5 Lee, wv WW UY Ay) we oS . Bs vw ¥ eh N oe y > ad yy vy ¥ ta yy 7) i i 4 = ) : BON ttn 7) ws J , : ia, MON ie MCA \y Ai v ‘ Weotyer'g Vv SW et PS BAe ; ue Sd | i Ved OND NS Nd Wd NA OY Yue! J et - ~ vu wr “ie = YY | Wig id " Pe 2 _ 2p 3 22 SS 2 2p Y DD sa 5 2 yD 22 >» 2D > 2 =>» > » >? P.. >> 4p» 2 3 22 | i py rf 2: Re » 3 ] >) : cD. ne) B~ \Y V \} AYU SUM Re wan ARDaAR anny AR AAR ARC ANARAT ON SO RAAAAR RIAA AVA ahAAr RARAR A RAR Ap pee | 7 AANA AREA anon” NAAR eontetetattnn NAINA Was anna f An Annnar~n.A BAA ANA WA OANA RRR AR AAAAARAN AA Aaa AAnARA van A : A ae! “I ‘ar. Wa ras lA } \ : AAA TRINAAAL AAT on! WN Nalal \ NAn a aN. aR AA ARAARRRAARAAA SS aOR SAA BARA. AAS CABRERD nnn AMARA RRS ers “nr ie f\Aa ’ i tt Sa Ar Ne al SAAAAR AANA AR POW a aaaanan Pa » » > p D» p> » » “ > ~y 7 : ~Aa == 4 ~ IBARRP AAW 7 ae aaghnec- aa A aRAnAAR = nes : < _ -AAARNA a apa al ag PRA Ar ty) < fq - Dp = A ry AAARARREA AOS : ae nn n/aAaAe al \A\; te = a Nale\,' ARnARn\a ‘a A — faa) — A DApnaAnanat a. A a er a SAAR RARAR A AaAAAar Nera, RAH AAAWAAA, = ey Aa, AAA AAA af\fie! = ANIA RIE A ARS ~ Lu | ab r AA ps — = TNA Agee WAN &Y. = o os ~ ‘2 ft a Py ar al A aA PAK AARAA. A. S = —) ps ana f j a , . AA ANG “yh n aa = AA AA ah ” > AR , OA, DAA ie. al nA ff ’ |=) ~ a\ PARR AAL ve Ra RANRN ANION, . Ana NAMMAnAnAA BONAR Nn = aA as NALA ave Ase NAY, “ dn A WA AAR AS fas PERTAINS Ni - n~rnNa rear Aa ABA AnAaka. 2% 7A” A; AAA ff Anime OAR oe NA tee 2 AAA RNs a ABAG Va ; Aa 2 r a A | . al ANA a MAA aw s Ae Ba’. A AA aS] oe nnArAr.RAR Aaar ala tO Vv AA alaRaeaal RA = a Dp A A A Aantea- = - a AnA ra an - y ~ = bal — a ary ee z ANZARR VA AOA IN. f ‘ A pm AAARA,| SR AALT 2 aR o> A AAnAn A A >, 3 An 2Anre i \a AANA TARA. - a A-- AR aNaAnrAtar are AW 2 A (VA ay, a a AR A MAn A ah ahAnal _ A Aerie A ar f\_ Anf . AnAn lal A A A Aa ARARA- Te nA az =v: , ?_ea* ANA Aa a apanARasnAnnn” a. - . \ WM We Ni y} | W WW us U As Ne PP { NY Wy Vy: ag! rs \ Nig “WU M wy, : Te. We ys x aN \ ; Wy v yy. PUGS, Vv N y WY v Wy x ev F wy >» y v id i Wry eS ee THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. EDITED BY JAMES SAMUELSON AND WILLIAM CROOKES, F.RS. VOLUME III. With Allustrations ow Copper, Wood, and Stone. LONDON: JOHN CHURCHILL AND SONS, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. Paris: Leipzig: VICTOR MASSON ET FILS. ALFONS DURR. —_$~34——— Baw MDCCCLXVI. . (we pete = ; ; 7 a . LV Abo “TeAST: PAG ay 9A0ge ‘204 1/84 WILY UO SVUVNVO aid “qu qsequey Ne ‘uosity wy Aq yaayS moazy : ‘gjds019 uygop : Nf KI —8oMatod yo ppaanon [197] 1" 1 ( Ss 2Rere Pe] SiN al ae THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. JANUARY, 1866. I, TENERIFFE. An Ascent of the Peak and Sketch of the Island. Illustrated. By Rosert Epwarp ALiIson. In this paper it is my intention to record briefly some of my experi- ences during a residence in the Island of Teneriffe, and I shall describe whatever appeared to me of value, according to my habits of investigation; imperfect as the narrative may be, I hope it will be the means of inducing more capable observers to visit that interesting island, which, on a small scale, offers a very ample field for the labours of the man of science; where the vegetations of most distant regions meet together, and where a climate can be obtained, varying within a few miles from the softest temperature of Italy to the cold of an English March. In consequence of a very severe affection of the lungs, I was ordered to try the climate of Madeira; on my arrival at that beautiful island, the medical man I consulted told me that the climate of Funchal was not suitable for my complaint, and advised me to try that of Teneriffe, where I could reside during the summer months at a considerable elevation above the sea, and during the winter on the coast, and thus enjoy an equable tempera- ture throughout the year ; his advice appeared to me so good, that I resolved to adopt it. I left Funchal with a strong north-east trade wind, which we expected would enable us to reach Teneriffe in about thirty hours, as the distance is only about 200 miles. After passing Madeira, we remarked the peculiar change in the colour of the sea, which passed from a cobalt blue to a very deep Prussian blue, probably caused by the increased depth of the ocean and the very blue colour of the sky. I had been told that the lofty cone of the Peak of Teneriffe could be distinctly seen at a distance of 120 miles; about an hour after sunrise we supposed that we were within one-half of that distance, but no Peak was to be seen, to my VOL, III. B 2 Teneriffe. [Jan., great disappointment. I found afterwards that it is seldom seen at a great distance during the warmest months of summer, but is very clear and distinct during the cold months, or before rain and immediately after it, when the transparency of the air is greatly increased by a certain quantity of vapour which is held in suspen- sion through the atmosphere. Besides, the upper part of the Peak, or “ sugar-loaf,” which is the only part covered with whitish-coloured pumice, reflects more light than the sides of the voleano, which are covered with trachytic lava; thus the cone reflects a whitish light, which contrasts with the surrounding sky, and enables it to be seen at a distance, when it subtends an angle sufliciently large to make an impression on the retina. As the Peak may serve to direct the navigator and enable him to verify his position, the exact distance from which it can be seen is of importance. We stood rapidly on our course, and when we approached within twenty miles of the island, we saw the top of the Peak glistening through some breaks in a mass of cumulose clouds; from its extreme whiteness, I thought that the cone was covered with snow, but it was merely the reflected light from the pumice. In a few hours we came to an anchor off Orotava, on the north side of the island, which is exposed to all the swell caused by the N.E. trade-winds. Such rolling I had never experienced, the vessels occasionally showing almost their keels, or what they had upon their decks. The landing, however, is not bad, as it is sheltered behind numerous pinnacles of volcanic rocks, which break the force of the rollers. What a new scene presented itself when I put my foot on shore, so different from what I had left in London. Such rich dazzling colours, and such Murillo-looking countenances among the lower orders, set off in a great degree by a glowing mid-day sun. The graceful and picturesque dress of the peasantry was particularly striking to a new-comer; the women wear no bonnets, but a half- square of white kerseymere or cashmere, or fine flannel trimmed with white satin ribbon with rosettes at the corners, is thrown over the back of the head; unfortunately, its neatness is spoilt by an odious steeple-crowned black hat, similar to that worn by women in parts of Wales. Their hair, which is always attended to with great care, is drawn tightly over the forehead, made as smooth as possible, and occasionally collected at the back imto one or two tails, and most have a small round curl fixed close to the temples. Their tall figures and graceful movements arewet off by their pretty feet, which are clothed, when they go to church, with silk stockings and coloured satin shoes. The ladies follow the Paris fashions, with the addition, when they go out, of the graceful mantilla of black lace, which hangs loose down on the figure, and that regular accompaniment of the Spanish belle, the expressive fan, the 1866.) Teneriffe. 3 dexterous management of which is quite an accomplishment of a lady of fashion. The dress of the male peasantry is picturesque: it consists of a cloth jacket, a showy waistcoat embroidered at the back, velveteen breeches open at the knees, ornamented with a number of buttons ; when travelling their jacket is generally dispensed with; their well-made legs are covered with long leather gaiters ornamented with coloured leather; a straw hat shadows their generally fine features: altogether they present models of fine masculine forms capable of enduring great fatigue. This pretty and suitable dress is, however, spoilt in a great degree by wearing over it, even in the hottest day, an English blanket made into a sort of cloak formed by a running string round the neck. It is said, that this part of their dress was used by the Guanches, the ancient inhabitants of the island. When I landed at Port Orotava in the begining of July, the thermometer in the shade ranged during the day from 73° to 77°, a temperature which I found relaxing, therefore I was anxious to remove to the romantically situated Villa de Orotava, three miles off and 1,141 feet above the port, with a temperature several degrees lower. But there was a serious obstacle to my intended residence at the Villa, as at that time both hotels and lodgings were unknown; however, I obtained a letter of introduction to the prior of the Augustine convent there, who possibly might give me (although a heretic) the use of a cell in his large, but thinly filled convent. Armed with my letter, I called on the worthy prior; on presenting it to him, I addressed him a few words in indifferent Spanish, but I was soon very agreeably surprised by being seized warmly by the hand and answered in a rich Hibernian accent, “ How glad I am to see a countryman here.” He kindly offered me a choice of cells, but in doing that, he added, “I can only offer you the bare walls and the use of our cook as long as you think proper to reside among us.” I soon sent up the necessary furniture, and passed twelve months most agreeably with the warm-hearted prior and his friars. The career of the prior was not a common one ; he had passed his youth as an officer in the British army, and had served during the whole of the Peninsular war; having become tired of the ennui of his half-pay inactivity in Ireland, he went to pay a visit to his old friends in Spain, where he was persuaded to take the friar’s cowl, and afterwards became a prior of the Augustine convent of the Villa de Orotava. I can testify feelingly to the superiority of the climate of Teneriffe to that of any European district for all affections of the lungs. When I left England I had all the bad symptoms of pulmonary consumption, brought on by a neglected cough, yet in a ss short B 4 Teneriffe. [ Jan., time, without any medicine, they all disappeared. As a proof of what climate did for me, I will mention that three months after my arrival I made an attempt to ascend the Peak, but was obliged to return when within a few hundred feet of the top, in consequence of my men refusing to go any higher. I do not wish it to be sup- posed that the climate will cwre consumption, or where tubercular disease has occupied a considerable portion of the lungs, which it had not in my case; but its warm, dry, equable temperature, which can be obtained throughout the year by varying the altitude, is a most powerful remedial agent, and will do more to ward off that sad malady than any other part of the world, excepting possibly the city of Mendoza, on the eastern foot of the Andes, in the republic of Rio de la Plata. A scientific French gentleman who had observed the temperature of the Villa de Orotava during some years, informed me that his self-registering thermometer had never been below 12°5C. =54°5F.: during the winter I passed there I never saw it below 55:5 F. The following is the mean temperature of Santa Cruz, the principal port and town on the south side of the island ; San Christobal de la Laguna, the capital, 1,740 feet above the sea ; and the upper part of the Villa de Orotava, 1,121 feet above the sea. Santa Cruz. Laguna. Villa de Orotava. March . . 67°10 58 62°75 April ait be 67°25 58-75 63 May .. - 72°10 62 67 Mean. 68-81 59°58 64°25 Spring. JUNE ire lis 73°85 64°87 68°87 DULVicns' iste 77°25 69-12 70°12 August . .« 78°85 70°85 73-88 Mean : 76 65 68°28 70:95 Summer. September . 77°25 70 72°90 October . . 74°64 66 70:40 November . 70°40 61°87 | 65°85 Mean - 74:09 65°95 69°71 Autumn. December . 65°81 38 62 15 January . - 63°80 54°75 | 59°25 February 64°34 56 60 Mean . 64°65 56-25 | 60°40 Winter. Ee Mean Annual Temperature of Santa Cruz . . 70°05 5) F Laguna. . . 62°51 ” * Orctava . . 66°34 1866. | Teneriffe. 5 It will be seen from the preceding table, that the summer warmth is prolonged to the month of November, which month is 3°°15 warmer at Santa Cruz than April. Penzance is the mildest part of England, there the mean temperature of November is only 45° or 25°°40 below that of Santa Cruz. The houses of the nobility and gentry are built after the Moorish style, which is pre-eminently suitable to warm climates; they form a hollow square which is frequently filled with orange trees, oleanders with their rose-pink flowers, or bananas whose delicately green leaves throw around a delicious shade. The lower part of the houses contains stores for wine, &., or offices; above is an open balcony leading to the reception rooms and bed chambers ; the whole crowned by a high square tower (“mirador”) with a flat roof: those of the Villa de Orotava overlook two extinct volcanoes, an enchanting valley under a high state of cultivation, bearing the vine, oranges, lemons, and various tropical fruits, with the sea in front, bounded on the west by an‘almost vertical cliff, or crater flank, called Tigayga, above which are various mountains, from 9,000 to 10,000 feet high, crowned over all by the white cone of the majestic Peak, towermg to the elevation of 12,200 feet. These flat-roofed towers are a great source of enjoyment to the gentlemen of the island, who assemble on them in the cool of the evening, to chat, smoke their cigars, and sometimes to have rival games of flying kites, of which they are extremely fond. Vegetation assumes here her fairest forms; the south side of the island is in most parts arid and burnt up, but on the north side it is adorned with many of the vegetable forms which add so much beauty to the tropical regions. From the elevated plains of pumice, called the “cumbre,” which crown the top of the entire island at an elevation of about 6,000 feet above the sea, one may plainly distinguish five distinct zones of vegetation, which are as marked as if they had been planted by the hand of man. The first region, which may be termed that of the vines, extends nearly 1,500 feet above the sea, and although you occasionally find vines 500 or 600 feet higher, yet the grapes are not considered fit for making wine. In this region are found all the fruits of Southern Europe: date-palm, Papaya, Banana, sugar-cane, the various tribes of Cucwrbitz ; in the botanical garden near Orotava there is the coffee-tree, cinnamon-tree (Lawrus cinnamomumy), and the bread- fruit tree (Artocarpus incisa): the Arwm Colocasia is very common, it produces a species of arrowroot; the Palma Christi, or castor-oil plant, and the Spanish carnation (Poinciana pulcherrima) are hedge- weeds. Some of the arborescent Euphorbie are peculiar: the Euphorbia Canariensis is in bushes ten to twelve feet high and twenty in diameter ; it is found at various elevations, but it thrives best below 2,000 feet; when this plant is wounded, it exudes a 6 Teneriffe. [Jan., white milky juice, which is very acrid and caustic ; when inspissated it is employed imstead of cantharides by the natives, formerly it was used considerably in England as a cathartic, emetic, errhine, and rubefacient when properly diluted, but its internal use is now discontinued in medicine. At the upper part of this zone, immense plants of the Cacalia Kleinii thrive with much luxuriance. That extraordinary tree the dragon tree (Dracena draco) grows only in this zone; it produces a fine scarlet gum, called by the old Arabian physicians “dragon’s blood.” In a garden in the Villa de Orotava 1s a renowned dragon tree, supposed to be many thousand years old: when the Spaniards arrived at Orotava in 1493 the trunk was then hollow. It is about 60 feet high and 49 in cir- cumference near the ground, and 354 feet at 6 feet from the surface. Humboldt made it only 45 feet in circumference, but he must have measured it higher up; I once cleared the ground round the trunk and found it 494 feet. Many years ago a large arm was blown down by a storm; the present proprietor has very properly taken measures to preserve the tree, by supporting it with props and masonry. During many centuries this zone gave employment to the greatest part of the population of the island in the cultivation of the vine, but some years ago the grapes became diseased, which produced much distress among the poor; fortunately, they took to cultivating the cochineal insect on the Cactus cochinellifera and Opuntia vulgaris. It was raised with great success on the south side of the island, whose arid and parched surface appeared at first to be particularly favourable to it, as it yielded occasionally a profit of 45/. per acre; but it proved a very precarious industry, for although the female insect prefers a high temperature, yet it is killed by a high radi- ation. Fortunately, the vines have recovered from their disease, and the cochineal trade has fallen off in importance. The second zone of plants, extending from 2,000 to 3,400 feet above the sea, may be properly called the region of laurels; by the natives it is termed “ Alta Verde,’— Green Mount. ‘This region exhibits thick woods of Canarian oak (Quercus Canariensis), Laurus nobilis, L. indica, and L. foetens, two sorts of chestnut trees, a wild olive (Olea excelsa), some heaths, such as the Erica arborea and H. scoparia; masses of daphne, yellow St. John’s wort, some species of the Sideroxylon, several trees of the myrtle species, round which was entwined the Canarian ivy (Hedera Canariensis), There is found in great abundance in this zone, as well as at an elevation of more than 9,000 feet, a very beautiful leguminous plant, called by the natives “ Codeso” (Codonocarpus frankenotdes) ; it has com- posite leaves of a light-green colour, a woody stem, and branches out like a tree; it makes an excellent fire for the traveller, and when burnt, gives out a strong aromatic smell. In the lower 1866. | Teneriffe. (/ part of the zone are large bushes of two or three species of Hype- ricums, but only one (the H. Canariense) is imdigenous; this luxuriant plant is found also in the lower zone. The Campanula and Chrysanthemum show themselves wherever the ground of this zone is covered with moss. The third zone, which is generally enveloped in clouds towards the evening, extends to 5,400 feet above the sea. It may be con- sidered as the true region of the arborescent ferns and that beautiful and useful tree, the Canarian pine, which will be in a few years swept away by the woodman’s axe. Where this has been done on the north-west side of the island, they have, as might have been expected, suffered much from drought. The pine is mingled with a juniper tree, called the Juniperus oaycedrus, and wherever there was a spring of water, it was surrounded by seven or eight species of ferns, but only two of them were peculiar to the island —the Aspleniwm Canariense and the Trichomanes Canariense; the Arbutus is very luxuriant, but it flourishes equally well in the upper part of the second zone, The fourth zone may be said to extend to the elevation of 7,000 feet; in this division, the vegetation is much mixed with that of the upper part of the lower zone, such as the Canarian pine, juniper, and large flowery bushes of Retama, the Spanish name for two species of mountain broom (Spartiwm monospermum and Spartium nubigenum). | The fifth and upper zone consists of plains of pumice, whose parched and barren aspect is only occasionally relieved by detached bushes of Retama and “Codeso,” whose dry and pale-green leaves gain a scanty nourishment amid the scorching heat of the sun. Even at the foot of the Peak, at an elevation of 8,957 feet, with a radiation sometimes of 180°, and a depression of 54° of the wet-bulb thermometer, a lilac-coloured violet is found (Viola cheiranthefolia), ‘and the Scrophularia glabiata and some lichens on the Peak near the Ice Cave, at an elevation of 11,098 feet. When I mention these different zones, or bands of vegetation, it must not be thought that they appear so very distinct as you pass through them, as in fact they are much blended, particularly at the verge of every zone. As I was in the habit of passing through three of the belts of vegetation three or four times a week, I paid great attention to their lines of demarcation, which I endeavoured to ascertain in the following manner: I ascended some commanding position, and noted the peculiar vegetation from one salient point to another, as far as I could see, which I measured afterwards with a barometer. At first, I attempted to measure the elevation above the sea of the last tree in every zone, but it was attended with so many difficulties that I abandoned the plan. In the “ Cumbre,” or plains of pumice, which are at an elevation 8 Teneriffe. [Jan., of from 6,500 feet to the foot of the Peak, which is 7,817 feet, are several caves in the lower cliffs, containing bodies of the Guanches, or aborigines of Teneriffe. They were preserved in a manner very similar to that adopted by the ancient Egyptians. The internal cavities were filled with odoriferous gums, and the body was enveloped in the skins of goats, which had preserved in some degree their suppleness. Round the necks of some bodies I found in a cave in the Cafiadas del Pico, 7,700 feet above the sea, were neck- laces composed of small discs of baked clay, of different degrees of thickness. The necklaces are very similar in size and material to those I have seen round the necks of the preserved bodies of the ancient Indians of Peru, who employed them as numerical signs, and to record dates and events. One round the neck of a body discovered near Arica, in Peru, was almost identical with those I have seen round the necks of the embalmed Guanches. The history of the Guanches is involved in the greatest obscurity ; probably, they were a branch of the great Lybian stock. Plutarch calls the Canaries the Fortunate Isles, and it is conjectured that they were the site of the fabulous gardens of the Hesperides. Although the Canaries were visited by the Phcenicians, they were lost to the world for nearly fourteen centuries, from the time of Juba, a few years before the birth of Christ, till the year 1330, when a French ship was driven on one of the islands. From that time various expeditions attempted their conquest; the principal one was headed by Jean de Bethencourt, a Norman noble, who landed in 1400, but was ultimately obliged to retire. The Spaniards ultimately reduced Teneriffe and the other islands in 1493. At the time of the conquest, the island was governed by seven independent chiefs, whose manners and customs differed considerably, although their domains were only separated by walls of loose stones. About a century after the conquest, this singular people became utterly extinct. It is said that numbers retired to caves in the mountains, and starved themselves to death, but there is no doubt that disease and misery caused them to melt rapidly away. In the library of the convent where I was residing, there was a manuscript journal, which had been kept by a friar who had attended the last expedition of the Spaniards; it gives a most interesting and affecting account of the extreme humanity and bravery of the poor islanders. Birds are in great variety ; but I must not omit to mention the far-famed canary-bird (Fringilla Canaria); when I saw it first in its native woods, I could scarcely recognize it as the same species as our domestic yellow warbler, so much is the latter altered by domestica- tion and repeated crosses. The native bird is grey on the wings, the belly is green, and the back a very dark grey; it builds on bushy trees or high shrubs; the nest is composed of moss, roots, 1866. | Teneriffe. 9 feathers, &c.; it lays from four to six pale-blue eggs, and some- times hatches six times in a season. It pairs in February, and moults in August and September. I was surprised to find that each flock has a different song; at first I thought that I had been mistaken, but the natives confirmed my observation. The note is between that of the skylark and nightingale. The natives assert that it is very difficult to rear, and generally dies in a couple of years if kept in a cage, though they do not appear to suffer from confinement, as they commence singing directly they are caged. There is another indigenous linnet (Mringilla teydensis) which I have seen at the foot of the Peak; the tinto negro is said to be peculiar to the island, but it is found also in the island of Madeira. Hawks, kites, the red-legged partridge, and other species of Tetraonide are numerous. The fish are of considerable variety. From its peculiar position the island is visited by many migratory shoals, and its fauna thus combines all the fishes of the coast of Africa, of the Mediterranean, and of the West Indies. The bream is found in large numbers between the coast of Africa and the Canaries, and when salted forms a considerable article of export. The tunny is of large size, and is esteemed when pickled. Some varieties of the Cephalopoda, particularly the Octopus, are eaten by the lower orders, and con- sidered a luxury. Another sort, commonly known as the rock- squid, has a body not larger than a man’s fist, yet its arms are four feet long. As soon as I was strong enough to support much fatigue, I determined to visit the top of the Peak, or “ Teyde,” as the natives formerly called it. My native friends begged me not to make the attempt, az the cold at that time of the year would be insupportable. But I considered such an opinion erroneous ; I had made repeated excursions on foot to an elevation of nearly 7,000 feet above the sea, and once to 8,000 feet, when I suffered more from enormous radiation than from cold. In September the temperature in the shade, at 8,000 feet, was 40° F., while the black-bulb thermometer rose to 196°, or close to boiling point at that elevation. The inhabitants are supplied with ice (or rather snow) by men who go up to the foot of the Peak for it during the winter months; and in the summer, to the Cueva de Hielo, zce-cave, which is 3,281 feet higher up. From the nature of their employment, I thought they would be the best men to accompany me, therefore I engaged the head man and his sons. We got up without danger to the Cueva de Hielo, when they refused to proceed any farther, under the plea that we could not pass the night on the snow without a tent or any extra clothing, therefore I was reluctantly obliged to return. In February, I agreed with a couple of men to accompany me 10 Teneriffe. [Jan., to the top of the Peak, under an agreement that they were to receive no pay if they turned back against my orders. The usual plan of those who ascend the Peak, is to leave Port Orotava about one o’clock in the day, to enable them to reach the Estancia de los Ingleses, where they pass the night under the shelter of some rock, and then to resume the ascent sufficiently early to see the sun rise from the top of the Peak. As I wished to pass some time at the Estancia to examine the surrounding lavas, and to observe the decrement of temperature from the coast, the Villa de Orotava, and my point of observation, I left the Villa at 4 a.m., at which hour the thermometer stood at 56°:5, the wet-bulb thermometer 53°, and the barometer 28°:78, equal to 30 inches reduced to the level of the sea. Soon after we left the upper part of the town, we entered the Camino de Chasna, which is dignified by the name of a road, although, like almost all the highways in the island, it is only a steep and rugged surface of lava. My muleteer, guide, and myself moved along in Indian file, and, as we proceeded upwards, the cold eradually increased, particularly after we passed over the crest of the first range of hills which bounds the valley of Orotava. The valleys, and high up some of the mountains where there was vegetation, were covered with dense vapour, but it did not at that hour extend to where we were ascending ; above was the intensely blue starry vault of heaven, and in front the clear outline of the Peak covered with snow, looking down upon us in majestic grandeur. ‘There was a peculiar wildness in the scene, which for a time was enlivened by the rather melodious chant of my two men, but towards break of day they appeared tired, and notwithstanding the cold, I found much difficulty in keeping my eyes open; indeed, my men said that I had been dozing, which was very probable, as I had not been to bed the previous night, that I might be ready to start in good time. About 7 A.m. we crossed the barranca, or ravine, of Pilloni, and that of Pino Dornajito, which is 3,410 feet above the level of the sea; it is so named from an enormous Canarian pine-tree that grew near the western side of the ravine. It is said that this tree was full-grown at the time of the conquest; after having stood the storms of so many ages, it was at last swept into the ravine by the dreadful waterspout that devastated the northern part of the island on the night of the 7th November, 1826; this tree, though partly destroyed, still measured when I saw it, 128 feet in length and 30 feet in circumference. Under a precipice in the middle of the ravine, is a small spring of water, and a wooden cross at the side of it; the temperature of the spring was 56°, that of the air 40°, and the wet-bulb ther- mometer 39°°5. At the time of the waterspout a body of water, 1866. | Teneriffe. 14 some hundred feet wide and thirty to forty deep, fell over this spring and cross without doing the least damage, which the peasantry attribute to the merits of the cross, forgetting that the water in falling over the precipice would form a curve, and thus could not touch the vertical wall below. From the great depth of this ravine, the various rocks that form its perpendicular sides can be observed, as they form a perfect section; the uppermost rock consists of decomposed phonolite, below rough trachytic lava, with vegetable mould to the depth of three feet ; next is a sort of volcanic breccia or conglomerate, held together by a brown mud, and afterwards, beds of yellow and grey tuta four to five feet in thickness, succeeded by various alternate layers of dark trachy-dolerite and brown mud. As it was impos- sible to examine this interesting ravine on my journey up the Peak, I afterwards occupied myself several days in making a plan of it, and taking specimens of all the various rocks along a distance of several miles. The hygrometric state of the atmosphere showed that we were approaching the lower region of the clouds, the temperature fell rapidly, and the wet-bulb thermometer showed absolute saturation, at the same time vegetation became so luxuriant, that it was difficult to observe the nature of the lavas. The tree-heaths were of considerable size, some were 18 feet high, with stems nearly 30 inches in circumference; they were mixed with laurels, cystus, and various other arborescent shrubs. It is worthy of remark, that the leaves were of a uniformly dark-green colour. The luxuriant vegetation of this zone is no doubt owing to its greater humidity, as the clouds generally remain at this eleva- tion during the night and the early part of the morning. As we advance to the upper verge of this zone, the air contains less moisture, the radiation becomes much greater, and the vegetation less luxuriant, with the leaves of a light-green instead of a dark- green colour. The lavas appeared to have flowed in numerous streams from different openings, and their appearance varied considerably accord- ing to the angle they flowed over; for instance, where it had run up a slight ascent, it was twisted and contorted, as if it had been less viscous, showing that the surface had become refrigerated. I took specimens of some of the lower streams which were of trachyte, containing pyroxene, hornblende, and mica; over them were other streams, of what may be termed a dolerite lava, it contained ery- stals of red, brown, and greenish colours, apparently labradorite, and oxene: some of the other streams contained crystals found in both kinds of lava, coupled with hornblende and olivine (peridote) ; they may be fairly called, I think, a sort of trachy-dolerite ; they were all highly magnetic. Many of the lavas were much decom- 12 Teneriffe. [Jan., posed, with the pores on the surface free from crystals, which had no doubt fallen out, as I always found them internally. We kept gradually ascending ; in crossing the Barranca Haya, we were rather annoyed by the vapour of the clouds condensing in our clothes and hair, producing to our feelings a degree of cold much greater than the 39°°5 indicated by our thermometer; the wet-bulb thermometer proved that the atmosphere was saturated with moisture. The sensible cold was increased by a strong local current of wind from the west-by-south, although the wind below and above was blowing from N.N.W. At a quarter to eight a.m. we entered the Llanos de Gaspar (the plains of Gaspar), and left the clouds considerably below us ; here the vegetation became very scanty ; almost the only plants on the surface were patches of Canarian thyme. This desolate spot was, however, particularly interesting, as it was evident that a considerable part of the waterspout which did so much damage in November, 1826, had burst here, cutting the surface into a vast number of ravines, some of them of great depth. From the appearance of the surface, the columns of water which fell must have been very numerous, as in ten or twelve different places the lava was cut into deep trenches, some fifteen and twenty feet deep, with the soil which had been between completely washed away ; many of these channels frequently conveyed into one, which formed at last a destructive and overwhelming ravine, in some places 75 feet deep and a quarter of a mile wide; the body of water swept away part of the town of Garrachica in the valley of Orotava, numerous houses and vineyards, with a battery and its guns at the Port Orotava. When I saw the ravine, which had been cut through numerous layers of compact lava, I thought it had been the work of ages instead of only part of a single night. At half-past nine a.m. we entered the last zone of vegetation, the surface was covered with white lapilli, and protruding masses of trachyte and porphyritic lava, occasionally mixed with pumice. The vegetation for some time had been gradually becoming less luxuriant and more scanty, till here it was reduced to the Codeso, and large tufts of mountain broom. The dry, close, and ligneous formation of its leaves enables it to support the immense difference of climate it has to undergo every four-and-twenty hours. Durmg the summer season, in the daytime, the intensity of solar radiation is almost insupportable, for it is sometimes as high as 210° F.; on the contrary, the nights are extremely cold; the dryness is excessive, as I have observed the dew point as great as 45° to 50°, and to rise again in a few minutes to 24° from a passing cloud. At ten o'clock we came in view of the foot of the Peak, but I was much disappointed when I was informed that we had still a two 1866. | Teneriffe. 13 hours’ climb before we could arrive at the foot of that part of it where the ascent was to commence. ‘The view on our right was a novelty to a person who had not been accustomed to ascend great elevations. The valleys below were filled with vapours, whilst over the sea and the regions above were quite clear. Objects below were unusually refracted ; two brigantines, which were at a considerable distance, presented inverted images of some of their parts; but what was very singular, they appeared to alter their form as I changed my position; sometimes the masts and vessel appeared as if they were separated, then the masts touched each other, and afterwards rapidly increased in length, presenting quite a distorted appearance. After we had ascended a short distance, this refraction or mirage went off, and the vessels assumed their natural appearance. The Cafiadas del Pico (see Plate I.) is an immense plain of an ancient crater, covered with yellow and white pumice, extending round the Peak from W.S.W. to E. by N., forming part of an ellipsis 8 miles by 7, or 23 miles in circumference. The surface near the foot of the Peak is 8,957 feet above the level of the sea; rather towards one side of this plain or crater, in latitude 28°17’ N., and longitude 16° 39’ 45” W., rises the Peak to a further elevation of 3,243 feet, or 12,200 feet above the level of the sea. This plain is surrounded by nearly vertical walls of lava, which would debar all possible entrance if they had not been broken across in some places by a great convulsion of nature; the one by which we entered is very aptly named by the natives Hi Peréillo, the little gateway. The surface is dotted over with masses of reddish coloured and black trachyte and phonolite, which apparently are erratic masses, but on close inspection, it can be seen in many places that they are in some degree circular, and are very probably the tops of extinct craters, or rents of more modern date than the great plain or crater. These Cafiadas form the only road of communication between the northern and southern parts of the island, but during the winter season they are sometimes impassable from the great depth of snow. We passed a small extinct volcano, called Montaiia Negra (black mountain), but more generally known by the name of Los Gorros ; in it are several caves, which are used as ice-houses by the men who supply Santa Cruz and the other towns with snow; they collect it at the foot of the Peak at certain seasons of the year; when they cannot obtain it there, they go up to the Cueva de Hielo, which is 2,131 feet higher up, or 11,098 feet above the level of the sea. At mid-day we arrived at the foot of the Peak, where we left our mules with some fodder we brought up for them. We 14 Teneriffe. [Jan., remained there an hour to breakfast and to enable me to make the following observations :— Tn. The Barometer stood at : : : . w0sobe Thermometer in the shade . : . ae Wet-bulb Thermometer < ; , 4 Black ditto : f , 3 . 140 Boiling point of water . ‘ : 2 LOG I am not certain that this is perfectly correct, as it varied from 196°°4 to 196°°7, the bulb of the thermometer was not plunged into the water, but in the steam about an inch above the surface of the water. We began to mount the Peak on foot, by a very steep ascent over a surface covered with yellowish coloured pumice, between two embankments or currents of trachytic lava, which had separated in cooling from the general mass called Mal Pais, situated at Alta Vesta de Arriba 10,621 feet above the sea. It is not quite correct to call them currents; although in continuous lines, the lava was not in connected masses, but in large detached blocks of various sizes and forms, that had apparently undergone various degrees of rapid and slow cooling; the most common description was a trachy-dolerite, with more or less felspathic minerals ; some were obsidian, or volcanic glass, of a jet-black colour, having internally a shining vitreous lustre, breaking with a con- choidal fracture, and translucent at the edges. It is worthy of remark, that when I broke some specimens from the lowest part of a mass of obsidian they contained crystals of felspar, but in the upper part of the same mass, very frequently I could not discover a single crystal, as if they had fallen down to the bottom, when the mass was liquid, by their own specific gravity. On breaking some of them, they exhibited cavities contaiing an incipient crystallization forming concentric lamine of a lighter colour than the rest. In some places I picked up pieces which were slightly convoluted, containing small crystals of pyroxene and glassy felspar. Another singular circumstance is, that the pumice taken from the Cafiadas of the Peak is heavier and contaims more silica and alumina, and less potash and soda, than that on the sides and top of the Peak; the latter contained about the same quantity of silica and alumina as the trachy-dolerite. The following is the analysis made for me by the late Dr. Andrew Ure :— Silica. Alumina, Potash. Soda. Trachy-dolerite, from the Peak. | 57 16 95 1-14 6:40 PAIICOMCIELO Ve.) ie oueat, va fi acertake 59°87 15°89 | 10:20 3:15 Ditto Catadas. . . . . «| 62°40 | 14:97 | (6-25 1:96 1866. | Teneriffe. 15 It will be seen that all this pumice contains a smaller amount of silica than that from the Lipari Isles, which according to Klaproth contains 77°50 of silica and 17°50 of alumina. Some of the blocks of lava I examined higher up the Peak had more of a porphyritic than a trachytic character, as they contained blotches of crystals of a greenish and greyish-white colour, which I mistook for ordinary felspar ; but I was informed on good authority that they were pyroxene, labradorite, and chrysolite, therefore the blocks may be more properly considered a species of basalt, though they had all the spongy and rough appearance of a trachyte. Occasionally there were detached blocks of phonolite, of a greyish- blue colour, containing much felspar and mesotype; it made a smooth fracture, and had the peculiar metallic sound of that rock when struck with a hammer. After a very fatiguing but not difficult ascent, which took us an hour, includmg the time occupied in examining the lavas, we arrived at a part of the Peak called La Estancia de los Ingleses de Abaxo (the lower halting place of the English), which is 9,930 feet above the level of the sea. The pumice here forms a tolerably level surface of a few hundred feet square; towards the N.N.E. side of it are some large scattered blocks of obsidian, under the lee of one of them we piled up some pieces of lava to form a sight shelter from the wind, which was extremely cold, and blew such a gale that we were frequently obliged to hold on to the rocks to avoid being blown away, and which for some time made all our efforts useless to light a fire of mountain broom. At sunset it suddenly abated, and two hours after there was a calm, occasionally interrupted by violent gusts of wind, which rushed along with a noise like distant thunder in a mountainous country. After partaking of a supper of hot coffee, bread, and roasted potatoes, we made a trench in the pumice, in which I placed my guide and muleteer, and then covered them up to the neck with light pumice-dust, over which I put my cloak. This simple plan so effectually protected them from the bitter cold, that I soon found they had forgotten all the fatigues in a sound slumber. As I wished to note the barometer and thermometer every hour, and had agreed with some friends at Port Orotava and the Villa, to observe them at the same time during part of the twenty- four hours, I was unable to take the rest which I so much required. The strange and interesting scene around me caused a feeling which partook in some degree of pleasure and pain; not having anyone to whom I could express my feelings, produced a painful void. The peculiar wildness of the scene was in some degree enlivened by the splendour of the starry vault above, which was so extremely blue, that if it had been seen in a picture, it might have 16 Teneriffe. | Jan., been thought unnatural. From the clearness of the atmosphere, the light given by the stars and planets was sufficient to enable me to write my observations, and Venus left a faint glimmering streak of light on a wreath of snow close to our resting-place ; and when the moon arose, I could distinctly see the degrees on my instru- ments. A still stronger proof of the extreme clearness of the atmosphere was, that I observed the moon to be indented like a saw, between the light and obscured part, which I supposed was caused by the projection of the illuminated tops of the mountains upon the part which was deprived of the sun’s light. Soon after dark a broad pyramidal body of light appeared, like the glow on the sky caused by a distant conflagration ; this was the zodiacal light; where there were openings in the clouds below, the brightness continued close down to the horizon, with as deep a tone as that of the zenith. It was much broader below, oc- cupying a space equal to what I considered to be nearly 15° in breadth. Orion was so clear, that if I had had a telescope of even moderate power, no doubt I might have seen the whole of his sword. Another phenomenon I observed may be worth mentioning. Soon after the sun went down, the wind became much louder and had an acuter sound, although the force was very considerably less than it was before. It has been observed, from the earliest anti- quity, that the air becomes more sonorous at night than in the day, but Iam not aware that the cause of it has been well ascertained. The general opinion is, I believe, that the air, becoming colder, is therefore denser, and more susceptible of conveying the sonorous waves. Our navigators to the North Pole have frequently mentioned the surprising distance from which they were enabled to hear sound during an Arctic winter. My observations of the intensity of sound at different states of the atmosphere were not confined to the Peak. At the town of Orotava, situated about two miles from the sea, the noise of the waves in the morning occasionally had a grave, low tone ; at the same time, the air appeared to be particularly dry, and distant objects were very indistinct. Towards the middle of the day, or the beginning of the afternoon, and when the difference between the dry and wet bulb thermometer was /ess than usual, the island of Palma, nearly sixty miles distant, could be distinctly seen, and the mountains that surround the valley of Orotaya were brought apparently so close, that the vegetation upon them could be observed ; at the same time, the sound of the sea invariably passed from a grave to an acute sound. The natives prognosticate rain when they observe this particular clearness of the atmosphere, and generally I have found them correct. I have made the same remark during my long residence in Chili, where the distant Andes are apparently only a few miles off shortly before rain, and the 1866. | Teneriffe. 17 noise of the waves of the sea, dashing on the rocky coast, assumes a different tone. From frequent observations that I have made, I am inclined to attribute the intensity of sound at night to a certain increase of ‘moisture, and to an eqguabdlity of temperature in the different strata of the atmosphere. The increased intensity of sound when I was on the Peak during the night could not have been caused by an increased density of the atmosphere, because, instead of becoming colder, it was four or five degrees warmer when the sound of the wind became more sonorous. The instruments were observed every hour, and the boiling- point of water was noted four times, giving an average of 193°: 64; the barometer, an average pressure of 2)°°329. This boiling-pomt does not exactly agree with the experiments of General Roy, who _considered that the boiling-point of water varied 0°88 of a degree for every half-inch of a variation of the barometer At the Villa de Orotava, at an elevation of 1,141 feet, I found the average boiling-point to be 209°-178,— the thermometer was not in the water, but close above it. In the subjoined table I merely give the result of my observations at such times as there were notable differences. The difference of radiation was most astonishing: as night approached it fell 80° im an hour; at midnight it was nega- tive, that is, the shaded thermometer was 9° higher than the exposed one. At first I thought it must be caused by local position, but I removed the thermometers three times, and found the results similar. I was surprised to find that, at the moment of sunrise, it was still negative, the shaded thermometer standing 4° higher than the other. At Alta Vista de Arriba, one hour and a half after sunrise, the black-bulb thermometer rose to 98°, and later to 126°. The following table is the result of my observations made at La Estancia de los Ingleses, 9,930 feet above the level of the sea:— Shelter ack- -poi iling-poi Hour. ce aecien meee ce esac en Maen | Sve CO? PM: 50 195 46 193°65 20-334 3.30 ,, 49 190 45 193°62 | 20-330 UO es 36 39 40 193°61 20°527 Midnight. 38°5 29°5 31 —_ 20-324 2.0 A.M. 38°5 27 5 30 — | 20°3823 Dine 36°5 32°5 35 = | 20-331 | Noon. ! 66 212 60 193°68 | 20°336 About an hour before sunrise I awoke my sleepy men, but my guide (who had never ascended to the top of the Peak) was seized with an affection like sea-sickness, and a violent pain in the head, no doubt caused by the rarity of the air, therefore I was obliged to leave him at the Estancia to await my return. VOL. III. é 18 Teneriffe. [Jan., In an hour we reached that part of the Peak directly above Alta Vista de Arriba, called Mal Pais (bad country), 10,730 feet above the sea. The part we arrived at was well named Mal Pais, as it was formed of immense masses of trachytic lava, thrown about in all imaginable shapes and directions, interspersed with large blocks of obsidian, some of which were like enormous bomb- shells; one or two small ones. that I broke were hollow in the centre; the internal cavity was lined with thin filaments, similar to those found in flint nodules; the edges of some of the masses of obsidian were often as sharp as those of broken wine-bottles. The blocks of lava were sometimes wide apart, and sometimes had mere slits between them, but always wide enough to swallow up a pencil if one were dropped in. Some of the lavas looked as if they had run down the Peak in a half-fiuid state, and had broken into detached masses in cooling. We had made our ascent up to this point by the lights of the spangled vault above, but it was impossible to proceed any further until daylight. We had not long to wait; in a few minutes a long and bright streak of light orange-colour began to tinge the eastern part of the fleecy clouds below; it then deepened into a rose-colour, which was reflected on the cone of the Peak just above us, and then followed such a magnificent blending of colours as to defy description, and the day-break rapidly chased away the darkness in the plain below. The cold was most penetrating ; the thermometer stood at 21°, which was 13° below what it had stood at, at any time during the night, only 800 feet below. We again resumed our ascent, which over these rough masses was difficult and painful, as we were obliged to jump from block to block, aided by a long staff shod with steel, and occasionally to climb over some with the hands and feet. The greatest annoyance we experienced was from thick masses of snow between the blocks of lava, which had frozen hard, forming a surface like glass, thus making it extremely difficult to cross, particularly as I was unprovided with proper shoes. The thermometer soon rose to 34°; this sudden rise of temperature, combined with the great exertion of climbing, made me feel my overcoat oppressive, and I was glad to leave it, till my return, under a high block of obsidian. After some fatigue, we reached a spot called the Cueva de Nieve (the eave of snow), which is 11,098 feet above the level of the sea. At 7 a.m. the thermometer stood here at 42°°75, the barometer at 19°°912, and water boiled 7 a AS ela A 3 This singular cave is always filled with ice and water; the entrance is merely a hole in the trachytic lava, about 40 inches square, and from 18 to 20 feet perpendicular depth; as I was not provided with a ladder, my man let me down by fastening a rope round my waist. I found the floor immediately below the 1866. | Teneriffe. 19 entrance was formed of rough blocks of lava; there were three branches or lanes, the principal one, which I more particularly observed, was 60 to 70 feet long. Round the walls was a band of ice about 7 feet wide and 3 feet high, completely surrounding a little pond of water which did not exceed 2 to 3 feet deep near the mouth, but at the farther extremity I could not reach the bottom with my mountain staff, 8 feet long. At the farther extremity was what the neveros (ice collectors) call El hombre de nieve, the man of snow; on close inspection it proved to be a honeycombed mass of lava, on which the water had dripped from the roof, and had frozen into what might, in the obscurity of the place, be thought to resemble a human figure. I think the sides of the cave show that it has been a crater of emission, for the surfaces are rounded, as if they had been acted on when in a plastic state. I was further confirmed in this opinion by observing a short distance below the cave a stream of lava, which had evidently not flowed from the Rembleta above. Some of the lava had a wrinkled or corrugated appearance, as if it had issued out in a half-fluid state, and had rapidly cooled as it trickled forwards by its own weight. It was extraordinary that the water could be retained in this basin of porous lava, but I think that the surface of the bottom had been glazed over in a similar manner as the sides, by the action of heat; besides, it was covered over with a bed of ice, on which the water rested; this was evident, as wherever I eee my pole, it struck on ice. The ice-collectors I employed uring my first attempt to ascend, assured me that they had often seen smoke or steam issue out of the cave, but I saw neither when I was there. In three quarters of an hour after leaving the cave we arrived at a small plain of pumice, called the Rembleta, situated 11,721 feet above the sea; this plain appeared to have been the ancient crater of the Peak, from which most of the currents of lava had proceeded previous to the formation of the present cone, or Pilon (sugar-loaf), which rises nearly in the centre of this plain to an elevation of 479 feet. The foot of the cone was encircled by water entirely frozen over ; it was no doubt derived from the snow which fell on the sides of the cone melting, which thus formed the narrow belt of water around it. Although the actual elevation of the cone was small, yet I found the ascent the most difficult and fatiguing part of the journey. The surface is a light pumice and ash, with small pieces of porphyritic lava covered with an ochreous crust occasionally pro- truding through it. Some idea may be formed of the steepness of the cone when I mention that at the bottom the slope forms an angle of 35°, gradually increasing till, near the top, the angle is c2 20 Teneriffe. | Jan., 42°, which is nearly the greatest angle the body can ascend in walking without falling backward. The pumice and ashes gaye way under my feet, and often caused me to slide back many yards before it was possible to stop myself, then I was arrested by some of the protruding pieces of porphyritic lava. In forty minutes after leaving the Rembleta, I seated myself on the highest pinnacle of the Peak, 12,200 feet above the level of the sea. The Peak is a solfatara, that is (see Plate II.), a half-extin- guished volcano The crater is much smaller and more shallow than I expected ; round the summit runs a wall of porphy- ritic lava of an elliptical form, about 150 feet long, 100 broad, and 50 deep; the surface of the lava was coated with a soft white mass like dough, caused by the sulphurous acid vapours having acted upon the argil of the lava, and turned it into a sulphate of alumina. As I only paced the crater once for the purpose of measuring it, I am not certain that the dimensions I have given are perfectly correct. The bottom of the crater was unpleasantly hot, and the air so filled with vapours of sulphurous acid that I was continually sneezing, and the lungs felt sore and pained. The surface was covered with most beautiful trimetric crystals of sulphur, some of a yellowish white, others of a reddish and greenish colour. In some little caves, only a few feet deep, were some small apertures covered with splendid crystals of octahedral sulphur; on breaking some of them, I found in the interior a glistening white substance something like opal, only that it had a crystallme structure; on my return to England it was analyzed, and found to contain 91 per cent. of silex, and the rest water. The pasty substance on the surface of the lava, proved to be sulphate of alumina, muriate of ammonia, and a small quantity (0°5 per cent.) of sulphate of ammonia. Round the walls of the crater were several small apertures, like small pipes, about an inch in diameter, some of which were emitting steam, and others sulphurous acid vapours, which show that they must have proceeded from different sources, although some of the holes were only a few inches apart. The heat of the steam was considerable, for when I placed a thermometer graduated to 135° within their influence, the bulb burst. The extreme dryness of the atmosphere and the radiation of the sun’s rays were distressing; the lips cracked; the nails became brittle; the mahogany box, containing a Daniell’s hygrometer, became unglued, and the case of a small pocket-sextant split across. The evaporation of the wet-bulb thermometer was so rapid that it was necessary to watch it closely, otherwise the muslin would be dry before the observation could be made. The basaltic lava and the trachytes of the Peak were magnetic and had polarity, but I had no means of measuring it. $06 al (4770240) TIWNGS WH teu Ue Ne WW (aosyy Hy Aq yolsyo ~e mor) [2p 9] 2yrenp ' STS esd tel ea! Slulsceal ale JO Teuamop A Oo ¢ ~ e 1866. ] Teneriffe. 21 The following were the observations made on the wall surround- ing the crater, and a few feet below the highest point :— | Sheltered Black Bulb | Dew-point of Boiling-point | B { | Thermometer. | Thermometer, | Depression. of Water, © { ~~atometer. Se 7 a, alts Noon. . 54925 | 200° | 62° 191°-125 | 19°-093 | Although the atmosphere appeared perfectly clear, yet when I looked across the sun’s rays from the shade of a rock, there was an evident dust-haze, probably brought over by the wind from the neighbouring desert of Africa. The view from the top was most magnificent, the masses of eumuli, which had been resting at an elevation of 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, had entirely disappeared; with the exception of the islands of Forteventura and Lanzarote, the whole of the Canarian archipelago seemed to be close under my feet, the moun- tains of Grand Canary appeared as if on the island below, Palma 46 miles distant, and Gomera with Hierro were quite distinct. I think it must be allowed that the Peak is a volcano of eruption, but there are strong evidences that it 1s nearly surrounded by a more ancient and enormous crater of elevation, termed the Caiiadas, which form an atrium 23 miles in circumference. The Canadas are surrounded by cliffs of lava, varying from 540 feet to about 1,000 feet high; the plain of this crater is 4,383 feet lower than the mean elevation of the cone of the peak, which rises like a great mole-hill nearly in the centre of this atrium. From the cliffs of this atrium, various ridges of mountains spring out like the spokes of a wheel; some of them rise to an elevation of 8,950 feet, such as the Risco de Guajara, which is part of the elevated chain of mountains surrounding the Canadas from the E. to W.S.W. These ridges of mountains, forming as it were buttresses, have radial valleys between them, running for some miles towards the sea. As you pass over these currents and mountains of lava, the view is so bewildering, that it requires two or three visits before you can understand the system of these volcanic mountains, which can be done only by making a preliminary observation from a very elevated position, so as to take a bird’s-eye view of the whole island, and then making more observations in detail on foot. These various mountain ridges have all the appearance of having been at one time jomed together, for when I examined their respective strata I found that they intercalated in the same manner; for instance, No 8 stratum in one ridge would be of the same type as No. 8 in an opposite one, though they were some miles apart. Some idea may be formed of the great antiquity of the streams of lava that run towards the sea, by a careful examination of the 22 Teneriffe. | Jan., large ravine which I have already mentioned as having been formed by a waterspout in November, 1826. In some parts of it, I» counted no less than 75 various layers of lava and vegetable earth ; some of the layers consisted of compact basalt, trachytic porphyry, and phonolite, between some of them were layers of vegetable earth three and four inches thick, with fine roots of plants turned into charcoal. Sir Wiliam Hamilton found that it took several centuries before the compact lavas of Vesuvius became covered with a thick layer of vegetable earth, here were various strata with layers of earth between them, showing that ages must have elapsed between some of the eruptions. The question naturally occurs, Is there any probability of such eruptions occurring again? The crater of the Peak emits smoke and steam at intervals all the year round ; after heavy rains I have often seen the crater throwing up dense columns of steam; as a proof that the fires are not far below, when I thrust my staff a few feet into crust of the crater, and withdrew it, I could not touch it, as it was quite hot. In 1797, the town of Garrachica was entirely destroyed by an eruption from the volcano of Chajorra, which is about 2,000 feet lower than the top of the Peak, but whose crater is nearly a quarter of a mile in diameter. The Port of the unfortunate town was entirely filled up, and you now see churches, convents, and houses without roofs, and the walls protuding a few feet above the solid mass of basaltic lava. But the eruption of that yeax must have been a mere nothing in comparison with those of the distant times when the whole island was covered with liquid lava, forming the high cliffs which now guard its shores, and when masses of obsidian, many tons in weight, were launched into the air like huge voleanic bombs, some miles from the volcanic vent. It may be interesting to know what is the best time of the year to ascend the Peak; from the experience I had from my . frequent ascents to the Cumbre, at an elevation of upwards of 7,000 feet, I observed that the seasons above were much earlier than they were below, consequently the latter part of the spring is the best season to visit the Peak. While August and September have a mean temperature of nearly 73° at the Villa de Orotava, 1,141 feet above the sea, I found it was cold in the shade at an elevation of between 7,000 and 8,000 feet, with an extreme radiation and distressing dryness. During the latter part of the autumn the cold is most intense at night above, even much greater than during January and February, when the cold even on the summit of the Peak is far from excessive. When I ascended the Peak in October to an elevation of 10,700 feet, I found the cold greater than it was in February. J am aware that this is against the generally received opinion, but I give merely the result of 1866. | Teneriffe. 23 actual experience and of numerous observations I made during my residence at Teneriffe. From yarious observations I made at different elevations in Teneriffe, it is evident that the decrease of temperature is more rapid in the inferior strata of the atmosphere, and slower in the superior, but at a certain elevation (which possibly varies according to the latitude) the temperature in the summer season is almost stationary throughout the twenty-four hours; even in winter, during the middle of the day at the same elevation, and in Teneriffe the height of this stratum of air is from nine to eleven thousand feet. If the decrease be uniform, the mean temperature of a certain elevation will be found by a thermometer placed between the lower and upper stations ; but this is not the case, the error being much larger when taken in arithmetical, than in geometrical progression. The temperature at Port Orotava was. . F Gios5 That on the top of the Peak at the same time : 45°° S75 Difference between the two stations . : 15> G25 “If the temperature had decreased in arithmetical pro- gression, that on the top ought to have been . —15°:94 Or a difference between the two of : ; : 77°44 Instead of which I found it to be only . : 15° 625 The following figures will show the difference of temperature per 1,000 feet: the difference of temperature between Port and Villa Orotava gave 5°°726 as the average difference per 1,000 feet of elevation; while between the Port and the Estancia de los Ingleses the average difference of temperature per 1,000 feet was only 2°:43. Taking the difference of temperature between the Villa Orotava and the Estancia de los Ingleses, it would be necessary to ascend 537°75 feet for an alteration of one degree of temperature, but between the Villa and the summit of the Peak, it would be necessary to ascend 1,317 feet for one degree of difference in temperature. Tt is, however, impossible to know the exact temperature of any point by a single passing observation, as the thermometer may vary every moment according to the presence of the sun, the inter- position of the clouds, a strong wind, or a calm; a level fog may occasion a refrigeration in that part of the atmosphere where the instrument is situated, which the rest of the air may not partake of; and any of these accidents may occur at the precise moment of observation. These can be all allowed for to a certain degree of correctness, but the immense difference between the supposed and observed decrement of heat, from the sea-coast to the top of the Peak, cannot be attributed to the effect of local causes, but must 24 The Cattle Plague. [Jan., be ascribed to the incorrectness of the theory; and although it may never be submitted to accurate calculations, from the ea of disturbing causes, yet it may be brought to a near approac to truth. Much has been done of late years by the intrepid and merito- rious Mr. Glaisher in his ascents in a balloon, which have thrown much light on this subject; but it is much to be desired that some learned society would pay attention to this problem, and resolve it through direct and frequent observations; by establishing on the Peak a set of observations throughout the year: although it is covered with snow every year for the space of six or eight months, yet the cold is nothing to compare with that of the polar regions. By means of a balloon, the experiment could occasionally be made, and with it the numerous local variations, now to be feared, would be entirely obviated. Ii. THE CATTLE PLAGUE. Ir is but a short history and description that can be placed on record here of the epizootic disease which has latterly decimated the herds of many of the Eastern Counties ; for nothing has yet been discovered or devised capable of effecting the cure of this deadly disorder. The few instances in which cures have been alleged are given on doubtful authority, and the general experience hitherto has been that the percentage of recovery is as large in the cases of cattle receiving no special treatment whatever as in that of animals in the hands of the energetic medical man. We can thus do little more than relate the history and nature of the attack and of the measures, hitherto unavailing, which have been taken to meet it. The disease was first noticed shortly after Midsummer in the north London cowhouses. The first animals that died were English cows which had been purchased at the Metropolitan Cattle Market. Three weeks before this purchase part of a cargo of Russian cattle landed at Hull—the first, it is said, that had been im- ported direct from Russia into this country—had been sold in the same market. Russia is the home of the rinderpest, and although the particular province from which these animals were imported has been declared entirely free from the disease in question, and notwithstanding the very long interval between their shipment at Revel and the outbreak on June 27th in the Islington cow- house, and the fact that no mischief has been traced from the remainder of the cargo which left Hull for the Western Counties —it is declared and believed that to these Russian cattle we are to attribute the calamity which has befallen our stock owners, and 1866. | The Cattle Plague. 25 especially the Edinburgh and London cowkeepers. These foreign cattle have introduced a new and specific poison into this country, which has spread with unexampled rapidity and virulence, destroy- ing upwards of ninety per cent. of the animals in which it has become developed. This is the prevalent theory on the subject. There are, indeed, many who believe that our cattle plague is no new disease, but only the aggravation of an old-standing malady produced by the weakened condition of our live stock, owing to the hard summer and winter of 1864, and their subsequent indulgence in the luxuriant “keep” of the spring and summer of 1865—under the circumstances of the miserable crowding and confinement of town cowhouses. But they fail to account for the altogether unique virulence and destructiveness of the attack, and they assume without foundation that there were the same difficulty and difference in feeding the town-kept stock as were experienced in the country during the dry year 1864, which preceded this attack. The London cowhouses are no doubt, many of them, disgrace- fully close; and the cattle are kept in an unnaturally excited state by food and warmth; but their condition has been improving of late years, and whereas formerly no supervision whatever was exercised, now that every cowkeeper must annually renew his licence, the justices are every year insisting on more stringent provisions for their regulation. In St. Pancras, when licences were first required, 600 cubic feet of space were insisted on for every cow. Since then the measure has been raised to 800, and latterly to 1,000 cubic feet per cow. In a cowhouse 16 feet square by 7 feet high—a cellar (open to the yard) beneath a dwelling-house—which we visited the other day, they used to keep ten cows! When first a licence was required the number was reduced to two, and now the Licence is, very properly, altogether refused in this and every other case of cowhouses in or under dwelling-houses. We mention this in illustration of the improvement which had been witnessed in the condition of the London cows before the advent of this attack, which cannot, therefore, be attributed to the aggravation at this time of any long existing mischief in their management. The Cattle Plague is, indeed, no new thing—not even in England—for the records of last century prove that a distemper equally sudden in its advent, and equally destructive during its continuance, attacked our herds in 1745-1757. To quote from the recently published report of the Royal Commission on this subject: “There is every reason to believe that the distemper which in 1715 made a brief inroad, but was promptly expelled, and which in 1745 renewed the attack and held its ground till 1757, was exactly the same as the present plague. Of this we have proof in the descriptions extant of the symptoms then observed, and of the morbid appearances after death. In a paper communicated to the 26 The Cattle Plague. [Jan., Royal Society in January, 1746, by Dr. Mortimer, he ascribes the origin of the murrain to two calves imported from Holland by a farmer living near Poplar, early in 1745. The spring and summer had been very wet, the autumn dry and cold, the early winter cold and damp. ‘The disease communicated to the cows of this farmer spread through Essex, reached London, and was propagated in various directions from the metropolitan markets. The disease for some time advanced in a manner which appeared to justify the Government in treating its attacks as mere local outbreaks, and it was nearly a year after its first appearance that the country became sufficiently aroused to use national measures for the repression of it.” It has, moreover, been constantly more or less destructive in the Southern Provinces of Jwussia, where, indeed, they try to confine it by a rigid quarantine maintained between them and the neighbouring countries. ‘Though not so destructive in its proper “home,” it has proved extremely fatal wherever it has broken bounds and infected the previously untainted herds of Western Europe. ‘Thus the report of the Commission already quoted informs us that “the Danish monarchy, in the four years from 1745 to 1749, lost 280,000 head, and Holland, in the three years begining with 1769, lost 395,000 head. These disasters attracted the attention of Governments and scientific men, and the long peace which began in 1816 permitted the adoption of those careful and systematic measures of precaution which, in the countries bordering on Russia, have been maintained ever since with various modifications, and, on the whole, with considerable success. It was ascertained that Europe usually received the infection through Russian steppe cattle sent into Poland and Hungary. Large herds of them are annually driven to different parts of Russia, to Poland, Galicia, and Hungary, and often carry with them the seeds of disease in their tran. In 1862 the number attacked by the plague in the Austrian dominions was 296,000, of which 152,000 died. In 1863 it again invaded and overran not only Galicia, but the whole of the kingdom of Hungary and its dependencies, the Bukowina, Dalmatia, Carniola, Lower Austria, Moravia, and Styria.” Fourteen per cent. of the cattle in these countries took the infection, and the average mortality, as stated in Schmidt’s Jahrbuch der Gesammten Medecin, 1865 (p. 95), was as follows :— Per cent. Per cent. Tali eeinPs, ee ehoee by ome os Military Frontier . 83 East Galicia ee ee ree 717 Moravia’ 22.5097) 4. ass Croatia and Slavonia . . 81°6 Lower Austria . . . 92 That the disease which has thus been so constantly the terror of Eastern stockowners is the same which is now so destructive here, is proved by its symptoms. ‘These are thus described by Dr. Smart, of Edinburgh :— 1866. | The Cattle Plague. 27 “1. Period of Ineubation.—This is the latent period of the dis- ease, beginning with the reception of the poison by the animal, and terminating when the symptoms of its development in the system become apparent. The duration of this period has been variously stated, but all my observations lead me to conclude that it terminates on the seventh day, by the outward manifestation of distinctly re- _ cognizable indications. These are— “2. The Earliest Recognizable Symptoms.—They are enumerated as nearly as possible in the order in which they appear. 1. Loss of appetite. This shows itself (1) by an aversion to all sorts of ‘ green’ food. The next day or the following there is (2) indifference to food of any kind. The animal still eats, but languidly, does not lick out the pail, or leaves a portion of the meal, and soon thereafter refuses food altogether. She now ceases to chew the cud, and from this time there is commencing constipation, with progressive dimi- nution of the milk. She looks depressed, stands much in the same posture, with drooping head and reclining ears. The ears, horns, and other extremities are now sensibly under their natural tempera- ture. The breathing is yet but slightly accelerated, and the expira- tion (or outbreath) perceptibly prolonged, and the pulse rises a few beats in frequency. It 1s at this period the orifice of the vagina reddens, and the colour deepens as the disease advances. This ap- pearance of the vulva is the most characteristic and trustworthy mark of the disease at this stage. A faint red or purple line about the same time appears on the undergum along the roots of the teeth. All these symptoms concur within a day or two of the in- cubation period. The diseased condition of the internal organs after death clearly pots to this and the preceding period of the disease as the proper time for successful treatment, before destructive changes have too far advanced. “3. More advanced Symptoms.—The breathing is now more accelerated, oppressed, sighing, and laborious. The number of respirations varies generally from 36 to 70 per minute. The pulse is more rapid (from 60 to 110 pulsations per minute) and weaker. There is continued loss of appetite, constipation, and thirst. The superficial membrane of the mouth, especially of the inner side of the upper lip, roughens, and a viscid discharge appears in the vagina. A similar appearance is seen on the membrane of the vagina where it joms the skin. The milk is scanty, and entirely changed to cream, or there is none at all. All the other symptoms are more decidedly pronounced. The likelihood of recovery is greatly dimi- nished by delaying treatment to this period. “4. Most advanced Symptoms.—They are those which shortly precede death, and are unattended by any very marked outward signs of pain. ‘The breathing is now slow, very laborious, and moaning or grunting. Pulse slow and small. Where purgatives 28 The Cattle Plague. [Jan., have not been given there is great distention of the abdomen, and obstinate constipation. The fluid and sometimes sanguineous dis- charges from the bowels, which occur in some cases, are the results generally of the too frequent use of irritant drugs. The superficial membrane of the mouth peels off from the gums and lips, leaving the surface raw; and frequently, but not invariably, there is a viscid discharge from the eyes, nostrils, and vagina. The animal now dies without a struggle, apparently from simple exhaustion. “The ‘staring hide’ and ‘arched back, so frequently men- tioned as distinctive features of this disease, while characteristic of the advanced forms of pleuro-pneumonia, are not at all marks of the rinderpest. There is no cough or lung symptom in the pure and uncomplicated examples of the disease.” The loss of appetite is a first symptom of many other diseases besides rinderpest ; nevertheless such is the dread of the cattle plague, that in the London cowhouses, where it is the invariable custom to fatten cows towards the close of their milking, and to keep them throughout the period in tolerable condition for the butcher, it has latterly been almost universally the practice to slaughter a cow as soon as she goes off her feed. Her carcass will pass inspection at market, whether the earliest appearances of the plague (patches of inflammation on the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach, and longitudinal and transverse streaks on the membrane lining the small intestines) have been developed or not. And though the idea of such meat entering our markets for con- sumption in any quantity is not very agreeable, yet it is declared that while the disease is thus still in or only just passing out of the incubative stage, the flesh of the animal is perfectly wholesome. The owner thus prefers the loss in part which he sustains by the sale of a milk cow to the butcher, to the total loss which, if she prove to have the plague, he is certain to incur, for the treatment of the disease has hitherto been ineffectual. Some such remedy as Dr. Smart recommends,* common enough, indeed, as a drench well known to herdsmen, of which the main ingredients are sulphur * Dr. Smart's dose for a cow, in the earlier and later stages respectively of the malady, is as follows :—* There are only three kinds of drugs which I found it requi- site to employ. 1. Laxative, with diuretic action. This is principally used in the early, but often required at other periods, in the progress of the disease. It is composed of— Laxutive. Nitrate of potash Powdered Pnaror fol each 1 07. Powder of sublimed sulphur, 2 oz. Treacle, 1 Ib. Water to make a quart, and well mixed. This quantity is given night and morning, or, if requisite, oftener, until scouring is produced. Afterwards an occasional bottle will maintain their free, withont excessive, action. As the vital powers sink rapidly, there should be as little delay as possible in 1866. | The Cattle Plague. 29 and nitre (laxative and diuretic), combined with warm clothing enough to make the animal perspire profusely, so that skin, stomach, and kidneys are all excited to unusual action, with the view of getting the poison out of the system, is advisable in the first stage of the attack. And the earlier the symptoms can be perceived and recognized, the better the small chance of success in the treatment of the case. In spite, however, of treatment, a herdsman finds a cow or two, that may have been off their feed for a day or two without exciting much observation, suddenly displaying one after another the tram of symptoms which we have quoted from Dr. Smart ; and if he does not at once get rid of his herd, in a very few days or weeks the plague runs through the whole of them, and not five per cent. of them survive. Whole herds have thus been lost. Lord Granville’s herd, near Hendon, was one of the earliest. A neighbour had lost some cows by the disease, and the contagion in some unexplained manner reached his lordship’s byres, and nearly all the cows died under it. Calves bought in the Metropolitan Market and sent to Norfolk, Essex, and Sussex, carried the contagion with them, and forthwith whole herds disappeared. A London cowkeeper finding something wrong with his herd in town sends them all over to his farm near Guildford, and forthwith the whole district there is in- fected, and one and another lose their all. The disease is unquestionably more virulently contagious than. any other known, though there is still some doubt whether it be capable of transmission to any other kind of animal. Mr. Harvey’s flock of sheep at Crown Point, near Norwich, was indeed struck with an extremely fatal disease, very much resembling the cattle plague in the symptoms during life, and in the appearances after death ; and this happened very soon after the herd on the same estate had suffered from the rinderpest ; but, on the other hand, the experiments administering stimulants. I have found the following mixture, possessing stimu- lant, diuretic, and diapuoretic properties, very efficacious :-— Stimulant. Carbonate of ammonia, 3 of an oz. Sweet spirit of nitre , Spirit of mindereris jot ee Cold water, 9 oz. Mix. This dose, from the commencement of treatment, is administered thrice a day during the entire course of the disease. When prostration is great it is sometimes needful to conjoin it with the laxative given along with all other medicines. In such cases the doses are smaller. When convalescence is fully established, a simple tonic hastens recovery. I find none so good and safe as cinchona bark. The best quality only Should be used, and given in doses of 14 oz. of the powder. This tonic in the early period of convalescence is combined with the stimulant, and at a later period with a quart of good sweet ale given once daily. It is best administered at night. With the exception of an occasional dose of laudanum (two tablespoonfuls to any medicine the animal is getting, or in the food) to obviate straining and control excessive diarrhea, no other drugs are used,” 30 The Cattle Plague. | Jan., at Edinburgh, in which healthy sheep had been kept for weeks in the sanatorium where diseased cattle were under treatment, seemed to show that the disease was not communicable.* In an address on this subject to the Wayland (Norfolk) Agricultural Society, Mr. Woods, of Merton, an undoubted authority on sheep management, discussed the whole history of the Crown Point flock during the past summer, and gave it for his opinion that the disease which had been so fatal among them was not the rinderpest; and we learn from him that on large Russian estates, where flocks and herds are pastured together, the former are not lable to the disease which destroys the latter. There is no doubt, however, that it is wonderfully lable to spread among cattle when once a case has happened. The reports to the Privy Council by the veterinary inspectors recorded that from 1,000 to 1,800 cases a week occurred during the three weeks ending October 28th, and there cannot be a doubt that in a multitude of instances the veterinary inspection is altogether evaded. The cases reported were chiefly in the metropolitan district and in the southern and eastern counties and in Scotland; and of the 17,673 cases altogether up to the end of October only 848 recovered. The measures taken by Government within the powers con- ferred upon them bya recent Act of Parliament, have been confined to the appointment of veterinary inspectors, with power to enter premises and direct the slaughter and the burial of infected animals —the infliction of penalties upon anyone selling from a diseased herd without the inspector’s permit, and in a few cases an enforced imprisonment of the livestock of a particular district or province within the boundaries of that district. That this has proved insuf- ficient is plain from the progress of the disorder ; and her Majesty’s Commissioners, to whom an inquiry into the whole subject was re- mitted, have at length reported by a majority of their number in favour of an enforced entire cessation of movement in cattle (except within their several farms) throughout the kingdom for a sufficient period ; leaving the markets to be wholly supplied by dead meat. A very influential minority of the Commissioners, however, do not believe that this is possible, and therefore unite with their colleagues only in the alternative measures which they advise in the event of the severer recommendation being refused. ‘The measures thus indicated are included in the following particulars :— “q. For a definite period no lean or store stock should be per- mitted to be sold at any fair or market, or in any other manner whatever. “b. Cattle might be moved for immediate slaughter to a market or to a slaughterhouse licensed for use, but only under a licence for * It has been since announced, that sheep inoculated from diseased cattle have died with all the symptoms of rinderpest. 1866. | The Cattle Plague. 31 transit. With this exception, and except cattle driven from one part of the same farm to another, the transit of cattle should be absolutely prohibited. “e, Precautions should be taken that every animal sold for butcher’s meat be slaughtered within a short and fixed period. Cattle sold at a fair or market should not be allowed to leave the precincts of the place alive. “d. It would be desirable to draw some more distinct line between infected and uninfected districts than is at present traced by the orders in Council. The egress of live cattle from a pro- claimed district should be strictly prohibited, but cattle slaughtered within it and certified by the district inspector to be fit for food might be sent out of it.” These, then, are the measures which the Royal Commissioners recommend, and which Government will, in all probability, adopt, in order to confine the disease to the particular herds in which it exists, for long enough to ensure the destruction of the poisonous contagion. It is to be hoped that when that event shall happily have arrived, a much seyerer inspection of imported cattle will be instituted at the ports of departure and arrival than has hitherto been possible. We conclude with the review of the subject which the report of the Commissioners contains :— “The cattle plague is, in the language of medicine, a specific disease, belonging to the class of contagious fevers. The contagious matter is subtle, volatile, prolific in an unexampled degree. It is conveyed in a most virulent form in the excretions from the diseased animal. Any particle of those excretions may serve as a vehicle for it. We know not the limit of time within which it disengages itself from them, nor to what distance it may not be diffused. It may travel, we know, in the hide, horns, hoofs, and intestines of the dead animal ; the offal, therefore, is highly dangerous. It lurks unde- veloped in the system for a period about which some difference of opinion exists, which certainly is not less than five days, usually seven or eight, but appears to be more prolonged in some cases. Towards the end of this period of incubation, but at what precise point we do not know, it becomes capable of diffusing itself by con- tagion. A diseased animal may, therefore, be infectious before it shows any signs of disease, or, at all events, before the malady be- trays itself to any but a very close and very skilful observer. The proportion of cases in which it is fatal is extraordinarily large. No specific has been discovered which neutralizes or expels the poison ; judicious treatment may enable nature to resist till the virus has spent itself; injudicious treatment may have a contrary effect ; but that is all. The practical conclusion, therefore, at which foreign physicians and foreign Governments have arrived,—the conclusion that it is better always to kill a diseased animal, or a few diseased animals, 32 The Cattle Plague. [Jan., where by so domg you can kill an isolated germ of disease in- stead of suffering that germ to linger and fructify while you are attempting a cure, for the precarious prospect of an insignificant saving,—is justified by reason; it is also directly justified by experience, which shows that while the plague, propagated from a single germ, speedily becomes unmanageable, spreads from herd to herd, from province to province, and from country to country, multiplies in a continually increasing ratio, and exhausts itself only after ruinous havoc and a long course of time, it may be effectually eradicated by prompt and unsparing measures. The experience of Prussia is especially valuable in this respect. The plague has often appeared, says Professor Gerlach, in the provinces bordering on the Russian empire, in East Prussia, Posen, and Silesia, but it has never since 1815 penetrated eastwards, even so far as Brandenburg. Lastly, we must add, it has not been found to give way before cold weather or rain. The reverse seems to be the case. It is worse, Professor Gerlach informs us, ‘ in cold and wet weather, and better in warm and dry weather.’ ‘It spreads, says Mr. Ernes, ‘as fast in a cold as in a hot season. The murrain of 1745 broke out here in early spring, the temperature of the preceding year having been low; and it is stated to have raged most violently during the winters, and to have diminished in intensity with the advance of summer. “ These conclusions, which are all that for our present purpose it is necessary to state, are far, of course, from exhausting all that is known upon the subject. Beyond what is known, however, there is a large field of inquiry which may be usefully explored. To observe carefully the premonitory and progressive symptoms of the disease under various conditions—to determine precisely the period of incubation, the effect of remedial and of preventive agencies (including under the latter head disinfectants, therapeutical measures, and inoculation)—to ascertain within what range and under what modifications the poison may be communicated from a diseased cow to other animals of the same or different species—these are branches of investigation practically important, but which will take time. With a view to the thorough examination of them, we have obtained the assistance of men eminent in various departments of science, and we hope to be able to report on them hereafter. But we have now to deal with more pressing questions. Are the measures hitherto adopted to stifle the plague at home and stop its entrance from abroad effectual for the purpose? If not, what other measures are likely to be effectual? To these questions, having early satisfied ourselves of the general character of the disease, we at once directed our attention; and the evidence which we have received has been chiefly taken with a view to them.” 1866. ] @ 98%) Ill. ON THE RECURRENCE OF SPECIES IN GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. By A. C. Ramsay, F.RS. Tse paper by Mr. Jenkins in the last number of this Journal, “On Strata Identified by Organic Remains” (an article which I have read with interest, and the value of which I appreciate), induces me to publish this brief communication with a view to point out that it seems to me that some of Mr. Jenkins’ arguments may lead to a total misunderstanding of the reasoning employed in my anniversary addresses to the Geological Society in 1863 and 1864. My chief object in these addresses was to show the connection between unconformity and the partial or complete change of marine faunas during times unrepresented by strata, and in discuss- ing the question whether (as had been asserted) a Silurian, a Devonian, and a Carboniferous fauna might all coexist in different areas, I stated if it were so, “that in the piles of formations” of Europe and America, “the chances are overwhelmingly strong, that im each or in some one area there might be a recurrent fauna, which is not the case.” Mr. Jenkins quotes the foregoing passage, and a little lower in the page he points out that I refute myself in my own address, because in discussing the Lower Oolites, I state, that “the majority of the forms that passed upwards from the Inferior Oolite lime- stone seem to have fled the muddy bottom of the Fuller’s-earth sea, and to have returned to the same area, when the later period of the Great Oolite began.” “Here,” says Mr. Jenkins, “ Professor Ramsay acknowledges a recurrent fauna.” Certainly there is a recurrence of forms, but only to a very linuted extent. The fauna of a province or of a formation means the collective species of the province or formation, and not a small percentage of them. My arguments in part are based on facts of that kind, viz. that in certain cases there is recurrence of species not in mass but in small numbers. In this case, out of about 700 Great Oolite species, only about eighteen or twenty per cent. are found in the inferior Oolites beneath, whereas, from want of showing how I considered the question as a whole, Mr. Jenkins’ readers might imagine that the fauna of the Great Oolite, 7s the fauna of the Inferior Oolite recurrent. This is very far from being the case, and in my address I do not hint at anything that would lead to an inference so erroneous. But supposing that there were a recurrence of Inferior Oolite complete species in the Great Oolite, or on a great scale, it may then occur to those who remember my addresses that they are expected to draw the inference, that the Inferior Oolite, Fuller’s. VOL. III. D 34 Synthetical Chemistry. . [dan;, . earth, and Great Oolite are formations comparable in importance, physically and in their faunas, to the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous formations, the faunas of which were supposed by Professor Huxley to have been possibly contemporaneous in different parts of the world. It might be allowable to compare the Oolitic Subdivisions named above, with any three minor subdivisions, for example, in Upper Silurian strata, but few Geologists will require to be reminded that such minor subdivisions are not comparable to the three great series, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous, each of which contains several groups of formations, some of which groups are comparable to the whole Oolite series of Britain taken together. IVY. SYNTHETICAL CHEMISTRY. 1 On the Synthesis of Organic Bodies. Lecture at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, February 12, 1864. By J. A. Wanklyn. 2. On Recent Chemical Researches in the Royal Institution. Lecture at the same Institution, June 3, 1864. By Edward Frankland, F.R.S. 3. On Researches in Organic Chemistry in the Royal Institution. Lecture at the same Institution, June 9, 1865. Same Author. 4, On Animal Chemistry. A Course of Six Lectures at the College of Physicians. By William Odling, M.B., F.R.S. Especially Lecture 5, reported in the ‘Clinical News’ of September 8 and September 15, 1865. TuerE are hundreds of restless, prying men, who would to-day, as did the fabled Titan, steal down the fire from heaven and vivify a human form, or failing that, would be content to animate the merest speck of organized material. This is the aim to which the efforts of mankind, at least of our most earnest investigators, are half-consciously tending at the present time; but whether or not it will ever come within the scope of man’s ability so to mould the elements and imitate the work of nature, as to fit them for the reception of that mysterious force or combination of forces termed “ life,” it is impossible to say; at least, it is not the will of Him who is the author of all force, that man should, at this stage of his existence, stand forth as a creator even of the humblest living form. To go a step beyond this, and affirm that there is this or that in nature which he cannot do, or should not attempt; to dogmatize upon the things of which he ought to remain ignorant, or whose investigation should be avoided as an impious attempt to pry into and interfere with the Creator’s 1866. | Synthetical Chemistry. 