises, before entering
on those more violent ones, which they consider more manly,
and to be really gymnastics? If they do not submit to them,
is there not danger of a tendon or the sheath of a muscle
being ruptured, and thus render them uncomfortable for life*?

♦ Every surgeon knows that in young persons the epiphysis is not
firmly united to the shaft of the bone, and that it is liable to be detached
by the sudden wrench of a joint. This accident lately occurred to a
young lady, at a school near town, while practising some of these exer-
cises. The consequences were violent inflammation of the joint, and,
notwithstanding the greatest care, death in three weeks.

On Gymnastic Exercises. 331

If they escape this very serious misfortune, what is gained by
a pre-eminence in performing violent exercises?— A species of
deformity; at least, a form not to be admired. If young
ladies are taught by a sensible dancing-master, and boys learn
to fence, there will be little occasion for any formal exercises
in addition to those taken in the various school games, and in
skipping, playing battledore, &c.

As much has been said of the possibility of curing all distor-
tions of the figure by particular exercises, it is necessary to
make a few remarks on this question.

We have frequent opportunities of observing the good effects
that are produced by a variety of exercises on young ladies who
are in that state of listlessness and muscular inactivity which
causes the chest to appear contracted, and even gives the ap-
pearance of curvature of the spine. The chest soon becomes
expanded, and instead of continuing to walk in a stiff awkward
manner, as if the spine was distorted, the girl carries herself
erect and with an elasticity and pliancy of the whole figure.
But what is, perhaps, of more importance, a complete change
takes place in her constitution ; as, for example, if she had an
habitual cough, it will most probably have ceased*. Indeed, a
change for the better may be observed in every organ, and par-
ticularly in the state of the skin, which being of the first im-
portance in the animal economy, should always attract atten-
tion in such cases.

But although the most beneficial effects are produced by ex
ercises, we shall be disappointed if we trust entirely to them in
cases where the spine is actually distorted, and even when the
curvature is slight.

Those who are ignorant of the variety in the diseases of the
spine are apt to be deceived with regard to the effects produced

• The following curious remark is made by Fuller in his Medidna
Gymnastica: — "And so I think it is no less obvious if exercise be
as efficacious as I assert, that it is in our choice whether a cough
shall run on to a consumption." The good effects which ensue from
exercises would almost induce us to give entire credit to Fuller's views,
and to treat a girl who has a cough nearly in the same manner as if her
spine was distorted ; for it has been frequently remarked by a mother,
that her daughter has not had her winter^cough, since she begiin th6
system of treatment to remedy the ciurve of the spine.

Z2

332 On Gymnastic Exercises.

by exercises. They may be led to believe that the distorted
appearance of a girl proceeds from an alteration in the form of
the bones, while it may be owing only to a degree of relaxation
and weakness *. When they see a girl in such a condition get
rapidly better, merely by going through certain exercises, they
naturally suppose that the same means will be successful in
every case. This opinion is strengthened by the circumstance,
that even when the distortion depends on a change having taken
place in the form of the vertebrae, this system of treatment im-
proves the health and vigour of the patient so much, that she is
soon able to carry herself better than before, and the deformity
is consequently not so apparent. This induces the friends to
persevere in the system, and it is natural for them to imagine
that if so much benefit accrues from a short trial of exercise,
a curvature, however bad, may be completely cured by per-
severance.

This method of treatment has been considered a modern
discovery ; but the older authors were acquainted with it, and
in their writings we find a variety of exercises described, as
suitable to different diseases.

Portal, the French physician, in his work upon rickets, after

* It must have occurred to almost every practitioner to be asked why
a girl appears crooked at one time and straight at another. The suspicion
that the girl is twisted, is generally considered as the mere fancy of an
anxious mother ; but it is not altogether ideal, and the cause of the
change in the form may, perhaps, be explained. Young persons are
subject to a peculiar squint, which is generally removed by attention
to the state of the bowels. Now, as the muscles for the support of the
spine are as dependent on the bowels for the proper performance of their
functions as those of the eye, why may they not occasionally be in a state
to twist the body as those of the orbit are to twist the eye ? In several
instances where the parents had been led to believe that the spine was
actually distorted, the patients were subjected to very severe modes of
treatment. In these cases the practitioner was probably also de-
ceived, and really imagined that the figure was restored by some par-
ticular and direct effect which exercises or confinement to the inclined
plane had upon the spine, when in fact the removal of the curves
depended almost solely on the improvement in the state of the bowels.
But these^jremarks should not lead to the belief, that certain medicines
■which act on the bowels will be sufficient to rem.ove the deformity. Ap-
propriate exercises and rest have nearly as much effect on the bowels
as the best medicines ; but as both plans of treatment are good, the
most rational mode of proceeding is to combine them.

On Gymnastic Exercises, 333

some observations on the condition of the muscular power and
shape of men who follow different trades, says, " Do not these
afford so many lessons which should be remembered when we
endeavour to restore the shape of children, whose figure or
limbs have become distorted? We ought to consider the
effects caused by using particular classes of muscles, as ex-
amples in favour of such exercises as will strengthen those
muscles which are weakest."

In pursuance of these principles, he recommends a variety
of exercises ; some in the form of games, and such especially
as are calculated to act upon certain muscles, as pulling
weights over wheels fixed in particular situations, &c. But,
although Portal has given us many useful hints, as he has
taken erroneous views of the pathology of distortion, and has
not made correct distinctions between the different cases, his
advice, if followed in every instance, might not only be useless
but even hurtful.

If all the distortions, to which the spine and bones of the
chest are liable, depended on the same cause, and were in
every respect exactly similar, the treatment found beneficial in
one case might be reasonably expected to be good in all. But
there is great variety in the cases of distortion ; the whole
figure may be in the relaxed condition alluded to, or the spine
may be already twisted in consequence of a sponginess and
lengthening of the ligaments, while the muscles are at the
same time in a debilitated state. In either of these cases,
appropriate exercises would quickly restore the figure ; but in
another instance, although the distortion might be apparently
similar, the shape of the bones may be already altered. Ex-
ercises would still be beneficial ; but unless a variety of means
were also used to preserve the bones during the intervals of
exercise in a favourable position, the vertebrae could not regain
their natural forms, on the restoration of which the ultimate
cure depends. It may be a question whether climbing ropes,
&c., are the exercises the best calculated to remedy a curva-
ture of the spine ; but there can be no doubt that their imme-
diate effect is to exhaust the vigour of the muscles by which
the spine should be supported, and also to relax and lengthen

334 Qn Gymnastic Exercises,

the ligaments by which the vertebrsB are held together. Under
these circumstances, little good can be done, if the patient be
allowed to walk or ride, instead of being immediately placed in
a proper position of rest. The apparatus which holds the dif-
ferent parts of the column together being thus relaxed and
weakened, the spine yields to the superincumbent weight, and
hence the individual vertebrae fall still farther out of their right
line*. Patients should, therefore, never go through fatiguing
exercises, unless they can take complete rest afterwards, and
in such positions as would facilitate the growth of the bones
and ligaments in the manner desired. But, in truth, the value
of exercises has been over-rated :— notwithstanding all that
has been said, both in this country and in France, no cures
have been effected in this way; and the issue of many cases
has been such as to prove, that exercises are chiefly useful in
counteracting the debilitating effects of certain other necessary
modes of treatment. AVhen we hear of parents still hoping
that their children will be completely cured merely by going
through certain forms of exercise, we cannot help thinking it
strange, that they should have overlooked the fact that many
persons whose situation in life has doomed them to active and
laborious exercise of the muscles of the limbs and spine,
should continue to be as much or more deformed than weak
and delicate girls. Even some of the watermen on the Thames
continue distorted, although they are constantly engaged in
rowing. But it has been said, that exercises can at least do
no harm in cases of distortion : there is much danger in this
opinion, for the curve may appear to depend merely on weak-

* There is much similarity between the curves of a tree and of the
spine. In both, the first bend is at the lower part, and in each, the upper
part strives to become perpendicular to the base by a series of curves.
These curves of the tree will increase if some artificial support be not
given, and so it is with those of the spine ; we should therefore imitate
the operations of the gardener so far as to prop up the spine, and par-
ticularly after the power of the ligaments and muscles which are the
natural supports has been expended by exercises. But we should not
carry this analogy too far ; for were we constantly to support the curved
spine, the muscles would be rendered useless. It would be an interest-
ing experiment to try whether the wood of a tree, which had been some
time encased in props, was equally dense and strong as one which had
been left to support itself. It would probably be found in a state analo-
gous to that of a bone which had not been used.

On Gymnastic Exercises. 339

ness, when a very important change may have taken place in
the condition of the bones, which a superficial observer may
not discover. Some of the vertebrae may have become anchy-
losed or firmly united by bone. In such a case (which is not
an uncommon one), violent exertions would be of no avail in
restoring the figure, and would be actually dangerous. Exer-
cises have been prescribed in cases even where the surgeon
was aware that anchylosis had taken place, and they have been
prescribed under the idea that where the spine is consolidated
by bone it is stronger than in any other part, and is therefore
in no danger of being broken even by the most violent exertion.
But the opinion, that the spine is strongest where it is anchy-
losed, is founded in ignorance of its structure; for it has been
proved, by various experiments, that the strength of the spine
mainly depends on the elasticity of the peculiar matter by
which the vertebrae are united.

To demonstrate that the spinal column is not strengthened
but weakened by anchylosis, we have only to try the compara-
tive degree of strength in the several parts of a spine where
some of the vertebrae are united together by bone. In such
an experiment we shall find that the anchylosed part is so
weak and brittle, as to be fractured by the slightest jerk, while
it is very difficult to break the column at any part where the
intervertebral cartilages are entire. In further proof of this
fact, there are several fatal instances of fracture recorded,
where the spine was broken at an anchylosed part, by a com-
paratively slight degree of force.

In cases of lateral curvature where the patient has a bad
constitution, it is not unusual for the bones to unite by
anchylosis ; but it is in another set of affections of the spine
that we have chiefly to dread the misapplication of exercises.
When the spine is attacked by scrophulous inflammation,
which often destroys the bodies of two or more of the vertebrae,
the condition of the patient at the commencement of the
disease is such, that the slightest exertion produces great pain
and an attack of fever; of course there can be no exercise
used at this period. But if the patient should recover so far
ajs to be able to walk, there is danger of particular exercises
being recommended to cure the deformity consequent upon

336 On Gymnastic Exercises.

this disease, because they have been found beneficial in other
Cases of distorted spine. It can scarcely be believed that any
person acquainted with the changes which take place in the
bones in such cases, would venture to recommend the trial of
violent exertions to remove the curves ; yet patients, whose
spines had been distorted by disease of the vertebrae, have not
only been obliged to mount ladders and climb ropes, but even
to be suspended and swung by the head for half an hour, three
times a day, under the direction of persons called regular
practitioners. They who advised such means cannot be aware
of the nature of the distortion that produces the hump back, for
they would not intentionally allow a patient to run the risk of
being killed by the slightest slip or accidental jerk*.

There is a set of cases very common in London, in which
certain exercises may be detrimental instead of useful —
when the distortion proceeds from rickets, or is accompanied
by a ricketty affection of the limbs. Although the general
character of the spine in such cases is very similar to that of
the common lateral curvature, there is a very important dif-
ference between them ; and unless exercises be carefully per-
formed, and in a particular manner, the general distortion may
be increased, and especially that of the bones of the pelvis,
from which the most serious consequences may ensue.

There can be little doubt that confounding cases of distortion
from rickets, with those Avhich are independent of this specific
disease of the osseous system, is the cause of the discrepancy
of opinion which has prevailed on the propriety of exercises in
cases of lateral curvature of the spine ; for as long as no proper
distinctions were made between the different causes of distor-
tion, the question of exercise must have been perplexing.
In some instances, certain exercises were evidently beneficial;
while in others, apparently similar, they increased the dis-
tortion.

We think that we have now shown the necessity of every

* The following instance of the fatal issue of a case where the distor-
tion was of that kind called hump-back, is given by a late author. —
** On the 2 1st of October, she was hfted out of bed, and by some acci-
dent fell fi'om the arms of the servant to the ground on her back ; after
screaming, she died in five minutes."

On Gymnastic Exercises. 387

case being fully understood before violent exercises are pro-
posed, and also that, although various exercises may be benefi-
cial in almost every stage of lateral curvature when judiciously
managed, they will be of little avail in restoring the figure, un-
less the bones be kept in proper relation to each other during
the intervals of rest; nor should it be forgotten that the
changes which take place in the form of the individual bones
of the trunk are so gradual and so imperceptible, that an indis-
criminate use of different kinds of exercise may be injurious
even in the simplest case.

Under all these difficulties it may be affirmed, that unless
the exercises are superintended by a person thoroughly ac-
quainted, not only with the natural actions of the several
classes of muscles, but also with the causes of certain changes
in the form, they may be more detrimental than useful. When
there is only a degree of lassitude, and before distortion has
actually taken place, various exercises are safe and useful ; but
when the spine has become in the slightest degree distorted, it
is necessary to pay strict attention to the effects produced by
each kind of exercise, and even when employed merely as the
means of keeping up the tone of the muscles while the patient
is submitting to other plans of treatment.

On the Introduction of Salt as an Agricultural Agent,

In the few years which have elapsed since the late Sir Thomas
Bernard first directed the general attention of the public to the
immense value of salt for agricultural purposes, by the publi-
cation of his " Case of the Salt Duties," its progress has been
almost great enough to satisfy even its warmest advocates;
and although it has lost, in my valued correspondent, and in
the late Samuel Parkes, Esq., two able friends, yet I rejoice to
say that it will soon be in a state no longer to need the autho-
rity of a single name to induce its general employment.

The large and increasing sale of refuse salt to the farmers
demonstrates the interest they have taken in its examination ;
and when we consider that a waggon can convey into the inland
districts, where manure is generally the most valuable, salt

338 On the Introduction of Salt

sufficient for four or five acres, at a charge of twenty shillings,
we must allow that it is at least the cheapest manure in the
possession of the farmer.

In the west of England, more especially, I find that the
demand for agricultural salt has been very great ; and, at the
salt works of Droitwich, has often averaged sixty or seventy
tons per week. The Bath and West of England Society have
hence been induced to offer two prizes of 50/. and 251., for the
most satisfactory instructions founded on experiments on not
less than ten acres of ground, for its correct application.

It will not therefore, perhaps, be a subject unworthy of the
attention of your readers, if I offer a few instructions as to
the best modes of its application, founded on experiments, and
on extensive correspondence with its advocates and opponents
of several years' duration.

And for this purpose, it will be, perhaps, most satisfactory
to the practical farmer, if I state what has been the result of
the application of salt to two of the commonly-cultivated grasses,
as wheat and barley ; and I feel the more inclined to confine
my observations to these two crops, because all my experiments
on these have been confirmed by those of Mr. George Sinclair,
of New Cross, which were conducted at Woburn for a series of
years, with the greatest scientific precision.

All my experiments have shown that salt is best applied to
wheat, when the seed is sown in a proportion of from ten to
twenty bushels per acre : my own experiments have been con-
ducted on a light gravelly soil in Essex, and have invariably
demonstrated a large increased produce of wheat, from such
application, varying from twelve to seventeen bushels per acre.

In the experiments of Mr. Sinclair, conducted on a much
richer soil at Woburn, the good effects of salt manure were
still more striking, and the increased produce much greater ;
but there his experiments being conducted on a very small scale,
will account for the enormous produce he obtained, for in ex-
periments on small plots the produce is generally very large.

In one of his valuable experiments, an application of only
five bushels and a half of salt produced ninety-one bushels of
wheat per acre : while, on the same soil, forty-five tons of
spit manure produced but, forty-five bushe^js of wheat.

as an Agricultural Agent. SM

In my Essay on the Uses of Salt, p. 86, second edition, I
have given the valuable table of experiments conducted by this
gentleman, and I cannot refer to a more copious series of facts.

The use of salt to prevent smut in wheat, by steeping the
seed in its brine, is completely established ; and some experi-
ments which 1 have witnessed tend very strongly to confirm
the assertion of the Cornish farmers, that salt entirely prevent*
the ravages of mildew.

According to Dr. Paris, salt has been applied to agricultural
purposes for a very long period in Cornwall.

For barley, salt should not be applied in a larger proportion
than sixteen bushels per acre, nor in less than ten bushels : on
the light soils, in Great Totham, in Essex, I have always found
that its application has been successful, invariably producing
an increased produce of barley, of from eight to sixteen bushels
per acre ; and in some experiments in which I assisted in
Suffolk with Mr. Ransone, of Sproughton, the increased pro-
duce was twenty-one bushels per acre.

In the experiments of Mr. Sinclair, a soil which produced
twelve bushels of barley per acre, without any manure, pro-
duced, when eleven bushels of salt had been added before the
seed was sown, twenty-eight bushels and a half of barley.

For turnips, mangel wurzel, and other green crops, salt
has been very advantageously applied in the proportion of
from five to fifteen bushels per acre ; especially on the light
soils of the west of England, a few days before the seed was
sown, I find, by a communication with which I was lately
favoured by Sir Thomas Ackland, Bart., that his bailiff has
been very successful in its application.

And in the researches of Mr. Collynsj of Renton, in Devon-
shire, the author of " Ten Minutes Advice on the Use of Salt,''
the same good result was apparent : he- states to me on the
authority of some neighbouring farmers, — '* I have found salt
answer my most sanguine expectations for barley, oats, potatoes,
and turnips, both as to the increased quantity and improved
quality of the crops."

The use of salt as a condiment for cattle, sheep, and horses,
has become very extensive since the repeal of the salt duties t
the sale of the finest salt has more than doubled since their

34() On the Introduction of Salt

removal ; and the greater part of this increase has doubtlessly
been for the purposes of live stock.

The avidity with which animals consume it is very curious :
this is always evinced in a very decisive way when it is given
to them in its pure state ; and if a small portion of a meadow
be well salted, the cattle will always eat it down closer than
any other part of the same field.

This was strikingly shown on a salted portion of the park of
Walter Long, Esq., in Hampshire: the deer, and other live stock,
never left it while a blade of grass remained.

As the avidity with which animals consume salted hay is
not so generally known as it ought, I will state the following fact :

Mr. Green, of Wargrave in Berkshire, having, in the season
of 1824, a large quantity of coarse, sour, rushy hay, entirely
worthless, it was stacked with a large quantity of salt. When
the period arrived that his sheep required a supply of hay, he
directed his shepherd to use the salted inferior hay, which
the sheep consumed with the greatest avidity. The stack
being finished, the shepherd was directed to supply them with
the best hay he could find of other fine meadow hay. He
came, however, the next morning to his master, and made the
following remark : — '' We, sir, must have made a great mistake,
and forgotten which stack we salted ; for our sheep will not eat
the hay which we think the best."

For the general introduction of salt as a condiment for cattle,

the farmer is mainly indebted to Mr. Curwen, the member for

Cumberland, who has employed salt to his live stock, daily, for

yeiirs.

For horses he gives 6 oz. per day.

,, Milch cows 4 ,,

„ Feeding oxen 6 „

„ Yearlings 3 „

„ Calves 1 »>

„ Sheep 2 to 4 oz. per week.

Mr. Sully, of WiveHsscombe in Somersetshire, who has for
some years given his horses two oz. of salt every day in their
food, remarks, '*The two oz. of salt will be found an excellent
stimulus to the horse's stomach, and should, on no account, be
omitted."

To this list I might add the experience of Mr. Wood, of

as an Agricultural Agent, 34t^

Ingatestone in Essex, and a host of others ; but to the unpre-
judiced agriculturist one part will be sufficient.

The successful progress made in the introduction of salt,
for live stock, will encourage its friends to persevere in the
course they have so well begun ; for even the use of salt for
domestic animals, of which hardly a farmer now fails to avail
himself, at least occasionally, even this question has had to
encounter the most profound ignorance in all shapes ; and the
vengeance of the magistrates has been hurled against those who
have used it to improve the condition of the horses entrusted
to their care.

About sixty years since, some honest farmers' servants in
Hampshire were brought before a magistrate at Winchester,
charged by their ignorant master with the horrid crime of
giving his cart-horses salt in their corn. *' I should not have
discovered it," said their master, " had not my horses gro^vn
so faty and their coats become so sleek lately." " Salt for
horses!" exclaimed the wise administrator of the law : "can
any thing be more poisonous ? The villains intended, no doubt,
*to make them full of humours and greese ! Let them be com-
mitted to the Bridewell for a month !"

These men worked for a Mr. Earle of King's Worthy, near
Winchester.

The employment of salt in horticulture has been on a veiy
small scale ; but the experiments hitherto made are decidedly
in its favour.

I am indebted to my brother, Mr. George Johnson, for several
important experiments in the kitchen-garden with salt : they
were made with much care, and I can vouch for their cor-
rectness.

The soil was composed of

Stones and gravel principally siliceous . . . . ^^^1.28 5

Vegetable -fibres 1^1

Soluble matters, principally vegetable extract .... 30

Carbonate of lime and magnesia 18 0

Oxide of iron 4 0

Animal and vegetable matter 10

Alumina 45

Silica 40 0

Loss 1 0

100

342- On the Introduction of Salt

' The following is a statement of the produce of the crops
grown on the soil.

Windsor Beans. reduce in B,«heU

Ex. I. Soil without any manure 135 J

2. Soil dressed with twenty bushels of salt per acre,

a week before seed time 217

Onions,

Tons, cwt, qrs, lbs.

1. Soil manured with twenty bushels of salt, and) 3 lo •? lo

ten tons of farm yard manure j

2. Soil with twelve tons' yard manure , . . . 2 10 2 19

Carrots.

1. Soil with twenty bushels of salt, and twenty ^ 2,3 6 1 18

tons" yard manure .J

2. Soil with twenty tons' yard manure .... 22 18 0 26

3. Soil with twenty bushels of salt 18 2 0 0

4. Soil without any manure 13400

Parsnips.

1. Yard manure twenty tons, salt twenty bushels 6 15 0 0

2. Yard manure twenty tons 61100

Early Potatoes.

Bushels.

1 Soil without any manure 308

2 Soil with twenty bushels of salt 584*

In a communication lately received from Mr. Hogg, an
eminent florist of Paddington, he observes, " from the few
experiments I have tried with salt as a garden manure, I am
fully prepared to bear testimony to its usefulness : the idea that
first suggested itself to my mind arose from contemplating the
successful cultivation of hyacinths in Holland. This root,
though not indigenous to the country, may be said to be com-
pletely naturalized in the neighbourhood of Haerlem, where it
grows luxuriantly in a deep sandy alluvial soil ; yet one great
catise of its free growth I considered was owing to the saline
atmosphere : this induced me to mix salt in the compost, and
I am satisfied that no hyacinths will grow well at a distance
from the sea without it. I am also of opinion that the nu-
merous bulbous tribe of amaryllises, especially those from the
Cape of Good Hope, ixias, alliums, (which include onions,
garlic, shalotjs, &c.)" anemonies, various species of the lily,
antholyza, colchicum, crinum, cyclamens, narcissus, iris, gla-
diolus, rantmCulus, fecilla; and many others, should have either
salt or sea-sajid. in, the mould u§e4fojt{iem«? . . .
* * See Observations on Salt, fourth edition, p. 13.

413 an Agricultural Agent. 343

** I invariably use salt as an ingredient in the compost for
carnations ; a plant which, like wheat, requires a substantial
goil, and all the strength and heat of the summer to bring it
to perfection."

That salt is alike beneficial to all soils, and at all times, is
an assertion too absurd to need refutation : for such an uni-
versal property belongs to no other manure ; even chalk or
lime will not suit all soils. Farmyard manure may be used
without advantage. When chalk is applied to some soil, years
must elapse before its good effects are visible to the farmer ;
" and yet," said the late Lord Erskine, *' chalk, which has
caused to start into life the most inert soils, is just nothing as
a manure, compared with salt."

I am quite willing to admit that salt has been sometimes
employed with detriment to the crop under experiment, and
often without effect ; but these facts must not be taken as de-
cisive proofs of its inutility, even on those soils : for some soils
require it to be applied in the autumn, others in the spring ;
some crops are most benefited by having it applied to the soil
long previous to their insertion, others at that immediate pe-
riod. Neither let any one imagine, because it is beneficial to
light soils, that it cannot be equally so to more tenacious ones :
its moistening powers render the first more fertile, the latter
more friable, and open to every agricultural operation in the
driest seasons.

It is scarcely necessary to add, that no one ought to view the
subject as of small importance. Saying nothing of it in a
scientific point of view, that cannot be unimportant with
which is connected one of the staple manufactures of the
country ; which concerns the cheapest and most portable ma-
nure in the possession of the agriculturist. Let no one think
he can do nothing in furtherance of the research ; the most
ill-directed and unsuccessful experiment serves, at least, as a
warning, a beacon to others — a judicious one especially, when
crowned with success, bears with it the inestimable gratifica-
tion, that a benefit is conferred upon mankind, and the plea*
sure that always accompanies the illustration of truth.

C. W. Johnson.

Great Totham, Essex, June I, 1827.

344 Description of the Kaleidophone

Description of the Kaleidophone, or Phonic Kaleidoscope ; a
new Philosophical Toy, for the Illustration of several In-
teresting and Amusing Acoustical and Optical Phenomena,
[Communicated by Mr. C. Wheatstone.]

The application of the principles of science to ornamental
and amusing purposes contributes, in a great degree, to render
them extensively popular ; for the exhibition of striking expe-
riments induces the observer to investigate their causes with
additional interest, and enables him more permanently to re-
member their effects. I shall not, therefore, need an apology
for presenting the tyro in science with another combination of
philosophy with amusement, in addition to those already
extant.

But this instrument possesses higher claims to attention ; for
it exemplifies an interesting series of natural phenomena, and
renders obvious to the common observer what has hitherto
been confined to the calculations of the mathematician ; it
presents another proof, that how^ever remote from common
observation the operations of nature may be, the most beautiful
order and symmetry prevail through all.

In the property of *' creating beautiful forms," the Kaleido-
phone resembles the celebrated invention of Dr. Brewster,
from which its name is modified ; but to the instrument itself,
and its mode of action, it is almost superfluous to say there is
no similarity. Previously to entering into an explanation of
its construction and effects, the following brief summary may
suffice to give a general idea of the nature of the experiments
it is intended to illustrate.

These experiments principally consist in subjecting to ocular
demonstration the orbits or paths described by the points of
greatest excursion in vibrating rods, which in the most frequent
cases, those of the combinations of different modes of vibra-
tion, assume the most diversified and elegant curvilinear
forms *. The entire track of each orbit is rendered simulta-

* We are indebted to Dr. T. Young for the first observation of these
phenomena ; the following account of his experiments is quoted from
the Philosophical Tramactions for 1800. ** Take one of the lowest

Description of the Kaleidophone,

345

neously visible by causing it to be delineated by a brilliantly
luminous point, and the figure being completed in less time
than the duration of the visual impression, the whole orbit ap-
pears as a continuous line of light. As besides the changes
which result from the combinations of the primitive with the
higher modes of vibration, the figures of the orbits are affected
by the form of the rod, by the extent of the excursions of the
vibrations, by the mode of producing the motions, and by
many other circumstances, a great variety of pleasing and
regular forms is obtained. This variety is also enhanced by
giving the same motions to a number of symmetrically disposed
luminous points, the mutual intersections of the orbits of which
produce innumerable elegant forms ; and the appearances may
be still more variegated by occasionally causing these points to
reflect differently-coloured lights.

The apparatus for exhibiting these experiments consists of a
circular board about nine inches in diameter, into which are

perpendicularly fixed, at equal distances from the circumference
and from each other, three steel rods each about a foot in length,

strings of a square piano-forte, round which a fine silvered wire is wound
in a spiral form ; contract the light of a window, so that when the eye is
placed in a proper position, the image of the light may appear small,
bright, and well defined, on each of the convolutions of the wire. Let
the chord be now made to vibrate, and the luminous point will delineate
its path like a burning ^!oal whirled round, and will present to the eye a
line of light, which, by the assistance of a microscope, may be very ac*
APRIL— JUNE, 1827. 2 A

348 Description of the Kaleidophone,

The first rod is cylindrical, about ].-lOth of an inch in diameter,
and is surmounted by a spherical bead * which concentrates and
reflects the light which falls upon it. The second is a similar rod,
upon the upper extremity of which is placed a plate moving
on a joint, so that its plane may be rendered either horizontal,
oblique, or perpendicular ; this plate is adapted to the reception
of the objects, which consist of beads differently coloured and
arranged on pieces of black card in symmetrical forms. The
third is a four-sided prismatic rod, and a similar plate is at-
tached to its extremity for the reception of the same objects.
Another rod is fixed at the centre of the board ; this is bent to
a right angle, and is furnished with a bead similarly to the first-
mentioned rod. A small nut and screw is fixed to the board
near the lower end of the first rod, in order by pressing upon it
to render occasionally its rigidity unequal. A hammer, softened
by a leather covering, is employed to strike the rods; and a
\dolin-bow is necessary to produce some varieties of effect.

I shall now proceed to describe the different appearances
which the rods present when in action, and to give directions
for the production of the different effects, following the order in
which the rods have been previously mentioned.

curately observed. According to the different ways by which the wire is
put in motion, the form of this path is no less diversified and amusing
than the multifarious forms of the quiescent lines of vibrating <plates
discovered by Professor Chladni ; and it is, indeed, in one respect even
more interesting, as it appears to be more within the reach of mathe-
matical calculation to determine it."

The extremely limited extent of the excursions of a vibrating chord
prevents its motions from being distinctly observed by the naked eye, but
as the rods employed in the present experiments can extend their excur-
sions to nearly two inches, and as the means employed greatly increase
the intensity of the light, the phenomena are exhibited in a far more
evident manner.

♦ The only beads well adapted for this purpose are made of extremely
thin glass silvered on the interior surface, and about one-sixth of an
inch in diameter ; they are to be obtained at the shops under the name of
steel beads. The protuberances at the apertures must be removed or
blackened, otherwise the reflections from them will render the images
confused. To produce the coloured tracks, these beads must be coated
with transparent colours, such as are ordinarily used for painting on
glass ; the light will then be reflected through the coloured surface ; but
in beads made of coloured glass, the reflection being made from the ex-
ternal surface, shows only white light. The bead is cemented into a
small brass cup screwed to the top of the wire.

Description of the Kaleidophotilii

347

No. %, On causing the entire rod to vibrate, so that its
lowest sound be produced ♦, as it is seldom that the motions of
a cylindrical rod can be confined to a plane, the vibrations will
almost always be combined with a circular motion, When the
pressure on the fixed end is exerted on two opposite points,
and the rod put in motion in the direction of the pressure, thq
following progression in the changes of form will be distinctly
observed ; the track will commence as a line, and almost imme-^
diately open into an ellipse, the lesser axis of which will gradvii^
ally extend as the larger axis diminishes, until it becomes B^
circle ; what was before the lesser will then become the larger
axis, and thus the motions will alternate until, from their

* The most simple mode of vibration of a rod vibrating transversely,
when one of its extremities is fixed and the other is free, is that in which
the entire rod makes its vibrations alternately on each side of the axi^,
which is nowhere intersected by the curve, but only touched at the fixed
end. This gives the gravest sound which can be produced fi-om the rod.
In the other modes of vibration, the axis is intersected by the curve 1, 2,
3, or more times. The best means to command the production of these
sounds is to touch a node of vibration hghtly with the finger, and to put
,a vibrating part in motion by a violin-bow. In thje second sound, the
n^^ber of vibrations is to that of the first, as 5 ^ : 2 a, or as 25 : 4 ; the
difference of the sounds is, thei'efore, two octaves and an augmented fifth.
Separating the first sound fi*om the series, the number of the vibrations
of all the others will be to one another as the squares of the numbers 3,
5, 7, 9, &c. ; the third, in which there are three nodes, will therefore
exce«d the second by an octave and an augmented fourth; in the fourth,
the acuteness will be augmented by nearly an octave ; in the fifth, by
nearly a major sixth, &c. To reduce to the same pitch all the propor-
tions of the sounds which such a rod is capable of producing, I shall
regard the sound corresponding with the most simple motion as the C
one octave lower than the lowest of the pianp-forte ; the proportions of
the sounds will then be —

Numbers of nodes . . * .

0

1

2

3

4.^

5

Sounds

C

G#2

D*

D5_

Bbs

F«-H

Numbers, tlie squares of ]
which correspond with v
theae sounds ... . j

(2)

(5)
3

5

7

9

11

The possible series of sounds, regarding the fundamental as unity, will
therefore bo— l, 6i, 17i|, 343'gV 561, &c. ; or expressed in integral num-
bers--36, 225,va25, 1225, 2025> kc.-^CiTLADm, Traitc dAcoustique,
p. 91. v . ^ \

2 A2

348

Description of the Kaleidophone,

decreasing magnitudes, they cease to be visible. In the case
just described the eUipses make a right angle with each other ;
but by altering the direction of the motion, so as to render it
oblique to the direction of the pressure, they may be made to
intersect under any required angle, and when this angle = 0
the motion will be merely vibratory.

Every single sound formed by the subdivisions of the rod will
present similar appearances, but the excursions will be smaller
as the sound is higher, or, which is the same thing, as the
number of the vibrations increases.

In the most simple case of the co-existence of two sounds,
shown by putting the entire rod in motion, and producing also a
higher sound by the friction of a bow ; the original figure will

f n 1

m

Ikscription of the Kaleidophonc, 349

appear waved or indented, and as unity is to the number of
indentations, so will the number of vibrations in the lower
sound be to the number in the higher sound. On varying the
mode of excitation, by striking the rod in different parts and
with different forces, very complicated and beautiful curvilinear
forms may be obtained : some of these are represented by the
opposite figures.

Placing the hand on the lower part of the rod, below the
place at which it is excited, the excursions of the motions will
rapidly decrease and exhibit spiral figures.

To obtain the figures with brilliancy and distinctness, a single
light only should be employed, as that of the sun, a lamp, or a
candle ; rays of light proceeding from several points, as from a
number of candles, or from the reflection of the clouds, occasion
the track to be broad and indistinct ; but double lights may be
employed with effect, provided they be of equal intensity and
symmetrically placed ; each bead will then describe two similar
figures. The appearances, in a bright sunshine, are remarkably
vivid and brilliant.

No. 2. Although very beautiful and varied forms may be
produced from the motion of a single point, yet the compound
figures which are presented by objects, formed by a number of
points, offer appearances still more pleasing to the eye.

An object being placed horizontally on the
plate, and the rod being put in motion, the
mutual intersections of the points, each
describing a similar figure, present to the
eye complicated, yet symmetrical figures,
resembling elegant specimens of engine-
turning.

When the plate is horizontal, the figures are all in one plane,
but if it be inclined or perpendicular, the curves being then
made in parallel planes, gives the idea of a solid figure, and in
some cases the appearances are particularly striking.

Complementary colours alone should be employed in the
objects ; for these harmonising together, give greater pleasure to
the eye than an injudicious combination of discordant tints :
the intensities should be occasionally varied, and colourless light
iiitermingled with the different shades.

850 Description of the Kaleidophone,

No. 3. When this prismatic rod is put in motion, in the
direction of either of its sides, the points move only rectiUneally,
but when the motion is appUed in an obhque direction, a variety
bf compound curves is shown ; this rod is principally employed
to exhibit the optical phenomena, which will be afterwards
mentioned.

No. 4. When a rod is straight, the curve produced by any
point describing its motion, is always in the same plane ; but
in a rod bent to any angle, the two parts moving most frequently
in different directions, curves are produced whose parts do not
lie in the same plane. A few trials will soon indicate the best
way of applying the motion, so as to cause the two parts to
;Vibrate in different directions.

Before the conclusion of this subject, I will avail myself of
the opportunity of observing, that the application of this mode
of experimenting may be extended to the dehneation of every
description of curvilinear and angular motion, when the am-
plitudes of the tracks are not too great ; and by this means, it is
not improbable that the experimental knowledge of many inter-
esting principles in science may be facihtated.

On the Duplication and Multiplication of Objects.

When dark objects are substituted for luminous ones, their
tracks become nearly invisible, and from the longer duration of
the visual impression at the hmits of vibration, the images
are multiplied in proportion to the number of points at which
they are retarded. Place horizontally on the rod No. 2, a
word printed or written on a piece of card ; in the lowest mode
of vibration, at the opposite limits of the excursions, two legible
images of the word will be distinctly seen, and but an indistinct
shade, occasioned by the tracks of the letters, will appear in the
intermediate space : the vibratory motion is imperceptible to the
eye ; the images will, therefore, appear stationary in this respect,
but the diminution of the excursions will cause them to approx-
imate very slowly and gradually towards the centre : this
diminution operates so gradually, as to allow the images to
superpose each other completely at each recurring vibration,
without producing any intermingling or confusion.

On placing the object perpendicularly, the two images will

Description of the Kaleidophone. 351

appear in parallel planes, the furthest image appearing through
the first apparent surface. Small pictures have a singular effect
apphed in this manner.

When other sounds co-exist with the fundamental, the images
are multiplied, but they become fainter as their number increases :
these multiplied images are equally visible, whether the vibra-
tions be rectilineal, elliptical, or circular.

A New Optical Experiment.

As that property of vision which occasions the apparent
duration in the same places of visible images, after the objects
which excite them have changed their positions,* has enabled us
to submit to inspection the phenomena above described, it may
not be irrelevant to subjoin a description of an apparatus which
illustrates the transient duration of the impressions of light in a
very evident manner.

At the back of a Avooden frame, about six inches in height
and breadth, and from one to three inches or more in depth,
a circular plate of glass is placed, upon which a design is painted
with transparent colours ; at the front, is placed, parallel to the
glass, a circle of tin, covered on its exterior surface with white
paper, and having the space between two adjacent radii cut out.
This circle moves freely on its centre round an axis, supported
by a bar in front, and is put into rapid and regular motion by
the application of any mechanical principle proper for the pur-
pose ; and a catch is so placed, that when the motion ceases, the
aperture shall be concealed by the bar which supports the axis.

If a light be placed behind the transparent painting, and
still better if it be concentrated by a lens, on making the circle
revolve with rapidity, the whole of the picture will be rendered
visible at one view, although but very limited portions are
successively presented to the eye.

The intensity will differ in proportion to the excess of the

transmitted light above that which falls in front of the circle ; it

will, therefore, increase the distinctness of the picture, to darken

the latter as much as possible.

* It has l^een proved by the Chevalier d'Arcy, from the only experi-
ments approaching to accuracy which have been made on this sul^'ect,
that the extent of this duration is eight thirds. See his ** Memoire sur la
dur^e de la sensation de la vue : " Hist, de TAcad. An. ] 765.

352

London in 1826, with respect to its present State of Architect
tural Advancement. Read before the Literary and Philo-
sophical Society of Liverpool: Sessions 1826,

Having lately had opportunities of examining the external
aspect of the British Metropolis with much attention and in
great detail, and having compared it with such of the other
European capitals as I have seen, and with the rest, from a
careful inspection of plans, descriptions and drawings, it has
occurred to me that a few observations on the subject would
not be altogether undeserving the attention of this society.

I find it generally admitted that, with respect to architectural
improvement, London has made greater advances since the
late peace, than in the entire century which preceded that
most auspicious event. Public spirit has been more directed
into this channel ; the remission of war has enabled the nation
to devote more expense to such objects; and above all, a taste
for architectural embellishment, both in public buildings and
private dwellings, has accompanied the natural progress of arts
and knowledge in this refined^community. If the career which
has so lately been entered upon should happily not be inter-
rupted by the recurrence of war, a still greater improvement
in this most striking and resplendent of all the arts may be
confidently anticipated.

As the architectural pretensions of London are therefore, in
a very great degree, of a recent date, the subject is not desti-
tute of novelty ; no writer, as far as my knowledge extends,
having as yet published any notices of the British capital in its
present state. The inquiry must be admitted to be interest-
ing, since the vast city, in its actual condition, presents a
spectacle to which the history of ancient and modern civiliza-
tion, in all probability, affords no parallel. Within the limits
of this civilization, there is reason to believe so large a mass of
human beings have never before been congregated on so small
a space of ground. As to the great cities of antiquity, our in-
formation concerning their size and population is too vague, as
well as too scanty, to enable us to speak with any precision
If we are to believe the exaggerations of Herodotus and other

Architecture of the Metropolis, 353

ancient writers, the cities of Nineveh and Babylon were of a
magnitude to which nothing in subsequent ages will bear a com-
parison ; but even if their extent be admitted as described,
the manner in which they were built and inhabited would still
afford grounds for believing that their population did not equal
that of London. The pretensions of ancient Rome are some-
what more plausible. The development, however, of the ruins
of Herculaneum and Pompeii have afforded us an insight into
the comparative density of the inhabitants in ancient and
modem towns, which tends much to abate our estimate of the
eternal city ; so that, rejecting the extravagant notions of
Vossius, Lipsius, and other modern writers, we may, after a
careful comparison of circumstances, suppose with Hume, that
the population of ancient Rome may have reached somewhere
about a million. The other great cities of ancient times, such
as Ephesus, Agrigentum, Syracuse, Antioch, Alexandria, &c.,
need not be mentioned, since no calculation that I have seen
raises their population to a million. With respect to modern
ages, it has been thought by some writers that two or three
cities of China and Japan exceed the limits of the British capi-
tal in size and population ; but in the first place, no accurate
census of these cities has ever been taken, and in the second,
it is believed that a considerable portion of their inhabitants
consists of hordes of Tartars or other migratory tribes ; so that
these places may safely be put out of the question in any
inquiry which respects the cities of the civilized world. Our
information concerning their detail is besides too imperfect to
be made the basis of any observations.

This digression concerning the unexampled magnitude of
our metropolis is not wholly impertinent in estimating its phy-
sical properties as a city. Many of its peculiarities, and some
of its principal defects, arise necessarily from its enormous
extent.

London owes its pre-eminent size to a conjunction of circum-
stances which have never concurred, in any other instance, to
the formation of a great capital : — 1. It is the greatest seaport
in the world; 2. It is the greatest manufacturing city ever
known ; 3. It is the seat of the most opulent government
that ever existed. The first of these assertions admits of no

364 Architecture of- the Metropolis*

dispute. The second seems somewhat more doubtful, because
many other places appear to exhibit a greater mass of manu-
facturing industry ; but in this point we are deceived by the
vast extent of the metropolis, and the consequent diffusion of
its scattered manufacturers. According to a late statement of
Mr. Huskisson, the silk manufacture alone now reaches the
enormous amount of fourteen millions sterling per annum, and
is consequently, after cotton, the greatest staple of the country.
Of this immense fabric, London is the principal seat, and
it nearly engrosses many others of a smaller extent, but yet
forming an immense aggregate when taken collectively, such
as jewellery, plate, porter, books, newspapers, and many others.
Being, then, unquestionably the richest, largest, and most
populous city of Europe ; the seat of a wealthier court, and a
more opulent body of nobility and gentry, than any other metro-
polis ; it seems only a natural and reasonable expectation that
it should likewise excel all others in the number and magnifi-
cence of its public edifices and private dwellings ; in its general
elegancies and accommodations as a city, and in all the appen-
dages and decorations which naturally accompany so manifest
a superiority. But this is very far from being the case, and
our striking deficiencies in these points afford matter for one of
the severest of our national reproaches. An overgrown capital
is essentially a great evil, as it is the natural confluence of the
worst species of misery, corruption, and crime. It brings
together the greatest extremes of luxury and poverty, of rude-
ness and refinement. The natural, though insufficient com-
pensation for these excesses, is sought for in the splendour of
its decorations, and the superiority to which the ornamental arts
of life may there be expected to attain. The art of architec-
ture especially, the only one of the arts which requires great
wealth for its successful prosecution, may there be expected to
rear its head in proud pre-eminence ; but the enlightened tra-
veller, who comes to London with this very justifiable prepos-
session, will find himself miserably disappointed. Till within
the last few years, that most splendid and impressive of all the
arts has been almost wholly neglected, and the extension and
improvement of the capital was left in the hands of sordid
ignorance and barbarous caprice.

Architedure of the Metropolis. 355

^1^60 much for the general view of the subject: I shall now beg
leave to descend to a few more minute particulars.

The great architectural sut)eriority of London, such as it is,
consists in the number, size, and general neatness of its prin-
cipal streets and squares. No other city can boast so great
a number of streets, equal to those of London in length
and breadth, and so uniformly well built. Petersburgh, Berhn,
Naples, Turin, Genoa, Antwerp, Edinburgh, and other places,
have perhaps finer streets than any in London, but in respect
to their number there is no comparison. At present, also, it
may be affirmed, that since the completion of the line of street
extending from Carlton-house to the Regent' s-park, it would
not be easy to find in any other city, even a single street which
greatly exceeds that magnificent range of buildings.

Remarks of a similar kind may be applied to the squares.
If we assent to the critical canons established on this point, that
architectural beauty is constituted by variety amidst uniformity,
and that in every regidar figure the subordinate parts should
bear a certain proportion to each other, it will be found that
every square in London is manifestly imperfect. There is none
that can be com{)ared with the great square of St. Petersburgh,
the Plaee Vendome at Paris, the Place Royale at Brussels, the
Place of St. Marc at Venice, or even with the principal squared
in Edinburgh. Yet, when we consider their number, their spa-
ciousness^ their enclosures, and their general neatness, they
form altogether such an assemblage as no other city can rival.
The new squares, such as Bryanstone, Torrington, Bedford,
Russell^ &c., are tolerably uniform, but they want variety and
architectural decoration in their constituent parts. The old,
such as Grosvenor, Portman, St. James's, &c., have sufficient
variety in parts ; but having neither uniformity nor proportion
in their whole, nor much beauty in their details, their preten-
sions are still less. Fitzroy, Tavistock, Belgrave, and Regent-
squares, if completed on their respective plans, as far as they
are at present developed, will comprise most of the requisites
of a handsome square, though not without considerable faults.