35 works, is to exhibit the greatest want of faith, not alone in man’s powers and destiny, but in the might and goodwill of his Maker: it means, in fact, to abdicate man’s noblest powers, neglect his highest faculties, return to the darker stages of his existence,—for where there is no progress there must be retrogression,—and to make him the image of God in name alone and not in nature. The story of Prometheus is, in common with many others of a similar character, merely a childlike fancy of man in the earliest stage of his history, which is every day approaching realization in another form, just as the efforts of the old philosophers and alchemists were the result of dreams which have become in our day living realities. The creative powers of man have to be educated, just as all his other faculties; and this, the highest portion of his nature, has been more gradually yet more systematically developed than any other. The principle upon which his mind has been trained may be exhibited by a very simple illustration. There are few of our readers who have not seen those interesting little puzzles shaped like a double cross. When the curiously- formed pieces of wood which constitute this cross are placed in our hands for the first time and we are invited to construct the object, we often spend hours in the vain attempt to do so; but let the pieces once be put together by hands that are in the secret, and the cross presented to us entire, and give us then the opportunity of carefully and obseryantly removing piece by piece until the whole is completely dissected, and we shall find but little difficulty in reconstructing what we had before laboured in vain to build up. The simile, it must be admitted, is imperfect ; but true it is that before we can synthetize we must understand well how to analyze ; and it is not improbable that when all that the searching mind of man can accomplish in the unravelling of material complications has been effected, and when he sees with tolerable intelligence all the processes of nature in the dissolution of her living forms, and is able with the aided or unaided eye to follow her formative processes ; when he has been able to accomplish all these things, then it is not improbable that he may become skilled enough to construct the organized tissue in which vital force (let physicists call it what they will) finds a medium of action, just as he is now capable of preparing those mechanical contrivances which are rendered self-moving by the obedient forces of the physical world. One important step has been already made in this direction, for if he cannot yet form that plastic material, that protoplasm, in which life is first seen to dawn, at least he has robbed nature of her exclusive privilege to create substances which it has hitherto needed vital influences to produce. If he cannot usurp her powers so far as to make organized tissues, at least he has succeeded in constructing synthetically some of the proximate principles of which they are constituted, and it . to the D 36 Synthetical Chemistry. [ Jan., present state of his knowledge and attainments in this branch of chemical science that we now propose to direct attention. When we compared the analytical and synthetical experience of our investigators with that of an ordinary person taking to pieces and reconstructing a well-known puzzle, we said that the simile is imperfect, for the power in man to build up organic substances is not the immediate sequel to his analytical experience. “The pulling to pieces of these substances,” says Wanklyn, “is a matter of very little difficulty : more than fifty years ago chemists could do that— but how to put the pieces together again is a much more difficult task. Sugar consists of 72 parts by weight of carbon, 11 parts of hydrogen, and 88 parts of oxygen. We may bring together carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in these proportions, and shake them up together, or heat them, or cool them, and yet we shall never get them to combine so as to form sugar. Alcohol consists of 24 parts of carbon, 6 parts of hydrogen, and 16 parts of oxygen, but no alcohol ever results from making such a mixture. Neither sugar nor alcohol can exist at the temperature to which it is requisite to raise our mixture of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in order to get chemical action to set in. At ordinary temperatures the organic elements will not enter into combination, whilst at high tempera- tures they combine it is true, but yield comparatively very few compounds.” That the chemist has, however, been able, by a series of synthetical operations, to build up alcohol—a product which pre- viously nature alone was able to furnish—vwill be seen presently ; and not alone has he succeeded in fabricating this organic material, but many others, both in the plant and animal realm, the chief of these being oxalic acid, resembling that extracted from the common wood sorrel; acetic ether, the flavouring substance of certain wines (consequently the product of the grape-plant) ; amylic and butyric ether, the essences respectively of the pear and pineapple, in the vegetable kingdom; and in the animal kingdom, the well-known substance glycerine, the sweet principle of animal fats and oils ; lactic acid, the acid of sour milk; formic acid, the product of vital action in ants; and leucine, a fine white powdery substance result- ing from the treatment of certain organic tissues with dilute sulphuric acid. The last is ordinarily found in the spleen, pancreas, liver, bile, kidneys, and salivary glands. All these and many allied substances have of late been synthetically prepared from inorganic elements; but the first organic material thus artificially con- structed was Urea, an excretory product of the mammalia, and this was effected by a German hanet (Wohler), in the year 1828, in the following manner :—“ Cyanide of potassium—a body which can exist at a red heat, and which can moreover be formed directly from its constituents, carbon, nitrogen, and potassium—was oxydized 1866. | Synthetical Chemistry. 37 by means of peroxide of manganese at a low red heat, and s0 cyanate of potash was obtained. The cyanate of potash was next eonverted into cyanate of ammonia by double decomposition with sulphate of ammonia. Thus cyanate of ammonia was produced from its elements by a process which, although indirect, still did not involve the action of either a plant or an animal. Cyanate of ammonia becomes wea when its solution in water is simply evaporated to dryness.” This simple account, by Wanklyn, of the first step in syn- thetical chemistry, is followed by a recital of the discoveries of succeeding chemists. Three years afterwards, Pelouze, a French investigator, produced formic acid; and we shall now give his process, as described by Wanklyn, with a hearty tribute of praise to both these chemists for the services they have rendered to science. Tf we pass nitrogen gas over a mixture of carbon and hydrate of potash heated to whiteness, cyanide of potassium is the result, and when that substance is boiled with a solution of hydrate of potash, formate of potash is produced. If we distil formate of potash with sulphuric acid, we then obtain formic acid, the acid of ants. This is the simple process by which Pelouze succeeded in building up formic acid, but the synthesis need not terminate here ; if we slightly retrace our steps, we find that from one and the same substance, formate of potash, not only an animal acid is ob- tainable, but a vegetable acid may also be synthetized. For if formate of potash be heated with hydrate of potash the result is oxalate of potash, and from this we can obtain Oxalie acid, similar to that extracted from common sorrel, Oxalis acetosella. Returning now to the history of this infant science, we find that in 1845, Kolbe, another German chemist, constructed Acetic acid from its elements, and the author of the discovery tells us that “if we could transform acetic acid into alcohol, and out of the latter could obtain sugar and starch, then we should be enabled to build up these common vegetable principles by the so-called artificial method from their most ultimate elements.” A portion at least of the German savant’s anticipations has been realized ; for we can build up alcohol from its morganic elements; indeed the discovery was in part made by our own chemists, Faraday and Hennell in 1820, before the synthesis of urea was effected by Wohler, but their experiments were only recently confirmed and synthetically completed by the more extended researches of Ber- thelot. The following must serve as a description of the mode of producing alcohol by synthesis, and we trust that it will be found generally intelligible. The first step in the synthesis is the production of acetylene. When the carbon points used for the electric light are ignited by an electric current in an atmosphere 38 Synthetical Chemistry. [Jan., of hydrogen, acetylene is produced. (‘The hydrogen may be obtained from water, and the carbon from marble, both morganic sources.) With acetylene (a gas) we obtain acetylide of copper by passing the former through the subchloride of copper, and by bringing acetylide of copper into contact with nascent hydrogen we form Olefiant gas. This may be termed the second step in the synthesis, olefiant gas being itself an organic product. The third and final synthesis is that performed by Faraday and Hennell, and it consists, first, in the agitation of olefiant gas with sulphuric acid, the result of which is sulpho-vinie acid. This is then mixed with water and distilled, when alcohol comes over, mixed, however, with water; from which it is freed by placing it in contact with quick-lime for a day or two and then distilling it again at the temperature of boiling water. Pure vinie alcohol now passes over, all the water remaining behind in combination with the lime. Having thus obtained vinic alcohol from inorganic materials only, we can employ it to form, by synthesis, a vast number of other organic products. ‘hus by Mendius’s re- action (so called after its discoverer), which consists in the addition of hydrogen to the compound of cyanogen with the basis of vinic alcohol, we obtain propylic, butylic, and amylic aleohol. If we select one of these, propylic alcohol, and oxydize it, we conyert it into propionic acid; and when propionic acid is subjected to the consecutive action of chlorine and hydrate of potash, the product is the well-known substance Lactic acid, the acid of sour milk. Again, vinic alcohol submitted to oxydation produces Acetic acid, from which we may construct, by synthesis, the essences of certain fruits, often vended by druggists to persons who have not the remotest suspicion of the true character of their purchases. Having described the syntheses of vinic alcohol and acetic acid, it is only necessary to state that when these two are distilled together, they produce Acetic ether, the bouquet of certain wines; and again, if vinic alcohol be thrice treated according to Mendius’s process we obtain amylic alcohol, and that substance distilled with acetic acid gives the “ Essence of pears.” And further, if acetic ether (the bouquet of wines) be treated, first with sodium, and then with iodide of ethyl, it gives butyric ether, the “ Hssence of pine-apples.” How numerous are the dissimilar substances produced from almost the same simple elements; and how completely does the study of synthetical chemistry confirm all other evidences of the unity of the operations of nature! Passing over the synthesis of Glycerine from propylic alcohol (one of the products of vinic alcohol already referred to), we may mention that the combination of glycerine with the so-called “ fatty acids,” acetic, propionic, butyric, &c., all of which are synthetized by the oxydation of propylic and other alcohols as already stated, that the combination, we say, of glycerine with the fatty acids yields 1866. | Synthetical Chemistry. 39 several oils and fats similar to animal and vegetable oils; and now we will conclude this hasty glance at the synthesis of organic compounds by a brief reference to the substance Leucine, which has been found to characterize the tissues of the spleen, liver, kidneys, &c., of the mammalia. We have already described the synthesis of vinic alcohol, and stated that Mendius converted that liquid into amylic alcohol, by treatment with cyanogen compounds and hydrogen. Now, if this amylic alcohol be carefully oxydized, it is converted into “ Valerianic aldehyde.” Another substance which may be prepared by synthetical chemistry from nitrogen, carbon, and potash, is cyanide of potassium ; from this the well-known prussiate of potash is obtainable, and from prussiate of potash we easily procure the equally well-known substance, prussic acid. When vyalerianic aldehyde, obtained synthetically, is treated with prussic acid (similarly prepared), the desired synthetized product, Leucine, is a result of the combination. Thus, then, we see that organic substances yielded by plants, and others by animals, may be easily produced by synthetical chemistry from other compounds, of a kind more nearly approach- ing the products of inorganic nature, whilst these may themselves be synthetized from what we term the chemical elements. But ewt bono? will be the natural and inevitable question, to which it is always necessary now-a-days to give a prompt and satisfactory reply, otherwise synthetical chemistry will rank but one grade above alchemy and astrology. There need, however, be no difficulty in pointing out the immense benefits to mankind, which are sure to accrue from the practical study of this infant science. The advantages of being served with a compound of amylic alcohol and acetic acid when one goes into a shop to purchase essence of pears, or with a similarly prepared compound as a substitute for essence of pine-apples, may not be quite obvious to every one, and much as we may admire the ability of the chemist who manages to cheat our very senses, we cannot help avowing a preference for the genuine products of nature. There are, however, organic substances used in the arts, for which the demand ig becoming so large, that unless the manu- facturing chemist steps in to the rescue, they will be placed beyond the reach of ordinary consumers; and as every day witnesses an increase in the number of such substances that may be synthetically prepared, it is impossible even to discuss the probable boundary within which the unpretending researches of the laboratory are to be confined. At present the application of the science in the direction here pointed out appears unlimited. But there is a question at issue of far greater moment than the tickling of the 40 Synthetical Chemistry. [Jan., human palate, or even the supplying of some of man’s more in- dispensable domestic requirements; the health, the very life of man, is affected by these new discoveries in science. The practice of hygiene may in one sense be compared to that of agriculture. The old fashioned farmer used formerly to apply special composts and manures to the soil for promoting the growth of particular plants, though there was a period when he applied the same manure in every case. ven after his experience had taught him that the growth of particular plants is fostered by special manures, he was still ignorant of the why and the wherefore. All he knew was that it was so. Presently the researches of the agricultural chemist revealed the constituents of the various plants, and enabled the farmer intelligently to apply the respective materials of which the soil had been exhausted. The analyst performed the diagnosis; the farmer, under his advice, effected the cure, and pre- cisely so it is in the practice of medicine. Inquire of a medical man, even to-day, what means he is employing to relieve some particular disease or to sustain a sinking frame, and too often the reply is, avowedly or by inference, that he is essaying first one and then another medicinal agent to effect a desired end ; groping about, as it were, by a dim and uncertain light. Now the analyst and synthetist come to his aid, and together they stand in the same relation to him as the agricultural chemist to the practical farmer. Between them they must ascertain the organic constituents of which the system stands in need, and if nature cannot be pursuaded to supply the deficit, it will be the jomt duty of the synthetical chemist and physician to do her work. It is indeed difficult in this early stage of the science to define precisely under what circumstances synthetical chemistry will step in to the aid of the baffled medical practitioner, but that it has already done so in some instances, no one will venture to deny, nor will any one, on the other hand, pretend here, as in the case of its application to the arts, to mark the boundary within which the operations of the laboratory will in future be confined. So much for the consideration of two of the leading utilitarian aspects of synthetical chemistry, but, as we hinted at the commence- ment of this essay, the highest aim of this as of every other effort of the human intellect, is to increase his knowledge of the laws of nature, to extend his power of controlling and utilizing her operations, and to obtain a better insight, so far as his senses will allow him, into the works of the Creator. Perhaps, with reverence be it spoken, to prepare himself, by the fabrication of organic and it may be even of organized matter, to become one day, here or hereafter, a creator himself under the divine government. The increase of social comforts and enjoyments, then, his bodily 1866. | Synthetical Chemistry. 41 health, and his mental development are the legitimate motives that should actuate man in prosecuting the study of synthetical chemistry. Synopsis of Chemical Reactions referred to in the foregoing Article. 1. Synthesis of acetylene (C, H,) from hydrogen and carbon in the electric arc (Berthelot). 2. By passing acetylene gas through subchloride of copper, acetylide of copper is produced. 38. Acetylide of copper in contact with nascent hydrogen, gives olefiant gas (C, H,). 4. Agitated with sulphuric acid, olefiant gas produces ALL acid (SO, C, H,), from which common or vinic alcohol (C, H, O) is readily obtained. 5. From vinic alcohol the following alcohols can be produced by Mendius’s reaction : Propylic Alcohol 3...) °C, Hy O Butylic Aleohol . . .: C,H, O AmylicvAleaho!, et.) \ 54) GH, O 6. By the oxydation of these alcohols, they yield respectively the following organic acids: Vinie Alcohol yields Acetic Acid. Propylic Aleohol ,, Propionic Acid. Butylic Alcohol », Butyric Acid. Amylic Alcohol » Valerianic Acid. 7. From propionic acid, the acid of sour milk—lactic acid (C, H, O;) is obtaimed by the consecutive action of chlorine and hydrate of potash. 8. From the alcohols, the zine compounds of the alcohol radicals are obtained ; viz. from Methylic Alcohol . . Zine Methyl. Vinic Aleohol . . . Zine Ethyl. Amylic Alcohol . . Zine Amyl. 9. By the action of the zine compounds of the alcohol radicals upon oxalic ether, the following acids of the Lactic family are pro- duced, of increasing complexity : Seinemoxmie: ACG 0.0 ot etuishopeh tele Ce Ha Os Ethomethoxalic Acid . ... . C,H Pretuoxsie Ned. SP Cn O, Amylohydroxalic Acid. . Pe tags al 8 Ethyl-Amylhydroxalic rer C, H Diamyloxalic Acid . . SED. Cee Oy 10. When nitrogen gas is pad over a mixture of carbon and hydrate of potash heated to whiteness, cyanide of potassium (KC N) is produced. 42 Synthetical Chemistry. [ Jan., 11. When cyanide of potassium is boiled with solution of hydrate of potash, formate of potash (CHKO,) is produced. From this, formic acid (CH, O,), the acid of ants is obtained by distillation with sulphuric acid. 12. When formate of potash is heated with hydrate of potash, it is converted into oxalate of potash (C, K, O,), whence oxalic acid (C, H, O,), same as from oxalis acetosella. 13. Oxalic acid heated with alcohol gives oxalic ether (C, Hy O,) used in No. 9. 14. By the action of anhydrous phosphoric acid upon the acids No. 9, the latter are converted into acids of the Acrylic series, thus : Dimethoxalic Acid gives Methacrylic Acid . . C,H, O, Ethomethoxalic Acid gives Methylerotonic Acid C, H, O; Diethoxalic Acid gives Ethylerotonic Acid . . (©, H, O, 15. Distilled with alcohol, acetic acid gives acetic ether (C, H, O,), and with amylic alcohol, amylic acetate (C;H,,0.). The first con~ stitutes the bouquet of several wines, the second is the essence of ears. : 16. Acetic ether, treated first with sodium and then with iodide of ethyl, gives butyric ether (C, H,, O.), the essence of pineapples. For other synthetized products similarly obtained and in prospect, see Lecture, June 9, 1865, p. 2, viz.: Propionic Ether . C,H, O, | CGinanthylic Ether . C, H,, O, Diethacetic Ether . OC, H,,O, | Margaric Ether . . C,, H,, O, 17. From propylic alcohol, glycerine (C; H, O;) the sweet prin- ciple of animal fats can be obtained. 18. By the combination of glycerine with the fatty acids, synthe- tized according to No. 6, oils and fats similar to animal and vegetable oils and fats are produced. 19. By careful oxydation, amylic alcohol is converted into valeri- anic aldehyde; and this, treated with prussic acid (got from cyanide of potassium, see No. 10), is transformed into leucine (C, H,, NO,), found in the spleen, pancreas, liver, bile, and kidneys, and in the salivary glands. 1866.] bub SE 8) V. ANTHROPOLOGY. 1. Lectures on Man: his Place in Creation and in the History of the Earth. By Dr. Carl Vogt. Edited by James Hunt, Ph.D. London, 1864. 2. The Plurality of the Human Race. By Georges Pouchet, M.D. Translated and edited by H. J. C. Beavan. London, 1864. 3. Memoirs Read before the Anthropological Society of London. Vol. I. 1863-4. London, 1865. 4, The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. Translated and edited by Thomas Bendyshe, M.A. London, 1865. Tue works, the titles of which we have placed at the head of this article, have been issued by the Council of the Anthropological Society of London, to their fellow members during the past twelve months, and may be accepted as affording a tolerably faithful representation, not only of what the Society has accomplished during that period, but what are the tendencies and objects of its principal members. We have heard or read somewhere, that if a number of young men, with some small share of ability, were to unite together and form a society, one of the leading rules of which should be to lose no opportunity of sounding each other’s praises, the world might in process of time be almost brought to believe that a new and dazzling coruscation of talent had blazed forth, and that a fresh and startling revelation would shortly be announced. This seems to be the principle on which the leading members of the Anthro- pological Society of London have acted, such the process by the agency of which they seek to reach the Temple of Fame. Accord- ingly, we find the President, Dr. James Hunt, quoting, and of course with much approbation, the sayings and doings of the Assistant-secretary, Mr. C. Carter Blake. Member of Council, Mr. Beavan, is equally complimentary ; and so the pleasant and highly- seasoned ball of flattery is tossed to and fro between President and Vice-president, Secretary, Treasurer, and Member of Council, though, we must confess, we are unable to see what these gentlemen have either said or done to merit so much laudation as they lavish on each other. ; Vogt’s work on Man consists of a series of lectures delivered at the request of the Useful Knowledge Society, of the Canton of Neufchatel. It is written in a popular form, and discusses the interesting problems of man’s antiquity on earth and his relations to the lower animals, which have been rendered go familiar to the English public by the recent writings of Darwin, Lyell, and Huxley, and by the many controversies and discussions to which 44 Anthropology. [Jan., they have given origin. Hence those who have kept themselves at all on a level with these subjects will not find much that is new in the work before us, and we are somewhat at a loss to understand why these lectures, however well they may be adapted to place a German-speaking audience au cowrant with these problems, should have been selected by the Council of the Anthropological Society for translation and publication to their members ; for we should have supposed that the members of a society which professes “ to investigate the laws of man’s origin and progress,” would not have required to go to a foreign source for information on these topics, but would have made themselves acquainted with the writings of the most important at least of those men of science in this country who have communicated their speculations to the world, and with whom indeed it may be said that most of the recent theories and surmises on these subjects have originated. We should not, however, have pressed this objection to the translation of Vogt’s Lectures if, after perusal of the book, we had felt that the argument had been fairly stated, and that a spirit of candour and a desire to seek for the truth, even though it might at first sight seem to be opposed to the predilections of the author, had pervaded its pages. When the man of science enters on the physical investigation of a subject, which goes so far back in the history of the world as the first appearance of man upon earth, every step should be taken with the utmost caution, every seeming link in the chain of evi- dence should be weighed and tested with the greatest care; for though man’s advent may not date from the dawn of time, and though he may not be able to claim an antiquity comparable to that of the Hozoon canadense, yet the tendency of all recent inquiry is to throw him much farther back than was at one time supposed, and to make him a contemporary of animals long since extinct, so that man, as he first appears in written history, is, compared with man primeval, but as a creature of yesterday. Vogt is a most strenuous advocate for this extended antiquity of the human race, and he has given a very readable account of the various localities in which human bones, or objects apparently the work of human hands, have been met with under circumstances which manifestly pomt to a high antiquity. But in his desire to prove his argument, he has not exercised sufficient discrimination in the selection of his cases, and has accepted as evidence certain sup- posed proofs which have not stood the test of a rigid investigation. We may refer more especially, in support of our statement, to his account of the much talked of Moulin-Quignon jawbone, the authen- ticity of which he accepts without hesitation, although some of our most distinguished English paleontologists are unable to accept it as genuine. Again, he pronounces the Engis Cave skull, respecting 1866. | Anthropology. 45 the antiquity of which there seems to be no question, to be “ one of the most ill-fayoured, beast-like, and simious skulls we know of,” though we must confess we see nothing in its form to justify such an opinion; and we fully coincide with the statement made by Professor Huxley, that there are no marks of degradation about it. But Vogt is a firm believer in the descent of man from the simious group standing next him, and therefore it suits his purpose to make out that the crania of the primeval races possessed an ape-like form. Tn his desire to believe anything which may seem to lend support to his argument, Vogt displays a readiness which stands out in marked contrast to the scepticism he displays upon other sub- jects which most men, at least in this country, are accustomed to hold in reverence, and to treat with consideration and respect. There are so many sins against good taste, so much that is offensive in the lectures, that some slight qualms of conscience as to their applicability to the tastes of the British public seem even to have affected the not very fastidious editor, Dr. James Hunt, for he con- fesses in his preface, “that at first I omitted a few passages which I did not think in good taste, but on proceeding with my labour I found that to cancel all the passages which might offend would be entirely to alter the character of the work.” On re-consideration, therefore, he has effected a compromise, and, like the ingenious editor of a copy of the epigrams of Martial we once met with in our school- days, he has struck out of the text some of the more ribald passages and has printed them as an appendix, where, in a concentrated, and, let us hope, nauseating form the reader may have the opportunity of perusing as choice a collection of scientific Billmgsgate as is to be found in the English language. M. Pouchet’s work, “On the Plurality of Races,” is on a subject which has of late years, more especially in France and America, attracted considerable attention. In the former country it has been discussed with much ability by various distinguished men of science, and all that can be stated on the subject in the present condition of our knowledge seems to have been said by the advocates of one or the other side of the question. M. Pouchet, as the title of his essay would indicate, is a strenuous supporter of the descent of man from more than one primitive stock. Moreover he scouts the idea of a distinct human kingdom, and considers that the physical and psychological differences between man and the apes are not of kind, but merely of degree. He considers man to be comparable in all points with animals, and that a common origin ought to be sought for him and them. He laughs at the notion of a creation, and finds this common origin “in a mass of amorphous matter, which at a later period will form itself, or in the midst of which will be spontaneously developed, an anatomical element, that is to say, an organized body.” Though how the “mass of amorphous matter ” 46 Anthropology. | Jan., was itself formed, or what were the forces or agencies which induced the development of the “anatomical element” in it he does not condescend to tell us. Of such and similar loose assertions the essay is in a great measure composed, and the number of facts which the author advances in support of his statements, is so small that one is tempted to exclaim with Prince Hal, ‘“O monstrous! but one half-pennyworth of bread to this intolerable deal of sack!” The volume of memoirs issued by the Anthropological Society consists of the most important papers read before it during the Session 1863-64. The first on the list is by the President, “On the Negro’s Place in Nature ;” but as it has already been noticed in the pages of this Journal, in connection with the meeting of the British Association in Newcastle, we need not allude to it further. Then follows a short but interesting paper by Dr. Peacock, in which are recorded the results of some observations on the weight | of the recent brain in four negroes. His observations “ tend gene- rally to support the conclusions of Sir William Hamilton and Professor ‘Tiedemann, that there is no very marked difference between the ordinary size of the brain in the African and the European; but they certainly indicate that the brain is usually somewhat smaller in the former race than in the latter.” Mr. Bollaert contributes three elaborate papers “On the Astronomy of the Red Man,” “On the Paleography of America,” and “ On the Past and Present Populations of the New World.” As showmg the great destruction of the aboriginal population, he states that the number of natives at present inhabiting the great western con- tinent is probably not more than between ten and eleven millions, whilst at the time of the discovery of America in 1492, the popula- tion was over 100 millions. Messrs. Thurnam, Davis, and C. C. Blake furnish each a memoir on craniological subjects. Dr. Thur- nam’s is on ancient British and Gaulish skulls, a subject on which no man is more fitted to speak with authority. To attempt any- thing like an analysis of this very exhaustive paper in the space at our disposal is impossible. We may, however, cite the general conclusion he has arrived at, that there is proof of a succession of two primitive races—a long-headed and a short—in Britain in pre-Roman times, the dolicho-cephalous being the earlier of the two ; but, as to France, he agrees with Carl Vogt in saying, “the farther we go back, the greater is the contrast between individual types, the more opposed are the characters,—the most decided long-heads immediately by the side of the most decided short-heads.” In a short memoir, entitled “ Notes on certain Matters connected with the Dahoman,” Captain Richard F. Burton congratulates his fellow-members that a society has at length arisen, in which a hberty of speech and a freedom of thought hitherto unknown in Great Britain is enjoyed, and then proceeds, evidently con amore, 1866. | The Progress of Zoology. - 47 to give an account to his brethren of the filthy customs of the degraded negroes of the kingdom of Dahome. Mr. W. T. Pritchard follows in the same track, with a description of some practices, equally foul, pursued by the Samoan islanders ; both these writers apparently having the idea that the leading function of this science of Anthropology, which they profess to promote, is to exhibit man in his most brutal and degraded aspects, and to avail themselves to the full of that “liberty” of speech which they believe to be the marked feature of the Society. And as an illustration of the reckless way in which another writer makes a statement, without advancing a shadow of proof in its support, we may refer to a paper “On the Phallic Worship of India,” by Mr. Edward Sellon, in which it is stated that “there would also now appear good ground for believing that the ark of the covenant, held so sacred by the Jews, contained nothing more nor less than a Phallus, the ark being the type of the Argha or Yoni.” Of the last volume we need say no more than that it is prin- cipally made up of a translation of the treatise of the distinguished anatomist and physiologist, Blumenbach, “On the Natural Variety of Mankind,” and of a translation of an maugural dissertation on ‘the same subject, written in 1775, by a certain Dr. John Hunter, an Edinburgh graduate, who is not, our readers must bear in mind, the John Hunter, who founded the great museum in Lincoln’s Inn Fields. VI. THE PROGRESS OF ZOOLOGY. The Record of Zoological Literature, 1864, Vol. I. Tdited by Albert C. L. G. Giinther, M.A., M.D., F.Z.S., &c. London: Van Voorst, 1865. In the present age of thought and busy activity, when every department of science has so many diligent workers, the accumula- tion of facts is so vast and so rapid, that their arrangement into something like systematic order is a real boon to the scientific inves- tigator. The Year Book is now a recognized part of our literature, and the compilation of such laborious productions is of greater or lesser service according to the amount of intelligence and method brought to bear upon the collection and arrangement of the material. The greater the simplicity that can be introduced into such a digest the more valuable it becomes for reference, but it requires powers of mind of a superior order to condense and arrange upon a simple and intelligent plan a vast and heterogeneous mass of materials, such as a crowd of ardent workers have been busy upon during twelve months over the civilized world. Such a task has Dr. Gimther set to himself in the preparation of a volume 48 The Progress of Zoology. _[Jan., which shall record the labours of zoologists durmg the year 1864, and we must confess that he has produced a work which cannot fail to prove of the utmost service to all zoological investigators. The quantity of printed scientific matter here condensed amounts in the aggregate to upwards of 25,000 pages, a sum-which it would be obviously impossible, independently of other reasons, for one man duly to chronicle with accuracy ; and the work before us has there- fore been wisely distributed among a number of gentlemen well known in the departments they respectively represent. Throughout the whole, however, the editor has aimed at unity of plan, and has well succeeded on the whole in securing it, although it is natural that a certain complexion is given to each record “according to the individuality of the recorders.” To secure this uniformity, howeyer, it was recommended that each record should commence with a general list of the various publications, while the second part of the record should be of a more special character, containing abstracts of important papers, more particularly of those which are difficult of access. Abbreviated diagnoses of new species were to be given with exact references and fuller descriptions when occurring in little- known journals. All anatomical papers were to be mentioned, but only those directly bearing on classification, specific definition, or the life history of an animal were to be more specially treated. Nor were sound popular works to be omitted in the category, a determination which we think was arrived at with. wisdom and liberality. Dr. Giinther himself undertakes the Mammalia, among which Dr. Gray and Mr. Flower appear to have been the most diligent workers in this country, and Peters and Van der Hoven among continental zoologists. Considerable prominence is given to Dana’s method of classification on the principle of cephalization of the body, that is, the subordination of its members and structures to head-uses; and the order Cetacea appears to have benefited most by researches during the past year. We may regard this first instalment by the editor as a model record, in which it is a matter of extreme facility to discover any point which the investigator is desirous of arriving at, or any paper which he may wish to consult. Having set so excellent an example, we shall hope to see it generally followed in future volumes of the ‘ Record,’ as far as the complexity and vastness of the material of certain departments will allow. Mr. Alfred Newton, to whom was confided the class Aves, has, we think unfortunately, departed somewhat from this simplicity, on which the main value of the ‘Record’ depends. In his general list at the commencement, instead of following a generally under- stood order of arrangement, he at once splits up his matter into regions, Palearctic, Githiopian, Indian, Australian, Nearctic, and Neotropical, followed by other subdivisions of descriptive Anatomy, 1866. | Lhe Progress of Zoology. 49) Pterylography, a newly invented term, Neossology, and Oology. If the work is intended solely for professed ornithologists, perhaps this division may be considered to have its advantages; but to persons not familiar with Dr. Sclater’s geographical distribution of birds, these divisions are somewhat puzzling, and necessitate a hunt through the whole, the divisions being at least useless. In the special part of this subject the same divisions are used, which would save further trouble if the paper is found in the first list, but which is otherwise open to the same objections. We do not doubt that Mr. Newton has used his best judgment in this mode of treating his department, but we would suggest that it 1s capable of improye- ment. Among birds, our ornithologists, Gould, Sclater, Wallace, Salvin, Swinhoe, and others, have left the impress of their labours, and they are worthily supported by continental brethren, such as Hartlaub, Pelzeln, Rosenberg, and others. As we might suppose, from their numbers, the Passeres have received the greatest amount of attention and the largest accessions, though every other order has made steady and interesting advances. One of the most interesting ornithological events of the year was the exhibition, by Mr. Thomas Allis, of York, of the very recent remains of a Dinornis robustus, at a meeting of the Linnean Society. ‘This bird had been found in a sand hill, about 100 miles from Dunedin, in the middle island of New Zealand, and in such preservation that a considerable portion of the outer skin, studded with the quill part of the feathers, remained. No one could be more fitted to record the progress of Herpetology than Dr. Ginther himself, this bemg his own special subject ; and the same remarks apply to this portion of the work which were made with reference to the record of Mammalia, The chief work of the year in this department is undoubtedly Dr. Giinther’s elabo- rate memo on the “ Reptiles of British India,” published with twenty-six most beautiful and life-like plates, by the Ray Society. In this work he describes no less than 526 species, many of them new. Besides this great work, several minor contributions are from Dr. Giinther’s pen. Dr. Gray has also been very prolific of papers in the systematic department of this subject. It appears that the number of reptiles known has much increased of late years, and Van der Hoven’s estimate of 1,500 species is regarded as much too low. The Chelonia have received much elucidation from Dr. Gray, more particularly the Asiatic and African species of freshwater turtles. Mz. Cope, of Boston, and Dr. Giinther have been the chief investigators of the Saurian reptiles. Peters, Dumeril, and Giinther, of the Ophidians. The question of the position of the Amphibia with regard to reptiles has been again raised by Dana, and the view seems to obtain favour from Dr. Ginther, that Amphibians form a distinct group in the class of VOL, III. E 50 The Progress of Zoology. | Jan., reptiles—a view which is strengthened by the analogy drawn from other classes of Vertebrata; the Mammals have their inferior sub- division, the Odtocoids, or semi-ovoviviporous species (Marsupiahia and Monotremata); the birds have thew inferior sub-division, the Erpetoids (Archzeopteryx), and between ordinary Reptiles and Fishes there are Amphibians, forming a similar hypo-typic subdivision of reptiles. : The editor of the ‘ Record’ has taken his share of the work, and appears also as the compiler of the copious article on Fishes, a sub- ject in which he is also a great authority. His catalogue of the fishes of the British Museum is an important monument of his labours in this division of Zoology. In this catalogue, which forms a complete handbook to Ichthyology, all the species known are described and systematically arranged. Up to the present time, five volumes of this catalogue have been published, the first three con- taining the 3,481 species of Acanthopterygn at present known, the fourth and fifth describing nearly 2,000 other species; but the work is still incomplete, upwards of 8,000 species bemg known, nearly equally divided between freshwater and salt. But in the European fauna, the ratio between freshwater and marine species is as one to three. Another important work is a collected account of the Ichthyology of the Kast Indian Archipelago, by M. P. Bleeker, pub- lished by the Dutch government. our volumes im folio have ap- peared. Dr. Bleeker has spent twenty years in this study, and the present work is chiefly a republication of descriptions, accompanied by very accurate plates from drawings made in India. The fishes of Finland, too, have been described by Herr Malmgren, who pro- pounds theories of the specific identity of the different European Salmonoids, which are strongly combated by the editor. Among the contributors of papers to the hterature of Ichthyology, Dr. Ginther, Mr. Gill, and Dr. Bleeker figure conspicuously; and Mr. Gill’s theory of the typical Leptocephali being the larval form of young congers, coupled with Agassiz’ views of the metamorphoses of fishes, is not the least noticeable part of their history to which attention has recently been called. Mr. Gill promises a more extended memoir upon this subject, and the avowed purpose of Agassiz’ journey to South America is to study the metamorphoses of the fishes of the Amazon, so that we may hope for more ight upon this very remarkable subject. The article upon “ Mollusca” is supplied by Dr. Eduard von Martens, himself a copious contributor to the literature of the sub- ject. By far the greater portion of the publications on this class of animals is devoted, observes Dr. Von Martens, to descriptions of species belonging to types more or less previously known, and more especially of their shells, as is usually the case in this department of Zoology. The most important work at present in progress is Lovell 1866. | The Progress of Zoology. 51 Reeves’ magnificent “ Conchologia Iconica.” The number of species of Mollusca recently described as new, but without indication of their habitat, is fortunately not large, so that our knowledge of the geographical distribution of the Mollusca is also advanced by most of these papers, especially by those in which an enumeration of all the species found in the same district is added. ‘The faunas of Eastern Asia and Australia have been more particularly enriched during the past year. The systematic arrangement has not been essentially changed, but a considerable number of new genera (perhaps rather too many) have been introduced into science. The Cephalopoda and Pteropoda appear to have been entirely neglected. ‘The Nudi- branchiata have been well illustrated with new South American species, by Mr. Angas, and by the publication, by Messrs. Alder and Hancock, of the beautiful series collected by Mr. Walter Elliot, at Waltar, in the Madras Presidency ; but the great mass of observa- tions collected upon the Mollusca refer to the Gasteropoda. The Tunicata and Polyzoa (Molluscoida) chronicled by Mr. J. Reay Greene, are chiefly illustrated by Dr. J. D. Macdonald and Mr. Alder, respectively. Dr. MacDonald is of opinion that the Mollus- coida and Coelenterata together form an unbroken series of animals to be placed between the Mollusca proper on the one hand, and the Protozoa on the other. The members of the group thus constituted, though developed from true ova, are prone to form compound organisms by continuous gemmation. In all, the movement of the circulatory fluid is effected either by ciliary action, or by a propulsive organ unfurnished with valves. Thus, starting from the Ctenophora (Beroé) as a central group, we proceed in two directions towards the Molluscoid or higher, and the Ccelenterata or lower, divisions of the series. Mr. Spence Bate’s Chronicle of the Literature of the Crustacea for 1864, enters, perhaps, more fully than any other into debated questions and interesting points of detail, and his summary of Fritz Miiller’s memoir on behalf of the Darwinian theory on carcino- logical grounds, is valuable. The principle of Miller is that the surest way to prove the correctness of Darwin’s views would be to apply them to a particular group of animals, going as much as possible into detail. Such an attempt to set up one common pedigree, whether for the families of a class, or the genera of a large family, or for the species of a rich genus, and to trace out as clearly and comprehensively as possible their common origin, might either lead to contradictions in the theory which would demonstrate its error, or the theory might throw hght upon the succession in which the various circles separated from the common type and from each other; or thirdly, although the experi- ment might fail, yet should it succeed, it would, from its indepen- dent and perfect character, be considered evidence of real value ; E2 52 _ The Progress of Zoology. [Jan., and to this conclusion he is led by his researches. The very curious investigations made by Dr. Hansen upon the auditory organs of the Decapod Crustacea, and the remarkable researches of Fritz Miller on Penzeus, as well as some other of the interesting questions of crustacean metamorphoses, are very fully noticed by Mr. Spence Bate, and these abstracts of valuable papers very much add to the interest and utility of the record. Each division of the Crustacea appears to have been well represented by various investigators, the Cirripeds haying perhaps received least attention. Nearly one half of the Zoological Record is taken up by the laborious and careful account of the literature of the Arachnida, Myriapoda, and Insecta, prepared by Mr. W. 8. Dallas, of York. We must congratulate the editor upon having secured the services of so careful and painstaking a coadjutor, for the labour exhibited in this part of the’ volume is truly immense, and the result of great service to the crowd of entomologists who appear to number in proportion to the host of imsects upon which their attention is concentrated. This is a fortunate circumstance or otherwise the arrears of insect literature would be enormous, and Entomology would fail to keep pace with the other branches of Zoology. It is in this department, however, that the descriptions of species, and the minute attention to specific differences, preponderate over the more comprehensive views of material relations, and those zootomic studies which characterize the researches of most other zoological investigators ; not, however, that philosophic entomologists are want- ing—we should be sorry to imply that—but the tendency of the exclusive study of entomology appears to be the development of that microscopic eye which can readily detect minute shades of colour and variations of form, and which is useful in its way, although not of the highest character as an intellectual effort. We cannot there- fore, owing to the great mass of material, here attempt to give anything like a general view of the researches made in Entomology proper, but will content ourselves with saying that a vast number of new species have been added to the lists, a great many new genera formed, and Entomology in general as a science considerably advanced. ‘The various departments of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Neuroptera, Orthoptera, and Rhyncota have each received a fair share of attention. Among the students of Arachnida our own countryman, Blackwall, occupies a prominent place, whose “ History of the Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland ” is the most noticeable contribution of the time. The remainder of the articles in this ‘ Record’ are comparatively brief, although by no means on that account unimportant. Mr. J. Reay Greene supplies the Rotifera and Annelids. Two papers only occur in the former, of which summaries are given; but the Annelids are, as might have been expected, better represented. 1866. | The Progress of Zoology. 53 Besides an important work on the Sctigerous Annelids, by Ernst Ehlers, which 1s in course of publication at Leipzig, several interest- ing and important papers by Baird, Kolliker, Van Beneden, and others, indicate that this somewhat neglected department is making progress. Kolliker finds numerous sensory organs upon the in- tegument of certain Polycheta, in the form of variously shaped hairs and papille, to which nerves are supplied which subserve to tactile functions ; and Semper takes note of similar tactile bodies in the form of horny-toothed rings connected with vesicular arrange- ments surrounding nerves in Sipunculi. Dr. Cobbold chronicles the Helminths, a subject which, from its human interest, obtains a considerable share of notice. Dr. Cob- bold’s own excellent treatise is the first original work on Helminths which has issued from the English press, and contains a valuable bibhography of the subject. The Germans are the chief students of Entozoa, and a great work by Rudolf Leuckart on human parasites. is now in course of publication. Besides these, Friedrich Mosler, Virchow, Althaus, Diesing, and others have contributed important additions to this department of Zoology. Lastly, the Echinodermata again call forth Mr. Reay Greene. Under this head the researches of A. Agassiz on the Embryology of Echinoderms, and of Sars upon similar subjects, which beng made entirely independently, yet well confirm one another, are worthy of especial notice. With regard to the grade of development, it is remarked that on Embryological grounds the Asterids with suckers rank above those with tentaculiform feet; those with four rows of suckers, above those with only two; those with complicated spines and plates, above those with smooth arms; and lastly, those with elongated arms, above starfishes whose outline is pentagonal. ~ Here, we regret to say, we must close this chronicle. We heartily sympathize with Dr. Gimther in his disappointment, that the gentleman to whom were entrusted the Coelenterata and Pro- tozoa failed to keep his engagement; and that since this did not become apparent until after two months’ waiting, it was then too late to find a substitute. The consequence, of course, is that this first volume of the ‘ Zoological Record’ is incomplete. As far as possible the deficiency will be made up in the following year, but everyone must regret the fact. In conclusion, we are glad to bear our testimony to the extreme value of the volume before us, and we trust that the substantial encouragement given to it by the sale of this edition, will induce the editor to continue his useful labours, since any Zoologist who has come into possession of such a treasure would sadly miss it if it were not forthcoming in future. ( 54 ) |Jan., VII. THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN. On the Occurrence of Stone Implements in Lateritic Formations im various Parts of the Madras and North Arcot Districts. By R. Bruce Foote, of the Geological Survey of India. With an Appendix by Wiliam King, jun., B.A., of the Geological Survey of India. Madras. 8vo. 1865. On the Asserted Occurrence of Human Bones in the Ancient Fluviatile Deposits of the Nile and Ganges ; with Compara- tive Remarks on the Alluvial Formation of the two Valleys. By the late Hugh Falconer, M.D., F.R.S., For.Sec.G.8. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxi., pp. 872-389. Researches into the Early History of Mankind, and the Develop- ment of Civilization. By Edward Burnet Tylor. London: Murray. 1865. Prehistoric Times; as Illustrated by Ancient Remains and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages. By John Lubbock, F.RS., V.P.LS., F.G.8. . London: Williams and Norgate. 8vo. 1865. Tue Origin and Antiquity of Man are subjects which have of late vears acquired the highest interest and received the greatest atten- tion, through the discovery, in stratified and undisturbed deposits in France and England, of works of art associated with the remains of extinct animals. These discoveries are so well known, that it is unnecessary for us to review the general question ; we shall therefore merely notice a few of the recent publications of more than ordinary importance; and it accidentally happens that their scope and character enable us to discuss more particularly a limited and most interesting portion of the subject. Since the acceptance of M. Boucher de Perthes’ views of the nature and age of the flint implements of the valley of the Somme, the search for similar instruments elsewhere has been prosecuted with remarkable enthusiasm. From the title of Mr. Foote’s memoir, it will be seen that even the Asiatic continent has now yielded evidence that man existed in tropical regions at a period anterior to the formation of the existing physical features of the country. We know, within comparatively narrow limits, the age of the valley-gravels of France and England, and assuming that they indicate approximately the period of man’s advent in Europe, the question will naturally arise-—At what period of the world’s history did man first appear in India ? The extension into Asia of the known range of ancient flint implements, or corresponding weapons, was long preceded by the promulgation of the late Dr. Falconer’s hypothesis that the gigantic fossil Tortoise of the Sewalik Hills may have lived con- 1866.] The Origin and Antiquity of Man. 55 temporaneously with man in India. This speculation (which its author has re-enunciated in the paper whose title we have given above), the consequences which result from its acceptance, and from the acceptance of the arguments used in supporting it, are what we shall chiefly consider in this notice, the more especially as Mr. Foote’s pamphlet has a direct bearing on its probability, as well as being an important addition to our knowledge. It must be stated, however, that this hypothesis is avowedly nothing more than suggestive ; and whatever its ultimate fate may be, its lamented aythor’s memory will not lose by its promulgation any of the lustre with which his name is now invested, for the idea of a Miocene man has already been adopted by some of the highest authorities on the subject, though rejected by others. In endeavouring to estimate the bearing of known facts on its probability, we have arrived at somewhat adverse conclusions, but they are given with the highest admiration of the ingenuity displayed in the conception and elaboration of the idea, and of the genius of the naturalist who advanced it. Of Mr. Tylor’s book we ought to say at the outset that it is a work of very great interest and ability; the facts contaimed in it are brought together from various sources, but a large number of the inferences drawn are original. In the department of Compara- tive Mythology, the author’s division of legends, traditions, and the like into Historical Traditions, Myths of Observation, and Pure Myths would be useful, if the separation were more easy to make in practice. His chapter on the Geographical Distribution of Myths is also very instructive, although he often seems to draw a conclu- sion from insufficient evidence. We cannot help remarking, also, that although a ludicrously inconsequential argument may, when skilfully employed as an illustration, create an impression that another train of reasoning is fallacious, it by no means proves that such is the case. Mr. Lubbock’s book consists of a series of essays and lectures which have been published to a greater or less extent before; it treats chiefly of a more ancient period in the history of man than Mr. Tylor’s, to which it forms a useful introduction, though scarcely of equal scope and originality. The gigantic extinct Tortoise of the Sewalik Hills (Colossochelys Atlas) was discovered in the Miocene deposits of those mountains by the late Dr. Falconer and Captain (now Sir Proby) Cautley ; it was described by them in 1836, but the detailed account of it was not published until 1844 ; it is believed to have possessed a shell 12 feet long, 8 feet in transverse diameter, and 6 feet high! In the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1844, Dr. Falconer speculated on the date of the extinction of this gigantic animal, and he reproduces in his paper just published the more cogent of the 56 The Origin and Antiquity of Man. | Jan., arguments he then used, with others which serve further to elucidate his meaning. Dr. Falconer’s strong point is the existence of traditions of a gigantic tortoise, comparable in size with the elephant, connected with the cosmogonic speculations of nearly all eastern nations, and he asks, “ Was this tortoise a mere creature of the imagination, or was the idea of it drawn from a reality like the Colossochelys ?” If the latter part of the question be answered in the affirmative, then the inference seems plausible that the Colos- sochelys may have co-existed with man. Mr. E. B. Tylor considers* the whole story of the World-tor- toise to be a “ Myth of Observation ;” he also shows that it exists in the New World, and states} that this occurrence of the tradition m the two hemispheres “leaves not the least opening for the suppo- sition of its having been carried by modern Europeans from the Old to the New World.” In his opinion alsot the various stories of the World-tortoise may be resolved into the conception of the world as “a flat plain over which the sky is placed as a dome, as the arched upper shell of the tortoise stands upon the flat plate below.” On the other hand, Dr. Falconer brings forward a considerable amount of cumulative evidence in support of his hypothesis. He shows that in the Pythagorean cosmogony and in the Hindoo my- thology reference is frequently made to different animals of extra- vagant magnitude, but whose conception may all (except the Tortoise) be traced to an exaggerated idea of the largest animals now existing in India ; and he sums up as follows :§—“ We have the elephant, then as at present, the largest of land animals, a fit sup- porter of the infant world; in the serpent Asokee, used at the churning of the ocean, we may trace a representative of the gigantie Indian Python ; and in the bird-god Garida, with all his attributes, we may detect the gigantic Crane of India (Ciconia gigantea), as supplyimg the origin. In like manner the Colossochelys would supply a consistent representative of the Tortoise that sustained the Elephant and the world together. But if we are to suppose that the mythological notion of the Tortoise was derived, as a symbol of strength, from some one of those small species which are now known to exist in India, this congruity of ideas, this harmony of representation would be at once violated. It would be as legitimate to talk of a rat or a mouse contending with an elephant as of any known Indian tortoise to do the same in the case of the fable of Garuda.” This evidence is drawn from the most questionable of sources ; and although we quite agree with Dr. Falconer in the opinion that “Geology has never disdained to draw upon any department of human knowledge that could throw light on the subjects which it * « Warly History of Mankind,’ p. 300. t P. 336. q P. 333, § P. 380. 1866. | The Origin and Antiquity of Man. 57 investigates,” we ¢annot but think that he strains the principle to the utmost by calling mythology a “department of human knowledge.” But accepting the evidence and the conclusion, what follows? Dr. Falconer nearly thirty years ago stated as his opinion “that the Colossochelys may have lived down to the human period, and Lecome extinct since ;” and he now says that this view 1s “ recipro- cal” with the one “that man had lived back to be a contemporary of the Tortoise, now proved to have been Miocene.” He also urges “that the form of expression selected on the occasion was that ~ which was least calculated to provoke ridicule, or to shock the strong prejudices on the subject which were then dominant among educated men.” We should not have considered Dr. Falconer so susceptible of ridicule, so careful of offending popular prejudices, or so little amenable to the necessity of a scientific man saying and writing exactly what he means, had it not been for the publication of this sentence. His object in thus investing his writings with a reputation for ambiguity is simply to make out a good case in proof of his assertion that nearly thirty years ago Captain Cautley and himself were “occupied with the question of the remote antiquity of man in India.” We are quite willing to believe that this was the case, for it is still fresh in our remembrance that it was Dr. Falconer, who drew the attention of Mr. Prestwich, Mr. Evans, and others, to the long-neglected specimens and opinions of M. Boucher de Perthes, and obtained for them the fair and careful consideration that resulted in establishing the views so long held by the distin- guished Abbeville antiquary. From the foregoing quotations, however, it appears certain that the late Dr. Falconer was of opinion that the advent of man may have taken place at so remote a period as the Miocene, though “»artly from considerations of a different order.” To these con- siderations we shall presently refer ; but before doing so we must ascertain what support is yielded to his view by the discoveries detailed in Mr. Foote’s pamphlet. Very little is known of the geological age of the implement- bearing formations of Madras and North Arcot; but in the districts of Trichinopoly and South Arcot deposits supposed to be identical with them are found resting unconformably on Cretaceous strata, and overlain by the alluvium of certain rivers. All the implements, several hundreds of which have been found, are made of quartzite, which substance, Mr. Foote tells us, is the best substitute for flint in the Madras district. In form these implements correspond with many of those found in the valley-gravels of France and England; but, as will be seen by a comparison of Figs. 1, 3, 5, and 7, with Figs. 2, 4, 6, and 8 in the Plate, the Indian specimens are much less elaborate. Without an examination of a large number of specimens it would not be safe to decide whether this difference is owing to the compa- 58 The Origin and Antiquity of Man. | Jan., rative toughness of the quartzite, or to the Indian implements having been made by a less cultivated, and therefore, very possibly, a more ancient people. Mr. Foote appears to be unacquainted with Dr. Falconer’s speculation (even in the form in which it was published in 1844), as he makes no allusion to it, and mentions no facts having a direct bearing on the probable relation of the implement-bearing deposits to the Miocene period. ‘To his mind the case is simply as follows:— Stone implements, comparable with the flint implements of Kurope, occur near Madras in deposits probably identical with those which in neighbouring districts underlie the modern alluvium. Therefore the Indian deposits are contemporary with the European, and are of Quaternary age, if not more recent. : In Mr. Foote’s opinion, these deposits, which are composed of Lateritic conglomerates and sands, “ were deposited at the bottom of a shallow sea studded with mountainous islands, between which flowed strong and rapid currents.” These islands are supposed to have been either “inhabited or visited by the people who made the quartzite implements which are at present the only record of their existence.” The greatest height at which quartzite implements have been found is 370 feet, so that a considerable period of time must have elapsed since the formation of the deposit i which they occur ; and presuming that the alluvial deposits overlying them are to some extent synchronous with the oldest alluvium of the valley of the Ganges, we get a more or less probable measure of their anti- quity. But the lapse of time thus indicated by no means carries us back to the Miocene period, as the essentially superficial Lateritic deposits can hardly be correlated with the highly inclined Sewalik strata. It therefore appears that from the positive facts now in our pos- session we are not justified in assigning a period so remote as the Miocene for the advent of man in India. We must therefore return to those “considerations of a different order” to which we haye before alluded. Dr. Falconer writes, “It is not under the hard conditions of the Glacial period in Europe that the earliest relics of the human race upon the globe are to be sought... . . . It is rather im the great alluvial valleys of tropical or sub-tropical rivers, like the Ganges, the Irrawaddi, and the Nile, where we may expect to detect the vestiges of his earliest abode. It is there where the necessaries of life are produced by nature in the greatest variety and profusion, and obtained with the smallest effort; there where climate exacts the least protection against the vicissitudes of the weather; and there where the lower animals which approach man nearest now exist, and where their fossil remains turn up in the greatest variety and abundance.” 1866. | The Origin and Antiquity of Man. 59 _ Everyone must admit the justice of the remark that the earliest traces of man are more likely to be found in a genial than in a rigorous climate ; but as regards the valley of the Ganges, accord- ing to Mr. Fergusson, but an insignificant portion of it was habit- able at so recent a date as B.c. 8000. The last sentence refers to a different consideration altogether, and it will doubtless be asked by some, What bearing has it on the question? Why should we expect that man appeared first in those regions where the animals which approach him nearest now exist, and where their fossil remains turn up in the greatest variety and abundance? We are a little uncer- tain whether we have here a statement of extreme development opinions, clouded by the effort not “to shock the strong prejudices on the subject,” which are now “dominant among educated men,” or whether there. be not some “reciprocal” view which we cannot perceive. The probable origin of man could hardly fail to become a sub- ject of speculation to those engaged in determining his antiquity ; accordingly we find that several naturalists have ventured to tread on this very delicate ground. In his ‘ Prehistoric Times, Mr. Lubbock has touched upon this subject, and it may be useful to cull from his pages two or three quotations contaiming expressions of the opinion of certain savants of eminence. Professor Huxley, for instance, has remarked that “the first traces of the primordial stock whence man has proceeded need no longer be sought, by those who entertain any form of the doctrine of progressive develop- ment, in the newest Tertiaries; but that they may be looked for in an epoch more distant from the age of the Hlephas prinugenius than that is from us.” Sir Charles Lyell ‘thinks that we may expect to find remains of man in Pliocene strata, but there he draws the line.” Mr. Lubbock combats this opinion, but does not advance any strong argument against it, though he eclipses everyone else in the candour with which he states his opmion. Thus, “it is true that few of our existing species or even genera have as yet been found in Miocene strata ; but if man constitutes a separate family of mammalia, as he does in the opinion of the highest authorities, then, according to all paleontological analogies, he must have had representatives in Miocene times. We need not, however, expect to find the proofs in Europe; our nearest relatives in the animal kingdom are confined to hot, almost to tropical climates, and it is in such countries that we must look for the earliest traces of the human race.” Admitting Mr. Lubbock’s premisses, man may, not must, have had “representatives” in Miocene times. Then “according to all paleontological analogies,” the duration in time of a group of animals (whether family, genus, or order) varies inversely with its organiza- tion, so the family represented by man must have had a geologically 60 The Origin and Antiquity of Man. [Jan., short duration compared with that of other families of mammalia. The opinion contained in the last sentence quoted is identical with that expressed by Dr. Falconer, but it reveals more clealy the idea on which it is founded. At present man stands alone and quite isolated in the animal kingdom, and the certain records of his existence are as yet confined to Post-pliocene, probably to Post- glacial, deposits. We ought, nevertheless, to be prepared to receive facts which will extend his range in time, and lessen the gap between him and his “nearest relatives.” Let us mention as two shadows, such as coming events cast before them, first, the discovery of markings on the bones of Hlephas meridionalis, an animal of Pliocene age, supposed by M. Desnoyers and other naturalists to be of human production; and secondly, the discovery of a remarkable tooth, associated with remains of Diprotodon, &c., by Mr. Gerard Krefft, in an Australian cavern, which that gentleman describes as follows:*—‘“ In shape it resembles the first of the premolar series of the lower jaw in man: the root, however, is much longer, the crown smaller, protruding, and considerably worn ; the root is not smooth as in man, but somewhat ridged, with a few tubercles on the upper part.” Mr. Krefft may well say, “T have no conjecture to offer as to which genus this tooth is referable.” EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. Fia. 1. Quartzite Implement from the Atrumpakkam nullah, one-half the natural size. (After Foote.) . Flint Implement from Icklingham, one-third the natural size. ? Quartzite Implement from the Atrumpakkam nullah, one-half the natural size. (After Foote.) . Flint Implement from Milancourt, one-third the natural size. . Quartzite Implement from the Atrumpakkam nullah, unusually well made, one-half the natural size. (After Foote.) . Flint Implement from Abbeville, one-half the natural size. . Quartzite Siing Stone, from the Atrumpakkam nullah, one-half the natural size. (After Foote.) . Flint Sling Stone, from an Abbeville Tourbitre, one-half the natural size. Oo ND oP Wh * «Geological Magazine,’ December, 1865. Journal of Science. N°Y. Quarterly M&N Fanhart imp De Wilde lith,. Noy AIT IMPLEMENTS = 1866.] Gh) VIII. HOFMANN AND MODERN CHEMISTRY. Introduction to Modern Chemistry, Experimental and Theoretical ; embodying Twelve Lectures delivered in the Royal College of Chemistry, London. By W. A. Hofmann, LLD., F.RS., &e. THERE is no more interesting study, and certainly none more instructive, than the inquiry into the progress of that knowledge which is acquired by the aids of science. To mark, where it is pos- sible, the first gleam of a truth, to watch the flutterings of human thought around the little light, and to follow patiently its slow and gradual development, until man seizes it aright and chains it to do his bidding, is always a delightful exercise for the well-constituted mind. We learn in contemplating the history of scientific discovery, that the search after Truth demands a large amount’ of labour con- tinuously applied. A fact may be known for ages, and remain a barren fact because man fails to interpret it correctly. The Greeks, for example, knew Hlectron—amber—they were acquainted with the iron ore of Magnesia, and they were not ignorant of their peculiar powers of attraction; but more than two thousand years passed away before man learnt those laws regulating Electricity and Mag- netism, by which he was enabled to apply them to useful purposes. Every advance made by the Human family is due to the de- votion with which some chosen member of that family has solicited nature to disclose her powers. The Earth, a mass of matter of wondrous constitution, rolling along its prescribed path in space, is man’s abiding place. From it he must glean everything necessary for his healthful existence, and from it he must derive every source of finite happiness. Man’s prescribed task is “ to possess the Earth and subdue it,” and the more zealously he bends his mind to the labour, the greater is the sum of his own enjoyment, and the more numerous are the advantages which he is enabled to bestow upon his kindred. As the chaotic Earth in its early darkness “ was without form and void,” and as at the touch of light it became a symmetrical globe, clothed with organized forms and radiant with beauty, so brute matter is seen to develop hidden powers, under the influence of the human mind, and become at the same time useful to man. The history of the progress of civilization—surveyed apart from all the clouding influences of political contention, religious strife and national prejudices—resolves itself into a story of man’s strugele with nature. We live in an age which will ever be remarkable as a period of action, during which the human mind is taxed to the utmost to make new applications of natural forces, and new com- binations of nature’s elements for the use of man. Existing in the 62 Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. | Jan., midst of the mental strife, it is as difficult to discover the real order of progress, as it is for the soldier on the battle-field to learn the fortune of the day. We can, however, examine the road over which we have passed, can remember the names of the great men who have left their footprints deeply impressed for our guidance ; and gathering experience from the teachings of the past, we may venture to predicate how the future will regard the present. The science of Chemistry specially claims our attention at this time, as ministering extensively to the requirements of man, and adding greatly to his knowledge of natural phenomena. At the commencement of the eighteenth century, Stahl put forward his doctrine of Phlogiston, for which, perhaps, the road had been prepared by Mayow.* A phlogistic system, however, was the dawn of a new day, and the rude empiricism of previous time perished before its hght. The spirit of mquiry which arose upon the promulgation of this hypothesis gradually took form, and in 1777 we find Sx Torbern Bergman writing these remarkable words :— “We have no knowledge of bodies @ priorz: every intelligence about them must be acquired by proper observations and experi- ments. But to discover and pursue such experiments, as really illustrate the point we are in search of, requires not only skill and a peculiar application, but also the most impartial love of truth; m order not to be ensnared by the pleasing desire of drawing general conclusions from a few data of precarious certainty. It lessens, no doubt, our trouble, and flatters our vanity, to be able to disclose in a moment the whole course of nature. Man is besides naturally indolent, and much inclined to be captivated by imagination more than by reality. The confession, therefore, that we really know no more than what we know, is,—even in our days when the experi- mental method is considered as the only right and true method,— very difficult and humiliating.”+ Scheele, Lavoisier, and Priestly were, however, the first who introduced the exactness of Physics—the system of observation by weight and measure—into Chemistry ; and from their times it may be regarded as a new science. These philosophers gave the world many truths as the result of their modes of investigating nature, and one of them, Lavoisier, taught a chemical nomenclature, which has aided, to the present day, in the ever difficult task of expressing new ideas in a form of words which shall convey a correct im- pression to the mind. Prior to, and indeed for some time after this period, although * ‘Opera Omnia Medico-physica, Hage, 1681.’ 8yvo. ‘ Dissertatione de Res- piratione ;’ and also, Mayow’s Diss de Salnitro and Spiritu Nitri Aereo.’ + ‘Prefatory Introduction to Chemical Observations and Experiments on Air and Fire. By Charles William Scheele. Translated by J. R. Forster, LL.D., F.R.S., &e. 1780. 1866. | Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. 63 Chemistry was making valuable discoveries in the mineral world, it had done but little toward elucidating any of the phenomena of the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Priestly had, it is true, discovered the influence of growing plants upon the air, and of light upon the growing plant.* Dr. Ingenhousz had observed the peculiar nature of the air “ produced by a special operation carried on in a lving leaf.” And Sennebier found that plants yielded more “ dephlo- gisticated air” (oxygen) in distilled water impregnated with “ fiaed air” (carbonic acid) than in simple distilled water. All these men were floating round and gradually approaching the truth. Cavendish proclaimed that “fixed air is a principal con- stituent part of vegetable substances,” but even he was bewildered by the Phlogistic Hypothesis, and it was not until Lavoisier destroyed it that any real advance was made. Davy stands forth amidst the philesophers of his day as a re- markable discoverer. ‘The brilliancy of his experiments, which proved the metallic nature of the earths and alkalies, and the elegance of those investigations which determined the true cha- racter of muriatic acid, has led his ‘ Agricultural Chemistry’ to be almost forgotten. In this book, however, will be found the first clear exposition of the part which chemical forces play in all the processes of the living organisms, and an examination of the trans- formations and changes in plants and animals which are dependent on their influences. After Davy for a long period but small advance was made, and it is not a little curious to find Liebig in 1841 writing as follows :— “Since the time of the immortal author of the ‘ Agricultural Chemistry,’ no chemist has occupied himself in studying the appli- cation of chemical principles to the growth of vegetables, and to organic processes. I have endeavoured to follow the path marked out by Sir Humphry Davy, who based his conclusions only on that which was capable of inquiry and proof. This is the path of true pluilosophical inquiry, which promises to lead us to truth, the proper object of our research”. It is not strictly true to say that Organic Chemistry had no existence between the time of Priestly and of Liebig. We find many chemists, as Pelletier, Vauquelin, Chevreul, Fourcroy, and others carefully examining the proximate principles of plants, and Berzelius gave the world his ‘ Animal Chemistry’ within this period. But it must be conceded that until the Professor of Chemistry at Giessen taught Chemistry in its relations to organization and life, the study of Organic Chemistry lagged in the back-ground. , * «Experiments and Observations relating to various Branches of Natural Philosophy, with a Continuation of the Observation on Air.’ By Joseph Priestly, LL.D., F.R.S. Birmingham, 1781. _t ‘Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology.’ By Justus Liebig, M.D., F.R.S., &e. 1842. 64 Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. | Jan., The novelty of the views put forward by Liebig; the popular style in which he wrote on what had hitherto been regarded as a recondite subject ; the enthusiasm which he threw into his lectures ; the novelty and the completeness of his illustrations ; the boldness, ‘approaching to dogmatism, with which he propounded his hypo- theses, all tended to make Organic Chemistry the favourite pursuit of the younger chemists. The result has been, “that, during the last quarter of a cen- tury, the science of Chemistry has undergone a profound trans- formation ; attended, during its accomplishment, by struggles so convulsive as to represent what, in political parlance, would be appropriately termed a revolution.” These are the words of Hof- mann, the favourite pupil of Liebig, who was sent forth from Giessen to teach in England the doctrines of the Master. So thoroughly has Dr. Hofmann fulfilled his mission in this country, so entirely has he identified himself with ‘Modern Che- mistry ’—which he has chosen indeed as the title of a valuable little work from his pen—that it has been thought important to sketch the progress of this chemist, and examine, as far as our space will admit of our doing so, the value of his discoveries and their bear- ings upon the present state of chemical science, and its applications to manufactures. , Augustus William Hofmann, whose name must be for ever con- nected with the history of chemistry durmg the last twenty years, is the son of John Phillipp Hofmann, a German architect of repute. He was born at Giessen, Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the 8th of April, 1818. His early education was received in the Gym- nasium of his native town. We-learn that the father, who doubt- less discovered the natural powers of his son, lost no opportunity of expanding the instruction given in that school. The study of classical languages claimed predominant attention in the Gymna- sium, and feeling that the practical character of the age required other kinds of learning, the architect took his son on several length- ened architectural expeditions through France and Italy. The father and son were inseparable companions, and the former thought no sacrifices too great to ensure any benefit to his boy. The edu- cation at school and that of travel, produced in young Hofmann an inclination to the study of modern languages, and created a certain facility in using them, which did not remain without influence on his subsequent career. Liebig, who beyond most men has left his mark upon the age, began to draw the attention of Europe to the University of Giessen about the time—1836—when Hofmann entered it as a student. His first year was passed in studies of a somewhat desultory character. Huis father desired that he should become an architect, while his own predilections were towards phi- lology- The elder Hofmann, evidently a practical man, earnestly 1866. ] ‘Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. 65 opposed this course, as being unlikely to lead to any definite object, or to be attended with any profitable result. After a short contest, the law was selected as the profession to which the young Hofmann was to devote his attention, and for a few years, with considerable interruptions and, according to his own confession, without any sreat result, the study of the law claimed the future chemist. By a combination of circumstances, such as we not unfrequently find determining a man’s course in life, this career was soon aban- doned. The chemical school of Liebig had attained its highest degree of development, and from all parts of the world, ardent pupils visited the University of Giessen, anxious to study under the auspices of the great master. Young chemists, many of them having been educated elsewhere, even Professors of Universities and schools, many of whom had been teaching for years, assembled in this little German town, which for a time became the chemical centre of the world. That which must be, par ewcellence, distin- guished as Modern Chemistry had its birth here, and every student who left the laboratory in which Liebig taught, took “colour like the dyer’s hand from that it works in,’ and spread the chemical philosophy of this school over Europe and America. Liebig’s laboratory was originally the kitchen of a barracks. It was now too small for the chemical class, and it became necessary to increase the working room. At first an additional wing was added to the old building, but ultimately it was determined that the whole should be reconstructed. The construction of the Giessen University laboratory was committed to the father of the young man, who was still wavering between law, philology, and architec- ture. The friendly relations which ensued between the architect of the new institution and Professor Liebig soon produced its effect upon the younger Hofmann. Once drawn within the influence of an attraction, which all who have been brought within its sphere declare to be irresistible, he felt impelled with extraordinary force towards the study of nature. From this period a new life com- menced ; the law studies rapidly fell into oblivion, the once favourite subject of languages claimed but an occasional hour of leisure, the whole time being devoted to the study of chemistry, physics, and mathematics. _Liebig’s laboratory was the first independent institution of the kind in Europe, and it has served as the model for all subsequent structures devoted to the same end. In if we see young Hofmann in rapid succession working as a zealous student and participating in his revered master’s researches as an expert assistant. It is not a little remarkable that even from his début attention was fixed upon the young chemist, and that his first imvestigation should prove to be the development of a fact, which has in his latest VoL. III. F 66 Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. [Jan., researches reached its mature form of an important practical appli- cation. Hofmann’s first published paper was the record of an investi- gation into the nature of the volatile bases of coal gas naphtha, amongst which Hofmann demonstrated the presence of ANILINE. This has become the starting point of a long series of researches which have richly benefitted both theory and practice. A second paper “ On the Metamorphoses of Indigo,” which finally settled the question of the substitution of chlorine for hydrogen (which at the time engrossed the attention of chemists) received the prize medal of the Société de Pharmacie of Paris. : At this time the élite of young chemical Europe, the founders of Modern Chemistry were working side by side in the Giessen laboratory, and Hofmann was the favoured assistant of the master. It would be difficult to conceive conditions more inciting to work for a young savané than this. With a far less powerful stimulus than this, the energetic assistant of Liebig would have made his position, but, surrounded by such influences, there is little doubt that his pro- gress was considerably accelerated. Still this enviable position could not be more than a transitional one, an important stepping- stone to further progress. The time arrived when the young assistant, anxious to obtain an independent sphere of action, had: to try the strength of his own wings. In the spring of 1845, the young chemist took leave of Giessen, of Liebig, and of a delightful circle of the nearest relations and most intimate friends, and became a private teacher in the University of Bonn. Here we find Dr. Hofmann lecturing on Agricultural Chemistry, and in a laboratory of the smallest dimensions he was busily engaged in following up his experimental researches ; but his stay in Bonn was not to be of long duration. The extraordinary development which the study of chemistry, and more especially of organic chemistry, had reached in Germany by Liebeg’s teaching, was not without its influence in England. In the curriculum of the English universities at this time Chemistry played an essentially subordinate part. Public laboratories in which experimental researches could have been carried out by students did not exist. Even in London and Edinburgh it was difficult at that period to get admission into a scientific laboratory for the purpose of acquiring the practice of analysis, and it could only be done at considerable cost. Consequently the study of Practical Chemistry was accessible only to a limited few. This condition, however, was not to continue much longer, and it will be interesting to trace the causes, in their operation towards producing a sensible change. The British Association was doing its work in showing the thinking portion of the British public that science was needful to them, and that a great manufacturing people could not make any considerable 1866. | Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. 67 advances without its aid. Young Englishmen had been amongst Liebig’s students; they had drunk from the earnest teacher the draughts of enthusiasm, and they returned home to spread the chemical fever, under the excitement of which they lived. In 1841 we find the British Association desirmg from Liebig a report on Organic Chemistry. This was furnished to them in 1842 at the Manchester meeting by Dr. Lyon Playfair. That all may judge of the estimation in which the German chemist was then held we quote the concluding paragraph of the abstract published :— “Jn the opinion of all, Liebig may be considered a benefactor to his species, for the interesting discoveries in agriculture, pub- lished by him in the first part of this report. And having in that pomted out means by which the food of the human race may be increased, in the work now before us he follows up the chain in its continuation, and shows how that food may best be adapted to the nutrition of man. Surely there are no two subjects more fitted than these for the contemplation of the philosopher ; and by the consummate sagacity with which Liebig has applied to their elu- eidation the powers of his mind, we are compelled to admit that there is no living philosopher to whom the chemical section could have more appropriately entrusted their investigation.”* Prince Albert, who had received all the advantages of a German education, and who, consequently, had studied many branches of science, was now making the influences of his mind felt in this country. ‘The Prince had learned to regard a knowledge of science as an essential element in a liberal education, and seeing the want of that kind of knowledge amongst the people of the country of his adoption, he lost no opportunity of enforcing its importance. The following words express, at the same time, the true condition of the period, and the high standard to which Prince Albert desired to lift the public mind :— “ Nobody, however, who has paid any attention to the peculiar features of our present era, will doubt for a moment that we are living at a period of most wonderful transition, which tends rapidly to accomplsh the great end to which indeed all history pomts; the reaiization of the unity of mankind! Not a unity which breaks down the limits, and levels the peculiar characteristics of the different nations of the earth, but rather a unity, the result and product of those very national varieties and antagonistic qualities. ___“Man is approaching a more complete fulfilment of that great and sacred mission which he has to perform in this world. His * tye 1866.] Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. 69 names of the men who were educated within its walls, and who have aided the progress of the science, it will be admitted that it has exerted a powerful influence on Modern Chemistry. In proof of this, we have but to refer to the list of chemists who have worked with Dr. Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry, at different periods, from its opening in 1845 to the present date, and who entertained him at a farewell banquet imme- diately before his departure for Berlin. The names of Abel, Church, Crookes, De la Rue, Nicholson, Odling, Perkins, figure here.* Beyond this gathering we remember those of Bloxam, Noad, Galloway, and several others who have made for themselves posi- tions in the world of science. Amongst those who contributed towards the funds for the es- tablishment of the College of Chemistry were many who desired some substantial return for their money in the form of lectures, soirées, analyses, &.; and not receiving those, such contributors withdrew their support. This rendered the financial position of the College for a period doubtful; but it ultimately emerged from all difficulties, through the devotion of a few faithful friends, whose names should be held in honour. Sir James Clarke, the late Lord Ashburton, Mr. Warren De la Rue, the late Mr. Dalrymple, and Dr. Bence Jones, stood in the first rank; and their efforts were supported by the determination of Prince Albert not to shrink from any sacrifice for the sake of consolidating the school which he had founded. While referring to this period of difficulty, it is pleasant to quote the words of Mr. Warren De la Rue as Chairman at the Banquet already referred to. “Some of us know that the ability of the promoters to perform their part of the arrangement fell very far short of their antici- pations, the very existence of the College being in fact in danger, and that Dr. Hofmann voluntarily gave up in succession—first, a portion of his salary, then his share of the student’s fees, and lastly his house. Yet during this trying period he never, in the slightest degree, relaxed his efforts to establish the reputation of the College, He not only gave up the money which was his due, but, out of his extreme devotion to the educational objects of the College, abandoned for some years what to a German savant is of still greater import- ance, his original scientific investigations.” This statement is essentially important as showing the firmness of faith and purpose in Dr. Hofmann, who never for one moment lost hope in the ultimate success of the Institution which he was directing. In 1849, Dr. Hofmann was elected a Member of the Chemical ** Farewell Banquet to Dr. Hofmann.’ A pamphlet record of this event, printed by Clowes & Sons, 70 Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. [Jan., Society, and on the 12th June, 1851, he was received as a Fellow into the Royal Society. In 1853, the Chemical chair of the then recently established School of Mines, connected with the Museum of Practical Geology, became vacant by the resignation of Dr. Lyon Playfair. Sir Henry De la Beche, the Director of the School ;—indeed the Founder of it; of the Museum of Practical Geology ; and of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, offered this appointment to Dr. Hofmann. The Council of the College of Chemistry strongly urged their Professor to accept it, and they at the same time came to a resolution, to the effect that the object for which the College had been originally established having in’ a great measure been achieved, the College with all its property should be offered to the Government, to be incorporated with the Institution in Jermyn Street. The negotiations to this end were carried out by the Office of Woods on the part of the Government, and brought to a satisfac- tory issue. Thus Dr. Hofmann became connected with the Royal School of Mines, without leaving his favourite laboratory in the College, which henceforth became the Chemical Department of the National Institution. This new position afforded Dr. Hofmann additional facilities to engage freely and largely in the experimental pursuits of his predilections. As Dr. Hofmann has been enabled from 1853 to almost the present time, to carry on without disturbance his system of chemical instruction, and to pursue without the annoyance of the interference of shareholders his own researches, we will leave him in this happy position, endeavour to review his labours, and examine the extent to which he has aided in bringing about that state of knowledge com- prehended in the term Moprrn Cuemistry. No inconsiderable portion of Dr. Hofmann’s power arose from the zeal which he threw into his teaching; the pains which he took by enlivening experiments and new apparatus to bring forcibly to the eye of the student the facts and reactions he desired to im- press on the mind. Although he never lost a strong German accent, he spoke our language with fluency and force; but the attraction of his style of lecturing consisted less in the language, than in the felicity of the illustrations, by which he endeavoured to bring the most abstract subject to the grasp of the popular under- standing. He positively made the inanimate subjects he was dealing with live and act their several parts in the presence of his hearers, and he certainly was never greater than in the lecture-room. Hence his evening lectures in the Museum of Practical Geology, his lec- tures at the Chemical Society, of which he was president in 1861, at the Royal Institution, and elsewhere, always drew large audiences, 1866. | Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. 71 who witnessed with pleasure and instruction the well-devised and successfully performed experiments. Even H.M. the Queen was pleased to listen to some of Dr. Hofmann’s lectures, and he repeat- edly had the honour of delivering short chemical courses to the Court at Windsor Castle and at Osborne. Nothing can show more completely Dr. Hofmann’s power of ren- dering an abstract subject pleasing than his lecture delivered at the Royal Institution on the 7th of last April “On the Combining Power of Atoms.” In this lecture, which has been printed with wood-cuts, Dr. Hofmann introduced an entirely new mode of illus- trating the subject. “I will,” he says, “on this occasion, with your permission, select my illustration from the most delightful of games, croquet.” He makes croquet balls represent the atom, and the atoms of different elements are distinguished by different colours. He adds another mechanical contrivance to indicate the combining power of the atoms; this is effected by screwing into the balls metallic pegs, by which they can also be joined so as to rear mechanical structures in illustration of the atomic edifices to be illustrated. “Thus the hydrogen and chlorine atoms, which are univalent atoms, have each one arm, representing one combining or attraction unit; the atom of oxygen, a bivalent atom, has two, re- presenting two attraction units; while the nitrogen and carbon atoms, respectively trivalent and quadrivalent, are provided with three and fowr arms, indicating the three and four combining units respectively distinguishing the atoms.” By fixing those balls to- gether in the order in which experiment has proved to us they combine, visible representations of the compounds which result from their combination are produced. In this way instruction is afforded by reaching the mind through the eye, which would never so readily have found ingress through the portal of the ear. From the first Dr. Hofmann fully appreciated his task. He knew that to make the College of Chemistry successful and to esta- blish for himself a name in England, his teaching must be made to tend to practical results. While he never flinched from impressing theory on the minds of his pupils, he made them all practical workers. They learned as much by what they saw passing before them as by their own actual manipulation. Dr. Hofmann has been particularly and truly characterized by his power not only of getting into the minds of his students the utmost amount of knowledge, but by his kindly encouragement, getting the most out of them for the advancement of science. As an example of this, during the last few years Dr. Hofmann has been entirely engaged in the elucidation of the chemistry of the new coal-tar colours which have attracted so much attention. This industry has in a great measure emanated from the Royal College of Chemistry ; most of those who first en- gaged in this new branch of applied chemistry, Messrs. Perkin, 72 Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. [Jan., Nicholson, Maule, Simpson, Medlock, and others were pupils of the College. While Dr. Hofmann has been earnestly engaged in work- ing out the theory of this imteresting subject, he has not forgotten its practical application. The beautiful red colouring matter known as Magenta was first observed and described by him, although he never produced it on a commercial scale. Again, the splendid violet, so much in vogue at present, is a discovery of Dr. Hofmann’s, who produced it by the action of iodide of ethyl upon Magenta. It is a curious coincidence that the same agent which contributed so much, as will presently be seen, to his scientific successes, should also assist him im a brilliant industrial achievement. We must now sketch, although we can do so but briefly, the progress of scientific inquiry in Dr. Hofmann’s hands. By continuing his researches on Aniline and its derivatives, he worked step by step to a clearer conception of the relation in which these substances stand to ammonia. He proved the volatile bases to be compound ammonias, derived from ordinary ammonia gas by the substitution of compound atoms consisting of carbon and hydrogen, for either one, two, or three of the hydrogen atoms in ammonia, and he gave a method as general as simple for the artificial con- struction of an endless variety of these substances.* These researches have exercised a powerful influence upon the progress of Chemistry both practical and philosophical. Iodide of ethyl, in general the iodides of the alcohol radicals, with the aid of which the new reactions were accomplished, appear in these re- searches for the first time as agents of the substitution of compound hydrocarbon atoms for hydrogen, and substances which had been seen by few chemists at that time, became at once some of the most frequently employed agents of research. Ever since the publication of Dr. Hofmann’s Memoirs, these agents have played a most im- portant part in all researches in Organic Chemistry, by which the most interesting theoretical questions have been elucidated, and these agents are now manufactured upon a colossal scale for indus- trial purposes. Nor was the influence of this investigation upon the general progress of Chemistry less marked in Dr. Hofmann’s researches on Ammonia, in which he exhibited this substance as the source of an unlimited number of derivatives similar in construction but modified * This beautiful series of researches should be studied by the aid of Dr. Hof- mann’s papers, published in the following Journals :— ‘ Liebig’s Annalen,’ vol. liii., p. 1. ‘Researches on the Volatile Bases,’ ‘Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. i, pp. 159-269 ; vol. ii., pp. 36, 104, 300. ‘Researches regarding the Molecular Construction of the Volatile Organic Bases,’ ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ vol. exli. (1850), p. 93. ‘Researches into the Molecular Constitution of Organic Bases’ (this paper is devoted to such as are not volatile, and continued in papers subsequently pub- jished), ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ vol exli. (1851), p. 372. 1866. | Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. 73 in properties. In these researches we find the first germ of the theory of types which subsequently in the hands of Gerhardt, Williamson, and others assumed a more general form. We abstract some remarks from one of Dr. Hofmann’s papers* which bear strongly. on this point. At a very early period, as far back as 1837, Berzelius, on the grounds of Liebig’s researches, expressed the opinion that the natural alkaloids which at that period engrossed the undivided attention of chemists were peculiar ammonia compounds—conjugated compounds, in which the che- mical character of ammonia, modified indeed by its conjunct, was still perceptible. This view, which was principally founded on the remarkable analogy of the ammonia salts and the salts of the alka- loids, met by no means with general approbation when first started ; but it has been retained and carried out by Berzelius, and it cannot be denied that since that period, science has acquired a great number of facts which powerfully support his opinion. Organic Chemistry has been enriched by a long series of artificial bases, which is almost daily being increased. ‘These bases are formed in a variety of processes, many of which products we see generated by the direct action of ammonia on other compounds. Numerous ex- amples are given, and Dr. Hofmann remarks :—‘‘ From the transi- tion of these indifferent substances into bases under the influence of reagents, giving rise in so many cases to the formation of ammonia, does it not become exceedingly probable that in this case part of the nitrogen has been reconverted into ammonia, which uniting with the remaining elements has impressed its character on the whole compounds ?” To these investigations may be referred Gerhardt’s classification. Mr. G. C. Foster says, “ The reconciling of the theory of types with the theory of compound radicals, which resulted from the discovery of the compound ammonias by Wurtz and Hofmann, and the dis- covery of the mixed ethers (or ethers containing two distinct alcohol radicals) by Williamson, prepared the way for Gerhardt’s classifica- tion of chemical substances, according to the types of double decom- position.” It must not be forgotten that in the memoir published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ already referred to, will be found the first typically written formule. Researches of this high character leading to such important results in the philosophy of a science could not fail to earn for their author substantial acknowledgments. The interest taken by the Royal Society was evinced by two succes- sive grants of large sums of money during the progress, and to * «On the Action of Chloride, Bromide, and Iodide of Cyanogen on Aniline,’ ‘ Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society,’ vol. i., p. 285. + ‘British Association Report: 29th Meeting at Aberdeen, 1859,’ p.1. This report is deserving of careful study. 74 Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. [Jan., meet some of the expenses, of this inquiry. The Royal Society also awarded to Dr. Hofmann their Royal Medal on the completion of the investigation. In rapid succession the fortunate experimenter became a Correspondent of the Institnte of France (which conferred upon him moreover the great prize, value 5,000 francs), and of nearly all the academies and learned societies of Europe and America. During the period between Dr. Hofmann’s becoming Professor of Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines and his return to his native country, numerous researches were carried forward and records of them published; amongst others may be especially named his ‘Memours on the Phosphorous Bases and the Polyam- monias.’* This is a bald outline of the treasures added by Dr. Hofmann to the rich harvest of discoveries which of late years have rewarded the exertions of chemists. With reference to their general effect on the progress of the science, we cannot avoid recognizing, as one of the most valuable amongst its acquisitions, the development of the theory of polyatomic compounds. The names of other great chemists are of course associated with the advances which have been made; and in confining our notice to the labours of Dr. Hof- mann, it must not be supposed that they have been forgotten. We have been writing, not a history of modern chemistry, but a concise statement of the part which one man has taken in this fertile field of discovery. Beyond the inquiries to which we have referred, we find Dr, Hofmann engaged in many others of a strictly practical nature.t As a juror Dr. Hofmann heartily co-operated in the three Inter- national Exhibitions, and the reports which he furnished are gene- rally valued. It is not easy to conceive anything more complete, * The Memoirs which have appeared since this period in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ are :—- “ Researches on the Action of Sulphuric Acid upon the Amides and Nitrites, together with Remarks upon the Conjugate Sulpho-Acids,” June 12,1856. In this paper Mr. George Buckton is associated with Dr. Hofmann. “ Researches on a New Class of Alcohols,” June 18, 1857. Vol. exlvii., p. 555. In this Dr. Hofmann is associated with A. Cahours. “Researches on the Phosphorus Bases,’ June 18, 1857. Vol. exlvii.. p. 575. “ Contributions to the History of the Phosphorus Bases.” First Memoir. Ditto. ditto. “Theory of Diatomic Bases—Diphosphonium Compounds. Ditto ditto. “ Phosphammonium and Phospharsonium et Diarsonium and;Third Memoir. Arsammonium Compounds,” June 22,1860. Vol. cl., p. 409 et seq. + Hofmann and Graham—“ Report on the Alleged Adulteration of Pale Ale by Strychnine.”’ Hofmann, Graham, and Redwood—* Report upon ‘ Original Gravities. Hofmann, Graham, and Miller—‘‘ Chemical Report on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis.” Hofmann and Witt—* Report on the Metropolitan Sewage Question.” »} Second Memoir. > 99 1866. | Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. 75 as it respects the state of chemistry in 1862, than the Chemical Report on the Exhibition of that year. The “ Introduction to Modern Chemistry ” which Dr. Hofmann has given us, on the eve of his departure from this country, is another choice example of the completeness of all his works. It is a clear and concise explanation of the most recent views enter- tained by modern chemists, and of the experimental proofs by which they are supported. It should be in the hands of every young student of the science. Dr. Hofmann, after having repeatedly declined invitations to return to his native land, has at last yielded. The Prussian Government conceived the idea of erecting in the University of Bonn,—which is the scientific centre of the Western Provinces of the kingdom,—a Chemical Institution ona grand scale, intended, not only to supply the wants of the University, but calculated also to advance the rapid growth of the industrial interests of the sur- rounding provinces of Rhineland and Westphalia, which have, not inappropriately, been called the Lancashire of Germany. The invitation to organize the new institution, for which most ample funds have been provided by the Chambers, coming as it did from the university in which so many years ago he had commenced his professional career, proved irresistible to Dr. Hofmann. In 1863 he undertook an extensive journey through nearly all the European Universities in which chemistry is prominently taught, for the pur- pose of collecting the needful preliminary information. The data thus gathered he embodied into an elaborate plan, going into all the numerous mechanical details involved in the prosecution of modern chemistry. This plan was adopted by the Prussian Goyern- ment, and the magnificent buildings, exclusively intended for the advancement of chemical knowledge, and which promise to become a model laboratory, are now rapidly approaching completion. While things were thus moving forward in the Rhineland Uni- versity, an event occurred which was to influence and deeply to modify all the plans which Dr. Hofmann had formed with regard to Bonn. At the end of 1863 the celebrated Mitscherlich died at Berlin. Early in 1864 the Senate of the University of Berlin elected Dr. Hofmann to become his successor. The Prussian Government sanctioned this election, and charged Dr. Hofmann with the organization in Berlin—as the scientific centre of the Eastern provinces—of a laboratory similar to that of Bonn, leaving him the option after the completion of the two Institutions of taking up his abode at either one or the other of these cities. In the summer of this year, Dr. Hofmann left London for Berlin. On the 28th of April a farewell banquet was given to him by “a number of gentlemen who had worked with Dr. Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry,” and every one, from the Comte 76 Hofmann and Modern Chemistry. | Jan., de Paris to the youngest chemist present, expressed their sorrow at the departure of their master, and their hopes that his absence from the land of his adoption would not be a prolonged one. This notice of one of the men foremost in advocating those new doctrines which distinguish Modern Chemistry, and which are now acquiring an ascendency throughout Europe, cannot be more appropriately concluded than by borrowing a few thoughts from the last lecture delivered at the Royal Institution by Dr. Hofmann. The intricate formule of the modern chemists, and the bound- less variety of the phenomena which they illustrate, were not long since like an impassable labyrinth; but Dr. Hofmann has given us a clue, and a sense of mastery and power succeeds in our minds, to the sort of despair with which we first contemplated this tedious category. By the aid of a few general principles, however, we are now able to unravel the complexities of these formule, to marshal the compounds which they represent, in an orderly series, to multiply their numbers at will, and in a great measure to forecast their nature ere we have called them into existence. The great movement of Modern Chemistry is “a movement as of light spreading itself over a waste of obscurity, as of a law diffusing order throughout a wilderness of confusion, and there is surely in its contemplation something of the pleasure which attends the spectacle of a beautiful daybreak, something of the grandeur belonging to a world created out of chaos.” 1866. | Fe CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE. I. AGRICULTURE. Tue whole agricultural interest of the quarter has centred in the progress of the cattle plague, to which reference is made in another page. We add to the details there given that the number of the new cases reported to the Veterinary Department of the Privy Council, which was only a few hundreds weekly in the early part of autumn, reached 2,600 in the week ending November 18th, 3,600 in the week ending November 25th, 3,800 in the week ending Decem- ber 2nd, and upwards of 5,000 in the week ending December 9th. We do not know how local fears may have exaggerated in the instances out of which these aggregates arise; but any discount which such a consideration as this might justify is more than balanced by the large number of cases in which losses by the plague are concealed, in order to escape the exercise of the stringent powers which have been vested in imspectors. No treatment, allopathic, hydropathic, or homceopathic, has been hitherto successful. The proportion of recoveries has not been influenced by any cause which has yet been put in operation, though no doubt good nursing must help the patient through when the vital energy would otherwise be barely overcome. In connection with the cattle disease and the London cow- houses, where it first appeared, a paper on London Milk has been read by Mr. Morton before the Society of Arts, in which he declares that, coming to the examination of the subject with the prejudices of a countryman that London cowhouses are an abomination, that Londoners are ill fed with milk, and that the right way to supply a town with milk is to bring it in from the country,—he has come round to the conclusion that London cowhouses need not be a nuisance, that London is better fed with milk than the average of south country villages, and that the right way to ensure a supply of good milk to any considerable body of people is to have it produced as near as may be to their own doors. The analyses made by Dr. Voelcker, for the purpose of this paper, prove that the milk consumed in London is very much diluted, but they also prove that water is the only diluent employed, and that all the stories about chalk and “brains” and mucilage of various kinds are fiction. The difficulty connected with a supply of milk to London from the country arises out of the extreme facility with which milk sours and becomes offensive in hot weather. The ordinary milk-can carried on an ordinary railway truck is not to be depended on for 78 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., delivering its contents sweet at the end of a journey of sixty miles in summer time. And although it appears at first as if it were wiser to carry fifteen or twenty pounds of milk from the farm to the town than to carry the hundredweight of food out of which it is made as far to a cowhouse in the town, yet dealers in milk will give so much more for the townshed milk than for the country milk, that there is a great profit and advantage to all concerned in carrying the larger weight, though it-be of course at a greater cost. II. ASTRONOMY. Tur President of the Astronomical Society, Warren De la Rue, F.RS., has communicated some observations of the partial eclipse of the moon, of October 4, 1865. On the occasion of a former partial eclipse—viz. that of February 27th, 1858—several photographs were obtained of the moon, and he was led to suspect the existence of an anti-actinic influence extending beyond the limits assignable to the penumbra. To ascertain whether any such influence really exists was the principal object on the present occasion. Operations were, therefore, commenced some little time previous to the first contact of the penumbra; and the night at Cranford being very bright, and the atmosphere tolerably steady, photographs of the moon were obtained with an exposure of from one to three seconds, using for that purpose Steinheil’s silvered glass mirror of 13 inches aperture and 10 feet local length; the action of which however was not more rapid than that of the speculum-metal mirrors (of the same dimensions and focal length), which had been hitherto chiefly used in celestial photography. After contact, it was found that an instantaneous exposure sufficed to give a faint impression of that portion of the lunar disk not obscured by the umbra, or penumbra, an exposure of a whole minute failed to bring out the portion of the lunar surface covered by the umbra, although its details were plainly perceptible in the telescope. The obscured portion of the moon was, moreover, perfectly visible without optical aid. ‘To the naked eye, and even in the finder, the dark limb of the moon appeared to be bounded by a silvery thread of light ; but this illusion disappeared under powers of 90 and 140, both in the reflector and in 4 1-8th inch Dallmeyer. The umbra towards the moon’s limb had a coppery glow, while that towards the penumbra was of an ashy grey colour. The penumbra could be much better traced when the image was projected on a screen placed in the focus of the reflector than when viewed directly through the eye-piece ; and probably—though this experiment was not tried—the projection of an enlarged image of the penumbra by 1866.] rr. Astronomy. 79 means of the eye-piece would still further have enhanced the dis- tinctness of view. As the penumbra gradually encroached on the disk, it was remarked that the various details of the lunar surface came out much more distinctly than when seen under the full and direct illumination of the sun; and but for the intention to devote the telescope for the time being solely to photography, sume note- worthy observations could have been made respecting the con- figuration and appearance of lunar objects under the peculiar cir- cumstances of an eclipse. Seventeen photographs were procured between 7h. and 11h. 5m., this interval of time commencing nearly an hour and a half previous to the first contact of the penumbra, and concluding 25 minutes after the greatest phase. At the discon- tinuance of the observations the night was still bright. The photographs of February, 1858, stand in the stereoscopic relation to those of October, 1865—<. e. they combine in the stereo- scope and produce good stereoscopic pictures of a lunar eclipse. Also, to our eyes, two pictures taken at different epochs of the late eclipse, when viewed in the stereoscope, while they necessarily show the moon as a flat disk, do yet present the shadow as raised or pro- truded, giving in fact the impression of a flat picture of the moon covered by a glass shade. ‘This impression, however, is not con- veyed to all observers. Below we give a brief account of the most noteworthy photo- graphs which Mr. De la Rue succeeded in taking during the con- tinuance of the eclipse. Picture No. 5, taken at 8h. 19m. 7s. (exposure one second), shows no appearance of the penumbra. The first contact of the real penumbra occurred, according to the ‘ Nautical Almanack,’ at 8h. 25m. 54s.; and he had anticipated the possibility of being able to trace some anti-actinic effects beyond its limits; but the ex- pectation was not realized. Picture No. 6, 8h. 29m. (exposure two seconds), penumbra just traceable ; the first contact of the moon with the penumbra oc- curred about three minutes before the epoch of this picture. Picture No. 9, 9h. 21m. 29s. (exposure two seconds). The elliptical projection of the cone of the penumbra well marked, com- mencing close to the south pole, and traceable over Malapert, Cahous, Short, Moretus, Gruemberger, over the centre of Clavius, skirting Longomontanus, over Hainzel, covering Vitello, on the border of Mare Humorum, over Vieta and Byrgius, and passing off at the 20th parallel of south latitude on the western limb. No part of the umbra was then on the moon’s disk, and the whole cen- tour of the moon is visible on the photograph. Picture No. 10, 9h. 38m. 58s., about 46 seconds after the first contact of the umbra (exposure three seconds), the moon’s surface is invisible in the photograph toa small extent beyond the boundary 80 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., of the umbra, which gradually softened off into the penumbra. The truncation of thecones of the umbra and penumbra is seen in per- spective as well-marked ellipses. Picture No. 11, 10h. 41m. 17s. (exposure three seconds), a little later than the middle of the eclipse, which occurred 1m. 42s. earlier. The obscuration of the umbra and penumbra extends in a curved line, commencing in their visible effects on the photograph at the parallel of 15° south latitude on the western limb, passing over Langrenus, Goelenius, Guttemburg, Capella, Theophilus, Kant, Dollond, ‘Albategnius, Ptolemeus, Parry, Bonpland, Euclides, above Flamsteed, and passing over the southern limb of Grimaldi, above the parallel of 10° of south latitude. Picture No. 16, 12h. 54m. 12s., was exposed exactly one minute, ending at the above-named time; the unobscured portion of the moon was completely solarized, and the details in conse- quence lost; yet not the shghtest trace of any part of the lunar disk was depicted within the limits of the umbra. The next picture was instantaneous, the expostire certainly being less than a quarter of a second, yet the whole of the unobscured surface is clearly though faintly depicted. The Astronomer Royal has published a long paper on the value of the moon’s semi-diameter as obtained by the investigations of Hugh Breen, Esq., from occultations observed at Cambridge and Greenwich. A proposal having been made by Mr. Breen to extend the re- duction of the occultations observed at Greenwich, it was suggested by Professor Airy that the occultations, in their reduced form, as exhibited in the ‘Greenwich Observations,’ might be used for the determination of the semi-diameter of the unilluminated moon. Mr. Breen accepted this suggestion, and the Admiralty sanctioned the undertaking and supplied the necessary funds. Mr. Breen detet- mined on applying his computations to the occultations observed at the Cambridge Observatory during the Astronomer Royal’s presi- dency over that Institution, ending with 1835, and to those ob- served at the Greenwich Observatory from 1836 to 1860. Mr. Breen originally included in his computations the oc- cultations of every class. But viewing the causes of inaccuracy of various kinds attending the occultations of planets—the un- certainty of the planet’s place for the day, the uncertainty of the planet’s semi-diameter, the difficulty of correction for phase and the general rudeness of the observation—it was thought best to strike out the planets and to confine the investigations to stars. The results were divided into four classes :— I. Disappearances of Stars at the Dark Limb; II. Disappear- ances at the Bright Limb; III. Reappearances at the Dark Limb; IV. Reappearances at the Bright Limb. ‘The following are the 1866. | Astronomy. 81 means of results for Occultation-correction for the Final Telescopic Semi-diameter in the four classes :— I. Disappearances of Stars at the Dark Limb: Mean from 130 occultations . . . .—1'"98 No observations excluded. II. Disappeara es of Stars at the Bright Limb: Mean from 51 vecultations . . . .—0'"65 Four observations excluded. ITI. Reappearances of Stars at the Dark Limb: Mean from 64 occultations . . . .—2'"32 Ten observations excluded. IV. Reappearancés of Stars at the Bright Limb: Mean from 50 occultations . . . .+1'°38 Eleven observations excluded. From the nature of the observations, the first and third of these means are very far superior to the second and fourth, and the first is greatly preferable to the third. We cannot be sensibly im error in saying that the moon’s Occultation Semi-diameter is less than the moon’s Telescopic Semi-diameter by 2'°0. Mr. De la Rue, from his photographs taken during the eclipse of 1860, obtained the following corrections to the Telescopic Semi- diameter :— By the differences between observed and tabular dis- tances of centres, deduced from the measure- ments of peripheries, and of the measures of cusps of all the photographs. . . . . .—2'1 By the times of first and last contact, deduced from the measurements of the distances of the peri- pheries in the photographs taken near these Ct, hs a SWS i) SDE ICG. WAL ADRES By the times of first and last contact, deduced from the measurements of the distances of the peri- pheries and of the cusps in the photographs taken near theseepochs. . . . . . .-1'"0 Mr. T. Fletcher, of the Tarnbank Observatory, has drawn the attention of those astronomers who are in possession of large tele- scopes, to the present condition of that most remarkable star ¢ Her- eulis. With his large refractor of 94 inches aperture and a power of 1,000 it is absolutely single. A few years ago, he had no diffi- culty in measuring it both in position and distance with a telescope of 4 in. aperture only. As the companion star is undoubtedly close upon its perihelion, the earliest possible observation of its reappearance will be of great value in the determination of its orbital element. Mr. Dawes states that ast year he found the star quite single. VOL. III. @ 82 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., III. BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. Mr. Guuiver continues his researches among raphides, and brings out some curious results. In Vitacee he finds them universally present, while in Lindley’s Berberal alliance, the allied orders placed round Vitaceze are apparently universally devoid of them. Thus also Leea, placed by Lindley under Vitacese, contrary to the opinion of Von Martius and others, contains raphides like other Vitaceze, which order appears to be as truly a raphis-bearing one as Balsaminacee, Onagraceew, &c., are; and thus the importance of these minute organs becomes apparent. In a later contribution to the subject, he has continued his remarks, and finds that in every genus of Vitaceze examined there were traces of raphides, except in Bersama and Natalia, in which raphides are replaced by crystal prisms having four equal faces, their ends sloping off, either from angle to angle or from face to face. The same interchange occurs also in Roxburghiaces (Dictyogenee). The Araliceze abound in spheraphides but are destitute of raphides, while Pandanacee, like the rest of Lindley’s Aral alliance, abound in raphides. In the “ Comptes Rendus’ M. Boussingault describes some expe- riments upon the functions of the leaves of plants, the results of which appear to be:—I1st. That leaves exposed to the sunlight do. not decompose pure carbonic acid, or if they do, they do it with extreme slowness; 2nd. Under the same circumstances in a mixture of carbonic acid and atmospheric air they decompose the acid rapidly. The atmospheric air appears to have no active part in this phenomenon. 3rd. Leaves exposed to the sun rapidly decom- pose carbonic acid, when mixed either with nitrogen or with hydro- gen. Although the decomposition of the acid is a phenomenon of dissociation, M. Boussingault traces a pretty close analogy between it and the slow combustion of phosphorus. Mr. Roland Trimen gives in the ‘ Linnean Journal’ an account of the structure of Bonatea speciosa, a Cape orchid, from which it appears to be eminently adapted to insect fertilization, so that pro- bably the length of the nectary and the amount of nectar it contains are so contrived as to necessitate the hungry visitant’s probing even its head into the rostellum cup in order to obtain the sweet fluid, in which case the attachment of one or both of the viscid disks to some portion of the underside of the head or proboscis seems inevitable. The most remarkable point in the structure of this orchid is undoubtedly the erect process of the labellum. Its sole use and object are unmistakable, and its abrupt prominence seems 80 foreign to the general character of the labellum and petals, that it would be difficult to find, even in the orchidean order, a more striking instance of special modification. With the exception of 1866. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 83 this local development of the labellum, no part of the perianth appears to conduce directly to the fertilization of the flower, but the extraordinary modification of the columnar organs effects what is required. The lateral petals, which in so many South African Ophrez are of the utmost importance, are of no direct service in Bonatea. The prominent and magnificent group of cohering sepals and petals appears to serve the purposes of protecting and supporting the stigmatic processes, and of affording a convenient landing place for insects. Possibly, too, its singular form may give it some attractive influence. It may be added that Mr. Darwin especially directed Mr. Trimen’s attention to this species, and re- quested him to investigate its structure, but Mr. Trimen’s observations have hitherto only been made upon cultivated specimens, and the evidence is, therefore, not quite perfect. Dimorphism, to which attention has so often been directed of late, has been found by Dr. Dickie to occur in Eriophorum angusti- folium. In the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, he observed in May that there were obviously two forms of flower, one with slender spikes, having only stigmas visible; the other, with shorter and blunter spikes, with very prominent anthers and short stigmas. In the first, on dissection it was found that in each flower there were three stamens in a rudimentary condition, which remained so till the end of the month, when there was still no pollen in them; while in the second form the anthers were large and pro- minent, yielding copious pollen ; the stigmas were shorter than the stamens, but were apparently well formed, although shrivelled ; they had evidently exercised their special function, and this at the time when the stigmas of the other form were still fresh and their tissues full of fluid. In both forms the seeds apparently reached their full ripeness, and on dissection there was no apparent difference, and about forty seeds of each form were sown under precisely the same conditions. Almost every seed of them from plants with large anthers and short stigmas sprang up and con- tinued to grow; while not more than five or six of the seeds from the other form showed any sign of life. The experiment was repeated with the same result. Dr. Dickie adds that having examined some duplicates of this species from the shores of Davis’s Straits, he finds that they also have the two forms. The Imperial Society of Natural Sciences at Cherbourg have proposed a prize question for the year 1868: ‘ Sea-wrack, consi- dered with reference to Agriculture and Industry.” The prize will be a Gold Medal of the value of 500 francs. M. Lestiboudois continues his investigations upon the fluids of plants, in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ his latest being with reference to the existence of solid and liquid matters in the trachex, which are G 2 84 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., usually supposed to be reservoirs of air. These liquids, however, being perfectly clear, may be ordinarily invisible; moreover, when separated from the plant, air would readily find its way into them. He maintains that there is no proof that trachez are exclusively tubes for the conduction of gases. In their youngest condition the trachean vessels are found to be full of fluid, like the other elementary organs, though this fluid appears to be lost at a more advanced stage. He believes, however, that they are still tra- versed by denser liquids, and his observations go to prove that these liquids may become so much thickened as ultimately to fill up the cavity and obstruct the circulation. ‘Thus, in the stem of the Rotang he found that the great vessel occupying the centre of most of the bundles was filled with a solid white material, with cylindrical masses sometimes continued, sometimes broken up, and which broke up into granules when immersed in water, the granules having a very active movement, although the vascular tissue had long been dried up. In a vine stem also, cut into short pieces, a transparent matter of the consistence of gum was found to exude in abundance from the cut surfaces in a very short time. Smaller sections being cut, he found the next day that in the mean time gummy filaments had protruded from the large vessels, from which he infers that the trachex, even in old plants, contain matters of considerable density as well as the aériform substances which are usually considered to Le their sole contents. M. Caspary describes an organ in plants which he terms the protective sheath, consisting of a layer of very closely approximated cells placed in a single series in thickness. which protects the vascular system of the stem, roots, and leaves.. In some cases, however (as in Berberis), this layer is ruptured during its growth, and consequently does not serve to protect the organs which it envelopes. He observes certain folds upon the cell walls of the protective sheath of Ficaria ranunculoides, &., which at first appeared to be pores, but when the cells of the protective sheath become thickened these folds gradually disappear, a change which he attributes to the elongation of the walls of the cells. This protective sheath has been regarded by M. Karsten as a lignified residue of the layer of cambium, which has produced the other parts of the stem ; but M. Caspary controverts this, and also main- tains that the entire terminal bud is formed of cambium, and already contains the mother-cells of all other kinds of tissue which will subsequently form the various parts of the stem, against the opinion which derives all the parts of the stem from a single layer of cambium existing in the terminal bud. (For an abstract of his paper, see ‘Annals Nat. Hist.’) Tn the ‘Comptes Rendus’ M. Fournier makes some observations 1866. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology: 85 upon the fruit of the Cruciferee, which tend to throw additional light upon its construction, and show that it is to be regarded as formed of two carpels alternate with the placentas, and of two inter- valvar placentz, from which the septum issues on each side, and by a double origin. M. Naudin, “the most distinguished experimental fertilizer on the continent,” has sent to the ‘Natural History Review’ a paper in which, after remarking upon the well-and-long-known facts of the variability of cultivated plants, and their tendency to give rise to secondary or derivative forms, he expresses his opinion that this phenomenon is not limited to cultivated species, but considers it infinitely more probable that it has taken place in nature on a much wider scale than im the narrow domain of our industry ; and that the best characterized species are so many secondary forms, relatively to some more ancient type which actually comprised them all, as they themselves comprise all the varieties to which they give birth under our eyes, when we submit them to cultivation. He then dwells upon the fact that, variable as are vegetable forms, they have a strong analogy with each other, which is explicable upon the system of common origin and of the evolution of forms. There are seven or eight hundred kinds of Solanum disseminated over an immense extent of country in the Old and New Worlds; all are specifically distinct, but all resemble each other in a certain sum of common characters, and the view that this relationship is of derivative origin, he says he expressed in 1852, when he said (Revue Horticole) :—“ We do not believe that nature proceeded in the formation of species, in any other manner than we ourselves proceed to form varieties.” He now states his belief in the unity of origin and in the derivation of living beings from the same branch, and by consequence in a single focus of creation, whence the stocks of these great branches have been elaborated from a common nucleus: and that the multipled forms, durmg the process of multiplication in the course of ages, have always followed divergent paths, and that in consequence it is contrary to nature to suppose that species can be changed the one into the other, or that two species can be melted into one by hybridization. M. Naudin’s opinions will be received with respect, but inasmuch as he merely indicates his belief in derivation of species without assigning any physical cause, they can only be regarded as confirmatory of the Darwinian theory, and not im any manner as independently originating it. A remarkable circumstance in the history of Lichens has been brought before the Natural History Society of Dublin by Admiral Jones. It is the discovery of spiral vessels in the thalles of Evernia prunastri. Dr. Moore saw them and expressed his belief that there was no doubt of the fact. Spiral vessels had been found in certain 86 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., fungi, and analogy would lead one to suppose they might possibly be met with in lichens. Mr. Archer considered the vessels in question as neither annular nor scalariform, but truly spiral, and where through the brown cellular mass he had been able to trace the ends of the fibres, he found that they gradually tapered, and in one instance one had been broken off by pressure and the fibre uncoiled. There was a peculiarity about these vascular bundles, vi. that certain of them, running up and down parallel with the other vessels of the bundle, upon meeting did not overlap, but suddenly diverged at right angles from the rest, and were prolonged a direction vertical to them, the whole bundle having a T-like orm. Botanical Science has sustained lately two great losses in the deaths of Sir W. J. Hooker and Dr. Lindley. The former, as Director of Kew Gardens, has long been known as a scientific botanist of eminence, and the father of a greater botanist, Dr. J. D. Hooker, who succeeds him. Dr. Lindley long filled the chair of Botany at University College, and but recently retired from that position, to be succeeded by Mr. Oliver. Dr. Lindley’s works upon his favourite science are justly celebrated—his ‘ Vegetable Kingdom’ being the most comprehensive condensed account of the subject in our language. Few English botanists equalled Dr. Lindley in the acuteness of his scientific views and the perspicuity of his writings. TV. CHEMISTRY. (Including the Proceedings of the Chemical Society.) TuerzE is but little of general and popular interest to chronicle this quarter in the progress of a science which nevertheless goes on developing itself at a rate unparalleled im the history of any other branch of knowledge. A Registrar-General of Chemistry might present us with a list of the new compounds born perhaps daily in the laboratories of the numerous chemists who are devoting them- selves to the science ; but our limits will not allow us to assume the functions of such an official, and we must content ourselves with presenting our readers with a short account of those dis- coveries which have a general and practical interest rather than those, however valuable, which have a purely scientific bearing. Following the usual order, and adopting the now almost dis- carded distinction between organic and inorganic chemistry, we may first refer to the discoveries in the latter branch. And first among these we must mention the announcement made by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, at the meeting of the British Association, of the dis- covery, by Lossen, of a series of bodies intermediate between nitric 1866. | Chemistry. 87 acid and ammonia. In the reaction of nitric acid upon certain metals it is well known that ammonia is formed; Lossen, how- ever, has shown that the ammonia is only the final product of the reaction, and that a whole series of intermediate bodies existed between the nitric acid and the last product of its re- duction. One of these bodies Lossen has succeeded in isolating, and has found it to have the formula H,NO. It may, therefore, be regarded as protoxide of ammonia, or, more scientifically, as ammonia in which one atom of hydrogen is displaced by the residue of water HO, hydroxyl, as it has been called. Viewed in the latter light, the new body may be termed hydroaylamine. Like ammonia it combines with acids, and yields a series of magnificent and easily crystallizable salts. As Dr. Hofmann remarked, it is interesting to see the simplest (?) of reactions familiar to every chemist still yielding a harvest of such splendid results. Since the above was written we have seen* an abstract of the memoir on the subject presented to the Berlin Academy by Dr. Lossen. In this we find the method of preparing hydrochlorate of hydroxylamine. Five parts of nitric ether, and 12 parts of tin are added to 50 parts of hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1-124. The mix- ture soon becomes hot, and hydrogen is evolved. When the re- action has terminated, the tm is removed from the solution _ by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, and the filtered liquor is evapo- rated. Sal-ammoniac first crystallizes out, the hydrochlorate of hydroxylamine being extremely soluble in water. The two bodies may be completely separated by dissolving both in absolute alcohol, and precipitating the sal-ammoniac with chloride of platinum, with which the hydrochlorate of hydroxylamine does not combine. We may here mention some experiments of Dr. Wetherill on ammonium amalgam,t which tend to disprove the existence of the compound metal NH,. Referring the reader to the paper indi- cated below, we need only state that the author’s experiments have led him to the conclusion that the so-called amalgam is not an alloy of mercury and ammonium, but merely a mass of mercury distended by bubbles of ammoniacal gas. A very interesting experiment devised by Kraut is described in the ‘ Annalen des Chemie und Pharmacie’ for October, and will be found in the ‘Chemical News.’{ The author hangs a platinum spiral in an open wide-mouthed flask containing so much strong ammonia, that the liquid nearly reaches to the end of the spiral. Having made the spiral and the ammonia hot, he passes a stream of oxygen through the liquid. The active decomposition of the ammonia, which now takes place, soon brings the platinum spiral * «Chem. Central Blatt,’ No. 61, 1865, p. 970. + ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xii., p. 207. $ Vol. xii. p. 231. 88 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., to a bright red heat, and the mixture of gases is exploded. The explosion reduces the temperature of the spiral for a moment, but the action proceeding, the wire is again made red hot, and another explosion is produced; and so on as long as the experimenter wishes. By introducing a very rapid stream of oxygen near the level of the ammonia, and close to the spiral, a continuous com- bustion may be kept up, producing the long-drawn sound which is heard when a jet of hydrogen is burned in a vessel of oxygen. In the first stage of this reaction before the ammonia is made hot, Kraut shows that the ammoniacal vapours are oxidized, and nitrous acid produced, which combines with undecomposed ammonia to form the nitrite. Very recently* Wohler has stated that nitrous acid is also formed when ammonia is oxidized by means of permanganate of potash. The decolorized solution filtered from the precipitated hydrated peroxide of manganese and evaporated, yields a mixture of carbonate and nitrite of potash, the latter shown by the evolution of red va- pours on the addition of an acid. Mitscherlich and Diacon have discovered simultaneously a means of detecting chlorine, bromine, and iodine in the presence of each other, by the aid of the spectroscope. Their observations will be found described in a subsequent place; but we may state here that the first-named author announces that his experiments have led him to the conclusion that nearly all the metalloids are compound bodies. At present, however, he brings no observations in support of the statement. | In the department of purely organic chemistry, the synthetical researches of Messrs. Frankland and Duppa on Ethers, deserve the first mention. In their last communication to the Royal Society, these gentlemen described the action of sodium and iodide of ethyl on acetic ether, and explained the formation of ethylic diacetone carbonate, and ethylic acetone carbonate, colourless transparent fragrant liquids, which treated with caustic baryta yield—the first, diethylated acetone; the second, ethylated acetone. The former of these has a powerful odour of camphor ; the latter possesses a powerful and agreeable smell, in which the odour of camphor is slightly perceptible. We look on these bodies as objects of great interest, and it is perhaps among such that a liquid will one day be discovered possessing all the advantages, but free from the dangers of chloroform. In the same paper the authors describe the action of sodium and iodide of methyl upon acetic ether, by which a series of bodies completely homologous with the above is obtained. * © Annalin des Chemie und Pharmacie,’ November, 1865, p. 296. 1866. | Chemistry. 89 M. Campisi has announced* the formation of a new organo- metallic body, a compound of mercury with benzyl H (€, H,),. The author has not yet published the process by which it is prepared. It must suffice to mention the discovery by MM. Friedel and Crafts of a new alcohol, in which a part of the carbon is replaced by silicium,} a discovery which adds another illustration of the re- semblances in the chemical behaviour of carbon and silicium. Among the few practical improvements in manufacturing che- mistry published we find a ready method of converting gallic into pyrogallic acid. By the usual process, that of sublimation, it is well known that only from 30 to 40 per cent. of the gallic becomes changed into pyrogallic acid, the remainder being lost in the empy- reumatic matters generated. MM. V. De Luynes and Esperandieu therefore heat the gallic acid with water under pressure up to 210° C. for about an hour-and-a-half, and so obtain a solution con- taming exactly the theoretical amount of pyro-acid, which ought to be yielded by the amount of gallic acid employed. M. Pelouze has published a method of making a glass which is said to exceed in beauty Venetian aventurine. He fuses together 250 parts of sand, 100 parts of carbonate of soda, 50 parts of car- bonate of lime, and 40 parts of bichromate of potash. The result- ing glass contains from 6 to 7 per cent. of chromium, about one- half of which is combined with the glass, communicating a magnifi- cent greenish yellow colour, while the other is distributed through the mass in the form of extremely brilliant crystalline scales. The new glass, it should be said, is exceedingly hard. PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY. At the opening of the meeting of the current season, Professor Church gave an account of his chemical researches on some Cornish minerals. Among these he found three which had not been previ- ously described :—1, a hydrated phosphate of cerium ; 2, a hydrated phosphate of calcium and aluminium; and 38, a hydrated arseniate of copper and lead. The last of these the author proposes to call Bayldonite. For the first the name Churchite has been proposed by Mr. Greville Wiliams, who by optical tests discovered the pre- sence of didymium in the same mineral. At the same meeting a paper “On Caprylic and Oenanthylic Alcohols,” by Mr. E. T. Chapman, and one “On the Absorption of Vapours by Charcoal,” by Mr. Hunter, were read. The experi- ments of the latter author confirm those of Dr. Stenhouse, who found that the denser forms of vegetable charcoal possessed the greatest absorptive power. Mr. Hunter stated that the charcoal * «Comptes Rendus,’ Nov. 13, 1865. + ‘Comptes Rendus,’ Nov. 6, 1865. 90 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., prepared from cocoa-nut shell condensed the largest amount of the various vapours he experimented with. These included the vapours of water, bisulphide of carbon, common alcohol, methylic and amylic alcohols, benzol, ether, and chloroform, and of these the vapour of methylic alcohol was most freely absorbed. It was re- marked that the absorption of vapours by charcoal is always termi- nated in a much shorter time than in the case of permanent gases. At the next meeting (Noy. 16), a paper “‘ On Nitro-compounds, with remarks on Isomerism,” by Dr. Mills, was read. ‘The paper gave an account of the author’s examination of the alpha and beta varieties of nitrobenzoic acid, with especial reference to the action of hydriodic acid upon them, the difference in their behaviour to this agent being considered to indicate a difference between the nitryl radicals they contain. The author also pointed out a differ- ence in the behaviours of naturally formed benzoic acid, that obtamed from gum-benzoin, and the acid procured artificially, the former being nitrated with considerable difficulty, the latter with compara- tive ease. A mononitrated compound is ordinarily obtained with the natural acid, while the artificial yields a dinitro-compound. But on raising the energy of the attack by employing a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, the author obtained with ordinary ben- zoic acid a dinitro-compound, possessing characters nearly identical with those of the product formed by the action of nitric acid on toluol. In his remarks on isomerism, Dr. Mills controverted the view that isomeric substances are produced by variations in the position of some radical or radicals in the molecule, and expressed an opinion that the energy of the chemical reaction at the moment of the transfer of the nitryl radical conferred upon it specific func- tions, and thus accounted for the differences observed in the isomers. V. ENTOMOLOGY. . (Including the Proceedings of the Entomological Society.) Tre attention of the Entomological Society was, at its October meeting, directed by Dr. Wallace, of Colchester, to the cultivation of the Ailanthus silk-worm (Bombyx cynthia), and to the pro- bability of its becoming a lucrative occupation in this country. Ailanthus glandulosus, the food-plant of the insect, is a tree of remarkably quick growth even on the poorest soil, and the insects require no protection whatever, except from the birds. This year, from 18,000 eggs, he had obtained 5,000 cocoons. He had not yet attempted to wind the silk, but if this could be readily effected, he could see no difficulty to its successful cultivation, as all the necessary operations could be performed by children. “ Ailantine ” 1866. | Entomology. 91 silk is now being introduced largely by the French merchants direct from China, notwithstanding that its culture is rapidly advancing in France. Among the rich collections made by Mr. Wallace in the Malayan archipelago, the Buprestidz, one of the most gorgeously coloured families of beetles, were not the least important. Mr. Wallace’s set having gone to Paris, has been worked out and described by M. Henri Deyrolle in a beautifully illustrated volume. ‘The number of species in the collection amounted to 355. Some years ago they were considered a numerous family, “200 species being known.” By the way, we may mention that Australia has fur- nished, it is calculated, about 600 species to our cabinets, nearly all differing generically from those of the Malayan region. To the list of sects serving as food for man we must now add the “Kungo,” mentioned by Dr. Livingstone and his brother in their new work on the Zambesi. The kungo is a “minute midge” filling the air in countless millions, and “ looking like smoke rising from miles of burning grass.” ‘These flies are gathered at night by the natives, who boil them into cakes, “about an inch thick and as large as the blue bonnet of a Scotch ploughman ;” they “tasted not unlike cayiare, or salted locusts.” The Rev. G. T. Browne, who has recently published a very interesting work on the ice-caves of Switzerland, lately sent to Mr. McLachlan, who brought them before the Entomological Society, some insects which he had found in one of those caves. Mr. Browne says:—‘ There was no communication with the outer air. These flies were found at a very considerable depth in the earth, down a rock-fissure, a good hundred feet below our pomt of entrance, which was in itself low down in a face of rock. At the bottom of this we came to a chamber, one corner of which was shut up by a curtain of ice—hermetically sealed up. We hewed a hole through it—all was utterly dark—and found only ice withm. . .. The ice-roof of the ice-trough was thickly studded with these flies, standing still, but running swiftly when disturbed. I caught two, lying fiat on my back and lowered by a rope. The other two were found on my dress and beard when I was dragged up again.” These were caddis-flies, a species of Stenophylax (Trichoptera). One was a large Paniscus (Ichneumonide), apparently the only one found. It was suggested that the caddis-flies, or rather their larvee, might have worked their way up from some underground stream, of which there were indications, but this idea will not explain the presence of the ichneumon-fly. The new part of the Linnean Society’s Transactions contains a paper by Mr. Bates, on the Phasmide, a most grotesque family of Orthoptera, some of them twelve inches long, and imitating sticks, patches of lichen, and living and dead leaves. Respecting the 92 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., excessive variability of this family Mr. Bates says, ‘The difficulty which we find in defining generic groups in the family is explicable on the grounds that when there is much of this adaptive modi- fication, all the corporeal parts concerned must have become to a high degree variable.” The division of the family according to the absence of wings, or their presence in one or both sexes, appears to be highly artificial, There are now 540 species described. ENTOMOLOGIOAL SocIETY. At the September meeting, Mr. McLachlan exhibited three insects new to Britain—WSialis fuliginosa, Pictet (Neuroptera), Ste- nophylax infumatus, McLach, and Rhyacophila ferruginea, Hagen? (both Trichoptera). Prof. Westwood gave the Society an account of the Exhibition of Economic Hatomology which was opened in Paris on the 15th of August last. Among the more interesting subjects were a great variety of bee-hives of novel construction, some of which could be sold for 1 fr. 25 ¢., and a large collection of silks contributed by M. Guerin-Méneville. Mr. Stevens exhibited a collection of Coleoptera from Damara-land made by Mr. Andersson. October.—Some insects taken by the Rev. G. F. Browne, in an ice-cave in Switzerland, were exhibited by Mr. McLachlan. Dr. Waliace exhibited the various stages and entered into copious expla- nations respecting the Ailanthus silk-worm (Bombyx cynthia), its life-history and culture. Mr. Scudder (Secretary ofthe Boston (U.S.) Natural History Society) exhibited a gigantic fossil species of Ephemera from the Devonian Locks of New Brunswick. He also gave a short account of Mr. Truvelot’s attempts to cultivate at Philadelphia the Bonbyx Polyphemus, another silk~producing moth. Mr.8. 8. Saunders (Consul-General at the Ionian Islands) exhibited numerous specimens in spirits of the Strepsipterous genera Xenos and Hylecthrus in all their stages. A continuation of Mr. Wilson’s paper on the South Australian Buprestidee was read. A paper was algo read by Mr. McLachlan on “ New, or little known, Genera and Species of Trichoptera from Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and the Malayan Archipelago.” Noyember.—A new moth taken at Manchester was exhibited by Mr. Bond; it has been named Acidalia mancuniata (!) by Dr. Knages. Some remarkable photographs of various minute para- sites by Dr. Maddox were also exhibited. The following Coleoptera new to Britain were exhibited :—Myrmedonia plicata, Er., taken at Bournemouth, Aigialia rufa, Fab., Lithocharis castanea, Grav., and Monotoma 4-foveolata, Aubé. The papers read were: by the President, “On Calamobius and Hippopsis ;” by the Rev. Douglas Timins, “On the Localities of European Lepidoptera ;” by Captain J. Mitchell, “Remarks on Captain Hutton’s paper on the Silk- 1866. | Geography. 93 worm ;” by Mr.G.J. Bowles, “On the Occurrence of Pieris Rape in Canada;” by Mr. W. C. Hewitson, “On a variety of Chrysophanus virgaurex, from Zermatt ;” and by the same author, “ Descriptions of New Hesperide ;” by Mr. J. 8. Baly, “ New Genera and Species of Gallerucide ;” and by Mr. D. Sharp, “A Monograph of the British Species of Agathidiwm.” This paper contains descriptions of three new species. VI. GEOGRAPHY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.) THE geographical intelligence since our last chronicle has been small in amount. An account of Mr. Baker’s discoveries will be found in a paper read before the Geographical Society. It is strange that each of the new discoveries tends to confirm the general accuracy of the old Arabian geographer of the Middle Ages, who made the Nile rise from vast lakes in the centre of Africa. Above 500 sketches in oils and water-colours by Mr. Baines, whose book we noticed before, bring before us vividly the peculiarities of African scenery, especially the part about the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. The latter are remarkable, inasmuch as the river disap- pears through a cleft from which it emerges to descend again. The spray ascends to a height of 1,200 feet, and by its subsequent fall it waters the country round for some distance. The work of Mr. Palgrave on Central Arabia is not the mere narrative of an acute and accurate traveller, it is the experience of a man whose whole heart was in his work, who had had an excellent training, who had read all that was known about the land he visited, and was thoroughly and perfectly acquainted with the language and the religion of the country he visited. Even without the knowledge acquired by traversing a land where still the Arabic of the Koran, a grammatical and nervous language, not the weak colloquial dialect of Egypt and Syria, is spoken, the dissertations on many points of the Mahommedan religion would have become standard references. The doctrine and practices of the Wahabees throw much light on the Koran and on the position that the Mahommedan religion may be expected to hold: a subject of much importance at a time when the African missions are being discussed by bodies of men from a purely external point of view, utterly unconnected with religion. Captain Wilson, R.E., has succeeded in obtaining the true level of the Dead Sea. Previous observers had made it 710 feet above, 710 feet below, on a level with, and at all kinds of depths below the Mediterranean. Captain Wilson, from the work of two inde- 94 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., pendent observers with separate instruments, assigns 1,292 feet as the depression on the 12th of March, 1865, a line of drift wood marking 2°5 feet above this as the level at some period of the year, and the testimony of Europeans and Bedouins unite in testifying that the sea sinks at least six feet in the summer. The greatest depression therefore would be 1,298 feet below the Mediterranean, and when the sea is highest the difference would only be 1,289°5 feet. The success of this preparatory expedition to Palestine has led to the formation of a Society which represents opinions of all kinds on religious matters, and a great variety of speculation on scientific points, for the purpose of extending this survey and carrymg out toa far greater extent the systematic exploration of many points of interest in the Holy Land. All the natural sciences are to receive due attention, and archeology is to be assisted, as it has never been previously, by well-arranged and systematic excavations. Certainly in the present day it would be well that we should do somewhat towards illustrating the course of Jewish history, by an appeal to Jewish antiquities and topography, and by a thorough sifting of the geological, zoological, and botanical peculiarities of the Holy Land. What has already been done in Assyria and Egypt will in more than one way be advantageous for this work. . Experience in the great work of exploration has been gained, and that from the very nations who most of all influenced the politics and the art of the Jews. We now see that the politics of the Israelites were influenced at one time by Egypt, at another time by Assyria or Babylonia. If there- fore we find at Nineveh and Thebes undoubted traces of Jewish doings, how much more light may we not expect to have thrown upon explorations in Palestine, by our previous knowledge of Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions, antiquities, and architecture ? As a kind of precursor to this more full and systematic research, Mr. Tristram has published a work which shows the amount of light that one man in a short period can throw upon a subject touched upon, indeed, by hundreds in all ages, but never scientifi- cally exhausted. Mr. Tristram spent about eight months in various parts of the country, and was assisted by a young botanist, a zoologist, one or two sketchers, and a photographer, so that much of his information has a freshness not often observable in travellers over a well-known region. Mr. Tristram spent a con- siderable time in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea, He nearly exhausts this subject. Contrary to our usual notion of this lake Mr. Tristram describes the neighbourhood as very thickly popu- lated both by beasts and birds of great variety; the sea itself, however, is “dead,” inasmuch as it contains not a living thing, fish or mollusk, and even those living in the salt pools near the shore would not survive when placed in the water of the sea. The geological peculiarities of the valley do not escape this traveller. 1866. | Geography. 95 He would throw the voleanic action back far beyond the time of the destruction of the cities of the Plain, of the cause of this latter commotion he finds no explanation. The Russians and Americans are pushing forward the telegraph from California across Behring’s Straits to the mouth of the Amoor. It is possible that the quickest route of communication with the Western continent may be through Siberia. In Switzerland the Aiguille Verte and the Matterhorn have both been surmounted by Mr. Whymper, the Gabelhorn by Mr. Moore, and other untrodden parts by various members of the Alpine Club, which has also done good service in assisting and bringing forward Mr. Ball’s ‘Guides, with descriptions of each col and pass from the actual observation of its various members. Besides the death so much to be lamented of climbers of this Club, we have to record the loss of Mr. Rae, a companion of Dr. Livingstone ; Dr. Daniel also, an African traveller, and a medical and botanical writer. Since 1849 nothing has been heard of the unfortunate Australian traveller Leichhardt, and his fate is somewhat doubtful. One tribe of aborigines industriously promulgated an account of his death. The locality where this is supposed to have taken place has long since been assigned to squatters, but no remains of men or cattle have ever been discovered. It is therefore thought to be possible that some members of the expedition might have been made prisoners by the natives, who, to prevent discovery, spread this report of their death. Once captured, there was but slight hope of ever escaping again, and therefore it is conjectured that some of the party might still be living in servitude. Several persons, travellers or escaped convicts, have lived amongst these tribes for a greater period than that which has elapsed since 1849; consequently the ladies of the colony of Victoria have fitted out an expedition to make a search for the remains of this unfortunate party. They applied to the female crowned heads of Europe to assist them in this romantic if not very hopeful search; the Government of Queensland have sub- scribed 1,0002. towards this object, and the other Governments of Australia have given smaller sums. If the direct object of the expe- dition fail, we cannot but hope that it may add somewhat to our scanty knowledge of the interior of the continent. PROCEEDINGS OF THE RoyaL GEOGRAPHICAL SocIETY. At the last meeting of the Society before the close of the session of 1864-65, a paper was read, describing Lieutenant-Colonel Lewis Pelly’s visit to the Wahabee capital of Central Arabia. This paper has especial interest, since the accounts of Mr. Giffard Palgrave 96 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., first excited curiosity about this country. The visit of Colonel Pelly comes to supplement the jottings that the disguise of a Syriac physician alone permitted to Mr. Palgrave ; in fact, one of the reasons assigned for the journey was that direct observations had not been made, and consequently the position of the cities in the interior had not been accurately determined. Official duty con- veniently coincided with the desire of geographical information, and accordingly with two officers of the Government civil establishment on the Persian Gulf, Dr. Colville and Lieutenant Dawes, Colonel Pelly started for the interior on the 18th of February in last year. From Kowait, in the north-western corner of the Gulf, they travelled on camels over the desert in a direction 8.8. W., journeying from a little before daybreak to sunset, when their tents were pitched with the door towards the north star, in order to enable them to make their astronomical observations durmg the night, when their Arab attendants were asleep. On this occasion Colonel Pelly did not, as formerly from Teheran, wear his uniform as a British officer ; but whilst not concealing his nationality, he never thrust it offensively forward, wearing the ordinary dress of the country. ‘The first part of the journey was over a country slightly undulating, inhabited only by snakes, lizards, and insects. Grass and flowers are common enough in early spring to give a slight tinge of green to the landscape. Seven ridges of hills traversed the line of their march and extended for some distance, for they were again crossed on the return by another route. It took seven days to traverse the sandy ridges and narrow valleys, a gradual ascent all the way to a plain called Ormah, over which some brushwood was sprinkled, and through which small streams flow until they are lost in the arid soil. The plain is bounded by a ridge of hills through a ravine, in which the travellers passed to another upland plain, and this kind of progress continued until they reached Riadh, the capital, in the midst of a country studded with groves of date- palms, fifteen days after their departure from Kowait. The mean of five solar observations gives this place long. 46° 41’ 48” and lat. 24° 38’ 34”. Colonel Pelly had three interviews with the Amir, who is absolute head of his kingdom in both spiritual and temporal matters. The Amir himself placed no obstacle in the way of scien- tific investigation, but his attendants are extremely bigotted and intolerant, The magnificent stud of Nejid horses was opened to the inspection of the visitors, as it had been to Mr. Palgrave. A paper on the Korea was furnished by Captain Allen Young, who described it as an almost untrodden ground for geographers, being only known from the description of Chinese and Japanese writers, but few HKuropeans ever having set foot on its soil. It has been invaded and encroached upon by both those peoples, and 1866. | Geography. 97 the latter still hold a part called Fouchan, immediately opposite the most western of the Japanese islands, Tsu-sima, the prince of which is on friendly terms with the potentate of the Korea, and is looked upon as the only means of approaching this despotic and reserved prince. The French sent an embassy in 1848, but it was wrecked, and the attempt was not renewed, but both they and the Russians are expected to try to gaina footing. The produce of the country consists of fine tobacco, silk, paper, furs, cotton, hemp, rice, wheat, gold, silver, and copper; specimens of which were found in Pekin during its late occupation. Since this paper was read, the official report of the consuls in China has been pub- lished, and from this it appears that by means of the Chinese port of Newchwang, at the head of the Gulf, the Koreans obtain Euro- pean manufactures, especially glass, as a substitute for their oiled paper. The interchange takes place at a fair about ten miles from the Chinese town nearest the frontier, to which place the Koreans bring gold-dust, tiger-skins, and gmsing. The session of 1865-66 began on the 13th November last, with a few general remarks from Sir R. Murchison, the President, intro- ductory to a paper by Mr. Baker, the Patron’s or Queen’s medalist of last year, and the discoverer of the second great lake in east Central Africa, which furnishes the Nile with its main body of water. Mr. Baker, who is described as sufficiently like Captain Speke in appearance to be easily mistaken for his brother by some of the African tribes, stated that he had started in 1861 to discover, if possible, the sources of the Nile. He began by tracing the tributaries that run from Abyssinia. During the following year, he continued to ascend the White Nile, and this part of the country is much as it has been often de- scribed before: desolate, swampy, and unhealthy. At length, having reached Gondokero, much to his surprise, he met Speke and Grant, and relieved their most pressing wants. From the accounts of their success, he was encouraged to press on to try and reach the Ka- ruma Falls that they described to him. This he at last did, and thence he followed the course of the river westward until it ran into the lake, which up to the present time has been called the Luta Nzigé, but which Mr. Baker proposes to call—for what reason we are at a loss to discover—the Albert Nyanza. This lake, which was first beheld from a height of 1,500 feet above its waters, is above 260 miles long, and about 60 broad, and is surrounded in a great part of its circuit by lofty rocks, thus differing very re- markably from most of the African lakes. The principal diffi- culties of Mr. Baker in the latter part of his journey originated not so much from the opposition of the natives, though this was considerable, as from the mutinying of his men, who formed them- VOL. III. H 98 Chronicles of Science. [ Jan., selves into bands of plunderers and joined the slave-traders. The quantity of water which issues from the lake to form the Nile is still a matter for further research. At the next meeting of the Society, held on November 27th, Mr. Richardson read an account of an overland expedition from Rockhampton, Queensland, to Cape York, under the command of Messrs. F. and A. Jardine, which was undertaken for the purpose of discovering a route whereby live stock could be taken by land from the interior Queensland pastures to supply the new settlement of Somerset, at Cape York. The party left Rockhampton on May 14th, 1864, and reached Somerset on March 11th, 1865; they traversed the country watered by the rivers Lynd and Mitchell in October and November, and report very unfavourably of that region ; farther north most of their horses died, after excessive sweating, blindness, and contraction of the stomach, apparently from eating a poisonous herb; but in January, on leaving the west coast of the gulf (lat. 14° §.), and proceeding eastward, they came to a good pastoral country, crossed several creeks, and, on the 24th of that month, discovered a new river, which they named the Jardine, flowing westward into the gulf. Mr. Dalrymple next read a paper, “On the Establishment of a New Settlement, Cardwell, in Rockingham Bay, and on the Discovery of a Route over the Coast-range to the Valley of Lagoons,” in which he described the position and physical features of the new settle- ment and its neighbourhood, and narrated the successful crossing of the coast-range, the discovery of a new river, which he named the Herbert, and the making of a road fit for wheeled vehicles over the pass. This road connects all the interior country, and the banks of the Flinders, Lynd, and Burdekin, with the shores of the Pacific, and is 96 miles in length. A third paper was then read by Mr. J. P. Stow, entitled “A Boat-voyage from Adam Bay, North Australia, to Champion Bay, Western Australia.” The author had been one of a large party of colonists who attempted to establish a settlement at the mouth of the Adelaide, in Adam Bay, Northern Australia; the endeavour failed completely, and the colonists quitted the isolated spot in small numbers, as opportunity offered. Mr. Stow and six others put to sea in a small boat 234 feet long, and coasted round the northern and western shores of the continent, in the hope of reaching the settlements of Western Australia, at any rate, the new settle- ment in Camden Harbour, 500 miles distant. Favoured by the weather, they accomplished this first stage of their journey, and Mr. Stow graphically described the voyage, the barren nature of the intervening country, and their continued disappointment at the numerous archipelagos and islands being all equally sterile. They found a miserable state of things at Camden Harbour, the settlers 1866.] Geography. 99 being about to abandon the place, so they continued their adven- turous voyage for 1,000 miles more. During this stage they met with much severe weather, including a gale of wind which lasted three days; the country continued barren until they reached Champion Bay, when it began to improve. Previous to the reading of the papers at the third meeting of . the Society this session (December 11th), Sir R. I. Murchison, President of the Society, adverted to the great loss the science of Geography had sustaimed by the death of the distinguished African traveller, Dr. Henry Barth. The intelligence previously received of the disastrous termina- tion of two African expeditions had since been to some extent con- tradicted, for M. du Chaillu (who is now in England) had succeeded in penetrating 200 miles farther than on his previous journey ; and though an unfortunate accident had led to an encounter with the natives, he had happily saved his journals, chronometers, and records of astronomical observations. The other expedition—namely, that of the Baron von der Decken on the east coast—had certainly met with a disaster, one of the two steamers having been wrecked on the bar of the Jub; but the other and larger one had been repaired, and had conveyed the party a considerable distance up the river. The first paper read was on “ A Boat-journey along the Coast- lakes of East Madagascar,” by Capt. W. Rooke, R.A. The author had heard that the chain of lakes south of Tamatave might be traversed for several hundred miles in a boat sufficiently light to be carried over the short portages, and accordingly attempted the ex- ploration with three companions and a native crew. ‘The journey occupied 32 days, during which the party travelled nearly 400 miles, and passed numerous villages, and several larger towns of about 1,000 inhabitants each ; it was chiefly along winding channels and streams, which connected the lakes together, and whose banks were clothed with magnificent tropical vegetation, arching overhead in the narrow watercourses, and thus adding greatly to the beauty of the scenery. Another paper, entitled “On Ankova, the Central Province of Madagascar, and on the Royal or Sacred Cities,” by the Rey. W. Ellis, was then read. The provinee of Ankova is the most important of the twenty-two into which the island is divided, from being the country of the Hovas or dominant race ; it is 150 miles in length by nearly 100 in breadth, is hilly or mountainous, the elevations rising singly or in masses, rather than forming continuous chains. Mount Ankaratra, in the south-west of Ankova, is one of the highest mountains in the island, being about 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. The author described the streams, lakes, forests, and fertile valleys between the isolated mountains, and concluded with a notice of the twelve sacred cities of Ankova, which derive their H 2 100 Chronieles of Science. [ Jan., sanctity from having been the birth-places, abodes, or burial-places of their monarchs. Europeans are forbidden to enter them, and although some of them are places of large size, they have not yet been laid down on our maps. The belief in the influence of the spirits of their deceased monarchs is one of the chief features of their religiou, and is stated by Mr. Ells to enter into all their most important ceremonies, and to influence the actions and policy of royalty. VIL. GEOLOGY AND PALASONTOLOGY. (Including the Proceedings of the Geological Society.) One of the most important contributions to British Geology that has appeared during the past quarter is a memoir by Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun., entitled: “ Remarks in Explanation of the Map of the Upper Tertiaries of the Counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, Hertford, &c., &., and accompanying Sections.” In this paper the author further explains, and somewhat modifies, his classification of the glacial deposits in the east of England; but as his views have already been noticed in these Chronicles (vol. 1, pp. 330 and 478), we need give no introductory explanation. He now divides the Glacial deposits into Upper, Middle, and Lower Drift ; the Middle and Lower Drifts having hitherto formed his “ Upper and Lower Series of the Lower Drift.” A difficulty which we sug- gested formerly, Mr. Wood has met to some extent by calling all the more recent sands and gravels Post-glacial, a very good name as a distinction, though not strictly true. Mr. Wood’s views differ considerably from those generally accepted ; for instance, he is of opinion that the Chillesford beds (usually thought to be of Norwich Crag age, or a little newer) belong to his Middle Drift series. This Middle Drift is an important formation; it consists chiefly of sands and gravels, and intervenes between the Boulder-clay (Upper Drift) and. Boulder-till (Lower Drift), and we should not be at all sur- prised at its ultimately furnishing the key to a comparison of our Glacial series with that of Scotland. The differences in the de- posits of the two countries are rather remarkable (compare vol. i1., pp- 679 and 680), and an explanation of them would doubtless soon lead to a well-grounded interpretation of the whole of the phenomena of the Glacial period. Perhaps the map and numerous sections are the most valuable portions of the paper. The upper limit of the Eocene formation, the lower boundary of the Miocene, and the question whether the Oligocene of Professor Beyrich really forms a natural group of deposits, have frequently of late years formed the subject of discussion, and even of controversy. Auy contribution to the facts of the case must therefore be yery wel- ~ 1866.] Geology and Paleontology. 101 come to all who take an interest in Tertiary Geology. Accordingly we are very glad to see published the results of Professor Reuss’s examination of the German Upper Oligocene Foraminifera, Bryozoa, and Corals, which have appeared in the ‘ Sitzungsberichte’ of the Vienna Academy (vol. i.). Of Foraminifera the beds are known to contain 142 species, of which 67 (47 per cent.) are peculiar to that horizon, 47 (83 per cent.) occur in Middle Oligocene strata, 42 (29°5 per cent.) in Miocene deposits, 23 (16 per cent.) in Phocene beds, and 16 (11:2 per cent.) occur at the present day. The proportion of species common to the Upper Oligocene and to the Middle does not differ, therefore, very materially from that common to the former deposit and the Miocene. Of the Corals not much can be said ; only seven species that can be determined with safety are known to Professor Reuss, of which one occurs also in the Crag of Suffolk and Antwerp, and one in the Lower Oligocene beds of Latdorf, while the remaining five are peculiar to the Upper Oligocene. The Bryozoa are, however, much more numerous, 74 species having been determined by the author; of these, 14 species are found in the Lower, and 21 in the Middle Oligocene, 18 being also known in Miocene deposits. It will thus be seen that this evidence tends to the same conclusion as that of the Foraminifera. The Middle Oligocene fauna does not possess the same interest as the Upper in a classificatory point of view, but Professor Reuss’s more recent researches on its Foraminifera, Corals, and Bryozoa have an equal intrinsic value to the pure paleontologist. In the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for Sep- tember, Dr. Duncan described six new species of Corals from the South Australian Tertiary strata. They include one new genus (Conosmilia), which presents certain novel structural peculiarities, and which bridges over the gaps between some of the families in the accepted classification. It ‘‘ possesses the twisted ribbon-shaped columella of the sub-family Caryophyllacexw, the endotheca and septal margin of the Trochosmiliacex, and the irregular septal arrangement which was so common in the Corals of the Oolitic age, and which, from its octomeral type, reflected the Rugosa of Paleo- zoic times.” In this coral, therefore, we have again a trace of that Jurassic facies so characteristic of the recent Australian land-fauna. Another curious feature is seen in the only known species of this genus, namely, that the bases of the septa and the cost are not continuous, but the septa appear to correspond with the line of depression between the cost; but what is more remarkable still is that, according to Dr. Duncan, this feature “is common in species of other genera in Australia, but is very rare indeed in any speci- mens from any other part of the world.” (The perusal of papers 102 Chronicles of Science. (Jan. containing the record of such curiosities in Natural History cannot but tempt a naturalist to speculate on their probable causes. Much might be written in an endeavour to answer the question,— What are the causes of those trivial characters, having no relation to the economy of the organism, which impress on species of certain genera, or genera of certain families, a peculiar geographical or geological stamp? For instance, Why should so many Tertiary and recent corals, peculiar to Australia, have the septa and cost alternate imstead of opposite? And why should the Jurassic species of Crdaris (with scarcely an exception) have crenulated summits to the bosses of the tubercles, while the Carboniferous and Cretaceous species have them smooth ? A remarkably praiseworthy paper has recently been published by Mr. T. Codrington, F.G.S., in the ‘ Magazine of the Wiltshire Archeological and Natural History Society,’ on “The Geology of the Berks and Hants Extension and Marlborough Railways.” In it the author describes all the points of interest observed during their construction, in the order in which they are met with in going from Hungerford to Devizes on the one railway, and from Saver- nake to Marlborough on the other. This part of his paper will be extremely useful to the geologists of the neighbourhood, and, being well done, will no doubt attract attention elsewhere; but the con- cluding portion, containing some general observations and conclu- sions respecting the formation of the Vale of Pewsey, will, in these days of “atmospheric denudation” proclivities, certainly be some- what roughly criticized. Mr. Codrington’s main conclusion is, that the Vale of Pewsey was excavated to a great extent by marine denudation, at a period between the deposition of the Lower Eocene beds and that of the Boulder-clay, the valley being of the same age as the great chalk escarpment. ‘The Muillstone-grit, its Fossils, and the relation it bears to other Groups of Rocks,’ by Fort-Major T. Austin, F.G.S., is another pamphlet of some importance, which may also be considered a local memoir, for its contents refer chiefly to the neighbourhood of Bristol. Major Austin’s long-continued search has been rewarded by the discovery of numerous fossils in this generally sterile forma- tion. Of the forty-seven species obtained the author considers all but three to be new, and two species of Crustacea are too obscure for description. Of the so-called new species the author gives bad figures and inadequate descriptions, and we feel almost positive that the majority of them are small variations from old and well- known species. While we are glad to be able to give a large amount of praise to Major Austin for his perseverance and enthu- siasm, we cannot avoid pointing out these and some other serious errors in his pamphlet. One of the sections given in the last plate bears its improbability on the face of it. The occurrence of a 1866. ] Geology and Paleontology. 103 single fact which appears in favour of a preconceived view is too often sufficient to convince him of the correctness of his. theory. Major Austin’s idea of a classical name is also rather astonishing ; taking, we presume, as his basis the occurrence of such generic appellations as Cytherea and Venus amongst the Lamellibranchiata, he now gives to two new genera of Brachiopods the names of Psyche and Anonyma! The reproach so often cast upon scientific men, that their writings teem with bad Latin, has originated from the abundance of such barbarisms as those coined for this pamphlet, é. g. Cytherea minutia, Tellina antiquitus, Pinna angulatus, &e., and the following heterogeneous series of names given to species of Pecten: planus, flabellum, symmetria, tenwistria, and albidus. The publication of the second volume of the Paleontological part of M. Barrande’s ‘Systeme Silurien du Centre de la Bohéme,’ is an important event in Silurian Paleontology. It contains 107 plates, comprising figures of about 200 species of Silurian Cepha- lopoda, belonging to the following genera: Gonatites, de Haan ; Nothoceras, Barr.; Trochoceras, Barr. & Hall; Nautzlus, Linn.; Gyroceras, Kon.; Hercoceras, Barr.; Litwites, Breyn.; Phragmo- ceras, Brod.; Gomphoceras, Low.; and Ascoceras, Barr. Unfor- tunately the text does not accompany the plates, but will be published shortly ; there are, however, a few notes attached to the explanation of each figure. As all the species figured are con- sidered to be new, the appearance of the descriptions of them will be anxiously looked forward to. The present portion of this great work is as good an index as its predecessor, firstly, of the wonderful richness of the Bohemian Silurian fauna; secondly, of its distinct- ness from the Silurian fauna of Great Britain ; and, thirdly, of the perseverance and unwearied diligence of M. Barrande. M. Vaillant has recorded, in a paper ‘Sur la Constitution géo- logique de quelques Terrains aux environs de Suez,’ published in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of France (vol. xxii. p. 227), the discovery of shells of Attheria Cailliaudi, at Chaloufs el Terraba, eighteen kilometres from Suez: a fact of some importance in regard to the ancient course of the Nile and the antiquity of the Nile Oyster. In the same paper some interesting details are given respecting the geological constitution of the neighbourhood of Suez in the direction of the Sinai chain; but, as might have been expected, the rocks whose age has been determined belong to the Eocene and Upper Cretaceous periods. An important work has recently been published by M. Jules Martin, entitled, “ Etage Rhetien, ou zone 4 Avicula contorta, &. ;” it appeared originally in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of Dijon, but has also been issued as a separate volume. The author's conclusions may be summarized as follows :— The mineralogical transition from the zone of Avicula contorta 104 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., to the adjoming deposits is not less complete on the side of the Infralias than on that of the Keuper. Without exception, the deposits of this horizon are conformable both to the Trias and the Lias. . The geological movements which took place during this period began in the Triassic Epoch, and continued without interruption into the Liassic. There is observable in the fauna a very marked predominance of affinities on the side of the Lias. The periods of rest from biological manifestations, which oc- curred after the deposition of the Keuper, and after that of the zone of Aricula contorta, render the latter group the representative of a distinct period, and give it the value of a formation. Its lower limit is generally well defined, whereas the boundary between it and the true Lias is in different countries more or less uncertain. The Rheetic formation has the greatest paleontological affinity with the Lias, and therefore forms the first stage of the Jurassic series. The last three numbers of the ‘Geological Magazine’ have, as usual, contained some interesting articles. Mr. Henry Woodward (the Editor) gives in the September number a description and figures of fossil “ Crustacean teeth,” and shows how curiously they resemble, until carefully examined, the true teeth of certain Mar- supials. Mr. Carruthers has a paper in the next number on a new cone from the Coal-measures, which he makes the type of a new genus—Flemingites. It is allied to Lepidostrobus, but differs in each scale of the cone supporting a double series of roundish spo- rangia, whereas in that genus each scale supports only one roundish sporangium. The same author has a paper in the November number on a Fossil tree-fern from the Upper Greensand. Besides containing some observations of interest respecting the determina- tion of the fossil, this paper is rendered worthy of notice by the author’s conclusion, that the five slight constrictions seen on the stem appear to indicate an alternation of climate during the year at that remote period, similar to what we now experience. Mr. Baily’s paper “On the Cambrian Rocks of the British Islands,” Professor Owen’s notice of M. van Beneden’s “ Recherches sur les Squa- lodons,” Mr. Kinahan’s notes “On Pre-glacial (?) Drift in Queen’s County, Ireland,” and some other articles also contain points of interest. The correspondence seems to increase in bulk ‘and value, and no doubt forms an attractive portion of the magazine ‘to local geologists. PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. No less than twenty-three papers are contained in the last number of the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society ;’ we 1866. | Geology and Paleontology. 105 must therefore be content to notice only the more important of them in the order in which they appear. Dr. Duncan’s paper on Echinodermata from the South-eastern coast of Arabia and from Bagh on the Nerbudda is unusually interesting. This paleontologist generally makes remarks worth reading and remembering in connection with the subjects of which he treats, and those contained in this memoir exhibit a more than common breadth of mind. Finding the species he has determined to indicate a Cenomanian age, he discusses the probability of the beds containing them belonging to that period, and devotes a special section of the paper to an essay on “The Impossibility of estab- lishing a close Synchronism between the Asiatic and other Cre- taceous Strata.” The remarks which follow, “ On the Identity, Persistence, and Variability of the Species,” are equally good and very suggestive. They at least show us how much we have to learn about the life-history of those types which we call species. The conclusion, that “as the different longevities of species and also of the individuals of species are both regulated by determinate laws, so are, doubtless, the apparently inexplicable associations of per- sistent, variable, nascent, and moribund species,” is sufficient to indicate the nature of the subject discussed. We can here do no more than call attention to the paper, which is worthy of forming an appendix to Mr. Darwin’s ‘ Origin of Species.’ The next paper consists of a letter “On the Fossil Contents of the Genista Cave, Gibraltar,” addressed by Mr. Busk and the late Dr. Falconer to General Sa J. W. Codrmgton, Governor of Gibraltar. The character of the extinct fauna of Gibraltar, according to the evidence yielded by this cave, is not a little peculiar; of the Mammoth, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Ursus speleus, Hyxna spelea, and other English, French, and German forms, “ not a vestige has been detected among the fossil remains of Gibraltar.” The Car- nivora are, however, the most significant; “the three species of Felis are of African affinities, and Hyena brunnea, now for the first time ascertamed to have existed formerly in Europe, is at the present day chiefly found near the Cape of Good Hope and Natal.” The last-mentioned discovery opens out a very large question, or series of questions. How did Hywna brunnea get from Africa to Europe, or from Europe to Africa ? In which of these directions did the species migrate ? At what period did the migration take place ? Finally, how comes it that this 1s a South African species? Human remains, stone implemeuts of the polished-stone period, broken querns, pottery, and other objects were also found in the cave, and show that, geologically speaking, its contents are of no great anti- quity. The authors conclude their letter by two very good sug- gestions ; firstly, that a local museum should be formed, to contain 106 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., objects of interest found on the rock, and nothing else ; secondly, that a geological survey of the rock should be made by a competent surveyor. We believe that Professor Ramsay, the Director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, has undertaken the last- mentioned task, so that we may be sure of its being well done. Dr. Falconer’s posthumous paper “ On the asserted Occurrence of Human Bones in the ancient fluviatile Deposits of the Nile and Ganges” has already been noticed at some length. Mr. Whitaker’s three papers on the Chalk of the Isle of Thanet, of Bucks, and of the Isle of Wight are interesting to British geologists, but the special nature of the facts described prevents our discussing them here. Some curious facts are mentioned in Dr. Stoliczka’s paper on the Cephalopoda of the South-Indian Cretaceous Rocks, which will be read with interest in connection with Dr. Duncan’s paper already noticed. It is satisfactory to find that these two paleontologists, working independently and upon different classes of animals, come to the same conclusion respecting the age of the Indian Cretaceous strata. Although none of the genera of Cephalopoda from these beds, with the exception of Ammonites, are represented by species which exhibit any remarkable difference from Kuropean Cretaceous forms, yet of the genus named there are four species of the group Maero- cephali, one of the Planulati, and one of the Fimbriate, which are of course allied to Jurassic forms. “ The most striking and abnormal among the Ammonites, however, are three species of the Triassic group Gilobosi,” and Dr. Stoliczka may well have been astonished at their occurrence in such company. A great deal has lately been said for and against the theory of the atmospheric erosion of river-valleys, of the Valley of the Weald, &c.; and we now have, in Messrs. Foster and Topley’s paper “On the Superficial Deposits of the Valley of the Medway, with remarks on the Denudation of the Weald,” a carefully prepared account of certain phenomena which are thought by the authors to prove, or at any rate to render it probable, that the Valley of the Weald owes its present surface-configuration chiefly to atmospheric causes. There are those who theorize and speculate without a knowledge of the phenomena they wish to explain ; there are again those brillant- minded and experienced men who can propound a probable theory and support it with ability, off-hand, simply from their great knowledge of natural phenomena in various districts; but there are also those equally useful workers in science, who, like these authors, accepting a theory already rendered probable, take a particular district and find out how every individual fact lends additional pro- bability to the view they accept. Of course, in this instance, the conclusion is foregone, but we honestly believe that had the facts 1866. | Geology and Palzontology. 107 proved adverse they would not have been distorted to harmonize with it. Messrs. Foster and Topley show that an old river-gravel of the Medway occurs 300 feet above the present level of the river ; therefore the valley below must have been excavated by sub-aérial causes—“ rain and rivers.” They also go farther, and say that in this case “ there can be but little difficulty in supposing the present form of the ground in the Weald to have been produced entirely by these agents;” this is not yet proven, but is to a great extent highly probable. According to the chronological statement given by the authors, Col. Greenwood was the first to maintain (in 1857) that the valleys were wholly formed by “rain and rivers ;” unfortunately, however, his book was but little read by geologists at the time. The question was raised as a question by Mr. Jukes in 1862; but Professor Ramsay has been its great exponent and advocate, and has disposed of most of the objections to his theory that have been advanced by the advocates of marine-denudation. It must not be supposed, however, that rain and rivers are considered by him and his followers to have done all the work ; the sea began, and atmospheric agencies completed it. Two out of Mr. Henry Woodward’s three papers on new fossil Crustacea are well worth notice. In one the author proves that Professor de Koninck’s Chiton Wrightianus is not a Chiton, but a Cirripede. This fossil was found in the Wenlock limestone and shale of Dudley; it is apparently allied to Loricula and other pedunculated Cirripedes, and thus carries back the first appearance of the group from the Lias to the Upper Silurian, =~ In another paper, Mr. Woodward describes a new genus of Eurypterida, which he names Hemiaspis. It is remarkable on account of its appearing “ to offer just the link we needed to con- nect the Xiphosura with the Eurypterida.” The author also re- marks, that “there are several peculiarities about Hemiaspis which seem to offer analogies with the Trilobites.” In this chronicle we have thus recorded the discovery of two transition-forms—a Coral and a Crustacean, and we feel confident that the determination of such links between heretofore distinct families is destined some day to form an important element in the solution of the laws which have regulated the origin and succession of life on the globe. 108 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., VIII. MINING AND METALLURGY. For some time past the price of Tin ore, or as it is technically termed, Black Tin, has been so exceedingly low, that throughout the tin-producing districts of the West of England during 1865 not more than six mines have been in a position to pay dividends to the adventurers. ‘This has arisen from three causes: the failure of the American market—the large importation of tin from the Eastern Archipelago—and from the British mimes forcing considerable quantities of tin upon the market, they being unable otherwise to meet the current expenses of the mines. This state of things has naturally led to a careful examination of the methods of preparing the ores for sale, with a view to the introduction of more economical methods. It is not generally known that the process of separating tin ore (oxide of tin) from the stone in which it is found is one of considerable delicacy. The quantity of tin ore is small compared with the valueless matter with which it is mixed. This will be evident from the following statement of the quantities of tin ore contained in the mass, as it is brought to the surface, from the mines named :— Huel Kitty, St. Agnes . . . 