If we descend from these general features, to the individual
mansions which form this stately assemblage of streets and
squai*es, we shall find them, for the most part, utterly beneath

356 Architecture of the Metropolk»

all criticism. An educated foreigner is quite astonished when
shown the residences of our higher nobiUty and gentry in the
British capital. Knowing them to be the wealthiest body in
Europe, and knowing also that England is a country which
pretends to superior refinement and civilization, he naturally
expects to see the city filled with such palaces as the Pitti,
Borghese, Colonna, Barberini, and the other celebrated man-
sions of Genoa, Florence, Naples, and Rome ; or at least such
as the principal hotels, or town residences of Paris, Petersburgh,
or Turin. He has heard speak of some great nobleman, with a
revenue equal to that of a principality. He feels a curiosity to
look at his palace^ and he is shown a plain, common brick house
of forty or fifty feet in extent ! Is it wonderful that he turns
with contempt from such tasteless poverty of spirit, and feels
inclined, like Buonaparte, to pronounce us a nation of shop-
keepers ?

In the capital article of churches, London will probably be
admitted, after Rome, to take the first rank amongst the cities
of Europe. Some few places, as Milan, Strasburgh, York, &c.,
may boast a finer Gothic cathedral than Westminster ; and St.
Paul's must yield the palm to St. Peter's as a Grecian temple;
but no single city can boast two several specimens which rank
so high in their respective departments. In churches of the
secondary order London is also richer than any other city.
Many of these are undoubtedly very handsome ; but the design
for which they are built, that of containing as large a congre-
gation as possible, has created an uniformity of structure very
wearisome to the eye. They consist mostly of a plain, oblong
building, with a tall and slender steeple at one end, surmount-
ed by a spire, and supported by a bold and handsome Corin-
thian or Ionic portico or peristyle ; but the remainder of the
church being generally destitute of all architectural ornament,
a striking appearance of incongruity obtrudes itself on the
spectator. This is greatly relieved when, as in the fine church
of St. Martin' s-in-the-fields, the body of the church is sustained
by semi-columns or pilasters, and their proper entablature ; but
this is seldom attempted. The new church in Langham-place
has a beautiful portico in the form of a hexastyle; and, though
that structure is liable to much censure, yet the attempt at variety

Architecture of the Metropolis, 357

which appears throughout the whole design is spirited and
laludable.

In respect to palaces, which is also an important department
in the architecture of a great city, Ix)ndon is confessedly ex-
celled by almost every other capital in Europe, both in public
and private edifices of this description ; of the former, White-
hall, Carlton-house, and the Mansion-house, comprize the
whole list of buildings any way entitled to the appellation of
palaces, and even their title has often been thought disputa-
ble. The first of these three, considering the smallness of its
dimensions, is eminently chaste and beautiful ; and the two
latter, though they have been much ridiculed by travellers, are
not destitute of grandeur. In respect to the private mansions
of our grandees, the deficiency, as noticed already, is still more
deplorable. Here, indeed, is the great and glaring opprobrium
of London, considered as the wealthiest city in Europe. ITiere
are scarcely half a dozen houses that would strike a stranger
as fit for the residence of a British nobleman of 100,000 or
150,000^. a year. Of these, the principal are Burlington-house,
Piccadilly ; Lansdown-house, in Berkeley-square ; Northumber-
land-house, Charing-cross ; and Earl Spencer's, in the Green-
park ; and even of these four, the two first are shut up by hideous
brick walls from the public eye. It might be expected, as a
matter of course, that the British capital should contain at
least five hundred houses of this description. In defence,
however, of the British aristocracy, it may be urged, that it is
more consonant to the national taste, and more conducive to
the general decoration of the country, that they should reserve
their suJ)erfluous wealth, and their architectural pride, for their
family residences in the country. This feeling is, no doubt,
highly commendable, and it has covered the land with a profu-
sion of rural palaces such as no other nation can boast, and
which give to many districts of the island the air of a continu-
ous park or ornamented country. In addition to this, it may
be alleged, that the limits of the metropolis itself are hardly
capable of admitting any very great congregation of capital
mansions. The immense size of London is already attended
with great inconvepiences and serious evils; but this extent
would be enormously increased, if rows of palaces like those

358 ATchitecture of the Metropolis,

of Genoa and Berlin were included in its circumference. As
almost all the higher nobility and gentry have a house in the
papital, and as the number of our opulent families is far beyond
that of any country that ever existed, it seems necessary that
the bulk of them should be satisfied with ordinary dweUings,
such as those which constitute the principal streets of the west.
It is this necessity which in some degree justifies, though it did
not originally produce, the comparative meanness of the great
family residences of London.

But after allowing the utmost weight to these considerations,
still enough remains in the general aspect of London to excite
surprise and regret in the mind of every one who feels any
anxiety for the honour of the country, or the progress of the
liberal arts. The prime nobility of the land, at least, might
be expected to feel the generous ambition of distinguishing
their families, and of decorating the metropolis of their coun-
try by town-residences worthy of their name and wealth.
Many of their present dwellings occupy as much space, and
have required nearly as much expense, as though they had
been models of the finest Grecian architecture, instead of the
tasteless edifices that now fill the interminable lines of the
west of London with tiresome uniformity. Can any thing, for
example, be more disgraceful to the noble house of Cavendish
and its princely revenues, than the factory- looking building
called Devonshire-house, which fills a space large enough for a
Genoese or Roman palace ? and this disgrace is rendered
more apparent by its juxta-position to that fine mansion Bur-
lington-house, almost the only town-residence which is really
fit for a British nobleman. The same remark will apply to
Norfolk-house, Chesterfield-house, the Marquis of Stafford's,
Marlborough-house, and many others. Nor is it a little sur-
prising that none of our great commercial men are seized with
the architectural ardour which, in the middle ages, inspired
the merchants of Venice, Genoa, and Florence, and urged
them to ornament their respective cities in a way which has
proved a perennial source of celebrity and wealth. It is not
less singular that the British capital should not catch the
spirit of emulation from the sister-capital of Scotland, which
contains but few nobility or opulent gentry, aiid scarcely any

Architecture of the Metropolis, 859

great merchants or manufactures, and which, nevertheless, in
the opinion of many travellers, is actually the finest city in
modern Europe. >'

:. We come next to the article of bridges; and in this parti-
cular, it must be admitted that no city in Europe can pretend
to any competition with London. No other great capital is
indeed so favourably situated in this respect, bisected as it is
by a broad and deep river which bears on its current a greater
commerce than any yet known in the annals of mankind. The
Seine at Paris is very complete in its bridges, both as to qua-
lity and number ; but the narrowness of the river is a bar to
all magnificence. The bridge over the Garonne at Bordeaux
is, perhaps, of greater extent, and that over the Elbe at Dres-
den is more finely ornamented than any in London, but no
single city can show five such bridges as those of Westminster,
Waterloo, Blackfriars, Southwark and London.
. In its general public buildings, under which may be included
^very public edifice not comprehended under the heads of
churches, palaces, or bridges, London, considering its vast ex-
tent, is certainly not pre-eminent, though it is by no means
so strikingly deficient as some have supposed. It is a great
disadvantage to the English metropolis, that its principal edi-
fices are scattered over such a vast extent of surface, that
they present an appearance of paucity much beyond the
reality. The Custom-house, the New Post-office, the Mint,
the Royal Exchange, the Bank, Somerset-house, the New
Treasury, the Opera-house, and many others that need not be
enumerated, would form a magnificent assemblage, if they were
grouped nearly together, and could be viewed with little inter-
mission of space and lime. The two national hospitals of
Greenwich and Chelsea may also be considered as belonging
to London, and they form a noble appendage to its catalogue of
public edifices. Greenwich hospital may, perhaps, be pro-
nounced, without exception, the finest profane building (using
that term in contradistinction to sacred) in modern Europe;
and that of Chelsea, though deformed by the barbarous mixture
of stone and brick which was so much in fashion in the earlier
paxt of the seventeenth century, has an air of sedate grandeur
which is very inipressive.

360 Architecture of the Metropolis.

The architectural spirit which has arisen in London since
the late peace, and ramified from thence to every city and
town of the empire, will present an era in our domestic history.
The new erections in Regent-street and its appendages, in
Pall-Mall, the Hay-market, and, above all, in the Regent's
Park, discover the dawning of a new and better taste, which,
though very far from the perfection to which we have a right
to aspire, is yet, in comparison with that which preceded it, a
just subject of national exultation. Regent's Park, and its
circumjacent buildings, promise, in a few years, to afford some-
thing like an equipoise to the boasted Palace-groupe of Paris.
If the plan already acted upon is steadily pursued, it will pre-
sent an union of rural and architectural bea\ity on a scale of
greater magnificence than can be found in any other place.
The variety is here in the detached groups, and not as formerly
in the individual dwellings, by which all unity and grandeur of
effect was, of course, annihilated. These groups, undoubtedly,
will not always bear the eye of a severe critic, but altogether
they exhibit, perhaps, as much beauty as can easily be intro-
duced into a collection of dwelling-houses of moderate size.
Great care has been taken to give something of a classical air
to every composition ; and with this object, the deformity of
door-cases has been in most cases excluded, and the entrances
made from behind. The Doric and Ionic orders have been
chiefly employed ; but the Corinthian, and even the Tuscan,
are occasionally introduced. One of these groups is finished
with domes ; but this is an attempt at magnificence which, on
so small a scale, is not deserving of imitation.

The four parks of London ought not be omitted in any
enumeration of its superior advantages. They form an unique
and splendid appendage to the metropolis, such as no other
city can boast ; and, though not equal to the gardens of the
Luxembourg and the Tuileries in minute beauty, and in con-
venience of access, are far beyond them in all the great requi-
sites of a place of public recreation. The four new gateways
to Hyde-Park, just completed, will form a beautiful improve-
ment. Those who wish to be convinced of the fine effect
which Doric architecture is capable of producing, even on a
small scale, have only to inspect these edifices, where the finest

Architecture of the Metropolis. 3*61

forms of elegance and grandeur are exhibited in a size of struc-
ture that in vulgar hands would have been considered as insig-
nificant.

Such is my estimate, according to the best judgment I have
been able to form, of the architectural pretensions of the
British metropolis. In extenuation of its innumerable defects
and deformities, it may be urged that London, as well as most
of the old capitals of Europe, having arisen from small begin-
nings, and mostly in beu-barous times, were built as chance or
caprice directed, without taste or f)lan, and without any ambi-
tion of architectural distinction : hence the greatest part of
each of them is old, irregular, mean and confined ; abound-
ing in narrow streets, crooked lanes, and ungraceful appen-
dages. Such is especially the case with London, Paris,
Vienna, Naples, Amsterdam, Madrid, Lisbon, Milan, Moscow,
and several others. Most of them, also, having been designed
for fortified places, it became necessary to be sparing of ground,
and to crowd the inhabitants into the smallest possible space.
St. Petersburgh is the only one of the capitals of Europe which
has been built in modern ages and on an integral and precon-
certed plan. It had likewise the singular good fortune of be-
ing erected under the auspices of an arbitrary and enlightened
monarcli, in whose view private inconveniences were as nothing,
and general effect was the sole consideration. These feli-
citous circumstances have not produced all the advantages
which might have been expected, but still the city of St.
Petersburgh, as a whole, is very superior to any of the rest.
Similar advantages have been enjoyed, in a smaller degree, by
a few others of the European capitals, as Turin, Carlsruhe,
Stockholm, Copenhagen, Berlin, Dublin, and Edinburgh; but
these are only cities of the second and third rate. It is much
to be lamented that the fire of London did not happen under
the reign of George IV. Under the influence of modern
taste the whole city would have risen from her ashes with a
splendour and magnitude which would have astonished the
world, and attracted the curious traveller from the remotest
regions. She is now too old and unwieldy to expect any
effectual cure of her complicated maladies, but her constitution
is in a source of gradual improvement. The passion for archi-.

APEIL— JUNE, 1287. 2 B

362 On the Doctrine of

tectural decoration has happily acquired all the dominant
power of fashion, so that no extensive plan of building is now
undertaken, in any principal part of the town, withoat some
regard to external appearance. If this sudden fashion should
happily not pass away with other ephemeral caprices, we may
expect, in the course of a few years, to see the time arrive
when an Englishman need not feel a sense of shame whilst
conducting a stranger through the capital of his country.

De Plantarum, prcesertim Crypto gamicaruin. Transitu et
Analogid, Commentatio. Autore Theophilo Gulielrao
Bischoff. 8vo. Heidelberg. 1825.

The author of this work is one of a modern school of natu-
ralists who maintain that all nature is divisible by some de-
finite number, and that the many schemes that have been in-
vented for classing natural beings, with a view to discovering
the mutual relation which they bear to each other, must be
tried by their conformity to this fact, which thus becomes
the '' lapis Lydius" of natural history.

We believe that these ideas, in modern times at least, ori-
ginated with Dr. Oken, professor of natural philosophy at
Jena, who, in his Lehrbuch der Naturfhilosophie, published
in 1809-10, after dividing plants into two great divisions,
viz. Cellular es and Vasculares, finally declares, that, for
physiological reasons, the number four is that to which all the
divisions of the vegetable kingdom are reducible. As the
opinions of Oken are little known in Great Britain, and as
they evidently form the basis of subsequent similar botanical
speculations, we shall preface the remarks we may have to
make upon Mr. Bischolf's treatise, with a brief exposition of
Oken's theory, which we entreat our readers to consider as
seriously as it deserves.

According to this author, legitimate principles of the clas-
sification of plants can be derived from no other source than
a consideration of physiological structure ; or, as he expresses
it, ** of the organs of the anatomical system." Considered
in this view, vegetation divides, firstly, into plants, of which
the substance consists wholly of parenchyma (^cellular es)\ and,
secondly, into those provided with woody fibre in addition
(vasculares). Of these, the cellulares are developed under
the form of root, leaves, stems, and fruit ; but the vasculares
exhibit one higher degree of evolution, in- the flower. Naw,

Numerical Divisions in Nature. 363

as the peculiar characteristic of the cellulares is their fructi-
fication, and as the peculiarity of the fructification is its wo-
manhood {weibliche geschlechte)i it follows that the cellulares
are female plants; and, as the peculiar characteristic of the
vasculares is their flower, and of the flower its manhood
(jn'dnnliche gcschlechte), it is equally clear that vasculares
are to be considered male plants. But further, as the idiea
of sexuality depends upon a double essence (zweiheit), an
organ which is only of the female gender cannot be rightly
considered of any sex whatever, wherefore the cellulares, or
female plants, are asexual ; and as it is a known natural
phenomenon that no male organs exist in plants without
female ones, it is a necessary conclusion that vasculares,
or males, are in fact the only plants which can be called
sexual. Whence we arrive at the deduction that the
kingdom of vegetation is divided into two regions: 1. That
of asexuality ; 2, That of sexuality.

Our investigation being brought to this point, the next
thing to consider is in what way the particular develope-
ment of each of these is manifested externally. This the
Professor finds to depend, firstly, on the root, which is inde-
pendent of the operation of light; and, secondly, on the
stem, leaves, and flowers, which are acted upon continually
by the operation of light.

Now, as these are the four most important organs of
plants, Oken declares that they must necessarily constitute
the basis of classification ; and as those plants which do not
depend upon thd action of light are asexual, while those that do
depend upon it are sexual; and as there is 07ie kind of influence
apparent in the former, namely, that of the root, and three in
the latter, namely, that of the stem, leaves, and flower, we
are led to the inevitable inference that the natural divisions
of plants SLvefour, viz. :

1. Kool-^hLiiis (Wurzelpflanzen),

2. Stem-plants (Stengelpjlanzen),

3. Leaf-plants {Laubpjlanzen),

4. Flower-plants {Blumenpjianzen) :

of these the root-plants answer to Acotyledones ; the stem-
plants to Monocotyledones ; the leaf-plants to Dicoiyledones
apetalcs; and the flower-plants to Dicoiyledones monopetake
and polypetaltp.

Each of these forms a circle, which, in its turn, is affected
by the four above-named physiological influences, whence
every circle is divided into four others, which are, in their
turn, again sab-divided upon the -same principle.

2 B 2

364 On the Doctrine of

Such were Oken's notions in 1810; his more recent works
have not fallen in our way, but we believe they still remain
essentially the same. They seem to have been founded upon
Goethe's opinions respecting vegetable metamorphosis, and
to be, in fact, an attempt to apply the ideas of that most
original thinker to the purposes of systematical arrangement,
or rather, perhaps, to reduce the practical arrangements
already existing to his own peculiar method.

It was naturally to be expected that a doctrine so abstruse,
and even unintelligible as this, would be slow in making pro-
gress in the world; accordingly we find, that for a long
time, it excited attention in no other countries than Germany
and Sweden. In the former, the well-known work upon
Fungi, by Nees von Esenbeck, may be cited as an example ;
and in the latter, the writings of Fries. The publication of
Nees, however, applies to a very limited portion of botany,
and differs materially in many respects from the principles
propounded by Oken, while the writings of Fries may be
said to be in some degree an adaptation of them. It is ex-
tremely difficult, however, to comprehend the manner in
which this author views the subject, and to ascertain whether
he adopts the theory of Oken, that the number four is the
necessary consequence of the predisposition of vegetation
to develope itself under four different forms, or whether he
merely determines that four is really a number into which the
lower orders of vegetation are distributable.

A few years since, an English zoologist, of high reputa-
tion, during his investigation of the natural affinities of in-
sects, also arrived — without any acquaintance with the works
of the above-named authors — at the conclusion that there is
some certain number that prevails in nature ; but the number
upon which he fixed was five, not four. It is needless to
add, that this naturalist was Mr. W. S. Macleay. This
doctrine would, perhaps, in less skilful hands, have found but
few followers ; but, supported by the talent and practical
knowledge of its author, it has been adopted, either wholly
or in part, by a considerable number of the zoologists of
this kingdom. It seems to us that this supposed discovery
was not the consequence of any preconceived ideas, nor the
result of any opinion of the necessary existence of some de-
finite number like that of Oken, or perhaps of Fries ; but
that its claim to credit rests upon an ascertained certainty of
the existence of this ultimate fact, which is not to be ac-
counted for by any known law. If this view of the subject
be correct, the credibility of the system must depend, not so

Numerical Divisions in Nature. 365

much upon abstract reasoning, as upon the force of evidence
and assertion by which it is supported ; for no reason is as-
signed by Mr. Macleay, at least, for the prevalence of one
number rather than of another, if there be by Professor
Oken.

It is necessary here to observe, that one of the most efficient
means which has been employed to support these opinions,
both in tliis country and abroad, forms the subject of the
work at the head of this article ; namely, the distinction be-
tween the affinities and analogies of animated beings. Since
much of the evidence which has been adduced in favour of
the doctrines in question depends upon a due understanding
of the ideas expressed by these two words, it is proper that
their respective value should be attached to each. It is assumed
that the first systematic division of which beings are sus-
ceptible is into two series, agreeing with each other in
general circumstances, and being, in analog^/, the component
parts of each series according in particulars and being
in affinity with each other. The relations of analogy are
ideally represented by two lines running parallel with each
other; and those of affinity, which Mr. Bischoff calls tran-
sition, by circles connected with each other in inextricable
entanglement. Such is the distinction attached to these
terms by those writers who use them : how far such ideas
may be vague, or susceptible of strict application, may not
perhaps be quite so evident. As we presume that, however
mystically they may be explained, their plain meaning is,
that analogy signifies remote affinity, and affinity, immediate
analogy, it does seem to us, that cases must be con-
tinually occurring in which the terms are convertible, and
that their value must be altogether influenced by contingent
circumstances. Thus, for example, the genera Berberis and
Bocagea are, we presume, in analogy if considered with
reference to Berberideae, and Anonaceae, but in affinity if
viewed as a part of Thalamiflorae ; so again Aroideae and Aris-
tolochiae, are in analogy with respect to Monocotyledones
and Dicotyledones, but in affinity as to Vasculares. Such,
however, is the distinction upon which much of the truth
of numerical divisions in nature depends ; but that we may
not intentionally misrepresent the matter, we will give a
definition from Mr. Fries.

*' Jffinia igitur sunt quae in eadem serie sequuntur, et in
se invicem transire videntur. Haec in ulterioribus con-
gruunt, sed in citerioribus rationibus differunt. Analoga
autem dicimus quae in diversis seriebus locis parallelis posita
sunt et sibi invicem correspondent. Syst, myc. 1. xvi."

366 On the Doctrine of

Having prefaced thus much, we may proceed to a con-
sideration of the value of the systematical opinions in ques-
tion. The three heads under which they can be most use-
fully examined are, 1. As to their practical accordance
with nature. 2. As to their accordance with each other.
3. As to the external evidence by which they are supported,
independently of the classification of tlieir authors.

As to their practical accordance with nature, it is worthy
of remark, that the botanists who have adopted O ken's
ideas, have confined the application of them to the lowest
forms only of vegetation. Of these plants the structure
is so extremely simple, consisting only of cellules in
various states of juxtaposition, that it is not to be doubted
that they may be adapted to almost any system that can
be invented. The arrangement of their moleculse is be-
lieved by some to be influenced in a high degree by the
four elements ; hence it is possible that their tribes may
be particularly well fitted for falling into a quaternary
distribution. This opinion seems to be that which led
Nees to the application of a quaternary arrangement to
Fungi. But if it be admitted, that, for certain physi-
cal reasons, a division by four may possibly exist among
the simplest forms of vegetation, it does not necessarily
follow, that plants of a higher degree of evolution are
subject to the same law. Indeed Fries liimself seems to be
of this opinion, when he says, *' in superioribus sphgeris ob
organa plura major (numerus) admittendus quam in inferi-
oribus. Plant, homon. 21." He may therefore be sup-
posed to have adopted Oken's system only partially, and
in its general principles, and not with the intention of ap-
plying it to particulars.

With respect to the system of the latter writer, as his
plan is applied to the whole kingdom of vegetation, and as
his ideas, with whatever peculiarity they may be expressed,
are not to be misunderstood, they present a fairer mark for
criticism. We have seen that, to obtain his four divisions,
he sets out with the assumption that the four degrees in
which four different parts of plants, viz. the root, stem,
leaves and flower, are respectively developed, necessarily
form the basis of any philosophical system ; for to be phi-
losophical it must depend upon the immutable workings of
nature as developed in generals, not in particulars, which
he finds to depend upon the four parts in question. Now
this doctrine arises out of certain abstract ideas of vege-
tation which prevail extensively among the philosophers of

Numerical Divisions in Nature. 887

Germany, but which we believe we do not err in stating
to be wholly unknown here. Oken and his followers main-
tain that a plant is to be considered as organized water,
with two poles, one of which is directed to the heavens or
light, the other to the earth, with a strong preponderance to-
wards the latter ; one pole being telluric, the other celestial.
The elements of this organized water, they say, are two, cel-
lular and vascular, both acted upon, not only by the po-
larity of the individual they constitute, but also by the
influence of water and light. The root and stems they
understand to depend upon a telluric agency, to be the
same in essence but different in station, the root being a
stem under the influence of water and earth, and the stem
a root under the influence of light and air, and the leaves
and flowers to depend upon a celestial agency, to be also
essentially the same, but modified by circumstances, the leaf
being specifically influenced by air, the flower by light.
It is these opinions which have given rise to Oken's mode
of arrangement in fours, which does not appear to have
been considered even by himself reducible to practice,
but rather a speculative view of the mutual relations of
vegetable bodies. To show, however, by one example,
that whether we understand the intentions of the author
rightly or not, his method is, in fact, with regard to the
characters he builds it upon, wholly at variance with nature,
and totally inapplicable to practice, we will take his defi-
nition of stefn-plants., which answer to monocotyledones, and
see what it is worth. In stem-plants, he says, the leaves
and flowers are kept back, a flower can be seldom found
perfect in both its calyx and corolla, and the vascular ^stem
is but imperfectly communicated to the leaves. {Lehrb,
1507.) The leaves being kept back, that is to say, im-
perfectly formed, evolved or developed, is the first propo-
sition. What ! is the wide-spreading coma of the Palm
and Banana, or the dense herbage of the Grass tribe, or the
rigid foliage of Pandaneae and Bromeliaceae, all stem-plants,
and most numerous in their kinds, are these instances of
imperfectly developed leaves? To the leaves of some of
the palm tribe it is well-known that those of no other
plants can be compared for excessive developement. But,
says Mr. Bischoff, these are not leaves at all, they are
*' expansiones tantum foliaceae ipsius trunci substantiae ha-
benda " — mere foliaceous dilatations of the trunk, analogous
only to vhe true leaves of leaf-plants and flower-plants, but
by no means to be confounded with them, as has indeed been

368 On the Doctrine of

declared by Oken himself, who calls the foliage of his stem-
plants blatt, while he distinguishes other leaves by the name
of laub. Unfortunately, however, the difference which
these gentlemen suppose to exist between leaves and leafy
dilatations absolutely amount to nothing. Undoubtedly
there is an apparently different distribution of the veins of
the Matt and the laub, those of the former running in nearly
parallel lines from the base to the apex of the lamina.^ while
those of the latter have a reticulated appearance ; but this
seeming difference depends upon nothing more than the
angle at which what Mr. Lindley calls vencB primarioi
diverge from the axis of the leaf, and is accompanied by
no physiological distinctions. The function, insertion, and
whole economy of the leaves of the stem-plants are, as far
as we know, identical with those of other leaves, and besides,
this peculiar mode of formation is not confined to them, but
exists equally in Melastomacece. But, says Mr. Bischoff,
the leaves of the stem-plants form one mass with the trunk,
and are not separated from it by any articulation. This
is false in fact, — the leaves of both Orchideae and Cycadeae
being articulated with their stem. What then becomes
of the first characteristic of this kingdom of Professor
Oken ? The flower is also said to be kept back ; the
flower of the Liliaceae, and Amaryllideae the most fully
developed in all nature, to be imperfectly evolved ; those
of Palms, the mass of which frequently weighs an hun-
dred weight, to be kept back. Surely nothing need be
said upon this point. As to the supposed amalgamation
of the calyx and corolla, if true, this would form no
ground of distinction, for plenty of instances of the same
kind are to be found in other plants ; we are told, however,
that the flowers of stem-plants are only analogous to those
of other vegetables. The last proposition we have to con-
sider is, that the vascular system is but imperfectly commu-
nicated to the leaves. As this is a repetition of the first
proposition in another form, we might dispense with dwell-
ing upon it, if it did not seem to show yet further the utter
worthlessness of Oken's whole definition of stem-plants.
It is said that the vascular system is but imperfectly com-
municated to their leaves ; and yet it is remarkable enough
that it is the abundance and perfection of this very vascular
system in these plants that gives tenacity to the leaves of
various grasses ; that supplies the coarse cordage obtained in
the tropics from certain Palms ; that forms those beautiful
handkerchiefs, emulating the finest muslin, which are manu-

Numerical Divisions in Nature, 369

factured from the Musa textilis ; and, not to multiply ex-
amples, where examples abound, it is this same vascular
system which, according to Oken, should scarcely be found
in his stem-plants, that has rendered the flax-plant of New
Zealand an object in some degree of national importance.

Such are the grounds upon which this much-extolled qua-
ternary system of plants has been founded by its author.
Such IS the basis of that system of Fries, to which Mr.
Macleay has appealed in support of his own quinary
doctrines.

With regard to the opinions of Mr. Macleay, as they
have not been applied in botany, they ought not, perhaps,
to be criticised in this place, but they are too closely con-
nected with this subject to be omitted entirely. Mr. Mac-
leay has confined his system of quinary divisions to zoology,
and of its applicability to that science we cannot pretend to
form a judgment ; but with botany we may be permitted to
express our opinion that it has no relation. It has been ad-
mitted that it would be difficult to invent a system which,
in skilful hands, might not be applied to the lower orders of
plants ; our remark, therefore, refers to vegetation in its ex-
tended sense ; and this being understood, we know of no
one fact in botany which tends, even remotely, to invalidate
this opinion. So much space has been already occupied
with this subject, that we want room for more extended argu-
ments ; there is one point, however, in which Mr. Macleay
has called botany to his aid, upon which we must remark.
In the Horae Entomologicae, — we have not the work at hand,
and speak from memory, — it is asserted that there is a direct
analogy in nature between the vertebrata and annulosa of
animals, and the dicotyledones and monocotyledones of
plants, the former of each having their skeleton in their
axis, the latter of each having their skeleton in their cir-
cumference. This is altogether an error ; no such analogy
exists. It is true that there is a material difference in the
structure of the stem of monocotyledones and dicotyledones,
but not of the nature assumed. The skeleton of dicotyle-
dones, by which of course the woody fibre is intended, is
not central like that of vertebrata, but intermediate between
two bodies of parenchyma, or flesh, by which it is also tra-
versed in rays : here, then, there exists no analogy. The
skeleton of monocotyledones is not external like that of
annulosa, but consists, figuratively speaking, of an infinite
number of bones, which branch upwards through the flesh,
which is always external. Here also is no analogy. The

370 On the Doctrine of

supposed analogy between animals and vegetables is, there-
fore, as far as Mr. Macleay's system is concerned, an ab-
solute fallacy. That of Professor Agardh we will quote,
and leave our readers to form their own opinions of the
analogies discovered by it. Dicotyledones, this ingenious
botanist discovers to be analogous to mammiferae ; monoco-
tyledones to birds ; ferns and mosses to amphibia ; and the
lowest orders of vegetation to fishes !

With respect to the accordance of the various opinions
that exist in nature, reducible to some definite number, it is
scarcely possible that any systems can be more discor-
dant. We have seen that Oken and Fries maintain the
number four ; Mr. Macleay, who is followed by several
experienced naturalists, contends for the number ^z;^; Mr.
Kirby, whose extensive knowledge of Mr. Macleay's own
ground cannot be disputed, seems to incline to the number
seven ; while Mr. Virey is said to prefer the number three ;
to say nothing of those who think a binary or dichotonous
mode of division is the true one, thus dignifying the com-
monest principles of analysis with the name of system. Mr.
Macleay, indeed, attempts to reconcile his ideas with those
of Fries, by assuming that the latter really used a quinary
mode of arrangement under the semblance of a quaternary
system ; but this Mr. Fries, in a recent work, expressly de-
nies, disclaiming all disposition to attach cabalistical virtues
to any number whatever. Indeed, without such a dis-
claimer, it is evident, after what we have seen of Oken's
system, upon which Fries certainly builds, that it is quite
impossible that the number five could have entered into his
contemplation.

Of the external evidence by which these systems are
supported, we have little necessity, and less space to treat.
Professor Agardh, who evidently leans to the opinion of
Oken, is obliged to confess {Syst. Alg. xii.) that he cannot
reduce the Algae, his own peculiar tribe, to four divisions,
and that, on the contrary, six is the number to which he
finds these plants reducible. So through the whole of his
Aphorisms, and even his latest work, the Classes Plantarum, it
is obvious that he finds it impossible to divide vegetation by
any certain number whatever. Mr. Macleay's reliance
upon the system of Fries, in support of his notions of qui-
nary divisions, we have already seen to be unsupported ; so
is his appeal to De Candolle. That botanist has, indeed,
established five principal tribes of Cruciferae, the number of
which, by the way, is already altered by the discovery of

Numerical Divisioris in Nature. 371

Schizope talon, but division by five goes no further even in that
order ; and it is a remarkable fact, that in all the other parts
of the volume in which the supposed coincidence with Mr.
Macleay's views are found, there is no other case in which
any tendency to a quinary division is discoverable. In Ber-
berideae the genera are six ; in Podophylleae the tribes two,
and the genera five ; in Nymphaeaceae, the tribes two and the
genera four ; in Papaveraceae, the genera nine ; and in Fu-
mariacefe, the genera are six. In his first cohort of Thala-
miflorae, the orders are eight, and in the second they are
four ; thus telling in favour of Oken rather than Macleay.

But to conclude : we hope that what has been here said
will be viewed with no feelings of asperity, but as the legi-
timate reasonings of fair and temperate criticism. If we
cannot agree with the naturalists whose opinions we have
discussed, it is not from any want of a due sense of their
scientific attainments, for we have the highest respect for all
of them, but from a sincere desire ourselves to steer clear
of delusion, however brilliant it may be, and to guard the
world from its influence by such means as we may chance to
possess.

Note on the Chemical Composition of two Liquids lately pro-
posed as Disinfectants of great power ; and on the action of
those Liquids on put lid Animal Matter. By A. B. Gran-
ville, M.D., F.R.S., &€., Physician in ordinary to His
Royal Highness the Duke of Clarence.

[Read before the Royal Society, February 20, 1827.]

A CHEMTCO-MEDICAL discovcry, which bids fair to prove of the
highest service to society, has for some time engaged the public
attention in France, and is now making its way into this
country. It consists in an improved method proposed by
Mons. Labarraque, a Pharmacien, residing in Paris, of dis-
infecting air in which putrid animal effluvia are difiiised, by
means of chlorine, in a liquid form, instead of the troublesome
and inconvenient process recommended by the late Guyton de
Morveau, of evolving that gas in the dry state, from a mixture
6f manganese, marine salt, and sulphuric acid.

Mons. Labarraque's improved method consists in employ-
ing either ^ solution of the bleaching powder (the old oxy-

372 On Chemical Dishifectanta.

muriate of lime) in water ; or a solution of crystallized car-
bonate of soda, likewise in water, into which a large propor-
tion of chlorine has been introduced. He seems to prefer, and
I think with justice, the latter preparation, although he has
employed both with nearly an equal success.

The numerous and important applications that have been
made of these two liquids in France, for the last three years,
deserve the most earnest attention. By their aid, the putrefac-
tion of dead bodies, though far advanced, has been effectually
arrested ; and the preservation, for a considerable length of
time, of dead bodies that had not yet undergone the putrid
fermentation, has been easily accomplished. The purification
of the tainted air in hospital wards, prisons, workhouses, laza-
rettos, ships, sick-chambers, closets, sewers, wells, drains,
stables, and manufactories in which animal substances in a
state of putrefaction are used, has been effected by the liquids
in question, in the most satisfactory manner ; and not only with
greater ease, but in a much shorter period of time than by any
other method previously employed. Subsequent experiments
have shown that these liquids may also be used with great
advantage . in arresting mortification or gangrene in the living
body ; and, it is probable, that further applications of the utmost
interest may shortly be published.

In the hands of the physician, whose duties call him to the
bed-side of patients labouring under infectious or contagious
disorders ; in those of the anatomist, whose pathological in-
quiries expose him to much risk and inconvenience, or who is
eager to preserve free from putrefaction the objects of his re-
search ; to the magistrate who has the salubrity of large and
crowded communities intrusted to his vigilance, — the disinfect-
ing liquids have already been of the most essential service,
accomplishing their respective objects with a success that no
other method previously devised had ever ensured.

These are facts that rest no longer on the mere dictum of a
single individual. They are attested by hundreds of persons,
and are held as indisputable. The repeated experiments which
I have had occasion to institute respecting many of those facts
have only served to corroborate them ; and the result is, that
the disinfecting liquids are now generally employed on the

On Chemical Disinfectants. 373

Continent for all the purposes just enumerated, under the
immediate auspices of government ; and it is to be hoped that
they will also become equally known, and as extensively used,
in this country.

Hitherto, however, the manner in which the discovery has
been noticed or explained in England, has tended more to
retard its progress, than to make it familiar to the public.
Added to the natural difficulty of rendering correctly into
English the chemical names of the French author, there have
been still greater difficulties raised by adopting, as equivalent
in English, denominations which have a very different import.
The original fault lies with the discoverer, — the subsequent
ones with his commentators and translators.

Mons. Labarraque assumes that when chloride of lime
{chlorure de chaux of the French) is dissolved in water, and
in that state kept for use, the integrant composition of that
salt remains ever the same. Hence, to his first disinfectant he
has given the name o{ solution of chloride of lime. Induced,
most probably, by considerations of some pretended analogy,
Mons. Labarraque takes it for granted that when chlorine is in-
troduced into a solution of carbonate of soda, a chloride of soda
(or as he calls it a chlorure d' oxide de sodium) is formed,
and nothing else ; and for this reason he has applied the latter
denomination to his second disinfecting liquid.

Nowhere has Mons. Labarraque made it appear, that he had
taken steps to ascertain, by actual analysis, how far his views were
correct in either, but more especially in the latter case ; and it
is somewhat surprising, that notwithstanding the total absence
of such evidence, ever}^ one who has had occasion to speak of,
use, or report on the remarkable properties of the two liquids
in question, as well in France as in England, has implicitly
adopted Labarraque's names, and with them, of course, his
theoretical notions respecting their chemical composition.

Attracted by the importance of the applications of Labar-
raque's liquids, I was led some months ago to examine how far
his theoretical views were correct.

With regard to the composition of the first of the disinfecting
liquids, said to contain chloride of lime, it is not my intention
to speak at length. That subject has been well and properly

374 On Chemical Disinfectants.

discussed, more than once, by some of the first chemists of the
age ; and there can be no doubt, that, after a while, no such
thing as a simple chloride of lime is to be found in the water
in which that compound has been dissolved ; but that other
salts are formed from its decomposition and probable action
on the water, and that, therefore, the name given to this dis-
infecting liquid, by Mons. Labarraque is, to say the least,
exceptionable.

My object, in the present paper, is to prove by analysis, that
the secondj and by far the most important, of the disinfecting
liquids does not contain a chloride of the oxide of sodium, as
advanced by the French author, and that, consequently, the
name he has given to that liquid is inaccurate.

This, however, is not the only purport of my present com-
munication to the Royal Society. Having had occasion, for
the last fifteen months, to use very extensively the disinfecting
liquid of soda, I have been able to ascertain certain facts which
seem to have escaped the attention of the discoverer, as well as
of his commentators, and which I cannot but consider as of the
utmost importance in the history of Labarraque' s discovery ;
inasmuch as those facts afford the only satisfactory explanation
of the modus operandi of that liquid in destroying animal putre-
faction ; bring to light new compounds ; suggest a method of
detecting and fixing putrid animal efiluvia existing in the air,
applicable in times of infectious disease ; and, lastly, must lead
to the adoption of less troublesome and cheaper modes of pre-
paring the disinfecting liquid. These facts it is my intention to
submit to the Royal Society.

That a chloride of oxide of sodium was prima facie not to be
expected in Labarraque' s second liquid, was to be presumed
on two grounds ; first, because the existence of that compound
is still considered as problematical, by the majority of the lead-
ing chemists, especially when so large a quantity of soda is
present in the solution, as in this case ; and secondly, because
mere reflection on what takes place during the process of
preparing the disinfecting liquid of soda, according to the
author's own formula, suggests the improbabihty of such a com-
pound being formed.

But as both these grounds of doubt might be looked upon as

On Chemical Disinfectants. 375

subjects of mere controversy, I undertook to settle the question
by actual experiments, both analytical and synthetical : using,
for that purpose, the disinfecting liquid of soda prepared
agreeably to the directions of the French author in the following
manner : —

Twenty fluid ounces of distilled water containing each 437.5
grains, were made to dissolve one-fourth of their weight of pure
crystallized carbonate of soda, and chlorine gas was passed into
tJie liquor to a complete saturation of the latter.
. This is the so-called solution of chloride of oxide of sodium
of Mons. Labarraque, his commentators, and translators ; and
possesses, to an eminent degree, all the disinfecting properties
first ascertained by that gentleman.

This liquid has a specific gravity = 1.064, and contains
572.66 cubic inches of chlorine gas. It is of a bright pale
yellowish colour, perfectly transparent, smelling moderately of
chlorine gas, having a very pungent taste, and producing cough
and constriction of the throat when swallowed undiluted. Being
put into bottles, immediately after its being prepared, it effer-
vesces rapidly for a short time on removing the stopper. This
phenomenon is not readily observed during cold weather, and
although it be owing to the escape of some of the chlorine gas,
with a very minute portion of carbonic gas, that had lurked
behind during the operation of preparing the liquid, it does not
seem to influence, in any sensible manner, the properties of the
fiquid.

Chemical Composition of the Liquid,

A. The twenty ounces of liquid just described were evapo-
rated to dryness, on a sand-bath, at a temperature often
exceeding a little that of boiling water; towards the end,
chlorine gas escaped, and continued to do so until almost all
moisture had disappeared. The dry residuum weighed 725
grains : its appearance was that of a perfectly white salt, amor-
phous, granular, each minute grain as distinctly separate from
the other as in fine dry sand, neither efflorescent nor sensibly
deliquescent. It has a marked taste of muriate of soda, with a
peculiar, but shght degree of pungency, reminding one of the
taste and smell of chlorine, but quickly vanishing, and leaving
behind the simple taste of common salt.

370 On Chemical Disinfectants,

B. One hundred grains of the saline residuum A. were dis-
solved in distilled water. The liquid was transparent and
colourless, having the same degree of taste of marine salt
which the dry residuum had, and being slightly styptic. Its
specific gravity was found to be =1.054. It contained no
carbonates, emitted no smell of chlorine, and had lost all dis-
infecting as well as discolouring properties.

Treated with nitrate of silver, it gave a copious precipitate
of muriate of silver, which, when filtered, washed, and dried,
weighed 180 grains, corresponding to 73.53 of muriate of soda,
or chloride of sodium. The precipitate, by another experiment,
was ascertained to be soluble in ammonia.

The nature of the solid contents remaining in the solution
after this part of the analysis, might properly have been
inferred to be chlorate of soda ; since it is known, according to
Thenard and others, that chloric acid is formed, whenever a
solution of an alcali is placed in contact with chlorine. But,
in order to prove that such was the case in reality, the filtered
liquid was slowly evaporated, and by two successive crystalliza-
tions the nitrate of soda was separated, leaving a salt which,
when dried, weighed 26.47 grains, and presented every indica-
tion of being a neutral chlorate of soda.

Another experiment was made to confirm this conclusion.

C. One hundred grains of A. were repeatedly digested, agree-
ably ta Chenevix's process, in strong alcohol. By this means,
the muriate was separated from the chlorate, and the latter
obtained in a comparative state of purity.

D. To obtain a still greater degree of accuracy in the above
results, a fresh solution of 100 grains of A. in water was pre-
pared, and afterwards decomposed by sulphate of silver, which
gave the same proportion of the muriate, or chloride of sodium,
above stated. The sulphuric acid was got rid of by barytes ;
and the remaining salt presented, as before, the character of
chlorate of soda.

By another experiment, the latter salt was decomposed, and
the whole converted into a chloride of sodium. For this pur-
pose : —

E. A stream of ignited gas, under a pressure of ten inches of
water, was directed on a small portion of the mixed salt A., on

^On Chemical Disinfectants. 377

a platina disc. The flame of the hydrogen became enlarged
to about four times its natural volume. It gave a most bril-
liant and vivid light, which had a bright yellow colour, like that
of chromate of lead. The combustion was accompanied by a
whizzing and decrepitating noise. Water was formed, and the
residuum was fused, and tasted like very pure rock salt ; and
was, in fact, dry chloride of sodium.

A synthetical experiment was now made, in order not to
leave the smallest vestige of doubt on the subject.

F. — 73.53 grains of muriate of soda, perfectly dry, and 26.47
grains of chlorate of soda, carefully prepared, were dissolved
in distilled water. The liquid was found to be similar, in
every respect, to that obtained and analysed in experiment B.
It had the same specific gravity, and when submitted to the
like agents, it gave , precisely the same results. It possessed
neither disinfecting nor decolorizing properties.

From these experiments, it follows, that not only does the
liquid of Mons. Labarraque, which we are considering, con-
tain 710 chloride of oxide of sodium ; but also that the pre
sence of the salts of chlorine which it really contains is insuf-
ficient to produce those singular results on animal effluvia,
and vegetable colours, which render the liquid itself so valu-
able; and it further appears that those singular results must
be due to some principle which is lost during the evaporation
of the liquid.

That the principle in question must be chlorine is quite evi-
dent ; and therefore it is to the agency of that uncombined
principle alone, that the properties of the disinfecting liquid of
soda are to be attributed, and not to the presumed existence
of a chloride of oxide of sodium in it.

To prove this position, the following experiment was made..
G. — A fresh portion of the dry residuum A., amounting to 145
grains, was dissolved in four ounces of distilled water. This
liquid was found, as already observed, without efiect, either
on putrid animal effluvia or on vegetable colours. 13.86 cubic
inches of chlorine gas (being double the volume of the water)
were now introduced at the common temperature of 50'' of
Fahr. ; when all the peculiar properties of Labarraque's dis-
infecting liquid in its original state were immediately produced.

APRIL — JUNE, 1827. 2 C

37S On Chemical Disinfectants.

The same results followed when the same quantity of chlorine
gas was introduced into a like quantity of the artificial mix-
ture of muriate and chlorate of soda mentioned in experi-
ment F.

Now, unless it can be proved by equally clear experiments,
that the introduction of chlorine into a solution which con-
tains a muriate and a chlorate of soda converts both salts into
a chloride of an oxide ; or, in other words, unless it can be
shown that an excess of chlorine in such a liquid, holding a
muriate and a chlorate of soda in solution, as demonstrated
by the preceding analytical and synthetical experiments, de-
composes the two salts in question, and setting their acid
free, seizes on their oxydized bases to form the pretended
chloride of an oxide, the conclusion we must arrive at from
the present inquiry is inevitable ; namely, that the disinfecting
liquid of soda of Mons. Labarraque is not what he considers
it to be, but a mixture of

Chloride of sodium • . 73,53 grains
Chlorate of soda . . 26.47 grains

100.00
with an excess of chlorine.