84 pounds of oxide of tin in every ton. Dolcoath, Camborne ae tae! te OO rs sy “3 Tincrott ditto ae) eiiou + + ” North Roskear, ditto otitis, LoD a “A ” Huel Uny, Gta es oe pane 2a. © hae » ” East Carn Brea, ditto at, Gl eS 3 9 ” Polberro Consols, St. Agnes . 14 % ” ” Huel Coates, ditto . 6 ” ” ” Tanivet; 2° \. AND Tacs 4 x, ” ” The hard quartzose contents of a mineral vein are brought to the surface from great depths, and the first operation is to reduce it to a state of fine powder, which is suspended in water. This is brought about by the continued action of heavy stamps, and the mud thus produced is made to pass through the “stamps grate” (a perforated plate of copper). This muddy fluid has usually been allowed to flow through long narrow troughs—commonly called “strips ”"—and when these were filled they were emptied by hand ; the upper part of the strip containing the portion which was richest in tin, the lower portion being very poor. Dividing the contents of this trough and removing it to other machines, either “frames” or “puddles,” was a tedious and, consequently, a costly operation. Necessity has compelled the miner to reduce this cost as much as possible. This has been very successfully done by the use of the “round buddle,” which is a circular table, or trough, slightly inclined from the centre to the circumference. The thick mud flows in at the centre, over the table, and runs off at the edges. By regulating the flow of water, and producing a slight degree of agitation by 1866. | Mining and Metallurgy. 109 means of light brushes, which are made to sweep the surface, all the heavy matter, of course containing the tin, is deposited nearest the centre. Beyond twelve or eighteen inches from which but little tin is found.- Another form of machine has also been recently introduced, which is known as “ Borlase’s Buddle,” bemg named after the in- ventor. This “buddle” differs from the ordinary form in de- livermg the fluid containing the earthy matter and the tin at the circumference, and distributing it towards the centre. The con- struction of this apparatus will be seen, at once, from the accompany- ing drawings :— SECTION. is — Wit. = ere reeecos os CLOPLA GA, SIGS PS IOV: 7 Yi reas D Bt EL OL BAS. BD Se SS bt ed ni ibid, GEG MDa LA SAAAIABAE VASE PITA By this arrangement the tin stuff in its state of fine powder in suspension in water is, at once, spread out in a thin sheet, and the 110 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., heavy matter, tin ore, is disentangled from the earthy mixture ; the lighter portion flowing towards the middle of the buddle, is gradually brought under the influence of an increasing flow of water and carried away. Of course in this “ buddle ” all the rich portion is found around the edges of the trough. It is stated that a saving of from 30 to 40 per cent. is effected by the use of Borlase’s machine. In a “ Tin stream ” at Mudian Vean, in St. Martin’s, to the south of the Helford river, in Cornwall, there has been recently found associated with tin and titaniferous iron (Menachanite) some small pieces of gold. A remarkable discovery of Silver ores has been made in California. It is of so startling a character that English capitalists have sent out competent persons to investigate all the conditions. Silver Peak is situated east of San Francisco, on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada, and nearly one degree south of the city of Austin. From an American journal we obtain information from which we make our abstract.* Silver Peak is an old extinct crater 5,000 feet above the sea level; near it is an extensive deposit of salt, and not far distant a large accumulation of sulphur. At first the searchers after the precious metals confined themselves to the Pacific side of the Sierra Nevada, but discoveries in New Mexico, Arizona, and Virginia city induced a thorough examination of the east side of that range. This proved a great success, and much wealth was obtained in the neighbourhood of Austin, a city which has sprung up within three years and which is now said to contain a population of 10,000 people. Twelve exceedingly rich lodes or “ ledges,” as the Californian miners call them, have been found near Castle Mount. The specimens brought to New York by Colonel Catherwood are remarkable for their richness. “If there is no mistake,” says the ‘Journal of Commerce, “a new deposit, superior even to the Cornstock lode, which has furnished so many millions of silver, is about to pour into our market its limitless supply of this precious metal.” We shall watch the result with much interest. Mr. A. Blatchley, mining engineer of Austin, has made a rather extensive report on the whole of that district, of which the Reese river is the centre. He informs us that all the useful metals, as gold, silver, copper, lead, antimony, mercury, arsenic, manganese, and iron, are found in abundance, and tin in small quantities. Only five years have elapsed since the first silver was worked in this district, and last year the amount shipped from Nevada nearly equalled the amount produced in Mexico, and the production of this year will, it is said, nearly double that of last. ‘The value of the * «New York Journal of Commerce.’ 1866. ] lnining and Metallurgy. 111 average yield of all the ore worked in the mines of Austin is ¢144 per ton. Nearly every variety of silver ore known to the mineralo- gist is found in the vicinity of Reese river. Native silver is found as wire silver, and in thin lamina between different layers of ore, also in masses of irregular shape mixed with the ore. This latter variety is mostly found in the Revenue Mine, on Lander Hill, where pieces weighing five pounds have been found ; it is also discovered in minute particles in the oxide of iron, forming the ore known in Mexico as Colorados. Above the water level the ores of silver are Chlorides, Iodides, Bromides, and Selenides; below the water level they are generally Sulphurets. The annual production of Coal, in the coal producing provinces of the Chinese empire, has been given by Mr. Mossman as follows :— Tons. Che-Kiang . . . . . ° 80,000 Kiang-See . ‘ A é = C 190,000 Hoonan A . e = ‘ . 260,000 Quang-tung . . e . . 130,000 Northern Provinces = : 340,000 The value of this coal at the pit’s mouth is given, in round numbers, as 1,200,0002., and we learn from the same authority that the consumption of native coal in China is only one ton to every 406 persons.* Coal is being worked by the sanction of the Viceroy of Egypt in the neighbourhood of the classic mountain Olympus. Depots are about to be formed on the shores of the Red Sea to supply the steamers with this fuel, which is said to be of good quality, and can, it appears, be sold much cheaper than any other coal.t METALLURGY. At a recent meeting of the Institute of Civil Engineers of France, M. Gaudry read a paper on a new French puddling machine which has been regularly at work at the Clos-Mortier Iron Works, _ near St. Dizier, for four years. By this machine the ordinary puddler’s “rabble” is worked regularly over the furnace door, and the tool is changed with the greatest readiness as often as this is needed. The puddler has only to watch the operation, without anything to tire him, until the time comes for him to “ball” the iron, the machine being then thrown out of action. The apparatus is placed either on the top of the furnace, or in a pit underneath, or alongside. It consists of a suspended connecting rod, which is capable of vibrating in all directions for working the rabble, and is itself worked by an arrangement of rods, shafts, and cranks sup- ported on the brickwork. The motion is generally obtained from _* From a letter to Mr. T. Y. Hall, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, from Mr. Mossman, communicated to the Birmingham Meeting of Mining Engineers. + ‘Les Mondes,’ 5th October, 1865. 112 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., a driving power common to all the furnaces, by means of an inter- ~ mediate shaft with pulley and strap; and at each furnace the strap is provided with a tightening lever, which is lowered or raised for starting or stopping the apparatus. By this means the rabble receives a rectilinear movement backwards and forwards across the furnace, and, at the same time, a much slower travelling motion from right to left and vice versa—in the direction of the length of the furnace doors. In consequence of this double movement the rabble works over the entire furnace floor, and effects a uniform and complete stirrmg of the metal, with a rapidity and regularity of which few puddlers are capable. It is well known that a peculiar ferruginous sand is found on the coast of Taranaki, not far from Whanganni, in New Zealand. Attention has been from time to time called to this sand, which appears by analysis to consist of— Protoxide of Iron . : . ° : 88°45 Oxide of Titanium and Silica . . “ 11°43 Numerous difficulties attendant on smelting this ore have hitherto prevented its being employed in the manufacture of iron. It is, however, now stated that Mr. Charles Martin, C. I. of London, has successfully produced good pig-iron from the Taranaki sand by smelting it in small furnaces with coke for fuel. The examples of iron and of steel manufactured from it which have been exhibited are of a very high character, which is supposed to be mainly due to the presence of Titanium. Amongst the most remarkable illustrations of the powers of modern Metallurgy may be noticed the fact, that on the 17th _ October Messrs. Bessemer and Sons, at East Greenwich, cast a cubic block of steel of the enormous weight of 100 tons. Large as this block is, it was far exceeded by what has been done at Bolton by the aid of Messrs. Ireland and Sons’ patent upper twyer cupola furnace, where a block of steel weighing 250 tons was cast. This furnace melts at the rate of thirteen tons of Bessemer steel in an hour, and is charged with three hundredweight of coke to fifty hundredweight of metal. The saving of fuel is one of the advantages of these furnaces, of which there are ten at Woolwich Arsenal, effecting an economy of coke to the extent of 2,0002. a year. The large block of steel cast at Woolwich and another somewhat smaller are to serve as anvils for steam hammers in the works of the Messrs. Bessemer, which are now approaching completion. ‘Guide Pratique des Alliages Métalliques, by M. Guettier, Engineer and Director of Foundries, and author of ‘ La Fonderie en France,’ has just been published at Paris. This work treats the question of alloys with much care. 1866. | Mining and Metallurgy. 113 M. de Cizancourt, in a paper addressed to the Academy of Sciences, puts forth a new theory of Iron and Steel. Oxides of iron have usually been considered as degrees of oxidation of the same metal; M. Cizancourt adopts a view put forward in the first instance by Berzelius, that there are two sorts of “ Iron-metal,” to which he respectively gave the names of ferricum and ferroswm ; these are supposed to represent two allotropic states of iron. Ferrosum is the metal extracted from the protoxide of iron through the reducing agency of hydrogen; the nearest approach to this is commercial iron, being what is called “ bright iron.” The iron derived from the anhydrous peroxide is the metal called ferricum. The common sorts of foundry iron are supposed to be this metal with some carbon. The author says that certain kinds of cast-iron identical in their chemical composition, appear so different from each other, and give such opposite results in working them, as to compel us to distinguish them in practice. In metallurgy, M. de Cizancourt contends, the various sorts of iron are a matter of mere secondary importance ; the real characteristic to be taken into account being, the degree of oxidation of the ore, from which they have been extracted. Malleable iron is supposed to be formed of mixtures in variable quantities of the two kinds of iron which pass into the state of “ferricum.” Steel is also supposed, according to M. Cizan- court’s view, to be a reunion of the two conditions of iron; the metal being the more perfect the nearer the two irons unite in the proportions in which they exist in the mineral state. MINERALOGY. For some time past attention has been directed to a remarkable phosphatic mineral, discovered near Cwmgynen, about sixteen miles from Oswestry. It occurs as a nearly perpendicular vein in a dark bituminous limestone. The following analyses of this mineral have been published by Dr. T. L. Phipson*:—Nos. 1 and 2 were solid specimens, weighing several pounds, taken from different localities ; No. 3 was a powdered specimen from another part of the mine ; while No. 4 is a mean analysis of three other district specimens. Ib Il. IIL. IV. BRETHOMMP Geshe pneu’ ise 0) 6 5 8:00 3°00 6-00 5:00 MhosphateofIron . . . . . 29 40 19°00 27 00 14:60 Phosphate of Lime . . . « . 13:00 50:00 — — Lime ° . . e. e e e e e L——) a Dill 91 iv F 43 Silicate of Alumina . .. . 44-00 26:00 22-02 38-60 mroloxide Of Iron. . +. . « « — — 20°88 9-87 Carbonates of Iron, Lime, &c. . . 5:60 2°00 Zag 14°15 100-00 10000 ~=—'100-00-~—«100-00 This mineral is evidently a compound of phosphoric acid with * See ‘ Reader,’ October 21, 1865. See ‘Chemical News’ also. VOL. III. I 114 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., iron and lime in variable proportions, the one substituting the other in a very uncertain manner. The composition of the mineral cannot indeed be determined until more exact analyses shall have been made. The discovery of a mineral resembling the celebrated Bog Head coal in New South Wales, and the manufacture of paraffine oil from it, is now exciting much attention in the Australian colonies. A colonial paper* states that this mineral is found near Hartley, and also near Wollongong. ‘The seam near Hartley is five-and- a-half feet in thickness, and is worked through a tunnel. This mineral is of a dark-brownish colour; it is very tough, so that if struck with a hammer the implement will bound off as it would from a block of wood; it has a conchoidal fracture, and does not powder when broken. This Hartley mineral is stated to be superior to the Bog Head coal, in consequence of its yielding a larger quantity of gas, and therefore of oil, and also of its freeness from sulphur. The importation of paraffine oil into Australia is large, and it is confidently believed that the oil can now be produced at a lower price in the colony than it can be imported from America. “On the Growth of Flos Ferri, or Corolloidal Arragonite,” is the title of a paper by Mr. W. Wallace, of the Silver Band and Dufton Mines, well known by his work on ‘ Metalliferous Deposits of Alston Moor, which was read before the Geological Society of London, and is published in the November number of their journal.t It is not possible to condense Mr. Wallace’s views. It may be briefly stated that he considers the growth of arragonite to be from within and not from without as has been usually thought. “ Arragonite growing in an atmosphere may be considered a type of vegetation, the forms of which it more especially mimics.” Dr. Gustay Tschermak has published “ Chemico-Mineralogical Researches on the Felspars.” { The author believes that with the exception of Hyalophane and Dauburite, all the Felspars may be resolved into mixtures of three true species or genera as he terms them, namely, those known in the pure state as Adularia, Albite, and Anorthite, Soda, and Lime Felspars. The potash Felspars he considers to be the result of regular alternations of Orthoclase with Albite ; and the other Felspars to be isomorphous mixtures of Albite with Anorthite, sometimes with small quantities of Orthoclase. Oligoclase ; Andesine,and Labradorite appear to be merely members of a great series in which many transition forms occur.§ * «Sydney Herald and Sydney Mail.’ + ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,’ No. 84, p 413. + *Chemisch-Mincralogische Studien. Won Dr. Gustav Tschermak. § *The Journal of the Ciemical Society,’ October, 1865, 1866. | Mining and Metallurgy. 115 Professor Church has recently brought before the Chemical Society a communication, entitled “Chemical Researches on some New and Rare Cornish Minerals.” Hydrated Cerous Phosphate is a new mineral found by Mr. Talling, of Lostwithiel, some time ago. It occurs in a copper lode on quartz and killas. The general lustre of the mineral is vitreous; but the conspicuousness of the end-faces with a brilliant pearly lustre causes the general aspect of the grouped erystals to be splendent. The crystals are doubly refractive, but no specimen has yet been obtained capable of affording indications as to the number and direction of the optic axes. For the same reason they have not yet been examined as to the presence or absence of pleochroism. ‘The colour of the mineral is a pale smoky grey, with a faint tinge of flesh red; the streak and powder are white. The hardness of the mineral slightly exceeds 3; it distinctly abrades a cleavage surface of calcite. The density has not been determined with accuracy, but it is about 3°14. Professor Church’s analyses give the following as the mean per- centages :— IDS Ste Wilh OR See gn fee eA APR BEET 1 y STs AN a aie tg Renal net ee lait Poh eat ke, Cav ashy a iss y tage RGU abet Garg. el! aninetaedeg ote 88 100-70 As Professor Church says, “The occurrence of a British mineral rich in Cerium is, of course, of considerable interest, but the complete novelty of the species, as a hydrated phosphate of the metal, attracts particular attention, the known phosphates, cryptolite, monazite, &c., bemg when quite unaltered and pure completely anhydrous.” Mr. Talling supplied Professor Church with a mass of quartz erystals mixed with iron and copper Pyrites, partly covered with Childrenite, and containing, moreover, in numerous cavities and fissures a light and soft white powder. This powder was found to contain lime, alumina, phosphoric acid, and water, together with a trace of iron. The experimental percentages obtained by analysis were :— Ca" O = : - 36°27 PEO e e ° e . . 22 40 aioe wae, LOY OMe eon aaa H, O 12 00 101-03 The only known mineral phosphate resembling the present is one examined by Damour in 18538, and believed by him to be a hydrous phosphate of alumina and lime. Damour’s phosphate was found in the Diamond Sands of Bahia. The present mineral was obtained from near Tavistock, Devonshire. “ Bayldonite” is the name proposed by Professor Church for a new 12 116 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., Cornish mineral, which appears to be a Hydrated Plumbo-cuprie Arsenate. “Although many mineral species are double compounds of copper and lead (Caledonite, Chileite, Linarite, Vauquelinite, &c.), yet I am not aware of any double arsenate of lead and copper, defi- nite and constant in composition, having been yet discovered and described.” (Church.) Bayldonite occurs in minute mammillary concretions having a dusty surface. The structure of the masses is often somewhat reticulated after the manner occasionally observed in certain Travertines. The fracture is slightly conchoidal, uneven, translucent on the edges; colour, grass-green to blackish green ; colour of the powder, siskin-green to apple-green ; hardness, about 4:5; specific gravity, 5°35; analytical percentages as follows :— 5S LR gail lI lb aan Hod Sib 9.09 Cu"O . ° : ° . ° : 30 88 ABS IO) des sensi. “te ae Niche Ace ee EOL eee Ota ee ee 458 Ferric Oxide and loss ° . . . 2°65 100-00 Petroleum is being found in numerous new districts. In Cali- fornia it is discovered in the county of Santa Clara, not far from Gilroy, and a few miles from the route opened between San Juan and Monterey. The sources are on each side of a deep ravine, on the sides of a little river, a tributary to the Panjaro. It is stated that from 20 to 30 barrels of “oil” are obtained in twenty-four hours, but that a much larger quantity was readily obtainable. A company has been formed for exploring the sources of Petro- leum, which are said to be abundant in Zante, one of the Ionian Islands. ‘The occurrence of petroleum in Zante was known at least 2,000 years since, for Herodotus correctly describes the bituminous springs. x An important paper “On the Ores of Manganese and their Uses,” appears in the ‘ Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science.’ An abstract of this paper is given in the * Chemical News,’ November 17th. Mr. C. Greville Williams has demonstrated the existence of Didymium in“ Churchite,” as the oxide of Cerium discovered by Professor Church has been called. Bismuth is said to have been discovered in Spencer’s Gulf, South Australia, where a mine is now vigorously working and likely to prove profitable.* Mr. George Maw, of Broseley, communicates some interesting particulars relative to the occurrence of a very white sand, which is a “perfectly pure form of native silica,” occurring in Talargoch mine, near Prestatyn, in Flintshire. One of the lodes in this mine * ‘South Australian Register,’ September 27, 1865. 1866.] | Physics. 117 running east and west, nearly vertical and from three to six feet wide, is almost entirely occupied with this silicious sand of the most perfect purity and lustrous whiteness. An interesting series of experiments “On the Thermo-Electric Tension of Minerals,” by Walter Flight, D.Se., will be found com- municated to the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for November. On the line of railway from Estremadura to Portugal occur con- siderable deposits of Phosphate of Lime. This phosphate of lime attains its maximum of 85 per cent. in the formation of Montan- ches, six leagues from Caceres and eight miles from Logrosan, its minimum being about 50 per cent. This has been described by M. Luna.* This phosphate is found in the cretaceous strata, and is in great abundance in the silicious bed; it presents a fibrous texture. The following analyses are given :— Caceres, Montanches. Tribasic Phosphate of Lime - . 72°10 85 03 Oxide of Iron, Silica, &e. . - - 3°85 2°40 Water . . ° ° ° 3 00 2 7 22 Carbonate of tiete : ; é 3 — 10°35 Residue insoluble in Nitric Acid fs 47°02 — IX. PHYSICS. ~ * Licut.—Professor Mitscherlich has greatly extended the powers of spectrum analysis, by applying it to the detection of the electro- negative elements, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. The difficulty of recognizing small amounts of these elements in a mixture of haloid salts is well known, and it is found impossible to detect mere traces of these bodies in such mixtures by any hitherto known method. The followig means, however, will recognize the smallest amounts of these substances by the use of spectrum apparatus. The haloid salts of copper are the most difficult to decompose by heat, and they are therefore to be preferred for spectrum investiga- tions, which are best made in the following way :—The substance to be examined, well dried, is mtimately mixed with half its weight of sulphate of ammonia and one-tenth its weight of oxide of copper. The mixture is placed in a globular enlargement of a combustion- tube, one end of which is connected with a hydrogen gasometer, the opposite end being open. A stream of hydrogen is passed through the tube, and heat gradually applied to the mixture. The hydrogen being ignited, the first appearance seen in the spectrum apparatus is a brightness in the green, in which, however, no definite spectrum can be perceived, but afterwards the spectrum of the haloid salt of copper is distinctly visible. When present in small amount, the chlorine compound is best * «Compte Rendus,’ 118 Chronicles of @cience. | Jan., recognized by the lines at 105 and 109 and by the brightness near 85 and 87; the bromide compound .is detected by the brightness at 85, 884, and 92; and iodide of copper by the brilliancy at 96, 99, and 1023. ‘ By this method, and without further trouble, + per cent. chlorine, $ per cent. bromine, and 1 per cent. of iodine are easily recognized, and a practised observer may detect much smaller quantities. When the haloids are mixed with each other in very small pro- portions, it is better to precipitate them first by a silver salt. Mix the dried precipitate intimately with twice its weight of oxide of copper, and employ this mixture in the hydrogen before described. By this method as little as yoth per cent. of chlorine, ;th per cent. of bro- mine, and }th per cent. of iodine in the silver precipitate can be recognized, The spectra of the haloid salts appear consecutively, that of the. chloride first, then that of the bromide, and lastly that of the iodide of copper. Their appearance in this order depends on the different volatility of these salts. Chloride of copper volatilizes considerably below a red heat, the bromide somewhere near redness, and the iodide at a low red heat. The slower the volatilization is conducted, the more certain are the results of the analysis. When only traces of iodine and bromine compounds are present in a large excess of a chlorine compound, about the tenth of a gramme of nitrate of silver should be added to the solution. ‘The greater part of the iodine and bromine will be found in the precipi- tate, which may be tested as before described. The following results will serve as an illustration of the accuracy and precision of the process. ‘To a pound of common salt which contained no bromine five milligrammes of bromide of sodium were added, and to the solution one decigramme of nitrate of silver. The precipitate was tested in the way just described, and after the spec- trum of chloride of copper had been observed for some time, the spectrum of bromide of copper was distinctly visible for five minutes. A further addition of nitrate of silver to the solution gave a precipi- tate which showed the spectrum for six minutes. Similar experiments made with iodine compounds gave equally conclusive results, and proved that a ten-millionth part of iodine or bromine may be detected in chloride of sodium. The residue of six and a half pounds of sea water taken off Heligoland showed the spectrum of the bromide for seven minutes. Iodine could not be recognized, probably because the quantity of water was too small. A small quantity of water from the Dead Sea showed a large pro- portion of bromine, but no iodine. The mother-liquor from some salt works showed much bromine, but no iodine. Some valuable contributions to our knowledge of spectrum ana- 1866. | Physics. 119 lysis have likewise been made by M. E. Diacon. Like Mitscherlich, he has studied the influence of the electro-negative elements on the spectra of metals, most of the researches hitherto communicated having been directed to the electro-positive elements only. ‘The method of analysis founded by Kirchhoff and Bunsen on spectrum observations has given results so remarkable that its utility im chemical researches is not to be contested. Nevertheless, the prin- ciple on which it rests is only true under certain determimed con- ditions. From the observations of the author and of M. Mitscherlich, it seems certain that the different compounds of a metal do not exhibit an identical spectrum, and in this paper M. Diacon has col- lected the experiments which show the influence of the electro- negative element on the radiations emitted by different salts of the same metal. From these experiments, which are far too numerous to admit of bemg given here in abstract, two consequences result :— 1. The spectra given by Kirchhoff and Bunsen for those of the alkaline earthy metals being the appearances observed at the moment the salt is introduced into the flame, it follows that such spectra must be a mixture of the spectrum of the chlorides and of that of the metal; 2. The appearance of lines not belonging to the metal may be considered as a probable, if not a certain, indica- tion of the existence of a spectrum peculiar to the compound with which it is produced. Thus the study of the lnes produced by bromides, iodides, and fluorides in the gas flame may give valuable indications, and furnish new proofs of the existence of a special spectrum for binary compounds. All the metals do not lend them- selves with equal facility to these experiments. The best defined results are obtained with the alkaline earthy metals,and with copper and bismuth. The attentive study of the light emitted by the bromides, iodides, and fluorides demonstrates, then, that the introduction of those salts into a flame determines the appearance of lines which do not exist either in the spectrum of the metals or in that of the chloride. We must, therefore, conclude that these compounds, like the chloride, have peculiar spectra, the superposition of which on that of the metal gives the appearance observed in each of them. From the author’s experiments we learn that spectrum observa- tions give us the means of determining not only the metal but the electro-negative element combined with it. Unfortunately, very definite results are only obtamed with a few of these compounds. Although the spectra of the chloride and bromide of copper are very much alike, it is easy to distinguish one from the other, and there are differences in the two spectra easily to distinguish without haying recourse to measurement. Jor example, the position of the greenish blue lines is characteristic of the bromide, that of the violet lines for the chloride. When the two salts are placed in the 120 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., flame simultaneously, the green lines of the bromide predominate at the first imstant; the first of the double indigo line of the chloride is visible ; the superposition of the more refrangible rays of the two spectra give rise to new appearances. ‘The presence of the iodide of copper produces no change of importance ; and thus it is easy to recognize at least a chloride and a bromide in a mixture of the three salts. Iodide of bismuth gives the clearest indication of iodine; the spectrum of the salt up to 130 is often ill-defined and difficult to distinguish from the same part of the bromide and chloride spec- trum; but the beautiful violet band which terminates that of the iodide is a convincing proof of the presence of iodine. Fluoride of calcium must always be used to show the spectrum of fluorme. ‘The green line situated about 121 is very brillant when a very high temperature is employed, and may be considered characteristic of this metalloid. In some cases the author recommends precipitation with nitrate of silver, but instead of using the silver precipitated in the manner directed by Mitscherlich (see ante), he treats it with sulphuretted hydrogen, saturates one part of the acid liquor with oxide of copper, and the other with freshly precipitated oxide of bismuth. The liquid or the dry residue of evaporation may be tested directly in the flame, the one for chlorine and bromine, the other for iodine, as indicated above. Lastly, M. Diacon repeats that the spectra given by Kirchhoff and Bunsen for the alkaline-earthy metals are a mixture of the spectra of the oxide and the chloride, as are also the spectra given by Mitscherlich as those of the chlorides. In the former, he says, the spectrum of the oxide predominates; in the second, that of the chlorides. A metal, he states, may give different systems of lines, according to the experimental conditions or the nature of the compound experimented upon, and no absolutely specific charac- ter can be attached to the spectra given by Kirchhoff and Bunsen ; they can only be considered characteristic of the conditions under which they were observed. The nature of the invisible photographic image has been a noever-ceasing subject for discussion amongst scientific photo- graphers. Lately, Mr. Carey Lea,* an experimentalist who stands in the first rank as chemist-photographer, has tried some experi- ments, which to his mind seem to finally settle the long-contested question as to the nature of the invisible photographic image. The view that the change which takes place in iodo-bromized plates in the camera is a purely physical one, that no chemical decomposi- tion takes place, and neither liberation of iodine nor reduction of silver, has obtained a pretty general acceptance. But latterly it * « American Journal of Science and Art.’ vol. xi., No. 118. 1866. | Physics. | 121 has been opposed by two distinguished photographers, Dr. Vogel and Major Russel. ‘The former affirms that iodide of silver is never sensitive unless there is a body present capable of taking iodine from it under the influence of light. And the latter believes that the developed image is chiefly produced at the expense of the silver haloid in the film. The following experiments seem to Mr. Lea to decisively close this controversy in favour of the physical theory :— Experiment 1.—If the iodide or bromide of silver in the film undergoes decomposition in the camera, and, still more, if the deve- loped image is formed at its expense, the film of iodide-bromide must necessarily be greatly consumed in the development under the dense portions of the negative which it has contributed to form. To settle this point, an iodo-bromized plate was exposed and developed in the ordinary manner. Then, instead of removing the unchanged iodide and bromide by fixing in the ordinary manner, the developed image was removed, without affecting the iodide and bromide, with the aid of a very weak solution of acid pernitrate of mercury. Now, if the iodide or bromide, or both, had been in any way decomposed, to form, or aid in forming, the developed negative image, when this came to be removed there should have been left a more or less distinct positive image, depending upon varying thicknesses of iodide and bromide in the film, like a fixed negative that had been completely iodized. Nothing of this sort was visible, the film was perfectly uniform, just as dense where an intense sky had been as in those parts which had scarcely received any actinic impression, and looking exactly as it did when it first left the camera, and before any developer had been applied. Experiment 2.—A plate was treated in all respects as in No. 1, except that the application of the nitrate of mercury for removing the developed image was made by yellow light. The plate, now showing nothing but a uniform yellow film, was carefully washed, and an iron developer, to which nitrate of silver and citric acid had been added, was applied. In this way the original image was repro- duced, and came out quite clearly with all its details. Now, as every trace of a picture and all reduced silver had been removed by the nitrate of mercury, it is by this experiment abso- lutely demonstrated that the image is a purely physical one, and that after having served to produce one picture, that picture may be dissolved off, and the same physical impression may be made to pro- duce a second picture by a simple application of a developing agent. Mr. F. H. Wenham, a gentleman well known in all scientific circles by his admirable device for securing binocular vision in the microscope, has communicated to the Microscopical Society some interesting notes on the Fracture of Polished Glass Surface. It is a fact known to the philosophical instrument makers that 122 a: Chronicles of Scrence. [Jan., if a metal wire be drawn through a glass tube, a few hours after- wards the tube will burst into fragments. The annealed glass tubes used for the water-gauges of steam-boilers are sometimes destroyed in this way, after the act of forcing a piece of cotton waste through them with a wire for the purpose of cleaning the bore. This will not happen if a piece of soft wood is employed. After having drawn the point of a steel burnisher over the surface of a slip of polished glass, the following appearances will be observed under the micro- scope, using the polarizing apparatus and selenite, with a two-thirds object-glass. A coloured stripe is visible in the passage of the burnisher, showing that the surface of the glass has been placed in a state of tension in the direction of the line. The glass, too, seems not altogether devoid of plasticity, for the waves of colour show that it has been carried forward in ripples, resembling the mark left on a leather-bound book after the passage of a blunt point. It may be inferred from this that the mere burnishing of the surface of the glass with a substance inferior in hardness will, without any scratch- ing, cause an irregular strain in the bore of tubes sufficient to split them, and the concussion attendant upon the fracture often reduces the tube to small fragments. If the burnished lines upon the glass slip be examined a few days afterwards, the colours will have become much less visible, showing that the strained portions of the glass partly recovers its equilibrium. On attempting to polish out a minute scratch on the surface of a piece of glass, it sometimes appears to widen during the process, and at length resolves itself into two irregular parallel rows. Also, a clear cut made with a diamond on a piece of plate-glass, if left for a time, the surface in the vicinity of the cut will break up, forming a coarse irregular line. If the diamond be raised and struck lightly on the surface of the glass, the form of the edges of the short stroke thus made may be plainly seen, using the binocular polariscope. A conical ridge of glass appears to be left with its apex under the line of the cut, and the glass is frequently wedged up on both sides of the ridge, explaining the cause of the double Ime of fracture which sometimes makes its appearance in polishing out a scratch. This effect may also be exemplified by observing the marks left on a polished glass surface from the light blows of a steel centre-punch. The point of the punch drives in an atom of glass, and the fracture extends some distance into the interior, expanding downwards in the form of a truncated cone. The polariscope shows that the conical centre is in a state of compression, and that the surrounding exterior portion of glass is also under strain. The smooth, round edge of a glazier’s diamond, when drawn of a polished glass surface, burnishes down and compresses the glass beneath the cut, and in the case of thin sheets the wedge-like force 1866. | Phystes, 123 of the compressed line splits the glass nearly through; but when the glass is thick and rigid, as plate-glass, unless the sheet is bent back and broken through immediately after the cut, greater diffi- culty will be experienced if allowed’ to remain for a time, for the compressed line of glass will speedily tear up the portion on both sides, leaving a wide ragged groove in place of the original clean and scarcely visible line. A paper on the Spectrum of Nitrogen has been communicated to the Parisian Chemical Society by M. Waltenhofen, who states that in an atmosphere of nitrogen properly rarefied, the violet rays dis- appear before the blue and green. The author's observations lead him to believe that nitrogen is a compound body. This opinion is gradually gaining ground amongst physicists who have paid at- tention to the electrical spectra afforded by nitrogen under varying conditions of rarefaction and intensity. Heat.—A discussion has lately taken place before the Man- chester Literary and Philosophical Society respecting the possi- bility of utilizing the internal heat of the earth as a source of motive power. Mr. G. Greaves, M.R.CS., at the October meeting of the Society, stated that it had been very generally admitted that coal will not cease to be furnished because of the exhaustion of the stores of the mineral now existing in the coal measures; and further, that the obstacles to the continued working of the mines will not be engineering difficulties. The increased depth from which the coal will have to be brought may add to the cost, but at that increased cost it will still be for a long time obtainable. The author con- sidered the real unsurmountable obstacle to be the high tem- perature of the lower portions of the carboniferous strata. The temperature had been shown to be at a depth of 4,000 feet, at least 120° Fahr., a degree of heat im which human beings cannot exist for any length of time, much less use any exertion. It had oc- curred to the author to inquire whether the very agency which will prevent the continued supply of fossil fuel might not be made the means of rendering that supply unnecessary—whether, in short, the internal heat of the earth might not to some extent be utilized. One or two modes of doing this had presented themselves to his mind. One of these might, he conceived, be the direct production of steam- power by bringing a supply of water from the surface m contact with the heated strata by means of artesian borings or otherwise. This elicited a letter from Sr J. F. W. Herschel, saying that by employing condensed air, conveyed through conducting pipes, as a mode of working machinery at that depth—provided the air immediately on its condensation, and before its introduction imto the pit, were drained of the heat developed in the act of condensa- tion, by leading it, in pipes exposing a large external surface, 124 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., through a sufficiently large supply of cold water (or in winter time of snow), the workings below might be sufficiently reduced in tem- perature by the re-expansion of the air on its escape, when given out below in the act of working the machinery, to admit of work- men remaining there in comfort ; at the same time the ventilation could be supplied. Water at 120° Fahr., or even much higher, would, he feared, afford but an inefficient moving power, unless some means could be devised (without the expense of more power than the gain expected) of concentrating the heat of a large quan- tity of warm water into a smaller. This might, perhaps, be done through the intervention of air alternately rarefied and condensed. In the discussion on this letter Mr. Binney said that at the present time little was known as to the difficulties we should experience in working coal mines at a depth of 4,000 feet from the surface. The exact increase of temperature in deep mines was not by any means well ascertained. All we can say is, that no great difficulties have been found in working at a depth of 2,100 feet. It must always be borne in mind that the deeper a mine is the greater will be the natural ventilation ; that is, the current caused by the air of the mine, at say a temperature of 80° Fahr., ascending the upcast shaft, while the air at the surface, of 40°, descends by the downcast shaft. No doubt a mine might be cooled by the expansion of compressed air, but it could not, so far as at present known, be done economi- cally. In most deep mines a considerable cooling of the air takes place by the expansion of the compressed gas (light carburetted hydrogen) as it escapes from the coal, where it has been long im- prisoned under great pressure ; and this has not always been allowed for by observers of temperature in such places. Mr. Pouchet has given the result of some very important experiments on the congelation of animals to the French Academy. The experiments entirely negative the popular idea that an animal slowly congealed may be kept so, and restored to life at any future time by careful thawing ; and show that an animal whose body is reduced to the freezing pomt throughout, is killed beyond all chance of revivification. The experiments have great physiological interest, and our readers will no doubt be glad to learn the author’s conclusions. These are :— 1. That the first phenomenon produced by cold is a contraction of the capillary vessels to such an extent that a globule of blood cannot enter, these vessels therefore remain completely empty. 2. The second phenomenon is an alteration of the blood glo- bules, which amounts to their complete disorganization. 3. Every animal completely frozen is absolutely dead, and no power can reanimate it. 4, When only a part is frozen, that part is destroyed by gan- grene. 1866.] Physics. 125 5. If the part frozen is not extensive, and only a few disor- ganized blood globules pass into the circulation, the animal may recover. 6. But if, on the contrary, the frozen part is of considerable extent, then the mass of altered globules brought into the circula- tion when the part is thawed, rapidly kills the animal. 7. For this reason a half-frozen animal may live a long time if maintained in the condition, since the altered globules do not get into the circulation, but it expires rapidly as soon as the frozen part is thawed. 8. In all cases of congelation, death is due to the alteration of the blood globules, and not to any effect on the nervous system. 9. It results from these facts that the less rapidly a frozen part is thawed, the more slowly the altered globules find their way into the circulation, and the greater are the chances of the recovery of the animal. The Abbé Moigno gives, in his valuable review ‘Les Mondes,’ a short description of an ice-making machine now in operation here. The inventor, M. Menard, employs ether, which is compressed to the extent of from five to seven atmospheres. From the reservoir the liquid is allowed to escape into a worm, circulating round square vessels of water, which become frozen by vaporization of the ether in the worm. The machine will produce, it is said, fifty kilogrammes of ice per hour. Execrriciry.— The highly electro-positive metal Magnesium would be invaluable to electricians if it could be got for the same price as zinc; already it is being proposed for use in certain elec- trical apparatus, and at a recent meeting of the French Academy, M. Bultinck presented a note on the Use of Magnesium in Voltaic Piles in place of Zinc. The author shows that a short chain of twenty elements, each composed of thirty-five millimetres of thin silver and magnesium wires, wound about pieces of caoutchoue and properly connected, will produce all the effects, chemical, physical, and physiological, of a long Pulvermacher’s chain when simply moistened with pure water. It is announced that the two lighthouses at Havre will now be definitely illuminated by electricity, that all difficulties in the way of producing a constant light by induction machines have now been overcome by the Alliance Company. The machines will be driven by a six-horse power locomotive engine, which will also com- press air for whistles or trumpets to be used as fog signals. 126 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., X. ZOOLOGY AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY, INCLUDING. MICROSCOPY. Tue Boston Society of Natural History have issued the subjects for the Walker prizes, viz. Annual prizes of sixty and fifty dollars ;—sub- ject for 1865-66: “ Adduce and discuss the evidences of the co- existence of man and extinct animals, with a view of determining the limits of his antiquity ;”’—for 1866-67: “ The fertilization of plants by the agency of insects, in reference both to cases where this agency is absolutely necessary, and where it is only accessory.” There is also a grand honorary prize for 1870, to which the sum of 500 dollars may be awarded, for such scientific investigation or discovery in natural history as they may think deserving thereof, provided such investigation shall have first been made known and published in the United States of America. In case the merit of the investigation or discovery be extraordinary, the Council may award 1,000 dollars. Mr. J. G. Shute has made an interesting communication to the Boston Society of Natural History, upon the method of transference of the new-born marsupial into the maternal pouch. It was seen by him to take place in the case of the opossum (didelphys yirgi- nica). During the delivery of the young the parent lay upon the right side, with the body curved in such a manner as to bring the vulva nearly opposite the mouth of the pouch, which was opened, or drawn down, by contraction of the muscles, so as to receive the young when delivered. The young ones were seven in number, and the time occupied in the delivery about four hours. The parent remained in the same position about thirty-six hours, and refused all sustenance. Immediately after the transfer of the young to the pouch Mr, Shute removed one, by detaching it from the teat, in order to ascertain if the movement of the foetus was instinctive. He found that it was at least partly voluntary, as it made an effort to regain its place in the pouch; and the same movement was made on the part of the parent to receiveitas at first. He did not notice any use of the lips or limbs of the parent during the transfer. The Rey. Professor Haughton, who lately made some ctrious researches into the anatomy of the leg of the ostrich, with a view to discover the secret of its singular movements, has carried on his observations by examining the hind-leg of the crocodile. To this, he says, he was incited by the late Professor Gratiolet, who assured him he should find in it a problem, exceeding in complexity that presented by the leg of the ostrich. In the Annals of Natural History he details the description of the muscles, and finds the prediction of the anatomist fully borne out. The interlacing of the muscles in the thigh and leg of the crocodile is, he says, very 1866. | Zoology, Animal Physiology, gc. 127 remarkable, and even more complex than in the ostrich. At first he was disposed to think it threw some doubt upon the explanation he had pieviously given of the reason for such an arrangement in the bird’s leg, as there did not appear so much reason for it in the case of the crocodile; but he subsequently came to an enormous deep muscle (the extensor femoris caudalis), originating from the transverse and inferior spinous processes of the caudal vertebree, and inserted into the back of the upper part of the femur, and into a great round tendon, which, passing down the back of the femur, is inserted by a common aponeurosis into the outer condyle and the head of the fibula. The effect of the interlacing of the tendons of the various muscles is to produce simultaneity of action among them, as in the ostrich; and in the crocodile there seems to be a similar principle involved. The crocodile, resting on mud, pro- gresses chiefly by using his hind feet as paddles; and in this use of them, the great caudal extensor of the thigh is the most powerful and important muscle employed. The simultaneity of action of all parts of the leg, rendered necessary by the employment of go powerful a muscle, is fully secured by the interlacing of the tendons, which renders it impossible for one set of muscles to act without the others being also exerted. M. Matteucci gives an account, in ‘Comptes Rendus,’ of some experiments upon the electro-motor power organs of the Torpedo, in a state of repose, z.e. which gave no sensible discharge to a delicate galvanometer ; and he finds under certain circumstances that a con- stant current is present, which deflects the galvanometer with a persistent deviation. This electro-motor power notably increases after the piece of the organ has been forced to give a discharge by irritating the nerves. And in torpedos taken in warm seasons, when out of water they very rapidly lose their electric function, and the electro-motor power of which is almost nil, by irritating the nerves of the organ, or by rounding the fourth (electric) lobe, the electro- -motor power suddenly reappeared, and persisted for some time. M. Matteucci has endeavoured to verify the observations of M. Robin, made some years back, with regard to the organs analogous to the electric organ of the Torpedo, which he supposed to be pos- sessed in certain rays. He had already tried without success, but supposing the failure might possibly be owing to his having operated on very small and sluggish fish, he, with the assistance of M. Schiff, operated upon a tolerably large and'vivacious ray, and haying forced the fish to a series of strong contractions, M. Matteucci obtained, by the galvanoscopic frog, the exposed nerve of which was placed upon the organ in question, manifest signs of electric discharges. ‘This experiment he pledges himself to repeat and corroborate, and remarks that the difference in the dimensions and number of the elementary cellules, and the nerves of the electric 128 Chronicles of Science.” [Jan., organ of the ray and those of the other electric fishes gives a great importance to the study of that function in the ray, and this study should explain the peculiar electric phenomena discovered by M. Robin in the electric function of the ray, and which are not exemplified in the other electric fishes. Dr. Morch proposes a new classification of the Mollusca (‘Annals,’ December), inasmuch as he regards the organs employed in adopted classifications to have less systematic value than is usually attributed to them. The locomotive organs, on which were founded Cuvier’s primary divisions, Cephalopoda, Gasteropoda, &c., have been found by subsequent researches to have been somewhat misunderstood, at all events in their homological relations. Thus, Lovén and Huxley have shown that the Pteropods are true Gasteropods, and that the funnel of the Cephalopods is homologous with the foot of the Gymno- somata. The secondary divisions (or orders) of Cuvier were founded upon the respiratory organs, but special organs for this function are not always necessary. In Mollusca not requiring a hard covering for their protection, respiration takes place through the skin; but when the skin is thickened, or the shell developed, a respiratory organ becomes necessary. The larger the shell is in proportion to the uncovered parts of the animal, the more complicated and com- pressed are the gills. The insignificance of the gills as a systematic character is evident by comparing the Heteropoda, from the entirely gill-less Firoloids and Pterotrachza with external gills, to Atlanta exhibiting perfectly internal gills. The two kinds of respiratory organs indicate only relative superiority and inferiority, but not the limits of systematic division. Neither is the presence or absence of a head, though indicating relative superiority or inferiority, sufficient for natural divisions. Dr. Moérch, after twenty years’ study, is enabled to state that the heart and generative organs offer characters of a much higher systematic value than is generally believed, and the classification proposed by him is chiefly founded upon the male organ, which seems to him to be the best indicator of the sensibility of the nervous system, and consequently of the relative systematic rank of the animal. His synopsis confirms the rule of Professor Agassiz, that land animals are more perfect than marine ; but this rule may be explained in the sense that the divi- sions with the largest number of terrestrial forms always are the superior. The lowest class, Acephala, is entirely aquatic, and chiefly marine. There is also the same concordance with Professor Owen’s law, that the multiplicity of organs indicates inferiority in organi- zation. Thus the duplicity of the organs of Acephala descends as the system ascends. M. Paul Rocher, in a paper brought before the Academy of Sciences, makes some interesting observations upon the manner in 1866, ] LZoclogy, Animal Physiology, §c. 129 which terrestrial Mollusks obtain food under circumstances of ex- treme drought. Travelling in the south of the province of Oran, in Alveria, he had occasion to notice great numbers of them in the steppes of the desert, and proved that they derived the water neces- sary for their nourishment from certain of those succulent plants which grow spontaneously ia arid situations, such as Atriplex hali- mus. ‘This plant appears also to be the chief food of the Meah antelope, which, the Arabs say, lives several years without drinking. Another such plant is the Bou gerba, or bottle plant, upon which he has seen nearly every morning, while there was still some fresh- ness in the air, hundreds of snails agglutinated. These Mollusks can exist for a long time without food, and are furnished, moreover, with a solid operculum, while the white colour, which appears to be characteristic of all the Saharian animals, defends them to a certain extent from the heat of the sun. Their shell also is relatively thick, for they all live upon the calcareous or saline plateaux of the desert, where they find abundance of material for the formation of their testaczous envelope. Dr. Phipson, in ‘ Cosmos,’ states that lately, beg at Marburg, he observed, about 10 p.m., certain luminous insects flying in the air on the banks of the river. On securing one, he found it to be a male Lampyris splendidula, proving that the male Lampyri enjoy the faculty of emitting light, about which there was previously some doubt. But M. Schultze has described, more than a year ago, the structure of the luminous organs of these very same male insects, the tracheze of which he finds to be terminated in a small cell of stellate form, which rapidly acquire a black tinge under the action of osmric acid, the cells of the parenchyma remaining uncoloured. Dr. Walsh describes, in ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ some very curious effects produced upon insects apparently by the material of their food, from which he is led to believe that otherwise identical insects differ, as varieties or species, according to the species of plant they feed upon. This difference of food may have very various results: sometimes it is accompanied by no difference whatever either in the larva, pupa, or imago state; but it may coincide with a marked difference in the colour of the silk-producing secretions, or a ten- dency towards the obliteration of the normal dark markings in the imago; or marked, but not perfectly constant, colorational differ- ences in the larva, but none whatever in the imago; or by a marked and perfectly constant difference in the size of the imago; or by a marked difference in the chemical properties of the gall-producing secretions, the external character of the imago remaining identical ; or by a slight but constant change in the coloration of the abdo- men of the imago, and a very slight change in the chemical pro- perties of the gall-producing secretions; or by one marked and VoL. III. K 130 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., perfectly constant colorational difference, and others which are not perfectly constant in the larva, but none whatever in the imago ; or by several slight, but constant structural differences in the male imago, but none whatever in the female; or by a slight but constant struc- tural difference in both male and female imago ; or by very strong structural and colorational differences in the larva, and in all pro- bability by a constant structural difference of generic value in the female imago, the males being to all external appearance identical, and the two insects belonging to different genera; or lastly, by marked and constant differences, either colorational or structural, or both, in the larva, pupa, or imago states. Of each of these he gives examples; and remarks that for his own part, as on the most careful consideration he is unable to draw any definite line in the above series, and to say with certainty that here end the varieties, and here begin the species, he is therefore irresistibly led to believe that the varieties gradually strengthen and become developed into species, and that the difference between them is merely one of mode and degree. Professor Claus finds that in the Ostracode division of Crus- tacea, the heart is sometimes present and sometimes absent. ‘This remarkable fact was demonstrated by the discovery of a heart beating with regular pulsations in Cypridine, while it is known that in the other two families, Cypride and Cytheride, the heart is absent. ‘The same curious circumstances obtain in the Copepoda, of which the families Cyclopidee, Harpactidee, and Coryceeida possess no heart, while in the other two families, Pontellide and Calanide, it is always present. M. Claus has also detected in the Cypri- dinze, in addition to the large, paired, compound eye, an accessory single eye, simple and median, perfectly similar to that which exists in addition to the compound eye, in the Daphnie. The Cypri- dine thus appear to differ widely from the other two Ostracode families, not only in these respects, but also as regards their appen- dages, the three anterior pairs of which are employed by them as locomotive organs, as is the case with all Entomostraca during their Nauplius phase. It is very unfortunate that disputes should arise upon scientific questions to such a degree as that either disputant should indulge in personalities, but the scientific world has been of late anything but edified by the discussions between Dr. Carpenter and Professor William King of Belfast. ‘The foraminiferous character of the fossil Eozéon canadense, distinctly asserted and minutely described by Dr. Carpenter, has been attacked by Dr. King, and much heat is introduced imto the discussion. Another subject sets them also at variance, a matter of fact depending upon experience and acute- ness of observation, viz. the microscopic structure of the shell of 1866. ] Zoology, Animal Physiology, &. 131 Rhbynchonella Geinitziana, which Dr. Carpenter describes as imper- forate as regards the outer layer, while Professor King declares it to be perforated. Dr. Carpenter expresses himself fairly enough, as prepared to meet with perforated Rhynchonellide, although imperforation is the family character; but a careful examination with the binocular microscope and a magnifying power of 120 diameters upon transparent lamellz and sections, makes him feel justified in reiterating his statement that the passages which are visible in the shell, traverse the internal layer only, and are therefore pits and not canals, while it appears that Prof ssor King’s observa- tions have been made upon the exposed surfaces of his specimens, with a Stanhope lens only. It does certainly appear to us pre- sumptuous, to say the least, in any observer to be content with such imperfect appliances and inadequate observation, to challenge with such boldness the results of so careful and trustworthy an observer as Dr. Carpenter. Inasmuch, however, as this is the third ease of a similar kind in which Professor King has come into collision with Dr. Carpenter, we cannot help fearing it is the result of an antagonism which, for Professor King’s reputation, is much to be regretted. Dr. Beale states that the best way of studying muscular con- traction is to examine the larva of the flesh fly. The movements continue for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour after the muscles are detached from a freshly killed larva, and in winter for as much as half-an-hour. The best way to see them is by polarized light, by the aid of a plate of crystallized gypsum. When the body colour is green, the waves of contraction which are propagated along each muscular fibre in different directions are of a brilliant purple. In other parts of the field the complementary colours are reversed. With very high powers, it is easy to observe the change which takes place in the contractile tissue itself, each time that it passes from the state of contraction to that of relaxation, and back again, and that for several minutes at a time. Mr. H. L. Smith of Kenyon College describes in ‘Silliman’s Journal’ an apparatus by means of which he keeps Diatomacexe alive for a long time under the microscope, for the purpose of observing the phenomena of conjugation. It is a slide, which is a trifle more than an eighth of an inch in thickness, and consists of two rectangular glass plates, 3 inches by 2, and zsth inch thick ; separated by thin strips of glass of the same thickness, cemented to the interior opposed faces, thus forming a closed cell to be filled with water, and upon which the achromatic condenser can be brought to bear. A small hole is drilled through the upper plate, and one corner of the upper glass is removed. The space between the two plates is then to be filled with clean water by means of a , K 2 132 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., pipette, a drop being placed upon the drilled hole to remove the air. The object being put on the top of the slide and wetted, is then to be covered with a large square of thin glass, which covers the drilled hole, and is prevented from slipping by a small strip cemented as a ledge under it. The slide can now be placed upright, or in any position, and no water can escape. As the water evaporates from under the cover, more is supplied through the hole, and from time to time an air bubble enters at the removed corner of the upper plate, so that a constant circulation is kept up. The cell needs replenishing only about once in three days, and this may be done without disturbing the object. It is in fact only a new application of the old principle of the bird fountain. The science of Zoology has sustained great losses of late in the death of three emiment conchologists. The first of these was the well-known traveller and collector, Mr. Hugh Cuming, who had devoted many years to the investigation of the Natural History of South America and the Eastern Archipelago, where he gathered the richest collection ever brought home by a single traveller, which has rendered his cabmet of shells the most remarkable in Europe. We understand this collection has been offered to the British Museum for a sum of money much beneath its value, and has been accepted. The second conchologist whose loss we have to deplore, is Mr. 8. P. Woodward, the author of the best manual of conchology we have. Mr. Woodward was engaged in the British Museum, and his knowledge of shells was most extensive. He had long suffered from an asthmatic affection, which finally carried him off. We have more lately lost an enterprising and learned con- chologist in Mr. Lovell Reeve, whose “ Conchologia Iconica” is his best monument, a work which, having reached fourteen or fifteen volumes, copiously illustrated, is nevertheless unfortunately far from being completed. 1866. | (5983,..) ANNUAL RETROSPECT. THe year 1865 has been characterized by slow, steady progress, rather than by any brilliant achievements in science, and if we were to look for striking events in the record of the past year, we should be met by failure and death, rather than by notable successes or the birth of genius. The second failure of the attempt to lay the Atlantic cable, although the postponement of what appears to be a certain success, will serve to remind scientific men how slow and laborious must always be the conquest of the elements; and though we cannot say to the enterprising electricians, “go to the ant, thou sluggard,” still we must point to the humble little spider, which spins and spins its line, failing again and again in reaching the desired point, until perseverance triumphs and the goal is attained. And when we look at men instead of measures, how destructive do we find the scythe of time, or the ravages of disease, to have been during the past year. At once the names of Fitzroy, Hooker, Lindley, Falconer, Gratiolet, Siliman, Baikie, Tinné, Reeve, Woodward, Christy, and Waterton sound in our ears, and in every branch of science do we find a gap of greater or less proportions. To the memory of one of these chiefly—namely, the first, do we desire to pay a special tribute of praise, and it is deed a selfish feeling that prompts the distinction, for we feel that few men could have been spared with more serious consequences to their fellow- men. Already Admiral Fitzroy’s researches in Meteorology, and his practical application of the science, had effected an amount of good which it is impossible to estimate. Who can say how many lives he saved ? Who can tell how many more would have been spared had he continued to live? We have no wish to disparage the efforts of his successors who seek to follow in his wake: quite the reverse; we would have them profit by his example, and endeayour to develop the unfinished work of his hfe, But it is idle to attempt to hide the fact that his knowledge, acquired, no doubt, in a large degree by personal experience, has not survived him in 134 Annual Retrospect. [ Jan., its entirety, and that his followers must to a certain extent begin de novo, and repeat his experiences before they can even hope to attain his power of benefiting the seafarmg man by forecasts of the weather. We are hopeful, however, that the work which is beg carried out over the large field of Europe, by Le Verrier, may lead to a more perfect knowledge of the laws by which the atmospheric cur- rents are regulated, and thus place in our hands that kind of infor- mation which we require to guard us from the destructive violence of the winds. In connection with Meteorology, much interest attaches to the balloon ascents made by day and night by Mr. Glaisher. Although a large number of observations have been — made with all the care possible under the circumstances, many more aérial journeys will be requisite before the numerous conditions con- nected with terrestrial radiation and the influences of heat and electricity on atmospheric phenomena can be recorded. Then it will still remain undetermined whether the results observed are constant or varying. We are gathering a large amount of knowledge in this branch of science, but we must be content to wait, never ceasing to work, for the development of the laws which shall embrace the apparently irregular phenomena with which we have to deal. In this work it is the duty of all who are able to give any assist- ance, to render it cheerfully and zealously, and there is one phase of the subject to which semi-scientific or even unscientific observers of meteorological phenomena may with advantage direct their atten- tion; we mean the measurement of the rainfall in their own particular localities. A committee, consisting of Mr. Glaisher, Lord Wrottesley, Professor Phillips, Professor Tyndall, Dr. Lee, Mr. Bateman, Mr. Mylne, and Mr. G. J. Symons has been appointed to collect inform- ation on this subject, and the last-named gentleman* has issued a circular to the press, in which he gives the localities and ele- vations at which, to the knowledge of the Committee, observations have been made since the year 1766, and asks for information on the subject of the British Rainfall from all who are willing to collect suitable data. No doubt there will be plenty of volunteers to provide the requisite information. One point of great interest in connection with this of science ap- * Whose address is 136, Camden-road, London, N.W. 1866. | Annual Retrospect. 135 pears to have been determined—namely, that the solar heat-rays pass through space without loss, and become effective only where wanted ; and, in proportion to the density of the atmosphere or the amount of water present in that through which they pass. If it be so, the proportion of heat received at Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn may be the same as that received at the Harth, notwith- standing their different distances from the sun. Many subjects of much interest in this division of science en- gaged the attention of the Physical section of the British Asso- ciation ; amongst others, a self-recording anemometer was exhibited by Mr. 8. B. Howlett, and some of the records shown. ‘This in- genious instrument appeared to indicate that even the light breezes of summer have a tendency to move in circles, or to describe longer or shorter ovals, in their course. We learn that this apparatus is being manufactured at a moderate cost, and hence we hope that ere another year passes by, we may be in a position to report its capabilities and indications when used on a more extended scale. Although belonging to another division of Experimental Science, still, as having immediate relation to the above subjects, Professor Tyndall's researches on the Heat Spectrum, and especially on the phenomena to which he has given the name of Calorescence, must be regarded as of considerable importance. In the history of this interesting inquiry, the researches of Herschel (the elder), of Schenck, and especially of Melloni, must not be forgotten. We would especially direct attention to Melloni’s memoirs on ‘A New Nomenclature for the Science of Calorifie Radiations.* ‘The application of prismatic analysis to the objects in the heavens has been continued with much success. Mr. W. Huggins appears to have proved the gaseity of the nebule, and thus to have restored, to some extent, confidence in the “ nebulous fluid” of Sir W. Herschel, from which by subsidence and condensa- tion stars are supposed to be elaborated. Father Secchi, from a careful examination of the spectrum of Jupiter, shows that the- atmosphere of that planet has a peculiar and strong absorbing power, different from the atmosphere of the Earth. He thus ad- vances towards the proof required by Mr. Glaisher’s observations, * © Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve,’ No. 70, for October, 1841. Translated in ‘Scientific Memoirs,’ vol. iii., part 12. 136 Annual Retrospect. [Jan., that planets, according to their positions in space, are physically so constituted as to suffer nothing from any loss of solar heat or light. The question of the existence of an atmosphere in the Moon is re-opened by the fact observed by Mr. Huggins, that the spectrum of a star a little before and at the moment of its occultation by the dark limb of the Moon, exhibited several phenomena characteristic of the passage of the star’s light through an atmosphere. The in- dications which will be found in our Chronicles of the advances of knowledge in this direction, by the aid of spectrum analysis and astronomical photography, would lead us to believe that many of our views respecting the conditions of planets and stars will receive con- siderable modification, if they are not destined to undergo an entire change. The solar photosphere and the solar spots have received a large share of the attention of astronomers. A great number of remarkable phenomena have been observed, but it would be prema- ture to state that any positive facts had been determined. Itis most satisfactory to know that the Hofrath Schwabe has given the Royal Astronomical Society his valuable collection of sun-drawings, and his solar observations from 1825 to the end of 1864. This, the most remarkable series of continuous observations ever made by a single man, has enabled us to determine the law of periodicity observed by the solar spots. The ‘Researches on Solar Physics’ by De la Rue, Stewart, and Loewy, of which the first series has recently been published, brings all the observations together, and thus greatly aids the inquiry. Professor John Phillips and Mr. Dawes have been directing their well-trained attention to the planet Mars. They are rendering us well acquainted with the physical features of that planet, and proving the repetition of many terrestrial phenomena upon it, showing, indeed, that the character of the climate of Mars is not very different from that of our great continents. Passing from Astronomy and the applications of Chemistry to the necessities of that science, we must briefly remark on the progress made by chemists during 1865. The period has been one of consider- able anxiety; to many, a period of transition is always so. The unmanageable names which the necessities of discoveries in organic chemistry have introduced, has rendered necessary the introduction of a more precise and satisfactory system of notation than that 1866. | Annual Retrospect. 137 at present in use. There exists much difference of opinion upon this question. The discussions which have taken place have not produced anything approaching to uniformity in the notation of even modern chemists; while those of the older schools see nothing but confusion in the systems proposed—adopted— modified—and abandoned in succession. Itisto be hoped that from amongst the ranks of our young chemists, many of whom exhibit great originality of thought and considerable mental power, some oe will seriously undertake the task of reducing the overburthened system which is now adopted to a state of simplicity and order. Investigations have been steadily carried forward in connection with the new and rare metals with which spectrum analysis made us acquainted ; and new sources from which these metals can be obtained, have been discovered. Mr. H. C. Sorby, with his usual ingenuity, has applied spec- trum analysis to the Microscope, and has employed it in making some important investigations on the detection of blood-stains. Considerable advances have been made in determining the positions, numbers, and conditions of the dark lines in the solar spectrum and their agreement with the lines produced by known substances. Much interest was excited by a published statement that anto- zone had been isolated by Schénbein, and the compound condition of oxygen determined. This has not been done; indeed the existence of such a body as antozone is somewhat problematical. It is, however, satisfactory to see that the evidence on the peculiarities and properties of ozone are accumulating, and proving this allotropic state of oxygen to be of high importance in the economy of nature. Inorganic chemistry has discovered several new minerals, and many inquiries of much practical importance have been carried out. Weil, by his simple process of coating one metal with another, without the aid of a voltaic battery, has introduced a process which must greatly extend the advantages of electro-metallurgy. Deville and Troost, by their discovery of the permeability of certain dense metals at elevated temperatures to gases, have opened a most curious inquiry on the boundary line between physics and chemistry. Deville’s experiments on the phenomena of dissociation, or the partial decomposition of compound gases under the influence 138 Annual Retrospect. | Jan., of temperatures more or less elevated, have been continued with many important results, and lead, or are leading, to an explanation of some of the anomalies which have hitherto beset the laws of gaseous volumes, and the molecular theories of their constitution. Gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, and several new gunpowders have been submitted to trial by practical men, with, as reported, very variable advantages. Gale’s process for rendering gunpowder non- explosive for stowage and transport has been taken up by a public company; but we believe it has not been applied on the large scale. Its real value has, therefore, yet to be determined. Mr. Crookes’s new and interesting process of increasing the amalgamating power of mercury by the aid of sodium has been rendered free from any of the objections which at first stood in the way of its adoption, and is now employed with much success and economy. Organic Chemistry still advances in the direction of those synthetical proofs of transformations which constitute its most striking feature. The researches of Frankland and Duppa, and of several of the German chemists, are progressing towards that “orand conception,” which seems to inspire Dr. Hofmann, “ of a natural classification of chemical bodies into genera and species, each distinguished by well-marked characteristics, not excluding individual varieties, but grouping them in subordination to collective laws.” The value of chemical inquiry becomes most apparent when it is skilfully applied to the improvement of manufactures, or to the removal of the injurious effects arising from them. In the first Annual Report of Dr. Angus Smith, the Inspector under the Alkali Act, we have satisfactory evidence of this. The whole question of the condensation of noxious gases is fully dealt with, and if Dr. Angus Smith’s knowledge as applied to this end, is only seconded by the attention of the manufacturer, all cause of com- plaint will speedily be removed from the alkali manufacture. Chemistry is naturally allied to metallurgy, and we find during the year considerable evidence of the activity with which experiments have been made to improve the processes or their results. Iron has especially claimed the attention of the French chemists, and some promising results have been reported. Experience shows that 1866. | Annual Retrospect. 139 we are steadily advancing towards the conversion of iron directly into cast steel, by other and more, strictly speakmg, chemical pro- cesses than those now im use. Puddling, although a mechanical process, is in its results, ag nearly every metallurgical process is, a chemical one. The applica- tion of machinery, to produce the proper oxidation of the carbon in the iron, has been extended and improved. We hear, however, of large experiments which promise results superior to any which have yet been obtained, in the production of merchant iron. One of the most important improvements which have been in- troduced, is the utilization of the copper-smoke of the great copper- smelting establishments of Swansea. That which has been for many years a great nuisance to the neighbourhood, and by which vegetation has been destroyed for many miles around the works, is, at the establishment of the Messrs. Vivian and Sons, now converted into sulphuric acid, an article of commercial value. Metallurgy is directly dependent, for the material upon which it operates, on Mining. Our journal shows that science has been called in to aid in removing those evils which surround a life of subterranean toil, and by which the miner perishes in the prime of life. The Mines Commission in their Report have proved, upon the evidence of the most accomplished experimentalists, that the air of our metalliferous mines is seldom in such a state as will ensure the continuance of health. An attempt was made by Lord Kinnaird to pass an Act to regulate the conditions under which our metal mines are worked. His lordship was induced by the Government to withdraw the bill which he introduced, but this was followed by the production of a second bill, somewhat modified, which will come under the consideration of the House of Lords early in the ensuing session. The application of the law of the diffusion of gases to the detection of fire-damp in collieries has been experimented on, upon a large scale, in the Hetton collieries.* The instrument invented by Mr. Ansell, of the Royal Mint, has answered most completely. We * While these pages have been passing through the press, the chief proprietor of these collieries, Mr. Nicholas Wood, F.R.S., has been removed from among us. Mr. Nicholas Wood has ever been the promoter of scientific applications to the necessities of colliery operations, He belonged to a group of superior men, being the friend and associate of Stephenson and of Buddle. His loss is a severe one to the Newcastle district. 140 Annual Retrospect. [Jan., learn that a continued series of experiments is about to be made, even if they are not now in progress, in the fiery collieries of the South Yorkshire district. The continuation of the production of gold from the quartz veins of the Welsh mountains is giving the promise of a return for the large expenditure which has been made. The settlement of the war in America has led to an advance in the price of tin, and the blockade of the Chilian ports has produced the same effect on copper, so that peace on one hand, and war on the other, are equally bene- fiting the British miner. Attention having been drawn to the value of the bituminous shales, sandstones, and clays, we find that these sources of “ mineral oil” are discovered in every quarter of the globe. The experiments on the use of petroleum as a fuel for steam boilers appears to have been thoroughly successful. Therefore we may expect that the large supplies of the material promised will be required to meet the new demand. ‘The most remarkable discovery of mineral treasure recently made, appears to be that of silver in the Nevada territory, where a new Potosi is actually developing its treasures. Agriculture has been seeking the aid of the sciences for its im- provement. It has been proved that sewage manure has a remark- able fertilizing effect upon some grass lands; judgment is, however, required in its application, but with that judgment we hope we shall not be much longer subject to the rebuke of annually pouring into the sea at Barking 100,000,000 tons of food-producing material. The want of calculation, of forethought, on the part of men has been strikingly shown by the ill-judged extension of the drainage of land. The rain falls on the land, and in a few hours it has been carried off by the rivers to the sea; consequently, when a short period of dry weather supervenes, the farmer finds his crops perish through the want of water. Irrigation, therefore, has all at orice become the question of the hour, and we find the Agricultural Society of England pressing the subject upon the farmer by the assistance of their chemist, Dr.. Voelcker. There is a continued earnest desire on the pait of our leading agriculturists to extend the benefits of professional agricultural edu- cation by the establishment of clubs, schools, and colleges devoted to practical agriculture. 1866. | Annual Retrospect. 141 The value of scientific education is becommg more evidently felt, and the science classes established in connection with the Science and Art Department are proving the beneficial results of the system. That the Liverpool Town Council has re-established scien- tific lectures is another evidence of the growing feeling that, in a manufacturing kingdom, science has a real money value. The want of this knowledge has been most forcibly thrust upon our attention by the cattle plague. It comes upon us, as came the cholera, when we are entirely unprepared to receive it, and our cattle doctors stare at each other in their wretched ignorance, write bald letters to the daily journals, and seek to bury the evidences of their own stupidity in the free use of the poleaxe! In the mean- time, the cattle-feeder and the dairyman are left to the tender mer- cies of the most impudent pretenders. In future years, this period of difficulty will be spoken of as one marking the blind ignorance of a people who boasted of the march of intellect, but who had, in many respects, fallen sadly into the rear. Now that the disease has spread over the length and breadth of the land, men are beginning to study its pathology. Sanitary science slowly makes itself felt, yet, curiously enough, with the evidence of its advantages in the preservation of health and the improvement of the people which have been brought under its influence, many bodies of men stoutly resist what they are pleased to call its interference. Many of our large towns—especially Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester, and Leeds—still remain in a most disgraceful state, and villages, singularly picturesque when “distance lends enchantment to the view,” are foul and offensive as you approach them. Many of these are now found to be, instead of the homes of health and rosy cheeks, well-devised nurseries of fever. The Social Science meeting of this year drew attention to many of those evils, physical and moral, and the discussions which arose on many of the questions cannot be without their influence for good. No doubt, there are many things comprehended under the singularly expansive title of sanitary science which have little claim to attention, and which serve only to create a smile. Numerous hobbies are ridden with desperate energy on the occasion of these meetings—regarding these, however, as the waste and useless steam blown off, a large reserve of power is left, which can be advantageously applied. 142 Annual Retrospect. [Jan., The means of communicating between the guard and the passen- gers in railway trains has received much attention during the year, but with very slight advantage. On the South-Western Railway an experiment has been fairly tried, with, we believe, evident ad- vantage to all concerned. But railway boards are evidently pos- sessed with the genius of procrastination, and are ever postponing the consideration of improvements, until they are forced upon them by the uncontrollable impetuosity of a public outery, excited by some frightful accident or other. To return to the natural sciences, Geology has something to report. It has proved the existence of life in the world during geological ages which have been considered, as it regards organiza- tion, a blank, and to which the term of azote (void of life) has been given. Long previous to the origin of the Silurian and Cambrian strata, which were regarded as the oldest sedimentary formations, vast masses of rock had been accumulating in the ancient seas. These have been detected by Sir William Logan in the Laurentian chain of Canada, and by Sir Roderick Murchison in the ancient rocks of the north of Scotland, to which the name of Fundamental Gneiss was given. The Laurentian rocks of Canada contain a zoophyte, the Hozoon Canadense, which is certainly the most ancient organi- zation known to exist. The discovery of this Foraminifer in the lowest known deposit confirms the doctrine that the lowest animals alone occur in the earliest zone of life, and that this beginning was followed through long periods by creations of higher and higher animals successively. ‘T’he evidence is before us, that through the prolonged periods comprehended within the Lower Silurian epoch, no vertebrate animal has been discovered. Fishes begin to appear in the Upper Silurian zone, and they have been continued to the present day. New forms of vertebrate animals have succeeded each other as we ascend in the scale, until in the overlying Secondary and Tertiary formations, higher and higher grades of animals appear, the relics of man or his works having been discovered in the youngest of the Tertiary deposits. The geologist and the archzologist have here points of contact. The discovery of the rude works of early races of men in drift de- posits and in limestone caves, associated with the remains of animals which no longer exist, unmistakably shows the age of man far 1866. | Annual Retrospect. 143 back in time. This interesting question is not, however, to be re- garded as a settled one. Even the best authorities see reasons for holding these hypotheses loosely, hopmg that extended researches may clear up many points which now remain obscure or doubtful. The divisions of a Stone Age and a Bronze Age have been questioned. Mr. Wright is disposed to believe that all bronzes are Roman, and that the use of stone implements and weapons may have been continued, by the untrained tribes inhabiting a country, at the very time when the more cultivated inhabitants of cities were manu- facturing both bronze and iron into articles for use or ornament. The discovery of flint implements im every part of Europe and in the East proves, not as some have supposed, the extension of the same races of men, but rather that pre-historic man, of every race, when he was compelled by his necessities to employ his mind in the production of tools, chose stones at first, as they were most con- veniently at hand. The selection of such as were best fitted for cutting instruments, or for delivering a blow, would be the next stage of development. Geographical Science has been active, and many of our enter- prizing travellers have added largely to our knowledge of the Earth’s surface. Vambéry brings us fresh information from the lands ren- dered interesting to us all as the scene of the exploits of Timour Khan, and over which travelled our ancient friend Marco Paulo. The Geographical Society, urged on chiefly by the suggestions of Captain Sherard Osborn, has been occupied with considerations of a new Arctic expedition. Though earnestly advocated by the Pre- sident and many influential members of the Geographical Society, the question of another expedition has not received any encourage- ment from the Government, owing, no doubt, to the dangers that beset it, and which have already been fatal to so many brave men. - In the meantime, Mr. Hall is dwelling amongst the Esquimaux. He is said to have found Franklin’s ships, and he is following up a track which he hopes may lead to more important discoveries An important work has been carried out through the agency of the officers of our Ordnance Trigonometrical Survey. Sir Henry James, R.E., directed a survey of Jerusalem and of the Dead Sea to be made by Captain Wilson, R.E., and a party of Sappers under him. This has been carefully done, and the true condition of the 144 Annual Retrospect, [Jan., Dead Sea relative to the Mediterranean has been set at rest. Much progress has been made towards raising the fund necessary for a complete survey of the Holy Land. It is contemplated, if money enough for the work can be obtained, to place each special subject in the hands of well-known men, and thus ensure the best possible information on the Archeology, Geology, Geography, History, Zoology, Botany, and Meteorology of this interesting region. In African exploration we have to record the failure of the Kast African expedition, under Baron C. von der Decken, and that of Du Chaillu in the West. At the same time we have the satis- faction of having Mr. 8. W. Baker amongst us, the discoverer of a vast lake, the Albert Nyanza, “a limitless sheet of blue water, sunk low in a vast depression of the country.” The western shore, some sixty miles distant’ from Mr. Baker’s place of observation, consisted of a range of mountains, 7,000 feet in height. There is no doubt but that this lake and the Victoria Nyanza of Speke ~ and Grant are the great reservoirs of the Nile. Of Mr. Palgrave’s interesting journeys in Arabia full mention has been made in the Geographical Chronicles of this journal, and we must now in conclusion add a few brief words on the subject of Natural History. A record of Zoological progress will be found in another portion of this number, and as far as the application of Zoology and Botany to the Arts is concerned, there is but little of. mterest to be noted. Of the most vital importance to man are the efforts beng made, and we are happy to say successfully, to cultivate the Cinchona plant in India. The plantations on the Neilgherries are thriving beyond expectation, and a large supply of quinine may doubtless be looked for from this source. And the successful cultivation of this useful plant in one of our colonies is an unanswerable argument in favour of further researches in all our colonies on the subject of their floras generally. These researches have been pushed forward most vigorously of late by Dr. Grisebach in the British West Indies, by Bentham and Miller in Australia, by Dr. G. Lawson in Canada, and Dr. Hooker in New Zealand. Indeed, if there be one lesson more than another that an enterprizing people should lay to heart, it is that they should not judge hastily which of their colonies are useful, and which are not. The only justification that a nation such 1866.] Annual Retrospect. 145 as we are, can find for having extended our conquests far and wide, is that it enables our civilizing influence to be felt in savage lands, and our cultivating care in waste places; and it cannot be too strongly urged upon our Government that their first duty abroad is to turn to good account all the products of nature, and to give employment to the intelligent pioneers of ever'y branch of science. Much good has been rendered to Zoological science by Mr. H. B. Tristram, who has made an extensive collection of animals in Pales- tine, which have afforded work for some of our leading zoologists at home; indeed, it seems surprising that the fauna of a country rendered so interesting by tradition should have been so little known in Great Britain. And now the mention of Zoology and tradition will, no doubt, have suggested to many of our readers that delicate problem, the Origin of Species, and consequently the Origin of Man. Although to the unscientific world it may appear that the whole question slum- bers, this is far from being the case. Day by day new evidence is adduced either for or against the theory of natural selection and the transmutation of species; and surely, but silently, a revolution is taking place in the method of recording natural history. That silence we shall not at present attempt to break ; for it is as essential to the progress of knowledge and to the attamment of truth as are the hidden processes which are going on in the secret places of nature, or in the closed workshops of art, before the new life can be revealed, or the finished work exhibited. But we teel bound to say a few words concerning some of the means now adopted to attempt the elucidation of the most interesting and difficult problem of the day—namely, the origin and development of man. We have at the present time in London two competing societies, publishing two competing journals, both of which, under different titles—the ‘ Ethnological’ and the ‘ Anthropological ’— profess themselves anxious to throw light upon this obscure and warmly-debated subject. A glance at the proceedings of these two societies would lead the unprejudiced observer to form rather a humble estimate of the efforts of science in this di- rection, for it is hardly possible to be present at their meetings, or to peruse a Number of the respective journals, without at once perceiving that one of the most serious and important scientific VOL. II. L 146 Annual Retrospect. | Jan, questions of the day is being treated, to speak mildly, in a sen~ sational rather than a rational and legitimate manner. Whichever way we turn, we are met by personal recrimination, bad puns, exhibitions of vanity, and anything but the evidences that man is a reflecting, reasoning creature. We are not going to condemn utterly either the Anthropological or the Ethnological Society. To judge from the account given in the ‘ Ethnological Journal’ of the establishment of the ‘ Anthropological, we feel convinced, although the writer of the article thinks otherwise, that a new society was to some extent a necessity of the “situation ;” but when we turn to the ‘ Anthropological Journal, or consider the mode in which its officers seek to attract public attention, we find with regret that the need has not been supplied in a manner worthy of this great nation. Just imagine two large societies, reckoning amongst their members some of the leading investigators of the day, established for the purpose of elucidating their own human nature and the history of their race, calling each other names, and squabbling like a couple of school- boys whether this or that one has a right to say aloud the lesson which both are just beginning to learn ! There is ample room for both societies to investigate the origin and nature of man, and other germane subjects, and we should not be surprised to see established, before long, a third society, which would certainly succeed if it sought to combine the modest, moderate, and self-sacrificing men of both parties. What appears to us to be needed for the elucidation of the subject, is not a medley of desultory papers on the negro, cannibalism, anthropology, philology, and so forth, but a well-devised pro- gramme or scheme, somewhat of the nature of a commission, which shall bring together all relevant facts; sift and prune, suggest and search; until we shall have presented to us,an uncoloured and accu- rate, though it may be at present an imperfect outline of the rise, development, and present condition of the human race throughout the world. There are men of science living who are well qualified to co-operate in such a labour, but for the reasons already assigned, they hold aloof from the controversy, and are content to wait for the return of calm judgment and courtesy into the councils of anthropological or ethnological science. A new year now dawns upon us, a year that may be barren of 1866. | Annual Retrospect. 