Or in 20 oz. avoirdupois of the liquids,

Chloride of sodium . 533.09 grains
Chlorate of soda . 191.91 grains

with free chlorine equal to 69.30 cubic inches.

That such must be the constitution of this liquid, is made
further manifest by the application of the atomic doctrine to
the experimental process followed in preparing it.

Five atoms of oxygen whichc can only proceed from so
many atoms of soda, are required to form chloric acid ; for
which purpose they combine with one volume of chlorine.
The result is an integrant atom of the acid, which can only
combine with one atom of soda to form the chlorate. On the
other hand, the five atoms of sodium, deprived of their oxy-
gen, combine with as many atoms of chlorine, and form five
integrant atoms of chloride of sodium. Unless we have re-
course to the decomposition of water, it is impossible that any
other combination or arrangement than the one just stated can
result from the action of chlorine on soda in this case.

On Chemical Disinfectants, 379

Now, if we take the weight of the five atoms of sodium to
be (according to Dr. Thomson) = 15 and that of five
atoms of chlorine to be . = 22.50

The resulting chloride of sodium r= 37.50

while the weight of five atoms of oxygen, and that of one

atom of chlorine to form chloric acid = 9.5

And the one atom of soda to be . = 4

The neutral chlorate will be . = 13.50

Hence we find by the atomic theory, the results given by
actual experiments to correspond, with singular precision, with
the theoretical numbers : for 37.50 is to 13.50 as 73.53 is to
26.47, the respective weights of the chloride of sodium and
chlorate of soda in 100 grains found by actual analysis.

Another striking proof of the precision of that analysis, is
derived from the consideration of the prodigious quantity of
chlorine which enters into the composition of this disinfecting
liquid.

One hundred grains of the mixed salt constituted, as shown
by the preceding experiments and atomic proportions, contain
52.94 grains of chlorine, corresponding to 69.43 cubic inches
of that gas ; consequently, as 725 grains of that mixed salt
were obtained from twenty ounces of Labarraque's liquid, ac-
cording to experiment A., it follows that 503.36 cubic inches
of chlorine must have been absoi^bed to form them.

But, as 572.66 cubic inches of that gas were actually
thrown into the twenty ounces of liquid ; the difference can
only be accounted for by supposing that some of the gas was
held in a free state in the solution ; and it is curious to remark
that the difference in question (amounting to 69.30 cubic
inches) is precisely double the bulk of the water employed in
preparing the liquid, — a fact which, while it agrees perfectly
with the received notion of the absorbing power of water with re-
spect to chlorine, serves, at the same time, to confirm that notion.

Now, the 503.36 cubic inches of chlorine employed to form
the 725 grains of the mixed chloride of sodium and chlorate
of $oda in the twenty ounces of liquid, weigh, according to
Dr. Thomson's tables, 383.815 grains, while the soda so em-
ployed, according to the atomic theory, weighs 341.185 grains.

2C 2

380. On Chemical Disinfectants.

Hence we have here, as before observed, a third beautiful
confirmation of the correctness, numerical as well as expe-
rimental, of the present analysis. For

Weight of chlorine = 383.815

That of soda . =341.185

Total = 725.000 = equal to the
weight of the solid contents in the liquid ; in which the bulk
of the chlorine gas to that of the water is as 16 to 1 exactly.

It may, perhaps, appear to the members of the Royal Society
that I have attached rather too much importance to this sub-
ject by carrying my analytical inquiries to such a length : but
when it is considered that the individual to whose ingenuity we
are indebted for the application of the liquid examined (an
application which we may boldly predict will, in a short time,
acquire great popularity, while its value will be generally ac-
knowledged) sent it forth to the world without one word of
illustration or explanation as to the physical and chemical
characters of that agent, — nay, coupled it with erroneous
notions respecting its composition and chemical nature,- — I
hope to find an excuse for my prolixity in supplying those
deficiencies, and thus counteracting the mischief they are al-
ready working in this country^ by threatening, at this moment,
to put an end to the discovery altogether, owing to the mis-
takes promulgated respecting it. One short example will
better illustrate my position than any argument 1 might em-
ploy for that purpose.

The valuable properties of Labarraque's liquid having,
through the means of the press, become extensively known,
and those properties having been ascribed, by the same press,
to a supposed chloride of oxide of sodium dissolved in water,
demands have been sent, from various parts of the country and
the metropolis, to Mr. Garden, an operative chemist (whom I
have employed to prepare several gallons of the liquid for my
use, and on whose accuracy I can depend), for large quantities
of the solid contents of the liquid, as more conveniently
transportable. What the result of the trials must be, which
will be made with these solid contents, it is easy to foresee,
when we consider that, by the experiments detailed in this

On Chemical Disinfectants, 381

paper, it is proved that those soHd contents are totally destitute
in themselves of the valuable disinfecting and decolouring pro-
perties belonging to the liquid, and of which the persons making
the demand are in search. Nay, it is a fact, that since the
notice which has been taken in this country of Labarraque's
liquid, through the public journals, a person has actually for-
warded to London the pretended chloride of oxide of sodium
in a diy state, so cheap as to undersell the metropolitan che-
mists ; and that certain medical students, and others who used
it, in full expectation of witnessing the striking and immediate
results belonging to Labarraque's liquid were sorely mortified
at the failure which attended their trials, and actually insist
on proclaiming that gentleman's discovery to be an imposition.

This was to be expected, as the free chlorine contained in
the liquid is the only disinfecting principle belonging to it,
as has been already stated in the course of this paper. But,
in order that the Society may judge with what justice it has
been so asserted, I may probably be permitted to relate, shortly,
two, out of several, comparative experiments which I instituted
in order to prove that fact ; and with them I shall conclude
my present communication.

Some portions of muscles, and a quantity of membranes,
were placed (July 26, 1826) in water, and under circumstances
the most favourable for putrefaction. In a few days, the smell
emitted from the deep jar into which they had been put was
so strong that it was perceived long before entering the room.
On stirring the water, the stench became insupportable, and
the whole room was so soon and so thoroughly impregnated
with it, that it was scarcely tenantable. I took out some of
the muscles and membranes, which I found in an advanced
state of putrefaction. I plunged them into some of the disin-
fecting liquid of soda diluted with four times its bulk of water,
when they instantly lost their offensive smell, and, when applied
close to the nostrils, gave out merely the odour of chlorine in a
faint degree, and that of sound animal fat.

A second portion of the putrid muscles was similarly treated
with a watery solution of the solid contents of the disinfecting
liquid obtained by evaporation ; but no change took place, and
the putrid smell continued undiminished. Two measures of

382 On Chemical Disinfectants,

chlorine gas were now introduced into the inert solution, and
the same animal substances replunged into it afterwards, when
all effluvia of putridity immediately vanished.

As a further corroboration of this curious fact, which, though
completely overlooked by Labarraque, and all those who fol-^
lowed him, is, nevertheless, the main spring of the discovery, I
tried the effect of distilled water holding in solution two measures
of chlorine alone, when precisely the same disinfecting results
took place on the putrid animal matter employed that had been
observed in the first experiment ; with this difference, however,
that during the operation the escape of the chlorine gas was so
considerable as to become insupportable to the bystanders and
myself, producing cough, difficulty of respiration, and head-ache.

This difference in the mode of acting on the part of chlorine,
placed under apparently similar circumstances, is curious, and
requires explanation. What that difference depends on — what
is the modus operandi of the disinfecting liquids on putrid
animal matter — what the compounds are which are formed in
consequence of that action — and how that action may be made
available for the analysis of infected air ; — lastly, what new and
easier processes might be devised to obtain so valuable an
agent, are points of great importance, which, after a laborious
inquiry, I have succeeded in ascertaining, but which I must
reserve for a future communication.

In the meanwhile, I think myself entitled to recommend the
abolishing of the incorrect name applied to the liquid under
consideration, by the discoverer ; and to propose that of " Dis-
infecting liquid of Soda" instead; or, when prescribing in
Latin, a denomination that shall record the name of the in-
ventor, such as " Liquor liabarraquii chloro-sodaicus."

Extract of a Letter from Captain Sabine to Professor Renwickt
of Columbia College, New York, respecting the Report on
the subject of the Weights and Measures of the State of
New York, printed in our last number,

** In consequence of my absence from England, I did not see
your report on the subject of the weights and measures of New
York, as you intended I should have done, before its publican
tion in the last number of the Institution Journal.

Letter from Capt Sabine to Professor Renwick, 383

" I am still, however, in sufficient time to transmit you the
accompanying correction of the length of the pendulum de-
termined by me at New York, so as to arrive before the meet-
ing in September of the Commissioners for revising the laws
of the state of New York ; when your report, recommending a
reference to that determination, as the means of identifying and
defining the standard of linear measure of the state of New
York, is to come under consideration.

** The correction arises from the value of the divisions of the
level of the small repeating circle, which I employed in ascer-
taining the rate of the clock during the experiments at New
York, having been found on examination to be ten seconds^
instead of single seconds as I had supposed them by the engrav-
ing on the scale. The observations detailed in the Memoir to
which you have referred have in consequence been recalcu-
lated ; and the following table exhibits both the former and the
corrected results.

Interval.

No. of
Days.

Chronometer's Loss on mean 1
Solar Time. |

Pen. Exp. p. 127.

Recalculated.

Sun,W.ofMeridian..i
Sun E. of Mer

Dec. 22 to Jan. 2
„ 22 „ 3
„ 23 „ 2
„ 23 „ 3
» 24 „ 2
» 22 „ 2
„ 23 „ 2

„ 23 „ 3

» 24 „ 2
» 24 „ 2
„ 24 ,. 2

11
12
10
11
9
11
10

11

9
9
9

2,61
2,59
2,76

2,72
2,59
2,59
2,67

2,59

2,50
2,59
2,59

2,60
2,75
2,64
2,79
2,79
2,57
2,76

2,76

2,50
2,59
2,59

« Lyne, W. of Mer

Riffel E. of Mer

^ lE-ofMer....

Sinus... J

By the dis- ^ f No. I
appearance >< No. 2
of Stars... J LNo.3

Mean ; Chronometer's loss per Diem...

2,62

2,67 sec.

" Whence it appears that the chronometer, and with it the
clock and the pendulums, the rates of which were gained by
comparison with the chronometer, were going five hundredths
of a second in twenty-four hours slower than they were

384 Letter from Capt. Sabine to Professor RenwicJc,

esteemed to have gone in the account of the penduhim experi-
ments : and the number of vibrations in a vacuum, in twenty-
four hours of mean solar time, at a temperature of 62°, should
be of pendulum No. three 86113,14 instead of 86113,19, and
of pendulum No. four 86122,73 instead of 86122,78, as given
in the 9th column of page 236 of the Pendulum Experiments.

" An accidental error of far greater magnitude has occurred
in the summary of the results in the same page, in taking
86118,48 instead of 86117,98, as the mean of the above
numbers, representing the vibrations strictly comparative with
the number 86159,79 at London. This error does not exist
in the separate account which I drew up of the experiments
at New York, and which is published in the transactions of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of that city*.

*' The number of vibrations at New York strictly comparative
with 86159,79 at London, including the small correction for
the level, is then 86117,94 ; and the length of the seconds' pen-
dulum, in the room at Columbia College in which the experi-
ments were made, 39,10107, presuming the length in Mr.
Browne's house in London to be 39,13908 inches.

" The height above the sea of the room in which the experi-
ments were made at New York being 67 feet, this length would
require to be increased 00025, in order to obtain the length of
the pendulum vibrating seconds at the level of the sea, pre-
suming the reduction to be proportional to the squares of the
distances from the earth's centre. The discussion of Dr. Young
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1819, had, however,
shown that this proportion can be in no case just, requiring
always to be diminished by a co-efficient, varying in regard to
the form and density of the materials composing the elevation
on which the experiments were made ; and the reasoning of

* " A similar error occurs in the same summary, in taking the mean
of the vibrations of the two pendulums at Hammerfest, 86216,09 and
86225,83, and which ought to have been 86220,96 instead of 86221,46 ;
and the resulting pendulum 39,19468 instead of 39,19512. I mention
this, because they are the only errors of consequence to correct, that
have yet come to my knowledge in the account of my pendulum experi-
ments, and I will beg you to do me the favour of correcting them in the
copies in the libraries of Columbia College, and of the Literary and
Philosophical Society ; with one other, with respect to the Magnetic Dip
at Ascension, p. 474, which is printed South, when it should be North."

Letter from Capt Sabine to Professor RenwicJc. 385

Dr. Young has been recently confirmed by the experiments
of Professor Carlini on Mont Cenis. The amount of the co-
efficient, and consequently the value of the addition to be made
to the length of the pendulum determined by the experiments,
in order to reduce it to what might be supposed to correspond
to a pendulum vibrating seconds at the level of the sea, cannot
be otherwise in the present state of our knowledge than a
quantity arbitrarily assumed ; and it would, therefore, appear
to me preferable for the purposes mentioned in your report, to
take the pendulum of the place of observation, being the direct
result of experiment, in place of the pendulum at the level of
the sea, and thus to avoid the introduction of an arbitrary,
and therefore questionable, reduction.

" Should this view, on this particular point, meet your con-
currence, the commencement of the second provision in your
proposed legislative enactment would run thus — (Journal of the
Institution, new series, No. I., pp. 114, 115) — * That the unit
of lineal measure shall be the yard, as used in this State at the
date of the declaration of its independence ; and that for its
more precise definition, and in order to its recovery in case of
loss, it is declared (until the measure of the pendulum shall
be transferred to some appropriate public building,) that the
said yard has been found, by experiments made with a pendu-
lum with a brass rod at Columbia College, New York, to bear
to the pendulum of that place, vibrating seconds in vacuo, at
the temperature of melting ice, the proportion of one million
(1,000,000), to one million, eighty-six thousand, one hundred
and forty-one (1,086,141).'

" It is worthy of remark, that the acceleration between New
York and London, 41,85 seconds, which I trust is finally cor-
rected, is within one hundredth of a second of 41,84 seconds,
the number originally communicated in the spring of 1823 to
the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York, as the
result of my experiments, and printed as such in the volume of
their Transactions. It is almost unnecessary that I should
notice, that a difference of one hundredth of a second in
twenty-four hours is not a significant quantity in the proposed
legislative proportion of 1,000,000 to 1,086,141."

386 Further Observations on the

Further Observations on the Use of the Gelatin of Bones as an
Article of Food; addressed more particularly to the Friends
of the Greeks. By Charles de Gimbernat.

I CANNOT but feel anxious that a process which was successfully
acted upon in the year 1814, with a view to furnish subsistence
to the garrison and inhabitants of Strasburg, should now be
revived and acted upon to a much greater extent, on behalf of
the intrepid defenders of Greece. The Philhellenes have done
much towards supplying the military and financial necessities of
that country ; they have sent arms, officers, engineers, artillery-
men, surgeons, artisans, and money, but the most pressing want
of all is, I fear, still very imperfectly provided for. Missolonghi,
after an obstinate resistance, fell by famine ; and of the fortresses
that remain, not one, perhaps, is victualled to stand a protracted
siege. Nor is the want of a sufficient supply of food, by any
means, confined to the fortresses : the probability is, that dearth
will soon become general throughout the country. Wars for
independence are always of long duration. If left to themselves,
there is little reason to suppose that the Turks will be able,
within any assignable period of time, to bring back the Greeks
to their allegiance, or consent to recognise their independence.
Whether the great powers of Europe will interfere is doubtful;
and still more doubtful is it in what manner that interference will
be exerted, and with what success. In whatever way we con-
sider this subject, the conclusion to which we must infallibly
arrive is, that dearth and the diseases incident to dearth, will,
for a considerable time, prevail in every part of Greece, unless
provisions are sent there from foreign countries. For these,
the Greeks must trust, in a great degree, to the sympathy and
benevolence of the several Philhellenic societies. Now, the
funds of these societies must, in the nature of things, be limited
and precarious. It is essential, therefore, that they should
economise their means to the utmost; that the relief first admi-
nistered should be directed to meet those wants which are the
most urgent ; and that it should reach these people for whose
benefit it is intended ; and consequently, be little liable to mis-
application by those subordinate agents through whose hands it
must pass. Under this impression, I respectfully submit to these

Use of the Gelatin of Bones, Wtt

committees, that they cannot make better use of a portion, at
least, of the funds, placed at their disposal, than by preparing
and dealing out to the Greeks the food which it is the object of
this paper to bring under their notice ; of all descriptions of food
that can be sent to them, the most wholesome, the most
nutritive, the most economical, the most portable, and the most
easy to preserve.

The process of extracting gelatin from bones was resorted to
for the relief of the poor, during the scarcity of 1816 and 1817,
both at Geneva and at Munich.

In London, and many parts of England, bones fetch a high
price, being used as manure ; they are also used in refining
sugar, and making sal volatile. At Paris, the price is as high as
eight francs per cwt. In the greater part of Europe, however,
they are thrown away as good for nothing. What I propose,
therefore, is that the Philhellenic committees should make it
their business to obtain an abundant and regular supply of this
material, from all the great maritime towns, where they may be
had, for the most part, for the mere cost of collecting. What
an immense quantity might not be collected from the consump-
tion of meat at Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hamburgh, Antwerp,
Marseilles, Genoa, Leghorn, Naples, Cadiz, Lisbon, &c., if
depots were established in those cities. The extraction of the
gelatin might either take place on the spot, or the bones might
be transmitted to a common depot — say any one of the Ionian
Islands. There are several reasons why Greece itself would
not be a proper situation for such an establishment. I sent to
Greece, some tune since, instructions for conducting the process,
but no notice was taken of them . A people unused to manu-
factures and the operations of chemistry are not likely to direct
their attention to such subjects amid the din of arms, and in
the presence of an invading enemy. Greece cannot supply so
large a quantity of bones as would be wanted, nor has she at
hand the acid necessary to decompose them. Though the
process is exceedingly simple, yet it would meet with obstacles,
and be liable to fall into discredit if conducted by inexperienced
hands.

I do not mean that the bones would require to be subjected
to any very strict examination before they were used. Bones

388 Further Observations on the

of animals which have perished by disease, afford a gelatin as
little noxious as if it had been extracted from the bones of those
which were killed in full health. The observations of M.
Seguin, Dr. Halli, and Dr. Orfila, have established the fact
that a substance which has passed through solution, in hydro-
chloric acid, is not only free from infection, but acts as an
antidote to it. So thoroughly am I convinced of the truth of
this position, that I should not scruple to eat gelatin procured
by the chemical method, when the animal, from which the
bones were taken, had, to my knowledge, died of a contagious
disorder. This antiseptic property is, by no means, unimportant
in an article intended for camps and barracks in a country in
which fever is extremely frequent.

The average quantity of bone in animals, is in proportion to
flesh as one to five. The average quantity of gelatin obtained
from bones, by the chemical process, is thirty per cent.

According to registers kept at the Prefecture at Paris, the
mean weight of an ox is six hundred and sixty pounds ; hence
its bones may be said to weigh one hundred and thirty-two
pounds, and to yield forty pounds of dry gelatin.

In 1822, the number of horned cattle sold at Smithfield
market, was 1,682,190. The weight of butchers' meat con-
sumed in London is 171,251,196 lbs. per annum ; which yields
34,250,238 lbs. of bone, and 10,275,070 lbs. of gelatin.

The weight of butchers' meat consumed in Paris is 83,474,
432 lbs. per annum ; which yields 16,694,886 lbs. of bone, and
5,008,464 lbs. of gelatin.

These calculations, however vague, will give some idea of
the immense quantity of nutritious matter which is at present
either wasted or made use of for other purposes than that
of supporting human life. In these calculations above stated,
those animals only are comprehended which are killed at the
slaughter-house : to these, however, ought to be added all those
which die a natural death ; nor ought we to consider butchers'
meat alone. The bones of pork, game, poultry, &c., ought to
be taken into account also ; and these, it is estimated, are equal
to a fifth of the bones of horned cattle. I dare not speak of
horse-bones, though gelatin made from these would, probably,
be found as good as any other. There can be no doubt that

Use of the Gelatin of Bones, 389

ten or twelve establishments of the kind I recommend might be
conducted at little expense, and would furnish provisions to the
whole of Greece.

Fresh meat will not keep in hot or close weather, and salted
meat is apt, after some time, to engender scorbutic disorders.
For this reason, Parmentier proposed that cakes of gelatin
should be given to armies on the march, so that sick and
wounded might not be left to starve. Mons. Proust highly
approves this recommendation. What beverage, says he, can
be more invigorating than a couple of cakes of gelatin soaked
in wine ? The most exquisite combinations of cookery are in-
vented for the spoiled children of fortune ; and shall nothing be
done in the commissariat for the poor soldier who bleeds in the
service of his country, and is exposed to the greatest sufferings ?
Grovernments ought, at once, to adopt the suggestion, for they
buy articles of the best quality, at the lowest price, and would
lose nothing by its adoption. However, it was found that the
article, as then prepared, was too costly to be introduced into
armies ; gelatin made of meat, with bones, cost from 10s. to
13s. 4d per pound ; of meat, without the bones, from I6s. Sd.
to 20*. per pound.

Gelatin made, by the chemical process, of bones only, costs
at Paris, at present, two shillings per pound, but ought not to
cost more than fifteen-pence or twenty-pence at the utmost.

The substance extracted from bones contains in an equal
bulk more nourishment than any kind of provisions, which is
of the highest importance when it is requisite to victual be-
sieged places. A small vessel laden with gelatin would carry
more food than a large vessel laden with other kinds of pro-
visions, and it would not only better elude the observance of
an enemy's fleet, but also disembark on shores which great
vessels drawing much water could not approach. For the
same reason, gelatin cakes are better for fortresses than gelatin
alone ; they contain more nourishment in the same compass.
The cakes should be packed in chests or casks well closed, so
as to protect them from moisture, rats, and insects.

The catastrophe of Missolonghi would, perhaps, have been
avoided, had the food which the brave Miaulis carried with
him in January consisted of gelatin and biscuit. Gelatin

390 Further Observations on the

cakes made from bones will keep much longer than those made
from meat, if no salt, sugar, vegetables, or other deliquescent
substances be used in the preparation.

The best portable soups are not obtained from the prime parts
of the animal, but from those which are the least subject to
corrupt, as membrane, tendon, gristle, the raspings of bones,
horns, ivory, &c., and the seasoning is added only just before
they are served up. Besides bones, the only article wanted
would be muriatic acid ; this may be had in abundance at any
establishment where soda is separated from sea-water. Being
a secondary product, the price of it is inconsiderable ; and it
the committees Would undertake to manufacture soda them-*
selves it would cost nothing.

Gelatin broths are as nourishing as meat broths, but have
no flavour. Now, mere food is not sufficient ; the palate must
be satisfied as well as the stomach. Gelatin, when pure, is
tasteless; it does not contain the aromatic principle called
osmazome, which meat has. Broths of gelatin, therefore, re-
quire more or less seasoning. For this purpose, we may em-
ploy meat or vegetables, or an extract from either.

By gradual drying in the oven, one pound of meat is re-
duced to two ounces, which is an advantage in transport : but
the only way of defending this meat from insects, is, by closing
it up in his boxes upon the plan of Mr. Appert, an expensive
process.

Vegetables may be preserved at less expense by being put
up in bottles. There is still to be mentioned an article much
more economical, and which is well deserving the attention of
the committees, particularly in Switzerland. Fermented cheese,
according to the experiments of Proust, contains osmazome in
less quantity, indeed, than meat, but more abundantly than any
other animal substance ; and is, therefore, well adapted to give
a relish to the insipid gelatin. Many proprietors of cattle in
Switzerland and the Low Countries, who have shown on more
than one occasion, the interest they feel for their suffering fel-
low-creatures in Greece, might, very probably, be induced to
offer voluntary contributions of this kind of food, if its value
were distinctly pointed out to them. Those who could not
afford to subscribe money would make no scruple of sub-

Use of the Gelatin of Bones, 391

gcribing produce ; and their patriotic feelings would be more
readily reconciled to exporting the provisions which they had
themselves raised, than to exporting specie for the purpose of
purchasing provisions elsewhere. I do not wish, however, by
any means that the committee should confine their supplies to
the articles I have mentioned. I would have them furnish
wheat, barley, and other grain, likewise in proportion to the
means which they have at their command, and more espe-
cially biscuit, which is a most essential article. My idea, I
repeat, is to substitute gelatin and cheese for a part only of the
provisions to be sent out, and not for the whole.

The manner of making broths with dry gelatin is as follows :
— The quantity intended to be employed is first weighed and
then cut into small pieces, which are left to steep in water till
the acid is completely gone ; this will require ten or twelve
hours. Hot water is better for this purpose than cold. To a
third of an ounce of gelatin add three-quarters of a pint of
water, and a sufficient quantity of vegetables and spices to
give it a relish : put them on the fire to boil : add also a little
dripping to produce an oily appearance on the surface. The
relish will be further improved if the colour of meat broth be
given, which is easily done by burnt sugar, or burnt onion, or
baked carrot, or a bit of toast.

The broth made in this way, though less savory than if made
of meat, is not less nourishing : when cool, it turns to jelly,
which meat broths do very rarely, and may be used as a sub-
stitute for isinglass. The jelly is quite pure and tasteless. It
forms a sauce with gravy, and with bitter almonds, blancmange.

Mons. Michelot, in a memoir published in the Revue Ency-
clopedique, tom. xiii. p. 19, recommends that gelatin should be
put into vegetable broths, which afford little nourishment, and
are apt, when taken in quantity, to turn sour on the stomach.
He calculated that forty pounds of gelatin would be sufficient
for 2000 half-pint basins of broth. The bones of butcher's
meat consumed at Paris would furnish daily this quantity of
broth to 600,000 persons, and the bones of pork, game, and
poultry to 120,000 more.

Mons. Darcet proposed to use gelatin broth in the Rum-
ford soups instead of water. The bones which pass through

392 On the Use of the Gelatin of Bones.

the kitchens at Paris, according to his computation, would
serve for 1,200,000 basins of Rumford soup.

My views are somewhat different. I do not aim at discovering
the minimum of food necessary to the support of human hfe.
My allowance would extend to an ounce of gelatin per day,
which would be enough for two or three basins of vegetable
broth, and a pound of bread. But my estimate so far differs
from that of M. Michelot, that I should allow to 200,000 indi-
viduals what he would give to three times that number.

If to four pints and a-half of water, and one ounce of gelatin,
be added eight ounces of meat, we shall have a broth as good
in appearance and flavour as if it had been made with three
times the quantity of meat. Thus, by the new process, there
is a saving, not only when gelatin alone is employed, but also
when (to have a broth possessing more relish) a fourth part
of the meat which would be necessary in ordinary cookery, is
added to a quantity of gelatin equivalent to the substance
of the other three parts.

From a report delivered by the faculty of medicine at Paris,
it appears that one hundred weight of raw meat will yield sixty-
seven of roast meat, or fifty pounds of boiled, and two hun-
dred basins of broth.

It appears further that one hundred weight of meat of which
twenty-five pounds is made into broth with three pounds of
gelatinous matter, will yield two hundred basins of broth, and
twelve pounds and a-half of boiled meat, leaving seventy-five
pounds, from which may be obtained fifty pounds of roast
meat.

By this method, then, we get the same quantity of broth as
before, fifty pounds of roast meat and twelve pounds and
a-half boiled : the gelatinous matter at the rate of two shillings
per pound, the price charged for it at Paris, would cost about
six shillings ; but the cost of this is more than covered by the
twelve pounds and a half of boiled meat. The price of dried
gelatin may, as I have stated above, be readily brought down
to one shilling and three-pence per pound. In that case, a
man's food, seasoning included, would cost three half-pence,
and the reduction of the rations of bread and vegetables would
occasion a saving at least to that amount.

393

Ethnographique du Globe, ou Classification des Peuples
ciens et Modetnes d'apres leurs Larnjues ; precede d'un

Atlas
Ana

Discours sur V Utilitc et V Importance de T Etude des Langues
appliquees a plusieurs branches des Connoissances Hu^
maines; d'un Apergu sur les May ens Graphiques employes
par les differ ens Peuples de la Terre ; d'un Coup-d'oeil sur
VHistoire de la Langue Slave et sur la marche progressive
de la Civilisation en Russie, avec environ sept-cents Voca-
bulaires des principaux Idiomes connus; et suivi du Tableau
Physique, Moral et Politique des cinq Parties du Monde;
dMe d V Empereur Alexandre, par Adrien Balbi, Professeur
de Geographic, de Physique, et de Mathtmatiques. Un
vol. in folio, et un vol. in oct°. Prix 30 francs, Chez Rey
et Gravier, quai des Augustins.

Languages, in the permanency of their characters, their
analogies and mutual relation, contain the history of every
people : essential guides in the labyrinth of the descent of
nations, the study of them is indispensable to all who
would investigate the races from whence nations have
sprung, or who would undertake their methodical arrange-
ment.

M. Adrien Balbi, already advantageously known by his
Compendio di Giogi^aphia universale, and his Essai Statistique
sur le Royaume de Portugal, has profited by the researches
of the most distinguished philologists to complete a work of
which no previous example existed, but of the first impor-
tance in a variety of questions which relate to History, Geo-
graphy, and Philology. Discarding hypothesis, and un-
influenced by system, he has united, under the title of the
Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, all the well-established facts
which the study of languages, alike vast and difficult, had
previously made known. With discretion to doubt, where
many others would unhesitatingly decide, he rarely if ever
conducts to error ; and reasoning skilfully, wherever the
facts are sufficient to bear him out, his discussions are calcu-
lated to place probabilities in the clearest light. Undismayed
by the innumerable difficulties, which presented themselves
at every step in the execution of his prodigious undertaking,
he has classed all the known languages, according to their
analogies or differences, in groupes, rcgnes, and families ;
these latter are again subdivided into langues, dialectes,
souS'dialectes, varietes, and patois. The connexion of the
principal divisions of Ethnography is traced with the leading

APRIL— JUNE, 1827. 2 D

394 Atlas Ethnogmphique du Globe.

features of History and Geography ; and the genealogical
roll of the human race, from the earliest times to the present
day, is unfolded, with equal conciseness and sagacity.

The work of M. Balbi upon languages may be compared
to those of Linneus and Jussieu upon plants, of Cuvier upon
animals, and of Brogniart upon mineral substances. To a
general classification, it adds a specific description of each
language, conceived in few words, but comprehending every
point important in discrimination, or interesting in respect
to general knowledge.

M. Balbi has rendered a great service to men of letters
and to the world in general, in thus collecting and methodi-
cally arranging, in a single work, a vast variety of facts,
previously scattered in numberless publications and in dif-
ferent languages ; many of the publications from whence
they are drawn being also rare, and others of great cost.
Guided by the advice, and aided by the zealous co-operation
of several of the most distinguished authors of France, and
of the continents of Europe and America, the subjects on
which he treats have frequently the additional value of the
sanction of the names of the highest authority in each. We
proceed to lay before our readers an outline of the work itself,
conceiving that, by such means, we shall best enable them
to form their own estimate of its utility and importance.

The Atlas Ethnographique du Globe consists of three dis-
tinct parts : — 1st, The Introduction, being one volume in
octavo; 2nd, the Atlas, one volume in folio ; and, Srd, the
Tableau physique, moral, et politique des cinq parties du
monde : — the third part is still in the press, but is announced
for publication in September, and will form a second octavo
volume. The first and second parts are alone the subject of
the present notice.

The introduction contains, first, a preliminary discourse ;
and, second, a treatise in accompaniment and reference to
the Atlas. The preliminary discourse commences with a
review of the brilliant results derived in our own aera from
the study now so extensively cultivated of the oriental lan-
guages,— enumerates the principal living philologists, — and
points out the important services, which the societies esta-
blished in the presidencies of British India have already ren-
dered in Ethnography, History, and Geography ; and the
still more important services, which, in conjunction with the
Asiatic Societies of Paris and London, they may be expected
to render. It then enters on an examination of the peculiar
province, and of the advantages to be derived, from " Lq,

Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, 395

Linguistic i*^ or languages considered in their relation to each
other. We shall briefly enumerate a few of the principal
advantages which are thus contemplated.

M. Balbi considers language as the principal character by
which nations may be distinguishea ; and as furnishing
occasionally the otiIt/ guide to the Historian and the Geo-
grapher. The truth of this position it would be difficult
to contest, since the relation of languages is the only one
which, to a certain point, is unalterable; whilst, considered
in their geographical or political relations, nations are
subject to continual change. To impress more strongly
the importance of this hitherto almost neglected study,
M. Balbi instances many serious errors committed by authors
of distinguished reputation, which would certainly have been
avoided, had due regard been paid to Ethnography as an
element essential in their reasonings.

The application of this science is shown to various branches
of human knowledge ; to ancient and modern geography ; to
botany, to zoology, and mineralogy ; and in tracing the early
progress of civilization in different countries. We may
mstance as applications which M. Balbi has himself made
of the science of which he has endeavoured to establish
the foundation, — the proofs which he has collected of the
great extension of the Guarami in America ; of the Celtic,
Germanic, and Basque nations in Europe; of the Persian
origin of the Boukares, and of the Ossettes ; the common
descent of the people of Lapland and of Hungary ; and the
essential difference between the Ouigours and the Yougours,
By an analysis and comparison of their respective languages,
he shows that the Lettons have received their civilization
from the Germans, and the Amazigh from the Arabians;
that these last people have had considerable influence on the
civilization of the Portuguese and Spaniards ; and by an
ingenious investigation, of which the facts supporting it are
taken from Crawford's History of the Indian Archipelago^
the race inhabiting the South Sea Islands is shown to have
possessed a native centre of civilization. By the evidence
also of Language, it is proved that the cat, the dog, and
the pig are indigenous in that quarter of the globe ; and the
native country of a variety of other animals, and of plants,
is satisfactorily traced.

Having shown the many useful purposes to which the
examination of languages may be applied, M. Balbi guards
against the danger of pressing too far reasonings founded on
analogy, or of resting too much on Ethnological inferences,

2D 2

396 Atlas Ethnographique du Globe,

by assigning the proper limits within which the application
which he recommends should be restricted. We consider
this part of the preliminary discourse as particularly deserv-
ing of attention, being treated in a manner altogether new,
and illustrated by examples either new or previously very
little known.

Remarks on the orthography of proper names, and on the
compilation and transcription of vocabularies collected by
travellers, conclude the preliminary discourse. These remarks
appear to us apt and sensible, and it would seem are much
required, since it is amusing to learn the serious, and occa-
sionally the ludicrous, errors into which navigators, even of
the first celebrity, have sometimes fallen : thus Bougainville
gives the Tahitian word for night as signifying day; and
Labillardiere, imposed upon by the islanders of Tonga, has
gravely inserted as their numerals, words, of which the signi-
fication, had he been aware of it, would have prevented
their appearing in his pages.

In the introduction to the Atlas , M. Balbi, aided by the
advice of MM. Malte-Brun, Pinheiro, and Abel-Ramusat,
has described the method to be pursued in tracing nations,
by means of their Ethnographical relations, to their respec-
tive sources ; and has pointed out the principal breaks and
interruptions which as yet present themselves to an attempt
to render this history complete. He states the grounds on
which he estimates the number of distinct languages at up-
wards of two thousand ; and has comprised within the small
space of nine pages an excellent essay on the Bibliography of
Languages. Such are the contents of the first chapter,
which we consider as the most important, both as treating in a
very able manner the most difficult questions in Ethnography,
and as including two most valuable letters — one from tlie late
M. Malte-Brun, and the other from M. Pinheiro Ferreira — •
both highly deserving of deep consideration by all who
occupy themselves in studies of this nature. These letters
establish the bases on which the methodical classification of
languages should alone be attempted ; and freely discuss the
present imperfections of a science which must yet be esteemed
in its infancy.

In the second chapter, M. Balbi has described the several
modes of writing employed in ancient and in modern times.
Assisted in this chapter by MM. Champollion, Abel-Ramusat,
Saint Martin, and Depping, he has reduced them to the
seven following classes, containing the same number of dif-
ferent systems of writing: — 1st. Pictorial representation;

.Atlas Ethnographique du Globe. 397

2nd. Symbolic representation ; 3rd. The modern Chinese
characters ; 4th. Mixed characters, or the Hing-Ching of
the Chinese; 5th. Syllabic writing, in use among the Ja-,
panese; 6th. Alphabetic writing ; and 7th. Modes of writing
not coniprehended in any of the above ; such as the Quippos
of the Peruvians and of the Mexicans ; the Notched-sticks
of the Montenegrins, and of the people of the North and
Centre of Asia ; Arithmetical Cyphers, and Chronograms.

Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 contain respectively an exposi-
tion of the considerations, by which the author has been
guided in his classification of the languages of Asia, Europe,
Africa, Polynesia, and America. These chapters contain a
vast collection of facts, alike curious and important, forming
the basis on which the Tables of the Atlas are founded.
In assembling these, the author has been assisted by MM.
Abe]-Ramusat, Saint Martin, Champollion Figeac, Hermes,
Freycinet, Duperrey, Lesson, Gaymond, Blosseville, Hum-
boldt, Gallatin, Malte-Brun, Warden, Dubois, Langlois,
&c. In discussing the languages of the South-Sea Island-
ers, M. Balbi does full justice to the principal share which
British navigators have had in collecting the materials of
which he has availed himself, without, however, underva-
luing the services in the same cause which other nations, par-
ticularly the French and Spaniards, have contributed.

The 8th and last chapter presents a summary review of
the literature of Russia, from the first period of the political
existence of that nation to the present time. Having no
necessary connexion with the distinct object of the Atlas,
the introduction of this chapter is probably due to the pecu-
liar circumstances of the author in regard to the Emperor
Alexander, to whom the work is dedicated. The matter
wliich^it contains is, however, so entertaining and instructive,
that we can hardly permit ourselves to criticise its insertion.

The ^clas Ethnographique consists of 41 tables, of which
36 are Ethnographic, and 5 Polyglott. The 36 Ethno-
graphic Tables present all known languages, both ancient
and modern, described and classed according to their respec-
tive relations. The 5 Polyglott Tables contain the words,
sun, moon, day, earth, water, fire, father, mother, eye, head,
nose, mouth, tongue, tooth, hand, foot, one, two, three, four,
five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, being 26 in number, in
about 700 languages and dialects. These two species of
tables, which are a check upon each other, exhibit the most
complete, the best founded, and the most methodically ar-
ranged account of the present state of our knowledge in

398 Atlas Ethnographique du Globe.

respect to languages, which exists. Each particular table
contains a description of the languages which are included
and classed in it, specifying for each the names of the nations
"who speak it, the countries they inhabit, and the peculiar
characteristics of its grammar and its pronunciation; noticing
its principal dialects, sub-dialects, and such variations as are
important, either in their historical or ethnographical rela-
tions:— finally, the alphabet which is employed, and the
principal features of its literature and monuments, supposing
it to possess either. We are induced to give the following
specimen of the manner in which this part of the work is
executed, from a sense of the utter inadequacy of any descrip-
tion of our own to do it justice ; and we purposely select his
description of our own language, as being that by which
our readers generally will be best enabled to form their
estimate.

" 180. English. — Spoken in England, in the south and east of
Scotland, in parts of Ireland, and of the principality of Wales ;
in the principal towns, and by the educated, in the remainder of
Scotland, Ireland, and Wales ; in the islands of Shetland, Jersey,
and Guernsey ; by the descendants of the English, and by many
others in Asia, Polynesia, Africa, and British America ; by the
greater part of the citizens of the United States of America.
English is also spoken extensively in all nations, in all parts of
the world, by reason of its importance in literary, political, and
commercial respects ; from the two latter causes, especially, is
common in Hanover, the Ionian Islands, Malta, Portugal, Brazil,
and in the Republic of Haiti. The English language is a mixture
of Anglo-Saxon and of Franco-Norman, with some Celtic and more
Romanesque words. Very rich and very energetic, it is the most
simple and the most monosyllabic of all the languages of Europe,
and is that in which the pronunciation differs most from the writing.
It has two inflections only for substantives ; six or seven for the
persons and tenses of Verbs : the gender is not distinguished,
except where sex exists : the adjectives, participles, and articles,
are indeclinable. It did not become the language of the govern-
ment until the reign of Edward III., since which time it has been
fixed, and has gradually improved. From the commencement of the
seventeenth century, this beautiful language may be considered to
have been methodically developed, and from the commencement of
the eighteenth, to have acquired its fixed and invariable forms. In
literature it occupies a place amongst the most eminent in Europe,
ceding to none in polisli, and being the first in energy. It admits
conciseness, without prejudice to the grace of expression ; it is
peculiarly suited to the description of the magnificent or sublime
in nature. In political and parliamentary eloquence it is without

Atlas Eihnographique du Olobe,

rival. The English literature, like many others, commenced in
the twelfth century, by translations and chronicles, and reached its
greatest splendour in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Rich as varied, it still rivals the literature of the most celebrated of
the Continent. Its most ancient records are, a Hymn to the Virgin,
by Godric, who died in 1170 ; the translation of the Romance of
Brut de Wace, by Layamon or Lazamon ; the Castel of Love of
Robert Grosthead, of the first half of the thirteenth century ; and
the Chronicle of Robert Gloucester, in the second half of the same
century ; the works of Robert Brunne, Chaucer, Adon, John Gower,
and Robert Lang eland, author of the celebrated satire called the
Visions of Piers Ploughman, all of the fourteenth century. It
appears to us, that the four following dialects may be distinguished
in the English, subdivided into several sub-dialects and varieties :
first, the English, properly so called, which, polished by Chaucer
in the fourteenth century, became the written and general language
of the nation ; its sub-dialects are that of the Citij of London (the
Cockney) (qiuFre\ of Oxford^ of Somerset, the English of Wales, and
the English of Ireland; the Joivring, spoken in Berkshire, and the
rustic of Suffolk and Norfolk. 2nd. The Northumbrun English,
which might also be called the Dano-English, in consideration of
the great number of Danish words which it preserves ; which has,
as sub-dialects, the Yorkshire, the Lancashire, the Cumberland, and
the Westmoreland. 3d. The Scotch, or the Anglo-Scandinavian,
in which are distinguishable the Loivland Scotch, formerly spoken at
the court of the kings of Scotland, in which James V. composed
poems of considerable beauty, Allan Ramsay a pastoral, which by
its simplicity and elegance brings to the recollection the Aminta of
Tasso, and which Burns has still more recently adorned : the border
language, a mixed idiom, spoken on the frontier provinces of
Southern Scotland remarkable by its Ballads ; and the Orkney,
which is much mixed with Norwegian. 4th. The Ultra-European
English, spoken in the British colonies and the United States of
America, and the most prevalent language, generally, in the two
Americas."

In the thirty-six tables, the author has distinguished and
classed 860 languages, and about 5000 dialects : in addition
to this prodigious number methodically arranged in the Atlas,
Mr. Balbi names in different chapters of the introduction
almost as many more, w^hich, from the want of vocabularies,
he has not permitted himself to include in the tables. The
General Ethnographical Map of the World, with which the
Atlas commences, contains much curious and important mat-
ter : it is there seen, that in the present state of our knowledge,
the Asiatic languages amount to 153; the European, to 53;
the African, to 114; the Polynesian, to 117 ; and the Ame-
rican, to 423.

Each of the tables is preceded by an introduction, in which

40Q Atlas Ethnographique du Globe.

are traced the geographical limits in which the languages
which are classed therein are spoken ; and a rapid sketch is
given of the phj^sical geography, the history, the manners
and the moral condition of the people comprehended in the
ethnographical region under notice. It is, we believe, the
first attempt of the kind to view the people of the globe in
regard to their divisions by language, and presents, as it could
not fail to do, many new and remarkable views, recommended
by general elegance of style, and occasionally enlivened by
vivid and brilliant representations. We might cite, as ex-
amples, the introduction to the languages of India, to the
Basque and Celtic families ; the sketches of the Greco-Latin,
Germanic, and Slavonic nations ; and those which precede
the classification of the languages of the Orinoco-Amazon,
the Alleghani, and of the Great Lakes. We had marked
for insertion, the introduction to the family of Germanic
languages, but we approach the limits of our space, and can
only, therefore, refer such of our readers as may have access
to the work to the commencement of the 13th Table, as a
good specimen of the manner in which this portion of the work
is executed.

Our duty as critics obliges us to remark that there are
some parts of M. Balbi's classification of languages in which
we cannot fully coincide. His general division of the Ger-
manic languages, for example, differs from the system fol-
lowed by the German writers themselves ; a system justified
by the analogies existing in the different idioms comprised in
that family. The Gothic of Ulphilas, or the Alesogothic,
appears to us to have more analogy with the ancient high
German, than with the three modern idioms of Scandinavia,
the Norwegian, the Danish and the Swedish, and should be
classed accordingly. Being, moreover, the most ancient of
the German languages, it is the more important that the
example of the German philologists should be followed, who
all agree in placing it at the head. It is true that M.
Balbi himself is not responsible for this classification, having
followed, in this particular, the opinion of the late M. Malte-
Brun, by whom he was specially directed in regard tothe
languages of that group. Writing at Paris, he could not
have there found a better guide ; and we should willingly
concede our difference of opinion, could he give to that
classification, to which we object, the support of the evidence
which M. Malte-Brun proposed to bring forward, in respect
to the people of Scandinavia. In the present state of the
question, however, and until M. Rask shall make known
those arguments which may be urged on the behalf of the

Atlas EthnograpMque du Globe. 401

partisans of Scandinavianism, M. Balbi must permit us to
retain the opinion which appears to us best founded, and
which is also that of the Germans themselves.

The Dutch language is also, we think, treated too lightly,
considering its great literary importance in the seventeenth
century. Instead of the Metrical Chronicle of Nicolas Colyn,
now no longer doubted to have been composed in the seven-
teenth century, the author of the Atlas might have cited the
extensive historical collection of Jacob van Maerlant, known
under the title of the Spegel Historiael ; the battle of fVoriU'
gen of Jan von Helm, an historical poem of great merit ;
and some others, of sufficient importance to have required
notice, in following, in respect to the language of the Nether-
lands, the plan adopted in the other languages. Here, also,
we must again remark, that our criticism does not apply so
much to the author of the Atlas, as to the learned philologist
by whom the article relative to that particular language was
supplied.

Other critical remarks, of the same nature, have occurred
to us : we might also point out omissions ; some inad-
vertencies ; some opinions ventured, as it appears to us,
without sufficient ground ; fewer, indeed, in the work of the
author himself, than in the articles supplied by the many
persons by whom he has been assisted : but we abstain ;
because, having carefully examined, we are assured that the
faults are few in number, of very minor importance, and that
several find their correction in the work itself. We must
not omit to praise the typographical accuracy, which is the
more meritorious, considering the immense number of foreign
words which almost every page of the text contains, and
which, in the Tables, amount to upwards of 16,000.

The Tableau physique^ moral et politique des cinq parties
du rnonde, which is in the press, and of which we have seen
the manuscript, compresses in fewer pages than we had
thought it possible, the principal details of physical and
political geography arranged and methodised.

We shall conclude this article by observing, that the Atlas
Ethnographique du Globe, by the extent of its plan, and the
distinguished names which have co-operated in its execution,
must be regarded as a classic work in the science of lan-
guages ; as the most natural introduction to the study of
geography and general history ; and as deserving a place by
the side of the Art de verifier les Dates ^ and the Tableau's;
historiques de VAsie of M. Klaproth.

402

HiEROGLYPHICAL FRAGMENTS.
[By a Correspondent.]

i. Corrected Translation of Mr. Grey's Enchorial Manu-
scripts. Hieroglyphics, 34, 35. Young's Account, p. 76.

A.

(1.) The year XXVIII ; in the reign of Ptolemy and Cleo-
patra his sister, son and daughter of Ptolemy and Cleopatra,
the gods Illustrious : (2) and the priest of Alexander, the
Saviour gods, the Fraternal gods, the Beneficent gods, the
Father loving gods, the Illustrious gods, (3) and the Mother
loving gods : the prize bearer of Berenice the Beneficent,
and the basket bearer of (4) Arsinoe the Brother loving, and
the priest of Arsinoe the Father loving, being [as by law ap-
pointed] in the metropolis [Racdt or Alexandria], and in the
royal cit}?^ (5) [Ptolemais of the Thebaid], the Guardian
Priest of Ptolemy Soter, and the priest of Ptolemy the
mother loving, and the priest of (6) Ptolemy the brother
loving, and the priest of Ptolemy the Beneficent, and the
priest of Ptolemy the Father loving, (7) and the priest of
Ptolemy, the god Illustrious and Munificent, and the priest
of the queen Cleopatra, and the priest of the Cleopatra, the
king's (8) * mother ? the goddess Illustrious, and the basket
bearer of Arsinoe the Brother loving, being [all as by law
appointed]. It is declared that the parties (9) Alecis the
son of Erieus, and Lubais the daughter of Erieus, and
Tbaeais the daughter of Erieus, all children of one mother
[Thautis ?], Senerieus the daughter of Petenephotes, (10)
and of Senlubais, Erieus the son of Amenothes, and Seno-
sorphibis the daughter of Amenothes, both daughters of Se-
namunis, Sisois [or Spois], surnamed (11) Erieus, the son of
Amenothes and Senchonsis ; all seven [living] in Diospolis
the splendid ; to the parties Teephibis the son of (12) Ame-
nothes and ' Mautis ? have sold for a sum of money seven
and a half rods of unproductive ground. (13) These seven
and a half rods lying in the southern part of the whole ten
rods of open ground in the ' south-west of the city ? the re-
maining (14) two and a half rods having been purchased by
Asos the son of Horus and of Senpoeris, * as a tenement for

Hieroglyphical Fragments. 403

himself and his family ? in the XXVI Ilth year of the king
(15) ever living. The ten rods of ground have to the south
« the inhabitant Haines ? The seven and a half rods have to
the south-* west (16^ Emiamun the scribe, with his family,
and his brother with his family ? The two and a half rods of
A SOS, the son of Horus and of Senpoeris, (17) * have to the
east the Course of Juno ? ** to the west the Royal road
leading to the temple of Ceres ?? For the seven and a half
rods of ground * with their buildings and all their appurte-
nances ? to wit, Seven and a half rods of ground : The price
in money was paid and received, (19) that is to say, 'three?
talents (19, 20, 21). ' And the contracting parties agree
that the sellers shall make no further demand on the pur-
chaser, and shall defend him from any disturbance therein,
or indemnify him in case of their failure so to do : and shall
guarantee the validity of the sale ? (21) * Executed in the
month Pachon ? transacted in due form ... (22) . . (23) . . (24) . .
Written by Erieus the son of Phanres, clerk to the chief
priests of Amonrasonther and the contemplar gods . . Amen.

Greek Registry.

In the year XXVIII ; the 28 Mesore [xii]. Transacted
at the table in Hermopolis [or Hermonthis], at which
Dio. [nysius] is the collector of the circular twentieth, in
the account of Asclepiades [contractor for the tax on sales],
of which the subscribing clerk is Ptolemais the countersigner.
The purchaser being Teephibis the son of Amenothes : for
seven and a half rods, towards the south, of the whole un^
productive ground which is in the southern part of Diospolis
the Great ; of which the boundaries are given in the annexed
agreement ; and which he bought of Alecis the son of Erieus,
and Lubais and Tbaeais the daughters of Erieus, and Sene-
rieus the daughter of Petenephotes, and Erieus the son of
Amenothes, and Senosorphibis the daughter of Amenothes,
and Sisois [or Spois] surnamed also Erieus, the son of Ame-
nothes. The XXVIIIth year ; Pachon 20. « III ? talents.
On which the duty is 900 drachmae. 900.

Dionysius, collector.

404 Hieroglyphical Fragments.

B.

(1) The year XXVIII; in the reign of Ptolemy and
Cleopatra his sister, (2) the son and daughter of Ptolemy and
Cleopatra, the Illustrious gods ; (2) ^ like to the sun ? ever-
living. (3) It is declared that the parties, Alecis the son of
Erieus, and Lubais the daughter of Erieus, (4) and Tbaeais
the daughter of Erieus, the three by the same mother, ' Ta-
suis ? and Senerieus the daughter (5) of Petenephotes, and
of' Sen. ?- Lubais, Erieus the son of Amenothes, and Senosor-
phibis (6) the daughter of Amenothes, both by the same mo-
ther Senamunis, Sisois, surnamed Erieus, the son of (7)
Amenothes and of ' Senchonsis ? the seven being mechanics
in Diospolis (8) the Splendid ; to the party Asos the son of
Horus and of Sempoeris ; have sold (9) for a sum of money two
and a half rods of unproductive ground : these two and a
half rods being (10) situated to the north of the whole ten
rods lying in the ' south-west quarter of Diospolis ? (11) the
remaining seven and a half rods having been purchased by
Teephibis the son of Amenothes and (12) of ' Mautis 1 towards
the south, as a tenement for himself and his family, in the
XXVIIIth year (13) of the king everliving : the ten rods
having to the south the * inhabitant (14) Haines? the two and
a half rods having to the south the seven and a half rods of
Teephibis the son of (15) Amenothes and ' Mautis? " to the
east the Course of Juno?? to the north the house of (16)
Psenchonsis ? the son of Spotus?? and ... *^ to the west the
Royal road (17) leading to the temple of Ceres?? For these
two and a half rods of ground (18) not cultivated ; that is to
say, for two and a half rods of level ground (19) the price
was paid and received, that is to say, ^ five ? talents. (20 . ,
28) [As in A, 19 ..24.]

Greek Registry.

In the year XXIX; Phamenoth [ix.] 9. Registered at
the table in Hermopolis, at which Dionysius is collector of
the tax of five per cent., in the account of Asclepiades and
Crates [contractors for the duty on sales], of which Ptole-
mais the countersigner subscribes : Asus the son of Horus,
the purchaser of two ^nd a half rods pf unproductive ground,

Hieroglyphical Fragments, 4&i

lying in the southern part of Diospolis the Great, of which
the boundaries are given by the annexed deed, which he
bought of Alecis the son of Erieus, and Lubais and Tbaeais
the daughter of Erieus, and Senerieus the daughter of Pete-
nephotes, and Erieus the sonof Amenothes,and Senosorphibis
the daughters of Amenothes, and Spois, surnamed Erieus, the
son of Amenothes, for five talents, on which the duty is 1500
drachmse. Dionysius, collector.

C.

(1) The year XXXV; in the reign of Ptolemy and Cleo-
patra his sister, the son and daughter of Ptolemy and (2)
Cleopatra, the Illustrious gods : and the priest of Alexander
the Saviour gods, the Fraternal gods, the Beneficent (3) gods,
the Father loving gods, the god Defender of his father, and
the Mother loving gods ; and the prize bearer of (4) Berenice
the Beneficent, and the basket bearer of Arsinoe, the Brother
loving, and the priest of Arsinoe, the '* Brother" * and ? (5)
Father loving, being all [as by law appointed] in the me-
tropolis. It is declared, that the men in * the service of
Amun ? of the family of ' Philocliemus ? (6) Ammonius the
son of Pyrrhius. . ZbenaetesPsenamunis the son of Pyrrhius,
both sons of * Theothis ? and both mechanics in (7) Diospolis
the Splendid, to the party Pechytes the son of Arsiesis and
' Thenune ? have sold for a sum of money one fourth part
(8) of the whole 13| rods, ' that is to say, [a] SJ rods, being
of the ISJ rods the fourth part ? The 31 rods (9) [a] 33^ ?
rods. The three and ^ rods are bounded by [the pro-
perties of] Teephibis the son of Amenothes, and Asos the
son of Horus, both * Cholchytae ? making together (10) ten
rods, bought by them, and occupied by their ' brotherhood?
the whole being bounded on " the south by the inhabitant
Pamonthes, surnamed (11) Petechonsis, and Chasytes the
son of?? Petenephotes . . * to the south-west the house of
Petechonsis? .. (12) * and the house of Pliilinus ? . . * the
late ? Erieus . . . (13) the house of Arsiesis . . . ' Sentathlyt ?
* and her children ? . . the house of Psenchonsis . . (14) ' the
Royal road ? * leading to the temple of Ceres ? " and to the
river near the temple ?? * the house of Haines ? ' All these
are the boundaries of? (15) the 13^ rods of ground, ' uncul»

406 HieroglypMcal Fragments,

tivated, and within the city? * occupied by a house? 13|-
rods (16) * within the city ?? 3J rods of ground [a] 334- ? 3J
rods of ground not cultivated (17), the price was paid and
received in silver, II talents . . . (18 . .22) (Nearly as in A
and B). (22) Written by ** Pathecis the son of Thalubis ??
clerk to the chief priests of Amonrasonther^ and the contem-
plar gods, (23) the 'Beneficent? gods, the Father loving
gods, the Illustrious gods, the god Defender of his father,
and the Mother loving gods. Amen.

Greek Registry,
In the year XXXV; Pharmuthi (viii) 20. Registered
at the Table in Diospolis the Great, at which Lysim[achus]
is collector ; in the account of Sarapion and his partners,
[contractors for the duties] on sales, for which the subscrib-
ing clerks are Hermophilus and Sar[apion] the counter-
signers : the purchaser being Pechytes the son of Arsiesis :
one fourth part of a piece of uncultivated ground, 3^ rods,
in the southern part of Diospolis the Great, to the west of
the Course of Juno, leading to the river, of which the boun-
daries are shown by the annexed deed ; which he bought of
Ammonius the son of Pyrrhius, and Psenamunis the son of
Pyrrhius. Two talents of brass, the duty on which is 600
drachmae ; 600. Lysimachus, collector.

ii. Part of the Registry o/Mr. Salt'.? Papyrus. Hier. 36.

(1) In the year XLVII; Tybi [v] 5. Registered at the table
inHermapolis, at which Dionysiusis collector of the circular
Twentieth, in the account of * Hermias ? for which (2) Isidorus
is the subscribing clerk . . . rods 27 | 35 . . A house, being
part of the property belonging to ' them? . . . [bought of]
(3) ' Anepies P son of Ach . . and ' Spoites ? son of Teephibis.
Eight talents ; the duty " drachmi" two thousand 400.

Dionysius. ' Apollonius ?.

iii. Note on Plate 49. The Enchorial name over the
suppliant is Bernice, written as usual from right to left,
though the figure looks to the left. This is a singular con-
firmation of the remark in p. 43 of the last number of this
Journal, with respect to the Enchorial character, although
the " question" is there made too general as relating to writing

Hieroglyphical Fragments, 407

with the pen, since there are numberless tablets so written,
in which the figures and the corresponding hieroglyphics
stand in both directions: but the words were used with
reference to writing only, without pictorial figures.

The same word is repeated at the foot of the tablet : and
it appears in the first line of the Hieroglyphics nearly as
exhibited in the Article Egypt, except that a t is improperly
inserted for an i. In the second line we have arsne. The
T seems here also out of place : but as a generic terminatioh
it seems not to be always phonetic. The suppliant has not
the usual dress of a female, though without a beard.

iv. Plate 51. Line 1. R . . O. This word is Cleopatra,
though much defaced and not quite correctly copied : the
upright line for R is however right. The name is repeated at
Es, but the R is here inclined as usual. At Z s we have
Ptolemy, and at Xs..t, though partly effaced. It is fol-
lowed by the word mrnamed.

v. Tablets from Sachara, yet unpublished.
In the Egyptian room at the British Museum there are a
number of chalk tablets, from the mummy pits at Sachara,
Bent expressly by Mr. Salt, for assisting in the comparison of
the sacred characters with the Enchorial. Some of them will
probably appear in the Collection of Hieroglyphics, contain-
ing the articles already mentioned. Among the most re-
markable of these are two which appear to be companions,
the one having 7 stars in the margin at the summit, the
other 19. The Enchorial dates appear to be 6 and 19 re-
spectively : showing clearly that these stars must have been
meant for years. The names of Cleopatra and Autocra-
TOR Cesrs occur repeatedly in both: affording a striking
confirmation of Champollion's hieroglyphical expression of
these same epithets. They have not before been recognised
in the Enchorial form. Hier. 70 . . 74.

There is another large tablet of Enchorial characters,
bearing the name of Ptolemy surnamed Ci*;sAR, and not
Neocaesar, as Champollion has read the surname in another
form. Hier. 75, 76.

On a broken and somewhat imperfect tablet of chalk,
brought also from Sachara, are two Royal names, which

408 HieroglypMcal Fragments^

appear to be ARSNE, or Arsinoe, and PHILPATRA, for
Philopator ; the queen, whose priestess is mentioned in the
inscription of Rosetta. There is a coarse though small
Enchorial inscription, with three nearly consecutive names of
Ptolemy, and with the word SCHR or SOCHAR, pro-
bably the Socharis Paamyles of Cratinus in Hesychius, as
ChampoUion reads it, calling it an epithet of Phthah. The
characters are here rather Hieratic than Enchorial ; and it
becomes not at all improbable, comparing this inscription
with some others, that the name of Saccara is derived from
the deity supposed to preside there, and that the name
should be written Sachara, or Sacchara. In the portfolio
of Mr. Salt's Papyrus there is one, in a sort of Hieratic cha-
racter, with some pictorial repetitions, which has the word
C AND ACE on the back in Greek characters.

vi. Alphabet of the Nail headed Characters^
The recovery of the lost literature of Egypt appears to be
of so much the more importance, as it has opened a prospect
of affording a key to the characters of the ancient Persians.
Our hopes of success in the research must, however, in some
degree be depressed, when we find that the key has already
been for some time in existence, and has not served to pro-
cure us access to anything very interesting, at least while in
the hands of the first discoverer.

There is, in the library of the East India Company, a ma-
nuscript page, apparently intended for engraving, which
was brought or received from the continent by the late John
Walker, Esq., F.R.S., and by him presented to Mr. Wil-
kins. It contains a Persepolitan alphabet, compared with
Russian, Persian, and Roman letters ; and it is remarkable
that by this alphabet almost every letter in the name of
Xerxes, as identified by Mr. ChampoUion and Mr. St. Mar-
tin, is read in the same manner, except the initial aspirate,
which the anonymous author makes an O : while on the other
hand it is singular that the corresponding hieroglyphic on
the vase was also read by Dr. Young as an O. There is,
however, another exception in the substitution of E for B :
that of R for L is rather a confirmation of Mr. Champollion's
reading, than an exception.

Hieroglyphical Fragments. 409

. Mr. St. Martin's alphabet has been published in the
Journal Asiatique for February, 1823; he says it agrees in
many respects with that of Grotef'end, and it is here com-
pared with the alphabet of Mr. Walker's correspondent.

Pereepolitan.

St. Martin.

Raasian Aut

«ll

KH

6

« I
-«J

SH

2

|<=J

E

B

III

A

a

-III

A

A

a

m

R

A

1 < 1

H

N,2

<!!<

omitted

TT

Y

a,(M)

— 1 =

I

6

'n:'}

E

a

l;}

E

e

= <

B

B

M

D

M

< = <

OU

Y

<TT

ou

u

7T

p

a

TT

N

a

1 i

V

a

= N

T

ii. "

1= S T.

In the inscription, the thicker end of the wedge is always
uppermost, or to the left ; it is here expressed by a simple
line.

Mr. Wilkinson has lately found a hieroglyphical name in
Egypt, which he reads Artaxerxes,

APRIL— JUNB, 1827. 2 E

410

On Achromatic Microscopes, with a description of certain
Objects for trying their Defining and Penetrating Power,
By C.R. Goring, M.D.

If my readers should be at a loss to comprehend some of the
allusions in this paper they will have the goodness to refer
to a treatise of mine, in the last number of the old series of
this Journal, " On thick Aplanatic Object-glasses for di-
verging Rays, &c."* I hope I shall be pardoned if I digress
slightly from my present subject to notice the praiseworthy
exertions of Mr. Dollond, who has been stimulated by my
agitation of the subject of aplanatic object-glasses for mi-
croscopes, to apply his vast resources to their construction.
His success has been such as might be expected from a
descendant of the great father of achromatic lenses. He has,
without effort or difficulty, and with the same precision and
certainty which he has attained to in the manufacture of the
larger glasses, produced three triple small ones, of somewhat
less than an inch focus. One is in the possession of the cele-
brated Baer ; it has an aperture of about 0-4. When I say
that it has given the highest satisfaction to such a judge,
every other encomium must be superfluous. The two others
I have seen ; they have a naked aperture of 0*45 (for Mr.
D. disdains to cut any of it off) : the convexes are both of
crown glass. I can scarcely venture to say that they are
perfect on opaque objects witK the entierty of their diameter ;
but a reduction of 0*05 would, I apprehend, make them so.
These glasses are burnished fast into their cells in the most
rigid adjustment : this is a great desideratum. Mr. Tul-
ley's are only screwed together, and are in consequence de-
ranged by the slightest concussion. Mr. D. has combined
his two object-glasses nearly in contact. It will not be cre-
dited, perhaps, without ocular demonstration, that in spite
of the contraction of the focus by this operation, the totality
of the aperture of 0*45 is still as good or better than with

* I had originally intended the present essay to form a continuation of
the subject ; but it may, with more propriety, be resolved into a distinct
tract.

Di\ Goring o>i Achromatic Microscopes. 411

either glass singly. There is, however, an inevitable dull-
ness produced in the image of an opaque body, by the mul-
tiplicity of the surfaces of the six lenses, somewhat similar to
what occurs when an ordinary object-glass is dimmed by
moisture ; with transparent objects, this defect is scarcely
felt. I need not say that an object-glass of such power, so
divested of both kinds of aberration, and possessing so large
an angle of aperture, must be a match for any test object
whatever; accordingly, every difficulty at once yields to it,
overwhelming efficacy: notwithstanding, I should, myself^
prefer a single triple-glass of the same depth as the combina-
tion, at least for opaque objects, which are all within reach
of such an angle of aperture as it would be capable of
receiving — and such an objective it isin Mr. D.'s contem-
plation to make.

I have, in my paper on aplanatic glasses already alluded
to, said much of the extreme difficulty which Mr. Tulley
experienced in perfecting his object-glasses, which was won-
derfully increased with the reduction of their foci. It will
be recollected that his first essay was upon one of nearly as
short a focus as 0-3 ; had he commenced with a longer ones
doubtless he would have accomplished his purpose far more
easily. The chief difficulty he seems to have had to contend
with, was the perpetual tendency of his tools (though kept
in pairs with steel guages) to alter their figure by some
quantity inappreciable by the said guages, yet enough
to mar the performance of the object-glass when worked.
Mr. D.*8 pre-eminent tact and management have overcome
this obstacle, which will of course enable him to work to
a regular theory. Whatever may be the merit of over-
coming difficulties, that of precluding or exploding them
altogether is still greater ; and Mr. Tulley will, I am
sure, consider it no disparagement to his own talents to
admit, that as Mr. Dollond can work the small aplanatics
with certainty and dispatch (which Mr. T. confessedly can-
not), the said Mr. D. is the better man, and more con-
summate artist, by whom it is no disgrace to be beaten.

I here commence the proper subject of this paper.

Length of the body, — It seems adviseable to say some-

2E2

412 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes,

what concerning the proper length of the body of an
achromatic microscope ; but I am afraid it will be impossible
to determine the problem with any positive accuracy. From
experiment it would appear, then, that the length of the an-
terior focus of the object-glass should bear some certain ratio
to the other conjugate focus, in order that the instrument may
do its utmost. Thus, an object-glass of long focus requires a
longer body than one of shorter focus ; but it is almost im-
possible to lay down the precise dimensions which answer or
ought to answer best : we may, perhaps, reasonably assume
the maxim, that the object-glass will work best along with
that body which was annexed to it at its formation, and
along with which it was originally made to correct. It
may be asserted, I think, that an aplanatic of 0*9 focus
will not act well with a body of less length than 9 or 10
inches ; while one of 0*2 focus seems to do its best, or at least
do perfectly well, with one of about 6 inches or even less.
The tubes may be increased in length beyond this mark,
however, without making any very sensible or decided alter-
ation in performance. We might expect, that as the radiant-
point always approaches nearer to the object-glass in propor-
tion to the elongation of its anterior focus, we should gain
somewhat by the slight increase in the angle of aperture
which is thus occasioned, while opaque objects would be seen
better, because their light being radiant and not of the inter-
cepted kind, is diminished or increased in proportion to the
square of their distance from the object-glass. But it does
not seem to me that the human eye is at all able to appre-
ciate the difference in the performance, if any. On the other
hand, long tubes are very inconvenient ; they place the eye
of the observer at a very disagreeable distance from the
stage of the instrument, which can thus hardly be used with
comfort for dissection in a vertical position : they moreover
require steadying-rods and other contrivances to give them
the requisite stability. It may be suspected^ moreover, that
their rays in travelling over a large space (if they have any
error in them) will become still more erroneous^ and form a
worse image than they would if cut short at a less length.
It is well known, that Sir I. Newton invented his telescope.

Dr. Goriug on Achromatic Microscopes, 413

because he thought that, as in the Gregorian construction,
the rays must necessarily pass over a considerable space from
the small metal before they reach the eye-piece : the slightest
errors would become wonderfully aggravated in this long
compound-reflecting microscope (for such it is in its operation
on the image of the large speculum). In Sir I. Newton's
construction the eye-piece is as close as possible to the small
metal ; and it is this circumstance which, in my opinion, con-
stitutes the superiority of the Newtonian over the Gregorian
construction, which is, I believe, pretty generally admitted.

Now, this analogy will apply to achromatic microscopes,
though the errors of rays by refraction are very small in pro-
portion to those by reflection ; but on theoretical consi-
derations I am not disposed to lay much weight, unless they
are confirmed by practice.

Having thus stated the pour and contre of the question,
I leave every man to the exercise of his own private judg-
ment. I am not such a despot as to expect people to use
long or short tubes (when either will do very well) just to
chime in with my fancies on the subject, any more than I
should wish them to break their eggs at the large or small end,
according to my own ideas of convenience. The case seems
to me to resolve itself into a matter of opinion. The only
real advantage I can discover in a long tube, is to procure a
very extensive scale with a shallow eye-piece for microme-
trical measurements, which it certainly accomplishes.

Eye-pieces. — Those used with the aplanatic object-glasses
are of the negative Huygenian kind, very similar to those
employed in telescopes, consisting of two plane convex
lenses only. It is well known that these can be rendered
perfectly achromatic ; and their spherical aberration being
incorporated with that which is corrected by the concave lens
of the object-glass, the whole of the instrument is perfect
though the constituent parts are not. It is not thought advise-
able to extend the number of glasses beyond two, for the same
reasons which forbid the use of a third or fourth glass in
telescopes. If, however, people are to be found so besotted
with large fields of view as to prefer them to all the valuable

414 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes,

qualities which are incompatible with them, let it be known
that they have only to apply the ordinary quadruple and
quintuple eye-pieces to the achromatic object-glass, and
they will obtain the number of degrees of extension which
they want, (for the size of a field of view, as well as the
flatness of it, depends almost entirely on the nature of the
eye-piece employed,) at the moderate expense of ruining the
brilliancy and sharpness of the image, and introducing such
a flare and reflection from the numerous surfaces, as will,
under certain circumstances, give an image or two more than
are wanted, with a bright luminous spot in the centre of the
field!

There is a defect in the double achromatic eye-pieces for
microscopes which cannot well be helped : it is, that when
glazed in such a manner as to be truly achromatic (in which
case the field-glass will be of longer focus and farther removed
from the eye-glass than in the telescopic ones), a certain dis-
tortion, or convex, barrel-shaped curvature is seen at the
edges of the field of view : if, again, this defect is remedied by
a different mode of glazing, they will be no longer achroma-
tic ; so there is only a choice of evils.

Though a common erecting eye-piece does well enough for
the small aplanatics when its third and fourth glasses are
placed at the same distance from the object-glass as the other
inverting eye-pieces are ; yet, if it is thrust in nearer to the
object end to lower the power (which it is frequently con-
venient to do), a great deal of colour becomes visible, at least
if the stop between the erecting-glasses is sufficiently enlarged
to allow the whole pencil to pass through : — under these
circumstances the necessity of introducing a secondary achro-
matic becomes evident ; but, in order to make a workmanlike
job of the thing, it would seem to require to be made in two
.pieces, viz. the fourth a compound of a convex and concave,
but so much over-corrected as to neutralize the aberration of
another convex at some distance, standing in lieu of the third
in the common erecting eye-pieces. Mr. W. Tulley has, I
believe, satisfied himself that this species of triple achromatic
in two .parts may be executed, though he has not yet sue-

Dr. Goring oti Achromatic Microscopes. 415

ceeded in making one exactly to his mind ; this will be a new
curiosity we shall owe to his genius ; the theory of it will
serve to amuse the learned.

Mechanical Arrangements. — The merit due to the con-
trivance of these I hold to be but trifling ; I therefore am not
very ambitious to constitute myself a Sir Oracle concerning
them, and forbid every dog to bark when I speak on the
subject ; still less do I conceive myself justified in trespassing
on the pages of this valuable journal by entering into a de-
tail of my own particular whims about stands and apparatus,
which every maa will eternally alter, according to his own
ideas of utility and convenience. However, there are, I
think, certain principles which ought to be attended to,
whatever may be the manner in which they are carried into
ejOTeot. My own experience leads me to recommend the fol-
lowing punctilios to be observed in making a stand, &c.

Thus, 1st, the bar and arm ought to be triangular, be-
cause, when pinched by a spring or other force on one side
only, they are sure to be locked fast in every other direction ;
which is not the case with square, flat, or round bars travel-
ling in corresponding sockets.

2nd. The stage should be a fixture, both that it may not
give way during dissections, and that animalcules and aquatic
insects may not be disturbed by adjustments of any kind giving
motion to it during observation ; for when once unsettled and
lost from the field of view, it is often exceedingly difficult, and
sometimes impossible to find them again. The body, there-
fore, or single magnifier, should be able to travel completely
over the stage, and possess another motion independent of it
for adjusting the focus.

3rd. The stage, in all other respects fixed, should be con-
structed to swing round on a pivot, with a clamp, that ob-
jects placed upon it may be viewed laterally as well as verti-
cally, and be made to remove altogether when occasion may
require, to allow of the introduction of large bodies, such as
an anatomical preparation, a jar of polypi, specimens of mi-
nerals and the like, to the operation of the microscope ; for
which purpose, it will be convenient that the bar should be
attached to the pillar of the microscope, in such a manner

416 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes*

as to allow it (by means of a ball and socket or other similar
arrangement) to fold down on one side, and leave the space
underneath open, as well as to permit the flame of a candle
to be applied immediately behind the stage for transparent
objects, or before it for opaque ones. This simple kind of
illumination, unassisted by any condensing lenses or mirrors,
is by far the most effectual, and the least liable to cause op-
tical deception of any I am acquainted with. As, however,
the object-glass and opaque objects are both frequently placed
in jeopardy by this arrangement, it will be necessary to em-
ploy a condensing lens occasional^, which had better be
attached to the body, that its spectrum may always travel
along with it. The condenser should be composed of two
glasses, of a large angle of aperture, and of the same focus,
to be screwed together at pleasure when candle-light is used
(which requires their focus to be only one-half of what it is
for day-light to give the maximum of illumination) ; for the
brightness of the spectrum depends upon the aperture the
condenser has relative to its acting focus.

4th. It will be found very useful to have a kind of boot
to slide over the object end of the compound microscope, to
enable us to insert it directly into liquids of all kinds to some
depth, and examine objects contained therein without dis-
turbing them : a tube, somewhat conical at one extremity,
and having a piece of very thin and very accurately-figured
plate-glass burnished into it so as to be water-tight, will be
a very effective piece of apparatus for this end. Another
variety should also be constructed with a diagonal reflector,
to give a lateral and periscopic view of the contents of a
vessel.

5th. The illuminating mirror should be oval* (if not of
very large dimensions), so that it may form a round image
in the visual pencil, equal in diameter to it when placed at an

* Having a plain glass on one side, and a face of plaster of Paris at
the other, this latter surface, employed to reflect the rays of the sun, gives
a beautiful imitation of the light of a whole cloud, so much esteemed by
all microscophs for transparent objects. I do not approve of concave
mirrors ; a bull's-eye lens under the stage does tlieir v^ork better, in my
opinion.

Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes. 417

angle of 45° : it should revolve at the bottom instead of at
the side, as in the common way, that the axis of the ellipse
may always present itself in the proper direction : by this
arrangement, also, it evidently becomes more manageable.

As all transparent objects are shown by intercepted light
furnished by the said mirror, if it is not of due size or proper
shape the pencil at the eye-piece will be mutilated, much in
the same manner as if the aperture of the object-glass or me-
tal was partly closed. I conceive every stand to be vicious
and defective which does not possess the properties I have
enumerated ; but none of those now made answer completely
to all these indications. There is a very superior kind of
Ellis's aquatic single microscope, made by Banks in the
Strand, and said to be used and recommended by the great
Bauer, which approaches nearer to my ideas of a perfect
stand than any thing else I have seen ; indeed, the authority
of Bauer must be allowed to be paramount in all matters re-
lative to microscopes. I have assumed this as a foundation to
work upon, and have endeavoured to remedy what I conceive
to be its defects and disabilities, and have adapted it to carry
an achromatic body ; an Amician reflector, or single magni-
fier, constituting what I should be disposed to call a regular
working tool, either for dissection, drawing, or observation,
which 1 am pretty confident will be found available on every
emergency, and for every purpose to which a microscope can
be applied. Should any one coincide with me in my views,
as here expressed, and wish to have such a stand as I should
myself like to use, he may procure it by applying to T.
Cuthbert, 22, Bishop's Walk, near the Palace, Lambeth.
This artist is now completing an instrument such as I have
described ; the patterns for the casts I made with my own
hands, under his direction, and assisted by his advice, in order
that every thing may be accommodated exactly to my own
peculiar conceits on the subject.

I trust the time will come when a set of Amician metals, of
achromatic object-glasses, and of diamond single lenses, will
be all adapted to the stand and apparatus in question (for it
is contrived to answer equally well for the whole triad) ; and
that thus the separate capacities of each of these gigantic im-

418 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes.

provements on the microscope (which must surely form a
new epoch in the history of that instrument) may be made
to harmonize and blend together in one omnipotent whole,
wherein the defects and incapacity of each, for particular
purposes, may be borne out and neutralized by the pecu-
liar power and distinct operation of the other component
parts ; for I conceive it impossible to find any microscopic
objects, capable of being developed to human vision, which
one or other of the three microscopes will not master and
exhibit in the utmost possible perfection.

Test Objects.

Without test objects it is impossible to ascertain whether
a microscope is effective or not : few opticians have any
other ideas concerning the goodness of microscopes than that
they must have a large flat field of view ; presuming that in
proportion to the width of the field-bar and the flatness of
the image at the margin of it, must the perfection of the in-
strument be estimated, without any regard I suppose to light,
distinctness or achromatism ! Nothing can be more absurd
and preposterous than this notion, with which, however, I
was at one time of day as much imbued myself as any worthy
shoptician or glazier can be at this moment. It is just as
ridiculous to estimate the goodness of a telescope in the same
way.

I willingly admit that a large flat field of view is a valua-
ble property in either instrument ; but, after all, if we can
see nothing which ought to be seen in it, it is of no more
value than a large piece of ground which will produce no-
thing but weeds and thistles. The prevalence of these false
ideas must be attributed to the want of the knowledge of
proper objects to try the goodness of microscopes in the same
way as that of telescopes. I believe I must appropriate to
myself the honour of having first discovered such, of which
I now propose to give some account. A test object, then,
may be defined to be some object xohich can only be seen
by a microscope single or compound^ which possesses a great
quantity of good distinct light (the result of a large and per-
fect aperture)^ and which in consequence will serve as a

Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes. 419

standard of comparison, whereby to scrutinize the preten-
sions, the defects, and excellencies of different microscopes,
and prove beyond dispute whether they are effective or not*.
They will serve as a capital subject of study for those who
suppose the goodness of a microscope to depend upon the
width and flatness of the field of view.

I here premise a circumstance which must be rigidly at-
tended to, in order to give an instrument fair play : it is that
the power of any two microscopes, tried against each other,
should be equalized and obtained in the same way ; for the
better an instrument is, the lower will be the power necessary
to give it the ability to demonstrate a difficult object. That
microscope, therefore, which will show given objects with the
lowest power is most certainly the best, be it what it may.
The analogy holds good with regard to telescopes also ; for
I have ever remarked, that all the perfect instruments of
this kind which I have seen were distinguished by their
power of showing difficult double-stars, &c., with very low
charges. Nothing exasperates me more than to hear
some half-taught booby bragging of the goodness of a mi-
croscope because it shows objects so wonderfully magnified,
when, in all probability, it will be found completely inert
and ineffective when called upon to show them with a reason-
able working power: thus converting what is really a proof
of its worthlessness into an argument for its supposed supe-
riority; for I myself shall ever maintain high magnifying
power to be an evil, and that the less we can use of it the
better, for it is sure to diminish the quantity of the object
within the angle of visible field ; to attenuate and dilute light
and distinctness ; to prevent us from having more than a
point of an object truly in focus at once ; and, finally, to ren-
der our instrument tremulous and totally unmanageable, to
say nothing of the injury done to the observers' eyes by the
strain they must suffer from difficult vision.

In order to ascertain the equality of power, there is no
method more sure or effectual than to employ the dynameter

♦ I call a compound microscope effective when it shows everything
which can be seen with single-lenses power for power, without the co-
loured fringes and fog of the latter.

420 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes*

in the way I have discovered, and described in my paper on;
the Amician microscope. Another means may be also re-
commended, which is to measure with the same instru-
ment the size of the image of some distant body, such
as a window, &c., formed in the visual pencils, taking
care that the instruments are at the same distance from the
object when the experiment is made. As to ascertaining
power by any means which takes into consideration any
standard of sight, it will be always subject to disputes, be-
cause every man has a standard of his own ; and therefore, on
this principle, it may be asserted that the magnifying power
of a microscope is in fact different to every different observer.
I myself generally examine a minute microscopic object at
about four and a-half inches distance from my eye ; another
cannot see it nearer than eight or ten inches : so it may be said
that the microscope magnifies as much again to him as it does
to me. On this account it would be much more convenient
for observers to mention the focus of the single lenses they use
instead of their powers ; and, if they use a compound instru-
ment, to state the focus of a single lens to which its power is
equal, according to the method first employed by myself, and
which has been already sufficiently described. Not only, then,
are the powers to be equalized, but, in compound instru-
ments, the length of the body and the focus of the object-
glass or metal must be also the same ; for the penetrating
power ceteris paribus perpetually increases along with the
depth of the objective part. This is an eternal argument for
object-glasses and metals of short foci^ used with shallow eye-
pieces. I shall thus explain my meaning : — suppose I try
three instruments against each other, viz. a common compound
microscope, having an object-glass of ^^^^th of an inch focus and
^^o^h of an inch aperture, and such a body and eye-piece at-
tached to it as shall raise its power to 240 (or that of a lens
of ^^yth of an inch focus). I have also an achromatic in-
strument, with an object-glass of 0*4 focus and 0*2 aperture
raised to the same power of amplification by an adequate eye-
piece or an increased length of tube ; together with an Ami-
cian reflector, having an objective metal of 0*9 focus and 045
aperture also raised to the same power : let us suppose, for ar-

• Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes. 421

gnment sake, (it must be recollected I do not assert the fact,)
that the three instruments showed some difficult proof-object
equally to the satisfaction of the same observer ; is this to show
that the three instruments are equally good ? Most assuredly
not; quite the reverse. The experiment would demonstrate
that the principle of the instrument which had the objective
part of the least natural penetrating power, was decidedly
superior in doing as much with 0*9 focus as the achromatic
with 0*4, and the common compound with O'l. In order to
give to each its true position with regard to the others, let
the objective part in each be rendered of the same focal dis-
tance, of the same angle of aperture ; and the relative capa-
bilities of the three instruments must then necessarily be de-
veloped. As Amician metals and achromatic object-glasses
cannot well be made of 0- 1 focus, let the common object-
glass be elongated to 0*9, and the achromatic also ; then com-
pare them together, and a glance will suffice to show them
in their true colours.

In fact, nearly all the test objects are just visible with a
single lens of -j^th of an inch focus and the requisite aperture.
It is, therefore, not very meritorious in the common com-
pound to do as much as its object-glass will by itself, con-
sidering that the power gained by attaching the body to it
will triple what it was in its natural, unassisted state. The
excellency of the other instruments consists in their being
able, when only equal in power to the said single 0* 1 of an
inch, to equal and indeed surpass it in point of performance.
As to what a common compound will do with the same
power obtained from an object-glass of 0*9 focus, and 0*45
of aperture, I think I need not mention, for its image will
be a complete mess of aberration of both kinds.

The common instruments act much better^ in proportion,
with very deep object-glasses, having large angles of aper-
ture, than with shallow ones in the same predicament ;
because the diameters of the former will necessarily be ex-
ceedingly small, and therefore admit so small a quantity of
light, that however violent their aberration may be, but
little becomes sensible, for as colour is nothing but de-
composed light, where there is but little to be decomposed,

422 Dr. Goring on AchromaiiG Microscopes.

little can be seen : in the same manner, the fog resulting from
spherical aberration consists of false and wandering rays not
brought to a focus ; but where there is little light to be scat-
tered, little fog can be generated*.

It, however, must never be forgotten that it is no merit in
a compound microscope to show objects which are to be seen
much better with its object-glass alone, than with the help of
the body attached to it. It is no wonder that the vilest ma-
chines ever turned out of the glazier's hands should show test-
objects when their object-glasses have -J^y, -fj, -^q, or of an
inch focus with large apertures, because such lenses can by
their own unassisted natural power show everything which
can be seen by microscopes of any kind whatsoever.

Now Mr. Tulley's curves are published, doubtless, every
optician will have achromatic object-glasses for microscopes
as plentiful as blackberries, and at very reasonable rates too ;
a brace of convexes of crown glass or plate will have a con-
cave of flint inserted between them ; the composition will be
called achromatic, and it will be very hard if the uncor-
rected aberration cannot be conquered by a reduction of the
aperture, since that of a common lens may. A stop of very
small aperture will be placed within the tube to ejffect this
valuable purpose. Thus, this noble invention will get a bad
name, and such achromatic object-glasses will be damned by
all men of discernment as no better, or perhaps worse, than
common lenses, just as Mr. Tulley's first attempts were by
Mr. Troughton; but if my readers will do me the honour to
attend to this disquisition on test objects, it will be in their
power to examine the pretensions of all microscopes whatso-
ever, with infallible accuracy, and the unblushing effrontery

* The aberration of all small lenses must, of course, be very small,
when considered as a measured quantity, compared with that of larger
ones ; but as it will always bear the same ratio to their focus with any de-
terminate angle of aperture, I do not think their superior distinctness to
be owing to this circumstance, but purely to the rarity or thinness
of their light, or the few rays which have to co-operate in the production
of their images ; in confirmation of which position, I may observe, that it
is notorious to all persons conversant with optical instruments, that the
chromatic and spherical aberration of both telescopes and microscopes
becomes much more sensible when objects are viewed by them in a strong
and intense illumination, than when seen in a dull and faint one.

Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes,

423

of the shoptician will in vain attempt to palm worthlesa trash
on the ignorance of the public. I here, therefore, enter into
the description of the figures in the plate : — i., ii., iii., and
iv., have been already sufficiently described* ; I shall therefore
merely remark that fig, 1 is a true drawing of the object it
is meant to represent, having been originally executed by
Mr. Lister with a camera lucida eye-piece ; therefore, my
readers will conclude that if they do not find the feather of a
supposed Menelaus' butterfly, procured near the origin of
the wing, to resemble it pretty closely, they have not ob-
tained the same object, more especially if the apertures
required to develop its peculiar structure do not correspond
with my statement, for this will be the best security for its
identity.

I am indebted to Mr. Carpenter's pro- pig^ 5.

found erudition in that branch of natural his-
story which belongs to the microscope, for
the ascertainment of the veritable butterfly
to which this feather belongs : my readers
may rest assured that it is the Menelaus.
Mr. C. has a very fine one in his valuable
cabinet.

Fig. 5, is a drawing of another feather ;
it was taken by Mr. Tulley from some frag-
ments of wings of foreign insects. Mr. Car-
penter has discovered a specimen very simi-
lar to it, found on the upper surface of the
under wing of the male papilio brassicae,
It does not show the curved lines at the
double head, and is rather a more difficult
object than the sample drawn. It is about
T^SiT of an inch long by ■j^%y or -^j,\g broad,
of a light brownish, yellow tint, and extreme-
ly transparent. In the plate the lines have
too much strength and continuity, and are
not sufficiently close ; their traces are faint,
uneven, dotted, and interrupted here and
there. They are not resolvable without

* Vide the paper and copperplate in the last number of the same old
series.

424 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes,

an enormous angle of aperture — none of the achroma-
tics singly exhibit them satisfactorily. Mr. Lister's 0*3
does more with them than any other; but it may be
considered lame and impotent, and rather giving indica-
tions of the lines than showing them outright^. When
we reflect that they are not to be made out by single lenses,
unless their aperture is somewhere about equal to their focus,
it is surprising that the achroraatics should show so much of
them as they do, with an aperture not more than equal to
half their focus. An Amicican reflector, having an object
metal of 0*3 focus with 0*2 of aperture, shows them com-
pletely well, with the cross fibres much more numerous than
in the plate ; and one of 0*6 focus with 0*3 of aperture, with
a very oblique illumination, gives very strong indications of
them, if it does not actually demonstrate them fairly drawn
out. As to the reason why this class of objects should re-
quire such enormous angles of aperture to resolve their lines,
I must say I am completely mystified. It is easy enough to
show why nebulae and clusters of stars should require an im-
mense aperture to render them visible ; but why mere lines
extremely similar to those on micrometers (if we may judge by
their prismatic effect and general appearance) should require
such vast calibres, when the artificial ones are in no such pre-
dicament, must be admitted to be very perplexing : — the only
property they seem to possess in common, is that of being
best seen with an oblique light : the lines on glass microme-
ters, viewed as transparent objects, do not indeed totally dis-
appear in a direct light through the axis of the microscope,
but are infinitely better seen when it comes askance.