147 incident, or pregnant with important revelations, and one that will assuredly be too short for every earnest student of Science ; for all who seek to place her in her legitimate rank in civilization and religion. Let us, then, not wrangle about words, nor seek to elbow our way into a higher seat than our neighbours, lest we find ourselves in the lowest seat of all; but giving without stint of the knowledge that is so freely given to us, let us diligently and hopefully continue our search after Truth. C148" | Jan., Quarterly List of Publications receised for Webielw. i. Introduction to Modern Chemistry, Experimental and Theoretic. Embodying Twelve Lectures delivered in the Royal College of Chemistry, London. By A. W. Hofmann, LL.D., F.RBS., V.P.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines, &e. &e. 65 Woodcuts. 250 pp. Post 8vo. Walton & Maberly. . On the Combining Power of Atoms. By A. W. Hofmann, LL.D., F.R.S. 30 pp. Demy 8vo. From the Author. . The Record of Zoological Literature. 1864. Vol. I. Edited by Dr. Giinther, M.A., F.Z.8., &e. 640 pp. Demy 8vo. Van Voorst. . Treatise on Iron Ship-building : its History and Progress, as com- prised in a Series of Experimental Researches on the Laws of Strain; the Strengths, Forms, and other Conditions of the Material; and an Inquiry into the Present and Prospective State of the Navy, including the Experimental Results on the Resisting Powers cf Armour Plates and Shot at high Velo- cities. By Wm. Fairbairn, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S. With 126 Engravings. 350 pp. Demy 8vo. Longman & Co. . On some Physical Effects produced by the Contact of a Hydro- gen Flame with various Bodies. By W. F. Barrett, Assistant in the Physical Laboratory of the Royal Institution. 9 pp. 8vo. From the Author. . Researches on Solar Physics. By Warren De la Rue, Ph.D., F.R.S., Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Kew Observatory, and Benjamin Loewy, Observer and Computer to the Kew Observatory. First Series. On the Nature of Sun- spots. 33 pp. Royal 4to. From the Authors. . Handbook of Geological Terms. Geology and Physical Geo- graphy. By David Page, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Second edition. 500 pp. Crown 8vo. Blackwood & Sons. . On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. Third edition. 550 pp. Post 8vo. John Murray. 1866. | List of Publications received for Review. 149 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. £7. 18. 19. On the various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are fertilized by Insects, and on the good Effects of Intercrossing. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. With 34 Wood-engravings. 3870 pp. Post 8vo. John Murray. Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries visited during the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘ Beagle’ round the World. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. Tenth thousand. 530 pp. Post 8vo. John Murray. On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants. By Charles Darwin, F.R.S., F.L.8. 1865. Taylor & Francis. From the Author. Report of the United States Patent Office for 1862. 2 vols. Vol. I. Text; Vol. II. Plates. Washington Government Printing Office. Contributions to Blowpipe Analysis. By E. J. Chapman, Ph D., Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in University College, Toronto. 20 pp. Demy 8vo. From the Author. Cholera Prospects; compiled from Personal Observation in the East, for the Information and Guidance of Individuals and Governments. By Tilbury Fox, M.D. Lond. 40 pp. Demy 8vo. Hardwicke. A Treatise on Smoky Chimneys, their Cure and Prevention. By Frederick Edwards, jun. Second Edition, with Plates. 40 pp. Demy 8vo. R. Hardwicke. Our Domestic Fireplaces ; a Treatise on the Economical Use of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke; with Observations on the Patent Laws. By Frederick Edwards, jun. Second Edition, with Plates. 110 pp. Royal 8vo. R. Hardwicke. Inorganic Chemistry for Science Classes. By Fearnside Hudson, F.C.8., Government Certificated Science Master, Manchester. 200 pp. Crown 8vo. From the Author.’ Seven Lectures on Scripture and Science. By John Eliot Howard, F.L.8. 240 pp. Crown 8vo. Groombridge § Sons. Catalogue of Works on the Microscope and of those referring to Microscopical Subjects in the Library of Freeman C. 8. Roper, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.Z.S., &. Printed for private circulation. Adlard, 1865. 150 List of Publications received for Review. |Jan., 1866. PAMPHLETS. On Chemical Reactions obtained by employing Anhydrous Liquids as Solvents, By G. Gore, F.R.S. Proceedings of the British Pharmaceutical Conference. Birmingham Meeting, 1865. 90 pp. Demy 8vo. From the Conference. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Impériale Zoologique d’Acclima- tation. Aug., Sept., Oct. Masson & Fils. Rinderpest, its Prevention and Cure; and Gypsum as a Sanitary Agent. Hdinburgh: W. P. Nimmo. Revue Universelle des Mines, de la Métallurgie, &c. Paris and Liege: Noblet & Baudry. A Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. Edited by W. T. Brande, D.C.L., F.R.S., and the Rev. Geo. W. Cox, M.A. Parts VI., VIT., VIII. Longmans & Co. Geological Magazine : Oct., Nov., Dec. Longmans & Co. The Production and Preservation of Lakes by Ice Action. By Thomas Belt. 8 pp. Demy 8vo. From the Author. Westminster Review : October. Tribner & Co. Report of the Health of Liverpool. Sept. 2, 1865. By W.S. Trench, M.D., Medical Officer of Health, Liverpool. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist: August. Montreal : Dawson Brothers. Scientific Review : Nov. and Dec. Cassell, Petter, & Galpin. Ethnological Journal: October, November. Trubner & Co. Proceedings of the Royal Society. . », Royal Astronomical Society. 2 », Royal Geographical Society. - »» Chemical Society of London. x », Geological Society of London. e » Zoological Society of London. London; Printed by W. Clowes & Sons, Stamford Street and Charing Cross. Quarterly Journal of Science N°X. at al et Lith s, de c | JOF Vincent B 7 THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. APRIL, 1866. I. DARWIN AND HIS TEACHINGS. (Lllustrated.) Iv may seem strange to many thinking men, and to posterity it will doubtless appear inexplicable, that at this era in his history Man should still be obliged to approach with hesitation and reserve a subject so matter-of-fact as the Origin of Species, and that the publication of his views concerning his own animal nature and origin should always be accompanied by grave misgivings. But when we remember how few there are who can dissociate such inquiries from their religious creed, and with what reluctance such persons venture upon investigations that might have a tendency to shake the faith in which they have been educated ; when we con- sider that many professors of theology conceive it to be their duty to foster these misgivings on the part of their “ flocks,’ and to denounce men of science as instruments of the Evil one; then indeed it is not surprising that great courage should be needed for the exer- cise of unfettered thought and for the expression of what may be regarded as heterodox opinions. These checks upon the intellectual development of the human race, and this slow growth of free inquiry, are not, however, entirely without their advantages, nay, paradoxical as it may seem, they are in some degree essential to the steady progress of truth. The wisest men frequently err, and there are many who would have been thankful if an unfriendly critic had nipped some well-matured theory in the bud ; the enterprising and impetuous reformer stands in greatest need of controlling agencies and a:tverse judgments; and the masses would remain stagnant and uninfluenced by men of thought and observation if these were con- tinually pushing onward heedless of the difficulties and disdaining the shortcomings of the multitudes, whom they should seek to lead, and not to drive along the tortuous and thorny paths of discovery. Nothing, indeed, would be more unfortunate than if, at the present day, when man’s thoughts outstrip his power of locomotion, there should be too great leniency in the judgment of new dogmas, for VOL. III. M f- 7. Ae 152 Darwin and his Teachings. | April, there would soon be a transition from liberty to licence, which would inevitably be succeeded by a reaction fatal to progress. It appears wholly unnecessary to seek examples of the truth of these propo- sitions, for who that will be at the trouble of thinking over the names of men conspicuous for their attainments in any department of human knowledge, in science, politics, or literature, can fail to alight upon numerous apt illustrations; but nowhere, we think, could a more perfect exemplification of what has here been advanced be found, than in the publication, reception, and influence of the teachings of Charles Darwin. . | In one place we find the author and his theories vehemently denounced as subversive of all religious and moral truth ; in another, he is held up as the founder of a new faith, and is almost deified by men who can see in nature nothing but a self-acting machine, whilst in Darwin, who is an apt student of nature, they manage to per- ceive a master-mind ! It has been chiefly urged against his theory of “ Natural Selec- tion,” by persons otherwise disposed to adopt his Zoological doctrine, that he attributes too much to “ Nature,” and too little to God. “It has been said,” he himself remarks,* “that I speak of natural selec- tion as an active power or Deity, but who objects to an author speaking of the attraction of gravity as ruling the movements of the planets? Everyone knows what is meant and implied by such metaphorical expressions ; and they are almost necessary for brevity.” But this and other explanations or justifications which appear im the later, but not in the early editions of his master-work,t do not seem to remove what is decidedly the objectionable portion of his theory, nor to strengthen its weak points. We are not now speak- ing of the religious or irreligious tendency of the omission, but simply of the defect in his biological dogma, for, as we shall endea- vour to show, “ Natural Selection ” is of itself not sufficient to explain the phenomena, past and present, of nature. Or, lest we should be met on the threshold of our inquiry by the objection that the illustrious naturalist does not claim for “ Natural Selection” any such power, let us rather say that all the causes denoted by him, whether clearly, or (as it appears to us in some cases) ambiguously, are insufficient to produce even the phenomena included by him within the limits of his law, much less to accomplish those results which some of his disciples have justly stated, must follow as a matter of course from its admission, although he studiously avoids their nearer observation or discussion. Tn these and other remarks upon Darwin’s views, let it be clearly * «Origin of Species,’ p. 85. (Murray.) Unless otherwise stated, our references will always be to the third edition, 1861. + Compare, for example, ‘Origin of Species,’ first edition, p. 81, with third edition, pp. 84 and 85, where a paragraph is inserted ; also, first edition, p, 83, with third edition, p. 87, where “ natural selection ” is substituted for ‘ nature.’ ’ * 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. 150 understood that we have no ambition to be reckoned among his censors ; but whilst we admit his right of free speech, and applaud his fearless exercise of it, we feel quite justified, without rendering ourselves subject to the imputation of disrespect towards a great thinker and (judging from his works) a good man, in handling bis dogmas without ceremony or reservation. Whilst it is impossible not to perceive in his writings the dic- tates of a heart naturally reverential towards God and full of sym- pathy for his fellow-men,* there can be no doubt that the general body of his readers, whether lay or clerical, scientific or popular, must necessarily have received the impression that he endeavours to force the Deity out of sight, and to endow “ Natural Selection” with Omnipotence and Omniscience. Take, for example, the fol- lowing sentences from among many similar ones, which may be found even in the later and corrected edition of his work on the ‘Origin of Species :’ “ As man can produce, and certainly has produced a great result by his methodical and unconscious means of Selection, what may not Natural Selection effect? Man can act only on external and visible characters; Nature (¢f I may be allowed thus to personify the natural preservation of varying and favoured individuals during the struggle for existence) cares nothing for appearances, except in so far as they are useful to any beng. She can act on every internal organ, on every shade of constitutional difference, on the whole machinery of life. Man selects only for his own good— Nature only for that of the being which she tends. Every selected character is fully exercised by her, and the being is placed under well-suited conditions of life.”t In the earlier editions, the word “ Nature” stood for “ Natural Selection,” underlined in the foregoing extract, and the italicised sentence, intended to be explanatory of the latter term, was omitted altogether. Here, and in many other parts of his work, where the desire for “brevity” cannot be pleaded as an excuse, the author manifestly endows “ Nature” with the intelligent faculty of design- ing and planning, and when it is remembered how rapidly (often indeed too rapidly) public criticism now follows the publication of new works ; how these are devowred on their first appearance by literary gourmands before they can be carefully digested by expe- rienced and thoughtful men of science, it will be clear that the new doctrine of Darwin must have borne with it an element far more antagonistic to its own universal acceptance than any that have since been associated with it by the more impetuous and indiscreet of * See his ‘ Naturalist’s Voyage round the World’ (tenth edition, Murray, 1860), pp. 158, 500, 503; ‘Origin of Species,’ pp. 515, 525; ‘On the Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Fertilized by Insects’ (Murray), p. 2. + ‘Origin of Species,’ p. 87. mM 2 154 Darwin and his Teachings. | April, his disciples, or than any obstacles that literary conservatism or sectarian intolerance may have thrown across its path. And this is, indeed, much to be regretted on many grounds, not the least important being, that at the time when his views on the “Origin of Species” were first promulgated, the state of the public mind rendered great caution advisable in the publication of physical theories apparently opposed to religious tradition. The pruning- knife had been very ruthlessly applied to the tree of knowledge during the few years previous to the appearance of Darwin's book, and we know how at least one noble mind sank under the pres- sure of dogmas at variance with his previous theological beliefs. True, the large majority of thinking men, first savans, next laymen, and finally clergymen, had become reconciled to the new light which shone upon a world, now admitted to have been in existence ages of ages instead of a few thousand years, and the period of man’s advent had also been removed to an earlier date than that assigned to it by tradition; but there were millions whose minds were still encrusted with the old doctrine, and thousands ready to seize upon any indiscretion on the part of natural philosophers, and to strangle the new-born infant of Science at its birth. But whilst all those facts which led to the revolution in men’s minds concerning the six days’ creation were clearly engraved upon the works of nature, and carried conviction to all who chose to observe and reflect, there is undeniably mixed up with the new law, or we should say, the recently revived doctrine of the transition of species a sufficiently large amount of speculation to preclude its acceptance otherwise than as a well-founded hypothesis. Many able men who have re- linquished the biblical version of the creation, still, consciously or unconsciously, take their biological and zoological doctrines from the sacred writings, and some of these contend that the words “after his kind,” and “after their kind,” which so frequently occur in the first chapter of Genesis, mean the special creation, by a supernatural or miraculous intervention of the Almighty, of each new species, and of course to such reasoners there is-no difficulty in accounting for the origin of man in conformity with the traditional account of his creation. Others, again, who are opposed to Darwin's views, do not base their opposition upon Scripture alone, but they say, and truly, that no new species has ever been known to come into existence either by natural or by artificial selection within the historic period, notwithstanding that experimentalists have, with one purpose or another, succeeded in breeding or producing innu- merable widely divergent varieties of existing § species. But although the twofold nature of the argument against Dar- win’s views has told heavily against their acceptance, we believe reflecting men will soon find that the opposition on theological grounds cannot hold its place, and that it resembles in its character Vt 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. 158 all the preceding cases of antagonism to innovations of a hke nature ; indeed, it would be idle to conceal the fact, that Darwin already reckons amongst his disciples many scientific clergymen and ministers of the different religious denominations. The scriptural account of the creation of plants and animals presents as many difficulties one way as the other. The Uiteral translation of Genesis 1. 2, runs thus—*“ And God said, the earth shall sprout forth sprouts, herb yielding seed, fruit-tree yielding fruit after its kind, whose seed (is) im itself, upon the earth; and it was so.” And of y. 20, thus— “And God said, the waters shall bring forth abundantly the prolific creation, a living soul, and fowl (that) may fly above the earth on the face of the expanse of heaven.”* Excepting for those who still believe in the doctrine that all plants and animals took their rise at one time, when the command was given, and were created in two days, we cannot conceive how this account can be held to convey any scientific exposition of the mode in which species were produced. We may be im error, but it does not appear to us to affirm more than the grand truth—that the Almighty created plants and animals, and that the former con- tained seeds “after their kind,” or for their propagation ; and (natu- rally enough when we consider to what class of minds it was addressed) it does not even hint at the mode in which animals were to be perpetuated. If, however, the reference to the earth and waters bringing forth plants and animals, presents any special evidence on the subject, it is rather in favour of their production through secondary agencies, than by a direct miraculous imterposi- tion for the purpose of making species. But suppose the account is meant to indicate (which, however, we do not for a moment believe) that all species were created as they stood or moved, by one grand miracle, how are we to explain the subsequent production of varieties by “nature” or by man? Those who hold the “ orthodox” view must supplement it by an original doctrine of their own, and roust believe that after having created species Himself by mizaculous intervention, the Almighty must have deputed “ Nature” and man to make varieties; or if (as we ave fully convinced is the case) He has been as directly instrumental in the production of varieties as in that of species, what becomes of the miraculous creation of the former? As far, then, as the abstract theological bearing of the question is concerned, it becomes, as in most similar cases, a matter of individual opinion; but, on the other hand, it will be found presently, that if we were to admit the entire correctness of Darwin's theory, as expounded by himself, we should find ourselves involved in difficulties quite as grave and perplexing as those pre- sented by the miraculous version, and we will now direct our atten- tion more immediately to his teachings. * Dr. A. Benisch’s ‘ Translation of the Pentateuch.’ 156 Darwin and his Teachings. [ April, Before the publication of his views, the large majority of natu- ralists believed that “species” were distinct creations, chiefly on the ground that, when crossed, they are unable to produce fertile offspring ; but that varieties which are fertile when crossed, are the modified descendants of species by generation. A considerable minority, who saw the difficulty of defining the limits of species and varieties, felt convinced that both are modified descendants of preceding species—in fact, that there has been a gradual progres- sion from lower to higher forms of life, and that the terms “ variety,” “species,” “genus,” “ family,” &c., however convenient for classi- ficatory purposes, are arbitrary designations invented by Man, and have no actual existence in Nature. But then the question arose—how were these modifications brought about? It is true that many species were found to be very closely allied in their external characters through imtermediate living varieties, or through fossil representatives ; but the existence of those did not suffice to account for the change from one species to another, for it was a well-established fact that whilst there seemed to be hardly any limit to the production of fertile varieties, as soon as it was attempted to cross two species, either they refused to breed or they produced an infertile offspring. Many and ingenious were the theories of progression or transmutation propounded by various authors, either openly or anonymously, as in the case of the ‘ Vestiges of Creation ;’ but the doctrine which presented the most philosophical aspect was that of Lamarck, the celebrated French naturalist, who, about fifty or sixty years since, enunciated the theory that the different types of animals became modified during the ordinary succession of generations through the influence of their desires and wants, which compelled them to exercise certain organs and members in such a manner as to induce an extension, growth, or development of those organs in preponderance over others.* Lamarck also believed in an unknown law of progressive development. At first, his theory took naturalists by surprise, but it soon appeared to assume a somewhat Indicrous character, for it seemed absurd to suppose that by any such process of modification the neck of a deer-like animal should have been stretched to that of a giraffe, or the snout of a tapir into the trunk of an elephant; just as we find persons in the present day who laugh at Darwin’s theory, as they cannot conceive it possible that some lovely com- panion, or intellectual savant, to whom they are showing a stuffed gorilla, should be the descendant, however remote, of so hideous an animal as stands before them. It must be remembered, however that smce Lamarck published his views, many fossil types interme- * The best reference on this subject will be found in Darwin’s ‘ Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species,’ p. 13, 3rd. edit. 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. 157 diate between allied recent ones, have been found which, had they been known at that time, would, to a great extent, have removed these difficulties, and would probably have secured a larger share of popularity for his doctrine. But what appears the strangest of all is that it has been the fashion of late with some of the disciples of Darwin, in their zeal for the establishment of his theory, to decry or under-estimate the value of Lamarck’s doctrine. Not so with the illustrious naturalist himself, as any one may find, who refers to his introduction to the third edition of his ‘Origin of Species ;’ and we think he has exhi- bited a sound judgment in giving full credit to the labours of his eminent predecessor. One of his most ardent admirers, however, Professor Huxley, told the working classes of London, shortly after Darwin’s great work had appeared, that “when people tell them that Mr. Darwin’s strongly-based hypothesis is nothing but a mere modification of Lamarck’s, they would know what to think of their capacity for forming a judgment on the subject.”* Why the eminent physiologist in question should thus visit with his denunciations those who venture to differ from him on this interesting and obscure subject, we are at a loss to understand ; but we cannot help admitting that we are guilty of this indiscretion. In several portions of Darwin’s work, especially in his paragraphs on ‘The Effects of Use and Disuse’ (first edition, p. 134—third edition, p. 151), we cannot help seeing a resuscitation of Lamarck’s doctrine; and as-to his ‘Law of Progressive Development,’ it appears to us about the same as Darwin’s ‘ Law of Variation ;’ and a more legitimate mode of expressing a mysterious influence than Professor Huxley’s ‘Tendency to Variation.’ “The tendency to reproduce the original stock,” says Mr. Huxley, “has, as it were, its limits; and side by side with it, there is a tendency to vary in certain directions, as if there were two opposing powers working upon the organic being—one tending to take it m a straight line, the other tending to make it diverge from that straight line first to one side and then to another.”{ And again, “This tendency to variation is less marked in that mode of propagation which takes place asexually; it is in that mode that the minor characters of animal and vegetable structures are most completely preserved.” +t No one who reflects upon these observations, and the pheno- mena of conjugation, generally, can fail to be less strongly impressed with its mysterious influences than were Lamarck, Darwin, Professor Huxley, and others; and yet men either deny the constant opera- tion of the Deity, or are seeking in the past for miracles to glorify him, whilst they fail to perceive them in the results of those generative processes with which they have become familiarized * ‘Lectures to the Working Men’ (Hardwicke), p. 150. + Ibid., p. 89. t Ibid., p. 89. 158 Darwin and his Teachings. { April, through their every-day occurrence, and whose effect in the modi- fication of species has never yet been properly considered. Notwithstanding that the doctrme of “ progressive develop- ment” was (and for that matter is still, by many thoughtless persons) branded as atheistical, and although it had been sup- ported only by the imperfect observation of a few biologists, and the still more imperfect yecords of nature, it had been gaining ground rapidly for some time before Darwin ventured to revive it, endorsed by the results of an extensive experience, a long-continued course of study and reflection, and the honest convictions of a sincere lover of truth. Darwin was no apprentice in science when he gave publicity to his views. In the winter of 1831, when he had attained his twenty-second year, having been educated and taken his B.A. degree at Christ’s College, Cambridge, he volunteered his gratuitous services as naturalist on board of H.M. surveying ship ‘ Beagle,’ Captain Fitzroy, R.N., and made a voyage, or it would be more correct to say a continuous series of voyages, in that vessel to Bahia, thence to Rio Janeiro, Monte Video, Ports Desire, St. Julian, and Santa Cruz; the Falkland Islands, Terra del Fuego, Valparaiso, Chilée, Lima, some of the islands of the South Pacific, New Zealand, Sydney, Van Dieman’s Land, Mauritius, St. Helena, Bahia, Pernambuco, and back to Englan:!, where he arrived on the 2nd October, 1836, having been absent nearly five years, and making various exploring expeditions along the coast, into the interior or to the islands adjacent to the ports where the ‘ Beagle’ stopped. As ten thousand copies of the Journal of his researches during the lengthy voyage had been printed in 1860, we may safely infer that most of our readers are well acquainted with the contents of the volume, and few will be disposed to deny it the merit of being one of the most charming and attractive books of travel ever given to the world. But irrespective of its undoubted merit in this regard, and irre- spective, too, of its value as a record of the scientific and social his- tory of the lands and peoples visited by the illustrious naturalist, it now possesses a fresh value, inasmuch as its re-perusal, after the study of his book on the ‘Origin of Species,’ materially aids the inquirer in arriving at a correct estimate of the value of his new biological doctrine. Whilst we find in the ‘ Journal’ that vast store of information which served as the starting-point for his further researches and the basis of many of his subsequent arguments, we cannot help being struck with the fact that his views must have undergone great modification between the time of his arrival in England in 1886 and the first publication of his great work on Species in 1859. When he wrote or published the ‘Journal,’ in 1845, he could hardly be regarded as a very staunch believer in the progressive theory ; we are Justified in coming to this conclusion by the opening remarks in his ‘Origin of Species,’ where he tells us ~~” ee mh 1866. | Darwin and lis Teachings. 159 that during his voyage “certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America,” &., &., “seemed to throw some light on the origin of species.” Strangely enough, even as late as 1860, we find in his ‘Journal of Researches’* the following expression concerning his predecessor: “ Lamarck would have been delighted with this fact, had he known it, when speculating (pro- bably with more truth than usual with him) on the gradually- acquired blindness of the aspalax—a gnawer, living underground, and of the proteus, a reptile living im dark caverns filled with water ;’ whilst in the introduction to his new edition of the ‘ Origin of Species,’ published the following year, he speaks of Lamarck and his theory in such terms as would lead the general reader to suppose that he regards them with the highest admiration. Moreover, although the theories enunciated in his ‘Origin of Species’ are foreshadowed in his ‘ Journal,’} we cannot anywhere find a decided expression of opinion as to the origin of species by descent, although there seems to be a kind of vague idea pervading the whole work, that new species must have originated through some such process. This piece of evidence is of itself valuable to a student seeking to measure the mind of an author who propounds a doctrine widely at variance with popular views, for the published opinions of such a man, in fact, his whole public character necessarily guide the investigator in forming an estimate of his doctrines. Darwin’s ‘Journal’ shows him to have possessed at that time traits which peculiarly adapted him to enter upon such an inquiry as he subse- quently undertook. From his ‘ Journal,’ he appeared naive and truthful, thoroughly alive to the value and influence of religion,t a wonderfully close observer of every phenomenon, whether in natural history or social life and customs. His reasoning on the phenomena of nature—as, for example, with regard to the origin of coral reefs—is irresistible ; he seems to weigh carefully everything that he or anyone else has observed before taking a single step in advance and to repeat his observations before he takes another. And through all his reasoning there appears to be no want of con- fidence in his readers. “Think for yourselves,” he seems to say, “but I feel pretty confident my way of thinking will be yours.” In fact, on reading his ‘Journal,’ one seems to travel with him ; his graphic descriptions of men and countries, extreme and startling as they often are, never awaken a doubt, and he has no need of * « Journal of Researches into the Natural Histcry and Geology of the Coun- tries visited during the Voyage of H.M.S. “Beagle” round the World.’ Tenth thousand. Murray, 1860. P. 52. + See ‘ Journal of Researches,’ 1860, pp. 131 and 132, 145 to 147,173 to 176, 327, 377, et seq.; and especially as to the “struggle for existence,” p. 435, begin- ning at line 1. { Ibid., p. 300, beginning “ With no particular zeal for religion,” &c., p. 428, second and third par.; p. 430, “ Neither is the country itself attractive. I look back but to one bright spot, and that is Waimate, with its Christian inhabitants,” 160 Darwin and his Teachings. [ April, photographs beyond those of his pen, nor of any witnesses besides himself. And there are certain phenomena connected with the nature of the lower animals and of man which appear at that time to have made a remarkable impression upon the young traveller. One of these was the “tendency to variation,” by slow degrees, m some species. Speaking, for example, of a certain venomous snake in Patagonia, a Trigonocephalus, he says— “ Cuvier, in opposition to some other naturalists, makes this a sub- genus of the rattlesnake, and intermediate between it and the viper. In confirmation of this opinion I observed a fact, which appears to me very curious and instructive, as showing how every character, even though it may be in some degree independent of structure, has a tendency to vary by slow degrees. The extremity of the tail of this snake is terminated by a point which is slightly enlarged, and as the animal glides along it constantly vibrates the last inch, and this part striking against the dry grass and brushwood pro- duces a rattling noise, which can be distinctly heard at the distance of six feet. As often as the animal was irritated or surprised, its tail was shaken, and the vibrations were extremely rapid. Even as long as the body retained its irritability a tendency to this habitual movement was evident. This Trigonocephalus has, therefore, in some respects, the structure of a viper, with the habits of a rattlesnake ; the noise, however, being produced by a simpler device.”* Another phenomenon, illustrating in a conspicuous manner his subsequent law concerning the preservation of favoured races and the extinction of others,—a most important feature in his theory of natural selection,—presented itself to his notice durimg his stay in Banda Oriental. It was connected with a peculiar breed of cattle in that country, and we will extract his account of it :— “Don F. Muniz, of Luxan, has kindly collected for me all the in- formation he could respecting this breed. From his account it seems that about eighty or ninety years ago they were rare, and kept as curiosities at Buenos Ayres. The breed is universally believed to have originated amongst the Indians southward of the Plata; and it was with them the commonest kind. Even to this day, those reared in the provinces near the Plata show their less civilized origin, in being fiercer than common cattle, and in the cow easily deserting her first calf if visited too often, or molested. It is a singular fact, that an almost similar structure to the abnormal one of the niata breed, characterizes, as Iam informed by Dr. Falconer, that great extinet ruminant of India, the Sivatherium. The breed is very true, and a niata bull and cow invariably produce niata calves. A niata bull with a common cow, or the reverse cross, produces offsprings having an in- termediate character, but with the niata characters strongly displayed. According to Sefior Muniz, there is the clearest evidence, contrary to * «Journal of Researches,’ pp. 96-7. 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. 161 the common belief of agriculturists in analogous cases, that the niata cow when crossed with a common bull, transmits her peculiarities more strongly than the niata bull when crossed with a common cow. When the pasture is tolerably long, the niata cattle feed with the tongue and palate as well as common cattle; but during the great droughts, when so many animals perish, the niata breed is under a great disadvantage, and would be exterminated if not attended to; for the common cattle, like horses, are able just to keep alive, by browsing with their lips on. twigs of trees and reeds; this the niatas cannot so well do, as their lips do not join, and hence they are found to perish before the common cattle. This strikes me asa good illus- tration of how little we are able to judge, from the ordinary habits of life, on what circumstances, occurring only at long intervals, the rarity or extinction of a species may be determined.”* We have extracted these two paragraphs at length, from his ‘Journal, to show that more than twenty-five years before the appearance of his great work on the ‘ Origin of Species,’ Darwin’s attention had been directed to, or, we should say, arrested by phenomena similar to those which he imported into that work in which we find no mention of either phenomenon although both would well have served to aid him in proving his theory; and we believe our zoological readers will agree with us that facts stated so unpremeditatedly are far more valuable than others selected by the author for the purpose of proving a point. Again, our readers will find, if they take the trouble to refer to his ‘Journal,’ that it contains much valuable information bearing upon the changes which have been effected in animals through migration, for through- out there are repeated evidences of variation in structure and habit being favoured by this cause. : One striking instance of this unconscious accumulation of evidence in favour of his subsequent convictions and, at the same time (if we rightly interpret his meaning), of his unbelief at that time in the transmutation theory, will be found in his account of the variation of species on either side of the Cordillera.t He shows that the species on the two opposite sides of this range are distinct but allied, although the climate, soil, and longitude and latitude may vary but little, and he attributes this variation to the barrier thus opposed to the migration of all but a few animals. In a note he says:—‘ This is merely an illustration of the admi- rable laws first laid down by Mr. Lyell, on the geographical distribution of animals as influenced by geological changes. The whole reasoning, of course, is founded on the assumption of the immutability of species, otherwise, the difference in the species in the two regions might be considered as superinduced during a length of time.” Of* course, in his new doctrine, he does believe that the * «Journal of Researches, pp. 146-7. + Ibid., pp. 326-7. Pages Darwin and his Teachings. [ April, difference in species is superinduced “during a length of time ;” and if we turn to his later work, we find that “neither the similarity nor dissimilarity of the inhabitants of various regions can be accounted for by their climatal and other physical con- | ditions,”"* but that barriers of any kind, or obstacles to free migra- tion are related in a close and important manner to the differences between the productions of various regions. He exemplifies this law by showing that whilst there is a very slow and gradual variation of species as one travels north and south on the continent of South America, the land barrier of the Andes causes us to find abrupt changes in species on the opposite sides of those mountains, though the actual longitudinal distance between the two regions may be small. Thus he seeks to prove that, in both cases, tame, and not miracle, has been the cause of the change in species, either in per- mitting migration to regions with different physical conditions, or im raising a barrier which impeded migration and so left the inhabitants nearly but not immediately allied. But if we find in the ‘Journal of Researches’ a very large store of information, which might have been successfully employed, had the author been so minded, in the establishment of his later theories, we cannot help being struck by the significant fact that there are many data which we should naturally have expected to find in his ‘Origin of Species, if his theory were founded on a sound and immutable basis. ‘The young naturalist was not content to observe living plants and animals, rocks and fossils, but he directed a large share of his attention to men and manners, and had the opportunity so rarely afforded to naturalists of seeing, side by side, the very lowest and the highest types of mankind; and yet, to quote the swords of one of his most enthusiastic and eminent disciples, “ Mr. Darwin has said nothing about man in his book;” but, “if Mr. Darwin’s views are sound, they apply as much to man as to the lower animals.” t Now it is a circumstance which has more than once come under our own observation, that persons who have traded on the west coast of Africa, and have come into contact with the savages there (although the latter have, to some extent, enjoyed the advantages of European intercourse), have been almost irresistibly led to embrace Darwin’s views, on the ground that the untutored beings whose habits they have been compelled to observe approximate so closely to the brutes. But the great naturalist has witnessed even more striking contrasts than they, and yet practically he is silent as to the origin of man. * «Origin of Species,’ p. 376. + Ibid., p. 376. ¢ Professor Huxley: ‘Lectures to Working Men.’ It is, however, only fair to Darwin to add that this must not be taken literally, for he does say that he expects to see light thrown on the origin and history of man, should his theory be confirmed.—‘ Origin of Species,’ 1st edition, p. 489, 1. 3 and 4; 3rd edition, p- 523, 1, 33, 34. | 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. 163 In Tierra del Fuego, he says he saw the most abject and miserable creatures he anywhere beheld.* On one occasion, all the men and women were naked, and the rain was pouring down upon them; on another, a woman, suckling an infant, “came alongside the vessel, and remained there, out of mere curiosity, while the sleet fell and thawed on her naked bosom, and on the skin of her naked baby.” These poor creatures were “stunted in their growth, their hideous faces bedaubed with white paint, their skins filthy and greasy, their hair entangled, their voices discordant, and their gestures violent.” Their wants and habits of life needed no faculties higher than those of an ape ;} their capacity for improve- ment stood at zero; their language “scarcely deserves to be called articulate,” and “certainly no European ever cleared his throat with so many hoarse, guttural, and clicking sounds :t— “One’s mind hurries back over past centuries, and then asks, could our progenitors have been men like these? men whose very signs and expressions are less intelligible to us than those of the domesticated animals; men who do not possess the instinct of those animals,§ nor yet appear to boast of human reason, or at least of arts consequent on that reason, . . . . and part of the interest in beholding a savage is the same which would lead every one to desire to see the lion in his desert, the tiger tearing his prey in the jungle, or the rhinoceros wandering over the wild plains of Africa.” _ We are compelled to curtail this, and to omit many other passages of a like tenor, but have we not quoted enough to justify our surprise that, notwithstanding the revelations of bone-caves and of the drift, which prove that our progenitors have been “‘ men like these,”{! the ablest living exponent of the transmutation theory, and the founder of the doctrine of natural selection, should never so much as refer, directly or indirectly, to the origin of man ? Of course our readers are nearly all aware of the nature of that doctrine. His work on the ‘Origin of Species’ was published towards the end of the year 1859, about twenty years after the first appearance of his ‘Journal of Researches,’ the author having, in the interim, conferred great services upon the scientific world by his later treatises on the ‘ Voyage of the Beagle, on ‘The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs,’ ‘Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands,’ ‘ Geological Observations on South America,’ and other minor publications ; indeed, he had already raised himself * «Journal of Researches,’ p. 213, t Ibid., p. 216, par. 1. t Ibid., pp. 205-6, last and first paragraphs. § He gives examples of unfeeling brutality towards their offspring of which animals are not capable. || ‘ Journal of Researches,’ p. 504. { See, as a striking illustration of this truth, the remarks of Mr. Laing, M-P., in his work on the ‘ Pre-historic Remains of Caithness’ (Williams & Norgate), especially at p. 56, where he compares the Caithness aborigines with the inhabit- ants of Terra del Fuego, as described by Darwin, 164 Darwin and his Teachings. | April, to the rank which he continues to hold, of one of the greatest naturalists the world has ever produced. When Darwin’s hypothesis concerning the origin of species is compared with that of Lamarck, that is to say, when we consider the evidence brought forward by our illustrious contemporary in support of his theory, as compared with the reasons adduced by the eminent French naturalist, who may be regarded as the original exponent of that theory,* we cannot help being astonished, first at the large amount of experience and information which had been accumulated by all classes of naturalists between the periods at which the two observers wrote; and, secondly, with the immense amount of original thought and observation that Darwin has brought to bear upon the question. This is most strikingly exhibited in the Introduction to the last edition of his work, where the author unintentionally groups around himself as writers in favour of his views, Lamarck, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, the Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, Dean of Manchester, Prof. Grant, the Author of ‘The Vestiges of Creation, Prof. Owen(!), (he had not read the Introduction to Owen’s ‘ Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrata,’ just published, or we think he might, perhaps, have omitted this celebrated paleontologist), Isidore St. Hilaire, Schaafhausen, the Rev. Baden Powell, Mr. Wallace, Prof. Huxley, Dr. Hooker, and others. We say “ unintentionally” because he does not call them believers in jis theory, but in that of the modification of species, of which he is the latest and most able exponent; and he might with propriety have added halfa-score of highly-respected and well-known naturalists (in the widest sense of the term), who, not unwisely, delayed the expression of their views until they should have had an opportunity of forming a clear and well- founded judgment upon his theory, and some of whom may be called his disciples, with a certain amount of reservation. He bases his opinion that living species are the modified descendants of other pre-existing species on various observed facts in nature. First, because it is possible to produce, and he has himself succeeded in producing, such a degree of variability in species under domestication as almost to amount to the creation of a new species, and he thinks that what he and others have been able to effect imperfectly, in a brief period of time, could easily be completely brought about by ‘‘ Nature” in a practically indefinite period. Man, he says, does not actually himself produce variability, but this is accomplished by the conditions in which he places the creatures acted upon; and if they can produce it in one case (under domestication), they can in another (in nature). Let us inquire into the accuracy of these views as we proceed, and observe that whilst we are prepared to give him the full benefit of his effects, we * Buffon had some vague ideas concerning the transmutation of species. 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. 165 must demur to his construction of causes. It is true that man does not produce variability himself, in one sense, but he does so in another, and in the highest sense. Speaking of selection by man, the author says :— “Tf selection consisted merely in separating some distinct variety and breeding from it, the principle would be so obvious as hardly to be worth notice ; but its importance consists in the great effect pro- duced by the accumulation in any direction, during successive generations, of differences absolutely inappreciable by an uneducated eye; differences which I, for one, have vainly attempted to appreciate. Not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgment sufficient to become an eminent breeder. If gifted with these qualities, and he studies his subject for years, and devotes his lifetime to it with indo- mitable perseverance, he willsucceed, and may make great improvements ; if he wants any of these qualities he will assuredly fail. Few would readily believe in the natural capacity and years of practice requisite to become even a skilful pigeon-fancier.”* If it necessitates such an amount of judgment, such indomitable perseverance, and so practised an eye to detect the slight differences needed for artificial selection, that even our illustrious experimenter and observer admits that he is unable to appreciate and avail himself of them, is it not at least a rational, or let us rather say a scientific inference, looking at the phenomena of Nature, that an Intelligence beyond our conception, but still acting in Nature as Man does in artificial breeding (for if it be otherwise, Darwin’s theory falls to the ground), that such an omniscient Intelligence, we say, is ever and ever watching, directing, and employing each minutest change, producing cause and effect, co-adapting and co-arranging all things to perfection? But we shall have occasion to show hereafter that the author does not believe that the changes referred to are brought about “by means superior to, though analogous with, human reason,” and if he has intended in some other manner to acknowledge his belief in an ever-active Providence, his volume has failed to convey such an impression. And believing that ‘“ Natural Selection” is the agency in modi- fying species, the author considers that it acts by seizing upon, and transmitting it to its progeny, any slight differences which distinguish the individual from its parent, and which may be conducive to the welfare of that imdividual. In other words, if a change is taking place in external nature (“the conditions of existence’’), and if a particular individual happen to possess an attribute, be it structural or instinctive, which better adapts it to that change, then ‘“ Natural Selection” marks that individual for its own purposes, just as man selects his ram or his ewe, his dog, his horse, or his pigeon, and the law which the author calls “the hereditary transmission of peculiarities” perpetuates the * © Origin of Species,’ pp. 32-3. 166 Darwin and his Teachings. | April, distinctive and beneficial feature in the offspring, and a new variety is formed. The gradual accumulation of such differences, trans- mitted from generation to generation, at length forms, according to Darwin’s view, a new species, then a new genus, a new “ family,” &e. The varieties, species, genera, or families not possessing these advan- tageous modifications, die out in “the struggle for existence,” from their unfitness to cope with new natural obstacles, and to live under the changed conditions by which they are surrounded. Now it will at once strike the reflecting reader, that before “Natural Selection” can lay hold of any divergences of character (physical or instinctive), those divergences must have made their appearance, and the inquiries naturally suggest themselves: How do these differences origmate? And how does it happen that the new features have been of such a nature as to render their fortunate possessor better adapted for the conditions of existence? (Of course, we do not lose sight of the fact that changes injurious to the animal or plant may also present themselves, and these, the author tells us, are neglected or unheeded by “Natural Selection,” which only seizes upon advantageous peculiarities, “favouring the good and rejecting the bad.’’*) That there may be no misunderstanding, we will hear what the author himself says on the subject: 1. “ Natural Selection ” cannot produce any variation in structure or instinct ;{ and it can only act for the good of each being,t by the preservation and accumulation of inherited modifications, each profitable to the preserved being.§ It acts only by “very short and slow steps,” and cannot produce any great, or sudden modification. | Here we must stop to inquire: If no visible external infiuence can give rise to fresh variations in structure, what other natural or secondary cause can do so? The answer is, “sexual causes,” or sexual phenomena; for such terms as “tendency to variation” or “laws of growth” do not indicate causes, but imply ignorance of them. What, then, does the author tell us about sexual causes? With him it is “ sexual selection,” and he thinks, 2. That “a change in the conditions of life,” by specially acting upon the reproductive system, causes or increases variability. But is this not reasoning in a circle, or, worse still, is 1 not a direct contradiction of his own proposition, that “natural selection” cannot produce variability ? We are not splitting hairs, nor cavilling about words, for he tells us distinctly in one place that natural selection “can act on every internal organ, on every shade of constitutional difference, on the whole machinery of life.”** And again, in another place: “It * ‘Origin of Species, p. 502, par. 2; and in many other parts of the work. t Ibid., p. 107, par. 2, “ Unless favourable.” &e ; p. 84, par. 2; p. 100, par. 2. + Ibid., p. 86, par. 2. § Ibid., p. 151, par. 1: and p. 492, par. 2. || Ibid., p. 504, par. 2. q Ibid., p. 86, par, 2. ** Thid., p. 87, par. 2. 1865. | Darwin and his Teachings. 167 (Natural Selection) can modify the egg, seed, or young, as easily as the adult.* The more one reads and reflects, the more puzzled he becomes as to the powers attributed by the author to ‘‘ Natural Selection.” At one time it is “ Nature,” and is compared to Man,t that is to say, to Man’s mind, for it acts intelligently. Again, the “ Conditions of life” are not the same as Natural Selection, for “Tndirectly, these” (the conditions of life) “seem to play an ‘ important part in affecting the reproductive system, and thus inducing variability ; and Natural Selection will then accumulate all profitable variations, however slight, until they become plainly developed and appreciable to us.t Here it is “the Conditions of life, something distinct from “Natural Selection,” that begin the work of modification; and yet, as we have been told, “ Nature,” or “ Natural Selection,” can itself act on every internal organ, on every shade of constitutional difference, on the seed, and on the egg; in fact, she, or it, can commence the work of variation as well as com- plete it. A very easy mode of solving the difficulty would be the omission of “ Nature” (which, if it means anything, means the visible world), and the substitution of “an intelligent Deity,” availing himself of His knowledge and power, and acting through His material world, to bring about all those changes to which the author refers. But, unfortunately, we are precluded from substituting such an “hypothesis” on the authority of the author, for, as we have already stated, he tells us distinctly that he does not believe the more complex organs and instincts to have been perfected “ by means superior to, though analogous with, human reason, but by the accumulation of innumerable slight variations, each good for the individual possessor.” § Is not this the same as though he were to tell us that he does not believe the perfected steam engine to be the product of human intelligence, but the gradual accumulation of slight improvements in and additions to its various parts ? But let us set aside for the present the cause, and by that we mean the active, intelligent agency, which is always modifying living beings, whether that agency be the Almighty in nature, or man by art ; and let us confine ourselves to the simple propositions that all beings are and have been the modified descendants of pre- existing ones, and that if we were fully acquainted with the biolo- gical history of the globe, we could trace all living races of plants and animals back through their ancestry to the “few forms or one” into which Darwin believes “the Creator originally breathed life. with its several powers ;”|| and also that the conditions of life in * «Origin of Species, p. 144, par. 2. § Ibid., p. 492, par. 2. t Ibid., p. 87. || Ibid., p. 525. { Ihid., p: 151, par. 1. VOL, Tt, N 168 Darwin and his Teachings. [| April, which the various living tribes have been placed, were such as favoured, or conduced to the calling forth, popularly speaking, of new powers and instincts. Thus limiting our inquiry, we find in his great book a mass of evidence almost sufficient to establish the hypothesis of Lamarck, and quite enough to justify naturalists in assuming that new species have so arisen, until some still more amplified rule is presented to them. Neither can we deny their right to adopt Darwin’s theory as their guide in classification, as the nearest approach that has yet been made to a scientific method of explaining the leading biological phenomena of nature. One great objection that has been raised against his mode of accounting for the origin of species is, that he has not himself been successful in breedmg a new variety, which, when crossed with others from the same parent stock, produced a sterile off- spring; in short, that he himself has been unable to make a new species. This fact has, we think, been unfairly weighed and treated both by the eminent investigator and his opponents. The former seeks to prove that infertility is not the infallible rule with crossed species in nature; and he takes great pains to make light, as it were, of the phenomenon as an objection to his theory. If he had succeeded in this better than he has done, he would simply have shown his unprejudiced readers that the exceptions prove the rule ; but it would, as it appears to us, have lent additional strength to his cause if he had fully admitted this well-established law of nature. For it is quite natural and completely in agreement with the view that the Almighty slowly changes the instincts and structures of living beings in accordance with the changing surface of the globe, that those instincts and structures should, by becoming more and more divergent, cease to render the possessors attractive to and con- formable with each other. This plam mode of regarding the question causes the presence of a new species to assume quite a fresh signi- ficance; and this aspect of the case appears to us well worthy of consideration. The controlling influences of external nature, although analogous to hybridism,* may not be sufficiently rapid in their operation to serve as a check upon the production of new beings, and therefore it would appear that Providence has applied hybridity as a special check,t a kind of ratchet, as it were, upon the revolving wheel of life; and thus appears to be prevented that reversion to the original stock which might otherwise take place through uncontrolled inter-crossing, and also a too rapid production of individuals on the surface of the globe. The appearance of a new species is, according to this view, to be considered as the result of an impeditive or conservative influence, rather than one of the progressive phenomena in nature. * See ‘ Origin of Species,’ p. 299, last paragraph. + In this Darwin does not believe. Sve ibid., p. 299, par. 2. 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. — : 169 As to the opponents of the theory, their readiness to employ the author’s inability to create a new species, has rarely been the result of honest scepticism, for they have rather sought to show what he has not been able to effect, than ready to estimate the value of what he has accomplished. Upon his line of argument, however, there can be little doubt that hybridism becomes a much graver objection to the theory of transmutation, than if we consider it as a special check applied by Providence (probably in the process of fertilization) and in the manner and for the purposes specified; and this is another weak point in an otherwise well-founded theory. The most striking data in favour of descent with modification, and those which are likely to be multiplied from year to year, relate to the geographical distribution of plants and animals, and to their paleontological history. We have already touched upon some of the facts observed by Darwin before he was a believer in his own doctrine, whilst still on his travels; and if our readers wish to study the subject fully, we would refer them more especially to his account of the Galapagos Islands,* and of the geographical distribution of American animals,f and would recom- mend a comparison of these his earlier researches with the chapter in his ‘Origin of Species’ upon geographical distribution. But here, it will be more useful if we bring before our readers an example of the mode in which the theory is silently working its way amongst those naturalists who are directing their attention to this phase of the subject. In Numbers II. and IV. of this Journal (April and October, 1864), there appeared two papers, one by Dr. Sclater, a general zoologist, “On the Mammals of Madagascar;” another by Mr. Trimen, of Cape Town, a lepidopterist, on the Butterflies of the same island. Of the experience and abilities of these, our contri- butors, it would be superfluous, perhaps unbecoming, on our part, to make any comment. From the two papers, it would appear, that - while the mammals of Madagascar are almost entirely peculiar to that island, having but slight affinities with those of Africa and the East Indies (chiefly with the latter), the butterflies of the same island are almost the same as those of the nearest mainland, Africa. Dr. Sclater seeks to explain the peculiarities of the Mascarene fauna, Ist, by assuming the truth of the theory of the “ Derivative Origin of Species ;” and 2nd, by supposing that anterior to the existence of Airica in its present shape, a large continent, which he proposes to eall “ Lemuria,” occupied parts of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean ; that this continent “was broken up into islands, of which some became amalgamated with the present continent of Africa, and some, probably, with what is now Asia,” and that in Madagascar and the * «Journal of Researches,’ p. 393. + Ibid., pp. 131 and 326. N 170 Darwin and his Teachings. [April, Mascarene Islands we have existing relics of this great continent, which he regards as “the original focus” of the Lemuride, the characteristic Mascarene group of animals. But Mr. Trimen could not see the necessity for the creation of this vast continent, so promptly conjured up and baptised by Dr. Sclater, finding, as he did, m Madagascar, “ eighty-one species of diurnal Lepidoptera, of which forty-seven are known to be natives of Africa, while the great majority of the remaining species exhibit un- mistakeable affinity to African forms.” Had such a continent existed as that believed in by Dr. Sclater, “how is it,” he asked, “that the same divergence of species has not taken place between Mascarene and African insects (which are numerous in individuals and rapid in succession of generations), as we find between Masca- rene and African mammals?” In concluding his article, Mr. Trimen just hints at the possibility of butterflies flymg or bemg wafted across a barrier impassable for mammals ! Now, as these curious phenomena present a direct bearing upon our inquiry, we have been seeking as much information as possible upon the past history of the localities referred to; that is to say, upon the paleontology of the east coast of Africa and the west coast of Madagascar, hoping that that would throw some light on the subject; but to our regret, we find that nothing is known of either. In the course of our inquiries, however, we received a note from one of those whom Darwin may justly reckon amongst the “young and rising men” of science, to whom he looks for the com- plete establishment of his theory, from Mr. H. M. Jenkins, the Assistant Secretary of the Geological Society, and this correspon- dent demolished Dr. Sclater’s continent of “‘ Lemuria ” almost as unceremoniously as it had been brought into existence, and substi- tuted the “imfinitely more likely hypothesis,” based upon known laws of paleontology, that ‘‘a connection had doubtless existed between Africa and Madagascar at some more or less remote tertiary period,” but that “the tide of emigration or chain of affinity (be- tween the Mascarene mammals and those of other continents) passed through Europe, sowthwards into Asia, Africa and America, m Eocene or Miocene times.”* We are not aware whether Dr. Sclater considers himself a disciple of Darwin, as does our correspondent last referred to; nor can we observe in the facts before us that either reasons strictly upon the Darwinian hypothesis, for according to the views of the great naturalist, there should be a nearer affinity between the mammals of Madagascar and those of Africa, which is separated from the island by a narrow ocean channel, than between. the former and the mammals of India, which is much further re- moved, whilst the contrary appears to be the case; but one thing * OF course we are authorized by our correspondent to publish h's views. 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. 171 is quite clear, namely, that however much these naturalists may differ from one another, two out of three agree with Darwin as to the “derivative origin of species ;” and as it appears to us, the third (Mr. Trimen) unconsciously adds another link to the strong chain of evidence in favour of his theory presented by the geographical dis- tribution of animals.* But the plain facts of paleontology, as well as its empirical laws, tell forcibly in favour of a slow and gradual modification of species. Before Darwin’s views on the subject were published, Vogt, a well-known German systematizer, had already interlinked ito his graphic account of recent forms, the fossil species which serve in some degree to bridge over the structural gaps that occur amongst the former; and from every portion of the world, as the soundings of its crust are taken, we receive fresh accounts of missing links in the chain of beings. One grave difficulty in the way of the acceptance of the new theory, which would have sufficed to daunt many an ardent investigator, has of late been partially removed. Darwin, of course, does not believe in the miraculous creation of new species, and expresses his surprise at the credulity of those authors who imagine “that at innumerable periods in the earth’s history, certam elemental atoms have been commanded suddenly to flash into living tissues ;”+ but when he asks himself, “ How far do I extend the doctrine of the modification of species ?’’f he is, or rather was, necessarily unable to give anything like a satis- factory reply ; for when he sought to trace the origin of life in the rocks, he was arrested apparently at the extremes of the palzozoic strata by fossil forms, lowly, indeed, as compared with the verte- brates, but still far higher than many that now swim our seas and streams, and it was just as difficult to explam how these were created without ancestors of a still more primitive type, as it would be to account for the Origm of Man under similar conditions. Searcely, however, had the first sounds of the violent controversy which followed the publication of his work died away, when the intelligence reached us from Canada, that in the primitive rocks there, which had been deemed void of life, the remains of a type resembling one of the lowliest living organisms had been discovered, and natu- ralists, in their accustomed haste to generalize, have termed it Eozcon—the first or earhest living being. Darwin frequently refers to the imperfection of the geological record, and although it is hardly probable that we shall ever have a perfect record whilst a large portion of our globe is covered with water, still we recognize in the discovery of the humble type alluded to, an augury that a * Vide ‘ Origin of Species,’ p. 416, beginning “ Sir Charles Lyell;” and p. 427, par. 2, as to the whole question between Dr. Sclater, Mr. Trimen, and Mr. Jenkins, + Ibid., p. 517, 1. 19, 20. t Ibid., p. 518, 1. 4. 172 Darwin and his Teachings. [ April, sufficiently extensive collection of data will be presented to us to enable us—or we should rather say, to enable posterity—to form an accurate judgment as to the order and succession of living beings im ancient times and their relations to living species. So far, these data are all in favour of the theory of the origin of species through modified descent; and a few would-be orthodox naturalists, who seek to explain the facts of paleontology otherwise, prefer to trump up absurd and, as it appears to us, irreverent theories of their own, rather than to accept the simple truth as it has pleased the wise Creator to engrave it upon his enduring tablets of stone. The investigation of the origin of life on the globe hardly comes within the limits of this inquiry, and Darwin scarcely mentions it. At present it is still very obscure, and many generations may pass away before we are enlightened with regard to the mode in which living beings originate—possibly that may be an inscrutable problem for ever—but a far more relevant and striking feature in our inquiry is the orig of Man himself. There seems to haye been an impression amongst naturalists, including many of the most able, that if the doctrine of transmutation be correct, man must neces- sarily be a direct descendant from some ape; but why this should be, it is difficult to understand. If any unprejudiced inquirer will take before him the table that illustrates Darwin’s book,* and with that for his guide, will carefully consider all the leading facts which have of late been so largely debated in connection with Man and the Simiz, we venture to think that he will not be disposed to admit the necessity of Man’s ape-origin, be he ever so firm a believer in Darwin’s theory; but, on the contrary, that he will regard it as more probable, that whilst the highest ape stands at the head of one succession of types, about to become extinct, Man is at present placed at the highest pinnacle of another; though it is highly probable, looking at his present condition and his faculty for improvement, that his past lmeage is brief when compared with its future extension. There are many obscure points connected with the ‘Origin of Species,’ on which it may be said that we have expressed ourselves with uncertainty, but there is one, respecting which we desire to be very explicit. We have no sympathy with the aversion manifested by some men towards the development theory on the ground of feeling. It was doubtless as offensive to the dignity of our fore- fathers, when they were told that they were not the denizens of a world around which the universe revolved, as it is to some persons in the present day to hear that we cannot “go with the angels” here, as long as our animal nature adheres to us. But will anyone maintain that the earth has lost any of its dignity, or is less noble, * ‘ Origin of Species,’ p. 123. | 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. 173 because it revolves around a luminary from which it has derived its being (physically speaking), but which is probably of a lower cosmical nature than it is; and should it in like manner be shown (as will probably be the case) that our animal frame is derived by the usual generative succession “from some lower stock” of animal, will anyone hereafter venture to say that man is less noble on that account ? But certain well-ascertained facts appear to militate strongly against the assumption that man is descended in a direct line from the apes. 1. Although very degraded types of mankind exist amongst us to-day, and traces of similar beings have been discovered in the later geological formations, it is admitted that no form has yet been revealed, which serves as the approach to an intermediate link. The most impetuous followers of Darwin are the most positive on this point. 2. Although we find at the present day savages almost as untutored and undomesticated as any animal “ Man,” of which we can form a conception—indeed, in some cases almost below the highest domesticated animal in their mental character—and although these beings must have existed through untold ages, often exposed to every state of the weather in absolute nakedness, there has been no reliable case of a tribe reverting to the hairy type, nor any trace of such a variety of the human race having existed as aborigines in former times. And 3. Whilst the intelligence of the apes cannot be said to have advanced in proportion to the complexity of their organization, but to have reached its climax before we approach those forms nearest to Man; the intelligence of Man appears to be of a different nature to that of the apes, which are even less capable of sympathizing with man than some of the domestic quadrupeds ; and this intelligence, suc generis, appears just to have entered upon the dawn of its development, and to present an unlimited future. But whilst the problems of the origin of living beings and of Man present no serious obstacles to a belief in the simple doctrine of the transmutation of species, they do offer fatal objections to Darwin's version of that theory. If his law of natural selection is valid in one case of animal progress, it must hold good in all, and he has no more right to pass over the consideration of “the first steps in the advancement, or in the differentiation or specialization of parts,” in “looking at the dawn of life”* (in the lowest types of animals) as an inscrutable problem, than he would have to select any other phenomenon difficult of reconciliation with his law. And then what has he to say concerning the origin of the sexes them- selves? It is true, he tells us that “he is strongly inclined to suspect that the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior to the act of conception ;”t but we would appeal to readers * «Origin of Species,’ p. 137. + Ibid. p. 8. 174 Darwin and his Teachings. [ April, of every shade of opinion, whether this isnot what the illustrious naturalist himself so often calls, when he refers to the theories of his opponents, a restatement of facts. And where was the necessity for the very existence of the sexual elements at all? What “law” of nature created these? We know that many of the lowest types of animals can and do multiply rapidly and effectively by fission (sub- division of their bodies) and gemmation (budding); and we know, too, not the least so from the wonderful array of facts collected by this most untiring observer, that the pivot upon which the whole question of animal progress turns, is Just this one of sexual pecu- harities! From the very commencement of life wp to the present hour, there are evidences of an dvmediate designing power—or, to use a term which is looked upon with disfavour by many Darwinians, an ordaining Power; an occult influence in the production and modification of the sexual elements, and consequently of the beings springing from them, totally distinct from the “conditions of existence,” “natural selection,” or whatever else the force may be called, which influences the embryo and the born creature. How often is it that the deceased father is resembled by his posthumous offspring? Had it been the mother, this might be explained by the conditions of gestation; but to what is it to be attributed in the case of the father? Is there anything in Darwin’s law—is there not something beyond “atavism,’ or “the hereditary trans- mission” of peculiarities (phrases themselves implying ignorance, not knowledge, of natural laws and operations), which causes this constantly-recurring miracle connected with the conception of living creatures ? But the facts of embryology afford very striking evidence im favour of the origin of species by modified descent, and undoubtedly the surrounding conditions of existence have great influence upon the growth of the embryo. The resemblances between the feetal stages of the individuals of different species, too, lend additional probability to the same doctrme; but whoever has the smallest acquaintance with Comparative Embryology must know that what- ever value its facts may present in enabling us to judge the question under consideration, they apply equally to Man and to the lower animals. It is not surprising that when Darwin comes to treat of instincts, he should find in their study but little in favour of his theory of Natural Selection. Still he believes that the latter has the power “of accumulating slight modifications of instinct to any extent in any direction ;”* and judging by analogy, that is, when we compare this with similar language relating to the modification of the structure of animals, we should be justified in inferrmg that he believes natural selection to be capable of framing the minds of animals. On * Origin of Species,’ p. 229, par. 3; p. 265, par. 2. Shia bare 1866. | Darwin and his Teachings. 175 the other hand, we can hardly believe that he assumes so much for his favourite theory, for elsewhere he says, “I do not pretend that the facts given in this chapter strengthen in any great degree my theory, but none of the cases of. difficulty to the best of my judg- ment annihilate it.” * That visible nature, in some cases, limits and retards, in others stimulates the physical as well as the bodily activity of living beings, no one will deny, and that such an in- fluence is as applicable to Man as to the lower animals, is just as obvious ; but that nature has been, or is, a power, in the well-under- stood acceptation of the term, acting upon the mind of animals, or of man, or anything but an unconscious agent, very few will admit, and we can hardly believe that the illustrious naturalist himself holds such a creed. Sometimes, indeed, the “conditions of existence” are all-power- ful in evoking the nobler qualities of animals and men. For Man these “conditions” may be a forest glade, a range of towering peaks, a well-stocked library, a few tuneful sentences ; any of these may fan the latent spark of genius, which has lain smouldering for years, and cause the flame to burst forth suddenly. But there are cases where, notwithstanding that the “conditions of existence” may have a repressive tendency, the “instincts’—or in Man the soul—will assert its supremacy, and will mock all Darwin’s laws and theories. See, for example, the ungainly peasant, who, under the law of the “hereditary transmission of peculiarities,’ should have pared his turnips, chewed his bacon, and guided his plough, as did his ancestors before him—how he, encircled by the same “conditiéns of existence” as surrounded them, spurns their grovelling pursuits, dives down into the depths of physical truth and brings up some pearl of inestimable price, which his “ highly educated ” fellow-men have in vain been seeking on the surface; or soars upwards to the sky, and descends again with other truths, less pleasing to the sense, perhaps, but serving as another link in the bright golden chain uniting Earth and Heaven. In this review of some of Darwin’s labours, we have been led into many digressions, for which the eminent author is to some extent responsible, for a more suggestive series of works than his has rarely been published ; and this we conceive to be one of their most valuable elements. The objection to his theory of ‘ natural selection” —and it is a grave one for the reason already assigned—is, that he refers all the perfect operations of Nature to an imperfect law. Then we may be asked, Why should such a law be regarded ? Simply, because it is the best extant. Why, we would ask, is society ruled by imperfect laws? Why is honesty in trade, to a large extent, maintained by clumsy and defective mercantile codes ? * * Origin of Species,’ p. 265, par. 2. 176 Darwin and his Teachings. [ April, Because it pleases God to give scope for the exercise of the human intellect by reserving a portion of the truth for man to search out, and thus stimulating each successive generation to reform itself. As far as we are able to judge, after many years’ careful and unprejudiced observation, Darwin is right as to effect, and as to cause, he is partially so. In other words, the Ruler of the universe does use the means so beautifully described by him to bring about certain phenomena in nature, but He appears to employ other and still unexplained means as well. Until, however, some naturalist, possessed of larger powers of observation and comparison, and of a courage equal to that of Darwin, shall arise to complete the theory of “natural selection,” or, what will more probably be the case, shall substitute a more perfect theory just as this one is more complete than that of Lamarck; until then, we say, “ Darwin’s law” will continue to guide naturalists of every order in their biological inferences and zoological classifications. But we cannot help expressing our surprise that so able and observant an inquirer as Darwin can fail to see in the wonderful array of facts collected in his great work, “ one long argument” in favour of a constant, ever-watchful, ever-designing, and ever-active Providence. He can perceive the immediate intervention of that Providence in the “original inbreathing of life” ‘“imto a few lowly forms, or one,” and yet (limiting ourselves strictly to the boundaries defined by him) in the instinct of the bee, which deftly builds its nest, or unconsciously fertilizes the insensient orchid ; * in the remarkable powers of climbing plants, which possess the faculty of moving in conformity with the requirements of plant- life, | and equally in the affectionate intelligence of the domestic animals, he can see only the action of “secondary causes,” and fails to perceive in all these and a thousand other phenomena of nature and of mind, the continuous application of an Almighty Power acting with design. Have too close reasoning and observation drawn a veil across the scene so long admired and watched by our great naturalist, or what has caused this curious obscuration ? This is the great defect pervading Darwin’s work ; but it is not the weakness of an imbecile, nor yet the foible of an obstinate dogmatist ; it is, we hope, the unconscious and, let us trust it soon will be the conscious demerit of a great work, undertaken and partly accom- plished: by one of the noblest, most exalted, and most brilliant intellects of our age. * On the Various Contrivances by which Orchids are Fertilized by Insects,’ (Murray, 1862), p. 2. + ‘On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants’ (Taylor & Francis, 1865), p. 118. 1866.] Be II. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE LOSS OF THE ‘LONDON,’ By Wii11am Farrsarrn, C.E., F.RS., &e. THe introduction of iron as a material in constructive art has been attended with great advantages. or the purposes of ship- building it has given greatly increased strength, and afforded facilities for obtaining new forms, which, aided by the power of steam, have ensured a rate of speed in vessels never before attained in naval history. It has, moreover, furnished the naval architect with a material of immense value as regards construction, and its careful distribution in the shape of ribs, frames, and the sheathing of vessels cannot be too highly appreciated. As compared with the best English oak, it exhibits four times its powers of resistance, and it has in addition the double advantage of being almost perfectly homo- geneous and free from the defects of open joints, which in the case of the planking of wooden vessels require to be caulked. With all these advantages, iron constructions are surrounded with many dangers when entrusted to the care and superintendence of incompetent persons ; in such hands there invariably exists a want of proportion in the formation of iron vessels, which exhibit defective powers of resistance, and such other abnormal conditions as might prove destructive to the efficiency and ultimate security of the structure. It is therefore necessary that the naval architect or builder should be conversant with the properties of the material employed, whether considered separately or in combination, and moreover, he should be satisfied that the vessel, when finished, is capable of permanently resisting the forces of tension and compression, and all the varied strains to which she is subjected when afloat. In laying down the lines of a ship, all these conditions should be carefully and deliberately considered. It is also of importance to take into account the forms or lines of least resistance, such as a fine entrance at the bows, and an equally clear run at the stern, if high speed is the object to be attained. In such cases, these forms are highly advantageous for vessels navigating rivers and smooth water, but in those intended for long sea voyages, and having to contend with the waves of the Atlantic or the rolling seas of the Cape, it is questionable whether or not some slight sacrifices should be made to speed, and some modification effected in the form of the bows and stern, in order to meet all the requirements of a safe and convenient vessel intended for the double purpose of carrying passengers and cargo. I have been led to these particular considerations, not so much from*the lamentable accident which overtook the ‘ London,’ as from the conviction, that the safety and success of a vessel does not depend so much on its speed as upon its sea-going properties and sound con- 178 Considerations on the Loss of the ‘ London.’ [ April, struction. If, for example, we take one of the present iron clippers— which make such quick yvoyages—with her sharp bows and fine pro- portions, I am of opinion that she is neither the safest nor the best description of vessel to contend with a heavy sea in foyl weather. In the first place, she is a diver, which cuts into the sea and rises with difficulty from a bath, which covers her decks with water as she pitches from sea to sea. But these are not the only objections to vessels of this form, as repeated immersions of this kind are exceedingly uncomfortable to those on board, and cause the ship to lift some tons of water before her buoyancy is restored to meet the next and every other succeeding wave into which she plunges in a rolling sea. It is not my intention from these observations to depreciate the value of speed either in the Royal or Mercantile navy. On the contrary, I think it is the duty of every ship-builder to approximate as closely as possible to the lines of least resistance, which, in my opinion, ought to be carried to its utmost limits in smooth water, but in smooth water only. In the construction of vessels of war, it was found expedient to rectify this want of displacement at the bows by projecting the submerged portion of the hull forward im the shape of a ram, not so much, however, for the purpose of attack, as to give buoyancy to the ship, and to enable her to rise more lively upon the sea. These defects of construction were observed in the iron-plated frigates ‘Warrior’ and ‘ Black Prince,’ the former vessel pitched and rolled heavily in the Bay of Biscay from similar causes, which from the first have been observable in all our high-speed ships. Viewing the subject in this light, it may not be out of place to suggest that all passenger and emigrant ships should be modified in their con- struction, so as to give increased displacement at the bows and stern, but more particularly at the bows, where they require buoyancy, having to encounter the force of a large body of water rushing over them and scouring the decks from stem to stern. Many of us remember the bluff round bows of vessels of the last century, and how they rolled and pitched in a gale of wind. They were, however, short and compact, and although deficient in speed, they were nevertheless dry and excellent vessels at sea. For several years I have endeavoured to impress upon the minds of naval architects and others, the necessity of increased strength on the upper decks of sea-going vessels, in order to balance the forces of tension and compression, and the double bottoms on the cellular principle of construction. The ultimate strength of a vessel is the resistance of its weakest part, and this being the case, it is evident that it is of little or no value to have a strong double-bottom if the deck is liable to be torn asunder by the alternate strains of a vessel pitching at sea. That these strains, often repeated, lead to fracture does not admit of doubt, and it has eh 1866. | Considerations on the Loss of the * London.’ 179 been proved by experiment, that under these circumstances time is the only element in the endurance of the structure, and this varies according to the intensity with which the strains are produced. I offer these remarks from the conviction that heretofore the decks have been the weakest parts, and that several iron vessels have broken right in two from the constant working of alternate strains at midships along the line of the decks. I have also, by way of illustration, compared an iron ship to a hollow girder, supported at each end and resting on the middle for the exclusive purpose of showing the alternate changes to which she may be subjected if stranded or placed in the dangerous position of rising and falling on rocks in a heavy sea. Exceptions may be taken to these views, but they nevertheless exemplify what is necessary to be observed in the construction of a strong ship, and I may probably be excused the comparison, when the object in view is to effect security in the construction of our iron vessels. have been confirmed in my opinions on the forms and strain of vesseis, from such facts as I was able to gather from the narrative of the loss of the ship ‘London.’ From the accounts and the different statements of the witnesses examined before the Com- missioners appointed by the Board of Trade, I was unable to discover any serious defect in the construction of the ship. On the contrary, I have reason to believe that both material and workmanship were perfectly sound, with the exception of the combings of the hatches, which it would appear were imperfectly secured. As respects the design, I have assumed that she inherited the extremely fine lines at the bow and stern already described, and to which I have directed attention, and additional weight is given to this opinion by the manner in which the vessel behaved at sea. Taking all the circumstances into account, as also the statements of the different witnesses, with regard to the rigging and the state of the decks, I arrive at the conclusion that the ship did not founder from any serious defect of construction, excepting only the insecurity of the hatches, but from the hurried manner in which vessels are sent to sea, with their decks crowded with coal, hampers, and a variety of articles always dangerous and always objectionable in long and narrow vessels that are low in the water and hable to ship every succeeding sea. If these matters and the upper rigging had been properly cared for, there would have been no broken jibboom to batter to pieces the combing of the hatchway, and instead of the ‘ London’ being entombed with all on board at the bottom of the Atlantic, she would, by this time, have been well advanced on her voyage to Australia. 9. (BO) [April, III. SEWAGE AND SEWERAGE. . First Report from the Select Committee (Dr. Brady’s) on the Sewage of Towns, together with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix. Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, April 10, 1862. . Second Report from the same Committee. Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, July 29, 1862. . Report from the Select Committee (Lord Robert Montagu’s) on Sewage (Metropolis), together with the Proceedings of the Com- mittee, Minutes of Evidence, Appendix, and Index. Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, July 14, 1864. . Tuird Report and Appendices of the Commission appointed to enquire into the best Mode of Distributing the Sewage of Towns and applying it to beneficial and profitable Uses. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty. 1865. . The Present State of the Town Sewage Question. By Gilbert W. Child, M.D., of Exeter College, and Physician to the Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford. Oxford and London: John Henry and James Parker. 1865. . General Report of the Commission appointed for Improving the Sanitary Condition of Barracks and Hospitals. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty. 1861. . A Manual ef Practical Hygiene, prepared especially for Use in the Medical Service of the Army. By Edmund A. Parkes, M.D., F.R.S. London: John Churchill & Sons, New Bur- lington Street. 1864. . The Sanitary Management and Utilization of Sewage. By William Menzies, Deputy Surveyor of Windsor Forest and Parks. London: Longman & Uo. 1865. National Health and Wealth. By the Rev. H. Moule. 1861. (Pamphlet. ) 10. A’emoir on the Cholera at Oxford in the Year 1854, with Con- siderations suggested by the Epidemic. By Henry Wentworth Acland, M.D., F.B.S., &e. London: John Churchill, New Burlington Street; and J. H. & J. Parker, 377, Strand. Oxford: J. H. & J. Parker. 1856. 11. Seventh Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, with Appendix. 1864. TuE problems of Sanitarian Science seem sufficiently complex ; but the most pressing and primary of them will run in the simple formula: How are we to dispose of our Sewage without either spoiling our rivers, or robbing our fields, or poisoning ourselves ? 1866. | Sewage and Sewerage. 181 This particular question may seem uninteresting or even repulsive, but the events of the last few years, and more especially of the very last, have given it a claim on the immediate and close attention of every man who has at heart his own well-being and that of his fellows. It seems also at present far removed from a speedy and definite settlement; but men of science and men of practice rarely work together without compassing their common object ; and the conspiracy of modern chemists and engineers with modern agri- culturists and sanitarians will assuredly form no exception to the rule. In this article we purpose, first, to delineate in the merest out- hne and from the practical as well as from the scientific point of view, the question, as it should be presented to a person, who, living in one of our many needlessly unhealthy towns, has his attention necessarily focussed by what he daily feels and sees and reads upon the subjects more or less systematically treated in the long list of works hereto prefixed. And in the second place, we shall point out the special merits and particular claims of each of those works, hoping thereby to place our readers fairly on a level with the present somewhat extensive literature of this department of hygienics. We take it of course for granted that all who read these lines are convinced of the immediate bearmg which the purification of our houses, streets, and streams has upon both the moral and the economical interests of the nation. Market Drayton, indeed, a town belonging exactly to neither of the two counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire, but an equal discredit to both, did last autumn get up a riot in the interests of filth, and rejected the Local Self-government Act, emulating therein, and not unsuccessfully, the conduct of those men of the “most brute and beastly shire” of Henry VIII’s realm, who sang of old in defiance of a similar movement for their own improvement,— ; “Let us be men, And we'll enjoy our Holland fen.’’ There is, however, no reason to think that many other towns can be found to follow the example; Market Drayton is, so far as we know, a unique instance of such a condition of things in the nineteenth century ; and its exhibition of folly and brutishness is probably to be referred to some temporary excellence in the organi- zation of the class which has a direct interest of its own in keeping the low lodging and public-houses, as well as other centres of moral and physical debasement, undisturbed and uninspected. Pure air, indeed, and pure water reduce greatly the need and the desire for stimulants, and the temptation thence accruing to the poor man to betake himself to the gin-palace, so that the gentry we allude to were, in a scientific poimt of view, wiser in their generation than probably they were aware of. The words, “Thou shalt eat but not 182 Sewage and Sewerage. [April, be satisfied,” precede the words from the Prophet Micah, quoted by Dr. Hunter in his now famous Report,* “ And thy casting down shall be in the midst of thee.” But .as Mr. Simon, to whose good office we owe the Report just alluded to, promises another shortly, which shall show us what such towns as Worksop and Salisbury have really gained by cleansing and keeping themselves clean, we will say no more now and here of the value, urgency, and importance of Sanitarian Reform, but proceed to the details of Sewers and Sewerage. We may do well to begin by passing in review the different methods which have been proposed and adopted for dealing with sewage whilst within the precincts of our towns, and indeed, of our very houses. All modern and most ancient plans for dealing with sewage refuse aim or aimed more or less directly at its destruction or removal. The Jews used the agency of firet in the valley of Hinnom, for the purification of their city ; and while in the Wilder- ness they used eartht outside their camp as their disinfecting agent. The Chinese and the Japanese have a system for removal of sewage in substance, either without the admixture of other matter, or as compost, but without mixing any special deodorant with it. Agrippa did for the Romans, in the time of Augustus, what Mr. Bazalgette has done for the Londoners in the time of Queen Victoria, and the rush and volume of his main drains has been commemorated by Pliny, and earned the title of “ torrens cloaca” from Juvenal. Side by side with these and other systems for the removal of excreta there has existed from time to time a system for its non- removal,—and to it we will now devote a few lines. It might have been hoped that this system was definitely numbered with the things of the ;ast, but we are informed that even in these days it has its adherents, much as Paganism, which it resembles in the “matter of foulness, retamed and regained occasionally a few votaries long aiter the acceptance by the civilized world of a purer form of faith. ~ Mr. Rawlinson declares that though some of the rivers in Lan- cashire are indescribably foul—so foul, in fact, that birds can walk over them in places—they are less injurious to health than are the cesspools with which the towns in that county are so richly honey- combed.