Fig. 6, a and b, are two more feathers which seem to be
in the same condition with the last, as far as regards the aper-
ture required to show them : they were procured from the

* I have seen them indifferently well with a 0*3, which was in a very
imperfect state, and scarcely fit to act upon opaque objects at all. By com-
bining two aplanatics together, a sufficient aperture is obtained to bring
them out ; but it is a way of effecting the purpose which ought to be
avoided if possible. Mons. Chevalier combines two of his cemented
double object-glasses together, which in my opinion form the best possi-
ble combination of this sort, giving a much more brilliant image than
triple ones treated in the same way, which, from the number of their
surfaces invariably produce great dulness in the image.

f

Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes. 425

under side of the wings of those minute-brown Fig. 6.
moths which are found among clothes : Mr. Tulley
first discovered them. They are generally mixed
with others exactly resembling them in general
appearance, but distinguishable from them by their
lines being visible with a much smaller angle of
aperture, which is always to be regarded as the
discriminating test of identity with this class of
objects. This feather (a) is about -j^^^^ of an inch
long by T^j^ broad. In viewing these objects
with single lenses, it must not be forgotten that
their aperture is regulated by the dimensions of
the hole in the anterior part of their setting,
or that which comes next the eye, which must be some-
where about equal to their focus to enable them to demon-
strate these lines ; that is to say, the cylindrule of light
which proceeds from them, measured by the dynameter,
must be -^\ of an inch in diameter, if such be the focus
of the lens employed. The size of the hole in the
exterior part or cell may be much smaller than that of the
internal without affecting the dimensions of the said cylin-
der from the diverging nature of the rays. It merely, in-
deed, determines the size of the field of view.

Fig. 7. The public has been long acquainted Fiff. 7.

with the scales of the diamond beetle as a beau-
tiful opaque object, without being aware of
the valuable occult properties they possess as
test objects. The mere true definition of the
outline of one of these brilliant bodies on its
dark ground, as an opaque object, by a microscope of large
aperture, is a pretty good security for its quality. The lines,
however, when seen upon them, as represented in the plate, are
infallible evidence of a very considerable and effective aper-
ture, combined with the requisite distinctness. They require
precisely the same management of the light to be seen, both as
opaque and transparent objects. When intended to be viewed
by intercepted light, they must of course be scraped off and
placed between talcs. They are not, when treated in this way,
so severe a test as when seen by radiated light, but still excel-

APRIL— JUNE, 1827. 2F

42^ Dl*. Goring 07i Achromatic Microscopes,

lent proof objects. It is requisite for me to observe, that some
of them do not seem to be striated or furrowed with lines at all,
and there seems to be a good deal of difference in the difficulty
with which different specimens are resolved into lines. The
scales of many other brilliant foreign curculios also form ex-
cellent test objects, but not in general so difficult as these.
There seems to be nearly as much difference among them as
to the facility of revolution as among clusters of stars. I
have seen some so easily developed, and requiring so small an
angle of aperture^ as to be distinctly visible with the most
ordinary compound microscope. I shall take leave of this
class of objects by observing generally, that no accumula-
tion of condensed artificial light on them seems to have any
operation in supplying or compensating for want of aperture.
When we have an instrument possessing this one thing need-
ful in the requisite state of perfection for the purposes of
vision, it is surprising in what a faint light all the family
of lines may be seen, both as opaque and transparent bodies :
on the contrary, without this essential virtue in the instru-
ment used, we in vain look for lines even when we have ren-
dered our field of view in a complete blaze with condensed
rays. It is not mere light then that shows them, but the due
breadth of the visual pencil, with respect to the power em-
ployed. The Amician reflector (beyond comparison the
dullest and darkest under any given circumstances of the
whole family of microscopes) shows these said lines infinitely
better than any other instrument. The achromatics show
them very well also, especially the thin 0.3. Single magni-
fiers are very inert upon them as opaque bodies, because the
silver cups in which we are compelled to insert them to gain
the power of seeing opaque bodies do not easily admit of that
obliquity of illumination which seems one postulatum for
their exhibition.

Equally unavailing to the demonstration of these objects is
mere magnifying power, however great even when obtained
from the deepest object-glasses, (though I have already had
occasion to remark that it is much more valuable, effective,
and penetrating when procured in this way than from the
operation of deep eye-glasses on shallow objectives,) unless it

Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes. 427

IS accompanied by the proper calibre. I am not aware that
a magnifier or object-glass of ^V of an inch focus, and ^J-^ of
an inch of aperture, will perform any better than one of -^
focus and -}-g of an inch of opening, which would possess the
same ratio or angle of aperture. As there are always
various degrees of vision in difficult objects of all sorts in
optical instruments, the said lines may be seen with more
or less facility with different object-glasses and instruments,
with more or less coaxing and management of the light ;
with more or less stability in the stand ; with more or less
accurate adjustment of the focus, &c. &c.

There is, however, a way of determining which is the best
instrument, when two will show an object, but when there is
some doubt as to which shows it the best ; it is this : convert
the instrument into a magnifier for a solar microscope, and
see which will imprint the best image on a sheet of paper
(for such as the microscope is, such will be the image formed
by it). That which gives the strongest and most vivid pic-
ture will be sure to perform best when treated in this way ;
for it requires no little efficacy in a microscope to show a
difficult and delicate object fairly depicted on paper, all
faint and diluted rays being in this way utterly lost and ex-
tinguished. With the solar microscope I have alluded to
in the former paper, and the 0.2 object-glass attached to a
compound body giving it power equal to that of a single
lens of ^'5 of an inch, and the amplification of the image
in the camera being confined to 200, I have actually pro-
cured an image of the lines in the diamond beetle scales as
transparent objects^ and of course of every other variety not
more difficult than these; but with the 0.933 object-glass,
cceteris paribus^ I never could procure an image of any but
fig. 1, or of other lines of the same class and resolvable with
the same ease ; though the said 0.933 will show faintly
(when treated with an eye-glass only as a compound mi-
croscope) almost every object which can be seen by the 0.2.

No difficult opaque object whatever can be exhibited by
the solar apparatus, such as any of the family of lines, as
opaque objects, the minutiae of a fly's foot, or of a mouse
hair, &c.^ though a most beautiful and pleasing picture of

2F2

428 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes*

ordinary objects is given. I need scarce say that figs, 5 and
6, and the whole of that stubborn and indomitable race to
which they belong, utterly resist the penetration of the single
solar achromatics. As to the amplifying power necessary
to demonstrate the lines on the feathers, I may state that
figs. 1 and 7 begin to be barely visible in a very perfect in-
strument and with very close attention^ with a degree equal
only to that of a lens of } of an inch focus ; but figs. 5 and 6
require one equal to -J--^ of an inch at least.

Fiff. 8. J^'^g' 8 is a drawing of the point

of a leaf of hedge moss (I am sorry
I am at a loss how to designate it
scientifically) : it is a very good test
object, requiring a considerable an-
gle of aperture combined with great
distinctness fully to develope the
lozenges which constitute its fabric,
making out a luminous nucleus to
each, which should be sharply de-
fined and of the same shape with
the outer lozenge, and not melting
into it by insensible gradation as in the copperplate engraving.
The Amician microscope is sure to boggle at this subject, if
the figures of the metals are not good. All mosses exhibit
more or less of this structure ; but the specimen in question is
remarkable for the prominence of its features. The engrav-
ing being very exact, except in the trifling circumstance I
have mentioned, any specimen tried and not found to re-
semble it must be set down as another sort : the wood-cut in
the margin is correct.

Fig. 9. Fig. 9. Bat's hair. — The hair of the bat near its
insertion in the skin often shows an outline similar to
that in the plate, being apparently the result of a
certain spiral coil wound about it : frequently, how-
ever, it shows an appearance similar to that produced
by the insertion of a number of funnels into each
other. When well defined as a transparent object by a
microscope of large aperture, it is a sure test of its distinct-
ness. I have given it as an opaque object, in which way it
is far more difficult of vision than as a diaphonous one. The

Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes, 429

power required to show it well must be equal to ^V ^^ an
inch ; a very strong artificial illumination is also requisite :
it does not show well upon a dark ground, but on one some-
what transparent, for which reason a little intercepted light
behind it is useful. When treated in this way, the coil may
be seen verified, and as I have drawn it, as a transparent
object, day-light shows it better than lamp or candle light.

Fig. 10. Mouse's hair ; — another object of pig. 10.
the same class : a, opaque, 6, transparent.
Both their varieties occur in the same ani-
mal, as represented. The large hairs are
punctuated with circular indentations passing
spirally round them : they may be distinctly
demonstrated as opaque objects. The dif-
ficult point is to see them so verified by oblique illumination
that they appear like little cups shaded as they are when
exposed to the same light : a black ground is absolutely ne-
cessary to bring out their structure satisfactorily. They may
also be seen very well, as transparent objects, by ordinary
compound microscopes with the usual small angles of aper-
ture ; but when seen distinctly with a large aperture they
are a good test : achromatics will sometimes show the whole
tribe of lines without being able to make them out. b is the
small mouse hair, seen as a transparent object ; it is che-
quered by circular annuli, between which are to be seen
longitudinal fibres, which last are the test, not being visible
unless by a great deal of good distinct light. Mr. Cuthbert
first discovered them with an Amician reflector, which, if
really good, shows them better than any other microscope
will.

Fig. 11 is merely a magnified piece of watch plate, with
letters enamelled white on a black ground. It is Mr. Tul-
ley's favourite object for working all his object-glasses ; by
this he judges of the state of their achromatic and spherical
aberration, adjustments, &c. Considered as a mere micro-
scopic object, it is an exceedingly easy one, being visible to
the eye ; any common compound microscope will of course
show it fast enough, if its object-glass is cut off and reduced
in aperture till its aberration becomes insensible. The diffi-

430 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes.

culty, however, consists in showing it with a large aperture
in the same way as drawn at a, with the black and white
distinctly separated from each other. If there is any spheri-

Fig. 11.

cal aberration about the object-glass, it shows itself in the
shape of a nebulosity about the confines of the black and
white, as at b ; or if worse still, in a diffused nebulosity or
fog over the whole of the plate, as at c. The achromatic
aberration also shows itself in a fringe of colour mixed up
with the fog or nebulous border. There is frequently another
appearance which I have not represented ; it consists in a sort
of penumbra or double image which cannot be made to lap
over the other by any adjustment of the focus, but still shows
itself in a sharp but faint margin to the true outline of the
figures : reflecting microscopes, if their metals are not truly
figured, are very apt to show this flaw in performance.

We may rest assured that if any object-glass or metal de-
fines this object completely well, with such an aperture as will
also show the lines on the feathers, it must be good. An
objective-glass of 0.933 focus ought to be able to do this with
an aperture of 0.38, or even 0.4, if in good adjustment;
others of shorter foci with a proportional angle at least. Mr.
Cuthbert's metals of 0.3 focus will define it with an aperture
of 0.2, which no single aplanatic will ever be made to do. A
very excellent proof object for achromaticity may be made of a
piece of fine wire-sieve (if dirty so much the better), treated
with intercepted light thrown obliquely through its interstices.
This is sure to surround the wires with coloured fringes ;
and by putting them within and without the focus, the various
rays will show themselves in the order of their refrangibility ;
however contracted the aperture of a common object-glass

Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes, 431

may be,, an experienced eye will always be able to see the un-
corrected achromatic aberration by this test. Small holes
drilled in a thin metallic plate and blacked, form a similar
object, and generally all dark bodies seen against intercepted
light show the same phenomena.

A very valuable object to the working optician Is an arti-
ficial star ; this may be made by a very minute glass globule
stuck on a black ground, or by some grains of platina fused
by electricity. Mr. Lister first employed globules of quick-
silver for the same purpose.

His way of procuring them Is, I believe, as follows : —

Let a small quantity of mercury be squeezed through
leather, to clean it ; then put it into a glass tube with some
water having a very little gum dissolved in it ; agitate it till
it resolves itself into very minute globules ; extract a few of
them, and let them be secured on some blacked paper with
the help of a little thin gum- water ; they may then be crushed
with the finger so as to be totally invisible to the naked eye :
the smaller they are the better.

The light of the sun falling upon them produces a beautiful
disk, but common day or candle light does pretty well also.
The initiated well know how to appreciate the use and value
of this object, which is, perhaps, the best which can be em-
ployed to verify the state of the figure, achromatism, cen-
treing, grinding, and adjustment, &c. of the small aplanatlcs.
All their defects may be clearly looked into and probed by
the means of this single object, and the proper remedies ap-
plied to them, which, of course, cannot be done unless the
nature of the disease is duly ascertained.

Fig. 12 is the foot of a blue-bottle fly, an interesting
opaque object, and an admirable test, its minutiae requiring a
great deal of good distinct light, combined with considerable
power to become duly manifest. The specimen I have drawn
is, I believe, one of the hinder feet, for the three pair all
differ somewhat from each other in the proportion of their
component parts, though alike in their general structure : (as
one of the claws was buried in the gum which was used to
stick the foot on the black surface to which it was applied,
I have not represented it.) I lament moreover that my draw-

432 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes*

ing must be considered as having been taken from a dried
specimen instead of a recent one, (as it should have been,)
for it is an object which is sure to be much changed, warped,
and shrivelled up, if detached from a newly-killed fly, even
for one hour only. However, as the prominent features
which constitute the peculiar subjects of examination as tests
were well preserve^, the drawing will do well enough to
point out what I wish to submit to my readers' consideration.

Fig. 12.

At a is to be seen a fluting in the claw ; b, b, b, b, b, are
lines, furrows, or flutings in the hairs of a v/hitish tint ; c is a
species of scale-work on the shank somewhat similar to what
may be observed on the feet and legs of birds ; d d are mi-
nute white dots, probably the orifices of glands, dispersed
over the whole of the inferior surface of the suckers as re-
presented in the plate ; ^ is a fringe of hairs round the mar-
gin of the suckers, with minute globules at their termina-
tions.

Now all these minutiae can be seen, in more or less perfec-
tion, in every good specimen. I must observe, however, of
the dots or granulations on the soles of the feet, that they
are sometimes not visible, owing to the whole surface being
occasionally furred over with dust, dirt, and other extraneous
matter, which is apparently licked up by the glutinous fluid
which exudes from the orifices of the glands. I think that
kind of light which is afforded by a silver cup does best upon

Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes, 433

the whole for this object, and is, indeed, absolutely neces-
sary to give the Amician reflector the power of showing this
object advantageously, though I have managed to see every
thing there is to be seen about a foot, without its assistance to
the effect of the said instrument. I may remark, that, being
a very sombre object, it is peculiarly calculated to be seen
unfavourably in the dark image of the reflector ; neverthe-
less, every point can be shown by the Amician metals of 0*6
focus and 0*3 aperture completely well, and with as much
ease too as by any other instruments greatly superior to
them in mere light or brilliancy of eflTect. A dark ground
of some kind or other is absolutely necessary to exhibit this
object in its proper relief ; a white one confuses it altogether ;
the power may vary from ^-^ to -^^ inch : candle or lamp light,
I think, does best for it, and the darker the apartment is
made in which we observe it the better, for darkness causes
the iris of the eye to expand, and receive a stronger impres-
sion from the faint rays issuing from such dull objects.

A human hair is a beautiful proof object ; I repent that I
have not given a figure of it.

Mr. W. Tulley has discovered a singular property in almost
all hairs, which I do not think has ever been remarked or de-
scribed. If a hair is drawn between the finger and thumb
from the end to the root, it will be distinctly felt to give a
greater resistance and a different sensation to what is expe-
rienced when drawn the opposite way ; in consequence, if
the hair is rubbed between the fingers it will only move one
way, (travelling in the direction of a line drawn from its ter-
mination to its origin from the head or body,) so that each
extremity may thus be easily distinguished even in the dark
by the touch alone.

The mystery is resolved by the microscope. A hair viewed
on a dark ground as an opaque object, with a high power not
less than that of a lens of ^V ^^ ^^ i"^^ focus, and dully illu-
minated by a cup, which seems to answer best, is seen to be
indented with teeth somewhat resembling those of a coarse
round rasp, but extremely irregular and rugged ; as these
incline all in one direction, like those of a common file, viz.
from the origin of the hair towards its extremity, it suflfi-

434 Dr. Goring on Achromatic Microscopes^

ciently explains the reason of that singular property I have
described.

This is a singular proof of the acuteness of the sense of
feeling, for the said teeth may be felt much more easily than
they can be. seen. We may thus understand why a razor
will cut a hair in two much more easily when drawn against
its teeth, than in the opposite direction.

t

P. S. The instrument which I have in this paper termed
the Amician Microscope is not the legitimate offspring of
Amici, (from whom its principle only has been borrowed) ;
but an improvement of mine, executed by T. Cuthbert.
The profound critical acumen and superior taste of the pro-
fessor (as I am given to understand) wholly rejects and
disowns the particular modification in question, as a spurious
and bastard variety, which must be affiliated upon myself,
being wholly different from his in every thing but the optical
principle. With this decision I am perfectly content.

ASTRONOMICAL AND NAUTICAL COLLECTIONS.

July, 1827.

i. A Letter from Mr. Henderson, containing a corrected
Method of computing an observed Occultation.

Dear Sir, Edinburgh, 3, Leopold Place, May, 1827.

I THINK that my Rules for computing an observed
Occultation may be improved ; and, in order to enable you
to judge of this matter, I beg leave to inclose a copy of the
corrected rules with an example. I give the preference to
the corrected rules for the following reasons : —

1. When the star is near the zenith, a considerable degree
of uncertainty attends the altitude computed by the method
in the Requisite Tables, on account of the small variations
in the sines of arcs approaching to 90° : and this uncertainty
exercises a considerable 'jafluence upoa the parallaqtic angle

Astronomical and Nautical Collection^. 435

and parallaxes, as I have several times remarked in cases
which have actually occurred.

2. The affection of the parallactic angle is sometimes am-
biguous, as noticed in Remark 1 .

But, in the corrected rules, these imperfections are avoided
by computing the parallactic angle by Napier's analogies.

3. By the rules in the N. A. the parallactic angle is di-
rected to be reckoned sometimes from the North, and some-
times from the South Pole. But by the corrected rules, this
angle is always reckoned from the North Pole, whereby the
precepts are simplified.

Other changes have been made ; and, if you think proper,
the corrected rules may be published in such manner as you
may deem suitable. And 1 am, with respect,

Dear Sir,
Your very obedient humble servant.

Thomas Henderson.

Rules for computing an observed Occultation.

1. Find half the sum and half the difference of the north
polar distance of the zenith (corrected on account of the
spheroidal figure of the earth), and the north polar distance
of the star ; and to the logarithmic cosecant of the half sum
add the log. sine of the half difference, and the log. cotangent
of half the star's horary angle ; the sum is the log. tangent
of an angle A always less than 90°: and to the log. secant
of the half sum add the log. cosine of the half difference, and
the log. cotangent of half the horary angle, the sum is the
log. tangent of an angle B, which is greater or less thai) 90°^
accordingly as the half sum is greater or less than 90°. If
the north polar distance of the zenith be greater than the
north polar distance of the star, the sum of A and B, other-
wise their difference, is an angle C, to which prefix the sign +
when the star is east of the meridian, and — when west.
When the orbital angle has N. prefixed, its complement to 90^
will have the sign— , and + when S. The sum of this com^

436 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

plement and of the angle C (observing the algebraical rule of
the signs as in addition) is the complement of the parallactic
orbital angle, or the complementary angle with its proper
sign. When this angle exceeds 180°, its supplement to
360°, with the sign reversed, is to be taken.

Example. — At Port Bowen, on 3rd January, 1825, the
immersion of n Geminorum was observed at 5^' 9"' 27' appa-
rent time.

Apparent tinae
Sun's A. R.

H. M. s.

6 9 17

18 58 21

Latitude 73 13 40 N.
Reduction —6 20

Sidereal time
Star's A. R.

1 7 38
6 4 22

73 7 20 N.
Zenith's N. P. D. 16 52 40
Star's N. P. D. 67 27 4
Sum 84 19 44
Difference 50 34 24
Half sum 42 9 52
Half difference 25 17 12
0-17311 Log. secant 0-13005

9-63057 cosme 995626

012144 cot. 0-12144

Horary angle

Half

Log, cosec. half 1

sine half dil

cot. half hoi

4 56 44

7°4 I'l 0
37 5 30

sum

Terence

•. ang.

40 5 10
58 12 30

tang. A =

B =

9-92512 Log.tang. B = 58 12 30 0-20775

C=4-]8 7 20
Comp*. orbit, angle = + 5 35 0

(star east of meridian.)
(orbital angle S.)

Complement^ angle =+ 23 42 20

2, Add together the log. cosecant of the horary angle,
the log. cosecant of the north polar distance of the zenith,
the log. sine of the angle C, the log. secant of the comple-
mentary angle, and the proportional logarithm of the moon's
horizontal parallax, corrected for the spheroidal figure of
the earth ; the sum is the proportional log. of the perpendi-
cular parallax, which has the sign + or — , accordingly as the
complementary angle is greater or less than 90°. To the prop,
log. of the perpendicular parallax add the log. cotangent of
the complementary angle, the arithmetical complement of the
prop. log. of the moon's horary motion, and the constant log.
0*4771, the sum is the prop. log. of a portion of time, which,
added to or subtracted from the time of observation, accord-
ingly as the parallactic angle (or its supplement, in the
case mentioned above) has the sign + or — , gives the time
corrected.

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 437

Example,

Log. cosec. hor. angle . . , 0*0168

N. P. D. of Zenith . . 0-5871

sineC ..... 9*4928

secant com p^ angle . . . 0-038S

Prop. log. reduced hor. par. . . . 0*4861

perpendicular parallax = - 48' 20" 0*5711

Log. cotang. comp^ ang. . . . 0*8575

A. C. Prop. log. 35' 20" IL M. . . 9*2929

Constant log. . . . . .0-4771

H. M. 8.

Prop. log. -f 0 SO 2 0*6986

Time of observation 6 9 17
Time corrected 6 45 19

3. The nearest approach will have the sign + or — ,
accordingly as the diflference of declination at the conjunction
is marked N. or S. The sum of the nearest approach and
perpendicular parallax is the star's distance from the appa-
rent orbit, which add to and subtract from the moon's hori-
zontal semidiameter without augmentation. To half the
prop. log. of the sum add half the prop. log. of the differ-
ence, the arithmetical complement of the prop. log. of the
moon's horary motion, and the constant log. 0-4771, the
sum is the prop. log. of another portion of time, which,
added to or subtracted from the time corrected, accordingly
as an immersion or emersion has been observed, gives the time
of the nearest approach for the meridian of the place of obser-
vation ; which being compared with the Greenwich time set
down in the Elements, the difference of longitude is obtained.

Remark. — In some rare cases, when the star's distance from the apparent
orbit is nearly equal to the semidiameter, the portion of time will have to be
applied in a contrary manner to that here directed. This will happen when the
immersion takes place after, or the emersion before^ the apparent conjunction.

Example.

Nearest approach
Perpendicular par*

+ 50 42
- 48 20

Semidiameter

+ 2 22
16 4

Sum 18 26 Half P. L.

Difference 18 42

A.C.Prop. log. H. M.
Constant log.

0-4948
0-5593
9-2929
0-4771

H. M. S.

Prop. log. H- 0 26 59

Time corrected 6 45 19

0-8241

Time of nearest approach 7 12 18
Ditto for Greenwich 13 8 3

Longitude of Port Bowen 5 55 45 west of Greenwich.

438 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

ii. Remarks on the Solar Tables, by Thomas Hen-
DEEsoN, JEsq,

The discordances, which Mr. South has observed, between
the computed and the observed Right Ascensions of the Sun,
may be chiefly accounted for by the following considerations :

De Lambre's Solar Tables, from which the computations
of the Nautical Almanac are made, were published in 1806,
but were constructed some years previously. He determined
the Epochs and mean motion by a comparison of Bradley's
Observations, about 1752, with Maskelyne's, about 1802,
reduced by the Catalogues of Stars then most approved.
Since the publication of these Tables, M. Burckhardt has
compared the Epochs with the Greenwich Observations, and
has reduced them by more correct catalogues, viz., Brad-
ley's Catalogue for 1756, computed by Maskelyne, and
Maskelyne's latest Catalogue for 1805. In this manner he
has found that the secular motion in De Lambre's Tables
should be increased by 12''.2, and that the Epoch for 1801
should be increased by 0".80. See his Memoir " Sur les
Masses des Planetes," in the Connaissance desTems for 1816,
p. 341. Consequently the Epoch for 1822 is too little by
3".3r=0\22 in time. But Mr. Pond's Catalogue, which
Mr. South has used in his computations, exceeds the above
Catalogues when reduced to 1822 by 0'.31 ; and therefore,
from these two causes, the Sun's observed Right Ascensions
ought to exceed those computed in the Nautical Almanac by
0'.53, which agrees very well with the quantity found by
Mr. South.

Supposing the mean places and motions of the sun, moon,
and planets relative to the stars to be well determined, if
any change should afterwards be made upon the mean places
of the stars, or rather of the equinoctial point, or upon the
precession of the equinoxes, the same changes should be
made upon the mean places and motions of the sun, moon,
and planets, otherwise discordances must ensue. From what
has been said it would appear, that the source of the dis-
cordances found by Mr. South lies here, and not in the im-
perfectioDs of the Solar Tables. These discordances rather

Astronomical and Nautical Collections, 439

fieem to be a proof of the accuracy as well of the Tables as
of the Observations.

[It may be added to these Remarks, that the accuracy of the compari-
son of the Solar Tables with the Greenwich Observations for 1S20, as
computed for the Board of Longitude, and published at the end of
Mr. South's paper, is confirmed by the computations lately printed by the
Astronomer Royal; the mean error of the tables being — 0*.195, according-
to the former comparison, and -0^203 according to the latter. Bou-
vard'6 corrections give a mean error of about +(y.05. Editor.]

iii. Answer to some Remarks of Mr. Ivor y. Astr. Nachr.
No. 108. Translated at the particular request of Pro-
fessor Bessel.
I have been much surprised to find in the Philosophical
Magazine for April and May, 1826, an Essay of Mr. Ivory,
in which I am directly accused of having copied my Analysis
of the mode of computing geodetical measurements from the
Philosophical Magazine for July 1824.

Mr. Ivory ought to have considered that it is very unusual
even to hint at so degrading an accusation, without having
the power of showing its truth : and I hope to be excused
for not undertaking to defend myself against an attack so
wholly unsupported by evidence.

The dates of my three papers are December 1821 (A. N.
3), January 1822 (A. N. 6), and October 1825 (A. N. 86>.
I have never seen Mr. Ivory's paper of July 1824, and I
know nothing of its contents: nor have I seen the 41st num<^
ber of the Journal of the Royal Institution. With respect
to my last paper, if it really contains what Mr. Ivory had
before published, I readily give up my claim to priority ; for
I have always thought that the date of printing alone should
•determine the right to any scientific property.

But it is not so much the question to decide on this claim,
as to repel an unjust accusation : I am therefore compelled
to show the actual date of the researches in question. They
were in fact laid before my pupils in a course of public lec-
tures, delivered in the University of Konigsberg, in the win-
ter of 1821-2 ; and I have the pleasure of mentioning among
my audience the names of Argelander, Rosenberger, Scherk^
Strehlke, and Klupsz, all of which are already known in

440 Astronomical'and Nautical Collections.

the literature of astronomy. I imagine also, that every at-
tentive reader will infer, from the form of my second essay,
that I must have been already in possession of the mate-
rials of the third when I wrote it. So much for my personal
explanation : but I have a few more remarks to make in an-
swer to some further criticisms of Mr. Ivory.

The object of my third essay was to give a method, by
which the Longitudes and Latitudes might be computed, not
as far as the second or fourth powers only of the eccentri-
city, but as near as it was possible to compute them with any
trigonometrical tables whatever : and this was to be done,
not for short distances only, but generally to every possible
extent of measurement : and I apprehend that I have ef-
fected this by a computation, which is not materially more
laborious than if the figure of the earth were spherical.
This computation requires the assistance of a table of four
octavo pages, and which contains the coefficients, computed
once for all, that it would without it have been necessary to
determine in each particular case. How far Mr. Ivory is
right in calling these four pages '* bulki/ tables,'' and whe-
ther he is correct in saying that my expression for the por-
tion of the geodetical line requires " the calculation of many
subsidiary arcs ;" I must beg every reader, who understands
my Essay, to determine for himself. The truth is, that my
tables require the computation of no subsidiary arc what-
ever, but merely the formation of two arguments, which
are obtained by adding to the logarithm of cos m, which is
always of necessity to be found in such computations, two
other logarithms depending only on the eccentricity, and
which are therefore always the same for the same spheroid.
Whoever attempts to apply Mr. Ivory's formulas to a deter-
mination, equally accurate with that which is obtained from
my tables, will very soon find on which side the advantage
lies. Mr. Ivory appears therefore to have gone too far when
he calls my method " complicated :" and I am the more dis-
posed to think, since I have read Mr. Ivory's Essays, that it
contains nothing whatever that is superfluous, upon the sup-
position that we wish to obtain perfect accuracy both for
small and for great distances.

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 441

iv. Elementary View o/M^Undulatory Theory 0/ Light.
By Mr. Fresnel.

[Continued from the last Number.]

It is easy to convince ourselves here, as well as in
Dr. Young's experiments, that the fringes depend on the
mutual actions of the rays which meet each other ; for if we
intercept, by means of a screen placed near' to one of the mir-
rors, all the rays that it reflects to the place of observation,
either before or after their reflection, the fringes wholly dis-
appear, although the space continues to be enlightened by
the other mirror, and we can only see some paler and unequal
fringes which form a border to tlie shadow of the screen. If
we cover with the screen only one half of the mirror, so as
to annihilate the fringes for one half only of their entire
length, we may the more easily compare the remaining part
of the dark stripes with the neighbouring space which is
enlightened by one of the mirrors only, and we may thus
readily be assured that the neighbouring parts are much
brighter than the middle of the dark stripes, on which, how-
ever, the rays from both the mirrors fall. These rays must
therefore be neutralised in consequence of a certain action
which they exert on each other.

This mutual influence of the rays of light, established by
the experiments which have been enumerated, is still more
fully confirmed by a great number of optical phenomena ; so
that it may now be considered as one of the best demon-
strated of physical truths. After having thus satisfied our-
selves of its direct foundation,' we may proceed to its con-
firmation by the most important collateral observations. But
we must first examine the circumstances under which the law
takes efiect.

If we calculate the differences of the routes described by
the rays which concur in the production of each of the dark
and bright stripes, we first find that the bright stripe in the
centre corresponds to an equality in the length of the routes :
and that if we express by d the differences of the routes de-
scribed by the rays of the pencils which unite in the middle

APRIL— JUNE, 1827. 2 G

4d2 Astronomical and Nauiical Collections,

of the next bright stripe on either side, the middle points
of the other stripes will correspond to the differences 2 d,
3d, 4df 5d, 6 d, and so forth ; while the middle points
of the dark stripes, from the jfirst to the most remote, corre-
spond successively to differences in the routes, expressed by
id, f rf, ^d, |c?, and so forth.

Hence it follows, that the union of the rays produces the
maximum of light, when the difference of the paths, which
ihey have described, amounts to 0, d, 2d, 3d, 4:d, 5 d,
and so forth ; and that, on the contrary, they neutralise
each other, and produce darkness only, when this difference
is equal to ^, ^d, ^d, |^, %d, ^d, and so forth. Such
is the general law of the periodical influences which the rays
of light exert on each other.

When the two luminous pencils are of equal intensity, as
in the experiment just described, the middle of the dark
stripes exhibits a total absence of light, at least in the fringes
of the first and second, and even of the third order, if the
light employed is sufficiently homogeneous; but, as it is never
completely so, it happens that the inequality of brightness
of the dark and light stripes, which is so prominent in the
first fringes, diminishes gradually as we go further from the
middle, and at a certain distance becomes insensible. The
reason is easily understood ; the light employed, however
simple it may have been rendered, either by decomposition
in a prism, or by its passage through a coloured glass, is
always composed of heterogeneous rays, of which the colour
and the physical properties differ but very little, although
the period of interference has not precisely the same length:
hence it arises, that the dark and bright stripes, of which
the situation depends on the period, are not separated by
precisely the same intervals. In truth, the breadths of the
fringes, produced by the heterogeneous rays, differ so much
the less, as the light employed approaches the more to per-
fect homogeneity ; but however small this difference may be,
it may be imagined, that, when repeated a great number of
times, it will at last produce such a difference in the situa-
tion of the fringes, that the dark stripes of some of them
will coincide with the bright stripes of others ; so that at a

Astronomical and Nautical Collections, 443

sufficient distance from the middle, where the two routes are
equal, the dark and light stripes of the different species of
rays of light employed will efface each other mutually by
their mixture, and will exhibit a uniform tint.

The more homogeneous the light has been rendered, the
more distant from the middle will this point of perfect com-
pensation be, and consequently the greater number of
fringes will be perceptible. When we employ white light,
which is the most compound, the number of fringes visible
is also the least possible, and we scarcely discover more than
seven on each side of the centre. They exhibit the tints of
the coloured rings, and the reason of their appearing co-
loured is exactly the same. If the length d were equal for
the rays of different colours, the breadth of their fringes,
that is to say, the interval between the middle of two con-
secutive bright or dark stripes, being also the same, there
would be a perfect coincidence in their darkest as well as
their brightest points ; and the different rays which compose
white light being found every where in similar proportions,
would produce a series of black and white stripes without
any distinction of colour. But this is by no means the
case : as the length d varies very considerably for rays of
different colours, that is, nearly in the proportion of two to
one, from one extremity of the solar spectrum to the other,
the breadth of the fringes varies in the same proportion, so
that their dark and bright stripes cannot fall on each other,
but differ so much the more in their situations as they are
further removed from the middle line. It must therefore
happen, that the bright stripe of the rays of a certain colour
corresponds with the dark stripe of the rays of another kind,
whence arises the predominance of the former, and the ex-
clusion of the latter. Thus the fringes will exhibit a suc-
cession of tints, varying according to the unequal proportions,
in which the different rays contained in white light will be
mixed.

The middle line of the whole system is always white, be-
cause, since the difference of the routes there vanishes, it
affords the maximum of brightness for all kinds of rays,
whatever the length of d may be. On each side of thig

2G2

444

4.stronomical and Nautical Collections.

white stripe, the light becomes gradually coloured ; the co-
lours of the second fringe are very distinct, as well as those
of the third and fourth ; but they afterwards become fainter ;
and they totally disappear after the eighth fringe, by the
more complete mixture of the dark and bright stripes of all
the colours, which produces a uniform white light.

If we make the experiment, which has been described,
with the rays of the seven principal colours which Newton
distinguishes in the solar spectrum, and measure the breadth
of the stripes with the assistance of the micrometer already
mentioned, it will of course be possible to deduce from it,
by calculation, the corresponding values of d; but this
observation has only been made with care on the red light,
tolerably homogeneous, that is transmitted by certain
coloured glasses used for the windows of churches. For the
rays which preponderate in this light, and which belong to
a part very near the end of the spectrum, the length of d
is . 00002512 inch, English. We may derive the value of dy
for the seven principal species of rays, from the observations
of Newton on coloured rings ; it is sufficient for this pur-
pose, as will hereafter appear, to multiply by 4 the lengths
of what he calls fits of easy reflection, or of easy transmis-
sion of the luminous molecules. In this manner the follow-
ing table has been calculated : —

Limits of the pein-
ciPAL Colours.

Extreme violet
Violet indigo .
iDdigo blue
Blue green
Green yellow .
Yellow orange .
Orange red . .
Extreme red .

Extreme values

of d.
C .0000160 i
■[[.0000167 Y]
(■ .0000173
t[. 0000181]
f .0000181
t[. 0000189]
(■ 0000194
t[. 0000203]
f .0000210
t[. 00002 19]
f .0000218
t[. 0000235]
j" .0000235
U- 0000246]
J .0000254
U. 0000266]

Principal
Colours.

Violet

Indigo

Blue . .

Green

Yellow

Orange

Red .

Intermediate
values of d.

f .0000167 i
U. 0000.174 Y]
f .0000177
"[[.0000185]
f .0000187
"[[.0000196]
f .0000202
■[[.0000211]
/ .0000217
"[[.0000227]
f .0000230
■[[.0000240]
5 .0000244
^ [.0000256]

[The numbers witliin brackets are those which Dr. Young inserts in his
table as deiived from Newton's experiments.]

Astronomical and Nautical Collections* 445

The explanation, which has been given, of the small num-
ber of fringes produced by white light, and of the limited
number which are perceptible in the most homogeneous light
that can be procured, is sufficient to inform us, why, k
many cases of the crossing of the rays derived from com-
mon sources in directions nearly parallel, there is no pro-
duction of fringes whatever : since the difference of the
paths described is too considerable, and is too great a
multiple of d, at all the points of the space enlightened by
the two pencils united; so that the middle of the fringes,
and the stripes near enough to it to be perceptible, corre-
spond to points without the common field of the double
illumination.

This is the reason why it is so important, in the experi-
ment with the mirrors, that they should not project one be-
yond the other ; for, on account of the extreme minuteness
of the quantity rf, which is only about one fifty thousandth
of an inch for the yellow rays, the slightest inequality of
projection, producing a difference in the length of the path
equal to twice its own magnitude, may throw the group of
visible fringes beyond the common field of the two mirrors.
It may also be observed, in such experiments, that besides
the rays regularly reflected by the mirror, there are always
softie which are inflected in the neighbourhood of their ter-
minations, and which enlarge in this manner the space of the
double illumination. The rays regularly reflected by one of
the mirrors, interfering with the rays inflected near the
circumference of the other, may also produce fringes, when
the difference of the paths described is very small; but
these fringes are distinguished in general from those which
depend on the interference of the rays regularly reflected,
by their curvilinear form, and by their direction, which is not
perpendicular to that of the line joining the two images of
the luminous point.

The reasoning, which has been employed for explaining
the colours of the fringes produced by the mutual influence
of two white pencils, may be applied to all the phenomena
of diffraction in white light. These effects depend always
on the difference of the breadths of the dark and bright

446 Astronomical and Nautical Collections,

stripes belonging to the different colours, which prevents
their existing at any one point, in the proportions required
for constituting white light. The situation of these stripes,
being known for each species of rays, as well as the laws,
according to which their intensities vary in their different
parts, it will be possible to calculate the proportions of
their mixtures, and then to determine the tints that they
compose, by means of the empirical formula of Newton,
which enables us to find the tint corresponding to any
given mixture of coloured rays. Thus it is sufficient to
study the optical phenomena in any homogeneous light,
which presents them in their simplest form, and it will
always be easy to infer from them the appearances which
must be produced, under similar circumstances, in white
light. Henceforwards, therefore, it will always be supposed
that we employ a homogeneous light, except when the re-
sults of experiments made with white light are expressly
mentioned.

It may easily be inferred, from the very simple law of the
influence of the luminous rays, which has been explained,
that the breadth of the fringes [in order to preserve the same
value of] d, must be in the inverse ratio of the interval
which separates the two images of the luminous point, and
in the direct ratio of their distance from the micrometer, or,
in other words, must be in the inverse proportion of the angle
under which the observer would see this interval, if he
placed his eye at the point where the fringes are reversed.

The same geometrical law is applied to the fringes pro-
duced by two very narrow slits cut in a screen. The
breadth of the fringes, which they exhibit, is in the inverse
proportion of the interval comprehended between the middle
points of the two slits.

This law is also true, in an approximate degree, of the
fringes which are observed in the shadow of a narrow sub-
stance, at least until they approach near to the limits of the
shadow; for when this is the case, they are governed by a
more complicated law, which nevertheless depends on very
simple principles, although it can only be represented by a
transcendental function, containing, besides the breadth of

Astronomical and Nautical Collections, 447

the body and its distance from the micrometer, its distance
from the luminous point.

With respect to the exterior fringes which surround the
shadows, their breadth depends always on both these dis-
tances : the former remaining constant, they are so much the
broader as the second is smaller.

When, on the contrary, the respective positions of the
luminous point and tlie screen are invariable, and the dis-
tance of the micrometer only from the screen is changed,
we observe that the breadth of the external fringes is not
proportional to it, as that of the internal fringes was. This
fact may be expressed in a more geometrical manner by con-
ceiving a right line drawn through the luminous point, in
the direction of a tangent of the opaque body, so as to con-
stitute the limit of the geometrical shadow, and saying that
if we follow in space the middle of the same dark or bright
stripes, and let fall from this point, at each distance, a per-
pendicular on the tangent, we find indeed that this little
perpendicular increases as we go further from the opaque
body, but in a less proportion than that of the distance
from that body. Hence it follows that the same point of a
dark or light stripe, belonging to the external fringes, does
not describe a right line, but a curve, of which the convexity
is turned outwards. This may be demonstrated by a pre-
cise measurement, made by means of the micrometer that
has been described : and the result being a very remark-
able one, it will be worth while to describe one of the
experiments by which it has been exhibited : an experi-
ment which was made with light apparently homogeneous,
that was transmitted through the red glass already men-
tioned.

The opaque body being at the distance of 118.53 E. I.
from the luminous point, I measured the successive inter-
vals between the edge of the geometrical shadow, and the
darkest point of the dark band of the third order: first
at the distance of .067 i. from the opaque body ; secondly
at 39.49 i.; and thirdly at 157.28 i.; and I found for the
first interval .00315 i., for the second .0866; and for the
third .2296. Now if we join the two extreme points by a

448 Astronomical and Nautical Collections.

right line, we shall find .0599 for the ordinate of that line
corresponding to the intermediate point ; or, in other
words, if the dark stripe of the third order described a
right line, its distance from the geometrical shadow, at the
intermediate point, would be .0599, instead of .0866, as it
was found in the experiment : and the difference, .0267, is
about half as great again as the interval between the middle
points of the second and third bands at the same distance :
for this interval was only .01654 ; and it is evident that the
difference .0267 cannot be attributed to any difficulty in as-
certaining the exact situation of the point in question, since
an error of so great an extent would have implied the pass-
ing over not only a bright stripe, but another dark stripe,
and half of a second bright one.

I have made many other observations of the same kind,
all of which tend to confirm the same singular result. But
the experiment now related is sufficient to place beyond
doubt the existence of a sensible curvature in the tra-
jectories which represent the passage of the external
fringes. [Newton himself had indeed noticed the same cur-
vature in the 9th observation of his third book, and had
inferred from it, *' that the light which makes the fringes
upon the paper is not the same light at all distances of the
paper from the knives."]

It appears [however] that this remarkable result is very
difficult to reconcile with the system of emission : for the
most natural manner of explaining the external fringes, in
this system, would be to suppose, that the pencil of light
which nearly touches the margin of the opaque body under-
goes in its neighbourhood alternate dilatations and conden-
sations, which give rise to dark and bright stripes: but
then these different bundles of pencils, so condensed and
dilated, ought to proceed in a right line, after having passed
the body : for if we admit, in the Newtonian theory, that
bodies may exert very powerful attractions and repulsions
on the molecules of light, it has never been imagined that
these forces can extend their action to distances so consi-
derable as the dimensions of these trajectories would require,
since they exhibit a sensible curvature for the length of se-

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 44&

veral yards : and this new hypothesis would introduce a
multitude of difficulties still more embarrassing than the one
in question.

In all such experiments, the margin of the shadow is
80 confounded with the fringe of the first order, that it is
impossible to determine its limits by the eye only. I em-
ploy, for making the shadow, a metallic wire or cylinder,
large enough to prevent any confusion from the effect of
the light inflected at the opposite side ; a point which I
ascertain by enlarging its breadth by the addition of a small
substance at one part, and finding that the external fringe
opposite to it remains unaltered. Then, if I wish to ascer-
tain, for example, the situation of the darkest part of the
third order of fringes, with respect to the geometrical
shadow, 1 measure the distance between the two dark
stripes of the third order on the opposite sides of the
shadow, and subtracting from this the computed breadth
of the shadow, one half of the remainder will obviously be
the interval required. The diameter of the wire is mea-
sured by a gage, or beam compass, which allows me to
read off the thousandths of an inch by its vernier, and to
estimate less than half of this space with sufficient accuracy :
and the instrument itself has sometimes been used instead
of a wire, taking care that the two plates, or cocks, should
be far enough separated to avoid any confusion from their
mutual effects, and then deducting the interval of the
opposite fringes from the breadth of the geometrical shadow,
in order to obtain the double distance required.

The curvilinear motion of the fringes can only be satis-
factorily explained by the mutual influence of the luminous
rays, whatever theory we may adopt respecting their nature:
from this principle only can we conceive how it happens,
that the rays inflected or diffracted, in the neighbourhood of
the body, can, without ceasing to be propagated in right
lines, give rise to curvilinear trajectories of dark and bright
stripes: and it is sufficient for this purpose that the different
points, in which they are the most strengthened or weakened
by their combination, should be situated in curved lines,
and not in straight lines. This would happen, for example.

450 Astronomical and Nautical Collections,

if the external fringes were derived from the meeting of the
direct rays with rays reflected from the edge of the opaque
body ; for then the points of maximum or minimum of illu-
mination, at difi^erent distances from the body, would be
situated in hyperbolas, having for their foci the luminous
point and the edge of the body, as may easily be inferred
from the very simple law of the mutual influence of the
rays. It is not, indeed, by the combination of these rays
only, that the external fringes are produced, for an infinity
of other rays, inflected near the body, concur in producing
them ; but the trajectories of these are curves of the same
nature, and these dark and bright shades are always derived
from the mutual action of the rays, without which it would
be impossible to understand their curvilinear progress. —
Whatever system, therefore, we adopt, it becomes necessary
to admit that the rays of light exert this mutual influence ;
which, indeed, is so fully established by the experiments
already related, that we may now consider it as one of the
best established principles in optics.

It is very difficult to conceive the existence of a similar
phenomenon upon the system of emission, which does not
allow us to suppose any connexion between the motions
of the several particles of light, without destroying the
fundamental hypothesis of the system. We should, at any
rate, be obliged to admit, that the mutual action of the
rays in such cases is only apparent, and has no real ex-
istence; or, in other words, that the phenomenon takes
place within the eye only, where the successive impulses
of the luminous molecules, on the optic nerve, might be
imagined to augment or to diminish the magnitude of the
vibrations already commencing, accordingly as they might
tend to favour or to check the elementary motions con-
stituting these vibrations: in the same manner as a ringer,
when he is raising a bell into its swing, is obliged not only
to multiply his efforts on the rope, but to leave between
them a proper and regular period, depending on the capa-
bility of the bell to perform its vibrations, so that each new
impulse may tend to co-opera,te with the motion already
communicated to it.

Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 451

This ingenious explanation, suggested by Dr. Young him-
gelf to the advocates of the system of emission, presents
great difficulties when it is followed in its consequences,
and is compared with facts. But this is not the place for
examining them in detail ; the question is more particularly
investigated in a Memoir on Diffraction, which is to be
printed in the Collection des Savans Strangers. Besides,
the necessity of the discussion seems to be superseded by the
phenomena of diffraction which are about to be considered,
and which appear to be manifestly contradictory to the
system of emission.

Dr. YouNO had supposed, and I had afterwards been of
the same opinion, without having been informed of what he
had published on the subject, that the external fringes are
produced by the meeting of the direct light with the rays
reflected on the termination of the opaque body; but, if this
had been the case, the edge of a razor, which presents so
very small a reflecting surface, should exhibit these fringes
much less conspicuously than the back of the razor, which
reflects so much more light ; while in fact we observe very
little difference in the intensity of the fringes thus produced,
unless we examine them very near to the razor.

When we transmit the rays proceeding from a luminous
point, through an aperture about one-fiftieth of an inch in
breadth, and of any convenient length ; if the luminous
point is not too near to the aperture, we find, as we observe
at a greater and greater distance from it, the pencil of rays
spread very considerably, and illuminate a space on the
card, or form a stripe of light in the focus of the lens,
which is much wider than the conical projection of the
aperture, which would be formed by right lines drawn from
the point in the direction of tangents to the edges of the
aperture.

We may consider the edges as very thin, like those of
two razors perfectly sharpened, in order to make our reason-
ing the simpler. Now, if only the rays, which actually
pass close to the edges, were subject to any kind of in-
flection, it is obvious that a very small part of the light
transmitted would be spread towards the shadow ; and the
inflected rays would exhibit but a very feeble light, in the

451& Astronomical arid Nautical Collections.

middle of which we should see, distinctly marked, the bright
stripe illuminated by the direct rays: while, in fact, at a
proper distance, we observe an illumination nearly uniform,
extending over a space much wider than the real projection
of the aperture. The dimensions of the aperture are here
assumed to be small, in order that the experiment may easily
be made in a dark room of fifteen or twenty feet in length ;
but when the luminous point is at an infinite distance, like a
star, we may obtain the same efi'ect with an aperture of any
greater magnitude, provided that we observe at a distance
sufficiently great.

It follows from these experiments, that the rays of light
may be made to deviate from their primitive direction, by
the neighbourhood of a screen, not only when they come
into contact with the edges of the screen, but even at very
sensible distances from these edges.

Let us now consider the consequences of this principle
upon the system of emission. If the particles of light are
disturbed in the direction of their motions by the influence
of the body, in passing at sensible distances from their
surface, we must necessarily suppose that this effect is pro-
duced by attractive or repulsive forces emanating from the
body, and extending to the distances in question, or we must
attribute it to little atmospheres, of a similar extent, pos-
sessed of different refractive powers from the surrounding
medium. But on either of these suppositions it would
follow, that the inflection of the rays should vary with the
form, the thickness, or the nature of the margin of the
aperture, in the experiment which has been last described ;
while, in fact, the most accurate measurements exhibit no
differences whatever arising from these circumstances, and
show that the dilatation of the luminous pencils depends
merely on the breadth of the aperture. Hence it may be
inferred, that the phenomena of diffraction are incapable of
being explained by the system of emission.

As this objection appears to be of high importance, and
decisive of the question, I think it necessary to describe
more particularly some of the experiments which establish
the principle on which it depends.

I caused a pencil of light to pass between two plates of

Astronomical and Nautical Collections, 453

steel, placed very near to each other, their vertical edges,
which were perfectly rectilinear, being ground to an edge
at one part, and rounded at the other, the sharp edge of
each being opposite to the rounded edge of the other ; the
sharp edge being to the right, for example, at the upper
part, and to the left at the lower. In this manner, how-
ever small the difference might have been in the actions of
the two parts on the light, it could not but have been
observed at the point of junction of the two corresponding
portions of the enlightened space, and more especially at
the points of junction of the fringes, which accompanied it,
and which would have been interrupted where the sharp
and the round edges were abruptly interchanged. But,
upon observing these stripes with great attention, 1 could
discover in them nothing like interruption or bending at
any part of their length ; they were straight and continued,
exactly as if the plates had been placed with their similar
portions opposed to each other.

Several years before this time, Malus and Berthollet, in
making experiments on diffraction, with plates composed of
two parts of different nature, one of ivory, and the other of
metal, for example, had ascertained from the situation of
the fringes, that the diffractive effects of these different sub-
stances were the same ; and though the observations of these
celebrated persons could not possess all the accuracy of the
measurements obtained by the micrometer, in the way which
I have described, they were still sufficient to demonstrate,
that if the difference of the nature of the substances had
some un perceived influence on the direction of the rays,
it was still much less than would be expected from the
great difference of the refractive and reflective powers of
the substances employed, if we supposed the inflection of
light to be produced by attractive or repulsive forces
acting on the luminous particles. [Dr. Young had long
before made some similar observations, in consequence of
which he asserted, in his Lectures, published in 1807, that
** there is some improbability in supposing that bodies of
different forms, and of various refractive powers, should
possess an equal force of inflection, as they appear to do, in
the production of these effects." P* 458.]

454 Astronomical and Nautical Collections,

I shall mention another experiment, which fully demon-
strates that the mass and the nature of the edges of the
screen exert no appreciable influence on the deviation of the
rays of light.

I covered a plate of glass with a coat of Indian ink, laid
on a thin sheet of paper, making together a thickness of
^^ of an inch, and having cut two parallel lines through
them with the point of a penknife, I removed the strip of
blackened paper from the space between them. Having
measured the breadth of this space with the micrometer,
I formed a similar aperture by means of two cylinders of
solid brass, each about half an inch in diameter; and I
placed them by the side of the blackened glass, and at the
same distance from the luminous point. Observing, then,
by means of the micrometer, the pencils of light which
had passed through the two apertures, I found the dila-
tation of the breadth exactly the same in both cases. Now,
with respect to the mass of the substances forming the edges
of the two apertures, it would be difficult to find them
under circumstances more dissimilar: in one case the dif-
fraction was produced by the edges of a simple coat of
Indian ink united to a thin piece of paper, since the glass
could exert no action in either direction, being continued over
the whole aperture : in the other the light was inflected by
two cylinders of brass, which presented considerable masses
and considerable surfaces to the rays in their neighbourhood.

It is therefore sufficiently proved, that neither the nature of
the bodies, nor the mass nor thickness of their terminations,
exhibits any sensible influence on the deviation of the rays
of light passing near them ; and it is equally obvious, that
this remarkable circumstance is incapable of being recon-
ciled with the system of emanation.

The theory of undulation, on the contrary, afibrds us an
explanation of it, and even furnishes us with the means of
calculating all the phenomena of difi*raction ; so that the
results of the calculation are perfectly confirmed by the
observations ; as I have shown in the extract of the Memoir
on Difi"raction, published in the Xlth volume of the Annales
de Chimie et de Physique.

[To be continued.]

455

Proceedings of the Royal Society.

The following Papers have been read at the table of the Royal
Society since our last report.

February 22nd.

On the Mutual Attraction of the Particles of Magnetic Bodies,
and on the Law of Variation of the Magnetic Forces generated by
Rotation, by S. H. Christie, Esq.

Correction of an Error in a Paper published in the Philosophical
Transactions, entitled *' On the Parallax of the Fixed Stars," by
J. F. W. Herschel, Esq., F.R.S.

On Attractions apparently Magnetic exhibited during Chemical
Combination, by W. L. Kenwood, Esq.

March 1st.

On the Submaxillary Gland of the Crocodile, by Thomas Bell,
Esq.

March Sth.

On the Chemical Composition of Two Liquids proposed as
powerful Disinfectants, by A. B. Granville, M.D., F.R.S.

On the Permeability of Transparent Screens of great tenuity
to radiant Heat, by Mr. Ritchie.

March Ibth and March 22nd.

Experiments on the Mean Density of the Earth, by Messrs.
Whewell and Airey.

March 29th and April bth.
On the Compounds of Chromium, by Dr. Thomas Thomson,

April 26th.

On the Derangement of certain Transit Instruments by the effect
of Temperature, by R. Woodhouse, Esq., F.R.S.

456 Proceedings of the

Proceeding's of the Royal Institution of Great Britain,

On the evening o^ Friday^ the 16th of March, Mr. Ainger gave an
historical view of the principle and construction of Suspension
Bridges. The following is an abstract of his discourse :

Suspension bridges appear to be among the earliest inventions
of mankind. They are known to have existed over mountain-
clefts and torrents at very remote periods in all parts of the world,
especially in Asia; and they are now found, of great magnitude, in
countries so little advanced in civilization and science as to prove
that they require no considerable exertion either of skill or saga-
city. These early bridges consist mostly of ropes manufactured
from vegetable fibres, sometimes of wooden bars linked together*
and, very seldom, of iron chains. It is said also that, in the East,
they use for this purpose the rattan, or common cane, which, when
young, is so flexible as to allow of being tied in knots, like a
string.

In all these cases the roadway of the bridge has been laid im-
mediately upon the ropes or chains, and has thus partaken of their
curvature ; differing, in this respect, from the bridges of the last
twenty years, in which the roadway, being suspended below the
chains, may be made perfectly level. This improvement, combined
with the increased and economical manufacture of iron, has given
an impulse to constructions of this sort, from which the greatest
commercial benefits may be anticipated.

The credit of this application is due to America, whose example
has been rapidly followed in this kingdom, and has since extended
to the continent of Europe. The most magnificent work of this
kind which has yet been executed, is the stupendous bridge over
the Menai Strait, erected by Mr. Telford.

The most striking circumstance in these bridges is their great
economy as compared with ordinary, or what are called insistent
bridges. That economy arises from the power of a suspension
bridge to vary its curve so as to adapt it to any variation or partial
excess in its load, in consequence of which the strength of the
chains may be with great precision adjusted to any required strain,
and no more : while in insistent bridges the liability of the arch
to a fatal derangement of its form by partial or excessive pressure,
requires an enormous increase of weight and of strength beyond
what is requisite for the mere support of its load, supposing it to
be uniformly distributed.

Royal Institution of Great Britain. 457

Iron, independently of its cheapness and extensive diffusion, is
singularly and admirably adapted for the construction of suspen-
sion brid«res. When it is considered that the greater part of the
weight of these bridges arises from the chains themselves, it is evi-
dent that the best material for the purpose is that which has great
tenacity with small weight ; and thus we find that iron is at the
same time the most tenacious and, excepting tin, the lightest of
the common metals. A square inch of good iron requires about 28
tons to separate it, and it will not be stretched or otherwise affected
with less than half that weight.

Where, however, economy and portability are important objects,
rope bridges will be found advantageous, and they have been
during the last few years extensively introduced into British India,
by Mr. Shakespear, the postmaster-general at Calcutta. They
have produced great benefit in facilitating the transport of troops
and baggage, as well as of merchandize and the mails. One of
these bridges, 160 feet in length, is so light and portable, that it
has been several times set up and removed in a few hours. An
interesting account of their construction is given, with illustrative
engravings, in the 43rd volume of the Transactions of the Society
of Arts ; from whose repository the Institution was furnished with
a beautiful model of one of them transniitted from India by Mr.
Shakespear. •

At this meeting several valuable specimens in Natural History
were presented by Major-general Hardwicke ; a variety of curious
and instructive models of Pumps, of different constructions, were
exhibited; as also several new and splendid Literary Publications.

Friday y March 23rd.

Mr. Reinagle, of the Royal Academy, delivered a discourse on
the beautiful forms derivable from the Oval, and its combinations.
We hope, in our next number, to be able, through the kindness of
Mr. Reinagle, to give an abstract of his lecture, with illustrative
wood-cuts.

At this meeting, several specimens of Perforated Metallic Plates
were upon the table. These were the work of M. Lariviere, and
consisted of plates of various metals perforated with circular aper-
tures, perfectly regular in their size and arrangement, but of dif-
ferent dimensions in different specimens, some of them being of
extreme fineness. These holes are formed by punches with flat
faces, which, passing through the plates into holes made to receive

APRIL — JUNE, 1287. 2 H

458 Proceedintjs of the

them, cut out the pieces to be removed, and leave perfectly regular
smooth apertures. The application of plates so perforated, to the
purposes of filtration and separation, is daily increasing.

There was also exhibited an Anatomical specimen, which had
been preserved for some years in essential oil of turpentine, and
upon which had been gradually deposited some very beautiful
groups of colourless transparent crystals. Some of these being
examined, were found to be fusible, volatile, combustible with a
bright carbonaceous flame, burning entirely away, and appeared to
consist of hydrogen and carbon, having been formed apparently
from a new arrangement of the elements of the oil of turpentine
dependant upon time.

The application of a Steam-Engine to the processes of an iron-
work, was experimentally illustrated by Mr. Webster, whose models
of the different forms of the steam-engine are truly excellent.

Friday^ March SOth,

A general view of the Animal Economy, particularly illustrated
by a History of the Circulation in man, and other animals, was
given in the Theatre, by Dr. Pattison.

A large Meteoric Stone, from the district of Agra, in the East
Indies, was placed upon the library table. It belonged to Graham
Wilmore, Esq., weighed 141b. 1 oz., and was accompanied by a
letter and an account of its fall, written in the Persian language, the
following translation of which was supplied by Dr. Wilkins : —

Translation of an Account in the Persian Language, of the falling of
an Aerolite, in the night of the 7th August, A. D. 1822, near: the
Village o/Kadonah, i?i the District o/Agra, East Indies.

From the perusal of an address from the Ddroghd, or Superin-
tendant, of Kosee, belonging to the district of Agra, dated the 14th
of August, A.D. 1822; and another address, dated the 18th Sep-
tember, A.D. 1822, in answer to a written order; it was discovered
that in the middle of the night, between the 7th and 8th of August,
A.D. 1822, (when all the people of the village of Kddonah, be-
longing to the aforesaid police station {Kosee) were asleep in their
own houses, except the watchman Sabald, who was employed in
the fields of the village, and the zemeendars Oo-day Sing, Sahee
Ram^ and Hargoband ; also the sweeper Bdchd, who were awake
in their own houses,) ; reports were heard (as it were) of muskets
and cannon towards the west, and a noise as the violence of the

Royal Institution of Great Britain. 4Sft

wind, and the like. The few inhabitants of the vicinity who were
awake, were alike sensible of the reports and noises ; but Sabaldy
the watchman, who was in the fields, besides the aforesaid noises,
heard the explosive sound of the fiilling of some heavy substance
on the ground, on that side where are situated the houses of the
sweepers, so that he went about on all sides in search ; but, in tha
night, nothing came to his sight. At length, in the morning, when
it was daylight, he was again moving about, in order to discover
what it was ; when on that side, at the distance of about three
fields from the cultivated land, he found that a stone, of the dimen-
sions of a span, had fallen down into the ground among the trees
of the common ; that a little smoke was rising from it, and that it
was somewhat warm : also, that the colour of it was just what it
now is. The light made it evident that this stone had the pre-
ceding night fallen from the atmosphere, and had occasioned the
sudden noise. It was also discovered that there had been a hole,
of the measure of one span, made in the ground, of which, in con
sequence of the violence of the rain, not a vestige remained when
the superintendent sent the stone to the Court-house. Its colour
appears of a red or rusty black, like that of iron. On one side a
little has been broken off, fi:om which the stone appears to be a
concrete mass.

Mr. Ritchie produced one of his simple but delicate Balances. — ^
See Quarterly Journal of Science, xxii. 181.

Specimens of Pemmican, prepared by order of Government foi»
Capt. Parry's voyage, were laid upon the tables by Mr. Marshall.

Experiment on the Reflection of Light. — ^The quantity of light re-
flected by bodies is known to increase as the angle which the incident
ray makes with the reflecting surface is diminished. This was
strikingly illustrated by a plane surface of plaster of Paris : used as
a mirror, no image of a luminous or strongly-illuminated body
oould be seen in it when the rays impinged directly upon the sur-
face, or at considerable angles ; but when the plaster was so held
that the rays made but a small angle with its surface, then a clear
and distinct reflected image of the object was immediately observed.
It was stated that even writing-paper, when well stretched and
brought into the proper position, could thus be made to act as a.
reflector.

Several curious MSS. and antient books were placed upon the
table.

2H2

460 Proceedings of the

Friday, April 6th.

Mr. Webster made some observations, in the Lecture-Room, o n.
the effect of the Wind in impelling Sails, &c.

In the Library was a Skeleton of the Ourang Outang of Borneo,
presented to the Museum by Major-general Hardwicke; a Pata-
gonian Penguin, presented by Mr. Shipley ; the Tooth of a
Spermaceti Whale, presented by Mr. Marshall ; and specimens of
Paper made from various substances. Books were presented to
the Library by Sir Thomas Phillips, Bart., John Ranking, George
P. Scroope, and T. Winn, Esquires.

The Meetings were then adjourned to the 27th April.

Friday, April 27th,

In the Theatre some further observations on Egyptian Mummies,
and on the Art of Embalming, were addressed to the Members by
Dr. Granville. On this occasion, Dr. Granville recapitulated the
principal heads of his former discourse ; and added a variety of new
and interesting illustrations in proof of the statements contained in
his Essay upon the subject, printed in the Philosophical Transac-
tions.

In the Library was a part of the bottom of a ship, consisting. of
a piece of four-inch plank pierced through by a sword-fish, the tooth
having been broken by the force of the blow, and about 12 inches in
length of it remaining in the wood. This specimen was ])resented
to. the Museum by Major-general Hardwicke. A poisoned arrow,
from the Celebes, such as those which the inhabitants project by
blowing them through tubes; and some specimens of the Mantis,
being presents to the Museum, were placed upon the table, upon
which were also many literary curiosities.

Friday, May 4th.

Mr. Faraday gave an account of the chemical action of Chlorine
and its compounds, when used as disinfectants. — It was observed
that the power possessed by chlorine in its free state, either as gas
or in solution, to destroy vegetable colours, putrid effluvia, and
infectious vapours had been long known; and the similar powers
of some of its compounds recognised : but that fresh and deserved
attention had been again excited towards the subject, by the
proposal of M. Labarraque to use the compounds of this element
with lime and with carbonated soda, in numerous cases of dis-

V

Royal Institution of Great Britain. 461

infection, and by the proofs he had brought forward of their very
efficacious nature. The application of these compounds, and their
medical uses, havinj^ been spoken of by Mr. Alcock, on February
2nd*, Mr. Faraday confined himself to considerations purely che-
mical. Free chlorine acts upon putrid or infectious miasmata,
sometimes by the abstraction of hydroi^en, with which it forms
muriatic acid ; sometimes by combining with and forming triple
compounds with the carbon and hydrogen of the vapours; and
sometimes, perhaps, by evolving oxygen, which, in its nascent
state, acts upon the effluvia : but in all cases it acts chemically, and
converts tjiat which is noxious into inoffensive substances ; and this
t does by mere contact at common or even very low temperatures.

Free chlorine is often inconveniently applicable, because it is
itself offensive and injurious to the lungs ; but, when combined
with hydrated lime, or with a carbonated alkali, it forms compounds
which may be obtained in the solid state, or sometimes more con-
veniently in a state of solution, and in which, although none of the
offensive qualities of the chlorine remain, its power of destroying
odorous and infectious matter is still singularly eminent. The first
of them is usually known by the name of chloride of lime, or
bleaching powder, and is prepared in enormous quantities in this
and other countries, for the use of the bleacher. In it the chlorine
is held by so weak an affinity, that even carbonic acid evolves it,
and it is by such an action that the powder, or its solution, acts as
a disinfectant upon the air to which it is exposed ; for, according
to the good experiments of M. Gaultier de Claubryt, the carbonic
acid in the air first evolves a small portion of chlorine, and then
the free chlorine acts upon the putrid or infectious matter.

The compound of chlorine with carbonate of soda, which has
been distinguished by several very unphilosophical names, is not
so well understood. Mr. Faraday inclined to think it the result of
a simple union between the two substances, unattended by any
decomposition of the alkaline carbonate. He stated, as the
result of his own experience, that no carbonic acid gas was given
out when prepared according to M. Labarraque's prescription ; and
as the result of Mr. Phillips's experience, that a peculiar crystalline
mass was obtained by evaporating the solution to dryness, which,
when dissolved, although it possessed no bleaching power, acquired
that property by passing a current of carbonic acid gas through it.
He also mentioned an experiment made by Mr. Phillips, at which
he was present, in which a portion of the compound which had
* See page 211 of this volume, t See page 237.

462 Proceedings of the

been evaporated to dryness and exposed to air for some time, when
re-dissolved, and converted by nitric acid into a nitrate, and then
tested by nitrate of silver, gave so small a quantity of chloride of
silver, as evidently to show that the chlorine had never so far acted
upon the alkali as to produce any sensible portion of chloride or
chlorate, but had been almost entirely set free again as uncombined
chlorine.

The necessity of attending very nicely to the preparation of the
substances when they were intended for medical uses, was insisted
upon, according to M. Labarraque's directions ; but when required
for common domestic uses, which must daily become more numerous,
the ordinary bleaching powder, or a common soda preparation, were
recommended as being quite as effectual and more economical.

Later in the evening, the Mummy of a Cat, presented to the
Museum by Mr. Leverton, was opened upon the lecture-table by
Dr. Granville, who directed the attention of the audience to the
manner in which the bandages were applied and the limbs folded,
and to other interesting points which arose during the examination.

In the Library were three Kaleidophones, an instrument, the
invention of Mr. Wheatstone, for a description of which, see page
344 of the present number.

On the tables were numerous specimens of antient and modern
literary works.

Friday y May llth.

On this evening, Mr. Brockenden offered some remarks upon
the Tenacity of Metals, and a new mode of Wire-drawing. He,
some years since, patented an invention for drawing fine wire
through holes pierced in gems, which, for wire of a valuable mate-
rial, has been completely successful. Pierced gems are now gene-
rally used by the manufacturers of gold, silver, and gilt wire, at
Lyons in France, and in England. The advantages of using the
holes made in gems, instead of those formerly pierced in metal-plates,
are numerous and important. From the perfect lustre which is given
to the hole by the diamond-powder used in polishing and finishing,
it never removes the gold from the silver and copper-gilt wires,
but imparts to the metal a peculiar brilliancy. The durability of
the holes is so great, that a piece of wire, 800 miles in length, has
been drawn through a hole pierced in a ruby -^^-^ of an inch
diameter, without any measurable variation in the size of the ends.

Royal Institution of Great Britain, 4^3

The maximum quantity of such "wire drawn through a metal -plate
has not been two miles in leni^th, and there it has been found neces-
sary to break the wire and begin with a new hole, as the old one was
worn too large, and the increased diameter of the wire occasioned
a c^reat loss of valuable material. Holes have been pierced as fine
as the T5"»wth of an inch in ruby and sapphire, and the gilt wire so
obtained, and afterwards flattened, has so attenuated the gold, thj^t
its calculable thickness was less than the Tscs^s^c^th of an inch ;
a platina wire being placed in a silver wire of 90 times it3 diameter,
and the latter reduced to uVsth of an inch, the former was reduced
to the undetectable thickness of icscssth of an inch. Mr. B. stated,
that he had employed various stones and gems with as various
success — agate, jade, heliotrope, chrysoberyl, ruby, sapphire, and
diamond. The chrysoberyl, ruby, and sapphire were the best : the
first, for its toughness and hardness ; the latter, for hardness princi-
pally. The diamond failed from the difficulty of polishing the hole*.

The invention was unsuccessful for iron-wire, because the mate-
rial was found to be too intractable, and stones of sufficient mag-
nitude could not be procured at a moderate price; but if this
could have been effected, the value of the invention, as applied to
the manufacture of wire for carding-machines, would have been
very great; because wire perfectly cylindrical and equal is a
desideratum. It would, also, have been of great value for nuisical
wire; — not that pianoforte-makers and tuners would have been
sensible of its excellence, as their present test of the fitness of
the wire which they use is the twisting which it will bear — ^
quality found in high perfection in tin wire, and least of all in
steel.

Mr. B. adverted to the vague and confused tables of ductility
and tenacity usually found in works upon the qualities of metals.
Ductility is a term usually employed to express the quality of the
metal upon which forces act to reduce it to wire ; but if this mean
in the way wire is usually made — that is, drawn through a hole-
it includes two qualities : the tenacity of the wire drawn, which
must exceed the resistance in the whole of that portion which is to
be drawn ; aud the hardness or softness of the metal which is sub-
jected to tlie reduction. Thus, the ductility of steel and of tin
would approximate closely; for the softness of tin is considerable,
but its tenacity very little; whilst the hardness and intraqtibility of
steel is so great, that it exceeds its high quality of tenacity, and
renders the difficulty nearly equal of drawing steel and tin. But

♦ The mode of making these holes was also stated by Mr. B., and will be
made the subject of a future notice in this work.

4^ Proceedings of the

if its measure of ductility were to he determined by another mode
of forming the wire — extending it between half-round grooves — the
ductility of tin, or its reduction to wire by that process, would be
at least twenty times more easy than that of steel.

There are many other interesting and uninvestigated qualities in
metals, such as twisting, flexion, &c. A tin wire may be twisted
twenty times round without breaking, when steel would snap before
one revolution. Yet the tenacity of steel must be more than fifty
times exceeding that of tin.

Mr. B. exhibited some new instruments for measuring minute
differences in the diameters to the so^ooth of an inch ; and also for
determining comparative tenacity, flexion, and elasticity.

In the Library was an engraved copy of an autograph of Oliver
Cromwell, the property of Mr. Frost.

Friday, May I8th, and May2Mh.
These evenings were occupied with an account of the recent im-
provements in ship-building, by Mr. Holdsworth ; of which we
shall give the details in our next Number.

Friday t June 1st.

Mr. Turrell delivered a discourse on the methods o^ splitting,
cutting, and polishing the Diamond ; he also entered into a descrip-
tion of the application of that substance to effect many curious and
useful purposes in various manufactures practised in this country.
It was shown that, although the diamond is the hardest of all
known substances, yet it may be split by a steel tool, provided a
blow be applied ; but this requires a perfect knowledge of the
structure, because it will only yield to such means in certain direc-
tions. This circumstance prevents the workman from forming
facettes or planes generally, by the process of splitting ; he is
therefore obliged to resort to the process of abrasion, which is
technically called cutting. The process of cutting is effected by
fixing the diamond to be cut on the end of a stick, or handle, in a
small ball of cement, that part which is to be reduced being left to
project. Another diamond is also fixed in a similar manner, and
the two stones being rubbed against each other with considerable
force, they are mutually abraded, flat surfaces, or facettes, being
thereby produced. Other facettes are formed by shifting the
diamonds into fresh positions in the cement, and when a sufficient
number are produced they are fit for polishing. The stones, when
cut, are fixed for polishing by embedding them in soft solder, con-

Royal Institution of Great Britain^ 465

tained in a small copper cup, the part, or facette, to be polished
beincf left to protrude.

A flat circular plate of cast-iron is then charged with the powder
produced during the abrasion of the diamonds ; and by this means
a tool is formed that is capable of producing the exquisite lustre so
much admired on a finely-polished gem. Those diamonds that are
unfit for working, on account of the imperfection of their lustre or
colour, are sold for various purposes under the technical name of
Bort. Stones of this kind are frequently broken in a steel mortar
by repeated blows, xmtil they are reduced to a fine powder, which
is used to charge metal plates, of various kinds, for the use of
jewellers, lapidaries, and others. Bort, in this state of preparation,
is incapable of polishing any gems; but it is used to produce flat
surfaces on rubies and other precious stones.

It was also shown that fine drills are made of small splinters of
bort, which are used for drilling small holes in rubies and other
hard stones, for the use of watch-jewellers, gold and silver wire-
drawers, and others who require very fine holes drilled in such
substances. These drills are also used to pierce holes in china,
where rivets are to be inserted ; also for piercing holes in artificial
enamel teeth, or any vitreous substances, however hard.

A paper, published by Dr. Wollaston in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, on the nature and properties of
the cutting diamond, was referred to as fully explaining the requisite
properties in the natural diamond to suit it to that purpose. In
this it was clearly shown, that it is only in the natural state the
diamond can be depended upon to cut or divide plates or panes of
glass ; and even then a particular crystallization is absolutely
requisite.

These observations were illustrated by various diamonds, which
proved the truth of Dr. Wollaston's remarks. The Lecture con-
cluded by exhibiting some beautiful specimens of steel, orna-
mented in a most curious manner by Mr. John Barton, of the
Royal Mint. The most beautiful display of prismatic colours were
seen, produced by divisions 2000 in an inch, the lines being made
with a natural diamond. It would be impossible to convey the
smallest idea of the exquisite beauty and play of colours that are
produced by these means. Several other specimens of dividing
were laid before the company, tending to elucidate the value of the
diamond when applied to eflect certain purposes in the arts.

Friday y June Sth,
Some observations on the recently proposed improvement of the

466 Proceedings of the Royal Institution,

Steam-Engine, and on the means of obtaining motive power from
the Gases, were given in the Lecture-room by Mr. Millington,

In the Library were specimens of an Ichneumon, presented to
the Museum by Mr. Barclay ; and of the Horns of the Klippsprin-
ger Antelope, presented by Mr. Colebrooke. Literary works as
usual.

Friday, June Ibtk,

Mr. Faraday gave an account of the progress and present state
of the Thames Tunnel. It was illustrated by many fine drawings
from the office of Mr. Brunei; by such parts of the apparatus used
as was sufficiently portable ; by models, and by specimens of the
earth raised from different parts, and of the articles which had at
various times made their way through from the river into the
shield. After describing generally the sinking of the brick tower,
which constitutes the larger part of the present shaft ; the particular
means employed for advancing the tunnel horizontally, i. e. the
construction, nature, and use of the shield, were dwelt upon and
explained. That being done, some of the extraordinary circum-
stances against v/liich the shield had to contend, and over which it
successfully prevailed, were described ; as, for instance, the occur-
rence of a pot-hole of gravel, the nature of the moistened silt, the
rapid entrance of water, and the runs of earth. A particular
history of the late entrance of the water in such manner as to fill
the tunnel was then given, with the modes adopted in examining
the hole that had been formed, by means of the diving-bell ; in
filling it with bags of clay, and covering it with grouting ; and the
description was continued to the formation of the second hole, the
satisfactory results that were obtained upon the examination of that
and the former, the means adopted for the purpose of stopping it,
and the progress made in proving them. The subject was con-
cluded "by general remarks upon the abundant reason there was,
from the efficacy of the means, from the good ground in advance,
and from the. known and tried talents of Mr. Brunei, to expect a
successful result to jhiB. bold and arduous undertaking.

Ill the Library were two Guanches, from Teneriffe, belonging
to Mr. Brettell ; a complete set of specimens of Rock Salt, pre-
sented to the Museum by Mr. Leigh ; new Transactions of various
Societies, and new literary works.

The Meetings were then adjourned to the next season.

467 - ^^\

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

I. Mechanical Science.

1. On the Compression of Gases, by M. Despretz. — Sulphurous
and sulphuretted hydrogen, cyanogen, and ammoniacal gases, are
not subject to the law of Mariotte. The difference becomes evident
under a pressure of two atmospheres, as may be seen by the
following table : —

Xir Amraoalacal Gm.

L819 1.850

2.582 2.663

3.863 4.132

The gases were perfectly dry, and free from extraneous substances.
The graduated tubes containing them were surrounded by water,
so that the heat liberated could produce no effect. Hydrogen
accorded with air up to 15 atmospheres, and it was only under 20
atmospheres that the former was decidedly in advance of the latter:
on repeating the experiment, the tube burst at 28 atmospheres.

These experiments show that the gases susceptible of being
liquefied, indicate a pressure, which appears to be greater than that
of the air, as the pressure is greater. It is probable that air itself
is not subject to the law of Mariotte at pressures but little increased,
but that can only be decided by measuring the pressure by a column
of mercury, and correcting the latter for the compression of the
metal.

In a second communication^ the following is described as the
method employed by M. Despretz, Two graduated tubes, con-
taining one air, and the other the gas to be compared, were intro-
duced into a large tube containing water, each gas tube dipping
into a reservoir of mercury. The gases were perfectly dry; a
syringe was attached to the mouth of the large glass tube ; by
depressing the piston the water was compressed, and, consequently,
the gas and air in the tube. In this way, a uniform force was
applied ; but as the tubes were of the same diameter, and the gas
stood in them at the same height, it ought to rise equally in them,
in consequence of the pressure, if, at least, the gases were equally
compressible. But this did not happen, and, except hydrogen, ail
the gases were compressed more rapidly than air. To obtain the
value of the difference, Mariotte's law was assumed as correct, and
the elastic force of each gas calculated from the ditlerence of
volume which occurred. It was in this way that the numbers
above were obtained.

M. Despretz is engaged in constructing an apparatus by which
the different gases may be compressed by a column of mercury,
and from which more accurate and advantageous results may be
expected. — Ann, de Chimie^ xxxiv., 335, 443*

468 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

2. On a New Optical Property ofDichroite. — This mineral, already
remarkable for the mimerous colours which it exhibits when exposed
to light, and more particularly to that which has been polarised, is
rendered still more ^o by a new property which M. Marx has
discovered in it, — namely, the power of polarising ordinary light.
M. Biot first observed this property in transparent tourmaline, and
afterwards used two plates of this substance, cut parallel to the axis
of the crystals, and placed one upon the other at right angles, in his
investigations of the optical properties of other minerals. Plates
of dichroite may be used for the same purpose : those specimens of
the mineral which come from Bodenmais are very proper for such
uses. According to M. Marx, the- curious -fact occurs, that the
plates may be cut from the crystals in a direction either parallel or
perpendicular to the axis. M. Marx thinks that the dichroite does
not belong to the rhomboidal system, and also that it possesses two
optical axes, the angle formed by them being divided by the axes of
crystallization. — Zeitzchriftfur Mineral, 1826.

3. Velocity of Cannon Balls. — Lieutenant Helwig, of Prussia,
has invented a process for measuring the time occupied by a ball or
bullet in passing through a certain space. His process consists in
making the ball liberate the works of a time-keeper at the moment
when it quits the mouth of the piece, and in making it also stop the
time-keeper at the moment when it strikes an obstacle. The
numerous experiments which he has made already, offer interesting
results. He finds, for instance, that a light body, of the same
calibre with the bullet, moves, at the commencement, with much
greater velocity than the latter, equal charges being used: he finds
also, that small bodies move more promptly, a circumstance which
causes a considerable deviation of the ball, when there is sand or
any light body within the piece used. — Bnl. Uriiv. Hi iv. p. 119.

4. Security from Fire in Theatres. — At the time of re-constructing
the theatre, I'Odeon, after its destruction by fire, it became a question
whether a metallic screen should not be interposed at the proscenium
between the public part and the stage, for the purpose ot preventing
the rapid communication of the combustion of the parts behind the
scene, or upon the stage, to the body of the theatre. M. D'Arcet
strongly opposed the use of an impermeable screen, but recom-
mended one of wire, and founded his opinion on the following fact,
which, if generally known, might tend to give a degree of self-
possession to the public, in a theatre, should they ever be called
upon to act in such a critical situation. " I had occasion, accu-
rately, to observe the first destruction of I'Odeon, by fire, in the
year 1799. I then remarked that the fire spread rapidly behind the
scenes, but without any smoke appearing in the body of the theatre;
and I was able to remain, for a long time, in one of the second tier
of boxes on the left side, without being inconvenienced by the he^it.

, Mechanical Science, ' 469

and havinp^ nothing as a protection but the powerful current of air
which passed throuj^h the theatre, and proceeded to invigorate the
combustion of the scenery and wood- work upon the stage. Nearly
the whole of that part of the theatre was on fire, but the public
portion quite untouched, when a piece of inflamed wood fell on the
left side of the centre, rebounded over the balustrade, fell into the
orchestra, and then set fire to one of the benches in the pit. The
combustion of that part thus commenced, but the current of air
towards the stage was so rapid, that the smoke passed nearly hori-
zontally towards it, and the fire made but slow progress in the pit.
I witnessed this effect for more than half an hour, and beheld the
orchestra, and nearly the whole of the pit in flames, without there
being any sensible portion of smoke in the body of the theatre
above the first tier of boxes. I was then obliged to work at a pump,
and prevented from observing any longer the progress of the fire."
M. D'Arcet then observes that an impermeable metallic screen
would, in any such case, have done far more harm than good.
Supposing it strong enough to withstand the pressure of the air
upon it, it would quickly become red-hot, and from causing the
ascent of a current of highly-heated air on its side towards the
t)ody of the theatre, would, in every way, tend to inflame that part
of the building ; it would also confine the air there, and in a few
moments make it unfit for respiration. On the contrary, an open
metallic screen, with large meshes, would appear to present great
advantage; the aif woyld pass freely, and consequently, exert no
serious degree of pressure upon it; the screen itself would be
preserved cool by the rapid current going through it : inflamed
pieces of wood, when falling, would be retained on the side already
in flames ; the firemen could throw water through it upon the
burning places on the opposite side, and none of the inconveni-
ences would be occasioned by it, which so evidently belong to the
impermeable screen.

In Paris, the architect is obliged, by law, to construct a thick
wall across the theatre, between the audience part and the stage
with all behind or belonging to it. The following are the directions
which M. D'Arcet gives in case fire occurs in such a theatre, where
the stage opening can be shut at pleasure, by a metallic screen,
constructed of wire sixteen hundredths of an inch in thickness, and
with square intervals about two inches in width. Suppose the fire
to commence with the decorations upon the stage, the immediate
help which should always be at hand should be applied, and the
firemen sent for; all means should be taken to quell the flames,
until the hope of extinguishing the fire is gone : the system should
then be changed; the ventilations over the body of the theatre are
to be closed, the screen lowered, all the doors into the lower part of
the body of the theatre oj)ened to admit air ; the ventilating flue
over the stage must be opened, and the glass of the sky-lights and
upper windows of that part broken by stones, or otherwise : a

470 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

powerful current of air will thus be established, which entering by
the vestibule, will pass into the theatre through the screen, carry the
flame and smoke towards the back of the theatre, and out at the
upper apertures on that side. That done, every means possible
must be taken to throw the inflamed wood-work towards the bottom
of the theatre, to prevent the calcination of the lar^e wall. The
firemen, in the pit, should water the wires of the metallic screen,
and extin<:^ish the flames near to it. Some of them, with lons^
poles, should be ready to thnist any scenery or inflamed wood which
may fall a^*ainst the screen backwards, whilst others should watch
the body of the theatre to extinguish any small portions of fire that
misrht accidentally pass the screen. The fire thus confined to the
back of the theatre, would be more readily extinguished by the
ordinary means ; or if the fire happened On the other side of the
screen, then a similar system should be pursued, always considering
that part in which the fire is strongly established as a furnace, and
removing all burning portions as fast as possible from the part to
be preserved towards the place where combustion is allowed. —
Bui. Univ. E. vii. 15.

5. Macadamised Roads. — The cost of converting Regent-street,
Whitehall, and Palace-yard, into broken-stone roads, has been

£6055 8 3
Value of old pavement taken up and broken for

that purpose 6787 7 0

5^12,842 15 3

Parliamentary papers. M. Post. May 19th.

II. Chemical Science,

1. Determination of the Electro-conducting Power of Metals. —
The following is a very simple and exact process by which M.
Arago ascertains the conducting power of different bodies for the
electric fluid, when the latter is accumulated upon large surfaces,
in a state of great tension. Suppose a conducting wire to be con-
tinued from the external coating of a battery, in a rectilineal direc-
tion, for a certain length, and then ramifying in a certain number
of branches of the same metal, all equal in diameter, form, and
length, and reuniting in one common point. Steel needles are to be
placed transversely across the straight part of each wire before and
after the ramification, and the electric discharge is to be passed
through the system. It will pass undivided through the first con-
ductor, but be separated in the different branches into equal pro-
portions. The magnetization of the needles placed on the first
wire will be the measure of the effect produced by the whole quan-
tity of electricity; the magnetization of those placed on the rami-
fied wires will measure the effect produced by a certain fraction of
that quantity ; as the third, if there be three branches ; or the tenth/

Chemical Science. 47t

if there be ten. A scale will be thus formed of magnetic intensi-
ties, corresponding^ to a fraction of any ^ven discharge. If afterJ
wards, instead of using different branches of the same metal, similar
wires of different metals be used, and a second discharge be passed
through this new system, equal to one of known effect, it will be
divided unequally between the wires, and the steel needles placed
transversely across them will indicate by their degree of magnet-
ization, whether a particular metal has transmitted a third, anothei*
a fourth, another a tenth, or any other proportion of the whole
quantity of electricity discharged. — Ann, de ChimiCy xxxiv. p. 7.

2. On Lightning Rods and Compasses, by Dr. Fi<icher. —^Dr. Fischer
states, that when iron is magnetised it loses much of its conducting
power for ordinary electricity; and concludes from his observations,
that iron, which is known to become magnetic by even feeble elec-
tric explosions, is a very improper metal for the construction of
lightning-rods. He relates an instance in which a rod of this
metal, placed as a lightning-conductor upon a powder-magazine,
had entirely failed on several occasions in preventing the explosion
of lightning close by its side. Upon examining this rod, it was
found to have attractive and repulsive magnetic properties.

M. Fischer consequently recommends copper as the metal to be
used, and advises that the end be gilt or made to terminate in a
gold point, rather than with platina, because the former is so much
superior in conducting power.

The conclusions of M. Fischer with regard to the decrease of
conducting power in iron, when magnetised, are in singular contrast
to the assertions of Mr. Abraham, who states that the conducting
property is wonderfully increased by making iron magnetic, and
recommends that all lightning-rods be of magnetised iron. We
doubt whether any effect is produced either way.

Mr. Fischer endeavours to prevent the disturbance of the mag-
netic needle from neighbouring masses of iron, by placing it in a
bowl of that metal of equal thickness throughout. He states, that
the needle points north and south, and is not effected by the approx-
imation of iron. The means are the same, generally, as those prac-
tised some years ago in this country by Mr. Jennings, who sur-
rounded his needles with a strong ring of iron. The effect is also
stated to be the same. — Bull. Univ. E. vii. 93.

Mr. Abraham used two cast-steel rods, properly hardened and
tempered, each three feet in length and half an inch in diameter;
one end of each bar was hammered to a fine point, and one bar
was rendered magnetic ; then a brass ball was placed two inches off
from the prime conductor of a machine, and the points of the un-
magnetised and magnetised bars brought alternately towards it;
the magnetic bar (it is said) prevented the passage of sparks
between the conductor and ball when it was twelve inches off^
whilst the other required to be brought to within nine inches. —
Phil. Mag. N. S. i. p. 267.

472 Miscelluneous Intelligence.

3. On the tramference of Ponderable Matter in Electric Dis-
charges, by M. Fusinieri. — ^This philosopher has made numerous
experiments on this subject, but we think it sufficient to quote the
following- only. Two large Leyden jars were charged, one of which
had a ball of silver, connected with its knob by a silver wire; a
polished dish of copper, nine centimetres in diameter and two-thirds
of a millimetre in thickness, was then held against the ball of the
discharging rod, and the discharge made from the silver ball,
throug-h the plate to the brass ball, with which it was in contact.
The distance was six or eight lines, such was the length of spark,
and the following were the results : — 1, A red stain (oxide of cop-
per), with a greenish portion (oxide of silver), and white spots,
(silver), was formed on the face of the disc, opposite the silver ball.
2. A stain, more or less green, existed on the other side of the
plate, where it was in contact with the brass ball. 3. The brass
ball had a white stain, at the point of contact. 4. Finally, the
ball of silver had traces of oxide of copper. Besides these etfects,
the copper and brass w^ere roughened at the points of discharge.

In another experiment, a ball of gold and a disc and discharger
of silver were used with the former two jars. The disc was placed
in contact with the ball of silver ; a gold stain, a centimetre in
diameter, was obtained on the external face of the disc, although the
electric spark had to pass a distance of from two to four centimetres
from the gold to the silver. This beautiful stain was like a very
thin film of gold; in the course of some minutes, it became more
rare, and totally disappeared in the course of some days, — an effect
which sufficiently indicates that the gold had been reduced to a
volatile state. There was also a stain of gold on the ball of silver,
and a stain of silver on the ball of gold.

Another experiment was made: after having covered one of the
faces of the silver-plate with wax, and made a hole in the wax, 1 J
millimetres in diameter; the face not covered received a stain of
volatile gold, as in a former experiment; but on the face covered
with wax, there was a layer of gold of more thickness and solidity,
as it did not disappear by spontaneous evaporation.

It is supposed, that these experiments prove the transportation
of ponderable matter by the electric spark. The subject being
reduced to such a state of division as to become volatile. After
this it is supposed, that the light of the spark is due to the presence
of molecules of ponderable matter detached by the electricity from
the hardest bodies. The diversity of colour in the spark is in the
same way supposed to be readily explicable. The light observed
in vacuo between the poles of the voltaic light are due, without
doubt, it is said, to solid particles carried by the current. The
smell occasioned by the electric sparks of our machines, and by
lightning, is considered as the odour of the transported matter. —
Gior, diFisica, J825, p. 450.

4. New Phenomena produced hy Vapour ^ observed by M. Clement

Chemical Science, 473

Desormes. — When steam under high-pressure is allowed to escape
in a roaring, violent jet, from rather a large orifice pierced in a
plate, and a flat disc is opposed to it at a moderate distance from
the aperture, the latter is powerfully forced away ; but if it be pressed
still more closely, as if to shut the aperture, although the vapour
issue on all sides, like an artificial fire-work, and presses more on
the disc than before, it may nevertheless be left free : not only will it
not be raised, but if the issue for the vapour be turned towards th6
earth, and the disc consequently tend to fall, as well by its own
weight as by the pressure of the vapour, still it will not descend.
The same result is obtained if the experiment be made with the
current of air from a strong blowing machine, belonging to an iron
blast furnace.

Another fact, also very curious, though well known, is that a jet
of high-pressure vapour, issuing from a very hot boiler, will appear
as a refreshing wind, compared to another jet of vapour coming
from a source much less elevated in temperature, and of less than
one-twentieth the pressure of the former.

From the first experiment, M. Clement concludes that the com-
mon safety-valves, which are real discs placed upon apertures
with flat edges, involve a danger inherent in their form. In fact,
no sooner are they raised, to permit the escape of a thin film of
vapour, than there immediately results the impossibility of rising
any further; and if the production of vapour is too considerable for
the small aperture which can exist, and for the strength of the
boiler, an explosion happens, notwithstanding that the safety-valve
is open. This, in fact, is what has actually occurred sometimes,
although it has appeared incredible.

M. Clement attributes these effects to the vacuum which is
formed in the jet of vapour, in consequence of the extreme velocity
of its molecules, and to the conical form of the kind of tube produced
by the two approximated plates between which the vapour is forced
to pass. It dilates near the edges, in consequence of its momen-
tum and elasticity far below the pressure of the atmosphere, and
the latter acts with sufficient force on the moveable disc to resist
the vapour.

The remedy to this danger may be found, without doubt, in a
good proportion between the orifices and their edges ; the former
should be large, and the latter small. The addition of a conical
tube to safety-valves will diminish the effect of the atmospheric
pressure, and of the weight with which they are charged. — Bull.
Univ. E. vii. p. 41.

In the next number of the Bulletin Universelle the following
explanation of this phenomenon by M. Clement is given. When
a jet of vapour moving with great velocity does not displace a
moveable plate put over the orifice by which it escapes, it is
because a partial vacuum exists between the fixed plate and the
mobile disc, where a tension less than that of the atmosphere exists
APRIL—JUNE, 1827. 2 I

474 Miscellaneous Intelligence,

thrpuiyliout a space sqfficiently large to permit the pressure of the
{^tmosphere to be stronger than that of the vapour. ]\I. Clement
]\s^^ flemonstrated by several experiments that this partial vacuum
]feaHy exists in the space which serves as an issue for the vapour, just
as pcpurs in tjie PQiiical tubes which are applied to orifices through
which liquids are flpwing. He has shown, that the interval which
^epara^eg. thp t\\Q plates between which the vapour escapes is a
tr\ie cpnoidp. In fact, this interval is formed of conceptric rings, of
^Y^iipl^ the surface augments in proportion to the diameters ; andy
consequently, the elastic fluid as it passes from the smaller to the
l^rg^r ring has successively filled the spaces in which it has
assumed a decreasing density, until beneath that which corresponds
to atmospheric pressure, and this in consequence pf the active
force wjth wl^ich ^ach molecule is animated when it escapes firom
its ^rst pr^ssurt^.

M. Clement finds that the theory which Daniel Bernouilli has
given for the effect of conical or cylindrical jets applies perfectly to
these curious phenomena with vapour, so that the effects were
explained, as it were, before they were observed. The great degree
of cold produced by compressed vapour at the moment of its ex-
pansion in the air, is also an effect of the active force which it
possesses at the moment of its issuing forth, which enables it to
acquire a very low tension. The jet is then formed of vapour, of
the fprpe pf one-half or one-fourth of an atmosphere, and which
consequently possesses only the corresporiding temperature, i.e. 60
or 50 degrees C. This temperature is still further reduced by the
quantity of air which the vacuum draws to it, and thus a wind
rather cold than hot is occasioned.

M. Clement proposes some alterations in safety-valves, and con-
siders the addition of a weak tube to steam-boilers as a perfect
security. He recommends it to be of considerable diameter, and
capable of supplying when burst a large vent for the vapour, so as
to be sufficient to allow of the sudden productions of vapour which
sometimes take place, and to which probably numerous accidents
are due. — E. vii. p. 104.

5. Transference of Meat hy change gf capacity in Gas. — Many
of the copper vessels in wl^ich gas is compressed at the Portable
Gas-works are cyhnders, from two to three feet in length, termi-
nated by hemispherical ends. These are attached at one end to
the system of pipes by which the gas is thrown in, and being so
fixed, the communication is opened ; it frequently happens, that
g^S previously at the pressure of thirty atmospheres in the pipes
ari^ attached recipients, is suddenly allowed to enter these long
^as-yessels, at which time a curious effect is observed. That end
of the cylinder at >yhich the gas enters becomes very much cooled,
whilst, on the contrary, the other end acquires a considerable rise
pf tempexat\^r^. This effect is produced by change of capacity in

Chemical Sciente. 4TO

the gas; for, as it enters the vessel from the parts* in which it was
previously confined, at a pressure of thirty atmospheres, it suddenly
expands, has its capacity for heat increased, falls in temperature,
and consequently cools that part of the vessel with which it first
comes in contact; but the part which has thus taken heat from the
vessel being thnist forward to the further extremity of the cylinder
by the successive portions which enter, is there compressed by
them, has its capacity diminished, and now gives out that heat, op
a part of it, which it had the moment before absorbed ; this it com-
municates to the metal of that part of the gas-vessel in which it is
so compressed, and raises its temperature. Thus the heat of tem-
perature is actually taken up by the gas from one end of the
cylinder, and conveyed to the other, occasioning the difference of
temperature observed. The effect is best observed when, as before
stated, the gas, at a pressure of thirty atmospheres, is suddenly let
into the vessels: the capacity of the parts is such, that the pressure
usually sinks to about ten atmospheres.

6. On the Change in the Zero of Thermometers.* — M. Arago
remarks, relative to the gradual change which takes place in the
indications of the thermometer, in consequence of the elevation of
the mercury, that it throws much doubt over numerous observations
made with that instrument, and imperatively requires some process
by which it can be prevented. The process he recommends is one
already known to artists, and practised by them with alcoholic
thermometers, and consists in leaving air in the upper part of the
tube sufficiently compressed to prevent the disengagement of that
contained in the liquid, and the precaution he considers as not less
necessary, whether the metal really contains the air in solution, or
whether it be considered as interposed only between it and the
glass.

Deluc has established, by numerous experiments, "that when
from any cause the particles of air disseminated in a liquid gather
together, they acquire a greater power to separate the particles of
the liquid ; and that this effect may be produced long before the
small collections of air become visible, and even before they are
capable of making their way through the fluid.'* The excess of
force spoken of by Deluc, is manifested by an augn>entation of
volume, and when the fluid is contained in the tube of a thermo-
hieter, by the ascent of the zero ; the effect is quick and considerable
in thermometers, containing alcohol, water or oil, and should be
smaller and less rapid in one containing mercury, though ultimately
an analogous result will be obtained.

An experiment made by M. Arago is then described, in which
the effect of inclosing air in the thermometer is accurately ascer-
tained. Two similai- thermometers were constructed at the same

• Quarterly Journal of Science, xiv. 411 j xv* 160, 868, 3TI.

2 12

4^6 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

time, one witli the air removed, the other containing air at the
ordinary pressure of the atmosphere ; the i^raduation of the last
remained accurate after several months, whilst the zero of the first
rose nearly a half degree. The bulb of the altered thermometer
was so thick, that no effect due to atmospheric pressure acting
from without inwards could be supposed a circumstance which
excludes the explanation of the effect adopted by MM. Bellani and
Flaugergues.

M. Arago concludes by ^observing that it may perhaps be found
preferable to boil the mercury so well as to exclude all air from it ;
but states that from certain experiments made by M. Dulong, and
not as yet published, it would appear that the precautions necessary
are so minute and numerous, that the instrument-maker will find it
a difficult matter to construct a thermometer of that kind that will
not change its zero. — Annales de Chimie, xxxiii. 423.

7. On Bromine and certain of its compounds, by M. Serullas. —
According to M. Balard, bromine remained fluid at a temperature
so low as 0° Fahr. M. Serullas found that a degree or two below
this it suddenly became solid, and was then hard, and so brittle as
to break by a blow.

On adding hydriodide of carbon to bromine in a tube, there was
immediate action, much heat, a hissing noise, and a bromide of
iodine and a fluid hydro-carburet of bromine were formed ; — a further
instance this, of the displacement of iodine by brome. Water dis-
solved the bromide of iodine, and the hydro-carburet with a little
excess of bromine remained at the bottom of the fluid. It was ren-
dered colourless by a little alkali. If the hydriodide of carbon is
in excess, but little hydro-carburet of bromine is produced, but a
sub-bromide of iodine.

The pure hydro-bromide of carbon is colourless, heavier than
water, of a penetrating ethereal odour, an exceedingly sweet taste,
and very volatile. It does not become coloured in the air like the
hydriodide of carbon, and when dropped on ignited porcelain it
yields white vapours instead of violet. The same compound was
formed by placing a drop of bromine in olefiant gas. When this
substance is cooled to about 22° Fahr., it becomes solid, and then
breaks in the manner of camphor.

M. Serullas formed hydro-bromic ether by putting forty parts of
concentrated alcohol into a retort with one part of phosphorus, and
afterwards adding, in small portions, seven or eight parts of bro-
mine ; upon each addition there was much action upon the phos-
phorus ; heat was evolved, and hydro-bromic and phosphorus acids
produced. Then carefully distilling the mixture, and washing the
product with water, the hydro-bromic ether was collected at the
bottom. It appeared as a colourless, transparent fluid, heavier
than water, with a strong and etherial odour, and a sharp taste; it
is very volatile, is soluble in alcohol, but is precipitated by water ;
it suffers no change of colour

Chemical Science. 477

Cyanide of Bromine. — ^Two parts of dry cyanuret of mercury
are to be placed in a tubulated retort, or at the bottom of a long"
tube, and being well cooled in a refrigerating mixture, one part of
bromine is to be added ; powerful action ensues, with much deve-
lopment of heat, and a bromide of mercury with a cyanide of
bromine are formed: the latter crystallizes in long needles about
the middle of the tube, the small quantity of vapour of bromine
gradually disappearing. A small receiver being then attached to
the tube, and well cooled, the cyanide is to be sublimed into it, and
will form small colourless, transparent crystals, sometimes acicular,
sometimes cubical. This substance is very volatile, and has a
penetrating odour ; it becomes vapour at 60° Fahr., and crystallises
suddenly by cooling. It is soluble in alcohol and water. Caustic
alkalies produce a hydro-cyanate and a hydro-bromate.

The cyanide of bromine is excessively deleterious ; a grain dis-
solved in water, and introduced into the oesophagus of a rabbit
caused death as instantly as prussic acid would have done. All
attempts to decompose bromine by acting upon it in this compound
failed. — Annates de Chimie, xxxiv. 95.

8. On Oxide of Iodine and lodous Acid, by Signor Sementini. —
When Sementini first obtained iodous acid *, it was by heating a
mixture of equal parts of iodine and chlorate of potash ; but the
latter salt not being pure, variable results were obtained. He then
mixed iodine with chlorate of potash in a mortar, adding the
former until a clear yellow colour was produced. Upon heating
this mixture, yellow vapours appeared at first, which condensing on
the neck of the retort used, did not redden the tincture of litmus ;
but continuing the operation, a dense oleaginous fluid was obtained,
reddening litmus, which, exposed to air, first absorbed a little mois-
ture, and then was volatilized ; having a very pungent, unpleasant
and slightly acrid taste, and being decomposed by phosphorus,
sodium, and potassium at common temperature, with the evolution
of vapours of iodine.

In the operation referred to, it appeared that the first portion of
iodine and oxygen combined to form a new compound oxide of
iodine ; that afterwards the action of the heat caused the combina-
tion of a larger proportion of oxygen with the iodine, and pro-
duced two new compounds, — the iodous acid, which, being volatile
at a moderate temperature, was condensed in the neck of the re-
tort ; and iodic acid, which remained combined with the potash of
the chlorate decomposed ; a small portion of chlorine being at the
same time set free, and rendering the last portions of iodous acid
impure by its presence.

in consequence of these actions, the following method of pre-
paring iodous acid is preferable to that first published, as supplying

* Quarterly Journal of Scienge^ vol. xvii, p. 381.

478 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

it in a purer state, and in greater abundance. Chlorate of potassa
is to be placed in a retort, with rather a large neck, and heated
until the moisture is dissipated ; then, at the time when oxygen is
freely evolved from the salt, iodine is to be introduced by means of
a metallic spoon as far as the body of the retort. The vapours of
iodine which will be occasioned by the heat will immediately dis-
appear, in consequence of their combination with the oxygen of the
chlorate, and a strong effervescence will be perceived in the latter^
occasioned by each portion of iodine with which it may combine ;
immediately yellow vapours will be perceived in the neck of the
retort, and when they redden litmus paper, and a sufficient quan-
tity of iodous acid has been obtained, the operation is to be
finished, and the acid collected, the last portion being removed by
a drop or two of water.

All attempts to unite this acid with alkaline bases have failed,
the iodine being precipitated ; this happens equally with ammonia,
potassa, and soda, the attraction between the elements of the acid
being so weak as to allow of their complete separation on these
occasions.

Oxide of Iodine was discovered in attempts to combine iodine
and oxygen directly together. It is to be obtained in the following
manner. A copper tube about two palms (20.6 inches) in length,
and eight lines in diameter, having one extremity terminated in a
screw, and the other by a small aperture about a line in diameter^
was fixed upon two supports ; the contracted extremity was curved,
so as to permit of its introduction into the tubular of a retort, with-
out deranging its convenient inclination. A bladder filled with
oxygen gas was attached to the screw. A long spirit-lamp with
several wicks was placed beneath the lower part of the tube, so as,
when necessary, to raise it to redness. Arrangements were also
made for applying a lamp to the bottom of the retort, to elevate
its temperature, it having been found that to combine oxygen and
iodine, both should be at a high heat.

The tube and the retort being heated to redness, one person
then presses the bladder to force heated oxygen into the retort, and
another introduces a spoonful of iodine through the neck of the
retort until it is brought under the jet of gas. The iodine is
quickly converted into violet vapour, which fills the retort, but this
soon disappears, and the retort neck becomes lined with a yellow
transparent substance, almost solid ; which, by the continuance of
the operation, becomes more fluid, and flows forward as an olea-
ginous liquid. If the violet vapours are too abundant, the spoon
is to be withdrawn for a little while, the introduction of oxygen
being continued ; when they have disappeared the iodine is to be
re-advanced.

The substance obtained in the commencenient of this operations
is oxide of iodine. It is of the consistence of a solid oil, has an
acrid, disgusting taste, an odour similar to that of iodous acid, but

Chemical Scienei^. 479

weakei-. It is slowly dissipated in the air, is very soluble in water
and alcohol, producing amber-coloured solutions. If brought, irt
the solid state, into contact with a dry, combustible substance, it is
decomposed, iodine being evolved. Phosphorus and potassium
are inflamed by it. It changes the blue litmus infusion to green.
If an alkali be poured into its solution, the latter is instantly ren-
dered colourless ; whereas if alkali be added to solution of iodous
acid, iodine is precipitated. The discoloration is due to the com-
bination of the alkali with the iodine which is taken from the com-
pound,— a further proof of the weakness of the affinity between
oxygen and iodine.

If the addition of oxygen be continued after the formation of
the oxide of iodine, then iodous acid is formed ; and, if the lamp
applied to the bottom of the retort be at the same time removed to
the neck, the formation of the iodous acid will be much facilitated.

Finally, oxide of iodine is always formed when iodine is heated
in close vessels containing air, and air may be used in place of oxy-
gen in the process above described. If iodine be put into a retort^
and then a second be sealed hermetically to the first, a small ca-
pillary hole being left in the neck ; the iodine being heated suc-
cessively, first in one part and then in another of the apparatus,
wherever it assumes the solid form, will gradually change into
oxide of iodine. — Giomale deFisictty ix. p. 387.

^.Quantity of Charcoal obtained from Wood. — The following
table contains the results obtained by M. Karsten from one hun-
dred parts of the shavings of woods which had been carefully dried
in the air. Two modes of carbonization were used ; the one rapid
and commencing with a high temperature, the other slow and gra-
dual. The quantity of ashes wds obtained by incineration of the
charcoal under a muffle.

Rapid.

Slow

Charcoal, Ashes.

Charcoal,

Ashes.

Young oak ....

16.39. .0.15

25.45.

.O.IS

Old oak ....

15.80. .0.11

25.60.

.0.11

Young beech, fagiis sylvatica

14.50. .0.375

25.50.

. 0.37i

Old beech ....

13.75. . 0.4

25.75.

.0.4

Young hornbeam, carpinUs betuhis

12.80. . 0.32

24.90.

.0.32

Old hornbeam

13.30. ,0.35

26.10.

. 0.35

Youiig alder ....

14.10. .0.35

25.30.

.0.35

Old alder ....

14.90. .0.40

25.25.

.0.40

Young birfch ....

12.80. . 0.25

24.80.

.0.25

Old birch . .

11.90.. 0.30

24.40.

.0.30

Young pine, pinuspicea .

14.10. .0.15

25.10.

.0.15

Old pine . , . .

13.90. .0.15

24.85.

.0.15

Young Norwegian pine, pinus abies

16.00. . 0.1^25

27.50.

. 0.225

Od Norwegian pinfe

15.10. .0.25

24.50.

.0.25

Young Scotch fir, pinus sylvestris

15.40. .0.12

25.95.

.o.i^-

Rapid

„

Slow.

Charcoal.

Ashes.

Charcoal.

Ashes.

13.60.

.0.15

25.80.

.0.15

12.90. .

,0.40

24.20.

.0.40

13.10.

.0.30

24.30.

.0.30

14.25.

.2.75

25.20.

.2.75

12.95.

.1.70

24.75.

.1.70

12.15

25.10

480 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Old fir ....

Lime ....

Rye straw ....
Fern ....

Reed

Old birch wood

Jamieson's Jour., 1827, p. 287.

10. Preparation of Cyanide of Iodine, by M. Serullas. — Place a
large glass jar with its mouth upon a plate of glass : mix two
parts of cyanide of mercury with one part of iodine, and heat
the mixture in a small porcelain capsule until the temperature
being sufficiently raised, the cyanide begins to form ; then quickly
place it under the jar, and leave the operation to itself; the pro-
duction of cyanide oT iodine will continue for fifteen or twenty
minutes, presenting the appearance of a multitude of snow-white
flocculi, of the utmost degree of whiteness and beauty : these will
gradually collect on the plate, and may be afterwards secured. —
A7inales de Chimie, xxxiv. p. 100.

11. On the Detection of Hydrocyanic Acid in the bodies of Ani-
mals poisoned by it, by MM. Lassaigne and Leuret. — The extreme ^
delicacy of the test employed by M. Lassaigne to detect prussic acid
in the bodies of poisoned animals, namely, by means of the per-
sulphate of iron, or the per-sulphate of copper, has been pointed
out at page 397 of vol. xviii. of the former series of this Journal.
Being desirous of ascertaining after how long a period the poison
might be discovered, MM. Lassaigne and Leuret made experiments
in which animals were killed by hydrocyanic acid introduced into
their food, or thrown into the stomach in a diluted state, the dose
never surpassing more than the equivalent of five or six drops of
the pure acid, or less than two drops ; the animals were left after
death for twenty-four hours in a chamber, and then buried in
moist earth afoot and a-half or two feet deep.

The disinterment took place after various periods, from fifteen
days to a month, and the stomach and first portions of intestines
being separated, were well divided and mixed with pure water, and
distilled ; a little sulphuric acid was added to the substances in the
alembic, and the recipient was cooled by ice and water.

The products were rendered slightly alkaline, and then tested by
the per-sulphate of rjiron or sulphate of copper, and a little excess
of muriatic acid was poured upon the precipitates occasioned by
these salts. No prussic acid could be discovered in animals, the
viscera of which were in a state of complete putrefaction ; it was
iFound after intervals of two or three days, but never after a longer
pjeriod than eight days.

Chemical Science, 481

From these experiments it appears, l.That prussic acid cannot
be discovered in animals poisoned by small quantities of it after
exposition of these bodies for two or three days to the air. 2.
That the disappearance of the poison in the viscera after a longer
period than this is due to its decomposition, which is favoured by
the contact of the putrescent animal matter. 3. That when it is
necessary to examine a body judicially to ascertain the presence of
this poison, it is important that it should be done as quickly as
possible. — Jour, de Chimic Med, Dec.

12. On the presence of Ammonia in the natural oxide of Iron,
by M. Chevallier. — Austin stated that ammonia was always formed
when iron rusted in contact with water and the air. M. Chevallier
having taken every precaution to exclude ammonia, heated two
ounces of clean iron-turnings in a crucible, and when cold put
them with one ounce of water into a flask, having its mouth
plunged under mercury. At the end of ten hours reddened litmus
paper which had been introduced into the flask was restored to
blue, and four days after the water saturated by muriatic acid gave
a sensible quantity of sal ammoniac. The same result was obtained
upon every repetition of the experiment, thus proving what Austin
had advanced.

Having collected various specimens of native oxides of iron, M.
Chevallier then heated them in tubes, and obtained ammonia from
them all ; but being led to the objection that might be urged of its
having been produced from animal matter, he proceeded to operate
by washing the finely-pulverized ores with boiling water : in this
way he always procured traces of ammonia ; one hundred and fifty
grammes of the red hematite of Spain gave two grammes of mu-
riate of ammonia, which is one seventy-fifth of the whole weight
of the substance. — Annates de Chimie, xxxiv. 109.

13. Volcanic Muriate of Ammonia of the Isle of Lanzerole,
Dr. Brandes. — On July 29, 1825, an earthquake occurred in the
island ; on the 30th much subterranean noise, and on the 31st, at
seven o'clock A.M., the earth opened about a league to the west of
the capital between Tao and Tia-Agua, and half a league from
Mont Francia. Flames came from the aperture, and stones in
such quantity, that a high hill was formed in twenty-four hours.
The eruption was strongest on the night of the 31st, the whole
island being enlightened. On Aug. 1, at ten o'clock A.M., the
fire ceased, but much smoke issued, which, by the 2nd, had formed
three columns, one black, one white, and a third red, which was at
some distance from the others. Many cisterns became dry. On
the 4th of August there was still much smoke ; on the 22nd, at
seven o'clock A.M., the volcano threw out water, which continued
to flow for several days. The lava ejected covered a space of half
a league in length, and a quarter of a league in width, and was

482 Misceltaneou^ ttttelligence.

not properly a current ; the lava was heavy or porous, or even
pumice-like in various parts, and was covered with muriate of am-
monia mingled with a small quantity of arsenic and magnesia, and
with two other salts of selenium and iodine. — Bui. Univ., B. x. 45.

14. On the ejflorescent Salts of Volcanic Rocks. — MM. Bischoff and
l^oggerath have examined the saline efflorescence of the Terras in
the vallies of Brohl and Tormestein, and found them composed 6f
18.901 of sulphate of potash, 18.273 of muriate of potash, 43.872
of carbonate of potash, and 20.616 of carbonate of soda. Another
salt from Brohl gave sulphate of alumina, with a little oxide of
iron, magnesia, a little alkali, and muriatic acid. They endeavoured
to discover whether these salts existed, previously formed in thie
terras ; they found potash, soda, and muriatic acid in the latter,
besides the ordinary earths ; the principal part of the alkalies was
combined with the earths, the rest with the acids. The formatidrt
of the Salts is attributed to the presence of water, and more or less
heat.

15. On the Nitrates of Ammonia and Mercury, by M. Soubeiran.
— If ammonia be added gradually to a very weak solution of pure
proto-nitrate of mercury, two precipitates are obtained, one of a
grey black, and the other white ; the latter being most abundant
the nearer the precipitation is to its termination. If thfe precipi-
tate be thrown down and removed irt separate portions, the whit^
preparation may he obtained nearly pure ; it is insipid, inodorous,
insoluble in hot or cold water. It is not attacked by caustic alka-
lies, or by nitric or sulphuric acid. The substance was analyzed
with difficulty, and the result was as follows : —

Protoxide of mercury 92.3 . 4 proportionals
Nitric acid . . 5.85 . 1 do.

Ammonia . . . 1.85 . 1 do.

100.00
The black precipitate always contained portions of the white
substance, and when acted upon by nitric acid left the latter undis-
solved. M. Soubeiran considers it in its purest state as composed
of one proportional of acid, and four of protoxide of mercury.

The ammoniaco-mercurial deuto-nitrate may be obtained by
adding excess of ammonia to a dilute solution of the deuto-nitrate
6f mercury. The white precipitate obtained is insoluble in water,
but soluble in muriatic acid, from which potash or soda precipi-
tates it ; ammonia produces a precipitate in the solution, resoluble
in excess of the alkali. Nitric and sulphuric acids partly dissolve
it. It is formed of

Deutoxide of mercury 86.4 . 2 proportionals.
Ammonia . . 3.27 . 1 do;

Nitric acid . . 10.33 . I do.

Bull, Univ. A. tom. vii. p. 210.

Chemical Science, 493

16. Peroxide of Potash from Nitre, — Mr. Phillips decomposed
nitre by heat, and found the last gaseous products nearly pur6
azote. Upon pouring water into the gun-barrel to remove the
potash, he foutid that oxygen gas was immediately evolved, and in
such quantity that an ignited stick Was instantly inflamed, and
the combustion continued for a considerable period.— -PM. Mag.
N. S. i. p. 312.

17. Crystallized Carbonate of Potash, — Mr. Phillips finds thid
salt to be composed of

1 atom of dry carbonate of potash . . 70

2 do. water . . . . . 18

88
— Philosophical Mag. \. 469.

18. Sulphates of Manganese and Soda. — M. Gfeiger has folttitl
two double salts in the residue left during the preparation of chlo-
rine. They are composed of sulphuric acid, oxide of manganese,
and soda. The sulphate of manganese and sulphate of soda are
in equal proportion in both : but oile contains five parts of water,
and effloresces in dry air ; whilst the second contains only two
parts, and is not altered in a similar situation: both salts deli-
quesce in moist air.-^—Bnll. Univ. C. x. 117.

19. Composition of White Copper^ or Packfong. — M. Gersdorf,
of Vienna, says, that the proportions of the metals in this alloy
should vary according to the uses for which it is destined. When
it is to be used to replace silver, it should be composed of 25 parts
nickel, 25 zinc, and 50 of copper. An alloy more proper for rolling
consists of 25 of nickel, 20 of zinc, and 60 of copper. Cast pieces,
such as candlesticks, bells, &c., are to be made of an alloy com-
posed of 20 parts nickel, 20 zinc, 60 copper, to which 3 of lead
have been added. An addition of 2 or 2 1 of iron or steel renders
the packfong much whiter, but at the same time harder and more
brittle. — Annal. fur Phys.

20. Method of Bronzing Tin, by M. Verly. — ^To obtain complete
success in bronzing medals of tin, the two following solutions must
be ertiployed : the first, which is merely a wash, is composed of 1
part of iron, 1 part of sulphate of copper, and 20 parts, by weight,
of distilled water. The second solution (or bronze) is composed of
4 parts of verdigris atid 16 parts of white vinegar. The medals
should be filed, and well cleaned with a brush, earth, and water ;
and, being well wiped, should have a portion of the first solution
passed lightly over their faces, by means of a brush, and then be
wiped ; this gives a slight grey tint to the surface, and causes the ready
adhesion of the verdigris, &c. The second solution is then to be

484 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

nibbed over them by means of a brush, until they have acquired
the deep red colour of copper ; they are then to be left for an hour
to dry, after which they are to be polished with "a very soft brush
and rouge, or the red oxide of iron in fine powder, the breath
being" passed over them from time to time to cause the adhesion of
the rouge. The polish is to be completed by the brush alone, the
medals being passed now and then over the palm of the hand. If
the bronze is to resist humidity, it should be covered with a thin
film of gold lacquer.

The pieces of metal formed from Darcet's alloy are bronzed by
the use of the second solution only, and do not require lacquering
for the purpose of protecting them from the action of water. — Bull.
Univ. F. vii. 88.

21. Chromate of Silver crystallized. — Mr. Teschemacher obtained
crystals of this salt from the solution left after separating the preci-
pitate occasioned by adding nitrate of silver to chromate of potash.
The solution being allowed to evaporate spontaneously, produced
the crystals at the end of ten days. The crystals had a strong
metallic lustre, and were of a deep red colour by transmitted light,
much resembling native fed silver. They were insoluble in cold or
hot water, and were reduced by heat to metallic silver and chromic
oxide.— P/«7. Mag. N. S. i. 345.

On a former occasion, the formation of artificial crystals of chro-
mate of lead was noticed*; and it is much to be desired that
chemists would attend, as Mr. Teschemacher has done, to the
production of the crystals of substances usually considered as inso-
luble, many of which can no doubt be formed by the use of alkaline,
acid, or saline solutions.

22. Sulphate of Quinia. — According to the account of MM.
Pelletier and Caventou, the large quantity of 90,000 ounces of sul-
phate of quinia was manufactured in 1826 in France; a quantity
which could not have been administered to less than 1,444,000
persons.

23. Adulteration of Sulphate of Quinia with Sugar. — M. Winkler
has met with sulphate of quinia, in commerce, adulterated with
sugar. The quantity of adulteration was ascertained by dissolving
the salt in water, precipitating the quinia by carbonate of potash,
filtering the liquid, evapornting to dryness, and digesting the
residue in alcohol. This fluid left the sulphate and carbonate of
potash, but dissolved the sugar, and, by evaporation, yielded the
latter in its separate state. ;

M. Winkler has also met with benzoic acid adulterated with
sulphate of lime, in crystals. — Bull. Univ. C. x. 178.

♦ Quarterly Journal of Science, xix, 155.

Chemical Science. 485^

24. Composition of Vegetable proximate Principles. — M. Marcet
has analysed several vegetable substances by means of oxide of
copper, and finds them to have the following composition : —

Roasted starch, or artificial gum —

Carbon 35.7

Oxygen. 58.1

Hydrogen 6.2

Ordinary Starch — Carbon 43.7

Oxygen 49.7

Hydrogen 6.6

It appears, therefore, that roasted starch contains much more
oxygen and less carbon than common starch. The quantity of
hydrogen is also increased.

Starch obtained from malt gave —

Carbon. ...... .41.6

Oxygen. .1 .... 51.8

Hydrogen 6.6

Hordein— Carbon 44.2

Oxygen 47.6

Hydrogen 6.4

Nitrogen 1.8

The parenchyma of the potato gave —

Carbon 37.4

Oxygen 58.6

Hydrogen. ..... 4.0

Gluten — Carbon 55.7

Oxygen 22.0

Hydrogen 7.8

Nitrogen 14.5

Zimoma did not appear to differ from common gluten.

Yeast— Carbon 30.5

Oxygen 57.4

Hydrogen 4.5

Nitrogen 7.6 — Geneva Memoir es,

25. On Legumiiie, a particular Vegetable Principle, 6y M. H
Braconnot. — Dry ripe peas, being left for some hours in warm
water to soften, were made into a paste in a mortar with water ;
and being diffused through more of that fluid, were passed through
a sieve : the milky fluid produced being allowed to stand, deposited
the starch, the legumine being retained in solution apparently
by a vegetable acid. Being evaporated, the legumine separated
in successive transparent slightly-soluble pellicles. Thus obtained,
it was impure, and of a greenish colour; but being washed with
boiling alcohol, the green colour was removed, and the legumine
obtained perfectly pure and white; it was now as finely divided
as starch, and, when dried, appeared semi-transparent.

48ft Miscellaneous Intelligence,

Pilated vegetable acids dissolve this principle ^ith great facility;
the mineral acids, on the contrary, precipitate these solutions,
forming slightly acid and nearly insoluble compounds. If, when
thus precipitated, heat be applied, the substance disappears; but
on cooling the liquor becomes a gelatinous mass, resembling paste,
which, by the application of heat, again liquefies. These precipi-
tates, or pure legumine, heated wjth a little of a vegetable acid,
the tartaric for instance, produces a thick mucilaginous liquid,
which, being diluted, is scarcely sour to the tongue. Infusion of
galls precipitates this solution; alcohol does not alter it. The
mineral, acids produce precipitates : earthy and metallic salts with
mineral acids precipitate it.

The feeblest alkalies and the alkaline earths dissolve legumine,
or its insoluble acid compounds. In order to confirm the suspi-
cions which were entertained of the analogy between the legumine
and alkaline substances, the insoluble compound of the substance
with nitric acid was well washed in boiling alcohol; it was then
put into water rendered slightly alkaline by a little ammonia, after
which alcohol was added to precipitate the legumine. When well
washed, it resembled paste: it retained no ammonia; and yet,
when brought into contact with litmus paper reddened by acid, it
restored its blue colour. Being spread upon paper, it dried and
produced a brilliant varnish : exposed to heat, it liquefied without
coagulating. Iodine, mixed with it in water, appeared to dissolve
it ; a yellow precipitate was produced by heat, unchanged by the
action of alcohol or by drying. It was insoluble in boiling water,
and produced a deep blue colour with starch. Being exposed in a
glass tube to a careful heat raised above 212° Fahr., violet vapours of
iodine were produced, and the legumine remained unchanged. —
Ajm. de Chimie, xxxiv. 68.

26. Substances contained in Essential Oils. — Many of the essen-
tial oils become changed by exposure to air, and an acid is formed in
them, which, crystallizing in acicular needles, may be separated, and
has been considered as benzoic acid. M. Bizio finds that oil of
cassia affords the largest quantity of this substance, a few days only
being sufficient to cause its formation. He collected the crystals
together and separated them from the adhering oil, either by means
of bibulous paper ; or else by warming them in a weak solution of
carbonate of potash, filtering the solution of the salt formed from
the insoluble oil, boiling it with animal charcoal, afterwards decom-
posing the purified and crystallized salt by muriatic acid, and sepa-
rating the acid in question by dissolving it in alcohol.

This acid, although it agrees with benzoic acid in some
qualities, differs from it in others. It has no odour or taste, is
heavier than water, fuzes and sublimes by means of heat, con-
densing in brilliant crystals ; burns in the air with flame; dissolves
in very small quantity in cold water, but far more readily in boiling
water, the acid crystallizing as the solution cools. It dissolves in

Chemical Science. 487

alcohol both Jit common and hii^h temperatures. Coid nitric acid
has but Httle action upon it : hot nitric acid acts poyverfully, evolv-
inf^ much nitric oxide ; and the substance which separates when the
solution is cold, no longer has the properties of the original acid.
Sulphuric acid ^cts still more powerfully, decomposing the substance
even when cold, and when heated acting rapidly upon it, producing
a black solution, and changing the properties of the body altogether.
The action of these acids offers distinctions between this substance
and benzoic apid.

If the essential oils be expqsed for a longer time to the air, there
occurs, at a later period than that of the formation of the acid just
described, another change, resulting in the production of a resinous
substance, and in conjunction with it» of strong acetic acid. This
change took place with oil of cinnamon, of mint, and others ; and
so much acetic acid was formed in the vessels, that not only did
the atmosphere redden litmus paper powerfully, but, by neutralizing
the acid with potash, a portion of acetate of potash was obtained.

Upon subjecting the essential oils to a very low temperature, crys-
tals formed in them, and ultimately a separation of them into two
parts was effected, very analogous to the separation of fixed oils
into stearine and elaine ^nade by Chevreul. In imitation of that
chemist, M. Bizio has given names to the two portions into which
he has separated essential oils, calling the most fluid part Igruaina,
and the solid part Serusina.

Igrusina is fluid at the lowest possible artificial temperature : it
dissolves in alcohol, evaporates when heated, and leaves no resi-
duum. When gradually changed by the action of oxygen, it
becomes denser, and ultimately is changed into resin and acetic
acid.

Serusina, obtained from the oil of roses and anise, is solid at
60°Fahr. ; that from the oils of mint, orange, lemon, valerian, laven-
der, &c., require a temperature as low as 4° Fahr. for solidity. It
crystallizes in prismatic needles, and sometimes in plates. It is
soluble in alcohol, and those specimens that are solid at moderate
temperatures may be obtained in crystals from the alcoholic solu-
tion. If serusina be exposed to the air, gradual action occurs, the
subs^nce becomes denser and acquires a higher point of fusion,
and ultimately that peculiar substance appears to be formed which
Brugnatelli ibund in oil of turpentine. When the serusina is
obtained from those oils whicli jiroduce the solid acid above de-
scribed, it then undergoes a different change to that referred to,
and gives rise to the production of that peculiar acid by exposure
to oxygen or air. — Giornale di l^idcay ix. 360.

27 . Change of Oil of Turpentine by. exposure to Air. — Some oil of
turpentine which had been exposed to air, was distilled by MM.
Boissenot and Perset, who obtained a very acid liquid from it,
which cousisted ^f acetic acid, and a substance wl^cJ^ crystallized

488 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

upon cooling. These crystals were colourless and transparent,
inodorous, insipid, very slightly soluble in cold water, but very
soluble in hot water ; they were similarly affected by alcohol and
ether. Strong acids dissolved this substance, but it was not affected
by alkalies. It was formed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, and
does not exist in oil of turpentine recently distilled. — Bull. Univ.
A. vii. 154.

28. Preparation ofCafeine^ by M. Garot. — ^The coffee was broken
and then digested in boiling water ; the liquor obtained was brown,
and being treated with acetate of lead, yielded an abundant greenish
precipitate : this being removed by a filter, left a yellow liquor,
through which a current of sulphuretted hydrogen was passed to
separate a little lead remaining in it : the free acid left, was then
saturated by ammonia, and the clarified liquor, when evaporated,
gave crystals of cafeine.— Jo7zr de Phar.

29. Black Dye and Ink prepared with Logwood. — The following is
a process for the preparation of a black dye, for which a patent was
taken out at Vienna, by Mr. Honig. Logwood is to be boiled
several times in water, and a little subcarbonate of potash to be
added to the decoctions, the quantity being so moderated that it
shall not change the colour to blue ; the stuff to be dyed is then to
be plunged into this bath. This stuff may be either animal or vege-
table. When it is well impregnated with colouring matter, it is to
be withdrawn, and, without being exposed to air, is to be introduced
into a solution of green vitriol, and left there until it has obtained
the desired black hue. In preparing the ink, the decoction of
logwood is used in place of the infusion of galls.

30. Improvement in the Manufacture of Varnishes. — It is usual
in the manufacture of spirit varnishes, to mix glass or sand with
the resin, for the purpose of affording ready access of the alcohol to
all parts of the solid mass. M. Ferrari, however, recommends that
in place of these substances, a coarsely-powdered charcoal should
be used ; for the glass or sand frequently tends to aggregate the
resin at the bottom of the vessels, and protect it from the solvent,
whilst, on the contrary, the charcoal rather tends to raise and
divide it. The most advantageous proportion appears to be about
one ounce of charcoal to one pound of the spirit or the oil of
turpentine used. — Giornale de Fisica^ ix. p. 36.

31. Substances obtained from Castor Oil, by MM. Bussy and
Lecanu. — These chemists have obtained three new fatty acids from
castor oil. One called ricinic acid, is fusible at 72°Fahr. ; another
termed elaiodic acid, is fluid below 32° Fahr. ; and the third, or Mar-
garitic acid, crystallizes in fine scales, and is not fusible below 264°
Fahr. These acids are volatile, more or less soluble in alcohol, and

Chemical Science, 489

insoluble in water j they form peculiar salts with several bases, aud
especially with magnesia and oxide of lead.

When castor oil is distilled, a small quantity of gas, water, acetic
acid, a colourless crystallizable volatile oil, ricinic, and elaiodic
acids are obtained, and a solid substance remains in the retort. The
quantities of acid and volatile oil are nearly equal, and constitute
almost a third of the oil employed ; the remaining two-thirds consist
of the solid matter. This is a curious substance, is of a yellowish
colour, cellular, and resembles the crumb of new bread. It is inso-
luble in water, alcohol, ether, the volatile and fixed oils. It is
dissolved by alkalies, with which it forms a kind of soap. It
requires a high temperature for its decomposition, inflames when
exposed to a burning body, and burns readily without inelting.

When castor oil is treated with solution of potash or soda, it
saponifies more readily than olive oil, and ricinates, elaiodates,
margaritates with glycerin are formed ; no other products appear :
the glycerin amounts to about one fifteenth part of the oil, the mar-
garitic acid to about one thousandth. These salts are very soluble
in water, and act like ordinary soaps. — Phil. Mag.'N. S. i. 313.

32. Distillation of fatty Bodies, by MM. Bussy and Lecanu. —
Spermaceti is a substance containing neither elaine nor stearine ;
yet, by the action of alkalies, portions of margaric and oleic acids are
formed from it. Being distilled, it gave 97.5 per cent, of solid matter,
and 2.5 parts of loss due principally to gas : 80 parts of the solid
portion was colourless, nacreous, and fusible at 73*^ Fahr. Being
examined by the action of water, alcohol, baryta, acids, &c., it gave
spermaceti unchanged, colourless liquid oil, oleic, margaric and acetic
acids, water, odorous matter, yellow matter, and an empyreumatic
yellow oil. The volatilized portion of spermaceti being re-distilled,
underwent similar changes, and in all cases margaric and oleic acids
were produced.

Cholesterine being distilled, passed over into the receiver, leaving
scarcely an atom of charcoal behind it ; and the product being
examined, was found to contain no proportion of the fatty acids,
nothing being produced which could aftect litmus paper, and all
the properties of the cholsterine being preserved.

Ethal obtained, with great care, and free from barytic salts, when
distilled, resembled cholesterine ; no acids were formed, and the
ethal passed over and condensed unchanged. These results induce
the authors of this memoir to observe, that distillation may be
resorted to as well as the action of alkalies, for the purpose of
establishing distinctions between fatty and analogous bodies. —
Amiales de Chimie, xxxiv. 57.

33. Action of Nitric Acid on Hogs* Lard. — Two ounces of hogs'
lard were mixed by MM. Bussy and Lecanu, with four times its
weight of hot and concentrated nitric acid, and retained hot for one

APRIL— JUNE, 1827. 2 K

490 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

hour, afler which, the temperature was allowed to fall, and the fatty
matter separated ; it was of a yellow colour, without odour, and
softer than the fatty matter employed. Being* perfectly washed with
distilled water, it was then put into alcohol, which dissolved nearly
the whole of it : the solution reddened litmus paper, and beings
evaporated on a water-bath yielded a yellow residuum, which being
placed in filtering" paper, was submitted to tlie press. The pressure
Sfeparated a yellow liquid, very acid, soluble in all proportions in
alcohol and solution of potash, and susceptible of forming a com-
pound with baryta, insoluble in water or alcohol. The solid matter
jefl in the press being' agitated with hot baryta water, formed an
insoluble salt, which was then washed with hot alcohol, to separate
any fatty matter not acid ; and the salt thus purified was decomposed
by weak muriatic acid ; a solid fatty matter was obtained, which
teing washed with distilled water until the washings caused no
phange on nitrate of silver or vegetable colours, was then dissolved
in alcohol, and crystallized.

In this state it was colourless, inodorous, and lighter thaji water.
It fuzed at 62° C. (144° F.) Boiling alcohol dissolved it with facility,
and deposited it on cooling in beautiful nacreous crystals. It red-
dened moistened litmus paper, and combined directly with potash
and baryta, forming with the first a compound analogous to com-
mon soap and soluble like it in alcohol and water ; and with the
baryta a pulverulent salt insoluble in these fluids.

Hence it appears that the lard, when acted upon by nitric acid, is
converted into a mixture of oleic and margaric acids ; and, as analogy
and analytical experiments permit the extension of the conclusion
founded upon these results to all fatty bodies consisting of stearine
and elaine, it may be stated that the property of converting these
bodies into margaric and oleic acids, first observed in the alkalies,
then in sulphuric acid, in oxygen, and in heat, also belongs to nitric
acid. From this, we may be led to suppose that similar phenomena
occur whenever the order of the elements in stearine and elaine are
disturbed, in whatever manner that may be efFected.-^£i^//, Univ.
E, vii. 162.

34. Ozmazome. — M. Peretti dissolved ozmazome, obtained from
beef, ill alcohol, and purified it by animal charcoal ; the alcoholic
solution then supplied him with small transparent crystals, resembling
those of oxalic acid in many properties, but differing in their action
Qu proto-sulphate of iron and nitrate of silver. It precipitated tlie
^rst of a grey colour, and the second of a bright yellow hue ; whilst
oxalic acid, and oxalates, precipitated the first yellow, and the
second white. -^Giorn. Arcad.