§ hos = ff Yi, il == Z> TT O//// Lilla WY); L, A. Scoriaceous Lava, B. Columnar Basalt. GC. Bed of Pebbles. D. Gneiss. E. Path. G. River Sioule. 1866.| On the Antiquity of the Volcanos of Auvergne. 211 The annexed drawing, taken from Sir Roderick Murchison and Sir Charles Lyell’s paper ‘On the Excavation of the Valleys in Auvergne,’ will illustrate the relative position of the laya-current and gneiss in this locality. Hence it follows, that since the period at which the lava was ejected, a thickness of 50 feet of solid gneiss must have been excavated. Now the slowness with which the present river erodes a material of this description may be estimated by a fact pointed out by Sir Charles Lyell. in the same province, near St. Nectaire, where an ancient Roman bridge spans the River Couze, over a stream of lava, proceeding from a volcanic hill,—the Puy de Tartaret,— showing that a ravine, precisely like that now existing, had already been excavated by the river fourteen centuries ago. And yet the lava of the Puy de Tartaret presents all the appearance of a modern current, both from its having conformed to the sinuosities of the valley, and also from its covering a bone deposit at its bottom, indicatng a mammiferous Fauna, which, although distinct, as a whole, from that now inhabiting Auvergne, presents some features in common with it, as in the existence of the dog, deer, cat, &c., mixed with the remains of the reindeer, which, even so late as the time of Cesar, appears to have been found in the Great Hercynian Forest, and also with an animal of the horse tribe, differing, however, in some points from the species now living. But it is in the neighbouring province of the Vivarais that the most remarkable instances of the long-continued action of water slowly eroding to a great depth streams of lava which havé flowed at a comparatively recent date, are afforded. Before describing these, however, I must point out a cireum- stance which distinguishes a current of lava from one of water, namely, that from its viscid character it has a tendency, near its termination, to accumulate layer upon layer, so that its materials are piled up to a considerable height, instead of spreading onwards, as would happen to a substance of more perfect fluidity. Hence, when a lava stream reached the bed of a river, it sometimes formed a precipitous bank on one side of it, without appearing to have advanced to the other. Of this, indeed, several examples are met with in Auvergne, but the most remarkable cases are those to which I have alluded in the Vivarais. Tn that province, Mr. Scrope enumerates no less than six perfect volcanic cones, with craters on their summits still preserved in a State of greater or lesser integrity, from which have proceeded streams of lava, each of which may be traced down the sides of the mountain, and are seen to terminate abruptly at its foot. 212 On the Antiquity of the Volcanos of Awvergne. [April, Now, when the bottom of the valley is occupied by running water, its bank is walled in by a colonnade of basalt, extending for a considerable distance along its margin, derived from the lava stream which had descended from the mountain above. It is true that when, as sometimes happens, the igneous mass is not perceived on the opposite bank of the river, as is the case at the Coupe de Col, d’Aisac, of which a description and drawing has been given by Faujas St. Fond, we have no right, for the reasons above stated, to ascribe the entire height of the vertical cliff of basalt to the eroding force of water; but, in other cases, as at the spot called the Gravenaire of Montpeset, of which Mr. Scrope has given us a drawing, there can be no mistake about the matter, as a high, precipitous rock, upon which the ruins of a castle stand, is severed from the main body of the lava current, and rises up in the midst of the stream. ‘The upper portion of this rock is composed of basaltic lava, derived from the mountain above and forming the termination of a current which had flowed from it; but the lower consists of gneiss, which, since the lava current had been erupted, is seen to have been excavated by the erosive power of the stream to the depth of 100 feet. The time necessary to bring about this effect I will not pretend to estimate, but may appeal to it as a proof of the great antiquity of a lava current, which must have, at least, been antecedent to its com- mencement. One very remarkable peculiarity of the lava streams in the Vivarais currents is their basaltic character and their prismatic structure. We are accustomed to consider trap rocks in general, and more especially that particular description which is denominated basalt, as exclusively the product of submarine volcanos, their com- pactness being said to arise from the great pressure exercised upon them during their consolidation. But in this part of France we meet with several instances of basaltic colonnades, which have been evidently derived from streams of lava ejected from sub-aerial volcanos. It is true that, in all those specimens which have come under my notice, minute cells and cavities may be discovered by careful examination, and, moreover, that the upper portions of the bed are more pervaded by them than the lower. Still the resemblance which they bear to the products of submarine volcanos is very remarkable, and only admits of being explained by the thickness of the bed and the weight of the scoriz superimposed, for it evidently matters not in what way the pressure is produced, provided it be sufficient to retain the aqueous and other volatilizable. ingredients present within the rock in such a condition as to prevent the production of cells and cavities. And, accordingly, it is observed, that this compact character and ae arti 1866.| On the Antiquety of the Voleanos of Auvergne. 213 columnar structure are not met with in those parts of the current which occupy the slope of the mountain, but only at its termination in the valley below, and that even there these characters are confined to the lower portions, where the pressure must have been greatest, the basalt bemg surmounted by a considerable thickness of cellular lava of the usual kind. Moreover, a difference can be traced in the degree of its compactness according to the relative position which the specimen holds in the basaltic bed, the upper layers being the most cellular. In the Vivarais, then, as well as in Auvergne, we have abundant instances of lava streams, which, although amongst the most recent the district affords, being poured forth at a time when the general configuration of the country had become nearly what it is at present, exhibit, nevertheless, traces of their high antiquity, from having been subjected to the long-continued operation of denuding agents, Where these agents have been at work their relative date may be fixed, but we do not appear to possess the same means of referring to a particular epoch the five isolated domes of trachyte which occur on the tableland to the west of the city of Clermont, although the occurrence of free muriatic acid in one of them would imply that they were modern. These conical hills, of which the loftiest, called the Puy de Déme, rises to the height of 4,842 feet, or 3,554 feet above the level of Clermont, seem each to have proceeded out of the midst of a kind of erater formed by volcanic rocks of the usual character and appearance, and therefore bearing no analogy to the material of which they are themselves principally constituted. Their general appearance is represented in the annexed woodcut, from a drawing of Scrope’s. Fic. 3. fi They seem to bear some resemblance, although on a much larger scale, to the Bosses or Mamelons, to use a French phrase, protruding from the midst of the craters of Rocca Monfina, near Terracina, and of Astroni, near Naples, which may perhaps be paralleled by those dark spots observed by astronomers in the midst of the circular hollows existing on the surface of the moon, 214 On the Antiquity of the Volcanos of Auvergne. | | April, which Sir John Herschel and others have regarded as volcanic craters. Without discussing the mode of their formation, which would detain us too long, it may be enough to say that they would seem to be more modern than the amphitheatre of vol- canic rocks which encompasses them, though their elevation, which places them far beyond the reach of the eroding action of rivers, prevents our fixing with any certainty the degree of their antiquity. Let us therefore pass from these problematical rocks to others of far greater antiquity than any that have yet come before us. They may be divided into two classes—namely, those of a basaltic and of a trachytic character, and of these the latter seem in general to lie lowest, having the basaltic superimposed. But since the trachyte at the same time rises to the most elevated points in the country, as at the Pic de Sancy, near the Baths of Mont Dor, where it attains the height of 6,217 feet above the sea, and in the neighbouring department of Cantal, where it reaches, at the sum- mit of the Plomb de Cantal, that of 6,096, the basalt seems in some places to he beneath it. Although volcanic, these rocks bear but a remote resemblance to the rocks above alluded to; for not only are the materials of which they are composed in general more compact, but when scoriform, they consist for the most part of pumice, a material not met with, it is believed, amongst the more recent class of volcanos. Still more distinct, too, is their general structure ; for, mstead of constituting streams of lava traceable for the most part to a crater as their point of issue, they are spread out into vast sheets, extend- ing continuously over wide areas, in some places indeed rising to a great elevation, but even then exhibiting no traces of anything which bears the shghtest resemblance to a crater. Indeed, so contrasted are the general characters of the volcanic rocks we are considering, with those in the neighbourhood of Cler- mont, that Messrs. Dufrenoy and lie de Beaumont, the French geologists alluded to, conceived that their structure may be best ex- plained upon the supposition, that they had been first spread almost horizontally over the surface of the subjacent gravel, and afterwards were upheaved at three different points, the Pic de Sancy being the centre of one elevatory movement, Roche Sanadoire of a second, and the Puy de la Tache of a third, these representing the highest spots in the vicinity of the Baths of Mont Dor, around which the sup- posed elevatory movement took place. Now the deep valley in which these Baths lie is conceived by these same geologists to have been originally formed, not by the erosion of water, but by a disruption of the rocks on either side, consequent upon the elevation of the range at these three several points. Ret 1866.] On the Antiquity of the Volcanos of Auvergne. 215 If this theory be adopted, we are precluded, of course, in this instance, from appealing to the great depth of the valley, at the bottom of which the Baths stand, as indicative of the time required for eating so deeply into the substance of the volcanic rocks which bound it; but other proofs of great antiquity are not wanting, such as the existence of conglomerates consisting of rolled pebbles, which underlie one volcanic bed and which support another, as well as of tuffs containing fragments of the trachyte and basalt of the neigh- bourhood. In some places, also, as in the Department of Cantal, fragments of limestone containing impressions of plants are scattered through these trachytic conglomerates. And it would be a bold thing to maintain that, whatever my have been the case with the particular valley a'luded to, none of the others which score the sides of the volcanic tableland have been due to the action of water, or even that such as have been originally produced by upheavement were not subsequently modified by denud- ing agents. In short, the same arguments which induce geologists to assign a very long duration to those operations of nature which have in other countries scooped out the valleys and moulded into its present form the earth’s surface, apply equally to the case of that more ancient volcanic region in Central France which has been just alluded to. Everything therefore concurs to bespeak a high antiquity for these formations, and to indicate a long-continued operation of denuding forces upon the beds of igneous matter since their eruption ; and yet all these events must have been posterior to the formation of some at least of the fresh-water beds of the Auvergne country, formations which Sir Charles Lyell refers to the Eocene period, still a portion of the Tertiary or of the youngest Member of the great Family of rocks. It seems indeed most probable, that these eruptions of igneous matter had broken out at the time when the district was covered by extensive sheets of fresh water, like the great lakes of North America, and hence may have been derived their greater compactness, as ‘compared with the more modern volcanic products before alluded to, an indication of their having been erupted under a pressure greater than that of the atmosphere. And yet, when we recollect that in the Eocene period about 34 per cent. of existing species of mollusca were already in being, whereas in the newest of the subjacent secon- dary rocks no one living form has been as yet detected, and when we consider, moreover, how many distinct races of animals and of plants, all of which have passed away, succeeded each other in periods antecedent to the first dawn of the Tertiary epoch, it must be admitted, that vast as was the time occupied in bringing about the VOL. III. Q 216 On the Antiquity of the Voleanos of Auvergne. | April, long series of igneous formations which we witness in Auvergne, it sinks almost into insignificance by the side of that period of incalculable duration which must have elapsed since the globe became first fitted for the maintenance of organic life. And this leads me to another point of some general interest — namely, that volcanic action, notwithstanding its long continuance in one district, shifts its ground from time to time, so as probably in the course of years to visit in succession every region of the globe. Before the close of the Eocene period, when the volcanos of Auvergne first came into activity, those of the Hebrides, of the North of Ireland, and of parts of Scotland had become extinct, and yet we have reason to believe that these last were for the most part contem- poraneous with the chalk, and do not date back so far as the Oolite. That they are entirely burnt out, may be inferred from the absence, throughout the whole space comprised within their several areas, of thermal springs, and of the severer forms at least of earth- quake, which cannot be said of Auvergne; for the latter volcanos, though, as I believe, not in activity smce the earliest periods of history, still give evidence of smouldering internal fire in their warm springs, evolutions of carbonic acid gas, and in occasionally recurring earthquakes of considerable intensity. It would be easy to point out volcanic regions of still greater antiquity in other parts of the globe, which became extinct even before the igneous operations in the Hebrides, &., had commenced ; but it may be most to the purpose to note that in the highly vulcanized region of Southern Italy, the Apennine lime- stone, there so abundant, and of an age corresponding to the Jura or Oolite, exhibits no proof of igneous action having extended back so far as the period at which their beds were deposited. From these considerations it may be inferred, that every portion of the globe is destined at one time or another to become the theatre of similar catastrophes. Perhaps in some future time a chain of burning mountains may show itself along the coasts of Scandinavia; perhaps Australia may hereafter experience some of those underground convulsions which are now so rife amongst the islands of the Pacific. And if so, what an impression is conveyed to the mind as to the length of time which must have elapsed since the planet we inhabit was first called into existence, or, indeed, even as to the number of years which have rolled on since the commencement of organic life. For from the period occupied by one only of these epochs, that which has been pointed out in Auvergne, we may form some slight estimate of the remainder, and the aggregate certainly presents an idea of past time which it is difficult for our limited faculties fully to realize. FL M.Williams F LS. Se THE HUMAN DARYH x. A few of the many Physiological chang observable by means of the Larynoeal Mirror yng by 1866. ] (ep oiy 22) V. ON THE LARYNGOSCOPE, AND SOME OF ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL REVELATIONS. By Coryevius B. Fox, M.D. Edin., M.R.C.P. Lond. (Illustrated. ) Tue Laryngoscope is, as its name implies, an instrument for the examination of the larynx or vocal apparatus, whereby we can not only study with facility the normal action of its various parts in the production of sound, but by which the abnormal and diseased con- ditions of this organ may be, in general, diagnosed with certainty. The Rhinoscope, for the inspection of the posterior part of the nasal cavities, and the Autolaryngoscope, for the examination of one’s own larynx, are merely modifications of the Laryngoscope: a description of these instruments, however, does not fall within the compass of this paper. 1. The History of the Laryngoscope.—In 1743, a distinguished Frenchman, named Levret, employed himself in ascertaining the manner in which polypi of the nostrils, throat, ears, and other parts could be removed by ligatures. An illumination of these regions was produced by the aid of a polished plate of metal, on which hight was projected and in which the illuminated parts were seen. Tn 1807, a pamphlet was published at Weimar, by Dr. Bozzini, of Frankfort-on-the-Maine, on ‘The Light Conductor, or a Descrip- tion of a simple Apparatus for the illumination of the Internal Cavities and Spaces in the Living Animal Body.’ This instru- ment essentially consisted of a number of hollow metal tubes, of yarious diameters, adapted to the different canals of the body, and of a lantern, to which they all could be fitted. Finding it neces- sary to employ reflected light in the examination of the larynx and posterior part of the nasal cavities, he had a speculum—at one end of which was a mirror—divided by a partition into two parts: one eanal and half of the mirror serving to transmit the light and the other the image. Although he was evidently well aware of the means required for the examination of the larynx, yet his observations in this region seem to have been confined to the posterior part of the nasal cavities. In 1827, Dr. Senn, of Geneva, attempted to obtain a sight of the larynx of a child who was labouring under great difficulty of breathing by means of a small mirror, but was unsuc- cessful in his endeavours, because he did not illuminate the parts.* In March, 1829, Dr. B. G. Babington exhibited to the Hun- terian Society an oblong piece of looking-glass attached toa portion of silver wire, which he called a Glottiscope. By placing this instru- * Vide ‘ Journal de Progrés,’ 1829. Q2 218 On the Laryngoscope. | April, ment against the palate, and reflecting thereon the sunlight with a common back-hair glass, he saw the epiglottis and upper part of the larynx. He subsequently attached to the mirror a tongue- depressor, but after a time abandoned this addition, and substituted polished steel for the glass mirrors.* In 1830, Gerdy wrote, “La contraction du pharynx se vérifie aisément a l’ceil au moyen du miroir.” In the year 1832, Dr. Bennati, of Paris, announced to the world the possibility of seeing the vocal chords by means of an instrument, in all probability exactly similar to, if not identical with, that of Selligue, to be immediately described.t Trousseau and Belloc, in their ‘Memoire sur la Phthisie Laryngée,’ published in 1837, refer to an instrument made by an ingenious mechanic, named Selligue, who was affected with that disease. It closely resembled that of Bozzini, consisting of “ a double-tubed speculum, of which one tube served to convey the light to the glottis, and the _ other to bring back to the eye the image of the glottis, reflected in the mirror placed at the guttural extremity of the instrument. These authors state that it was very difficult of application, and that not one in ten could bear its introduction. In 1838, Monsieur Beaumés, of Lyons, exhibited before the Medical Society of that city a mirror for the examination of the throat, larynx, and posterior part of the nasal cavities.§ The distinguished surgeon Liston speaks of obtaining a view of an “ulcerated glottis by means of a small mirror, similar to that employed by dentists, on a long stalk, and dipped in hot water before its introduction into the throat.” || In 1844, Dr. Adam Warden, of Edinburgh, read a paper before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts on ‘The Employment of a totally reflecting Prism for illuminating the open Cavities of the Body.’ Having been very successful in his examinations of the auditory canal, he directed his attention to the larynx, which he made visible by the employment of an additional prism placed in the throat, and associated with an instrument for depressing the tongue and expand- ing the faucial cavity. He referred to two cases, in which he had obtained “satisfactory ocular inspection of diseases affecting the glottis,” but evidently did not consider this mode of examination as one which promised much success. From 1846 to 1848, Mr. Avery, of London, employed instru- ments for inspecting the throat, posterior part of the nasal cavities, and other regions. His Laryngoscope was a cumbrous piece of apparatus, worn on the head and nearly a pound in weight. It consisted—1° of a circular reflector, perforated in the centre, for * Vide ‘Lond. Med. Gazette,’ March 28, 1829. + ‘Physiologie Medicale,’ p. 503. t Vide ‘Recherches sur le Mécanisme de la Voix Humaine.’ § Vide ‘Compte Rendu des Travaux de la Société de Médecine de Lyons,’ 1836-38. || ‘ Practical Surgery,’ 3rd edit., p. 417, published in 1840. 1866. | On the Laryngoscope. 219 the concentration of the rays of light emanating from a candle fixed in front of it; and 2°, of a speculum attached to the opposite side of the candle, and containing at its extremity a laryngeal mirror. He seems, however, subsequently to have forsaken the speculum, and employed solely small laryngeal mirrors, “made of solid lumps of metal.” He affirmed, that with his Laryngoscope he had occa- sionally been able to see the bifurcation of the windpipe. In the year 1850, the medal of the Society of Arts was awarded to him for his labours. Monsieur Desormeaux, of the Hépital Necker, in Paris, has employed for many years past an instrument which resembles Bozzini’s, for the examination of the urethra, posterior part of the nasal cavities, the throat, as well as other parts.* Monsieur Garcia, the eminent professor of music, was the first expe- rimenter who succeeded in obtaining a sight of his own larynx. The method he employed was the following :—Placing himself with his back to the sun, he introduced into his throat a little mirror, attached to a long stem; on this he cast the rays of ight by means of a looking-glass. and in this same glass he saw the reflection of his larynx. This mode of examination was precisely that of Dr. Babington, who, however, made no attempt at autolaryngoscopy. After having studied the mechanism of the human voice during singing, he presented a paper to the Royal Society of London, in 1855, entitled, “ Physiological Observations on the Human Voice.” t This paper, meeting the eye of Dr. Tiirck, of Vienna, that gentleman was induced to employ the laryngeal mirror in the wards of the General Hospital in 1857, but apparently without the as ist- ance of any illuminating mirror whatever. In November of that year, Dr. Tiirck, having ceased to employ his mirrors, lent them to Professor Czermak, of Pesth, who made the very important addition of a large circular mirror for the concentration of the light. This mirror was perforated in the centre, and so arranged as to bring the perforation in front of the pupil of the examiner’s eye. Although many of Czermak’s predecessors were acquainted with the principles, none of them completed the art. To him, then, who is named by Dr. Gibb the father of Laryngoscopy, is due the credit of having perfected the Laryngoscope and introduced it to the scientific world. Czermak’s first essay on the subject appeared in 1858, and was named ‘Physiological Researches with the Laryngeal Mirror of Garcia.’ This was followed by various papers, the most complete and comprehensive of which was published by the New Sydenham Society in 1861, and entitled, ‘ The Laryngoscope and its Application to Physiology and Medicine.’ Finally, the names of Battaille, Merkel, Semeleder, Stoerk, * Vide ‘De \’Endoscope et de ses Applications,’ 1865. Paris. + ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,’ vol. vii., No. 13. 1855. 220 On the Laryngoscope. | April, Gibb, and Mandl should not be omitted whilst referrmg to labourers in this field. 2. The Instrwment.—The most essential part of the Laryn- goscope is the laryngeal mirror. It should be made of silvered plate-glass, and set at an angle of 120° with its stem. It may be circular, or square with the angles rounded, and if from vs>—xo of an inch in diameter, will be found most generally useful. The illuminating silvered glass mirror ranks next in importance; it should be slightly concave, perforated in the centre, of about 384 inches in diameter, and possessing a focal power of 14 inches. It is des'r- able to have the mirror attached to the frontal pad or spectacle- frame, by means of a ball and socket-joint, and so arranged as to be worn at pleasure, either in front of the eye or on the forehead. As to the light, nothing equals the solar rays; but as they are not always to be obtained, it is necessary to resort to artificial illumin- ating sources. The bright, steady flame of a good German lamp —especially if a Tobold’s condenser is adapted to it — leaves little to be desired. A tongue-depressor is often requisite: one composed of vulcanite, with its under-surface serrated, so that some traction may be exerted on the tongue, is found by the writer preferable to any other form. 8. Mode of employing the Laryngoscope.—The individual to be examined should be seated upright in a chair, with the head slightly inclined backwards, the mouth widely opened, and the tongue protruded. If the solar rays are available, his back should be turned towards the sun, but if artificial light is necessary, the lamp should be placed on a table by his side, and at such an eleva- tion as to be on a level with the ear. The observer, being seated immediately in front of the observed, and having his illuminating mirror on his forehead, or in front of either eye (im which latter case he gazes in the direct axis of the illuminating rays), should hold the protruded tongue firmly between the fore-finger and thumb of the left hand, previously enveloped in a cloth or handkerchief. The rays proceeding from the illuminating source are easily directed by a little adjustment of the mirror into the throat, having not only undergone reflexion, but concentration. The laryngeal mirror, being held like a pen in the right hand, is to be heated over the lamp, to prevent the condensation on it of moisture. Before its introduction, the temperature of the mirror should always be tested by placing it on the back of the hand or on the cheek, to prevent the possibility of burning the throat. Having been carefully passed over the base of the tongue, so as to avoid contact with that organ, it should be made to rest on and slightly raise the uvula—that 1s, if we wish to look vertically down the laryngeal tube. The base of that unruly member, the tongue, has very often a great tendency to rise towards the palate, thus obstructing both light and vision. 1866. | On the Laryngoscope. 221 When in such a case an ordinary tongue-depressor is employed, it sometimes happens that the eatreme base of this organ, which cannot be touched by the instrument on account of the retching excited, is unavoidably pressed backwards, and the glottis is thus closed by its lid, the epiglottis. An instrument which will not only depress, but one which will at the same time exert some slight trac- tion on the tongue, such as has been already briefly referred to, is found very frequently serviceable. A knowledge of the structure of the various parts of the larynx is, of course, indispensable to those who would study their functions, for one can then more readily understand the different appearances observable in the laryngeal mirror. The condition of the larynx in a quiescent state during ordinary tranquil respiration is represented in Fig. 1. The glottis is seen to be freely opened, and one observes a large portion of the anterior wall of the windpipe. When the person experimented on takes a deep inspiration, we see the arytenoid cartilages and vocal cords widely separated, the cartilaginous rings of the windpipe, &c.; and, if the neck is straightened, we may, in favourable circumstances, obtain a view of the bifurcation of this tube,— vide Fig. 2. On making a succession of expiratory efforts, as in laughing, in which case the syllable “ha” is rapidly repeated, the arytenoid cartilages and edges of the vocal cords are suddenly brought into juxtaposition and then separated with equal agility during each intermission. The action of the larynx during the process of deglutition is interesting, but somewhat difficult to observe. It undergoes a complete closure, so as to prevent the entrance of any alimentary matter.* The changes seen are thus given by Czermak:—1. An intimate apposition of the arytenoid cartilages, and of the true and false vocal cords occurs. 2. The false vocal cords also approach the true cords, so as to obliterate the ventricles of Morgagni. 3. The epiglottis is lowered, its cushion at the same time becoming more and more prominent, until it reaches the fold of mucous membrane which encloses the arytenoid cartilages. Figure 3 represents the commencement of the closure, as seen in the laryngeal mirror. When the larynx is completely closed, we see an image analogous to that of Figure 4, with this difference, however, that in the latter there exists a free space for the passage of air between the epiglottis and the arytenoid cartilages, whilst in the former this space is occupied by the cushion of the epiglottis, and the closure is hermetic. The voice is formed, according to Garcia, “by the compressions * The conclusions deduced from the experiments of Mons. Guinier, recently brought before the Academy of Sciences of Paris, have been questioned. The view that the food comes into contact with the vocal cords in deglutition was ably refuted by Dr. Gibb at the last annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Seience. 222 On the Laryngoscope. | April, and expansions of the air, or the successive and regular explosions which it produces in passing through the glottis.” It may be inspiratory or expiratory; the latter, however, will be alone referred to in the followmg observations. The inferior or true vocal cords alone give origin to sounds, the superior or false cords taking no part in the generation of these sounds, whatever their register or intensity may be. When we desire to produce a sound, the arytenoid cartilages approach one another with an astonishing mobility and freedom of action. The vocal cords, thus becoming approximated, assume what is termed “the vocalizing position.” In the production of the lower notes, the vocal cords are seen to vibrate throughout their entire length, and, probably, throughout their entire breadth also. As the voice ascends from’ its lowest to its more acute notes, the lengths of the vibrating portions of the vocal cords are proportionally diminished, their tensions are in- creased, and the arytenoid cartilages become more closely apposed. The vocal cords, in fact, present the same phenomena as those of musical cords, and appear to obey the same laws.* It is almost impossible to study the condition of the larynx during the pro- duction of the lowest chest sounds, because the arytenoid cartilages, becoming elevated, rapidly approach one another, even to complete zontact, and bend themselves undcr the border of the depressed epiglottis, so that this latter entirely conceals from vision the interior of the larynx,—vide Fig. 4. There is, in all probability, however, no considerable difference in the behaviour of the larynx during the emission of the gravest sounds and those less grave. The appearance of the glottis when Do' of the chest register is sounded has been represented in Fig. 5. The state of the interior of the larynx during the emission of the most acute sounds is, on the other hand, very readily observed. The glottis is contracted into a linear form, and the various parts of the larynx are felt to be in a state of great tension,—-vde Fig. 6. Three registers of the expiratory voice are generally described: the chest register, which commences lower in a man’s yoice than ma woman’s; the falsetto register, extending equally in both voices; and the head register, which reaches higher im the female voice. Se “>. Falsetto. Table of the Human Voice in its full Extent. Garcia has observed, that during the production of the chest * Vide ‘Observations on the Movements of the Larynx when viewed by means of the Laryngoscope, by J. Bishop, F.R.S., in ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society London, June 5, 1862. Vol. xii. 1866. ] On the Laryngoscope. 223 tones a larger surface of the vocal chords is in a state of vibration than when the falsetto notes are emitted, in which latter case the extreme edge only of the vocal cord vibrates, and a much less expenditure of breath is required. ; Great difference of opinion prevails as to the exact mode in which the falsetto notes are produced. Amongst those who have especially studied this subject, the names of Magendie, Mayo, Miiller,* and Lehfeldt, Willis, Pétrequin, and Diday, Bishop, Battaille, and Wheatstone may be mentioned. | These registers may be compared with greater facility if thus represented :— Cuest REGISTER. 1. The vocal chords vibrate through- out their whole extent, viz., in their sub- glottic and ventricular regions and on their free border. 2. Vibrations become more rapid and ample as the sound becomes more acute ; the reverse ocewring when the sound becomes more grave. 3. Longitudinal tension is stronger than in the falsetto register. €, Opening of the glottis is rectili- near. Fauserro REcIstTer. 1. The vocal cords vibrate only on their free border, and in their ventricular region, the subglottic region ceasing to take any part in the generation of sound. 2. Vibrations become less ample and more rapid as the sound becomes more acute : but when more grave, the reverse takes place. 3. Longitudinal tension is feebler than in chest register. 4, Opening of the glottis is more or less elliptic.+ If Mi}° of the chest register be produced, and then, without any interruption to the current of air emitted, the experimenter suddenly passes to the same note in the falsetto register, the difference in the appearances reflected in the laryngeal mirror will be found to be very striking,—vide Figs. 7 and 8. The existence of a third register has been denied by Miiller, Bennati, and Gibb. Garcia very briefly refers to the head register and its relation to the falsetto, laryngoscopically, in his paper already referred to, which is also contained in the under-mentioned pamphlet.t Lastly, Battaille writes of the head voice in the followmg manner :— “ T’anatomie et Ja physiologie repoussent également la dénomination de voix de téte, fort improprement appliquée au registre de fausset.” The interesting revelations above disclosed to us by the aid of the laryngoscope alone afford proof of the great value of this instru- ment, not only to the physiologist, but also to the vocalist. Its great assistance, moreover, to the physician cannot be over- estimated ; for it is only by the multiplication of such instruments as the ophthalmoscope, the laryngoscope, &c., whereby diseases can be seen by the eye and determined with certainty, that the science of medicine can surely, although perhaps slowly, proceed to that * The experiments of Professor J. Miiller, of Berlin, relative to the produc- tion of vocal sounds are extremely interesting. Vide ‘ Ueber Compensation der Phys. Krafte am Menschlich. Organ.’ Berlin, 1839. + Vide ‘ Nouvelles Recherches surla Plonation,’ par Ch. Battaille. Paris, 1861. t ‘ Notice sur 1’ Invention du Laryngoscope,’ par Paulin Richard. Paris, 1861. 224 Comparative Philology [ April, advanced stage towards the ultimate goal of perfection which is already reached by many of the other sciences. EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES. The anterior portion of the Larynx is represented above, and the posterior part below :— Fig. 1. Represents the appearance of the larynx during tranquil respiration. The epiglottis is raised, the glottis is widely opened, and a portion of the anterior wall of the windpipe is visible. Fig. 2. The condition of the larynx during a deep inspiration. The rings of the windpipe, and its bifurcation into the two bronchial tubes, are here apparent. Fig. 3. Represents the semiclosure of the glottis during the act of swallowing. Fig. 4. The appearance of the glottis during the production of the gravest chest sounds (after Czermak). Fig. 5. The appearance on the emission of the chest sound Do? (after Battaille). Fig. 6. The condition of the larynx during the production of the most acute sounds. Fig. 7. The appearance of the glottis on emitting Mib® of the chest register. Fig. 8. The appearance on suddenly passing to Mig? of the fulsetto register (Battuille). a, The epiglottis. b. The inferior or true vocal cords. c. The superior or false vocal cords. d. The tubercle of the cartilage of Santorini, which rests on the apex of the arytenoid cartilage. g. The arytenoid cartilages. h. The veutricles of Morgagni. l. The anterior wall of the windpipe. m. Right bronchus, n. Left bronchus. o. The posterior wall of the larynx. p. The aryteno-epiglottic ligameut. r. The posterior wall of the gullet. s. The entrance of the gullet, the line of demarcation between the wall of the pharynx and the posterior surface of the larynx. t. The cushion of the epiglottis. ». The tubercle corresponding to the cartilage of Wrisberg. z. The base of the tongue. ° i VI. COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY AS INDICATING THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. By Davin Parkes, President of the Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society. Writers on the Antiquity of Man generally attempt to demon- strate their position by referrmg to the undoubted remains left by man during ages long past, such as the lake dwellings of Switzer- land and other places, rude pottery found in Egypt in the Nile deposits, which have been formed during years to be numbered by tens of thousands, flmt implements discovered in the gravel pits of Abbeville, the contents of immense shell mounds, and other débris | found in Denmark, the Neanderthal skull, &c., to all of which an | 1866. | as indicating the Antiquity of Man. 225 almost incalculable antiquity has been assigned, Such investiga- tions are now open to every one, and the mere reading of Sir Charles Lyell’s work on ‘The Antiquity of Man,’ would be sufficient to convey a general and, in fact, very good idea of the subject. The question has, however, been discussed from these data almost to exhaustion, and on this account I shall form no theory nor draw any conclusions from such data, but proceed by a more original and perhaps equally conclusive mode of reasoning, viz. the application of Comparative Philology to this most important subject. This has never been done in detail, though many able writers, such as Sir Chales Lyell and the author of ‘ Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, have illustrated the subject in general terms, but have not entered into those minute details which alone are able to carry con- viction to scientific minds. Although the investigation must be attended with difficulties, and the examination of mere words may be uninteresting to many, the subject shall be treated as agreeably as the nature of it will allow, and at the same time as fully as the brief space allotted to such a subject in a journal will admit of. The comparison of languages is now very generally admitted to be a much more certain method of determining the place of man in Creation than the mere peculiarities of colour and bodily conforma- tion, or any other external circumstances, inasmuch as language is the very embodiment of thought, or the expression of all mental conceptions, and therefore altogether psychological. The author of the ‘ Vestiges,’ the last edition of whose work was published in 1860, says:—“ Language is a profound expression of the idio- syncrasy of a people, not easy to be obliterated or disguised. There are upon earth between three and four thousand languages, perhaps for the most part as distinct from each other as French, English, German, but like these exhibiting relationships which at once enable us to decide on the relationships of the nations to which they belong. A relationship amongst languages is shown in the commu- nity of words or roots of words. This is the kind of relationship with which we are most familiar; but it is one liable to some obscurity, as it may either happen that all or nearly all traces of a common vocabulary have perished between nations known to be akin, or there may be a community of words that is only the result of accident. By far the most certain test of an affinity between lan- guages is the trace of a common character or analogy in their gram- matical structure and in their laws of combination—what has been well called the mechanism of speech. This is both a more imme- diate and distinct expression of intellect, and one which tends to be more permanent.” The languages of most civilized nations are intimately connected with each other, so asin fact to show one centre of creation, although the author just quoted says, that the sia plans of languages into 226 Comparative Philology [ April, which he divides the tongues of the whole human race appear to have originated in entire independence of one another, and are each expressive of the idiosyncrasy of a distinct family of mankind. I hope I shall be able in the course of my present investigation fairly to controyert this bold assertion, supported as it is by Renan (‘ Histoire Générale des Langues Sémitiques’) and many other authors of the same school. A later and much better classification is that adopted by Professor Max Miiller, who divides all the lan- guages of mankind into three great families—the Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian. The Aryan or Indo-European comprises the San- skrit and its modern derivatives, also Persian, Greek, Latin, and all the Keltic, Teutonic, and Slavonic languages of ancient and modern Europe. The Semitic family consists of Hebrew, Arabic, Eastern and Western Aramean, commonly called Chaldee and Syriac, and some other languages and dialects which were anciently spoken in Palestine, Phoenicia, Babylonia, Mesopotamia, and Arabia. The Turanian comprises the Chinese and all other languages which still as in past ages remain extensively agglutinative. Max Miller thinks the Aryan and Semitic are the only families of speech deserv- ing to be so called, and a very few of the languages of these two families will, at this time, exclusively engage our attention. It is a very interesting circumstance that many important facts may be ascertained relative to the state and civilization of man even in pre-historic times, from the existence of certain words in any family of languages. One great fact is, that before the first sepa- ration of the Aryan family of mankind which had most probably its original dwelling-place “as far east as the western slopes of the Belurtag and Mustag, near the sources of the Oxus and Yaxartes, the highest elevation of Central Asia,” and long before the dawn- ings of history, civilization had made rapid strides. On this subject Professor Max Miller, who, although a foreigner, expresses himself with all the force, perspicuity, and felicity of style of the very best English authors, says, “It can be proved by the evidence of lan- guage that before their separation the Aryans led the life of agricul- tural nomads, a life such as Tacitus describes that of the ancient Germans. They knew the arts of ploughing, of making roads, of building ships, of weaving and sewing, and of erecting houses: they had counted at least as far as one hundred. They had domesticated the most important animals - the cow, the horse, the sheep, the dog ; they were acquainted with the most useful metals, and had recog- nized the bonds of blood and the bonds of marriage ; they followed their leaders and kings, and the distinction between right and wrong was fixed by laws and customs. They were impressed with the idea of a Divine Bemg, and they invoked it by various names. All this, as I said, can be proved by the evidence of language. We could not find, for instance, the same name for house in Sanskrit, 1866. | as indicating the Antiquity of Man. 227 Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Celtic, unless houses had been known before the separation of these dialects. In this manner a history of Aryan civilization has been written from the archives of language stretching back to times far beyond the reach of any documentary history.”* ‘vhe Semitic languages were spoken from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean to the River Tigris, and even beyond that boun- dary eastward, and from the Caucasian mountains on the north to the Arabian peninsula, extending to the Indian Ocean on the south. Similar interesting circumstances may be predicated of this grand division of the human race to those which Professor Max Miller has elicited respecting the Aryans. Thus, the term for gold is the same in Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, and Syriac, and so is that for brass or rather copper. This shows that while the various tribes of the Semitic family were inhabiting the same locality, those metals were known to all; for had the various tribes already separated, all could not possibly have given the same names to those metals. Not so, however, with respect to iron, because the word for iron (barze/) is the same in Hebrew, Syriac, and Chaldee, but not in Arabic. Therefore the Arab branch of the family must have separated first from their fellow Semites, and retired to the Arabian peninsula before the discovery of iron. This event evidently occurred during the age of bronze, which had succeeded that of gold, and before the age of iron commenced ; the discovery of iron was, however, made by the Semitic race in pre-historic times. During the age of bronze and before the final separation of the various tribes, the Semites, like the Aryans, were agricultural nomads, the words for plough and ploughing being the same in the speech of all, and they not only dwelt in tents, but possessed houses, and had already formed villages _ and cities many thousands of years before the commencement of the Christian era, and at the latest during the age of bronze. It is impos- sible to determine when iron became known to the Arab tribes, but the Chaldeans and Hebrew-speaking nations certainly knew it long before them. The Semitic tongues, though now and for so many ages differing so widely from the Aryan, can be clearly shown to have originated in one common source with them. Many, and in fact most, objects are designated by different words in each of these two great families of languages—thus river in Hebrew is n*har, and in Latin flumen. These words are widely dissimilar both in sound and appearance ; but when we know that the Hebrew nahar is derived from the root nahar, to flow, and that the Latin is from fluo, also to flow ; that the Spanish Rio and the French and Italian equivalents find their root in the Latin rwo, Greek rheo, to flow; and that this instance is only one of very many, we see that the same idealism * * Lectures on the Science of Language.’ First Series, p. 245. 228 Comparative Philology [| April, and the same mode of reasoning characterized the original speakers of both the Aryan and Semitic languages, and we can draw the inference quite logically that these races of men were, at least, of the same species, though we could not assert, on such principles only, that they had a unity of origin. So in the case of silver, Silver is keseph in Hebrew, from kasaph, to become pale or white. So, in Sanskrit, silver is counted as white, and called sveta. Thus, also, Hebrew zahav, gold, from tsahav, to shine, tsahov meaning yellow, as gold in German is so termed, doubtlessly from its yellow colour. But if we can show a community of words and gram- matical forms, or a sufficient number of them, we may justly conclude that the Aryans and Semites were not only of the same species, but of one family, contrary to the hypothesis of those who, like the author of the ‘ Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation,’ maintain various centres of creation and an entire distinction of race amongst the several families constituting the genus Homo. Now it has been estimated that if only eight words were found to be identical in two languages, it would be, according to the doctrine of chances, nearly 100,000 to 1 that they were derived in both cases from some parent language, and that, of course, eight such words would furnish evidence of a common origin scarcely short of absolute certainty ; but without stringently insisting on this, which is, however, an ingenious calculation, such a multitude of words exist in the Aryan and Semitic languages common to both families, that it becomes impossible to draw any other conclusion than that all those languages, widely as they are now diffused, and much as they differ from each other, origmated during the infancy of the human race in one locality. In order to account for the origin of language, Renan supposes all the roots of words to be onomato- poetic; but others, and chiefly Prof. Max Miller, assert that onomatopoeia has furnished only few words in the Aryan languages. In the Semitic tongues, certainly, many words and roots are onomatopoetic, but, in proportion to the whole number of words in that family, they are comparatively few. It appears highly probable that the first words uttered by man were onomatopoetic, and that man who, from the first moment when he became conscious of being, possessed the power to think and organs of speech, affected by the sounds which he heard and by the sight of all the natural objects around him, would at once imitate those sounds by an almost involuntary exertion of his vocal organs, and contemplate those objects with an eye of curiosity and wonder, not devoid of intelligence. His reflective faculties would soon be brought into operation, and he would naturally give vent to his feelings in words which, once uttered, became the representatives of things from that moment through all succeeding time. This seems to be the most reasonable mode of accounting for the origin of language ; but, 1866. | as indicating the Antiquity of Man. 229 although volumes might be written on that subject, as it is not the immediate question under discussion, we must again proceed to discuss the phenomena of words; but, as by comparing those which appear to be the same in both Indo-European and Semitic languages, it is our primary object to prove a unity of origin, words clearly onomatopoetic, however numerous, will be scrupulously avoided. Now, in illustration let us commence with the Hebrew roots, oon and een, which signify negation. This is expressed in many languages by the letter N. So, in Sanskrit, na, no, an; Persian, nah,na; Zend and Coptic, an; Greek, né; Latin, ne, nemo, non; German, ner, nein; and English, no. The Hebrew word ish, man, is certainly primitive, and in Sanskrit is found zsha, master, and ishz, mistress, answering to Hebrew ishsha, woman. So ish is often used in the Old Testament Scriptures in order to distinguish a man of influence from adam, a common man. Hebrew aim, mother, is also a primitive word and, perhaps, onomatopoetic; it appears in the Greek, mamma, mammé; Coptic, man; German, mama, amme ; English, mamma; and in Arabic the root amma, to be a mother, occurs. It is remarkable that the word mother, as Prof. Max Miller observes, “has not only the same root in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, German, Slavonic, and Celtic, namely, the root md,” this being equivalent to the Arabic am, “ but likewise the same deri- vative tar, so that there can be no doubt that m the English mother we are handling the same word which, in ages commonly called pre-historic, but in reality as historical as the days of Homer or the more distant times of the Vedic Rishis, was framed to express the original conception of genetrix;” and I wish to call attention to the fact that, not only im ages so remote, but even from the time when man became a speaking animal, the same root was used and in the same signification. My object here is to compare such a great number of words common alike to the Indo-European and the Semitic families, as to leave no doubt on the mind of every student of language that, originally, both families were united, or rather sprung from the same origin. ‘Thus, in Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac, anak signifies to strangle and to be in anguish; and in Greek we find ancho and ananché ; in Latin, angere and angustus ; in German, enge, angst ; and in Sanskrit, anhus. Hebrew, drag, to weave, is used of the spider, in Greek called arachné, rag, the primary syllable of the root, having the power of rapid motion and agitation. Hence to be moved hither and thither; and so we find Sanskrit rag, to move ; Latin, regere ; and German, regen. The Hebrew root parah, to bear, is found in many Indo-European languages, as in Sanskrit, bhri, to béar; Persian, bar, a burden; Armenian, bieril ; Greek, pheré ; Latin, fero and porto ; Gothic, bairan ; English, to bear ; and old German, biren. From the Hebrew root dnah, to groan, 230 Comparative Philology [| April, is derived the noun anéha, sorrow, identical with the Greek ania, sorrow. Hebrew, argamdan, purple; in Sanskrit, ragaman, tinged with a red colour. The Hebrew word for earth is eretz ; the Chaldee and Syriac, ar’ah and av’o; Sanskrit, dhara. Pelevi arta, whence terra; Gothic, airtha; German, Hrde. It must not be forgotten that, according to the recognized laws of language, letters of the same organ are frequently interchanged for each other, as b, p and f, for instance, as well as dentals for sibilants, &c., other-— wise, the analogies of words will not be so easily recognized. Thus, in Hebrew, barad means to scatter, as barad, hail, and as an adjective it means sprinkled with spots. Syriac, barduno, a leopard; Greek, pardos; and Latin, pardus. Before I proceed farther, I may say that I shall adduce no words in illustration but those found in the oldest Hebrew writings, which I am enabled to do by consulting Fuerst’s admirable Hebrew Concordance and the Lexicon of Gesenius, one of the ablest Semitic scholars the world ever saw, and whose works will never cease to be of authority in Hebrew criticism. To proceed, Hebrew, baar, like the Arab. bar, means to dig; and in Latin is found forare; and in English, to bore. Hebrew, bar, corn; Arabic, bor, wheat; Latin, far, whence farina. Hebrew, parah, to be fruitful, and porah, fruitiul ; Persian, bar, fruit. Compare also German frucht and English fruit. Hebrew, shen,a tooth; Arabic, sinn. With these agree the Sanskrit danta ; Latin, dens; and Gothic, tunthus; Fris. tan. The Arabic jins, genus, has its equivalent in Greek genos; Sanskrit, jatz, from yan, to be born; Gothic, kuni; Latin, genus; Hebrew, dootz, contracted from dantz, to dance or leap; German, tanz; English, dance. Again, Hebrew, dér and Arabic, dar, to go round and in a aircle, also to remain, delay, may be compared with Greek déros ; Latin, durus, durare; and German, dauern. Hebrew, dachak, to repel, drive away, finds its equivalent in the Greek dzdko. Hebrew and Aiab‘e, hamar, to flow in a rapid stream, agreeing with Greek, ombros; Latin, imber. Hebrew, za@’am (Arabic, ya’am, to foam at the mouth as a camel), to speak angrily, and as a noun, foam; German, schawm, schaumen ; English, scum, and to skim. Hebrew, yadda’, like the Greek eedon, oida, to see; hence to perceive, know. “This root,” as Gesenius observes, “is very widely extended in the Indo-Germanic languages, in the significa- tion both of seeing and knowing, as Sanskrit. wd, budh; Zend, weedem ; Greek, eidéd, idd, oida, daed; Latin, video ; Gothic, vitan ; German, weten, wissen; and also in the Slavonic tongues.”’—Lew. in loco. Hebrew, kad; Sanskrit, ghada; Slavonic, kad; Latin, cadus; Greek, kados, a jar or vessel for wine or water. Hebrew, kavah, to burn; Greek, kaid; Old Attic, kad; Sanskrit. cush, Hebrew, koor, to dig, bore through, and Arabic, kawr, a digging in the earth; Sanskrit, /’huwr, to cleave, dig, and, as a Hebrew noun, eS a 1866. | as indicating the Antiquity of Man. 231 machérah, from piercing; Greek, machaira, a dirk or sword. Hebrew, kalah, to close, shut up; Greek, kle2d, klets ; Latin, clavis. Hebrew, Kalam, to wound, and Arabic, klam; Sanskrit, Alam. Hebrew, kana, to bow the knee; Greek, gonu; Latin, genu; Sanskrit, ganu; Gothic, keniw; German and English, knie, knee. Hebrew, dat, loot, to wrap round; Sanskrit, Jud; Greek, lathd ; Latin, lateo. The Hebrew kol, voice, from kol, to call, is exten- sively used; Sanskrit, kal, to sound; Greek, khaled; English, to call. Hebrew, madad, to measure; Sanskrit, ma, mad; Zend, meete, mate; Greek, metron, medimnos; Latin, metior, meta; Gothic, mitan; Anglo-Saxon, mefan; and German, messen, Hebrew, mooth, to die, appears in all the Semitic languages, and in many of the Indo-European. The middle radical seems to be softened from the liquid 7, an example of which is found in Hebrew darash and doosh, so that the original stem would be mrt; Sanskrit, m7?, to die, mrita, dead, death—also, math, muth, mith, meth, mid, med, to kill; Malay, meta; Zend, mrete; Pelev. murdeh, mard, mortal, man; Persian, mardan, to die; Greek, mortos; Latin, mors, mortis; German, mord. To these may be added the New Zealand, 7.e. Maori, mate, to die, cognate, like many other words in the language of New Zealand, with the Malay, and perhaps Sanskrit. Again, Heb. mala, to fill, Arab. and Syr. idem. This root, like the last, seems to be co-existent with the origin of the two families of languages which we are comparing with each other—m being changed for p and f, in accordance with the law which frequently changes the letters of the same organ for each other, in this case all labials: thus—Sanskrit, ple, to fill; Gr. pled, plarés, blud, brud ; Lat. plere, plenus; Goth. fullyan; Ger. fiillen voll; Eng. full, fil, &e.; Heb. masach, to mix. This root is also widely extended, appearing in Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, and Syriac, also in the German ivischmasch ; Sanskrit, maksh and misr ; Gr. misgd ; Lat. misceo; Polish, mieszam; Bohem. smisseti; Eng. to mash mix; Ger. mischen. Heb. mashash, to feel; Arab. idem.; Gr. masso. Heb. naar, boy, feminine na’arah—no doubt this is a primitive noun, in Sanskrit nara, man; nari nare, woman; Zend, naere ; Persian, nar; Greek, anér. Heb. naphadl, to fall— the root is the same in Chaldee and Syriac ; and the primary syllable, fal, appears in the German fallen; Eng. fall; Gr. sphallo ; Lat. fallo ; Sanskrit, spaladini. Heb. saphad, to beat the breast as a sign of grief; Gr. sphadazd. Heb. ’avar, to pass over; Arab. idem. ; and as a noun, shore; Ger. ufer; Sansk. wpart; Pers. aber; Gr. huper, pera, peran, perad; Latin, super; Gothic, ufar, afar; German, iiber; English, over. Hebrew, ‘aitz, a she-goat; Syriac, ’ezo ; Sanskrit, adsha, he-goat, adsha, a she-goat; Gothic, gactsa ; Anglo-Saxon, gat; German, geis; Greek, atx, aigos. Hebrew, VOL. III. R A 232 Comparative Philology [ April, gamal, camel: This word, like the last, appears in all the Semitic languages, and very many of the Indo-European, and it is evident from this circumstance that the camel and the goat, as well as the horse, were domesticated before the separation of the Semitic and Aryan peoples. Horse is in Hebrew, parash; also Arabic, faras ; German, pferd, d for s; English, horse, h for p and f, as in Latin facere; Spanish, hacer, h for f. So also Heb. par, a young bullock; German, farr ; Anglo-Saxon, fear. Hebrew, épher; Arabic, idem. calf; English, heifer. The raven, Hebrew and Arabic, ’orév; Sanskrit, karawa; Greek, korax, evidently received its name during the same period; and here we must include the Hebrew shor, ox; Syriac, tora; Greek, tawros; Latin, tawrus; German, stier; Gothic, stiur. The Arabic and Chaldee agree with the Hebrew and Syriac. Hebrew, padar, like the Arabic fadan, means to fatten cattle, and appears in the German futter; English, food, fodder, fat, fatten; Icelandic, feitr. The primary root being fad, to which 7 is often added, as pita, pater; pigeo, piger. The common ancestors of the Aryan and Semitic nations gave the same name to the sun: in Hebrew, shemesh; Arabic, shams; Syriac, shemsho. The word is found under the radical letters sm, sr, sn, sl, in very many languages, as in German, sonne; English, sun; Latin, sol; old German, summe, whence summer; Sanskrit, swra, suryja. In Hebrew, vasas means to moisten or sprinkle, whence resisim, dew-drops, of such excellent use in irrigating the ground before artificial means were invented, so we find the corresponding terms in Sanskrit, rasah, dew; Greek, ersé; Latin, ros. The sack and the horn were necessary instruments in the earliest days of man’s existence, and so we find identical terms for them in most languages; thus, in Hebrew, keren, a horn, and so in all the cognate languages; and in Greek, keras; Latin, cornu; Sanskrit, cringam; Gothic, haurns, whence English, horn; and the word kaneh, a reed, seems to be of the like early use; in Greek, khanna, kanné, kané; and English, cane. It occurs in early Hebrew (Jos. c. xvi, v. 8) as the name of a town. It would seem that the first inhabitants of the world were not ignorant of music, shir in Hebrew meaning to sing, and finding its equivalent in the Sanskrit shir, also to sing; the harp (perhaps the.Kolian) bemg named in Hebrew kinnor, finding its root in kanar, to give forth a tremulous sound, whence Greek kinura and Latin gingrina. The Hebrew root shith is found also in Syriac and Chaldee, signifying to put, set, place, &., and is of very extensive use in the Aryan languages; Sanskrit, stha; and in the Greek words histémz, stoa, stéli, &c.; Latin, sto, statuo, statura, stabelcs, and scores of other words. It is also found in English, German, and all other Teutonic, as well as in the Neo- Latin tongues; from the Hebrew root is derived shathoth, columns, metaphorically applied to princes and nobles; and the Chaldee 1866. | as indicating the Antiquity of Man. 233 shuth, a derivative of the same root, is foundation; and the name Seth is also a derivative, meaning set or appointed instead of another. The numeral adjectives are commonly and very properly adduced to prove the relationship of languages, and at least five of the ten integers can be shown to be the same in the Aryan and Semitic families of speech. Thus, echad, one, in Hebrew and its cognate tongues, has the same radical letters in the Pehlevi, advek, and with- out daleth (d), in Sanskrit eka, and Pehlevi, jek. Heb. sh’nayrm, two, Arab. atnan, Syr. taren, Chal. terain. The primary form appears to be ¢eni, and this has been softened to dw? in Sanskrit ; Gothic, twa, Greek and Latin, duo, and German, zwe?. Heb. shalosh, three, Arab. thalathah, Chal. telath. The primary form seems to be in the Zend, teshro, and transposed from this both Chal. telath and Greek, treis, Lat. tres, Sanskrit, tz, one liquid taking the place of another. Heb. shésh, six, of analogous form in other Semitic languages, and in Sansk. shash, Zend, qswas, Slav. schest, Gr. hex, Lat. scx. Heb. sheva’, and so both Syr. and Arab., Sansk. sapta, Goth. sebum, Ger. sieben, and Eng. seven. It is also probable that five, and other numbers in Hebrew and the Aryan languages, were originally the same, but as the analogy is not so evident as in those already adduced, and as five out of the ten numbers are amply sufficient, I shall not trouble the reader with analogies which might tend rather to perplex than to instruct him. There are multitudes of other words in all the parts of speech in the Semitic family which find their equivalents similar both in form and meaning in the Aryan, a fact of which everyone may convince himself by a careful perusal of Gesenius’s excellent ‘ Hebrew Lexicon,’ which has furnished most of the examples already quoted; but it would be useless to increase the number of words here, as those already produced are more than sufficient to prove that all the Aryans and Semites once spoke the same language, and consequently, that they did not spring origin- ally from different centres of creation, but rather constituted a single family, originating in one locality. It would be interesting now to inquire whether the numerous dialects of Asia, Africa, the Poly- nesian Islands, and the aboriginal tribes of America would bear the same test, and thus prove that all men are members of one family— the descendants of one parent; but this task must be deferred, as it has no connection with the problem now under consideration. I presume, however, that it can no longer be doubted that the Aryan and Semitic peoples sprung from one stock, and in order to account for the great varieties in their several languages, it is necessary to suppose that a separation of the two great families or divisions hap- pened in a very early period of the existence of mankind, and that then the languages of both families grew gradually and expanded, without haying any material connection with each other, from some R 2 234 Comparative Philology, de. | April, original tongue consisting of a very limited vocabulary, and few or no grammatical inflexions. What an immense number of ages must have revolved in their ceaseless progress in order to develop this mere skeleton into such a fine body of language as we have evidence that Sanskrit on the one hand, and Hebrew or Arabic on the other, had assumed more than three thousand years ago. It is a fact capable of demonstration, that in this remote period there existed as much dissimilarity between the two families as at the present time, both as to their vocabulary and grammar ; that is, there was no closer resemblance between Hebrew and Sanskrit than there is between Arabic and Greek at this day, after the lapse of three or four thousand years. Nevertheless, the mutations in all these languages have been exceed- ingly slow; Arabic, for instance, having scarcely yet arrived at that state of analytic decay at which Hebrew had arrived in the days of Moses ; and yet when Hebrew was a living language it sustained scarcely a dialectical change during the period of a thousand years ; and when we consider that Sanskrit and Hebrew must have gradu- ally developed themselves from mere roots into the magnificent trees to which they may fitly be compared, and that thousands of years have been insufficient to produce any radical change in them, what an incalculable number of ages must have elapsed since they first began to grow, gradually advancing to synthetic maturity, and then as gradually decaying in structure, till we find their living representatives as Greek and Arabic, although much changed, still retaining all the more remarkable characteristics of their cognate tongues. There is no reason why I should confine myself to Hebrew and Sanskrit for illustration, except for the sake of brevity, for the same phenomena are observable in Greek and other languages which have come down to our own times. Indeed, it is well known that Greek has retained the great majority of its ancient words and much of its synthetic character to this day. The spoken language has of course assumed a more analytical form, but it has undergone so little radical change, that Thucydides, for instance, would find no difficulty in reading Tricoupe’s ‘ History of the Greek Revolution :’ in fact, the two authors have been compared with each other as to style and language. The changes, then, which Greek has expe- rienced have been very gradual, like those of Hebrew and Arabic, and the same may be predicated of many other languages. And now, if we should illustrate the matter by a diagram, the best form would be an acute angle, the extreme points of whose two sides are very distant, one point representing the Aryan family of lan- guages, and the other the Semitic; and although the extreme points of the two sides might be thousands of miles asunder, the angle itself would be something like the angle of parallax of a fixed star. SS a 1866. | On Cell Life. 235 The problem would then be to calculate the length of the sides which represent the ages elapsed since the two families set out at the angular pomt in their progress down the two sides till they arrived at their present position at the end of each line. This line reduced to time I have no hesitation in affirming would represent not only thousands but tens of thousands of years. VII. ON CELL LIFE. By Dr. A. Frcx, Professor of Physiology and Zoology, Zurich University.* Pxato, the profoundest thinker of the ancients, has already com- pared the State with a human organism. The several organs of the body represented, according to his ideas, the different vocations of the citizens. Such conceptions, however fanciful they may seem, have never- theless invariably tended to advance politics; and again at the present time, the renowned lawyer Bluntschli is endeavouring means to secure for his system profounder deductions and reasoning. The comparison is really something more than a mere play of fancy, but it 1s better to illustrate the existence of the animal body by the State, than the existence of the State by the animal body. The points touched upon in the comparison are sufficiently apparent in the State, but in the animal body they are to a great extent concealed. ‘The comparison, too, is a more fruitful one for the physiologist than for the politician. This will be seen from the following remarks, whose aim is to render apparent some of the fundamental relations of the animal economy by means of the simile of the State. We do not assert that the State is comparable with an animal body ; but the converse, the body of one of the higher animals is comparable to a governed nation. If this expression has any real significance, it involves the supposition that the body of the higher animals is made up of individuals, which, like the individual persons of a nation ruled by the State, are in some respects entirely and essentially alike. This supposition has at first something so strange and startling in it, that I must at the outset seek to render it more familiar to my readers. What then can be these perfect individuals in the animal body ? The answer to this is easy: They are the cells. In order to show at once that Ido not stand alone in this view, * Translated from the German by HE. Ray Lankester. 236 On Cell Life. [April, I would remind the reader of the opinion of a well-known labourer in the minute structure of the tissues, Professor Frey, of Zurich, who says of cells, in his ‘Handbook of Microscopie Anatomy, “they represent living beings, both as regards their anatomical and physiological individuality.” But what is a cell? ‘To this question it is by no means easy to give a reply. A full and clear definition of a cell is not yet possible. Let us try, by the help of observation and dissection, to form an idea of the nature of a cell. It is well known that the organs of animals and of plants do not consist of a homogeneous mass, but are formed of separate parts which have definite forms and properties. The elementary components of one of the higher animals or plants are various in their character, as the microscope teaches us. Many tissues consist of solid filaments, others of pipes or tubes, which are filled with contents readily distinguishable from the tube-walls. These elementary parts may exhibit, in their fully developed con- dition, great variety and differences, but in the earliest stages of development they are not distinguishable from one another. Where a tissue is about to be developed, a number of small bodies are observable from the commencement, always wonderfully alike in form. They appear to be rounded lumps of a thick shmy substance ; somewhere in the inside of each lump there is a clear, well-defined, and somewhat transparent globule, with a dark spot in the middle. Such a body as this is called, in the restricted meaning of the word, ‘a cell;’ the transparent globule within it, ‘a nucleus;’ and the dark spot in the middle of the globule, ‘the nucleolus. The formation of the most complex tissues of the animal body takes place in the following manner only: The original component cells multiply themselves. This multiplication takes place (as far as sound observations have ascertained) entirely by the subdivision of the mother cells, a process which is continually going on; the nuclei divide so as to separate the nucleoli into halves, and the surrounding material draws itself together into two masses around each of the newly-formed nuclei, and at last the masses become detached from one another. Connected with the preceding statement, there is a most important question, relating to our knowledge of organic nature, in regard to which a lively contest has lately been renewed. The question is, whether individual creations of organic beings occur. Here the problem comes before us in a still more general form— namely, are there special creations of cells. The most reliable observers at the present day are agreed that the creation of a cell in an animal tissue has never yet been seen with certainty, and that each cell is the offspring of another, from which it has separated by division. Here, then, we have already decided evidence that the cell is to be regarded as an organic individual. 1866. | On Cell Life. 237 In the development of a tissue, the newly-formed cells increase by subdivision. They grow, according to the character of the tissue, into various forms, and in most cases secrete the materials which they have elaborated within their walls. Generally they become compacted together on the surface, and in many tissues in a fully-developed condition they constitute the chief mass of the whole tissue. Always, however, as long as the tissue is living, there must still remain those bodies, which are cells in the true sense of the word—the little lumps of that mysterious gelatinous matter which has in recent times been called Protoplasm. It is probably within this substance that the final problem of organic hfe hes concealed. Its peculiarity does not consist in its shape, but in the substance itself; for wherever it is, in whatever form it may occur, there we have manifestations of organic life. The chemical and physical properties of this protoplasm, as far as we at present know, are to a great extent passive (probably it is a compound of different chemical bodies, among which albuminous or white-of-egg- like substances are the most prominent) ; all the more remarkable therefore, are its physiological actions. Above all, it is important to keep this fact in mind, that wherever a separate piece of this substance is found growing and developing, it is (in accordance with the nature of the procreation of cells described above) a portion separated from another protoplasmic mass; in no case, so far as reliable observations have extended, is it ever spontaneously developed from its constituents. But what is it that gives us a right to the paradoxical supposi- tion that each protoplasmic lump, individualized by its central globule or nucleus—each cell, in the animal body—is a separate animal subject, with individual animation? In fact, I ascribe to each cell, not only of the animal, but also of the vegetable body, animation in the truest meaning of the word. To express my view as clearly as the obscure nature of the subject will admit, I am of the persuasion that this thing which objectively appears to us as a microscopic, minute lump or knot of gelatinous matter, is in itself, sulyectively, a thing, similar to our own personal self; a thing con- scious of the influence of other things (sensadive), and of its own influence on other things (volitional). I cannot but feel certain that such a stretch of the idea as this will be received by most persons simply with an elevation of the eyebrows and a shake of the head. Materialistic views of the world, at the present day, exercise a very widely-spread dominion, even in the minds of men who are, in fact, contimually repudiating the ultimate consequences of materialism. The materialist’s view of the world is simply an instance of one-sidedness, since it is a concession of existence to those things only which are objectively apparent—which are regarded by him merely as passive masses of 238 On Cell Life. [| April, matter in the network of causes. Those who view the world from a materialistic aspect assume the right to deny that the things © which are yet beyond our experience possess in themselves an existence as subjects. I will stop no longer to criticize this view of the world, nor will I further delay the continuation of my observations. I hope, also, without having placed the matter in the position of a certainty, that the reader will at least allow that an organic cell has a true subjective existence. One cannot with certainty prove the truth of this hypothesis; and indeed, at pre- sent, it must remain a supposition, because the inner being of the thing itself is not open to our experience. In the same manner, we cannot certainly prove the animation of another man. In point of fact, as a mere matter of experience, a man is nothing more than one of the numerous phenomena of our objective experience; that is to say, a something from which material influence on other matter proceeds, and which is obedient to the great network of causes. Nevertheless, it has not yet occurred to any reasonable man to deny the animation of another. But what is it that makes us acknowledge the animation of another man, seemg that there is no direct experience about it? It is the following conclusion, derived from analogy, which makes us certain of it. ‘The individual Self is not only subjective, but as a corporeal phenomenon it is also objective with regard to the sensitive perceptions. We see our hands and feet, we hear our own voice, and distinguish it from that of another person’s ; as also we see the limbs of other men, hear their voices, and so on. In the range of our experience, we find the deportment of another man exactly like the deportment of our own body, as far as it is objective to us ; and hereon we found the certainly just analogical argument, “ Because I and another man exhibit exactly the same deportment objectively, so do we agree sulyectively; and because 1 inwardly know myself to be an animated being, so the other man also will be a similarly animated being.” Only once let us tread this path of analogy, and we shall find, as will be seen, that we can find no conclusion to the range of life but in the simplest cells. In fact, that one cannot stop at man is clear enough, and generally acknowledged. The higher animals, and especially those nearly related to us, are so much like us that it would be foolish to deny their animation. No one would be surprised at our ascribing animation, or understanding, or even reflection, to a dog or an ape; but if we descend lower in the catalogue of animals, the signs of mental or spiritual life become naturally less and ‘less visible, yet the degradation is so gradual, that we are unable to stop at any point in the list, and say, “ Here animation ceases and the simple machine begins.” [f we once ascribe animation to an ape, we must allow a polyp 1866. | On Cell Life. 239 or an infusorium to be an animated being. Of course no reasonable man will overlook the enormous difference in the degree of anima- tion in different animals. No one will suppose for a moment that any infusorium can form a clear idea of the objects in the world around it. To this faculty belong certam complex apparatuses, which the infusoria do not possess. The clearness of their con- sciousness certainly does not even nearly attain to the clearness of our consciousness when in the deepest sleep; but as there is a regular and gradual transition between sleepmg and waking, so is there between the degrees of animation in different creatures. The comprehension of spiritual matters, the amount of consciousness, the lucidity of the ideas produced by objects in the external world, vary interminably ; but the essence of the thing remains the same, even in the very lowest grades of the organic kingdom. There is, in every case, a feeling of self-separateness or individuality, distinct from the outside world; the active influence of that world is felt, and upon it the subject desires to direct its influence. There is no doubt that this proposition is clear enough to all who rank themselves as disciples of Darwin as regards the origin of species. Tor this philosopher surrounds, as did the ancient reli- gion of the Indians, the whole organic world with the bands of brotherhood, I have, however, purposely avoided grounding my argument on the doctrine of that teacher, because it cannot yet be held as a proved scientific truth. So, then, if it be once admitted that animation extends downwards into the lowest forms of the animal kingdom, then it is also admitted that there exist single cells, which are to be reckoned individually as animated beings ; for there are numberless animals belonging to the order infusoria which consist of a single cell. Such an animal, for instance, is an Amceba, a minute, microscopic, protoplasmic mass, with nucleus and nucleolus. If its actions are observed under the microscope, one can see how it alters the form of its body at will; how it sends forward prolongations here and there, draws out the mass of its body, and so changes its place. On outward irritation, it generally rolls itself up into a bullet-shaped lump, and rapidly draws in again all the prolongations lately stretched forward. Often one may observe it engulf smaller bodies in its substance, where they are changed—one may say, digested—and half disappear, the undi- gested leavyings being again ejected. The little animal grows, and goes on propagating itself by division. A cell which belongs to the tissues of one of the higher animals behaves exactly in the same manner as a single-celled infusorium. For example, in the blood we have cells; the so-called white blood corpuscles, which are exactly like certain infusoria. Thus they stretch out prolongations of their substance subject to their will, and upon irritation and the like they show thewell-known reactions. The cells 240 On Cell Life. [April, in connective tissue deport themselves similarly. They crawl regu- larly about in certain chasms in the substance of the tissue formed beforehand, which they elaborated for themselves, which, in fact, they have constructed as their dwelling. What is particularly worthy of attention is, that these cells when they have left the tissue, can move themselves for some time in a fluid, and show all the pheno- mena described. These facts are truly among the most beautiful acquisitions to our knowledge lately derived from microscopic research. They had for a long time escaped the attention of micro- scopic observers, because animal tissues were not examined under the same condition in which they exist in the living organism. It has already been mentioned that cells in the tissues of highly organ- ized animals are exactly the same in their growth and reproduction as single-celled organisms. And, in the last place, to complete the identity, all the cells of a whole animal are actually the brood — of one single cell—namely, the ovum. We have here before us exactly the phenomena which we regard as the characteristics of an animated beng—movement at will, and reaction on outward irrita- tion. ‘Thus, then, we can by a well-connected chain of strict analogies arrive at the proposition which was placed before us. Hach cell, whether it be an independent animal or part of the tissues of a higher organism, is in itself, subjectively, an animated being. ‘The want of self-dependence in the cell, which forms a part of the tissues of a higher animal, is really not greater than in the single-celled infusorium, which lives freely by itself. In fact, each organism has its own conditions of life; and as the tissue-cells can only live, for any length of time, in a certain fluid, or in their appointed self- wrought habitation, where they dwell as a compound organism, so can certain single-celled infusoria live persistently only in certain fluids; they also die if placed under conditions to which their organization is not adapted. I am not, moreover, at all certain, as before said, of the impossibility of a cell, if once removed from the blood or connective tissue of a higher animal and placed in another soil (as it were) under favourable auspices, proceeding with its life as an independent animal, and becoming the mother of a brood of infusoria. From the standing-point which we have now gained, we cannot call an organism which consists of more than one cell an individual. Such an object is much more like an association of individuals, which live together in a habitation wrought by them. ‘The cells have themselves secreted the materials for building from their bodies. Association makes a division of labour possible. It is no longer necessary for each cell to execute for itself every organic function— digestion, assimilation, &c., in their different stages. One group is able much more satisfactorily to execute this, and another that office for the whole household; and thus the particular functions _ _—— 1866. | On Cell Life. 241 are brought to greater perfection, and the performances of the entire organism become more varied and numerous. The best type of such an association of organic individuals is a lant. Here we see different groups of cells execute different offices which benefit the whole plant. One set extracts material from the ground, another elaborates it im various ways; others again draw material from the air; others are especially fruitful in producing new generations. But we do not attain to the higher efforts of physical activity in the plant. The reason of this is easily seen. Tn plants, each single cell surrounds itself directly with a mem- brane of the so-called cellulose, the substance which we have before us in wood, in cotton, and in paper. The cells are, by means of this, individually shut up; they can, it is true, influence one another to a certain degree, in that they can transmit material ‘to one another; but they cannot infiuence one another to an unlimited extent; they cannot share their conditions, their sensations, we may even say their experiences, with one another. Each therefore is confined to the bare circle of its own sensations (which we are as little able to dispute in plant-cells as in animal-cells), and therefore it can reach to no higher grade of psychical life. The cells of a plant are, in a word, like a number of men shut up from childhood together in a cellular prison, who perhaps might have exercised much important influence on one another, but between whom all spiritual intercourse has been prevented. These men would never display the deeper characteristics of spiritual development. In the higher animals there are numerous groups of cells which are disposed in a manner analogous to that observed in the plant cells; that is to say, they le isolated, yet near each other, though not enclosed in the same hard dwellings as in plants. Such agegre- gates of cells, for example, are the blood and the epithelium. The epithelium is the name given to the layers of cells which lie arranged like strata wherever an organic structure is bounded towards external space, as in the outer skin (epidermis), and the slime-skin or mucous membrane which lines the surface of internal cavities open to external space. Many other tissues also form the same kind of cell-masses, upon the principle of the plant’s organization. Their action has been long designated as ‘ vegetative,’ correctly referring to the analogies which they present to plant-life. In the higher animals a new system of cells is added to this vegetative group, which are disposed on a totally different plan. Tt defines what is truly animal, and its actions are rightly desig- nated ‘ animal.’ ' In fact, the difference between plants and animals does not really lie in their elementary components. Both kingdoms are, as we saw, aud as most observers in both now admit, constructed 242 On Cell Life. | April, from elements of a similar nature—from cells. Among the simplest organisms, philosophers have been in much doubt in which of the two kingdoms they shall place those beings consisting of but one or few cells, and perhaps there is nothing to justify the assertion of a sharp boundary. The distinction can only be clearly shown where one has to deal with complex organisms formed of many cells. The true characteristics of the two kingdoms are to be found in the manner in which the colony is built up by its individuals, and thus especially in that system of cells just mentioned which gives its peculiarity to the animal kingdom. This system is a series of cells widely spread through the whole body, in which the proto- plasmic matter is maintained in unbroken continuity throughout, by fine, long threads. It is the ‘nervous system.’ Let us consider this wonderful structure somewhat more closely, and indeed let us bring it before us in that form which it takes mm man, the highest of now known animals. The cells of the human nervous system are generally packed together in more or less numerous groups, which are called nerve-knots or ganglia, whence the name ganglion- cell is derived for the cells of the nervous system: they are simply, as all cells are, nothing more than protoplasmic lumps with nucleus and nucleolus. The nervous ganglia lie distributed over the whole body, in some places sparingly, in others profusely, and are bound together with connecting cords of the protoplasmic thread, which, as was said, always brings two cells into conjunction. Hach such protoplasmic thread is encased in a true sheath, and forms: with it what is called ‘a nerve-filament.’ It must further be noticed that each cell commonly is connected, not only with one, but often with many other cells by means of nerve-filaments. Besides these filaments, which establish the communication of the nerve-cells among one another, there are others which com- municate at one end only with a cell, and at the other end are connected with structures of a different nature. There are two sorts of these filaments, differmg very much in kind, though not in their essential nature. The one set—in the strictest meaning of the word—proceeds outwards from the organs of sense, and is destined to convey external impressions to the nervous system. The others, which terminate in the muscular fibres, are appro- priated to carrying the active influence of the nervous system to the exterior. We have now a complete picture of the nervous system in man, when we add that in him, as well as in the four higher classes of animals, by far the greatest number of the nervous elements—that 1s, of nerve-cells and connecting filaments—are packed together in a continuous mass, and shut up in the canal of the backbone and those cavities of the skull which are continuous with it. These great nervous masses are known as the brain and spinal-cord. — 1866. | On Cell Life. 243 The construction of the nervous system makes it very clear that something takes place here which differs from what occurs in the plant or plant-like tissues of the animal. The nerve-cells cannot only work externally, and operate on one another, by modifying the fluid in which they are placed ; they can work upon one another much more direetly by means of their connecting filaments of proto- plasm ; they can mutually communicate their conditions, which as material appearances are called conditions of irritation, but which from their own stand-point are sensations or acts of the will. Here, too, the means are provided to enable a cell (that is to say, an organic subject) to be sensible, not only of that which operates on itself alone, but also of that which affects a thousand other cells continuously connected with it. Thus a cell can learn (if the ex- pression is not too strange) by the experiences of others. ‘Through this it becomes possible for the conditions of animation to attaim to that high perfection, in virtue of which the consciousness awakens to that clearness which we experience in ourselves. The comparison of our body with a State is now no longera difficult matter. The cells of the vegetative functions constitute a race as it were of mentally-stunted people, among whom each man lives shut up by himself, without knowing much of his neighbour. The epithelial cells of the intestines we may more particularly compare to the agricultural classes, who derive nourishment for themselves and for others from the ground. They give this raw material to the blood-cells, which represent the mercantile classes. These disperse it over the whole State, but are certainly bad trades- men in the common view of such matters, since they exchange their valuable commodities for nothing but used-up rubbish, which they must dispose of as quickly as possible to the appropriate organs, the lungs and kidneys. This laborious population bears the yoke of an aristocracy, and submits to be governed by it. I mean the nervous system. There is within this aristocracy a strict system of caste, or I might perhaps better say, a bureaucratic classification. It has also to maintain a standing army in the muscular fibres, and must hold it ever ready for action, for our State is never at peace, and indeed must con- tinually be fighting with other States, and with the forces of nature in the doubtful battle of our existence. The highest place in our aristocracy is not held by a monarch, but by a body of equals. They are the ganglion-cells of the great cerebral hemispheres which so largely constitute the upper part of the nervous system. Here all the filaments meet, here all intelligence arrives at last, and hence proceed the most important decrees to the whole nation. But it must not be supposed that all the sentient filaments of the more highly sensitive organs, of the skin and so on, pass directly to the cells of the great hemispheres of the brain, and that the motor 244 On Cell Life. [ April, nerve-threads go without interruption hence to the muscles. On the contrary, there are placed between the periphery and the great cerebral hemispheres, as mentioned already, a lower authority of the bureaucratic mechanism. This is the accumulation of ganglion- cells in the spinal-cord and mid-brain. Especially in this last part of the nervous system, and in the so-called ‘medulla oblongata,’ in the places where the great nerves of sensation flow in, there are masses of cells representing the highest executive officials. Here the raw materials of sensation are arranged. Here the scraps of news out of the various provinces of the kingdom—that is to say, the sensations from the various authorities on feeling—are brought together and are worked up into abstract conceptions, which are then delivered to the higher body corporate. This finally deter- mines what is to be done in consequence. If a resolution is here carried by a majority, these powers immediately give directions to the subordinates, without entering into details. The resolution is merely a sign addressed to the lower authorities, who then elaborate the details of action and operate upon the nerves distributed to the muscles. For example, a determination is made when in great pain to pronounce a certain word: to effect this, a complex series of movements are necessary, for which purpose a certain number of muscles are disposed consecutively. ‘There must therefore be a number of motor impulses sent from the brain along various lines of nerves ; but these motor impulses do not proceed as such from the great cerebral hemispheres, where the resolution is first made. From thence only a simple sign is given, which is at once understood by the wonderfully trained subordinates. These officials are the groups of cells in the medulla oblongata, from them arise the motor nerves of the respiratory apparatus and of the tongue. Here the mandate, indicated by a sign, becomes methodized into various single orders, and now the winged messages go here and there along the various motor lines, conveying the fiats of authority. The inferior authorities of our bureaucratic mechanism rejoice in the possession of a certain amount of independence. For example, there 1s that group of cells which is related to the mechanism of respiration. They are continually sensible of the necessity of ventilation for the blood, and thereupon determine to set the bellows in action, more or less quickly, according to the require- ment. Most probably the brain receives information of these proceedings, because threads pass from the said cells to it. It can even take an active part in them, since we could form the determi- nation in our central consciousness to arrest the breathing. The servants, however, would not attend to such a selfish command on the part of the supreme power. The subordinate powers can also act independently upon external impulses. Let us take the effect of ammonia on the 1866. | On Cell Life. 245 mucus of the nose. The cells in the medulla oblongata feel it, and command the subservient muscles of the thoracic cavity to throw off the irritant by a violent expiration, an act which we generally call sneezing. Such actions, which can take place without the intervention of the superior hemispheres of the brain, have been called ‘ reflex actions,’ as distinguished from actions of the will. Reflex action is best studied when the cerebral hemispheres have been entirely removed. In some animals this is quite possible without destroying those parts which enable them to move under the influence of external irritation, but the movements then executed are observed to differ from those which occur upon similar irritation when the cerebral hemispheres have not been removed. The various phenomena which have been observed in the actions of animals under these conditions, prove that the spinal-cord is a centre of animation, and the objections of many philosophers against its animation might just as well be urged against that of the brain, if they were in reality valid objections. They say that each of these phenomena can be explained as simple mechanical actions, but we are certain that things have an existence indepen- dent of our experience, and that this existence in organic individuals is sensation, will—in fact, animation. Let us now look at the matter from this point of view, which is not the one generally adopted in natural science, but which the interpreter of nature may well accept at once, when he has laid down his dissecting knife. Thus we shall obtain a new significa- tion for some of the phenomena referred to. An uninjured animal— a frog, for instance—makes a spring upon irritation of the skin, because in the cells of the great brain, consequent upon the experiences of the skin and also those of the eye, which are subject to the brain, a supposition is founded that a spring protects the animal from threatened danger; but, on the contrary, if the cerebral hemispheres have been destroyed, the cells of the spinal- cord have to take the lead, and because they have not so much material of knowledge at their command, seeing that they can derive no information from the higher organs of perception, they are unable to form the determination and carry it out, of making a trial of flight. They are only able to give the order to the nearest agent at hand to remove the irritation. This is the foot of the animal, which is accordingly raised to the place subjected to irrita- tion, for the purpose of removing its cause. Thus, then, the sub- ordinate centres of the great cerebro-spinal system become perfectly independent if the superior centres are destroyed. In the course of normal life, they have, on the other hand, as has been already stated, only a relative independence, their commands are only executed when counter-mandates are not issued by the higher centres. Tn the ordinary course of life a much greater independence apper- 246 On Cell Life. [April, tains to those subordinate nervous centres which lie scattered over the body, and are placed as guardians of the vegetative activity, such, for example, as the nervous gangha of the heart and intestinal canal, It is only occasionally, under very exceptional circumstances, that painful news reaches the higher regions from these quarters ; it is only in illness, or when an unusual storm of sensation is raging. such as fever, anxiety, and other passions, that any influence from above operates on the beating of the heart. It is worthy of notice that among the connecting threads which contribute to the weak dominion of the brain over the nervous centres of vegetative life, are particular cords which have the exclusive function of conveying counter-mandates against action. These-are the so-called nerves of interception. These are capable of conveying such an irritation as to bring the heart to a stand-still. Among the inferior nervous centres a division of the work into departments occurs, as has been shown by examples. One mass has to elaborate the sensations produced by light into vivid representations ; another has to connect these with the sensation of touch; again, another has to do with speech; others arrange the movements of the various extremities; others the throbbings of the heart, and so on. Nothing decidedly analogous to this takes place in the supreme governing body—the cell-mass of the great cerebral hemispheres. Here every cell can participate in every opportunity which is afforded for the activity of the general cerebrum. Each part of this organ, larger or smaller, can set the other parts into action, especially since there is a definite relation between one great half of the bram and the other. These are posi- tive facts which cannot be doubted. In fact, there are numerous pathological observations which show that though men have fre- quently, either by external injury or destructive disease, been robbed of the greater part of their cerebral hemispheres, yet it has never been remarked in such individuals that any mental power, such as speech or memory, according to the locality of the wound, had been lost. A man, with the greater part of his cerebrum destroyed, rejoices in the same clearness of consciousness and under- standing as before. These observations alone would be enough to upset the idle speculations of “ phrenologists,” were that consumma- tion not already attained by their unreasonable classification of the so-called ‘‘ mental properties.” * The facts in question enable us to add one more observation worthy of notice. They show that the acuteness of the understand- ing, and generally the quality of mental power, does not depend upon the quantity of brain, which, however, is a view widely accepted. Nevertheless, the energy and wnweariedness of mental activity seems to depend upon the mass of the brain. In our way * « Seelenverm6gen.” ’ 1866. | On Cell Life. 247 of looking at the question, it must be so, as a matter of course, since when only a small number cf cells are at hand, each single cell must be more strained than when many are present to relieve one another. In the first case, the whole mass would speedily become exhausted. Thus it is, that we find it an acknowledged fact, that the greatest men as a rule have very big heads. It is explained by the con- sideration that to illustrious actions belong not only activity, but also steady energy and endurance in their accomplishment, which qualities simply depend on the size of the cerebral mass. In the course of our observations, I must freely admit, in conclusion, we passed over an obscure point—namely, How is it that to us our own consciousness seems personal, whereas, according to the representa- tions made above, it should be rather the united consciousness of a people? I know no solution of this problem, excepting a masterpiece of human wisdom from Kant’s ‘ Critique on Pure Reason.’ It is this: “ An elastic ball which strikes another divides with it its whole momentum, consequently, its whole phase of being. Suppose, then, an analogous case, in which bodies of like material are concerned, the one imparting to the other cdeas: a whole series is easily con- eeived, in which any one which may be regarded as the first com- municates to a second its conditions and the consciousness of them; the second acts similarly on a third, communicating, not only its own conditions, but those of the first also; whilst the third in like manner communicates the conditions of all the preceding ones together with its own, and their consciousness. The last body would thus be conscious of all the phases of being of the bodies that had been modified before it, as well as of its own, because these phases of being were transferred to it together with their conscious- ness, and in consequence of this, would it not have been identically the same individual in all these phases of existence ? ”* Is if not as though the great thinker had flashed forth the then undiscovered construction of the nervous system, with its cells sharing with one another their conditions, Verily, the veil is as yet but just touched. It still remains impenetrably thick over the secret depths of our inner selves, and so will remain to the end, * The utterances of great thinkers are ever suggestive. If we have a row of elastic balls touching one another, and give a blow to the first, it will impart its momentum to the second ; that will affect the third, and so on, with gradually-diminishing in- tensity, until the last isimpelled slightly forward from the rest. But modern physics teach us that each ball will haye been affected in another way. If the force, the motive impulse, has diminished in its passage through the balls, a little heat will have been set up, in conformity with the law of the Conservation of forces. Thus, when the divine truth or energy is conyeyed into the mind of a man who stands at tle head of a series of thinkers, it fires his brain; but he imparts the “momentum” to his neighbour, and the influence passes from mind to mind, probably with diminishing vigour, until it reaches the last mind—that which offers the least resistance; for there is none lower to whom it can communicate it; and so it is not fired, but moved a little forwards: that last mind is the mind of the masses.— Eprrors. VOL, ITT. 8 ( 248- ) | April; CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE. I. AGRICULTURE. Tus Carrie Pracue.—This has continued the overwhelming interest of the past quarter in the agricultural world. Advancing for many weeks at a very rapidly increasing rate, and having attamed a fatality of about 1,500 cases daily, it has latterly been stationary ; and we hope it is at length feeling the influence of the means which have been employed for its prevention and restriction. The Cattle Plague Act requires the immediate slaughter of affected animals, and permits the local authorities to destroy those which, having been in contact with the plague, may be supposed to have become infected. The rapid breeding and spread of the poison are thus at length in some measure stopped; and we may hope with some confidence that the hitherto rapid extension of the plague has been checked. Every other method than the pole-axe for this pur- pose has hitherto been a failure. Vaccination, on which some hope had been built, was found to be no security whatever: and every published cure has hitherto, on sufficient test being applied, proved to be fallacious. Acids, alkalies, and salts have all been fairly tried, and all found wanting. Sulphuric acid, sulphates, and sulphites, hydrochloric acid, common salt, lime, salts of iron, sulphur, and a variety of drugs have all proved ineffectual. Mr. Worms, a coffee lanter of Ceylon, who imagined the disease to be the same as he had often treated successfully in that island, confidently recom- mended, onions and assafoetida in certain doses as a cure; and it has been largely tried, but without success. Baron Rothschild’s herd at Mentmore was rapidly succumbing to the plague, notwithstand- ing Mr. Worms’ treatment, when the experiment was at length cut short by the intervention of the law for slaughtering affected animals. Homesopathic treatment seems, according to the published tables, to have achieved a larger proportion of success than any other. But everybody knows the extreme untrustworthiness of any general conclusion on this subject built upon an insufficient basis of examples. Meanwhile, the fatality of the disease, which, on its first appearance, was extreme, and is still extraordinary, has been gradually diminishmg. ‘The recovery rate, which was only 5 per cent. in October, and 6 per cent.in November, over the whole number of cases reported since the beginning, had risen to 11 per cent. in the third week in January, and stood at 12-146 per cent. on February 3, 12°364 per cent. on February 10, 12°680 per cent, 1866. | Agriculture. 249 on February 17, 13,377 per cent. on February 24, and 13°956 per cent. on March 3. Since then the slaughter of all affected animals by law has, of course, hindered any further observation ; but the plague was apparently obeying the law of other extraordinary epidemics, and gradually losing with extension the extremely fatal type which it exhibited at first. The above are the results of com- paring, not one week with another, but the totals simce the com- mencement of the attack up to the end of each successive week. The advance is very much greater if the experience of each successive week be examined by itself. The recoveries, which were only 848, or 48 per cent., at a time when there had already been 17,673 cases of the disease in the country, amounted to no fewer than 2,561, or 25 per cent., during a single week in February, when 10,167 fresh cases occurred. We may, therefore, declare that, great as this burden on British agriculture undoubtedly is, some hopeful signs connected with it are at length appearing. It is, however, certain that they depend very much upon the great fear which the disease has created, and the extreme care now taken in isolating diseased herds. In a lecture by Professor Simonds, before the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the greatest emphasis was laid on the need of this carefulness, as the only hope of preventing the extension of the malady. Labourers, travellers, dogs, cats, pigeons, even the wind, when the disease is general over a considerable area, can carry the poison; and if a particle of the morbific matter gains a lodgment in the system of a healthy animal, it will develop there. Hence, wherever the disease exists, it is of the greatest importance that we detect it early, not merely because the only chance of successful treatment depends on commencing with it at the outset of the attack, but also because the establishment of a complete isolation of the animal, before it has begun to exhale the developed poison, is absolutely necessary. Professor Gamgee’s researches prove that the symptom which precedes all others is a slight exaltation of the temperature of the body. A thermometer inserted into the rectum or vagina indicates a temperature of from 2° to 5° Fahr. above the normal 100° im a day or two after the inoculation of the animal with the poison, and some days before the characteristic outward symptoms show themselves. And _ the examination of whole herds has proved that the natural development of the disease is indicated in the same manner. The misfortune, how- ever, is, that this premonitory symptom is true of other diseases also, so that all that any stock-owner can declare with certainty, on finding that the internal temperature of his beast, ascertained in_ this way, stands at 103° to 105°, is that its health is disturbed. If he fears the cattle plague he may be disposed to believe that it has at length reached him; but of this he cannot be sure until the other more characteristic symptoms appear. Meanwhile the necessity a urgent 32 250 Chronicles of Science. [April, for the utmost care being maintained in disinfecting every person, place, or thing that has once been in contact with the disease wherever it has unmistakeably declared itself. Sheds, utensils, recovered animals, clothes, yards, manure, must be carefully disin- fected or the plague will come again. The disease has at length everywhere created fright enough to ensure the adoption of careful measures, and a wholesome public opinion having at length grown up, has declared itself in extremely stringent legislation, and we may therefore hope with some reason that we shall be able at Midsummer to report a diminution of the lague, , “Among the other topics of agricultural interest which have arisen during the past quarter, we may name the first general attempt to collect the agricultural statistics of the country. Returns of the number of heads of various farm stock are being made this month by every occupier of land; and we shall soon know, with some degree of certainty, what are the numbers on which we depend for food, and what proportion to our actual stock is borne by the losses to which cattle plagues and other epizootics make us hable. A commencement haying at length been made, we may hope that measures will by-and-by be taken for ascertaining and publishing from year to year the food-producing power of the country in the other important departments of its agriculture. Mr. Alderman Mechi has read a paper before the London Farmers’ Club on the tillage of the country, in which he declares its insufficient depth and general lack of efficiency in order to the full development of fertility, Plants go great depths for their food ; and young crops are obviously benefited by hoeing and stirring the land during their growth, ‘These are the two facts on which he bases his argument for the greater depth and thoroughness of tillage operations. The extension of cultivation by steam-power is one chief end to be desired, as being in itself the principal means to the attainment of such fertility as thorough tillage can develop. Mr. Denton, C.E., and Mr. Grantham, C.E., have called atten- tion to the great need of storing up in country places, for farm and village use, the drainage-waters of the neighbourhood. The want of water in many places, especially where either deep clay or deep chalk exists, is a very heavy agricultural burden and a great social calamity ; and on both grounds the drainage-water, which is the very best available in such cases, ought to be stored in winter time against summer drought. The excessive rain-fall of the past season, following as it has two very dry summers, the difficulties arising from the drought of which will not soon he forgotten, makes the urgency of this question all the more apparent. The Educational Committee of the English Agricultural Society haye published the results of their first year’s experience. No fewer 1866. | Agriculture. 251 than 120 boys, the sons of farmers or intending an agricultural life, competed for the Society’s prizes at the recent Cambridge University Local Examinations; and it is believed that some agricultural interest has been excited, and some agricultural good therefore been achieved. We believe that the efficiency of the Agricultural Society’s prizes will be much greater, and their results will be more immediate, when they are offered exclusively for such evidence as examinations can test of competency, proficiency, and excellence (not in the several branches of ordinary school training, but) in the several departments of a strictly agricultural and _ professional education. The condition of the agricultural labourer under the systems of ayments in “kind” and by money respectively has been discussed. n Dorsetshire the payment is very largely by perquisites of various kind—cottage and garden free, wheat at a reduced price, &c., and only partly by a weekly money wage ; and only the last particular being published, an undue impression of the hardships of the Dorsetshire labourer has arisen. In many districts of Scotland, too, wages are to a great extent given in meal, in a cow’s keep, and so on, and the result, they say, is advantageous for the labourmg man. Lord Shaftesbury declares the advantages of the somewhat similar system in Dorsetshire. But these advantages are altogether denied by the Rey. Lord 8. G. Osborne, another Dorsetshire philanthropist ; and we entirely sympathize with the latter in the belief that, as we have no right to treat labourmg men as if they were children, incapable of looking after their own interest, or to enforce a system of payment upon them lest they should waste their means, so also, any such enforcement tends to the maintenance of a childish help- lessness and improvidence, out of which trouble and distress are sure to grow. The report by Mr. Lawes, of Rothamsted, on the experiments undertaken for Government to determine the relative values of unmalted and malted barley as food for stock, has been published. From the extent of these experiments and the great care with which they were carried out, we should judge the result to be entirely trustworthy. And it clearly proves that the waste of nutritive material in the process of malting is so great, that whether the dry matter of malt or that of barley, by itself, be the more nutritive or not, there clearly is less food in the malt derived from a given quantity of barley than there was in the barley from which it waa made. CARER 5 { April, IJ, ASTRONOMY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Sociely.) Proressor Grant, F.R.S., of the Glasgow Observatory, has been for some time past engaged in the determination of the difference of longitude between the Observatories of Greenwich and Glasgow by galvanic signals. The method adopted was that of double registration, which has been practised so successfully in the United States of America, and more recently in Europe. ‘The principle of this method is extremely simple. When a star passes each of the successive wires of the transit telescope of the more eastern of the two Observatories, the observer, by tapping a key with his finger, completes a galvanic circuit, and the instant of transit is recorded on the chronographic apparatus of the Observatory; but the galvanic current, instead of going to earth, is made to pass along the line wire to the recording apparatus of the distant Observatory, upon which also the instant of transit is in the same way recorded. A process exactly similar is repeated when the star comes to the meridian of the more western Observatory, the instant of transit being registered on both chronographic apparatuses by the same completion of the galvanic circuit. In this manner each signalling star supplies two pairs of recorded times of transit, a comparison of the individual values of which gives two distinct results, the one indicating the difference of longitude between the two Observatories, the other assigning a value of the time occupied by the galvanic current in its passage from the one Observatory to the other. The period of operations extended from April 28 in the past year to May 26. ‘The stars selected for observation amounted in number to twenty-eight, and were arranged in four groups of seven stars each, and in such a manner that when the last star of any group had passed before the telescope of the Glasgow Transit Circle, which was the more western instrument, the first star of the succeeding group was nearly about to commence its passage over the wires of the Greenwich or more eastern instrument. The weather on the whole was not favourable for simultaneous observations at both Observatories during the period of four weeks over which the operations extended. In several instances observa- tions were made at Greenwich which could not be responded to from Glasgow, and in one or two instances the converse of this happened. On four nights, however— May 1, May 2, May 22, and May 25— the sky was favourable for observation at both Observatories, and it is upon the results obtained on those nights that the determination of the difference of longitude is exclusively based. 1866.] Astronomy. 253 Collecting together the mean values of the difference of longitude for the four days, we have Difference of Longitude. m. 8. May 1 17 10°680 2 10°648 22 10°433 25 10°463 Combining these together with a due regard to the number of observations on each day, we obtain for the definitive value of the longitude of the Transit Circle of the Glasgow Observatory, 17™ 10*-55 W. Similarly, for the time of the current’s passage, 8. May A 0°023 0:037 22 0°035 25 0°018 Whence we obtain definitively Time of Current’s Passage = 0* * 029 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RoyAL AsTRONOMICAL Society. M. Chacornac, in a letter dated 24th October, 1865, addressed to the President of the Royal Astronomical Society, refers to the continuation of his researches on the physical constitution of the Sun; and states that after various observations he has arrived definitively at the conclusion that the Sun is at least as luminous at its centre as in the brilliant envelope which bounds its visible contour. The Society also received from Mr. A. Brothers a sheet of photo- graphs of the Moon, taken during the Eclipse on the 4th October, 1865, with his Equatorial telescope of five inches aperture. Mr. Brothers writes that the prints must not be looked upon as photo- graphs of the Moon, as many very much superior have been taken, but merely as pictures of the Kclipse. The atmosphere was so much disturbed during the whole time of the Eclipse that the sharpness of detail is lost to a great extent. He attempted to obtain the entire outline of the Moon, but failed to get more than greater sharpness of the shadow; this will be seen in No. 10, which was exposed fifteen seconds; Nos. 8 and 12 were exposed three seconds, and the remainder from one to about two-tenths of a second. At the December meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, Professor Grant gave a verbal account of his successful experiments in distributing accurate time over the City of Glasgow. He stated that, in the time-signalling operations at Glasgow, Jones’s method 254 Chronicles of Science. | April, of regulating clocks is exclusively used. It is generally known that, according to this method, the electric fluid is employed merely as a regulating agent, and not in any case as a motive power, the time-piece under control being an ordinary clock, connected by a regular succession of electric pulsations with the normal mean-time clock of the Observatory. ‘The application of the invention in Glasgow has been perfectly successful. It has been employed under various forms; but what Professor Grant considered to be the most suitable to the requirements of a large city was the small clock with a seconds’ pendulum and a dial of about three feet in diameter, showing the time to hours, minutes, and seconds. Ciocks of this construction have been set up in the public thoroughfares of Glasgow, and have been found to be exceedingly useful. Attached to each of them is a galvanometer, which, by its deflections, gives an indication of the electric currents transmitted m successive seconds from the normal mean-time clock of the Observatory, and a break in the transmission of the currents, once in every minute, namely, at the sixtieth second, of the Observatory clock, supplies the public with an unerring criterion for testing the accuracy of the controlled clock. There were now eleven clocks of various forms in Glasgow under the electric control of the mean-time clock of the Observatory. In a short time the number would be increased to some seventeen or eighteen, and the system was gradually extending over all Glasgow. The going of these clocks was truly marvellous. From week to week and from month to month they continued to mdicate the time with the utmost precision, requirmg merely a little attention now and then to the battery power. It was one of the advantages of Jones's method of control that, even in the case where the operations were on an extensive scale, only a small amount of battery power was necessary. There was one other remark which he would make, and it had reference to turret-clocks. Hitherto it had been usual, in the operations for placing one of such clocks under control, to remove the two seconds’ pendulum, and to substitute for it a seconds’ pendulum, which was made to beat in exact unison with the pendulum of the Observatory clock. Objec- tions to this practice have been expressed by many persons who consider that a heavy pendulum vibrating once in two seconds is much better adapted than a light seconds’ pendulum for maintain- ing the steady going of a clock fitted up in a lofty tower, the dials and hands of which are necessarily exposed very much to the action of high winds. After a good deal of experiment, Professor Grant found that the two seconds’ pendulum might be retained and kept under complete control by attaching a large wire coil to the bob, and using a more powerful system of magnets in combination with it. Messrs. Warren De la Rue, Stewart, and Loewy have examined | a 1866. | Astronomy. , 255 the Kew photographs of the sun, as regards the decrease of actinic effect from the centre to the circumference of the sun, which is, without doubt, caused by the presence of a comparatively cold solar atmosphere. In conformity with their views, this atmospheric effect ought to be greater at the epoch of maximum than at that of minimum spot frequency ; and furthermore, if there is any reference to ecliptical longitudes in the behaviour of spots—that is to say, if at any time the spots on the sui attain their maximum at any ecliptical longi- tude, there ought (according to these views) to be a greater amount of absorbing atmosphere at the same longitude, since such an atmosphere is supposed conducive to the outbreak of spots. There is reason to think that spots attain they maximum in the ecliptical longitude opposite to that where Venus exists, so that we might expect (according to these views) a diminution in atmospheric effect in the same longitude as Venus, and an increase in their effect in the longitude opposite to Venus. If, therefore, Venus be at the longitude of the left limb of the Sun, this limb should exhibit less atmospheric effect than the right limb, and if Venus be at the right limb, we should have most atmospheric effect at the left limb. It appears, from a jomt and careful imvestigation of the Kew pictures by Miss Beckly and Mr. Stewart, that (1.) When Venus is considerably to the left, there is most atmospheric effect to the right. (2.) When she is in conjunction or opposition, there is a tendency to equality. (3.) When she is considerably to the right, there is most atmo- spheric effect to the left. Referrmg to these solar photographs, the President of the Astronomical Society stated, at the January meeting, that the Kew photographs are now taken by Miss Beckly, the daughter of the mechanical assistant of Kew ; and it seems to be a work peculiarly fitting to a lady. During the day she watches for opportunities for photographing the Sun with that patience for which the sex is distinguished, and she never lets an opportunity escape her. It is extraordinary that even on very cloudy days, between gaps of cloud, when it would be imagined that it was almost impossible to get a photograph, yet there is always a record at Kew. Mr. De la Rue remarked that all these investigations on the solar spots occupy a considerable time, and that the results may be interpreted differently by different persons. All that we have to do is to record faithfully the result of our observations ; and it is hoped the Kew photo-heliograph will conduce very much to the advance of solar physics. Some time ago some experiments were made by 256 Chronicles of Science. [ April, the speaker, in taking solar spots on a very large scale, the pictures of the Sun’s disk being on a scale of 3 feet for the Sun’s diameter. There are certain difficulties in taking those pictures by means of a reflector ; but Mr. Cooke has recently undertaken the construction of a 13-inch refractor, which it is intended to apply to solar and lunar photography. On the 9th February, the forty-fifth annual general meeting of the Astronomical Society took place, and the report of the counal was read by the President, Warren De la Rue, F.R.S. Before com- mencing, he announced the gratifying fact that although the medal awarded to Professor Bond, of the United States, did not reach that country till after his lamented death, yet he was some time before his decease made aware of the honour that had been conferred upon him, and of the grounds on which the award had been made. After the usual obituary notices of deceased Fellows, the President gave an account of the proceedings of various observatories, and then touched upon the progress made in different branches of astro- nomical science during the past year. Among the most remarkable of modern astronomical discoveries, and, until a year ago, certainly among the most unexpected accessions to our knowledge, is that which has come to us latest in the order of discovery. We refer to Mr. Huggins’s observations on the spectrum analysis of the ight from a comet. The light of the nucleus of Comet I. 1866, as examined under his instrument, gives a spectrum consisting of but one bright line, whereas the spectrum formed by the light from the coma gives a spectrum which is contmuous. The inevitable conclusion to be drawn from these observations is opposite to that which our prepossessions would have led us to expect, inasmuch as, consistently with the present state of our physical knowledge, we are forced to conclude that the light of the cometary nucleus examined by Mr. Huggins must have emanated from a gaseous source; whereas, guided partly by other physical considerations, no doubt remains that the coma contains fluid or solid materials. Thus the suspicion of analogy between cometic and nebular matter has received this further confirmation. No doubt difficult observations of this nature require repetition, but the known caution and experience of the observer invite our confidence. 1866. | | ( 257 ) III. BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. Enoianp.—Mr. Darwin, in an interesting paper “On the Phe- nomena of Motion and Sensitiveness in Climbing Plants,” hag shown that the unsupported, outstretched extremity of a hop or conyolvulus continues to revolve in circles, ever widening as it erows, and has calculated the rate of revolution, which varies in different plants, increases or decreases with a rise or fall of tempe- rature, is diminished by any disturbance such as jarring or moving the plant from place to place, and varies also with the age and the general health of the plant. Mr. D. also experimented on the sen- sitiveness of the petioles and internodes of such plants as the clematis, &c., which climb by their leaf-stalks. Some of the experi- ments were very delicate. “A loop of thread,” says Mr. D., “ weighing a quarter of a grain, caused the petiole to bend; a loop weighing 4th of a grain sometimes acted, and sometimes not. In one instance, the weight of even the 2.th of a graim, brought into continuous contact with the petiole, caused it to bend through nearly 90°.” “ Young internodes alone are sensible on all sides along their whole length.” An internode, “rubbed six or seven times with a twig, became just perceptibly curved in one hour and fifteen minutes, and subsequently, in three hours, the curvature increased much; the imternode became straight again in the course of the night.” In numerous cases, particularly in Solanum Jasminoides, the clasping petioles increase in rigidity and thickness, the fibro-vas- cular bundles undergoing a change in their arrangement, so that from being originally semi-lunar on the cross-section, they develop into a close rmg lke that of an exogenous stem. Mr. Darwin thinks that both “leaf-climbers and tendril-bearers were primor- dially twiners ; that is, are the descendants of plants having this power and habit.” He regards plants which climb by tendrils ag the highest type of climbing plants. The following interesting and curious results were obtained from experiments on tendril-bearers. “A loop of soft thread, weighing .a.nd of a grain, placed most gently on the tip” of a tendril (Passiflora gracilis), “thrice plainly caused it to curve, as twice did a bent bit of platinum-wire, weighing ath of a grain; but this latter weight did not suffice to cause permanent curvature.” After being touched with a twig, the tip of a tendril begins to bend in from 25 to 29 seconds. ‘Transient irritation causes a tendril to coil imto an open helix, but it soon straightens itself again, recovering its sensibility. If, however, left in permanent contact with the irritating object, the spiral coil continues. It is a remarkable fact that no curvature of the tendril results from the touch of other tendrils, or the impact of drops of rain, to which 258 Chronicles of Science. [April, they appear to be habituated. Of Cucurbitaceous tendrils, next to Sicyos the most active are those of Echinocystis lobata. The inter- nodes and tendrils of this plant revolve im about 12 hour; the former sweeping a circle or ellipse 2 or 3 inches in diameter, the latter often one of 15 or 16 inches in diameter. If a full-grown cucurbitaceous tendril fails to lay hold of an object, it soon ceases revolving, bends downward, coils up spirally, and ultimately withers and falls off; should it succeed in attaching itself, however, to a support, on the contrary, it thickens, hardens, and gains wonder- fully in strength and durability. The contraction of tendrils into a spiral coil renders them highly elastic, and therefore in a gale of wind powerful organs of defence. Mr. Darwin says that the ten- drils of Bignonia capreolata avoid the light, crawling into dark holes and crevices after the manner of roots. The tendrils of this plant will clasp a smooth pole, but soon detach themselves and straighten; a rough, fissured, and porous surface alone satisfies them, such as the bark of trees, to which they attach themselves. Ampelopsis quinquefolia, or the Virginia Creeper, also avoids the light, uniformly seeking dark crevices or broad flat surfaces, as a wall, a rock, or the trunk of a tree. The tips of the tendrils, brought into contact with such a surface, swell out, and form in a few days those well-known discs or cushions by which the plant firmly adheres to its support. The learned and accomplished lichenologist, Dr. W. Nylander, has described, during the past year, 23 new species of British lichens ; viz., one new species of each of the following genera, Collema, Leptogium, Pyrenidium, Calicium, Lecanora, and Ope- grapha, two new species of Pertusaria, five of Lecidea, and twelve of Verrucaria. Some of these lichens are so small, that they cer- tainly required for their detection great nicety of botanical diseri- mination ; as, for example, Verrucaria tristicula, Nyl., which was discovered by Admiral Jones on Moss ( Weiss¢a), in Aberdeenshire, and Lecidea contristans, Nyl., discovered by Isaac Carroll, Esq., on decaying Andre, on the summit of Ben Lawers. Dr. Nylander has also described a collection of lichens made in - New Zealand, in 1861, by Dr. Lindsay, including 26 genera and 117 species. Many of these lichens are common to Britain, Scan- dinavia, and the United States. We notice in the list seven species of Lecanora and Lecidea, three species of Opegrapha, two species of Sticta and Pertusaria, and one species of Arthonia, Platygrapha and Physcia, for the first time described by Dr. Nylander, and therefore new to science. Among the rarer and more interesting species in the collection, already described by other botanists, are Collema leucocarpium, Tayl., Baeomyces fungoides, Ach., Cladonia retepora, Flk., and Stictina fragillima, Bab. Three new British flowering plants have been discovered. a a a 1866. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology: 259 Hedera Cuanariensis, described by Professor Babington,* “on old white-thorn trees, Phoenix Park, near Dublin;” Rosa collina, Jacq., discovered near Plymouth by Mr. T. R. A. Briggs; Huru- castrum Pollichii (Hurucastrum inodorum, Reichen.), collected by Mr. Joshua Clarke, near Saffron Walden, Essex. Mr. F. E. Kitchener sends us a ‘ First List of Flowering Planta and Ferns found within Four Miles of the Close, Rugby. Mr, K. publishes the list “incomplete, in the hope that additions will be sent.” Botanists will be careful to mention the localities in which the plants are found, and their “earliest and latest dates of flower- ing.” We would suggest to Mr. K., that the next list will be improved by avoiding the typographical errors which occur in this one, and by the substitution of the Botanical for the English names of the Families, as more appropriate and equally intelligible to the practical botanists, for whose use this list is printed, Mr. J. Miers describes T 69 new species of Cissampelos (Menisper- macee,) of which 46 belong to America, 11 to Africa, and 12 to Asia, The plants throughout the genus are dicecious, excepting in two or three instances where moncecious flowers occur; in one, the sexes are found in distinct racemes on the same plant, and in another the male and female flowers are on the same raceme (androgynous). Mr. M. denies that Cissus Paretra is the normal type from which these species are derived, and thinks that “nothing im the shape of sustainable evidence has been offered to prove” such a position. But supposing it to be true that all these species have thus ori- ginated, “if such modifications be now permanent, each confined within a limited range of distribution, and we can assign to them seyerally constant and determinable characters, then clearly, according to the rules of science, they ought to be considered dis- tinet and valid species. In determining different kinds of plants, the practical botanist should not be guided by any theory of the distant origin of species, but should regard them in their present forms.” There is some force in these remarks of Mr. Miers. Mr. Isaac Seaman, M.R.C.V.8., says that sprouted grain is a superior nutritious cattle-food, and “an excellent substitute for the turnip and green rape of winter, and the different clovers and grasses of summer.” Mr. Seaman affirms that, “during the past season, a very large number of lambs have been reared, thousands of sheep fattened, and upwards of twenty different flocks restored to health, by the use of semi-malted grain.” That semi-malted grain should be a nutritious cattle-food is not at all unreasonable, and probably owing to the conversion of the starch of the grain into sugar, which, for both plants and animals, is more nutritious than starch, because more readily absorbed into the circulation.t{ * *Journal of Botany,’ December, 1865. + * Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ February, 1866. { ‘ Veterinarian’ for February, 1866. 260 Chronicles of Science. | April, The herbarium at Kew has recently acquired two very valuable private collections, Dr. Burchell’s South African and South Ameri- can collection, by gift from his sister, and the herbarium of Orchids of the late Dr. Lindley, by purchase. The latter contains upwards of 3,000 species, in pertect condition, fastened upon cartridge- paper and copiously illustrated with dissections and sketches by Dr. Lindley’s own hand, and from other sources. An international botanical congress is to be held in London on the 22nd and 25th of May, 1866. President, M. Alphonse de Candolle. The congress is restricted to two morning meetings. Two conversazioni and a banquet are announced to be held in the Guildhall, and to which the leading foreign visitors are imvited as guests. Botanists desirous of readmg a paper must forward MS. to Dr. Seeman, 57, Windsor Road, London, N., not later than the d1st of March. The second part of the ‘Genera Plantarum, by Dr. Hooker and G. Bentham, F.L.8., &., is published. It contains the Leguminosze, Rosaceze, Saxifragaceee, Haloragaceze, Rhizophoree, Combretaceze, and Myrtacee. The recent illness of Dr. Hooker has delayed his revision of the Melastomaces, which may be ex- pected next summer in the third part of the ‘Genera Plantarum,’ and this part will complete the Polypetalous orders and the first volume of 1,000 pages, SwEpEN.—The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm is about to publish a fac-simile of a very interesting relic—a phtoto-lithogra- phic copy of the first edition of the ‘Systema Nature’ of Linneus, a folio of about fourteen leaves. Though very thin, it contains the groundwork of nearly all that the great Naturalist has accom- plished. America.—A catalogue of plants found in Oneida County, New York State, has been recently published by the authorities. This catalogue embraces the whole of the central part of the State of New York, and its author, Mr. John A. Paine, jun., has expended a great deal of labour in its preparation. ighty-one native plants (species and varieties) are enumerated at the close, which are addi- tions to the Flora and Catalogue of the plants of this State by Dr. Torrey. ‘Twenty-five new plants are enumerated as naturalized. Professor Asa Gray says, “ For a public document, this catalogue is well-printed, and as a hasty essay by an unpractised hand, it is creditable to its author, although there are many points which would not bear close criticism.” * At a recent meeting of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, it was stated that the native plants of Pennsylvania were being rapidly displaced by the European flora. European * ¢Silliman’s Journal,’ January, 1866. 1866. ] Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 261 plants, formerly described as rare, were becoming plentiful. This change of the American flora was attributable to the spread of rail- way communication. Some of the botanists present thought that the foreign flora would supplant the native in a, comparatively speaking, very short period. . France.—In the ‘ Bulletin Générale de Thérapeutique, Jan. 15, 1866, M. Stanislaus Martin describes a new medicinal plant called in Brazil Jurubeba (Solanum paniculatum), which is sold there com- mercially in the state of leaves, fruit, and roots. The plant is used in the form of emplastrum, syrup, wine, tincture, aqueous and alcoholic extract. It is chiefly employed in affections of the liver and spleen, in vesical catarrh, anemia, chlorosis, and difficult men- struation. According to reliable testimony, this new drug promises to be the most powerful deobstruant yet met with. Pumpkin-seeds are again in France popular with the profession as a remedy for tape-worm. M. Bouvier, in the ‘ Archives Médi- cales Belges,’ relates his successful treatment of a little German boy five years of age, and Dr. Desnos reports two cases in the ‘ Journal de Chimie Médicale. Dr. D. says that the results are still more favourable when the resinous extract of male fern (Aspidium filix- mas) is combined with the pumpkin-seed preparation. ; At each session of the French Academy, January, 1866, M. Ad. Chatin read a botanical paper. In the first, “On the Tendrils of the Cucurbitaceze,” read January 2, 1866, M. Chatin states the facts as revealed by the microscopic examination of the anatomy of the tendrils, simple and branched, of the different genera of the order, and compares them with the microscopic anatomy of the other organs of the plant—vzz. stem, leaf, petiole, peduncle, roots ordinary and adventitious, and deduces from them the following results :—1. The tendrils of the Cucurbitaceze are of axile origin (either a branch or apeduncle). 2. If the tendril is simple, its homology is invariably with the axile organs; if, on the contrary, it is branched, its divisions correspond sometimes to the leaves and _ occasionally to the axile organs. 3. There is no relation of origin between the tendril and the ordinary roots; there is, however, a relation existing between the tendril and the adventitious roots. In his paper, read January 15, “On the Existence of a Third Membrane in Anthers,” M. Chatin says, the opinion generally adopted amongst botanists is, that the valves of anthers are composed of two mem- branes, which were named by Purkinje exothecium and endothectum, But there exists always during a certain phase of the development of the anthers, a third membrane, more interior than the endothe- ciwm, which is the true endothecium. The endothecitum of Pur- kinje should therefore now be denominated the mesothecium. The development of the cells of this third membrane and that of the pollen cells takes place together up to the period of the maturation 262 Chronicles of Science. . | April, of the pollen, when it disappears, having aided in the development of the pollen, no traces of it remaining except a granular matter on the superficies of the second membrane, or endothecium of Purkinje. Amongst other characteristics, this third membrane is distinguished by its colour, which is invariably the same as that of the pollen, which it nourishes and brings to maturity. M. Chatin’s third paper is “On the Localization of the Fibre- cells in some Anthers, and their Absence in others.” The following is a résumé of the facts connected with this subject. The fibre-cells exist only upon given points of the anther valves, and are localized in connection with the following types :—a. The fibre-cells are dis- osed along the line of dehiscence (Zhinanthus). 6. They are situated in the anthers longitudinally, or towards the line of detach- ment of the valves or connective (Chlora). c. They exist only at the extremities of the cells close to the pores of dehiscence (Solanum). d. They are borne only by one of two valves (Wether- ingia rubra). e. ‘They are localized upon the uplifted valves (Laurus). f. They extend beyond the valvules (Berberis). g. They are scattered and with incomplete threads (Orchis masewla). M. Chatin thus sums up the result of his investigations in reference to the absence of the fibre-cells from anthers:—a. Anthers dehiscing by terminal pores are deprived of fibre-cells, 6. Fibre-cells are defective in a certain number of anthers, having longitudinal dehis- cence. c. In plants whose stamens are suddenly arrested in their development, whether morphologic or histologic, the absence of the fibre-cells coincides with the incomplete evolution of the poilen. In his paper “On the Placentoid, a New Organ in Anthers,” read before the Academy on the 29th of January, M. Chatin says that the function of this organ——which is so called from its analogy with the placenta of the ovule in the ovarian cell—is to nourish the pollen. It appears at the same epoch as the pollen, follows it in its development, and disappears when the pollen is mature. The Placentoid is absent from the Monocotyledons.; it is wanting in the Monochlamydeze and Thalamiflora, and M. Chatim would also add Calyciflora, if he had not observed it in Casstca Marilandiea. He thinks that the presence of the Placentoid in the Corolliflora settles the long-controverted question as to the precedence of the Dicotyledonous classes and proves that Gamopetalous exogenous plants are more highly organized than Dialypetalous exogens, and that among these, the families with the ovary united to the calyx should rank above those with the ovary free, that is to say, above the corolliflora, All botanists have noticed that a deposit of carbonate of lime forms on the leaves of Chara, Hippuris, and other submerged aquatics. MM. Cloez and Gratiolet supposed that this deposit was formed at the moment when the leaf absorbed from the water the 1866. | Chemistry. 263 carbonic acid which held the lime in solution. In a paper entitled “ Chemical Researches on Vegetation, Functions of Leaves,” read before the French Academy on the 12th of February, M. Coren- winder says that he repeated the experiments of Ingenhousz on the leaves of aerial plants—that is to say, he exposed them to the sun in bell-glasses, filled with water from a spring, which held bicarbonate of lime in solution, and found that the leaves became covered with a deposit of pure carbonate of lime. M. Corenwinder has thus verified the fact which M. Gratiolet only suspected. In the same paper M. Corenwinder says that leaves coloured wholly or in part, white, yellow, or red, in consequence of exhaustion, must be distinguished from those leaves which are normally these colours when their vitality is in all its plenitude; that the former do not produce oxygen under the influence of the solar rays, whilst the latter give it forth in abundance. Buds and leaves just issuing from them give off carbonic acid even in sunlight, which, however, decreases as they develop themselves, the amount of oxygen con- tinually increasing until the leaves are adult and complete, when oxygen only is given off during the day. But if a plant is placed at a distance from a window in an apartment, or in a shady place, it gives off carbonic acid during the day, which varies in amount according to the nature of the plant and the feebleness of the light. This explains the difficulty experienced in preserving plants in an apartment. IV. CHEMISTRY. (Including the Proceedings of the Chemical Society.) A question of as much interest to Chemistry as to Meteorology has recently been discussed at the Academy of Sciences. Ii relates to the presence of ozone in the atmosphere; and it elicited the opinion of some of the most eminent French chemists that none of the tests im ordinary use can afford satisfactory evidence on the question. It was shown, indeed; by M. Frémy, that Schonbein’s paper is affected by many bodies likely to be present in the air ; by the oxides of nitrogen, by peroxide of hydrogen, by the acid pro- ducts of combustion, and by many other bodies, whose presence is not improbable. Further than this, the instability of ozone m the presence of organic matters and nitrogen, would lead to the con- clusion that it must be destroyed as soon as formed in the atmo- sphere. The one test which will prove conclusively the existence of ozone in the air, M. Frémy said he had tried many times without obtaining the faintest indications of its presence. As the question is of great interest, we state that the test on which M. Frémy relies, is the oxidation of silver by a current of moist air. With VOL. Ill. T 264 Chronicles of Science. [ April, regard to one body which is likely to be present in the air, and which would equally affect the iodide of potassium paper, viz. per- oxide of hydrogen, we may state, that M. Houzeau has just announced* that he has proved its presence in water condensed ‘from moist air. While on this subject we may notice the statement of M. Jean, that carbonic acid under the influence of the electric spark splits up into carbonic oxide and oxygen, which latter is strongly ozonized. The persistent white vapours obtained by the slow combustion of phosphorus in the air, and supposed by Meissner and others to be antozone, has been shown by Ozann to consist of nitrite of ammonia, thus confirming a statement to the same effect already published by Schonbein. M. Soret has carried on some researches to ascertain the density of ozone, which he considers he has established to be one-and-a-half times that of oxygen, viz. 1658. A consideration of the volumetric relations of ozone and oxygen would lead to the same conclusion, which the author above named considers he has proved by experi- ment. One unpleasant but important duty of a scientific chronicler is often to contradict things he has published before as facts. In our last volume (p. 278), we quoted the statement of MM. Moutier and Dietzenbacher, that by melting sulphur with small quantities of iodine, paraffine, and many other substances, they had converted it into a permanently soft and plastic mass. We have now the asser- tion of M. Keller,t that after repeating all the experiments of the above-named authors, he has never succeeded in producing a plastic mass unless the melted sulphur was poured into cold water, in which case, as is well known, sulphur is always rendered plastic for a time. A paper by Dr. Wetherill, “On the Allotropic Modifications of Sulphur,’§ may be consulted by those who take an interest im this curious subject. Professor W. H. Miller has been engaged in determining the crystalline forms of the graphitoidal varieties of boron and silicon. The latter he has ascertained to crystallize in octohedrons, while the crystals of graphitoidal boron appear to- belong to the oblique system. ‘4 A discovery made by M. St. Claire Deville is likely to have important technical results. The magnesia obtained by calcining the chloride or nitrate of magnesium, when exposed to water, becomes converted into a compact crystallized hydrate of great * «Comptes Rendus,’ Feb. 26, p. 430. + Ibid., Nov. 27, 1865. is Bulletin de la Société Chintique,’ Nov., 1865. § See ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xiii., pp. 89, 97. 1866. | Chemistry. 265 durability. A mixture of the same magnesia with chalk or powdered marble made into a plastic mass, and placed in water, soon becomes extremely hard ; and M. Deville hopes in this way to get a modelled bust converted into artificial marble. Dolomite calcined at a low red heat and powdered, and then made into a paste, forms under water a stone of extraordinary hardness. It has long been known that calcined magnesian limestone forms a very strong hydraulic cement; and Dr. C. Calvert has shown that the strength of the cement is in direct proportion to the amount of magnesia. Dr. Calvert also confirms the statement of M. Deville, that the calcination of magnesian stones must be carefully managed, too high a temperature completely destroying the hydraulicity of the material. It seems important also that the calcined product should be very finely ground to improve the setting. Harrogate water has long enjoyed some celebrity as a remedial agent, but the recent analysis of one spring by Dr. Sheridan Muspratt* is likely to bring it into still greater repute. The eminent chemist above named has discovered in what is known as the “ Cheltenham spring,” a large proportion of protochloride of tron, as much indeed as 16°011 grains in the imperial gallon. This, therefore, is the strongest chalybeate spring known, and as the condition in which the iron exists is one of the most favourable for its assimilation by the animal economy, the water is likely to prove most efficacious in all those affections, too numerous to mention, for which iron is pre- scribed. It deserves mention that chloride of barium is also present in the water in unusually large quantity, but this will not detract from the medicinal value of the spring. Passing to the mention of other mineral elements, we find an easy method of accomplishing what has hitherto been found a diffi- cult object. It is a process by M. Terreil, for separating cobalt and nickel in minute quantities. Toa solution containing the two metals together with manganese, the author adds ammonia, until the pre- cipitate first formed is redissolved. He then makes the solution hot, and adds a solution of permanganate of potassium until the mixture acquires a permanent violet colour. After this the solution is boiled for a few minutes with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid, and after having been kept hot for some time, it is set aside for twenty-four hours. At the end of this time the cobalt is deposited as roseo-cobaltic hydrochlorate, 100 parts of which contain 22°71 of cobalt. To separate the nickel in the residual liquor, the manganese is precipitated by first saturating the liquor with ammonia, and then adding an alkaline hypochlorite. This throws down all the manganese, and the nickel remains in the solution, from which it * «Chemical News,’ vol. xiii., p. 26. Tt 2 266 Chronicles of Science. [ April, may be separated by sulphuretted hydrogen. The full details of this process will be found in the place indicated below.* On organic chemistry an immense number of papers, for the most part of a theoretical character, have been published. Our space allows us only to mention a few of a practical and generaliy interesting nature. We must, however, first advert to one most important discovery, which illustrates the practical aim of the studies of our most advanced chemists. It is the production of Phenose, a body possessing all the chemical characteristics of sugar, by Carius, from benzole. The steps by which this wonderful trans- formation was effected could only be made intelligible by a long description, and we must content ourselves with the bare mention of the fact, referring the reader interested to the original paper. A useful test for discriminating between glucose and cane sugar has been discovered by Nicklés, who finds that the latter when heated with bichloride of carbon in a sealed tube becomes black, while the former (glucose) remains of its original colour. Another test for glucose is given by Braun,{ who heats the glucose with some solution of caustic soda, then adds a few drops of a solution of picric acid, and boils. A solution containing much glucose now changes to a deep blood-red colour, weaker solutions showing lighter shades of red. Cane sugar does not produce the same effect. The above test is recommended to physicians for detecting sugar in urine. A new process for the production of an aniline black has been devised by M. Paraf, which however is open to the objections stated below. ‘The process is said by the imventor to produce a black without the intervention of a metallic salt, and is as follows :— Hydrochlorate of aniline is dissolved in a solution of hydrofluo- silicic acid, and chlorate of potassium is either added to the mixture, or the mixture properly thickened is printed on cloth prepared with chlorate of potassium. Upon heating the printed cloth to 90° or 95° F., a beautiful black colour is said to be produced. M. Lauth, however, states § that the black colour is caused by copper derived either from the vessel in which the mixture is prepared, or the roller with which it is prmted. He states that when the solutions are prepared in porcelain or glass vessels, and the mixture printed by hand with a wooden block, only a dull grey colour is obtained. M. Berthelot continues his important researches on acetylene, showing now its invariable production when hydrocarbons and hydrocarbonated bodies are submitted to incomplete combustion. || The experiment may easily be made in a test-tube with marsh gas * «Comptes Rendus, for Jan. 15, 1866. + ‘Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, December, 1865. t ‘Zeitsch. fiir Analyt. Chemie,’ vol. iv., p. 187. § ‘Bulletin de la Société Chimique,’ Feb., 1866. || ‘Comptes Kendus,’ vol. lxii., p. 94. 1866. ] Chemistry. 267 or a few drops of ether. The tube being filled with the gas or the vapour of ether, and a few drops of ammoniacal cuprous chloride added, the gas is ignited and the tube rolled about so as to bring the products of combustion in contact with the re-agent. The characteristic red precipitate of acetylide of copper will be produced wherever the flame touches the copper solution. The incomplete combustion of coal gas produces a notable amount of acetylene, recognizable by its peculiar odour as well as the chemical test. Based on the production of acetylene from hydrocarbons, M. Berthelot has suggested a new method of detecting them in mixed gases.* If, for example, a mixture of carbonic oxide and hydrogen or of hydrogen and marsh gas, or any hydrocarbon vapour, be submitted to the action of the electric spark for a few minutes, acetylene will be produced in the latter mixture, but not in the former. Lastly, M. Berthelot shows that the compounds which acetylene forms with metals offer examples of a new series of compound metallic radicals.| He describes at length those containing copper and silver, with some of their salts. As a point of some technical interest, we may mention that M. Perret has discovered a process by which the first step m the preparation of citric acid may be taken where the lemons grow, and thus save the exportation of the fruit or juice. He first precipitates the acid with magnesia, so forming the tribasic citrate; this he afterwards boils with another portion of juice, by which he forms a bibasic citrate, an easily crystallizable and permanent salt, con- venient to transport for the subsequent manufacture of citric acid.t In conclusion, we may mention that, after an elaborate investi- gation, Fresenius has shown that a mixture of air and carbonic acid, or either alone, is only completely deprived of moisture by passing over phosphoric anhydride.§ PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY. At the meeting held on December 7, 1865, Dr. Gladstone com- municated some Notes on Pyrophosphodiamie Acid, and Dr. Hugo Miller described Phenylo-phosphoric Acid and some of its salts. The next meeting, December 21, was occupied with a paper by Mr. James Yates, “On the best Material for Mural Standards of Length.” To extend knowledge of the metric system, it has been proposed to the British Association to set up standards on the outside walls of public buildings, and My. Yates’s object in intro- ‘ Bulletin de la Société Chimique,’ Feb., 1866. ‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. Ixii., p. 455. ‘Bulletin de la Societe Chimique,’ Jan., 1866. ‘Zeitschrift fiir Analyt. Chemie,’ vol. iv., p. 177. Gattis * 268 Chronicles of Science. [ April, ducing the subject at the Chemical Society was to obtain the opinion of chemists as to the most permanent material of which to construct the standards. He was himself in favour of bars of brass coated with gold or platinum, or speculum metal improved by the addition of a little arsenic. The general opinion of the meeting was perhaps in favour of graduated porcelain scales, such as used by Mr. Casella for barometers and thermometers, and upon which, as Dr. Frank- land stated, the weather could have no influence. White glass, with a coloured surface which could be ground away to show the divisions of the scale, was also suggested. On January 18, Dr. Gladstone read a paper on Pyrophospho- triamic Acid, and Dr. Wanklyn gave an account of his recent researches on the action of Carbonic Oxile on Sodium Ethyl. Dr. Debus afterwards made some remarks on the constitution of Gly- oxylic Acid. On February 1, Dr. Gilbert gave a lecture “ On the Composition, Value, and Utilization of Town Sewage.” In the course of his lecture he gave a rapid review of the whole subject; but we must content ourselves with placing before our readers the following propositions with which the lecture was concluded :—1. It is only by the liberal use of water that the refuse matters of large popula- tions can be removed from their dwellings without nuisance and injury to health. 2. That the discharge of town sewage into rivers renders them unfit as a water-supply to other towns, is destructive to fish, causes deposits which injure the channel, and emanations which are injurious to health, and is also a great waste of manurial matter. 38. That the proper mode of both purifying and utilizmg sewage-water is to apply it to land. 4. That, considering the great dilution, constant daily supply, greater amount in wet weather, and cost of distribution, it is best fitted for application to grass, although it may be occasionally applied to other crops under favourable circumstances. 5. That the direct result of the general application of town sewage to grass land would be an enormous increase in the production of milk (butter and cheese) and meat, whilst by the consumption of the grass a large amount of solid manure, applicable to arable land and crops generally, would be produced. 6. That the cost or profit to a town of arrangements for the removal or utilization of its sewage must vary very greatly according to its position and to the character of the land to be irrigated. Under favourable circumstances, the town may realize a profit, but under contrary conditions it may have to submit to a pecuniary loss to secure the necessary sanitary advantages. On February 15, Mr. G. T. Chapman read a paper “On the Action of Nitrous Acid on Naphthylanine.” A paper by Mr. G. Davies was also read “On the Action of Heat on Ferric Hydrate in presence of Water,” m which the author proved that water is 1866.] Eintomology. 269 expelled from ferric hydrate by long boiling in contact with water. The author draws the conclusion that the natural beds of ferric oxide ore may have been deposited from aqueous solution, and become subsequently dehydrated by long exposure to a moderate heat. The next paper read was by Professor Kolbe, “‘On the Prognosis of Alcohols and Aldehydes.” It was of a purely theoretical cha- racter. V. ENTOMOLOGY. (Including the Proceedings of the Entomological Society.) Ir is not often that entomological science is enriched with such works as the one recently published by Mr. T. Vernon Wollaston, entitled, ‘Coleoptera Atlantidum; bemg an Enumeration of the Coleopterous Insects of the Madeiras, Salvages, and Canaries.’ Since 1847, Mr. Wollaston has made several prolonged visits to one or another of those islands, and in this volume he brings together all that has yet been registered on the subject. His introductory remarks, extending to over forty closely printed pages, are well worthy: the attention of all philosophic naturalists, and we can only regret that our space will not allow us to give more than a summary of two or three of them. Of the whole number of genera (423), including 1,449 species, not one is found character- istic of the true African region, but so many of these are endemic that Mr. Wollaston thinks we should hardly be warranted in referring them to the European fauna. The author inclines to the opinion that these islands were aborigimally stocked while yet a part of a continuous land, and that the numerous slight modifica- tions or insular states “ which now present themselves, have not been matured by any process of slow development,” but were brought about at a very remote period, probably “when this great Atlantic province was rent asunder.” Space will not allow us to enter on the author’s arguments in support of this hypothesis; but we cannot avoid calling attention to the “ marvellous types” charac- teristic of the Huphorbian fauna. In the Canaries especially, where whole tracts are covered with Euphorbias, not less than fifty species of Coleopterous parasites are exclusively confined to them, not indeed to the living, but to the dead plants, and are met with in such incredible numbers that “the rotten stalks and branches seem absolutely alive with them.” In a former number of this Journal (ii. p. 669), when giving an account of the discovery by Professor Wagner, of Kasan, of the “larvee-producing larvee” of the Miastor metraloas, we spoke of them as having seemed to him to have been developed from “ em- bryonal bodies” belonging to the organism of the parent larve. 270 Chronicles of Science. | April, M. Ganine, of Karkow, has since, however, denied this statement, and describes the reproductive organs as two little sacs placed in the eleventh segment of the body, and in which the germs, or pseudo-ova, are developed. This account has been substantially confirmed by Dr. Leuckhart and M. Pagenstecher. Dr. Asa Fitch, in his ‘ Reports,’ &c., states that a new’enemy to the bee has appeared in the Nebraska territory, and so great has been the destruction caused by it, that no swarm had been thrown off during the season, or at least up to the time of the Report. The insect in question—Trypanea apivora—is a fly belonging to the family of Asilidze, some of which are known in Europe to attack bees, wasps, and even insects so formidable and apparently so well protected as the tiger-beetles (Cicindelz). A work by M. A. Edouard Pictet, entitled ‘Synopsis des Néu- ropteres d’Espagne,’ has just been published at Paris and Geneva. It is, we believe, the first production of one who has hereditary claims to our attention had he no others, which, however, is far from being the case. The plates—fourteen in number—by the well-known artist Nicolet, are printed in tinted ink suitable to each insect figured, and coloured by hand. Only in this way could the delicate gauze-like wings of these marvellously exquisite creatures be portrayed, and this has been done with a success that may be almost pronounced perfect. The Libellulide are retained among the Neuroptera. EnToMoLoGicAL Society. At the December meeting, the Secretary exhibited a general collection of insects made by Lieut. Bevan at Moulmein, and in the valley of the Solween. It was mostly composed of Indian and not Malay types. Mr. F. Smith exhibited numerous specimens of a moth used for food by the natives of New South Wales, and named by them “ Bugong” (Agrotis spini, Guén.). It is found in large numbers in November and December, when their bodies are in a very oleaginous state. A beautiful series of engravings of the insects of the United States, together with their transformations, as far as they are known, made by Mr. Glover, of Washington, was exhibited by Mr. Moore. The Rev. Joseph Greene exhibited a series of Acidalia subsericeata and A. mancuniata, some of which appeared to throw a doubt on the claims of the latter to the specific distinction which it has been quite recently supposed to possess. Professor Westwood read descriptions of new species of Cantharoc- — nemis, including two new genera or sub-genera ? Mr, MacLachlan read a paper on varieties of Stervha sacraria, with notes on the variation of species in the Lepidoptera. Mr. Semper (of Altona) sent drawings and a description of a remarkably fine new species of Papilio from the Samoa Islands. 1866. | Entomology. 271 January.—Mr. Stevens exhibited a collection of insects from the Himalayas, mostly Lepidoptera. Extracts of a letter from Prof. Snellen von Vollenhofen were read by Prof. Westwood. The writer stated that Chareas granimis and Heliophobus popularis had ap- peared in immense numbers in certain districts in Holland, and had proved very destructive. Mr. Bates gave the meeting some account of the proceedings of Mr. EK. Bartlett, who had recently gone to the Amazons on a zoological excursion, and had already made his way up the Ucalayi, which may be considered the upper part of the main river, to nearly the latitude of Lima. Mr. Hewitson sent a paper containing descriptions of new species of Hesperide. The President (Mr. Pascoe) communicated a list of the Longicornia collected by the late Mr. Bouchard at Santa Martha. Of fifty-three species nearly half were new to science. The anniversary meeting was held January 22. After the usual report of the proceedings and position of the Society had been made, and in which it was stated that fifty-nine new members had been elected since the previous anniversary, the President read his address, reviewing the progress of entomology during the past year; after which it was announced that Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S., &c., had been elected President ; J. W. Dunning, M.A., &e., Secre- tary; and §. Stevens, F.L.S., &., Treasurer. February.—At the previous meeting it had been announced that one of the prizes offered by the Council for the best essay on economic entomology had been adjudged to Dr. A. Wallace, of Col- chester, for his essay on Ailanthiculture. In now presenting it to the author, the President stated that the Council had decided upon again offering two prizes of five guineas each for essays of sufficient merit on any subject connected with the habits, anatomy, or economy of any insect or group of insects serviceable or obnoxious to mankind, the essays to be sent to the Secretary on or before the 30th November, 1866. Mr. 8. Stevens exhibited a male of the rare Papilio Semperi, a butterfly with black wings and a bright scarlet body. Mr. W. Wilson Saunders brought for exhibition a numerous suite of Heliconia Melpomene, all taken at Cayenne, showing the excessive variation of colour to which the species was subject, and, consequently, how little reliance ought to be placed on mere colour alone in the discrimination of species, at least in that portion of the diurnal Lepidoptera. It is to be hoped that those Lepidopterists who are constantly favouring us with descriptions of “new species,” which in many cases appear to depend on very slight differences of colour, will not be forgetful of its uncertainty as a specific character. Professor Westwood and Mr. MacLachlan called attention to remarkable gynandromorphous examples, the former of Dytiseus latissimus, the latter of Argynnis paphia. Mr. Hewitson communicated a paper describing seventeen new species of Hesperia. ( 272 ) [ April, VI. GEOGRAPHY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.) THe death of Dr. Barth, to which we just alluded im our last number, will leave a void not easy to be filled. At the age of twenty-five, the young traveller had explored the southern coasts of the Mediterranean. He subsequently traversed Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Benghazi, whence he was on his road to Cairo, when he was beset by robbers, plundered and wounded. He continued his journey, however, and visited Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Greece. His next expedition was into the interior of Africa, across the Sahara. About this journey he wrote a valuable work, which much extended his fame. Another African traveller, Baron yon der Decken, the recipient of one of the gold medals of the Royal Geographical Society, although it does not appear that he has lost, has run the risk of his life, and been exposed to great peril in his expedition from the Zanzibar coast up the river Juba. Separated from his party, through going in search of assistance in getting one of his steamers off certain rocks, he seems to have fallen into the hands of a Somali chief. All who have resided on the Zanzibar coast, and have any knowledge of the interior, unite in declarmg thei conviction that the Baron will only be detained in order to secure a heavy ransom, and that his life is not in danger.* A fuller account of his position will be found further on. The most active proceedings in the way of geographical research — of which we have advices, are those of the Royal Engineers under Captain Wilson and Lieutenant Anderson in the Holy Land. A sum of 2,000/. has been assigned for this undertaking, which 1s to be carried on until April, after which the heat will not admit of further research. The route marked out for the intermediate period begins at Beyrout, and passes by way of Damascus to the source of the Jordan, continues the descent of that river, exploring various sites on the Lake of Gennesaret, and the lower valley of the Jordan, including Shiloh, Jezreel, Samaria, Bethel, and ending with the neighbourhood of Jerusalem. This expedition is intended to be preparatory for others in subsequent years, should money come in. The party have traversed as far as the centre of the western side of the Lake of Tiberias. Numerous astronomical observations have been recorded, and localities fixed ; thus maps may become more trustworthy. Photographs have been taken of various important architectural remains; whilst plans, sketches, and drawings have been made of buildings, tombs, architectural ornaments, &c. In * We have seen the report of his death since the above was written, whether it is trustworthy or not we cannot say. 1866. | | Geography. 273 many cases ruins have been excavated, and thus disputed points of topography have been settled. Inscriptions have been copied, or brought bodily away ; and thus we may look forward to a flood of light bemg thrown upon many matters about which we are at present completely in the dark. Jewish, Pheenician, Assyrian, and Syrian antiquities will probably all receive some assistance from this expedition. It is not alone in new, unknown, or even forgotten countries that geographical knowledge may be advanced. In almost the oldest of known countries we are acquiring information, as the last paragraph shows; in the most highly-civilized country of modern Europe something remains to be done. A M. Bourdaloue has brought before the Société de Géographie the importance and necessity of a general survey of France similar to our trigonometrical survey of Great Britain. The advantage of a work of this kind can hardly be exaggerated. Jor all matters of drainage, irrigation, and sant- tary arrangements, it affords facilities, and it is mdispensable for plans of extensive public benefit. Whilst the Germans are preparing an expedition to the North Pole, to start next spring, towards which project the Prussian Govern- ment contributes a corvette of 200 horse-power and 9,0002., a voice comes to us from the deep mists of the northern winter, speaking in mysterious sounds of some of the lost navigators of former expe- ditions. Captain F.C. Hall, who has already written a book about the habits of the Esquimaux from observations he made during an expedition in search of Sir John Franklin, writes word that in a second journey he has been told by those people, on whom he seems to rely more than northern travellers usually do, of the existence of Captain Crozier and two seamen. Very detailed and circumstantial stories of the loss of the ships, the destruction of others of their company, and the discovery of these men and of another who has since perished by disease, were given to the enthusiastic captain ; but it does seem remarkable that, should they still be alive, they have never found means of communicating with any of the nume- rous parties that have travelled over their route, nor have been enabled to get within reach of any of the northern outposts of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Until something more trustworthy is reported, it seems scarcely worth while pursuing such fleeting shadows as the Crozhar, Parme, and Pezart (Fisher) of the Esqui- maux squaw. We have already spoken of the German travellers in Africa, of the German expedition to the Pole, it remains to mention two important German works of Geography lately published : ‘ Journeys on the Upper Nile, from the papers of W. von Harnier, with a Preface by Dr. Petermann, chiefly referring to the countries between Kharttim and Zanzibar; and Dr. Adolph Bartien’s ‘Peoples of 274 Chronicles of Science. | April, Eastern Asia—Studies and Journeys.’ Besides these contributions to science, the Austrian Government is fitting out an Hast Asiatic expedition, making a very fair proportion of work from the German Fatherland. PROcEEDINGS OF THE RoyvaL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. At the fourth meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, M. P. B. Du Chaillu gave an account of his second expedition to Western Equatorial Africa. We have from time to time chronicled the proceedings of this traveller, but we will here give again a résumé of his doings. Leaving London on the 5th of August, 1863, he arrived the same autumn at the mouth of the Fernand Vaz River, where, owing to his having to land in a canoe, he lost all his scientific instruments, and was consequently compelled to wait a year for the arrival of new ones. In the meantime he made collec- tions of objects of botanical and zoological interest, which were forwarded to England. On the arrival of fresh instruments he journeyed eastwards over a belt of flat country, and then gradually ascending ridges of hills, mostly covered with dense forests, and rising to the height of about 2,400 feet. He traversed the country of Ashira, Apinji, and Otondo, and was at last driven back by the natives, who attacked his cowardly men, because one of them had accidentally (?) shot two natives. His most remarkable discovery on this occasion was that of a race of dwarfs, some of whom appear to have been not more than four feet and a-half high. They were a nomadic, plundering race, something like our gipsies in their habits, and distinguished by short tufted hair. This account is astonishing enough, but we can only take what stories the traveller likes to tell us. In the disgraceful flight of his attendants, M. Du Chaillu lost his natural history collections and photographs, but succeeded in saving his chronometers, journals, and one set of very valuable astronomical observations. M. Du Chaillu’s veracity was warmly defended by Professor Owen, especially in reference to the gorilla, and a fish-eating, otter- like quadruped, the Potomogale velox, which latter animal had been classed by others as a rodent, but, as it turned out, without founda- tion. Mr. J. Crawfurd impugned the account of the dwarfs, but the traveller reiterated his assertion, and mentioned that he was able to examine only one or two specimens. The next meeting was devoted to the discussion of subjects connected with Australia. The society had voted a sum of 2004. towards the expenses of the expedition in search of the relics of Leichhardt’s party. This undertaking was commanded by Mr. Duncan McIntyre, who has already explored a route from Victoria to the Gulf of Carpentaria in the search for pastoral lands. The 1866. | Geography. 275 explorations will be continued as long as means’ are forthcoming. The governments of Victoria, South Australia, and Queensland have given large grants of money, and subscriptions are asked in this country. The locality of the last new settlement at Cape York, at the extreme north of Australia, was described in a paper by Mr. John Jardine, a police magistrate. The district is a peninsula of fifteen miles in length, almost divided from the mainland by the Kennedy River. The soil is fertile: a reddish loam with sand and blocks of sandstone. Horses, cattle, pigs, and goats flourish, but the climate is unfit for sheep. ‘The rainy season lasts for four months during the hottest part of the year, the thermometer reaching 98° in the shade. During the rest of the year, from April to November, a S.W. wind blows a fresh breeze, and the heat averages from 80° to 85°. The climate is perfectly healthy, and the colony might become a sanatorium for invalids from China and India. Four tribes of aborigines inhabit the district. Across the continent at its north-western corner lies the River Glenelg, discovered by Sir George (then Captain) Grey and Lieu- tenant Lushington in 1838. The mouth of this stream had never been determined until the expedition in which Mr. James Martin, M.B., took a part, and of which he gave an account in a paper before the society. The débouchement takes place into Doubtful Bay, from which the way leads by a difficult passage into George Water, a large expanse, into which numerous channels landward seem to run; but they all ended in a tangled mass of mangroves. After a search of six days the true channel of the river was found at the north-eastern end of the George Water. The party passed thence upward, through a rugged hilly country, which afterwards became more level. The extraordinary fall of the tide (28 feet) makes the navigation very difficult. The country is fertile, but unsuited for sheep. The misfortunes of Baron von der Decken’s expedition on the Juba River, in the east of Africa, engaged the attention of the society at its next meeting, to the exclusion of the paper on the exploration of the River Purts, which was postponed to the next meeting. The Hanseatic Consul at Zanzibar reports that the Baron made seven months’ preparation on that coast, and then commenced ascending the Juba River with two steamers, one of which was wrecked soon after the starting of the expedition. About a month after, the Baron arrived at Berdera, where some disagrec- ment with a Somali chief arose, which was afterwards settled. » Royal Astronomical Society. ” », Royal Geographical Society. 9 »» Chemical Society. », Geological Society. + » Zoological Society. London: Printed by W. Crowes & Sons, Stamford Street and Charing Cross. Lui L Peed Pe a) eat aL Gries r 7) aa We, as Oe eel Neatly Wehe ns r i \ 1 Quarterly Journal of Science N° XI. BOROUGH o LIVERPOOL. MORTALITY MAP oF TyPHUsS, 1865. (2) - y Scate of 7 Mile - 2 é 4 Fou 6. Yh me, | 4 > | DOL aaa nN Copied. wr outline from the Hag of the Medical Officer of Healt, THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. JULY, 1866. I. THE MORTALITY OF LIVERPOOL, AND ITS NATIONAL DANGER. In the course of the last year this country has been visited by a cattle murrain, the history of which may be summed up in a few words. It came, we know not whence, although we are aware that such a plague exists in certain continental countries; it raged, and we know not what kind of disease it is, by what laws it is governed, or why it appeared in certain places, disappeared, and sometimes appeared again. We know that in some districts it was the most virulent where there was a want of cleanliness in the stalls, whilst many well-regulated farms escaped its ravages, and that is about all that science has reaped from the visitation. Livery pre- caution was taken by the State to prevent its spread, and chiefiy should those efforts have been successful in excluding it from Treland; yet it appeared at length in that country also. The Clergy prayed for its removal, the nation (at least by deputy, through the State) humiliated itself for its sins, and probably in the due course of conventionality, the people will in a similar manner set apart a day for thanksgiving, when it has pleased Providence to allow this visitation entirely to pass away. Whether the same invasion (if it be an invasion), the same destruction of live-stock, the same perplexity and the same religious processes will be repeated in another decade or so, remains to be seen, and will depend greatly upon the amount of improvement which takes place in the method of conducting farms, and the degree of application brought to bear upon the scientific question by veterinary surgeons, chemists, and physiologists. In the case of the cattle-murrain, the panic and helplessness of the nation has been to some extent justifiable, for our Statesmen knew nothing of the approaching danger, nothing of its nature when it came, and their professional advisers were in the same boat with themselves. But m the case of the human plague raging in the country, and recently aggravated by importations from abroad, there is no such VOL. II. ¥ 312 The Mortality of Liverpool, | July, excuse; and on this subject we now desire, while there is still time for warning, to address a word to the nation, and, not to the Government, but to the Representatives of the people. In the House of Lords, on the 15th’ of May last, the Earl of Carnarvon “ moved for Copies of Correspondence,” in other words, sought information concerning the outbreak of cholera in Liverpool. He stated the fact, well known to their Lordships, that “a large number of German emigrants had landed at Hull, and had travelled by railway to Liverpool, and it was at Liverpool, without an excep- tion, that all these cases had arisen. The most formidable outbreak had occurred on board a vessel that had sailed from Liverpool to New York. It was at Liverpool again, and among this body of emigrants that diarrhoea and typhus had been prevalent, and the House was aware that diarrhoea was the first stage, and, at all events, the harbinger of cholera. The habits of these emigrants were the reverse of clean, and they were congregated together in the most unhealthy quarters of the town. A case had been stated where 150 of these emigrants lived in one house in Liverpool, and forty ina single room. If these persons really came from cholera- infected countries, were these not all the conditions that would justify them in expecting cholera to break out ?”* Earl Granville, who, be it remembered, was at least the nominal head of the Committee which managed the cattle-plague, stated what steps had been taken to prevent the importation of cholera ; observing that it would be impossible to enforce a system of qua- rantine in Great Britain, and remarking further, that a letter which had been issued by the Privy Council insisted upon sanitary regu- lations, “ which really might be summed up in the terms fresh air and fresh water, and some of the outports really stood in urgent need of sanitary measures.” In the House of Commons, the Right Honourable H. A. Bruce, the virtual head of the Cattle-plague Commissioners, gave the same information in reply to a similar question ; and in the course of his remarks he observed that, “we were accustomed to think of cholera as marked by clear and unmistakable symptoms, and the stage of collapse was no doubt one about which there could be no mistake, but the earlier stages of the malady were not so easily discoverable. A person might have the disease lurking in his system for many days without suspecting it. He suffered but little pain, and the symptoms were such as persons often experienced without any interruption of their ordinary vocations. It would, therefore, be impossible, unless communication were absolutely forbidden between England and the infected countries, to expect that quarantine laws would prevent the introduction of the disease.” * ¢ Times,’ May 15, 1866. + Ibid. 1866. | and its National Danger. 313 He stated further, that “he thought it would be better to leave the matter in the hands of the local authorities, as there was a general objection throughout the country to Government inter- ference ;” and also, that “the best security against the disease was for the local authorities to supply their towns with pure water, and to thoroughly clean and drain their houses.”* ‘The Times’ newspaper reviewed the subject. in a leader on the day when these remarks were reported in its columns, and thus disposed of the whole question : “ Better stop the imports ” (of emigrants) “at Hull.” Before we state briefly to our readers what is known to science of the march of cholera, we will just extract from the preceding observations the opinions of the Legislature and of the Press on the subject : 1. They believe that it is impossible to enforce quarantine ; and if it were, the disease is so capricious in making its appearence in individuals that it would be useless to do so.—In other words, 7¢ ds impossible to prevent the importation of cases of continental cholera. 2. The local authorities object to Government interference ; and it is for them, by the employment of sanitary measures, to render it innocuous when it touches our shores. 3. Nevertheless ‘The Times,’ which may be said on such a question to reflect public opinion, recommends the stoppage of the passenger traffic, and by that means the exclusion of the cholera. From this summary our readers will be able to form their own opinion as to the amount and value of the advice and assistance likely to be afforded by the State in case of an outbreak of epidemic disease more virulent than that which already exists in the country ! Now it happens, fortunately for those who like to avail them- selves of that channel for information, that Dr. Francis E. Anstie, the senior assistant-physician to the Westminster Hospital, has just published a most valuable little book on Epidemics, intended “for the use of the public,’t in which the whole question is con- cisely and ably reviewed, and we have marked the following obser- vations for extract, as they will convey to our readers all that will be requisite for our consideration at the present time. First, as regards Typhus :— “'Typhus first makes its ‘nest,’ to use a cant word which is dismally prevalent just now, in the courts and alleys inhabited by the very poor, Unlike relapsing fever, it is a very mortal disease ; and, moreover, the contagion is much stronger than that of relapsing fever.” #* * Times,’ May 15, 1866. + ‘Notes on Epidemics. By F. E. Anstie, M.D., F.R.C.P. Jackson, Walford, & Hodder, 1866. t Ibid., p. 44. x2 314 The Mortality of Liverpool, | July, Again :—“Tf famine be the great predisposing cause of typhus, over-crowding is something more ; for there is much evidence to show that it can actually excite the disease in destitute persons. In regard to this, the various synonyms under which typhus has been described at different times are highly suggestive: the old terms—‘jail dis- temper,’ ‘ camp fever,’ ‘ hospital fever,’ and the like, point to instances in some of which, no doubt, the disease was only fostered by crowding and deficient ventilation, but in great numbers of which typhus was Soe actually bred from the circumstances of the time and place.’’* Secondly, concerning Cholera :— “No doubt the disease is still an opprobrium medicine,” (which we may venture to translate—Medical men know nothing of the nature of cholera; and in a popular work such as Dr. Anstie’s, they elect to acknowledge their ignorance in Latin!) “ Yet something seems to have been learned, not merely guessed, about this mysterious pestilence in recent years.’ + The following is amongst the information thus acquired :— *«* Neither climate, nor season, nor earth, nor ocean seem to have arrested its course, or to have altered its features. It was equally destructive at St. Petersburgh and Moscow as it was in India; as fierce and irresistible amongst the snows of Russia as in the sunburnt regions of India; as destructive in the vapoury districts of Burmah as in the parched provinces of Hindostan.’ (Goodeve).. . . . ‘The most that can be said is, that the places in which the air is most vitiated from drains, decaying animal matter, and vegetable refuse, or overcrowding and concentration of human emanations, are those in which cholera has generally been most fatal and most widely spread.’ (Goodeve.)” tf “Tt is indisputable that cholera originates in places without its being possible to trace any previous communication with infected persons.” . . . . “Hither the outbreaks which occur in this remarkable way may be instances of the generation of cholera de nova from insanitary conditions, or we may suppose the poison to have been carried by currents of wind.’’§ The author shows that there is good reason for believing it to have arisen in this country from both causes; but, says Dr. Anstie— “ There can be no doubt that, in the majority of cases, the march of the disease follows closely the lines of most frequent human communication : thus it always appears first, in any country, at the sea-port towns, and these places form the first centres of infection.” || He recommends not only that vestries should be empowered, * Notes on Epidemics,’ pp. 45-46. t Ibid, pp. 94 and 95. + Ibid., p. 90. § Ibid., p. 106. || Ibid, p. 105. 1866. | and us National Danger. 315 but compelled, “for they will never to it properly of their own accord,’ to see that a proper and copious water-supply is laid on to every house, and that typhus patients should be removed to fever-houses specially adapted for such cases. Legislation and science, then, are unanimous in believing — 1. That it is impossible to prevent the inroads of cholera into this country from abroad. 2. That it is in sea-port towns where it first makes its appearance. 3. That cleanliness, and an ample supply of fresh air and clean water, are the conditions which render it innocuous when it touches our shores; and 4. That it is the duty of the Guardians of Health in the large towns to see that these conditions are observed, without the necessity for State interference. Having laid down these propositions, which are unquestionable as far as they go, it now becomes our painful duty to point out, as we did on a previous occasion,* that the very conditions which are so favourable for the admission from abroad and forcing of epidemics at home, are to be met with in our large sea-ports, and, in fact, that some of those towns are in a state of chronic pestilence. And although the illustration which we mean to lay before our readers may by some be considered an exaggerated one (and we sincerely hope that it is so), we fear that it too faithfully represents the state of things in the Metropolis and in the large provincial towns. We must admit, however, that the case of Liverpool is some- what exceptional, for that important sea-port, whose traders are denominated “merchant princes,” has merited the reputation of being the most sickly, and, harsh though the criticism may appear, the most squalid and sin-stricken of all our important boroughs. Of course these remarks do not refer to those parts of the town where the wealth of the inhabitants is earned. Those, it is true, are surrounded by a feeble cordon separating them from typhus and other diseases (resulting from over-crowding, drunkenness, and every other kind of vice) which may be snapped at any moment, per- mitting the passage of the plague; but those parts are at present tolerably exempt from disease. Nor do we refer to the suburbs where the “merchant princes” enjoy their repose after the toils of the day are over. Every one of course knows that the portions of Liverpool which are inhabited by the wealthier classes rise above the level of the lower parts of the borough, where the thousands of poor Irish and the hundreds of emigrants lie huddled together like sheep in a fold; and that the suburban houses are built upon sandstone- rock, and swept by the breezes of the Irish Sea. Of these again it * “On the Predisposing Causes of Pestilence.’— ‘Quarterly Journal of Science, No. 7, July, 1865. 316 The Mortality of Liverpool, [ July, may be said, that of the shafts which are almost hourly aimed by Death into the nursery of fever below, a few fly too high, and reach the seats of affluence above. Since the subject was last discussed in these pages, we have received at regular intervals the “ Reports of the Health of Liver- pool” drawn up by a gentleman who, to judge from the care and patience which he bestows upon that task, must be emimently adapted for his duties. Dr. Trench, the Medical Officer of the borough, seems to have made up his mind that we shall not lose sight of the important subject of which he treats, and if his Report, just issued, receives a more conspicuous notice at our hands than such parochial or corporate returns usually obtaim, it is, as we have already stated, because the information which he so diligently supplies is of interest, not to his own town alone, but to the nation at large. We will let him speak for himself as much as possible, and his figures will be found stubborn and terrible facts.