491

III. Natural History.

1 . On Death by Lisufflation, or the Passing of Air into the Lungs,
— M. Leroy d'Etiolles some time since pointed out the danger of
throwing air into the lungs of drowned persons, and stated that the
operation, when performed simply by the mouth but strongly, was
sufficient to occasion the death of certain animals, as dogs, cats^
and rabbits ; since then, M. Leroy has continued his experiments,
and to render them more conclusive, has employed animals approx-
imating more nearly in size to man. Seven sheep were killed in
this manner; four of them died immediately, and the other three
lived only a quarter of an hour. On inspecting the lungs of these
animals, an unexpected result was observed ; for it was found that
the tearing of the pulmonary cells was not the cause of death, as
had been supposed : none of the sheep who died instantly offered
this appearance. In the three which died more slowly, there was
certainly found a quantity of air in the thoracic cavity, but all cir-
cumstances lead to the conclusion that the accident was not the
cause of their death, and that they died of asphyxia, like the others.
I'he cause of this asphyxia has not as yet been discovered. Great
difficulty occurs in examining the lesions which may have been
occasioned in the lungs by the operation of throwing in air, because,
according to M. Leroy d'Etiolles, nothing is more rare than to find
a sheep whose lungs are unaffected by some disease, the effects of
tehich may not be confounded with those produced by the operation.
—But, Univ. C. X. 37.

2. Remarks on the Human Voice, by D. Liskovius of Leipsig.—^
The remarks by M. Liskovius are in the form of a reply to objections
advanced by M . Rudolphi against previous statements and opinions
of the former. M. Liskovius had said that the vocal cords length-
ened as the aperture of the glottis dilated. M. Rudolphi remarked
upon this, that during ordinary inspiration and expiration the glottis
is so much open that no sound can be heard ; and, consequently,
that to produce even the lowest notes of the gamut a dilatation
greater than this cannot be required, as it would have no other
effect than to prevent the formation of sound altogether. In reply>
M. Liskovius remarks, that when in a state of repose, the larynx
holds a middle place between its greatest elevation and depression,
and that the glottis also is in an intermediate" state between its
greatest contraction and extension ; the more the larynx descends,
the more the glottis is dilated, and the greater the degree to which
the former ascends, so much the more is the latter contracted :
if, therefore, the glottis were the most dilated in a state of repose,
the larynx should, at the same time, be at the maximum of depres-
sion, and its depressing and dilating muscles would be at the
maximum of contraction ; in such a case, each person would talk

2K2

492

Miscellaneous Intelligence.

in the lowest tones of his voice ; as the state necessary to produce
them would be that which would offer itself.

That ordinary respiration produces no sounds does not depend
upon the too dilated state of the glottis, but upon the feeble impulse
given to the column of air traversing the larynx ; a point neglected
by M. Rudolphi. As to the falsette, it is produced by the anterior
part of the glottis, the ligaments being at such time tense and
drawn together, whilst the open or pectoral voice is produced by
the approximation of the open cords, without any simultaneous
tension of them. M. Liskovius contends also, that the falsette is a
well-characterized species of voice, and not an imperfect voice, as
has been supposed by Haller, Kempelin, and Rudolphi. The con-
clusions drawn, and principles established, are founded upon anato-
mical examinations of, and experiments upon, the human body. —
Archiv. fur Anat, 1826, p. 116.

3. Sabulous formation in the Brain. — Dr. Bergmann, of Celle,
has sent a memoir to the Royal Society of Gottingen, in which he
describes twenty cases of earthy granulations occurring in the
plexus choroides of the lateral ventricals of the brains of insane
persons. The various lesions observed by the author in the bruins
of these patients, induces him to think that this plexus belongs to
the principal organs of the animal. The earthy granulations which
were found in and upon the surface of the plexus, resemble those of
the pineal gland. M. Stromeyer analysed both varieties, and found
their constitution similar, and of the following nature : — phosphate
of lime in large quantity, phosphate of magnesia in small proportion,
traces of carbonate of lime, and an animal substance of an albumi-
nous nature. — Bull. Univ. C. x. p. 123.

4. Analysis of a Ferruginous Renal Calculus^ by M. Bous-
singault. — The calculus was sent from Bogota by Dr. Roulin, to
M. Boussingault ; it weighed rather more than a gramme (15.4
grains), was about the size of a nut, and considerably resembled
certain mineral states of iron sand : being analysed, it yielded the
following constitutents : —

Peroxide of

iron

38.81

Alumina

23.00

Silica

17.25

Lime

8.02

Water .

10.89

Loss

2.03

100.00

Several other calculi of similar composition and appearance were
afterwards voided by the same person. — Bull. Univ. ex. p. 128.

Natural History. 493

5. Production and Preparation of Pearls. — For Mr. Gray's ob-
servations on the artificial production of pearls, see p. 167, vol. xix.,
and p. 412, vol. xx., of the first series of this Journal. M. Geiger
has made some experiments upon these substances : one object was
to ascertain the probability that the Persians caused birds to swallow
the pearls for the purpose of removing the crust with which their
surface is sometimes covered. From the trials made with two cocks,
M. Geij^er thinks that the practice may be rendered useful : he
thinks also that the formation of pearls is always due to the intro-
duction of extraneous bodies into the shells of the fish ; he believes
that they may be made artificially, with advantage, and. is told that
fine pearls are made in Finland in this manner. — Bidl. Univ,
C. X. p. 178.

6. Peduliar Cases of the Use of Milk as Food. — A giraffe, which
was sent to the King of France by the Pacha of Egypt, was observed
never to drink the smallest quantity of water, but only milk. This
odd circumstance is explained by the person who describes its habits
and manners, as resulting from the circumstance that being taken
whilst young, it was, probably, supplied with milk, which not having
been discontinued, has occasioned this permanent inclination in the
animal. It appears very probable, that animals which drink but
little naturally, will not drink water, if a sufficient quantity of milk
be supplied to them. Milk was offered to two young asses which
had been separated from their dam for some time, and they dranlc
it with pleasure. It was then offered to a young mule, and to a
horse five years of age; both drank of it. Being offered to a monkey,
it seemed never to have taken enough. Pigs, dogs, cats, and rats,
drink milk with avidity. '* I will quote on this occasion a curious
fact, but little known, — that of a goat which sucked itself, and which
was, with difficulty, broken of this bad habit." Now, as there are
so many animals which like milk, without having preserved the habit
of drinking it, it will not seem surprising that the giraffe, a her-
bivorous animal, which has been continually supplied with this
drink, should prefer it to all others.— Mem. du Museum, xiv. p. 74.

7. Preparations of Henbane and Belladonna, by M. Buchner.—
M. Buchner prefers the well-prepared extracts of these plants in
practice, to the purified and peculiar principles in their crystalline
forms. His process for preparing the extracts, consists in pulveris-
ing the plant, and digesting it in alcohol of a specific gravity of .847
for several hours ; the liquid is then to be filtered, distilled until two-
thirds have passed over, and the residue evaporated until of the
consistence of extract. It is then to here-dissolved in water, filtered
and re-evaporated to dryness. The extracts thus obtained are of a
yellowish colour, transparent in thin plates, possessing the odour of
the plant,. and soluble in water and alcohol.

Dr. Reisinger, who has employed these preparations, concludes

494 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

that it is advantag-eous to employ the dry plants in the preparation
of the extracts. 2. That the roots of henbane give a less active
extract than the leaves. 3. That the seeds of this plant furnish the
most active extract, and contain much malate of hyoscyama. 4. That
the seeds of belladonna yield a more active narcotic extract than
the leaves. 5. That the extract obtained from the roots of the
belladonna is preferable to that from the leaves, but not so good as
that from the seeds. — Repert.fur die Pharmacie,

8. 0?i the Culture of Bees in Forests, by M. Buttner. — It has
been a custom in Livonia, from time immemorial, to make cavities
in the trees of a forest for the purpose of receiving and rearing the
swarms of bees. Some of the proprietors have hundreds and even
thousands of bee trees. Those which are chosen for this use are
large oaks, firs, pines, alders, &c. It has been objected to this
system, that it destroys the forests and diminishes the quantity of
building wood, but M. Buttner observes that it is not necessary to
choose the finest trunks, and that stunted trees are equally service-
able for this use, if they have sufficient size. He states also that
a bee tree is worth more than if sold for wood ; that the old hollow
trees w^hich will serve for an age or two, spread seed around, and
cause the production of young suckers, which would be obtained
with difficulty, by destroying the old trunks. He adds, that the
pure air of the higher regions agrees better with the bees than the
air inclosed in hives which receive the exhalations of the earth, and
in which contagious diseases sometimes make great ravages. The
proof he offers is, that when garden bees swarm they are directed
instinctively towards the woods, whilst the bees of the wood never
swarm towards the gardens. — Bull. Univ. D. vii. 34.

9. Signs of Increase, Maturity , and Decay in Trees, by M. Bau-
drillart. — The qualities of wood depend much on the state of the
tree when cut down. It appears from the experiments of M.
Hartig upon wood applied as fuel, that trees which have attained
maturity without passing into decay, are the best for the produc-
tion of heat. Thus the value of an elm of one hundred years is to
that of one of thirty years, as twelve is to nine ; that of an ash of
one hundred years to one of thirty years, as fifteen to eleven.
When the trees begin to decay, their value rapidly diminishes ;
thus, if an oak of two hundred years yields wood worth fifteen

rancs per corde, a tree of the same kind passing to decay yields
wood only worth twelve francs. When the wood is used for other
purposes, the advantages conferred by a mature but healthy state
are still more considerable.

The common elm, growing in a forest and in good earth, acquires
its full increase in about one hundred and fifty years, but it will live
many ages, even five or six hundred years. Large forest elms are
cut down with advantage when of an age between one hundred

Natural History. 4W

and one hundred and thirty years, and then furnish a lar^e (juan-
tlty of buildinj^ wood. The duration of the life of the elm de})ends
much upon the soil ; in a dry soil it becomes aajed, as it were, in
forty, tiily, or sixty years. Elms which have been lopped live for
a shorter period than the others. Those which grow by the road
side, or in thin plantations, may he cut when seventy ©r eighty years
of age. In general, the increase of hard woods, as the oak and
the elm, is small at first; it successively augments until the twentieth
or twenty-fifth year, is then uniform until the age of sixty to eighty
years, after which it sensibly diminishes.

For these and other reasons, it is important that trees should be
cut down when they are at their mature state, and not simply when
they undergo no further increase. When the period has arrived
after which the increase of the tree would be less and less from
year to year, then the tree should be felled, for no advantage ac-
crues from its remaining longer in the ground. The indications
of tlie mature state of a tree are by no means so evident as those of
decay, but still certain signs of these states, as well a9 of the vigor-
ous condition of the tree, may always be observed.

I. Signs announcing the vigour of a tree. — The branches, espe-
cially towards the top, are vigorous : the annual shoots strong and
long ; the leaves green, vigorous and thick, principally at the sum-
mit, and falling late in autumn ; the bark is clear, fine, united, and
nearly of the same colour from the foot to the large branches. If
at the bottom of the veins or divisions of the thick bark there ap-
pear smaller divisions which follow from below upwards in the direc-
tion of the fibres, and live bark be observed at the bottom of these
divisions, it is an indication that the tree is very vigorous and
rapidly increasing in size. If some of the lower branches stifled
by the others are yellow, languishing, and even dead, this is an
accidental effect, and is no proof of the languor of the tree. Finally,
it is a sign of vigour when branches are seen at the summit of the
tree rising above and being much longer than the others ; but it is
to be observed that all trees with round heads do not throw out
branches with equal force.

II. Signs which indicate that the tree is mature. — Generally the
head of the tree is rounded; the shoots diminish in length each
year, and the furthest shoots add to the length of the branches only
by the length of the bud ; the leaves are put forth early in spring
and become yellow in autumn before those of vigorous trees, and
at this time the lower leaves are greener than the upper. The
branches incline towards the horizon, and form angles sometimes
of sixty or seventy degrees. These apparent signs, and the thin-
ness of the layer deposited by the sap, indicate that the tree makes
but small additions to itself, and now it should be cut down. The
nature of the earth should be examined, as well also as the kind of
tree, to enable a judgment whether the tree should be left to in-

496 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

crease still further, or whether it will be more proper to fell it.
An exact ai^e cannot be assigned for each species ; but it has been
observed, that an elm situated in an insulated plantation may be
felled with advantage when between seventy and eighty years of
age.

III. Sigjis of decay in a tree. When a tree becomes crowned, i.e.
when the upper branches die, it infallibly indicates, especially for
isolated trees, that the central wood is undergoing alteration, and
the tree passing to decay. When the bark separates from the
wood, or when it is divided by separations which pass across it,
the tree is in a considerable state of degradation. When the bark
is loaded with moss, lichen, or fungi, or is marked with black or
red spots, these signs of alteration in the bark justify suspicions of
alterations in the wood within. When sap is seen to flow from
clefts in the bark, it is a sign that the trees will soon die. As to
wounds or gutterings, these defects may arise from local causes,
and are not necessarily the result of old age. — Bihlioth. Phys.
Econom. 1826, p. 13.

10. Structure of Plants. — M. Raspael has endeavoured to ascertain
what alterations are occasioned in a lengthened time by water,
acids, and heat, upon feculous teguments, and, consequently,
upon all vegetable tissues, which, according to him, are merely
vesicles similar to the teguments. The following are some of the
results which M. Raspael says he has obtained. After an ebul-
lition continued for eighteen hours, the teguments began to appear
as a layer of granules : continuing the ebullition, these granules
were successively detached from each other until the liquid no
longer offered traces of teguments, but merely globules from
the.-^A^th to 4^^th of a millemeter in diameter. These resisted
ebullition during eight hours per day, for a whole month. The
experiment was made in vessels almost close.

The liquid being put into a flask half filled with air, was left ;
the granules required fifteen days for their precipitation, whilst the
untouched feculous integuments were almost entirely precipitated
on the third day, according to the quantity of fecula submitted to
ebullition. The liquid part of the contents of the flask did not
cease to colour iodine till a month after; the precipitated part con-
tinued to become coloured purple by iodine. Water without ele-
vation of temperature is competent to disintegrate the globules
composing feculous teguments, but requires two or three months to
manifest the action.

Muriatic acid, out of contact of air, produces the same effect,
but only after a month's action, provided the experiment has not
been exposed to heat or light, the only difference in the experiment
is, that the globules become black and charred, but still remain
vesicular.

Natural History, ' ' 4Sf'

Thus M. Raspael's idea relative to the formation of Testable
cellular tissue, is supposed to be proved, the evidence being such
that any one can refer to it at pleasure. The cellular tissue is
composed of teguments, these of agglutinated globules, and these
may be conceived to be composed of other globules, and so on to
infinity.

The same phenomena being sought for in germinating grain
were perfectly observed, and another analogy between the grains of
fecula and many other organic grains established. M. Raspael
found that the grains of fecula gradually emptied by the progress
of germination were organised precisely like grains of pollen, and
that poUenic granulations might be observed in their centre with
perfect facility. This fact led him to study the grains of pollen
particularly, and being occupied at the same time with lupuline,
numerous analogies were elicited, of which the following are the
principal.

The grains of pollen are composed of a vesicle, containing a
variable number of other vesicles which enclose the granules that,
when detached from their surface, contribute to fecundation. Lu-
puline is spread over all the yellow leaves of the hop, as well as
over the scaly cones of the female flower ; and they are detached
only as these leaves are developed. Guettard designated these
grains of lupuline by the name of vesicular glands^ which are found
on a multitude of other vegetables.

The glands of other vegetables have the same organization,
though they do not all contain the same substances. Cortical pores
are merely cells, which, according to an organization identical with
that of pollen and glands, contain one or two vesicles filled with
granulations.

Generally, leaves which have not vesicular glands are supplied
with these pretended cortical pores. Those which have no cortical
pores are supplied with glands, more or less modified in their
structure.

Every thing induces M. Raspael to believe that the lupuline, the
glands, and the cortical pores, are destined, like the grains of pollen,
to cause the fecundation of the buds ; and that, in experiments on
generation by means of the two sexes, it is these organs which
have sometimes replaced the action of the stamens, and puzzled
the sagacity of observers. — Bull. Philom. 1826, p. 155.

11. Experiments on the Fecundation of Vegetables ^ by M. Gaert-
ner. — In consequence of the doubts and discussions which have
arisen in Germany relative to the sexual system in plants, M.
Gaertner has been induced to make a multitude of experiments, for
the purpose of obtaining undoubted knowledge upon this point.
The experiments have been made upon four different families of
plants, containing thirty species, belonging to sixteen genera:
although about six hundred in number, they are still to be con-

496 Miseellaneouf Intelligence,

tinued. They relate — 1. To the fecundation of the plant naturally
or artificially, by its proper pollen: 2. To fecundation by the pollen
of another plant: 3. To the action of pulverulent substances; as
sublimed sulphur, pulverised charcoal, carbonate of mafrnesia, lyco-
podium, &cr. and 4. To the duration and mode of action of the
pollen of one plant upon the ovaria of auotlier; principally to ascer-
tain whether any influence would be exerted upon the form, colour,
or time of maturity of fruits and seeds.

The followinj^ are a few of the facts ascertained. A microscopic
quantity of the pollen proper to a plant bein^ placed upon its pistil,
has so g-reat an influence as entirely to destroy the action of a larc^e
mass of the pollen of another plant, even though of a very near
species: the proper pollen of a plant being applied by means of a
pencil to the stigma, becomes so exactly attached to it, that it is
'<lifficult to remove it without injuring the stigma : with the pollen
of another plant it is quite otherwise ; the stigma then appropriates
it with difficulty and slowly, and the difficulty increases with the
difference between the species. When the fecundation of one
plant is occasioned by the pollen of another, the pollen applied
to the stigma disappears in a time which, all other circumstances
remaining the same, varies as the affinity between the species is
more or less. When once the pistil is saturated with fecundating
matter, that which is afterwards applied undergoes no change
either of form or colour. In natural fecundation, the stigma loses
its fullness and freshness as soon as it is saturated with fecun-
dating matter ; in the cross fecundation, the stigma remains un-
changed for a much longer time, and even sometimes seems to be
renewed in vigour. In the latter case, the pollen which is re-
applied disappears until the stigma loses its freshness. The foreign
pollen retards rather than accelerates fecundation.

M. Gaertner has extended his observations much further, even to
observing the changes in the corolla; on the secretion of the juices
of the plant; on the period of ripening; on the different states of the
seeds, &c. &c. — Bui. Univ. B. x. 77.

12. On a natural Botanical Arrangement dependant on Chemical
Characters. — Many naturalists have endeavoured to establish an
analogy between the external forms of plants and their medicinal
characters. Dr. Runge has undertaken to prove by analysis, that,
there is a chemical relation — 1. Between the different parts of
a plant (species) ; 2. Between the different species of a genus ;
3. Between the different genera of a family. To the first point, he
quotes the experiments of Vauquelin on the Hippocastan, and
his own upon Belladonna and the oak; from which it results, that
tannin is found in every part of the first and third, even* to the
cotyledons of the latter, and the narcotic principle in every part of
the second. Relative to the second point, he observes that prussic
•acid has been found in the kernels of all the species belonging to

Natural History. 4d&

the genus prunns^ and a yellow colouring matter in the bark of the
roots of the species belonging to the genus galium. On the third
point, he cites the strychnia and veratria, found by MM. Pelleticr
and Caventou ; the first in most of the strychnos, and the second in
many colchicums. The author thinks that the same principle may
be applied to the different families composing any group or order.

In his experimental results, M. Runge has found that all the
species of semiflosculuses, flosculuses, radiola, diphyscium, Vale-
riana, and tcahiosa, gave him one common principle, but con-
tained in different parts, as the root, stem, leaves, &c. This sub-
stance resembles the vegetable acids which form soluble and un-
crystallizable combinations with alkalies, and insoluble precipitates
with metallic oxides. In the first state it has a yellow colour, but
by the addition of oxygen becomes of a bluish green colour. Being
combined in these two states with oxide of lead, the following
results were obtained :

Colourless acid .... 52.9 Coloured acid .... .54.6

Oxide of lead .... 47.1 Oxide of lead .... 45.4

100.0 100.0

Having found this principle in neighbouring families, it was
afterwards sought for in those which were more distant, and was
found in the umbelliferous plants, the caprifolias and the plantains;
but he found no trace of it in the genera campanula and ruhia.
On the other hand, in these he discovered a principle which h^
found in no other family. — Isia^ 1826.

13. On the Application of a Ligature to Fruit Trees^ and to Vines^
by Dr. J. W. Fischer. — The process recommended by the author, is
intended to be applied in place of the annular incision, which is
made round fruit-trees, for the purpose of increasing the growth
land the quantity of fruit. In the same place where the annular
incision would otherwise be made, an iron wire is to be passed tightly
round the tree two or three times, and the ends twisted together.
This operation is to be performed in winter, especially in February,
and before the sap is in circulation. It is unnecessary to observe,
that the ligature should be applied to those branches or young trees
which are to be rendered more productive. In the summer follow-
ing, after the flowering, and when the fruit begins to increase in size,
the ligature is to be removed, so that the wound which may have
been occasioned in the bark may cicatrize. These ligatures may
be repeated every year, their places being changed : they are said
to produce all the good effects of ringing, and to be free from the
objections which may be urged against that process. In place of
iron wire, a hemp-string well soaked in oil may be used. — Bull.
Univ. D. vii. 109.

\i.' Method of reviving Plants, Shoots^ Sprigs, Slips, and other

500 Mlspellaneous Intelligence.

Vegetables. — This is called a proved method of reviving^ plants, &c.,
when their leaves and buds are faded, and their bark and roots hard
and nearly dry, by M. de Droste of Hiilshof. The directions are to
dissolve camphor to saturation in alcohol, adding the former until
it remains solid at the bottom of the latter ; a sufficient quantity of
rain or river water is then to have the alcoholic solution added to it,
in the proportion of four drops to one ounce of water. As the
camphor comes in contact with the water, it will form a thin solid
film, which is to be well beaten up with the water : for a short time
the camphor will float in the water in small flocculi, but will ulti-
mately combine with the fluid and disappear.

Plants which have been removed from the earth, and have suffered
by a journey or otherwise, should be plunged into this camphorated
water, so that they may be entirely covered : in about two, or at
most three hours, the contracted leaves will expand again; the
young faded and dependant shoots will erect themselves, and the
dried bark will become smooth and full. That being effected, the
plant is to be placed in good earth, copiously watered with rain or
river water, and protected from the too powerful action of the sun,
until the roots have taken good hold of the ground.

When large plants, as trees, are to be revived, their roots are to
be plunged into the camphorated water for three hours ; the trunk
and even the head of the tree being frequently wetted with the same
water, so as to retain them in a properly moistened state. But it
is always best, if possible, to immerse the whole of the plant. Shoots,
sprigs, slips, and roots, are to be treated in a similar manner.

If plants thus treated are hot restored in four hours, their death
may be considered as certain, for they cannot be recalled to life by
any artificial means. They should, consequently, never be left
more than four hours in the camphorated bath ; because the exciting
action of the camphor, when it is continued for a longer period, may
injiire the plants, instead of doing good to them. It is not neces-
sary to say that the final prosperity of the plants, thus re-animated
by the camphorated water, must depend upon the particular proper-
ties of the former, the state of their roots, and the pains that are
taken with them. The camphor produces no other effect than to
restore life to plants nearly dead : after that, all proceeds according
to the ordinary laws, and their ultimate state must be left to art and
nature. — Verhandl des Vereins, ^c.

15. Aiitient Glass Bottles. — Amongst the curious and interesting
objects lately discovered in the excavations at Pompeii, are five
glass bottles, in some of which were olives, in an extraordinary
state of preservation. These olives were soft and pasty, but entire,
and had the same form with those called Spanish olives ; they had
a strong rancid odour, and a bitter taste, leaving a biting astringent
sensation upon the tongue. A part of these olives have been ana-
lysed, and the rest have been deposited at the museum, in the s^me
bottles in which they were found — Bui. Univ. G. vii. 142.

Natural History. 501

16. Natural Prognostics of the Weather, hy M. Waldeck.^ '■

Signs of Fine Weather : — 1st, By Birds. When the alcido hispida
and ducks leave the earth and fly towards the sea ; when the kites
and bitterns cry as they fly ; the swallows fly at great heights,
because the flies then keep in the upper regions ; the apodes fly
after each other in the air till late in the evening, with vivacity of
noise; the ravens and sparrow-hawks cry frequently and loudly;
the turtle-doves coo softly ; the robin rises in the air singing ; the
owl hoots ; the wren (sylvia troglodytes) sings in the morning
until nine or ten o'clock, and after mid-day till four or five o'clock
— beyond this time their song announces rain. 2ndly, By other
Animals, Frogs contained in glasses climb up their sides ; the
glow-worms fly about in great numbers in the evening; insects and
flies play in the air after sun-set ; the bat appears late ; the spiders
spin tranquilly, and extend their nets to a distance.

Indications of Rain. — 1st, By Birds. When the large black
sea-mew, the cormorants, aquatic birds, and birds generally, go to
the 'rivers, and water and bathe noisily; ducks, geese, and moor-
hens plunge into the water, flapping it about with much noise ;
wild geese fly high in the air and in disorder ; the plovers become
restless, flying here and there, and uttering their peculiar cry ; the
ravens and the rooks assemble in groups, and then almost imme-
diately separate ; the ravens in the morning, and the rooks in the
evening, utter continual cries, and walk solitarily on the ground ;
the swallows fly low in the air ; the magpies cry much at other
seasons than at pairing time ; domestic birds rub themselves in the
dust ; partridges, pigeons, aud smaller birds, bathe themselves in
the sand ; the cock crows immediately after sun-set (when, on the
contrary, the cock walks about during rain, it is a sign it will soon
cease) ; the melancholy cry of the chaffinch is heard ; the wood-
lark, linnet, sparrow, and robin, cry or sing during the morning ;
the peacocks and owls cry more frequently and strongly than usual
during the night ; the poultry are longer engaged in searching out
the insects beneath their feathers, the latter penetrating more
deeply into the skin. 2ndly, By other Animals. When the cattle
pant for air towards mid-day ; pastured cattle, sheep, and goats,
leap much and quarrel with each other ; pigs are restless and dis-
perse their food ; cats rub their ears and press their bodies against
obstacles; dogs become restless, scratch the ground, eat grass,
and bark in a growling manner ; the foxes bark ; the wolves
howl ; the moles raise the earth higher than ordinary ; the frogs
croak much, and hide themselves in the meadows ; the bats do not
leave their retreats in the evening; the spiders work but little,
spin short threads, and retire to their corners ; the flies bite horses
and cattle on the legs, are agitated, and fly confusedly together;
the fish (cobitis fossilis) trouble the waters ; and the worms disturb
the earth.

It is considered as a presage of windy when aquatic birds of the
sea and marshes fly together towards the laud and play, especially

5021 Miscellaneous Intelligence,

in the morniug ; birds at sea take shelter on vessels ; wild iyeese
fly vei7 high, and in bands, going; towards the east ; water-fowls
cry, and are agitated ; the lapwing cries loudly ; the king-fisher
flies towards the earth : the rooks (corvus frugilegus) pass rapidly
through the air, and play on the borders of water. It is well known
that hares have a presentiment of wind, and will often set ten
hours in advance on the places where it will blow. — Sylvan, Jahr-
buclifur Fast Maenner,

17. On ancient Aerolites, by Dr. Noggerath. — The following no-
tice, which has been partly omitted by Chladni, may be found in
the Laboratorium Chimicum of Becher, Frankfort, 1680. Albertus
Magnus relates from Avicenna, that a piece of iron of the weight
of one hundred pounds fell from heaven ; it is that which Chladni
places in the year 1009, on the borders of the Caspian Sea..
Another piece fell at Grimma, in the country of Meissen, which is
placed by Chladni between 1540 and 1550. Petermann Eterlein
writes in his Chronica Helvetica that there fell from heaven during
a storm, a mass of iron sixteen feet in length, fifteen in width, and
two in thickness : he computes that this mass should weigh 48,000
pounds. Paul Merula says in his Cosmographie, that six iron
hatches fell from heaven : he adds that these were probably stones
in the form of hatches, called by the Germans donneraxt. Chladni
appears to have had no knowledge of the last two facts. — Journal

fur Chimie.

18. Fresh Water found at Sea. — Mr. Buchanan relates that "In
the beginning of September 1824, I embarked with the other offi-
cers of our regiment, in a country ship, for Chittagong. We
sailed out of the Madras roads with a fair wind, which continued
for four days, but on the fifth we were becalmed, and continued so
for fourteen days, having had only once or twice a very slight
breeze, which never lasted longer than a few hours. It was to-
wards the end of this calm that I observed a very strange appear-
ance on the surface of the glassy ocean. It seemed to be furrowed
in several directions, and much agitated in these furrows ; so that
when the ship was drifted into these parts, she was driven about in
all directions. On the night of the 14th, a breeze sprang up.
Owing to our unexpectedly tedious passage, we ran short of pro-
visions, particularly water. You may suppose what was our joy
and astonishment the next morning, in taking up the water along-
side to wash decks, to find that it was fresh and much more palat-
able than th<it which remained in our casks, which were imme-
diately replenished with it. By this day's observation, we were
one hundred and twenty miles from Chittagong, and about one
hundred miles from the nearest part of the Juderbunds. The water
was of a more yellow tinge than in most parts of the bay, and
those who drank a great deal of it suffered from it afterwards. —
Jameson^ s Jour, 1827, p. 369,

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604

INDEX

Abraham, (Mr.) his mode of correcting the ma^etism of watch-
works, 223
Acids, new, obtained from animal substances by alkahes, 239
Acid, hydrocyanic, on the detection of, in animal bodies, 480
Achromatic microscopes, with a description of certain objects for

trying their defining and penetrating power, 410
Action of nitric acid on hogs'-lard, 489
Aerolites, ancient notice of, 502

Agriculture, on the introduction of salt as an agent in, 337
Ainger, (Mr. A.) on the principle of security in the various kinds

of locks, 212 — remarks on suspension-bridges, 456
Air, heat evolved from, by compression, 228
Alcock, (Mr.) his account of the extensive application of the chlo-

rurets of lime and soda as disinfecting agents, 211
Alcohol, method of destroying the empyreumatic odour of, 239
Ammonia, presence of, in the material oxide of iron, 481 — muriate

of, volcanic, 481
Ammonia and mercury, nitrate of, 482
Animal substances, new acids obtained from, by the action of

alkalies, 239
Ancient glass-bottles, notice of, 500
Arago, (M.) remarks by, on the change of inclination in the

dipping-needle, 124 — on the electro-conducting power of metals,

470
Architecture of the metropolis, remarks on, 352
Arcs perpendicular to the meridian which are now measuring on

the continent of Europe, account of, 177
Arrangement, natural botanical dependant on chemical characters,

498
Arsenic, preparation of the chloride of, 234
Asbestus, crystallization of, 241
Assamese poison, notice of, 211
Astronomical and nautical collections, 122, 434
Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, analysis of, 393
Atmospheric phenomena, 242

Atwater, (Mr.) on atmospheric phenomena at Ohio, U.S., 242
Aurora Borealis, its influence on the magnetic-needle, 229

INDEX. 605

Balls, velocity of, 468

Baron, (Dr. John) his life of Dr. Edward Jenner, with illustrations

of his doctrines, and selections from his correspondence, 141
Bartholomew, (Mr.) his ornamental revolving- lamp, 210
Baths, warm, hints respecting the construction of, 62
Baumgartner, (Mr. A.) his experiments on the effect of the direct

white light of the sun in making steel magnetic, 125
Bees, on the culture of in forests, 494
Bergmann, (Dr.) his remarks on a sabulous formation in the brain,

492
Biting-in, menstruum for, on plates of soft steel, 226
Blackadder, (Mr.) notice of his night-lamp, 210
Bones, on the best method of extracting the nutritious portion of,

and its economical application, 56, 386
Boron, preparation of the chloride of, 234
Bottles of ancient glass, notice of, 500
Bouilland, (M.) his treatment of poisoned wounds, 245
Brain, notice of a sabulous formation in, 492
Brande, (W. T., Esq.) on the manufacture of dies for medals and

coinage, 116
Brande's (Prof.) results of his observations on falling stars, 222
Bridges of suspension, remarks on the principles and construction

of, 456
Brockedon (Mr.) observations by, on the tenacity of metals, 462
Bromine, on the existence and nature of its compounds, 233, 476
Burchell, (Mr.) notice of his travels in South America, 242

Cafeine, preparation of, 488

Calculus, analysis of, 492

Carbon and hydrogen, on the probable decomposition of certain
gaseous compounds of, during sudden expansion, 204

Carbonic acid gas, deleterious effects of, 238

Castor-oil, substances obtained from, 488

Cathery, (Mr.) his method of etching on ivory, 226

Change of inclination of the dipping-needle, remarks on, 124

Charcoal, quantity of, from wood, 479

Chemical compounds produced by physical powers, 230

Chemistry, Ottley's Dictionary of, remarks on, 54

Chevreul and Gay-Lussac, (MM.)* on new acids obtained from
animal substances by alkalies, 239

Chile, orchideous plants of, remarks upon, 43

Chlorides or Chlonirets of lime and soda, account of the recent
applications of, as disinfecting agents, 211

Chloride of arsenic, notice of its preparation, 234— of boron no-
tice of its preparation, 234— of Soda, preparation of, for medical
use, 236 :

Chlorides, disinfecting, their mode of action, 237

Chlorine and compounds, chemical action of, 461

APRIL—JUNE, 1827, 2 L

506 INDEX.

Chrome, oxide of, its preparation as a pigment, 235

Clement-Desormes, (M.) on vapour, 472

Cobwebs, (Artificial) for micrometers, notice of, 81

Coinage, on the manufacture of dies for, 116

Cold, effects of, 242

Collard, (M.) on the deleterious effects of carbonic acid gas, 238

Construction of warm-baths, hints respecting the, 62

Copper, (white) composition of, 483

Cultivation and improvement of edible fruits, remarks on, 265

Daniell, (Mr. F.) on the gas obtained by the decomposition of
resin, 217

Decomposition of certain gaseous compounds of carbon and hy-
drogen during sudden expansion, 204

Defranc, (M.) his remarks on dense fogs, 241

Dense fogs, notice of, 241

Density of vapours and gases, table of, 233

Despretz, (M.) his claim to the discovery of chloride of boron, 243

Diamond microscope, 211

Diamond, uses of, in the arts, 464

Dichroite, new optical property of, 468

Dies for medals and coinage, remarks on the manufacture of, 116

Dipping needle, remarks on the change of inclination of, 124

Disinfectants, chemical remarks on, 371

Disinfecting chlorides, their modes of action, 237

Dumas, (M.) on earthy depositions from water influenced by the
electricity of metals in contact, 230

his table of the density of vapours and gases, 233 —

on chloride of boron, 234

Elastic mould for castings, notice of, 225

Electric discharges, transference of ponderable matter in, 472

Electro-chemical appearances, remarks on, 229

Elementary principles of the structure of language, illustrations of,
163

Europe, an account of the arcs perpendicular to the meridian,
which are now measuring on the continent of, 177

Exercises, on the effect of, on the form, and their influence in pre-
venting or curing distortions of the spine, 319

Falling stars, results of observations on, 222

Faraday's (M.) general account of the magnetic phenomena de-
veloped by metals in motion, 209 — his account of the chemical
action of chlorine and its compounds, 461 — on the progress and
present state of the Thames tunnel, 466

Fatty bodies, distillation of, 489

Fay, (Mr.) remarks on his mode of excising teeth, 244

Fire in theatres, security from, 468

INDEX.

501

Fischer, (F. W.,) on the application of a ligature to fruit trees

&c., 499
Fluate of lime, notice of the phosphorence of, 232
Fox, (Mr. D.) account of his elastic mould for casting, 225
Fresnel, (Mr.) elementary view of the undulatory theory of light,

127, 441
Fruits, on the cultivation and improvement of, 265
Fyfe, (Dr. A.) his manual of chemistry, remarks on, 70

Gaertner, (M.) on the fecundation of vegetables, 497

Gaetano Savi, (Prof) on an Italian cavern containing bones, 241

Gas from resin, its application to a condensed gas lamp, 217

Gas, transference of heat by change of capacity in, 474

Gases, compression of, 467

Gaultier de Claubry, (M.) on the mode of action of disinfecting

chlorides, 237
Gelatin of bones, observations on the use of, as an article of

food, 56, 386
Gimbernat, (M, Charles de) on the nutritious portion of bones,

56, 386
Giraffe, the, on its preference of milk as a food, 493
Glass, method of cutting, 227
Goring (C. R., M.D.) on artificial cobwebs for micrometers, 81-^-

on achromatic microscopes, 410
Granville, (Dr.) his remarks on chemical disinfectants, 371
Gray, (Mr.) on the production and preparation of pearls, 493
Grey, (Mr.) corrected translation of his Enchorial manuscripts,

402
Gymnastic exercises, their effects on the form, &c., 319

Harwood, (Dr. J.) his remarks on the structure and habits of the

seal, 71.
Heat evolved from dir by compression, 228
Henbane and Belladonna, preparation of, 493
Henderson, (Mr.) on a corrected method of computing an observed

occultation, 434 — on the solar tables, 438
Hieroglyphical fragments, notices of, 402
Hildreth, (Dr.) on the effects of cold, 242
Horticultural Society, proceedings of, 217, 317
Human voice, remarks on, 491
Humphry s, (Mr.) on a fluid for biting-in on plates of soft steel, 226

Inclination, change of, of the dipping-needle, 124
Increase, maturity, and decay of trees, signs of, 494
Indian method of varnishing, 227

Insufflation, or passing of air into the lungs, death by, 491
Iodine cyanide of, 480 — oxide of, and iodous acid, remarks on, 477
Iron, separation of from mangauese, 235— pure proto-salt of, 23»

2 L 2

608 INDEX.

Italian cavern, containing bones, notice of, 241

Ivory, method of etchinfr on, 226

Ivory, (Mr.) on the heat evolved from air by compression, 228

Jenner, (Dr. Edward) life of, 141

J"enour, (M.) on a peculiar structure of shot cartridges, 224

Kaleidophone, a new philosophical toy, observations on, 344

Labour, remarks On the principle of the division of, as applied ta
Literature and Science, 37

Lamp, night, without a wick, notice of, 210

, ornamental, notice of, ib.

Lang-uage, illustrations of the elementary principles of the struc-
ture of, 163

Legumine, new vegetable principle, 485

Leslie's apparatus for ascertaining the specific gravity of powder,
226

Liebeg, (Prof) on the existence and nature of bromine, ^33

Life of Dr. Edward Jenner, 141

Ligature, application of, to fruit-trees and vines, 499

Lightning, instance of a returning stroke by, 230 — rods and com-
passes, remarks on, 471

Lindley, (John, Esq.) remarks by, upon the orchideous plants of
Chile, 43

Liskovius, (Dr.) his remarks on the human voice, 491

Literature and Science, remarks on the principle of the division of
labour as applied to, 37

Locks, principle of security in the various kinds of, 212

Logwood, black dye and ink prepared from, 488

Mac Culloch's (Dr. J.) remarks on malaria, 294

Madder, on the colouring matter of, remarks on, 239

Mangnetic needle, influence of the Aurora Borealis on, 229

Magnetism produced by metals in motion, general account of, 209
— of watch-works corrected, 223

Majendie, (M.) on two new kinds of urinary gravel, 246

Malaria, remarks on, 294

Manganese, separation of iron from, in analysis, 235 — and soda,
sulphates of, 483

" Manual of Chemistry," remarks on, 70

Mayo, (Herbert, Esq.) remarks on his ** Outlines of Humany Phy-
siology, 91

" Meleagris Ocellata," (Cuvier) notic6 of a specimen of, 214

Melons, sugar of, 239

Mercury, depression of in the tube of a barometer, &C., table of,
122

INDEX, 509

Metallic Disc in motion, its action on a portion of a voltaic con-
ductor, 228

Metals, electro-conducting power of, 470

Meteorological table, 248 — 503

Metropolis, remarks on the supply of water to the western parts of,
249 — remarks on the architecture of, 352

Micrometers, artificial cobwebs for, 8 1

Micrometrical measurement of Saturn and of Jupiter and its satel-
lites, 220

Microscope, diamond, notice of, 221

Milk, observations on the use of as food, 403

Mould (elastic) for castings, account of, 225

Nakous, subterraneous noises heard at, 240

Nasse (M.) on the preparation of oxide of chrome as a pigment, 23&

Natural History, remarks on the study of, 83

Nature, numerical divisions in, 362

Naval architecture and nautical economy, essays and gleanings on,

18
Navier, (M.) experiments on the resistance of various bodies to

rupture caused by longitudinal tension, 223
^ew York, remarks on the subject of the weights and measures of,

101
Nobili, (M.) on electro-chemical appearances, 229
Numerical divisions in nature, 362

Oils, essential substances contained in, 486

Ornithological system of Cuvier and Dumeril, revised arrangement
of, with reference only to the genera and species of the British
islands, 286

Ottley's Dictionary of Chemistry, remarks on, 54

Oval, beautiful forms derived from, 457

Oxalates, action of potassium on, 236

Oxide of chrome, preparation of as a pigment, 235 — of iodine and
iodous acid, remarks on, 477 — of iron, (native) presence of am-
monia in, 481

Ozmazone, notice of, 490

Parkes, (Samuel, Esq.) sketch of the life of, 1

Payen, (M.) his process for the preparation of medicinal chloride

of soda, 236— on sugar of melons, 239
Pearls, production and preparation of, 493
Peretti, (M.) on ozmazone, 490
Peru, and Mexico, conquest of by the Mongols in the 13th centurv*

history of, 247 ^

Phillips, (Mr. R.) on the analysis of the triple prussiate of potash, 236
Phosphorescence of fluate of lime, notice of, 232
Physiology, human, outlines of by Mr. Herbert Mayo, 91

510 INDEX.

Plants, orchideous of Chile, remarks upon, 43 — dried, from Massa-
chusetts, notice of, 210 — structure of, 496 — and vegetables, me-
thod of reviving, 500

Ponderable matter, transference of in electric discharges, 472

Potash, analysis of the triple prussiate of, 236 — peroxideof, from
nitre, 483

Potassium, action of, on oxalates, 236

Powders, apparatus for taking the specific gravities of, 226

Quadrupeds, note on the motions and actions of, 243.
Quesnevile, (M.) on the separation of iron from manganese, 235
Quinia, sulphate of, quantity manufactured, and adulteration of,
484

Rattlesnakes, poison of, 246

Record, (M. le Dr.) his mode of preventing mischief resulting from
the bites of venomous reptiles, 246

Reinagle, (Mr.) on the beautiful forms derived from the oval, 457

Renwick, (James, Esq.) on the weights and measures of New York,
101

Reptiles, venomous, method of preventing mischief from the bites
of, 246

Resistance of various bodies to rupture caused by longitudinal ten-
sion, 223

Returning stroke by lightning, instance of, 230

Roads, Macadamized, report on, 470

Robiquet and Colin, (MM.) on the colouring matter of madder,
239

Rousseau, (M. E.) on the poison of rattlesnakes, 246

Royal Institution of Great Britain, proceedings of, 209, 456 —
medals, on the recent adjudgment of, by the President and Coun-
cil of the Royal Society, 1 1 — Society, proceedings of, 207, 455

Sabine (Capt.) extract of his letter respecting the subject of the

weights and measures of New York, 382
Salt, on the introduction of as an agricultural agent, 337
Salts, efflorescent of volcanic rocks, 482
Sea, fresh water found at, 502
Sea-gull, measurement and weight of, 244
Seal, on the structure and habits of the, 71
Shot cartridges, peculiar construction of, 224
Silver, crystallized chromate of, 484
Sketch of the Life of the late Samuel Parkes, Esq., 1
Skins, method of preserving, 227
Soft steel, menstruum for biting-in on plates of, 226
Solar tables, remarks on the, 438
Struve, (M.) on micrometrical measurements, 220

INDEX.

511

Structure of language, illustrations of the elementary principles of

the, 163
Subterraneous noises heard at Nakous, 240
Swainson, (W., Esq.) remarks on the importance of preserving facts

connected with the natural history of animals, 83

Teeth, excision of, remarks on, 244

Tenacity of metals, observations on, 462

Thames Tunnel, report on the progress and present state of, 466

" The Gold-headed Cane," review of, 278

Tin, method of bronzing, 483

Translation, corrected, of Mr. Grey's Enchorial manuscripts, 402

Turpentine, oil of, its change by exposure to air, 487

Turrell, (Mr.) on the uses of the diamond in the arts, 464

Undulatory theory of light, elementary view of the, 127
Urinary gravel, on two new kinds of, 246

Vapour, new phenomena produced by, 472
Varnishes, improvements in the manufacture of, 488
Varnishing, Indian method of, 227
Vegetable proximate principles, composition of, 485
Vegetables, experiments on the fecundation of, 497
Voltaic conductor, action of a moving metallic disc, on a portion
of, 228

Warm-baths, hints respecting the construction of, 62

Watch works, magnetism of, corrected, 223

Water, earthy depositions from, influenced by the electricity of
metals in contact, 230

Water, remarks on the supply of, to the western part of the metro-
polis, by the Grand Junction Water-works Company, 249

fresh, found at sea, 502

Weather, natural prognostics of, 501

Weights and measures of New York, report on, 101 — remarks on
the report, 382

Wheatstone, (Mr. C.) his remarks on the Kaleidophone, 344

White copper, composition of, 483

light of the sun, effect of, in making steel magnetic, 125

Witting, (Dr.) his method of destroying the empyreumatic odour of
alcohol, 239

Wood, quantity of charcoal from, 479

Wounds, mode of treating when poisoned, 245

Zero, change of in thermometers, 475

END OF VOLUME I.

The Binder of the Volume is requested to cancel the tiM/?Zjca/e Table of
Contents of No. II., and to place the Notices to Readers and Correspondents in
their proper order, next to the Contents of the Volume*

London: Printed by \V. Clowe;, Stamford Slrec 1.