* “The returns made by the local registrars record 19,374 births and 17,282 deaths in the Borough of Liverpool during the year 1865.” The births and deaths are pretty equally divided between the sexes, “The total death-rate of the borough was 36°4 per 1,000.” The deaths were 446 in excess of those registered in the previous year, and 1,744 above the corrected averages of the last ten years. In his statement which particularizes the causes of death (one of the many interesting tables accompanying his Report), we find that of these 17,282 deaths, 7,766, or nearly one-half, were children under five years of age; and we are told that “the truest test of the sickliness of a place is the average death-rate of children.” Again, although the average rate of mortality for the whole borough is 36°4, that of the parish of Liverpool alone, in which 11,251 out of the 17,282 deaths occurred, was 41°5; whilst that of the “ out-townships,” which we have referred to as being the more healthy portions of the town, ranges from 19°9 to 38°9, making an average of 29°6. “In the year 1860,” the Report says, “a year of great prosperity, the deaths only reached 11,236, making the death-rate of the borough as low as 26°0 in the 1,000, the lowest hitherto recorded.” Six years since, therefore, the death-rate was 26°0 in the 1,000 for the whole town. Last year it was 36°4 for the same; 41°5 for the borough, and 29-6 for the out-townships. This will show the reader what Liverpool is, and what it might be made. Now let us look at the causes of death, and whichever way we turn we encounter the word “zymotic.” The diseases embraced by * ¢ Report of the Health of Liverpool during the year 1865.’ By W. 8. Trench, M.D., Medical Officer of Health for the Borough. Liverpool ; Hewson and Procter. 1866. | and its National Danger. 317 this term are the contagious and epidemic disorders—Typhus, Diarrhoea, Small-pox, &c.; and we are startled by the announce- ment that of the 17,282 deaths registered in 1865, 5,526 (or nearly one-third) are known to have resulted from zymotic diseases ; and of these 2,338 were “typhus and infantile fever ;’ and 1,016 from diarrhoea—the diseases which press closely in the wake of drunken- ness, debauchery (and that cause of both, overcrowding), as vultures follow the rear of a great demoralized army. Dr. Trench has been so diligent as to make up corrected averages of the last ten years, that is, he has corrected those averages to the population of 1865, “so that the figures at once show the comparative deaths to population,” and he has compared the deaths in 1865 with the average mortality of the past ten years. Here is the result, fearful in the present, ominous for the future, not of Liverpool alone but unless some sharp remedy be applied of the whole country. The total deaths in 1865. : ‘i ( c : 2 UL282 Corrected average of the last ten years . - ‘ : . 15,538 Total deaths from zymotic diseases in 1865 . ; : + 05026 From the same diseases in 1864. : . 4,870 Average deaths from the same during the last ten years - 4,062 In other words, 656 persons died in Liverpool of contagious and epidemic diseases last year above the number who died of the same disorders in 1864; and 1,414 more than the average of the last ten years. Is there not in our land a gradually increasing, not a mere passing plague, more immediately dangerous to the locality in which it is bemg forced, but at the same time threatening to the whole community? If any one doubts this, let him study the growth of the pestilence in Liverpool, and he will find that it hag been gradually spreading its ravages and widening the sphere of its cankerous influences. In some portions of the town, however, its effect has become so intensified that the medical officer feels himself warranted in regarding and specifying them as ‘‘the fever districts of the borough ;” and if our readers will turn to the outline which we have sketched from the mortality map of the town that accom- panies his report, they will perceive how large a proportion of the whole area of the Parliamentary borough is embraced by these infected localities. The three shaded patches are the “Fever districts.” Lying midway between them is that portion of the town in which the trade of the port is conducted, and where its finest shop-streets are situated. Interspersed amongst these plague- patches are the noblest buildings in the borough ; the Exchange and ‘Town Hall, St. George’s Hall, the Railway Stations, and nearly all the other buildings of note, such as the market halls, &e. The uncoloured portions beyond are on a higher level, Everton being probably the highest, but almost up to the very brow of the hill, the fiend “ Fever” has made his home. 318 The Mortality of Liverpool, | July, In the original map Dr. Trench has shown with red spots the number of deaths from typhus which occurred in the respective streets, and the mortality in some of them is positively frightful. If on some ball or festival night the roofs could be lifted from the houses in the fever-stricken districts, and the gay revellers hoisted, “aw diable boiteux,” to the top of the Town Hall, and pro- vided with opera-glasses for the inspection of the interiors around them, we suspect they would go home sadder and wiser men and women, and would seriously consider the best method of bringing about in their city the much-talked of, but little practised, “ Sanitary reform !” We should have been glad to find in Dr. Trench’s report a brief account of the number of cases of fever which have ended fatally as compared with those which have been successfully treated, and a com- parison with former years. No doubt it would be difficult to draw up such a table, which would convey some idea of the efficiency with which the medical men had performed their duties and the increasing or diminishing curability of those diseases. To their causes we have already referred, cursorily here, and at length in our former article. Overcrowding with its concomitants, drunken- ness, immorality, and poverty, these form the text from which ser- mons are preached daily in Liverpool, but preached in vain. But there is one feature in this sad history which more espe- cially merits the attention of our legislators and philanthropists. We will allow the able author whose report lies before us to describe it in his own terms :— “Tt is this mysterious selection of its most numerous victims from among those who are the parents and the bread-winners of families that constitutes the dreaded attribute of typhus; for their death not only brings sorrow and grief to the survivors, but spreads want and pauperism over a wide radius of the social circle. This peculiarity is aggravated in its effects by another singular feature of typhus fever. It is essentially a disease of the poor, and is as a rule confined to them, or to those of the better ranks, who, as clergymen, district visitors, physicians, and nurses, work in the dwellings of poverty, or to those who, as victuallers, undertakers, pawnbrokers, and small shopkeepers, are brought by business into direct communication with the affected. Of the whole 2,338 deaths, no less than 2,177 were of persons from the class which live by weekly wages. Of the remaining 161, eighty-nine were tradesmen, and sixty-three either the widows or members of the families of tradesmen; nine belonged to the class of the gentry or professions. Among the tradesmen were twenty-six licensed victuallers, besides twelve members of their families. Of the other tradesmen, twenty (viz. three milk-dealers, two butchers, eleven flour and provision dealers and four grocers) dealt in comestibles, and were likely to have come in frequent contact with fever patients or with persons directly from the sick-room; twelve (viz. a druggist, four Scripture readers 1866. | and its National Danger. 319 and pupil teachers, two relieving officers, two undertakers, a pawn- broker, a furniture broker, and a burial-club collector) were probably brought by business directly into the infected room, or became pos- sessed of the infected bed, bedding, and clothes of the sick. Among the professions were two doctors. The families of tradesmen seem also to have suffered, in proportion to the risks incurred, from infec- tion ; for next to publicans, the most numerous victims were the rela- tives of provision dealers.” In addition to the clear and business-like account of the state of disease and the ravages of death in 1865 (for it is a mockery to call it a “ Report of the Health of Liverpool”) the medical officer has appended diagrams exhibiting the comparative mortality for the last three years, of that which occurs at the various periods of life, and much other valuable information deserving the notice of those interested in the health of large towns. But unfortunately we are not permitted to stop here, and to say that in the year 1865 such was the state of sanitary affairs in Liverpool. For the week ending March 17, 1866, about two months before the outbreak or importation of cholera into the borough, the follow- ing were the rates of mortality in the various large towns of Great Britain :-— Neweastle . é : : . . . 26 per 1,000 London, Salford, and Birmingham ED x Dublin ; 2 5 © 4 ° soil Ae Hull . ‘ = : i ° 3 ood a Glasgow . 7 P E - ‘ ooo e Sheffield . 5 é . . 5 sod - Edinburgh and Leeds . . ° 6 Sy ate . Manchester : F p wo a Bristol 5 : . - - : « 40 43 Liverpool . ‘ ‘ : 3 , ST Dill ae Now we think we shall have carried our readers with us to the conclusion, that Liverpool, the greatest artery of emigration, and the port into which substances are largely imported which are the best calculated to convey the germs of disease (rags picked up in the streets of the large towns of Egypt and other Eastern countries, and cotton and wool from all parts of the world), is in the state best fitted to receive, fertilize, and disseminate those germs; and it remains for us to inquire in what manner the local authorities of that important borough acquit themselves of the duty they owe to its inhabitants and to the nation. The guardians of the public health in Liverpool are, or should be, the Town Council, and more immediately the Health Committee of that council, a body consisting of a number of well-meaning, kind-hearted gentlemen, who would, if they knew how, bring about a better state of things than now exists in the borough. The health officers are Dr. Trench the medical officer, Mr. Newlands the borough engineer, and until lately, Mr. McGowen, the deputy 320 The Mortality of Liverpool, | July, town clerk and the legal adviser to the Health Committee, now town clerk of Bradford. Upon these gentlemen, than whom a more enthusiastic, honest, and indefatigable trio never existed, devolved the responsibility of pulling down and improving houses unfit for habitation with the disagreeable accompaniment of turning out the tenants inhabiting them. The difficulty which they encountered in obtaining magisterial support was referred to in our former article as characteristic of the state of things in every part of the country ; but now let us see how their efforts were seconded by the Council itself—for, not having any concern with local politics, we have only to deal with the Corporation as a body, and not with any of its com- mittees or sub-committees. About the time of the cholera outbreak, the following, as nearly as we can ascertain, was the state of affairs. ‘To the credit of the corporation in the alleviation of the plague-stricken districts, we find the following items, approximately stated, but sufficiently so for practical purposes. Since the passing of the Sanitary Amendment Act of 1864, three presentments had been made by the Grand Jury to demolish in all 485 houses. The amount which had been expended for that object was about 4,000/., and it was expected that about 30,0002. more would be employed for the purpose. An active member of the Health Committee brought forward a motion that 1,0007. should be granted for structural alterations in courts, to give them more light and air, but it was not carried (our readers may think this should go to the debit of the account). Small sums, however, varying from 15/. to 402, are occasionally voted out of “surplus capital” for the purpose. The corporation has bought, with a view to re-sale on chief rent, for the purpose of building workmen’s dwellings, 22,550 yards of land at 18s. per yard. We think these are the important items, making in all, let us say, 60,0002. or 70,0002. to the credit of the local authorities of Liverpool, for what we shall call the “ Reformation Account.” Now let us inquire what goes to their debit in money and kind; that is to say, what money has been devoted ‘to less necessary purposes, and what steps have been taken to retard sanitary progress there. In the first place, for the benefit of the large shopkeepers and the local gentry the small item of 118,000/. (we are within 1,0000. of the mark, and wnder it) has been devoted to widening a portion of Church Street, already one of the handsomest streets in the town : of this amount 8,000/. was employed in law expenses. Item No. 2 is a trifle of 250,000/. for a “ People’s Park,” situated about five or six miles away from those parts of the town of which the inhabitants have most need of fresh air. Although this project 1866. | and its National Danger. 321 was brought forward:ostensibly for the benefit of the “ people,” it was stated at the time in the Council by a member of the Health Committee (that committee, we believe, having opposed the scheme), that it was in reality a park for the gentry, and something was said to the effect that it was mtended as a kind of barrier between the poor and rich. A member of the council, a draper, who advocated the project very warmly, and who, we believe, mhabits a hand- some house beyond the boundary of the intended Park, said some- thing about the necessity of a “ Rotten Row” for Liverpool, where the poor would have the pleasure of seeing the equipages and attire of the rich. About the same time a discussion took place concerning the short water-supply of the town, and the chairman of the Water Committee said regarding the Corporation Baths for the poor, “that the town could not afford water for such luxuries!” Here, then, we have two items of 368,000/. for widening a wide street in the town and forming a Park outside of it. And it has been stated in defence of this latter proceeding, that a good deal, if not all the “ Park- money” may be recovered if properly dealt with. Just as if the same rule would not apply much more forcibly if the same money had been laid out in sanitary improvements within the borough. But, about the time stated, the Town Council committed an act in direct opposition to the wishes of the community, as expressed in strong terms by nearly all the local papers, of whatever creed or politics, which cannot be too severely reprobated, and of which we can hardly think some of the persons concerned had seriously weighed the consequences. They virtually drove away from the town the gentleman who was not only the most willing but also the most able to deal with the great danger which has been hanging over the town so long and which threatens the country at large, we mean Mr. McGowen, the legal adviser to the Board of Health and Deputy Town Clerk. As far as we can gather from the local press, and from reliable information which we have received, the circumstances of this pro- ceeding were as follows :— The Town Clerk, Mr. Shuttleworth, was compelled by indis- position to retire from his office, and amongst the local applicants was naturally Mr. McGowen, his Deputy, who had been twelve years in the service of the Corporation ; of the Health Committee more particularly, and in whose favour all the local candidates with- drew. Mr. Rayner, the Town Clerk of Bradford, was the only other competitor, and when he heard how strong a feeling had been manifested in favour of Mr. McGowen he also withdrew. A power- ful cabal was however formed, consisting of some leading men “ on both sides of the house” (for, as we hear, party politics run tolerably high in the Liverpool Town Council), and these persons succeeded in inducing Mr. Rayner to renew his application, and under a promise 322 The Mortality of Liverpool, §c. | July, that a separate office should be created for Mr. McGowen, they also induced a small majority of the council to elect their nominee, contrary to the wishes of the Health Committee, who pleaded hard for their best coadjutor, and also against the voice of the large mass of the townspeople. Shortly afterwards, Mr. McGowen was offered the Town Clerkship of Bradford, and seeing, as he said, that there was no intention to provide him with an office, he accepted it. Then followed Jaudation and regrets, a corporate testimonial, and after his departure (if we are rightly informed) still greater per- plexity in regard to the health of the town, for immediately after- wards the cholera outbreak occurred. Many were the rumours at the time concerning the motive which induced a number of gentle- men to propose, and others to countenance this suicidal conduct. Pergonal animosity and cliqueism were the more generally credited causes, but it was even rumoured that the exigencies of party polities of a wider (we cannot say higher) nature than mere local ones had necessitated the act. Be that as it may, our readers will agree with us that it is little to the credit of the Corporation of Liverpool, and that it is a national hardship that the town and kingdom should thus be further exposed to the ravages of a virulent epidemic. To repeat the printed words of Dr. Duncan, when speaking in 1843 of the state of thimgs which had existed in Liverpool for half-a-century, and throughout that time had rendered it, as it is to-day, the most unhealthy town in the whole country, “inferior considerations triwmphed over the public good.” Is it necessary that we should recapitulate the conditions which, it is agreed on all sides, are absolutely requisite for the safety of the three kingdoms, in order to show that none of those conditions are complied with in a most vital portion of the realm? Are our readers satisfied that epidemics rage in an unnecessary degree in the great aorta of our commerce and emigration—that every condition exists there for fostering those diseases, and that the local governing body should not be permitted any longer to administer this portion of its duties without higher direction and control ? We cannot think this requires any further showing. What, then, should be done? Shail Government interfere? We should say not. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, bemg member for that division of the County of Lancaster in which Liverpool is situated, and having a near relative in the Town Council, might be subjected to the same influences which are brought to bear upon the local members, and which impede the progress of sanitary reform. We do not for a moment mean to insinuate that the Right Honourable gentleman would be guided by such influences any more than we should suppose the members of any honourable body would know- ingly allow themselves to be thus led or coerced. But occult a 1866. | The New Ivon-fields of England. 323 influences are so easily brought to bear in all these matters, that it is better for local reforms to be enforced by strangers than by friends. A special Committee of the House of Commons on the whole question of the health of our large towns would of course be the alternative (and the only one, as far as we can see), and such a commission would no doubt first direct its attention to the most sickly towns—Liverpool being notoriously the worst. In its labours it would no doubt have the cordial co-operation of the honourable members for the borough and county, two of whom, by the way, Mr. Graves and Mr. Charles Turner, are members of the Liverpool Town Council. Having thus explicitly, and we trust charitably, made public the sanitary state of Liverpool, its dangers to the country, and the remedy which appears to us to be the most feasible, we must defer the consideration of the health of other large towns for the present, and leave the matter m the hands of those whose duty and interest it is to watch over the public safety, and to prevent amongst our people an outbreak of pestilence similar to that which has rayaged our herds and flocks.* II. THE NEW IRON-FIELDS OF ENGLAND. By Epwarp Hout, B.A., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Ir is now becoming daily more apparent that there is scarcely a geological formation—at least in England—which cannot be turned to some economic use, or is incapable of yelding some mineral sub- stance of value to man. Whether the formation be granite, porphyry, slate, grit, sandstone, limestone, chalk, clay, or shale, all are included under the above category. The requirements of art and the pro- gress of civilization put the earth under tribute, and however often the levy is made, the supply is certain to be ready: on the other hand, the very variety of the mineral products constantly challenge * Since the above article was written, the Corporation of Liverpool have applied to Parliament for powers to obtain an increased water-supply. The follow- ing is the evidence of Dr. William Stewart Trench, examined by Mr. Milward : “Tam Superintendent of the Board of Health at Liverpool. The death-rate last year was 364. The average throughout the kingdom is 22. The average death-rate in towns is 24:1. If Liverpool hud been as healthy as the average of towns, we should have saved 6,000 lives. Last year, I brought the subject before the Health Committee, and they submitted it to the Water Committee. There is a painful want of water in Liverpool. The state of health in Liverpool in May and June was very bad, and when diarrhoea appeared the death-rate was considerably increased—very much owing to the inadequacy of the rainfall and the supply of water. There was a direct connection between the death-rate and the insufficient water-supply. I look with great anxiety to the threatened approach of cholera, and particularly to what may occur during the months of July, August, September, and October.” 324 The New Ivon-fields of England. [ July, man’s inventive powers to find out their uses, and in this way, more perhaps than in any other, nature is the instructor of art. It is an old remark, that the most useful of all our metals is the most abundantly diffused through the rocks and strata of our earth. In some parts of the world nearly pure ores of iron occur in masses of sufficient magnitude to constitute hills, or parts of mountains. This is the case in Scandinavia, parts of Central Europe, and Southern India, where magnetite assumes the proportions rather of a rock than of an ore.* In our own country, however, we have no such examples of the massive accumulation of pure iron-ore, but the difficiency is amply compensated for by the frequency of its occurrence in combination with other substances. Before entering more fully on this subject, I wish to make one or two remarks on a point of nomenclature, which it would be of advantage to adopt when speak- ing of the different forms in which iron-ores occur. The classifi- cation of these ores into two groups, to be called “iron-ores” (proper) and ‘‘iron-stones” respectively, will be easily apprehended by all persons familiar with the manufacture of iron; and the various modes of its occurrence. The distinction holds good for the most part, both mineralogically and stratigraphically, and is indeed often unconsciously used in commerce. Under the head of “ iron-ores” (proper) might be classed those which occur either in the form of veins or lodes, and pockets, such as the red hematites of North Lancashire, Cumberland, and the Mendip Hills, the brown hama- tites of the Forest of Dean, South Wales, and Cornwall, and the magnetite of Cornwall, Devonshire, and Sweden. Now all these ores are amongst the richest in iron, are but slightly debased by any foreign substances, and they occur in the form of the ores of other metals, such as copper and lead, or approximately so. The “iron- stones,” on the other hand, are of a more earthy character, are consequently not so rich, and partake more or less of the laminated or bedded structure of the strata with which they are associated. Under this head may be classed the black bands and clay-iron- stones of the coal-measures, the iron-bearing beds of the Lias, Oolite, Greensand, and Wealden formations. There are, doubtless, some rare cases in which the ores partake of an intermediate character, but in the great majority of cases they may be arranged under one or other of these heads. The ores which we are about to consider are of the latter description. They are essentially zron-stones, and occur, toa greater or less degree, in a stratified form, partaking of the aqueous origin of their associated rocks. So similar indeed are they to ordinary strata, and so little calculated to arrest attention, that for hundreds of years they had been quarried for building purposes, or even for- * See the description of the Magnetic Ivon-ore of the districts of Trichinopoly, Salem, and South Arcot, in this Journal, No. VL, p. 342. 1866. | The New Ivon-fields of England. 325 the less honourable use of mending roads, without their metalli- ferous qualities having been discovered. I may here be allowed to capitulate very briefly the progress of the iron-smelting of this country to the present time. The sources from which our chief supply of iron had been procured from very early periods down to the middle of the last century were the heematites of Gloucestershire, South Wales, the Mendip Hills, and the iron-stones of Kent and the Weald of Sussex ; the coal-measures of Salop, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Scotland. Some of these ores are believed on good grounds to have been worked by the Romans, the fuel generally, but perhaps not exclusively, used in the process of smelting being charcoal. This material, however, became gra- dually scarce, and some of the writers of the last century lament the rapid destruction of the forests both of the South of England and the Midland counties, owing to the using up of the trees.* Necessity is the mother of invention, and as the requirements of iron became more extended, and the supply of charcoal diminished, it became necessary to try some other fuel. ‘There is, as is common in such cases, some uncertainty to whom the honour belongs of having first successfully employed coal for this purpose, but it is generally admitted that Dud Dudley, after several failures, was the first to succeed in the attempt. The wasteful consumption of this valuable mineral in the process of smelting was at first enormous, but as the process began to be more generally adopted, as improvements took place in the formation of the furnaces, the use of the hot blast and other appliances were introduced, the proportion of coal em- ployed became gradually less, down to the present day, when it may be said to have nearly reached its minimum. The black-band and clay-band iron-stones of the coal-measures have hitherto been our chief sources of supply. These ores occur in thin layers associated with coal-seams, shales, clays, and sand- stones. A few years since, however, the rich hematites of North Lancashire and West Cumberland were opened up, and are now very largely used, both for mixing with the former and for the manufacture of the finest pig-iron directly from the ores themselves. From this iron only Bessemer steel is at present made. The ore occurs in enormous “ pockets,” or irregular masses, filling chambers in the carboniferous limestone, and often only covered by a few feet of drift clay or millstone grit, while in one or two places it is quarried im open-work. Meanwhile, the process of exhaustion of the coal- measure iron-stones in some of the principal centres of manufacture was going on apace, and it must be confessed that now the local resources of Staffordshire, Shropshire (Coalbrook Dale), and the * Tam informed by Mr. W. Brockbank that there are still two or three places in Great Britain where charcoal is used in smelting under peculiar circumstances, and for the production of a very high class of pig-iron. 326 The New Iron-fields of England. [ July, Glasgow districts are rapidly diminishing, while every year the demand for iron is increasing. How this demand was to be met, without drawing largely on the resources of foreign countries, is a problem which received its solution just at the time when it began to occupy men’s minds. The soluticn was the discovery of those “New Iron-fields of England” which oceupy a broad belt of country traversing our island almost from the shores of the English Channel to those of the German Ocean. This belt is formed of a range of hills with scarped ridges, and longitudinal valleys, rising to the eastward above the plains of the central counties. In this range are included geologically the Cleve- land Hills of Yorkshire and the Cotteswold Hills of Gloucester and Somerset ; but it must not be supposed that the strata are equally rich in iron all along the entire range, although the representative formations in which the iron occurs may be present throughout. This range at several points both in Yorkshire and Gloucester- shire reaches elevations exceeding one thousand feet above the sea, and terminates in the coast-cliffs of Saltburn on the north, and those of Lyme Regis on the south. It is composed of Jurassic formations,* or speaking more definitely, the upper members of the Lias and the lower members of the Oolite series. From the base of the range the Lower Lias and New Red Maz! stretch away in shghtly undulating plains towards the west, and with some shght modifications the general succession of the strata, and the form of the hills as they occur in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Gloucestershire, and Somersetshire, may be expressed as in the following diagramatic section. Fic, 1.—DIAGRAMATIC SECTION, TO ILLUSTRATE THE POSITION OF THE LiAssic AND Lower OOLITIC SERIES. e a Red Marl. (a) Lower Lias. (d) Lower Oolite. (b) Middle Lias or Marlstone; the dark band represents the Ironstone. (c) Upper Lias. (e) Lias Limestone. There are two positions in the above section where the iron- stones occur, the lower being at the top of the Middle Lias, or Marlstone, the upper at the base of the Great Oolite. This latter, however, is almost exclusively confined to Northamptonshire, and by far the most important member is the Middle Lias iron-stone of the counties of York, Lincoln, and Oxford. The range also touches the counties of Rutland, Leicester, and Warwick, in all of which * “Jurassic’’—a good term—taken from the Jura range on the borders of France and Switzerland, whereby to include the Liassic and Oolitic formations under one name. + The main difference is, that in Yorkshire the Great Oolite rests on the Upper Lias, in Gloucestershire it is replaced by the Inferior Oolite. 1866.] The New Ivon-fields of England. 327 iron-stone occurs, but it is as yet unrecognized, practically at least, in the Coteswold Hills and in Somersetshire. The iron-stone is the upper member of the Marlstone, or Middle Lias formation, the lower consisting of sandy shales, or fine lami- nated sands with bands or nodules of iron-stone. Where the upper member ceases to be sufficiently rich in iron to be deemed an iron- stone, it occurs in the form of a hard calcareous grit, generally very full of its characteristic fossils, such as: Rhynchonella tetrahedra, Ri. variabilis, Terebratula punctata, Pecten xquivalvis, Nautilus truncatus, Ammonites margaritatus, and ATI 5, =~) a erg t= +. 1866. | ( 333. ) IiI. ON THE HABITS AND CONDITION OF THE TWO EARLIEST KNOWN RACES OF MEN. By W. Boyp Dawxtys, M.A. Oxon, F.G.8. In this age of steam-engines, and electric-telegraphs, and printing- presses, surrounded by all the appliances of modern civilization, with the hum and stir of commerce in our ears, and with our eyes accustomed to the rich cultivated fields, or the densely-populated towns, we find it very hard to realize to ourselves the England or the Europe of 500 years ago, when all these things were not, and when the habits of life which these things have naturally developed, were altogether different. So difficult is it, that with all the old chronicles at hand to furnish a true picture of the life and modes of thought of those times, Lord Macaulay is the only English historian who has attempted to give them even in outline. Still further back the materials for the social history of Western Europe grow more and more scant, and anterior to the time when the Romans con- quered Gaul and obtained a foothold in Germany, there are none whatever. Of the social condition of the people who dwelt in Britain, from Cesar’s landing down to the invasion of the Saxons, we know historically next to nothing ; the accounts left by Tacitus and other writers recording merely the movements of the Legions, and the establishment and maintenance of the Roman Imperium, with but incidental notice of the habits and customs of the vanquished. But where History is silent, Archeology steps in and wrests from the “speechless past ” evidence of the existence, and an outline of the habits of races of mankind that have disappeared. The caves and rock-shelters of Dordogne afford the first traces of the dawn of sculpture and engraving in Western Europe; the tumuli of Scan- dinavia, Germany, France, and Britain rival the tombs of Etruria in the knowledge they yield of their makers; the Pile-dwellings of Switzerland tell their own story, as well as the buried cities of Her- culaneum and Pompeii. In a review of history we realize that nations, like individuals, die, and that from time to time great migra- tions have destroyed the very existence of certain European peoples. In the Pre-historic times we also see that tribe drove out tribe, and race succeeded race, each bringing with it peculiar customs and habits. In both there is a gradual progress traceable in the arts and sciences, and in all that now makes life worth the living. In carrying man back into the most remote past to a poimt where Archeology dies away—so to speak—into Geology, we shall be compelled to acknowledge the truth of the saying of the great Pascal, that “‘the entire succession of men through the whole course of ages must be regarded as one man always living and incessantly learning.” The very first man who lifted himself above 334 On the Habits and Condition [ July, the beasts of the field by the discovery that a sharp stone or a snare would subserve the purpose of obtaining food better than his unarmed, unaided limbs, laid the foundation of our arts and sciences. From it our culture and knowledge sprang, a giant tree now, but whose development in the glorious future will bear to its’ present erowth the same relation which that growth does now to the parent germ. As the habits of man are essentially dependent upon external physical circumstances, we shall have occasion incidentally to touch also upon them. The labours of the Scandinavian antiquaries, and especially of Professor Worsaae,* have proved that Pre-historic remains in their country fall naturally into three distinct classes, indicating, if not distinct race, yet certainly different habits and modes of life—first, those of the Stone age, in which the use of metals was unknown ; secondly, the Bronze age; and thirdly, the Iron age, in which man acquired a mastery over those metals, and employed them for his various needs. This classification has been found to hold good throughout Europe. ‘The first of these divisions again, that of the Stone, has been subdivided by the French and English archezolo- gists, and for the earlier portion Sir John Lubbock has proposed the term Paleolithic ;+ for the later the Neolithic age. The intro- duction of iron did not exclude the use of bronze, nor did the latter drive out the use of the ruder stone. Thus I obtained from a Romano-British burial-ground at Hardham, in Sussex, flint flakes, and a bronze fibula, while some of the oaken coffins were strengthened by iron nails. It is the shape and fashion of the implements and weapons, and not the material only, that are a safe guide to the relative Pre-historic age. We purpose to take the earliest of these—the Paleolithic, and to sketch the habits and con- dition of the two races of men who lived at that time, the Flint - Folk and the Reindeer Folk, and then to trace as briefly as may be the progress of man down to the borders of history. The gravel-beds of France and England, and the bone caverns of these two countries, and of Belgium, have afforded the earliest known traces of man upon the earth. The original discoveries of M. Boucher de Perthes, at Amiens and Abbeville, followed up by the cautious energy of Mr. Prestwich, F.R.S., prove that man co-existed with the fossil Mammoth and woolly Rhinoceros on the banks of the Somme at a time when it flowed at a much higher level than at present, and when the relations of hill and valley were altogether different in that district. The labours of the latter, and of Mr. Evans, F.R.S., have resulted in the proof that the same race of men lived in Britain from Suffolk on the east as far south as the coast of Hampshire. My own discoveries in Wookey Hole Hyzena- * «Primeval Antiquities.’ Worsaac. Translated by W. J. Thomas. London, 1849. + ‘Pre-historic Times,” London, 1865 madraios = old, rif0s = stone, ye06 = young, Albos = stone. ~ ae 1866. | of the Two earliest known Races of Men. 3385 den extend their range into Somerset ; those of Mr. MacEnery in Brixham into Devonshire; and lastly, those of Dr. Falconer in Pembrokeshire into South Wales. Throughout the whole of this area the same types of flint implements and weapons prevail. A splinter of flint afforded the only cutting edge they possessed ; a mass of flint rudely chipped into a point was their only boring tool ; large thick rudely-fashioned “spear-heads” their principal weapon. The so-called ‘‘sling-stones,” either intended for use as missiles, or imbedded in gum, or bound round with withes, as axes, and some pointed masses of flint which may have been used for digging, com- prise the list of their remains from the gravel-beds. In the Hyzena- den, at Wookey Hole, I had the good fortune to find, besides the ordinary forms, a small oval, leaf-shaped lance-head {see Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, p.336], an arrow-head of chert | Plate, Figs. 1, 2], a bone arrow- head, and a small-pointed bone which may have been a needle. The calcined bones on the floor prove that the use of fire was not unknown, and that the cave was inhabited. The evidence afforded by this scant list of the implements and weapons proves that the race of men who used them were savages of the very lowest order, unacquainted with the art of spinning or of making pottery, and living on the fruits of the chase without the aid of the dog. Those who dwelt in the plains of Somerset were acquainted with the use of the sling and the bow, and tipped their arrows with chert and bone. The ashes found at the mouth of the cave at Aurignac and at Wookey Hole prove that fire was known in that early epoch. If the condition of man then differed from that of man now in Western Europe, still more did the physical aspect of Europe differ from its present aspect, in its temperature, its animals, and its area. In those early days England formed part of the mainland that stretched out far into the Atlantic. Glaciers descended from the mountains of Wales, the Lake-district, and Scotland, and the winter cold was sufficiently intense to form ice on the rivers thick and strong enough to transport great stones, which now we find in numerous places dropped among the fine gravels in their ancient beds.* In the spring, when the winter accumulation of ice and snow melted away, the lower grounds were covered by extensive floods similar to those which now take place in Canada, the Hudson’s Bay Territory, and Siberia. The large areas of silt which they have left behind, prove their former extent; as, for example, that stretching from Brighton at least as far as Portsmouth. The land was covered with dense forests of oak, beech, alder, and Scotch fir, through which the rivers cleft their way to the sea, bearing the carcases of Reindeer or Red-deer, huge Mammoth or woolly Rhi- noceroses, or now and then the Musk sheep, and either dropping their bones in various places in their course, or leaving them col- * Sce “ British Pleistocene Mammalia,’ by W. Boyd Dawkins and W. Ayshford Sanford. Introduction, Sec. xi., ‘ Paleeont. Soc.,’ 1866. = "£yoI00g ey} jo a plounog oy} jo uorsstunted fq ‘Ajotoog [wo1sopoox) at} Jo [vuInog ATLO}LENH , OT} JO “TTAX “TOA Jo SOOTG [VUISI10 oyy wor poquMdoy On the Habits and Condition *y BLT "e “BLT "Ta , STTIM IVAN ‘DIOP ATHOOM LY NGG-VNAY FHL NI GNQ0d LNIWATIM] INIT V 40 SMBIA YOOF—'F-T ‘SOT 336 1866. | of the Two earliest known Races of Men. 337 lected together by the current, as at Ilford in Essex. The Hippo- potamus disputed with the Beaver and the Otter the sovereignty of the rivers. In the forests dwelt two species of extinct Rhinoceros, the Bison and the Urus, the Irish Elk and the Horse, and afforded food for the Wolves, the gigantic Cave-Lion and Cave-Bear, the Cave-Hyena and the Glutton. On such a scene as this man appears for the first time armed with the rudest weapons of flint, chert, and bone. Exposed like the beasts to the vicissitudes of a climate far more severe than that now obtaining in the same area, living like the Hyzenas in caves wherever he could find them, sheltered from the cold where there were no caves by a rude hut, probably little better than the lair of a wild beast, preying on the wild animals around him, he fought for dear life itself with the great carnivora. Separated from the beasts by the possession of reason, he had already mastered the use of fire, and armed with the bow, the spear, and the sling, made good his foot- hold in the Fauna of Western Europe. The contents of the cave of Aurignac, examined by M. Lartet in 1860, inclined him to the belief that the ancient folk who used the implements found both within and outside the cave were con- temporary with the Mammoth and woolly Rhinoceros, that the human skeletons found were interred at a time when the extinct Pleistocene mammalia lived in France, and that some of the animals, and especially a young Rhinoceros, had been eaten at the funeral feast.* If, indeed—to quote the classic words of Sir Charles Lyell —‘“the fossil memorials have been correctly interpreted—if we have here before us at the northern base of the Pyrenees a sepulchral vault with skeletons of human beings consigned by friends and rela- tives to their last resting-place—if we have also at the portal of the tomb the relics of funeral feasts, and within it indications of viands destined for the use of the departed on their way to a land of spirits ; while among the funeral gifts are weapons wherewith in other fields to chase the gigantic deer, the cave-lon, the cave-bear, and the woolly rhinoceros—we have at last succeeded in tracing back the sacred rites of burial, and more interesting still, a belief in a future state, to times long anterior to history and tradition.” When, however, it is considered that the cave was discovered eight years before it was scientifically examined, and that the human skeletons found therein by the discoverer, a workman named Bonnemaison, were removed and buried in the cemetery of Aurignac, where they cannot now be found, the contents of the cave being thus disturbed, the inference that the skeletons are of the same age as the extinct mammals, and of the flint and bone implements, seems to be faulty. The gisement of the skeletons rests upon the hearsay evidence of what occurred eight years previously ; no person interested in the * « Ann. des Mines, Zoologie, t. xv., p. 177. + ‘Antiquity of Man,’ pp, 192-3. Virst edit., 1868. 338 On the Habits and Condition [July, problems concerning the human race that have arisen since 1852 having so much as seen them. Had indeed the Paleolithic savage been in the habit of burying his dead in caves, we should not be seeking in vain for perfect human crania unequivocally of that early date up to the present time; some trace of such interment would surely have been found in the numerous caves explored in France, Germany, and Britain. While therefore it is clear that Aurignac was used for a place of sepulture at some time or other, the inference drawn by the eminent French Zoologist, M. Lartet, and endorsed by the great authority of Sir Charles Lyell,* that it was so used at a time when the great extinct mammalia dwelt in France, does not legitimately flow from the facts adduced. We are therefore still in ignorance of the mode in which the savages of those days disposed of their dead and as to their belief in a future state. Thus scant is our knowledge of the earliest known men, the Flint Folk par ewcellence, a race that is as truly fossil and extinct as the Mammoth and woolly Rhinoceros with whom they lived.f To M. Lartet and the late Mr. Christy we owe the proof of the existence of a second race of men in the South of France, in the Department of Dordogne, in the valleys through which flow the Vezere, the Dordogne, and‘their tributaries. They dwelt in caves and under sheltering rocks, and accumulated around their dwellings the remains of the animals they ate, and vast quantities of the implements and weapons they used. In all the caves and rock- shelters except one, the remains of the Reindeer were most abun- dant, and evidently constituted the chief food of these savages of the Dordogne, who may therefore be conveniently termed Reindeer Folk, in contradistinction to the Flint Folk described above. The presence of the Mammoth and Cave-lion (the remains of which were few) in the refuse-heaps, proves that the age of the Reindeer Folk was that of the great extinct Pachydermata, while the occurrence of the Musk-sheep and Reindeer, animals confined to the cold regions of the North, indicates the arctic nature of the climate at that time in France. The implements are of a higher order and denote a higher degree of civilization than those of the Flint Folk. The lance-heads, however, from the cave of Moustier are of a different fashion to the rest, and approximate, as M. Lartet observes, to those found at Amiens and Abbeville, and possibly belong to the same age as these latter. This is rendered more probable by the exact agreement of some of those from Moustier with the figure of one from Wookey Hole delineated above (Figs. 1-4. p. 336).4 A list of the implements and weapons comprises lance-heads, arrow-heads, scrapers, flakes, and awls of flint; hollowed stones * ¢ Antiquity of Man,’ p. 181. First edit., 1863. t ‘Revue Archéologique,’ 1864. In 1864 I had the good fortune to find an implement agreeing exactly with the two mentioned above, on the surface of a gravel-bed near Faversham. It is now in the collection of Mr, John Evans, F.R.S. ——_ Soe corer 1866. | of the Two earliest known Races of Men. 339 which may have been used for mortars or for obtaining fire by fric- tion ; sundry ornaments made of bone, antler, and teeth ; a whistle made out of the first phalanx of a large stag; arrow-heads, spoons, and needles made out of bone or antlers. One of the arrow-heads cut out of the antler of a reindeer is remarkable for the alternate barbs and for the grooves on their surface, which may have been intended to contain poison. An implement from the same cave | Plate, Fig. 3], made of the same material, with the barbs on one side, was probably a fishing or fowling spear. The most remark- able remains, however, by far, are the figures of animals engraved upon stone, antler, bone, or ivory, the earliest traces of sculpture known in Western Europe. A slab of schist from Les Eyzies bears the outline of a deer; the lines, however, are too confused for spe- cific identification. The rock-shelter of Laugerie-basse has furnished an outline of the hinder quarters of a large ox, boldly and skilfully engraved on the palmated antler of a remdeer. On a second frag- ment of reindeer antler the ancient artist has depicted the figure of a horned ruminant, probably the Bouquetin, of which the remains were abundant, and as he had no room to draw the hindlegs in their natural position, he doubled them forwards until the hoofs touched the animal’s belly, and thus completed the whole beast. [-Plate, Fig. 7.| Other fragments of antler from the same locality were fashioned into ornamented spoons or marrow-scoops; and in one case, a reindeer kneeling on his fore-legs, with eyes, ears, antlers, and tail most distinctly cut, formed the handle of an implement of some kind. From the rock-shelter of La Madelaine has been obtained most remarkable and unlooked-for evidence of the co-existence of man with the mammoth in a fragment of fossil ivory | Plate, Fig. 8], bearmg upon it the well-defined figure of the extinct species of Elephant to which it belonged.* The artist has given to it not only the tusks with eccentric curvature, which are so common in the drift gravels, but also has marked in a most unmistakable way the long hairy mane which we know, from the discovery of the frozen mammoth carcases in the North of Russia, characterized that extinct animal. This specimen, therefore, is most important, not only as an example of the early dawn of art, but also because it stamps the age of the artist to have been that of the Mammoth. Human teeth and bones were also found in both the caves and rock-shelters, which were in precisely the same state of preservation as the bones of the animals which had been used for food, and pro- bably owe their presence to the same want of care for the dead among the Reindeer Folk as is now exhibited by the Esquimaux. M. Lartet, however, hesitates to relegate the human remains to the age of the Reindeer: “ D’abord parce qu'il est peu vraisemblable que les aborigénes de cet Age, que nous avons pu voir dans une station * © Ann. des Sciences Naturelles.’ 5° ser., t. iv., 6 cahier. 340 On the Habits and Condition [ July, plus ancienne, 4 Aurignac, professer une sorte de culte pour les morts, aient enseveli un des leurs dans le lieu méme ou ils man- geaient ; ensuite, parce que l’on n’a apercu aupres de ces débris humains aucuns des accessoires habituels et a signification symbo- lique que l’on retrouve jusque dans les sépultures les plus anciennes des temps primordiaux.”* ‘These two reasons seem to me to be inva- lidated by the equivocal evidence afforded by the cave of Aurignac. As, however, the human remains in the cave of Eyzies and the rock- shelter of La Madelaine were found 7m situ by experienced observers, the evidence for their contemporaneity with the Reindeer seems to be as good as that afforded by the bone of any other animal found. These remains give us a most vivid picture of the habits and mode of life of the time. The great Carnivora had not yet disap- peared from Western Europe, and of the great extinct Pachyderms the Mammoth was sufficiently familiar to the eye of the artist to be faithfully engraved. Herds of Reindeer, along with the Horse and the Red-deer, wandered through Central and Southern France. The great Arctic Musk-sheep and the Antelope Saiga of the Siberian steppes were occasionally killed by the Reindeer Folk. We can almost see the hunter returning to his cave, or rock- shelter, bearing upon his shoulders the Reindeer that he had slain, or portions of a Bison, or Urus, or Horse (for they were cut up where they fell), or with fish from the Vezere or Dordogne, or with birds that he had snared or speared, to be hastily cooked and greedily devoured by his family and friends. We can see him clad in skins perpetuating the remembrance of the chase by engraving on antlers, or bones, or stones the figure of a fish, a Red-deer, Horse, Bouquetin, and even of a Mammoth, or preparing skins for clothing with the rude flint scrapers, or sewing them together with the bone needles. And we can see him chipping his rude spear-heads, knives, and scrapers, and all his edged tools, out of a block of flint, and the chips he struck off, and the flint core he threw away, are still where they fell, on the heap of split bones, ashes, and broken implements upon which he dwelt. He was unacquainted with the art of making pottery or of spinning; he never ground his imple- ments or weapons, and was unaided by the dog in hunting. Yet, even in this poor savage we find an idea that in the time which has elapsed between his sojourn in France and our own day has borne the most glorious fruits. The idea of representing familiar objects has developed, on the one hand, into the marvellous works of a Phidias and a Raphael; on the other, into the invention of hieroglyphies, of the alphabet, and of printing. This early people seem to have been a different race to the Flint Folk, because, although both lived very much under the same physical conditions, in no case are their implements or weapons * See ‘Revue Archéologique,’ 1864. 1866. | of the Two earliest known Races of Men. 341 found together. Possibly the Reindeer Folk may have dwelt in one area at the same time that the Flint Folk inhabited another ; but there is no evidence of their living in the same district at the same time. The more varied forms and the higher finish of the weapons and implements of the Reindeer Folk, as compared with those of the Flint Folk, make it highly probable that the former were not only the more civilized, but also the more modern of the two Paleolithic races. The question who were the Reindeer Folk may be answered with some approximation to the truth by a comparison of their implements and their habits with those of savage tribes living under the same or similar circumstances. A comparison of the scraper of the Reindeer Folk [Pl. 1, Fig. 9] of M. Lartet’s essay in the ‘ Revue Archéologique’ with that of the Esquimaux figured by Sir John Lubbock [‘ Pre-historic Times,’ Figs. 76-78] shows that there is but little difference between the two. The barbed bone |‘ Quarterly Journal of Science, Plate, Fig. 3] and the bone needle [ Fig. 5| agree remarkably with those in use by the Esqui- maux of Igloolik at the time Captains Parry and Lyon visited Melville Peninsula in 1821 | Figs. 4 and 6]. The marrow-spoons of both these peoples are remarkably alike, and the habit of carving various animals is common to both, and of splitting the bones for the sake of the marrow. The method also of the accumulation of the bones of the animals, and the occurrence of human remains in the refuse-heaps of the Reindeer Folk, is explaied by the state of an Esquimaux camp in the Island of Igloolik. “ In every direction around the huts were lying innumerable bones of walrusses and seals, together with skulls of dogs, bears, and foxes, on many of which a part of the putrid flesh still remaining sent forth the most offensive effluvia. We were not a little surprised to find also a number of human skulls lymg about among the rest within a few yards of the huts, and were somewhat inclined to be out of humour with our new friends, who not only treated the matter with the utmost indifference, but on observing that we were inclined to add some of them to our collections, went eagerly about to look for them, and tumbled, perhaps, the craniums of some of their own relations into our bag without delicacy or remorse.”* ° . ° = . Bone Arrow-heads, without barbs ; é © Bone Arrow-heads, with barbs . Barbed Spear-heads of Antler Bone Needles r : Bone Ornaments Bone Spoons or Scoops Stone Mortars (?) . : c : = : ‘ Outlines of Animals on Stone, Antler, Bone, and Ivory. Figures of Animals cut out of Antler ° . HERR RE HRE RR HHH x «| They had discarded the use of the rude massive “ spear-heads” and the small leaf-shaped lance-heads of the latter ; had added barbs to their hunting-arrows and spears, and had learned that bone, antler, or ivory were materials better adapted for the supplying of many of their needs than the harder and less tractable flint. The valuable work now being published in parts by M. Lartet and the representatives of the late Mr. Christy, will most largely supple- ment the list of the implements of the Reindeer Folk given above, and will increase our estimate of their civilization. The marvellous remains from Dordogne, in the collection of the latter, read by the light of the museum that he had spent years in forming, of imple- ments and weapons of savages from all parts of the world, and ¢ See ‘ Franklin’s Journey to the Polar Sea, 1819-22, 1825-27.’ 7 ew she 1866. | of the Two earliest known Races of Men. 343 aided by the osteological learning of M. Lartet, cannot fail to cause as complete a restoration of the habits and customs of the Reindeer Folk as that of the great secondary reptiles by Professor Owen and Dr. Mantell. An examination of the remains of the wild animals associated with those of Paleolithic man leads to some curious results. From the following table all those animals which have not been proved to have co-existed with the Flint Folk and Reindeer Folk, though they may have been living at the time, are rigidly excluded :— Bone Caves and River deposits in Cacchand PaumoutHic Mammats. oa ee Rock Shelters ciated with remains Of Dordogne. of the Flint Folk. The Chamois , ° ° 5 The Tailless Hare . The Common Hare . : 3 : - The Common Rabbit 4 é F . The Water Rat : a ; The Meadow Vole . 3 : The Field Vole 3 The Pouched Marmot : The Greater Horse-shoe Bat The great Sabre-toothed Lion or Tiger ° - z — The Cave Lion . : * = The Wild Cat : : F : - ; * — The Cave Hyena . : ; : . ; Fe * The Ermine. 5 ; : = 3 : i —_— The Wolf é ; - : : 5 y * The Fox . : - - : : ‘ : * * The Badger . : - ‘ * — The Cave Bear . A : A ~ = The Brown Bear ° 5 . - = — The Urus = : ° ° 3 ? The Bison < 5 : ¢ : a < The Musk-sheep - - : 5 = Bi The Common Elk .. : i . : : —_ ? The Red Deer . c - 3 = . : * * The Reindeer . - - 2 s if The Roe Deer . : be 2 The Tish Elk . F : : 5 #2 = Antelope Saiga - - * — * Elephas Antiquus : by _- The Mammoth . : He = The Wild Boar . : : : : = = The Hippopotamus . : : : ° i _ The Woolly Rhinoceros — . ‘ - : = 7 — The Leptorhine Rhinoceros of Professor Owen ° a = The Horse . : ° ° ° ° _ ~ The Ibex . — = = * * zt: * * * es * el * = * —- * * * —_ ———LK—KL——— _ * A list of known animals in the Stone, Bronze, and Iron age will be found in the Rev. C. W. Kett’s paper on “ Pre-historic Records.”—‘ Quarterly Journal ot Science,’ April, 1865.—Eprrors. VOL. III. 2A 344 On the Habits and Condition [ July, The extinct mammalia split up into two groups of unequal antiquity. On the one hand, we have the Sabre-toothed Lion (or Tiger), the Elephas Antiquus, the Hippopotamus, and the Woolly and Leptorhine Rhinoceros, found along with the remains of Flint Folk ; and with the exception of the two last, began to live in the remote epoch called the Pliocene. On the other, the only two extinct species found in the refuse-heaps of the Reindeer Folk are the Irish Elk and the Mammoth, both of which sprang into bemg in the Pleistocene Period, and the former lingered on after the disappearance of the latter, and is repeatedly found in the silt of river-beds, and the lacustrine marls underlying the peat, which are of a comparatively modern date. The legitimate mference to be drawn from this is, that those deposits, containing not only the larger proportion of extinct mammals, but also an older group, are of higher antiquity than those containing a smaller proportion and a newer group; or, in other words, that the Flint Folk preceded the Reindeer Folk in time. Thus the evidence afforded by Palaon- tology corroborates the inference drawn from a comparison of the implements and weapons with reference to the relative age of the two Paleolithic Races. To this view, indeed, it may be objected that the remains found in a den of Hyznas, or in an old fluviatile or lacustrine deposit, afford a better idea of the Fauna of any given district than those selected from among the wild beasts by man for food, and therefore that the absence of any particular animal from the refuse-heaps is to be accounted for by the fact of its not bemg met with by man, and does not prove the non-existence of the animal at the time. Had, however, any of the old Pliocene mammals co-existed with the Reindeer Folk, there is no reason why they should not have fallen victims as well as the other large mammals, the Mammoth or the great Urus. While, therefore, it is just possible that one or even the whole of the older animals may at a future time be discovered in association with the remains of the Reindeer Folk, the probability is that they will not be so found. The three animals that specially characterize the Reindeer deposits of Dordogne as compared with those of the Flint Folk age, are the Antelope Siiga, the Ibex, and the Chamois ; of these the former ranges now through the great central plateau of Asia, the second lives in the Pyrenees, and the last in the Alps. Thus meagre is the outline which the scant materials allow to be drawn of the habits and condition of our earliest ancestors who lived in the Paleolithic age,—an age that coincides in part with the Pleistocene or Quaternary Period of the geologists. They passed away like many of the other mammalia, and were supplanted in Western Europe by Folk of a different race, whom Sir John Lubbock terms Neolithic. Without losing any of the useful arts of the preceding age, these invented the use of pottery, 1866. | of the Two earliest known Races of Men. 345 and were not ignorant of the art of spinning. They dwelt in huts, the bottoms of which are now known under the name of hut- circles, sunk in the earth, or raised on piles driven into the shallows of lakes, as in Switzerland. The tumuli spreading over France, Germany, Britain, and Scandinavia prove their belief in a future state, as well as their reverence for the dead, whom they buried without burning. They improved upon the rude unground Palzo- lithic implements and weapons, by adopting the custom of grinding and polishing them, and of making them out of many kinds of stone not used before, as well as by the adoption of new forms. Univer- sally they had pressed the dog into their service, and in the Pile- works of Switzerland present us with the earliest known assemblage of domestic animals, the horse, pig, goat, sheep, and ox. The first of these was as rare as the last ; the small short-horned variety of the existing species was abundant. They were essentially pastoral, but lived upon the fruits of the chase, the Urus and the Red-deer, as well as upon their flocks and herds. The cakes and cereals found prove that they were acquainted also with agriculture. Sir John Lubbock infers that the tribes who have left their refuse-heaps on the Scandinavian coasts belong to an early period of the Neolithic age. Among other remains of their feasts are bones of the Great Auk (Alca impennis), which has become extinct in Europe during the present century. The oysters which composed their principal food are no longer to be found in the neighbouring seas,—a fact that would imply a physical change in the Baltic since their time, which has caused the salt water to become diluted with fresh to a greater extent now than formerly. Their habits were probably very similar to those of the savages of Tierra del Fuego at the present day. Just as the Neolithic superseded the Paleolithic races, so was the former supplanted by the bronze-using Folk, who arrived in Kurope before the dawn of history, and lived there up to the time when history begins. Their peculiar bronze swords without a guard are found throughout Western Europe, and are sometimes most tastefully ornamented. Out of this material also beautiful orna- ments were made, and many of the implements and weapons which were used by the Neolithic savage. Since “Cornwall and Saxony are the only known European sources of tin,” Sir John Lubbock sagaciously observes, “the mere presence of bronze is in itself a suf- ficient evidence not only of metallurgical skill, but also of commerce.” They were acquainted with the use of the potter’s-wheel, and were in the habit of burning their dead. For many purposes they still used stone, and doubtless the poorer made use of it for their axes, long after it had been discarded by the richer classes. The disco- veries in the Swiss Lakes prove that the Bronze Folk possessed abundance of horses, and relied for their subsistence more upon 2a2 346 On the Two earliest known Races of Men. . {July, their flocks and herds than upon the chase. They were more pas- toral than the previous Neolithic inhabitants of the district. The date of the introduction of iron into Western Europe cannot be satisfactorily determined. Its use had, however, spread through France, Britain, and Germany before the inhabitants of those coun- tries came into collision with the Roman legions. The iron-using people of Gaul were sufficiently civilized and provided with weapons to be a formidable enemy to Rome in the height of her power, to oppose her disciplined troops in the field with chariots and cavalry, and on the sea to fight for a whole day with the Roman fleet off the coast of Armorica. In Britain and in Switzerland they also used chariots. The pages of Caesar and Tacitus will give an adequate account of their civilization and habits. In a review such as this of our Pre-historic ancestors, we must bear in mind that the absolute age of any one of the races is altogether a matter for conjecture. We can simply say that stone preceded bronze, and the latter iron, while we are ignorant of the length of time during which each of these materials was m_ use, as we are also of the method of its introduction, whether sudden or gradual. In this point, indeed, History differs from Archeology, that it gives the absolute, while the latter gives the relative date. In these pages we have traced man from his earliest appearance on the earth down to the borders of history, and we have seen how, as he grew older, he profited by his experience, and slowly widened the chasm between himself and the brutes, by making his life more and more artificial. From the past it is impossible not to turn to the future and ask ourselves, whether there be any limit to the progress of the human race? Has man yet attained his full manhood? In the ages that are coming, will he not continue to win fresh victories over nature and her forces, each of which victories will form the basis for another ? and as the fetters which bind him to the brutes are broken one by one, will he not grow more and more godlike, until the brutal portion of his nature be altogether swallowed up by the spiritual? Such an augury as this is warranted by a con- sideration of the past, by the study of History and of Archeology, and of the course of nature written in the great stone-book on which we live. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. wigs. 1 & 2, Arrow-head of chert, from Wookey Hole. Fig. 3. Fishing-spear (?) of reindeer-horn, from the cave of Moustier. . Barbed bone in use at pres-nt by the Esquimaux of Igloolik, for compari- son with Fig. 3. . Bone needle in use by the Reindeer Folk. . Bone needle in use by the Esquimaux of Igloolik, for comparison with Fig. 5 . Sculptured figure of a horned Ruminant on a fragment of Reindeer antler from Laugerie-basse. . Sculptured figure of the Mammoth on a fragment of ivory belonging to that animal, from the rock-shelter of La Madelaine. iva) “IDO 0 bls lo de 1866. | (887) IV. SCIENCE AND CRIME. THE “MOUNTAIN ASH’’ MURDER. Ir has frequently happened in the history of crime that some ereat culprit has been arraigned for poisoning, and medical or chemical evidence has been called by the prosecution as well as the defence. On such occasions it has sometimes occurred that men of the highest scientific attainments, taking opposite sides in the trial, have given evidence on apparently simple scientific questions of a totally contradictory character. Under such circumstances the counsel for the defence has not unnaturally taken the utmost advantage of the difference of opinion, and in a few isolated cases, perhaps, great criminals may have escaped the punishment which their crimes deserved. “The world,” always more ready to criticize and condemn new movements, than to inquire carefully into their merits, has, in consequence of these occasional anomalies in scientific evidence, been disposed to look with contempt upon the efforts of science in the detection of crime; and “differing doctors” have become a by-word in matters of criminal law. But instead of acting as an obstruction to the course of justice, scientific investigation has become the terror of evil-doers, and if it has not succeeded in putting an end to certain classes of homicide, it is simply because criminals are either so foolish as to suppose that their case has been so cleverly managed as to defy detection, or so wicked as to be deterred by no considerations whatever from the execution of their designs. We could point to innumerable cases where the administering of poison has been suspected by the medical attendant or relative, and it has been detected in the chemist’s laboratory, but we feel sure it is unnecessary to adduce any evidence in proof of this to our readers; to them it must be a fact perfectly familiar in the annals of crime. Link by link the untiring chemist has formed the chain of evidence; here tracing the death-potion in the tissues, there in the stomach, there again in the heart or vascular system ; and when one reads the accounts of these trials, how unerringly the guilt is almost in every case brought home to the heartless trans- gressor, it appears surprising that there should still remain men msensate enough to suppose they can tamper with the human system without certain detection. Added to this facility for tracing poison, the microscopic study of the blood-corpuscles of the vertebrata has given additional means for exposing murder and violence, and recently a third method, more exquisite than any hitherto known, has been added to the list of silent, invisible detectives. When our correspondent, Mr, H. C. Sorby, first published in 348 Science and Crime. | July, these pages his astounding revelations concerning the detection of blood in fabrics,* when he told us that he could trace the presence of the vital fluid months after it had been spilt, and after the fabric had been repeatedly washed with the view to obliterate the stains, we had the pleasure on the one hand of receiving communications from scientific men who at once appreciated the great value of the discovery, and on the other hand we were amused by the sceptical shoulder-shrugs of “the world,’ which would be “ very sorry to condemn a man to death upon such evidence.” Without here discussing the propriety of condemning a man to death on any evidence or for any crime, we have to point out the fact that “the world” is again, as it has often been and often will be, erroneous in its judgments on scientific matters; for largely if not entirely in consequence of the investigation by spectrum- analysis of the blood-stained wood of a hatchet-handle, a man at Aberdare has been sentenced to death for one of the most deliberate, cowardly, atrocious murders that the world ever witnessed. The crime in question, known as the “ Mountain Ash Murder,” was committed last September by a youth, aged eighteen, called Coe, the victim being another young man called John Davies, residing in the same locality, and the trial came off in March of the present year. It is unnecessary to pain our readers by the full details of this crime, which attracted considerable attention at the time; and we shall state as concisely as possible how scientific research succeeded in securing the conviction of the murderer. On a certain Saturday in September, the day on which he received his wages, the mur- dered man was last seen in company with the criminal who has since perished on the scaffold ; and from that time until the Ist of January nothing was heard of him. On that day a farmer, also called John Davies (the same name as the deceased), discovered a dead body in a wood in the neighbourhood of “ Mountain Ash,” the head being severed from the body, and lying at some distance from the trunk. He at once applied to the police, by whom the body was removed. It was already, to a great extent, decomposed ; but was identified as that of John Davies by his father; and here comes the first result of scientific acumen. The father recognized a portion of the clothing found upon the body; but this would hardly have sufficed in evidence. Young Davies had, however, had a back tooth drawn by Mr. Brown, a surgeon, two years before the murder ; and that tooth had been preserved by the unfortunate young man’s father. It was now inserted into the jaw of the corpse, and “it fitted as well as it could, considering the length of time which had elapsed.” * “On the Application of Spectrum-Analysis to Microscopical Investigations, and especially to the Detection of Blood-stains.” By H. C. Sorby, E.R.S. ‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’ No. 6, April, 1865. 1866. | Science and Crime. 349 So much for the identification of the body ; now for the evidence which saddled the murderer with the crime. The blows upon the head of the deceased which caused his death had been inflicted, the medical men said, with “some sharp cutting instrument,” and it appears that on the day of the disap- pearance of Davies, Coe had borrowed an axe of a man called Swan, which he afterwards returned secretly and in a dirty state. This axe was carefully examined, and, as it had been cleaned by Coe on his being remonstrated with by Swan for returning it in such a state, it showed no external traces of blood; but the investigators, Dr. William B. Herapath, F.R.S. (of Bristol), and Mr. Brown, the gentleman already referred to, removed the handle and examined that portion of it which had been concealed by the blade. There they found what appeared to be stains of blood. This it was clearly proved to be by spectrum-analysis, and by ordinary microscopic observation. Dr. Herapath said, in his examination, that finding the evidence resulting from the detection of globules to be small, “I obtained more numerous sections of the coloured surface of the handle of the hatchet—immersed them in distilled water and obtained thereby a slightly coloured solution, which after filtering, was ready for chemical tests, and for optical ex- amination by the micro-spectroscope. I subjected this fluid to the action of light, and it had undoubtedly the properties peculiar to a solution of blood. When a solution of blood was examined in this instrument (instrument here produced) the fluid absorbed some of the rays of light, and thus altered the spectrum or rainbow. Within the green and on the border of the yellow rays two dark absorption bands were produced by the blood fluid. Only one other substance* would produce two dark bands—that is cochineal dissolved in ammonia, but the position of the two bands was different. The spectroscope alone would not enable me to readily distinguish between the two, but combined with chemical examina- tion it would satisfactorily do so. From this optical test I was satisfied that the sections of the hatchet had been stained with blood—and by chemical analysis I also demonstrated it was blood. The combination of the three tests showed that the substance on the hatchet must have been blood.” The globules, or blood-corpuscles we should rather say, resem- bled those of the human subject; or, as Mr. Brown, the surgeon, is reported to have said in cross-examination, “The globules of the blood on the hatchet were nearly the same size as those of a pig, which is the nearest in size to that of a human being.” The accused, therefore, had been last seen with the murdered man in the neighbourhood of the scene of the murder; he had borrowed and returned at the time of the disappearance of the * Dr. Herapath should have said, “ is at present known to produce.” 350 . Science and Crime. [ July, victim just such an instrument as might have been used to inflict the injuries which caused death, and on that instrument the traces of blood had been discovered by scientific research. There were many other circumstances of minor importance, which served as links in the chain of evidence, the most condemna- tory of which were that Coe had made some remarks about a sup- posed murder at Mountain Ash, between the time when his victim dis- appeared and the body was found, which showed that he was aware such a murder had been committed ; and that whilst Davies had been robbed by his murderer, Coe had been rather flush of money ; and although the prisoner received the benefit of an anxiously-con- sidered summing-up on the part of a most just and merciful judge, the weight of evidence was too overpowering to leave room for doubt on the minds of the jury, and he was convicted of wilful murder after an hour’s deliberation. Before being executed he confessed his guilt. Now, we must be permitted to ‘‘sum up.” The full value of Mr. Sorby’s great discovery is not exhibited by the remarkable trial to which we have here cursorily alluded. ‘The time will come when spectrum-analysis, which has already taught us what distant suns and nebule are made of, will reveal to the custodians of human life that blood has been spilt upon some rag or fragment of clothing, and that discovery will serve as the jirst link in the chain of evidence that shall bring some wretched malefactor to his doom. Or, who knows but the very fact of such means of detection being in existence, may drive a stricken con- science to confess the crime, which might otherwise have remained unknown here below! Mr. Henry Sorby may, or may not, receive the reward due to him for his untiring researches; he may, at some future time, have a paltry honour pompously offered to him by some person high in office, and he may refuse that honour. It will be the best thing he can do, for his name will be bound up in the same volume that chronicles the works of Newton and Harvey, of Jenner, Bunsen and Kirchhoff, of Fraunhofer, and of all men of science who have, directly or indirectly, enlisted the light of the orb of day into the service of humanity; and this is a higher honour than any that princes or governments can bestow. But let it not be supposed, because we thus sing the praises of scientific men, that we are so wanting in plain matter-of-fact know- — ledge as to place implicit faith in their evidence. In the first place, chemists and doctors of medicine have feelings; and, secondly, they cannot be pronounced free from prejudice. If our readers could but look over our shoulder as we scan some of the pamphlets which are sent to us from time to time, wherein the most extraordinary © crotchets are chronicled, and the most grotesque hobbies ridden, often by men of science and renown, they would never suspect us of 1866. | British Voleanie Rocks. 851 placing implicit faith in the judgment of all scientific investi- gators or of recommending a hasty verdict upon such evidence alone. When careful scientific research is supported by what is known as “circumstantial evidence,” that is, where the circumstances under which a crime has been perpetrated are such as to render the scientific revelations credible ; or, vice versa, where the results of scientific observation confirm the conclusions drawn from circum- stantial evidence such as is usually deemed valid in courts of law, there science comes in as a witness to be respected and believed ; and it will be found that every day the researches of chemists, physiolo- gists, and microscopists are adding to the store of unquestionable facts which may be employed with increasing safety and confidence in the decision of criminal cases, and more especially in those most inhuman and detestable crimes, poisoning and assassination. And, finally, let us on these grounds recommend barristers engaged in criminal cases, and members of the press employed in reporting such cases, to devote a little of their leisure time to the study of those branches of science without some acquaintance with which they will ere long find it impossible to pursue their respective avocations ; and which will at once relieve their remarks and reports from those imperfections which raise a smile in the countenance of the scientific man, as he hears or reads the reports of cases involving the employment of technical information, or expressions in daily use in the scientific world. V. BRITISH VOLCANIC ROCKS.— HINTS TO HOME TOURISTS. By Anrcurpatp Getxts, F.R.S. Summer, with its holidays, has come round upon us again, and now that the uneasy state of the Continent has well-nich closed many of the channels through which our tide of tourists dispersed itself over Europe, the question, “ Where shall we go?” becomes a somewhat momentous one to those who had proposed to themselves something more than a mere round of sight-seeing. Perhaps, if geological tastes were in the ascendant, it had been intended to ramble for a while among the traces of old glaciers on the Italian Alps, to take a few weeks amidst the extinct volcanos of the Rhine, or to peep into the geology of some pleasant upland in Central Germany. But it is hardly within the power of the lover of science to imitate Sydney’s muse, who “Tempered her words to trampling horses’ feet.” He had better in the meanwhile content himself with keeping out 352 British Volcanic Rocks. _ [Jduly, of the way both of trampling horses and marching men. And if he can only be persuaded that there are nooks, nay, whole leagues of ground, within his own country which will furnish him with ample recreation, both bodily and mental, he may, in the end, be brought to believe that, after all, it would not do his island country- men a. mortal injury were the Continent closed against them periodically, if they could thereby be driven to look a little more narrowly at their own land. One who has taken the trouble to make himself master of the elements of geological observation carries with him an immensely augmented source of enjoyment. Even on the ordinary tourist “routes,” he can note by the way features which serve at once to heighten and to perpetuate the impressions produced by natural scenery. And when he chooses to strike away from the beaten track, and to discover for himself new wonders in scenery and new facts in science, he enjoys a succession of pleasures of which there are, perhaps, few purer or more lasting. To such an one, it may not perchance be unseasonable to suggest a field of research where the reapers have not been so numerous as in some others adjoining, and where, in consequence, there still remain a good many sheaves to be gathered—viz. the history of our old British voleanoes. Whether he chooses to settle down at some pleasant centre for excursions, or to make a leisurely tour through some selected parts of the country, he may still be able to carry his task with him. He will find this history legibly graven on many a hill-side in Wales, in Derbyshire, and the north of England. It is told with a strange impressiveness by hundreds of hills and valleys in the centre and south of Scotland, and throughout the chain of the Inner Hebrides; while it may be learned, too, in not a few districts of Ireland, from the clifts of Antrim to the coasts of Waterford. According to a vague popular belief, most of our more promi- nent and rugged hills owe their origin to primeval “ volcanic erup- tions.” Thus a serrated ridge, a cluster of craggy heights, a narrow gorge, a deep half-enclosed corry or cwm,—these and other like features are readily seized upon by the imagination as evidence of earthquakes and volcanoes. ‘The fanciful explanations that used to be given of them have faded away, only, however, to be replaced by others in which the fancy is hardly less rampant. The “ Devil’s Punch-Bowls,” and “ Giants’ Basins” are now dimly thought of even by schoolboys as so many “ craters;” and the familiar peaks and clefts in which the superstition of an older time saw the handi- work of witches and warlocks, are now popularly made to tell of vast terrestrial convulsions. So far, therefore, the spread of scientific knowledge has been able to dispel the old notions ; but it has not yet advanced far enough to put the true ideas in their stead. In this, as in so many other matters, we seem to be passing through 1866. | Hints to Home Tourists. 853 a period of transition between the exploded superstitions of our ancestors and that wide diffusion of science in the popular mind which, we are led to believe, will mark the ages of the future. In the meanwhile, such words as “volcanic,” “cataclysms,” “ up- heayals,” “convulsions,” and a good many more, are commonly used, and sometimes even by scientific people, in a vague, misty sense, to account for phenomena which have arrested the attention, but of which no satisfactory explanation has occurred. And so the change from the devil and the witches has not always been very much for the better; for, in truth, most of the present outlines of the surface of the country may just about as legitimately be ascribed to the agency of evil spirits as to that of volcanoes. When we set ourselves seriously to study the matter, we soon learn, perhaps to our surprise, how small is the proportion which the number of really volcanic hills bears to the whole long list of hills in this country. One of the first results of such a study is to shake our faith in the truth of the common impression that present ruggedness of surface has some necessary connection with former volcanic eruptions, or that evidence of these eruptions is to be sought for only where the ground is rough and broken. But this impression is so deeply rooted, that it requires no small effort, and not a little acquaintance with facts as they are in nature, before it can be finally cast aside. But cast aside it must be, if we would make any satisfactory progress in physical geology. In no single instance in the British Islands does any hill, formed of rocks of voleanic origin, present still its original outlines. Probably its existence as a hell is an event long subsequent to the eruption of its component rocks, and due to a very different cause. Owing to many ups and downs, dislocations, and repeated prolonged wearing away, only a remnant of the erupted material is now to be seen. Hence all our so-called “craters” are deceptive, and take their rise from the unequal erosion of the rocks among which they le. In like manner the conical outline so often assumed in this country by truly volcanic rocks, arises wholly from the way in which they yield to the wasting influences of nature. The most rugged parts of the British Islands are not volcanic, while some of the most remarkable traces of ancient volcanoes are to be found among corn-fields and gardens, and even under the streets of villages and towns. It is only after a careful study of the structure of the rocks that we at last discover that it is to denudation, or the unequal wearing away of the surface of the land, and not to movements from below, that the details of the present configuration of our country are mainly due. The subject of the present paper is one which, I am well aware, cannot be satisfactorily discussed without ample space and an abundance of illustrations. My object, however, is not to discuss it, but rather to point out its nature, in the hope that some readers 354 British Voleanie Recks. [July, may be induced to discuss it practically for themselves in the field. Avoiding detail, therefore, as far as possible, let me endeavour to indicate, first, what volcanic rocks are, and how they are to be detected ; and secondly, that we have numerous examples of them in Britain of many different geological ages. I, All igneous rocks are not necessarily volcanic. In many cases masses of melted matter haye been injected from below into the crust of the earth deep beneath the surface. It is only where the erupted material has been thrown out at the surface that it properly takes the name of volcanic. Hence in deciphering the geological structure and history of a country care must be taken not to misapply that term. An obvious classification of volcanic rocks is imto two divisions:—1l. The lava-form series, or those which have cooled down from the state of lava; and 2. The ashy series, or those ejected in the form of loose material, such as stones, cinders, dust, and ashes, which have often accumulated in thick masses both on land and under water. Each group is further sub- divided according to the composition or structure of its rocks, but into these details we need not here enter further than to note that varieties of our old lavas are known as basalt, greenstone, clinkstone, felstone, or more generally as trap ; while the ashy series includes ash or trap tuff, volcanic breccia, and agglomerate. These rocks may evidently be studied under two very different aspects. They may be viewed either as so many mineral products coming from the depths of the earth’s crust, upon the composition of which they may be expected to throw some light; or they may be looked upon as memorials of changes in the geological history of the country. Regarded in the latter light, our first object is to search for evidence that they are truly volcanic, and not merely masses which have been intruded into later rocks and cooled deep below the surface. It is evident that the occurrence of layers of ash or tuffis a sufficient demonstration that the rocks under examination were erupted either under water or in the open air, and must be of volcanic origin. For we cannot conceive of the formation of beds of such loose matter within the crust of the earth. Ash or tuff is usually an easily recog- nizable rock. It consists of a paste of comminuted trap with more or less intermixture of ordinary sandy or muddy sediment. Some- times itis nothing more than such a fine paste, but it often contains an admixture of fragments of trap and other rocks varying in size from mere grains up to blocks several feet in diameter. Hence there are gradations from the finest ash, through gravelly tuff and breccia, into the coarsest agglomerate. As a rule, the coarser the material and the less mixed it is with ordinary sediment, the nearer probably does it lie to the original focus of eruption. Im many ashes or ashy beds organic remains are abundant, and from these we learn that the volcanic dust was showered down upon the sea, on lakes, 1866.| _ Hints to Home Tourists. 356 or on the land, and there enveloped the remains of plants and animals. When no trace of any ash is to be found, search must be made among the trap-rocks for proof that they were lava-flows, and not masses of melted matter which consolidated far beneath the surface. In the latter case they would not be volcanic, and their geological age might not be fixed, nor would they present the same variety of interest which distinguishes the truly volcanic rocks. If the trap does not occur in an amorphous mass, but is arranged in beds, there is some reason to suspect that it may have been erupted at the surface. If, moreover, the beds are found to differ in structure and texture from each other, this suspicion is considerably strengthened, and if the upper and under portions of a bed present a vesicular slagey appearance, it. may be concluded with tolerable certainty that the bed in question is an old lava-flow. When the trap occurs abundantly, it is usually not by one character, but by a number of convergent proofs that we determine it to be of voleanic origin. Having satisfied ourselves that the rocks are relics of former voleanic phenomena, it remains to determine their geological age. When we look at a hard black basalt, a coarsely crystalline dolerite, or dull compact blue clinkstone, or a dark glass-like pitchstone, we can easily admit that they probably each belong to different eruptions. To one unacquainted, however, with the accuracy of geological research, it may seem well-nigh incredible that we should be able to arrange a true chronological series out of what seems involved from its very nature in hopeless confusion. He may find some difficulty in conceiving how it can be possible to pronounce with confidence that a certain chain of hills of volcanic rocks is older than some other chain; that one special hill in a district is younger than its neighbours ; nay, that even one part of a single hill was erupted long ages after the other parts. And yet all this and more can be done very easily and with confidence. Snowdon, for instance, is built up of memorials of volcanoes immensely older than those of the Derbyshire hills ; the rocks of the Sidlaw hills of Forfarshire are likewise far more ancient than those of the Lothians ; the ashes and traps of Wexford belong to a time vastly anterior to those of Limerick, and the upper portions of Arthur Seat, at Edinburgh, were ejected many a long age after the volcano that gave birth to the lower portions of the hill had become extinct. The deter- mination of these relative dates is really a matter of extreme sim- plicity. By the well-known geological laws of superposition and organic succession, the age of a group of stratified rocks is fixed, and if such a group contains an intercalated series of volcanic rocks, it is clear that these must belong to the same geological period. Thus in the Snowdon district the stratified rocks contain fossils which show them to be of Lower Silurian age, and hence the trappean rocks interbedded with them must be the products of 356 British Volcanic Rocks. | July, Lower Silurian volcanoes. Again, the traps of Limerick are regularly intercalated among the carboniferous limestones, and are consequently of the same age. II. By thus attending to the geological position of the strata with which a group of volcanic rocks is associated, we learn more or less definitely the era of eruption. And as the result of such an investigation, it is known that there are in the British Islands examples of lavas and ashes of many different ages, from the Lower Silurian up even to Miocene times. During the accumulation of the vast thickness of the Lower Silurian strata, there were active submarine volcanoes on the site of what is now North Wales ; and many of the more noted hills and valleys are formed in great part out of the old lava-streams and showers of ash. Snowdon is a striking example. That mountain is built up of several thousand feet of strata of volcanic ash, mingled especially in the upper part with sandy, calcareous, and argillaceous sediment. It is in truth a colossal monument of long- continued volcanic activity. That the volcanoes of that region were submarine and not terrestrial, 1s shown by the occurrence of marine fossils in the ashy layers, belonging to well-known species of the Caradoc or Balarocks. There is evidence that the volcanoes were active in more than one part of the Lower Silurian period. During the accumulation of the Llandeilo flags there was a vigorous group of submarine volcanoes in the district of Cader Idris, Aran Mowddwy, and Arenig Fawr. These died out, and after- wards, when the Bala beds were in the course of formation, the internal igneous forces broke out anew over the region around Snowdon.* In Ireland, also, between the north of Wicklow and Waterford Harbour, the Lower Silurian series abounds in felstones and ashy beds. The Old Red Sandstone of Scotland contains a great develop- ment of volcanic rocks. They form the chains of the Sidlaw and Ochil Hills, the Pentlands, and other groups. They are felspathic traps, ashes, and conglomerates, forming, by their decomposition, smooth green uplands and detached green conical hills. Throughout the central valley of Scotland, also, the car- boniferous formation is richly charged with traces of contem- poraneous igneous rocks. Indeed, during the growth of that for- mation the lowlands seem to have been dotted over with little * The reader who wishes to study the voleanic history of North Wales should read the works of Sir R. I. Murchison, and consult the elaborate maps of the Geological Survey, combining the results of long years of patient research by Ramsay, Jukes, Selwyn, Aveline, and other members of the Survey. The descrip- tive catalogue of the rock specimens in the Jermyn Street Museum will be found also very useful; but the great work on the subject will be Prof. Ramsay’s forth- coming Memoir on North Wales. 1866. | Hints to Home Towrists. 35e volcanic cones sending out each its showers of ash or streams of black lava. There are few geological sections more interesting than some of those in the Linlthgowshire hills, where alternations of trap, ash, shale, limestone, and other strata have been laid open. Sometimes, for instance, we find a bed of limestone made up of the stems of encrinites and brachiopod shells, and covered sharply by a layer of ash. The limestone points out a comparatively clear sea- bottom, and in the ash-bed we have proof of a shower of volcanic dust and stones, which covered the bottom, and destroyed the organisms that happened to be living there at the time. In other cases, the upper part of an ash-bed becomes calcareous, and a few straggling shells make their appearance, until the bed passes up into a limestone, showing how, after showers of volcanic detritus, the sea-floor became gradually coated, as before, by a layer of living and dead organisms. There are likewise occasional thin seams of coal, and abundant remains of plants indicative of sub-aerial growth, and over the whole comes usually a bed of amorphous or columnar basalt. These sections are easily visited, and deserve to be better known. In Derbyshire the carboniferous limestone has long been known to contain certain beds of contemporaneous trap called toadstone. In Ireland also there occur, at Limerick and elsewhere, beds of trap and ash intercalated among the limestones of the same formation. The only Permian traps and ashes yet noticed in the British Islands are those recently described from Ayrshire and Nithsdale.* Throughout the western region, from Lough Neagh northward by Mull and Eigg to Skye and the Sheant Isles, voleanic rocks play an important part. Much, if not most of the basalt, dolerite and ash of this tract is later than the chalk, and is at once the newest and most extensive mass of volcanic material in the British Islands. It has the great advantage, moreover, of beng much better exposed to view than the igneous rocks of any other series. The waves of the Atlantic have carved it into ranges of lofty cliffs which stretch on, league after league, headland after headland, and island after island, for a distance altogether of not much under 250 miles. It forms the well-known scenery of the Giant’s Causeway and the Antrim coast-line, Staffa, and the strange terraced pyramidal hills of Mull, and the chain of the inner Hebrides. Much remains to be known about this great development of volcanic rocks. In some places, as in Antrim and the Isle of Mull, fine clay with leaves of trees or layers of ignite have been found intercalated between the sheets of basalt. It seems likely that similar interstratifications must occur elsewhere, and perhaps in such localities, yet to be dis- covered, further evidence may transpire as to the history of these post-cretaceous volcanoes, and as to their definite geological horizon. * «Geol. Mag.’ for June, 1866. 358 De la Rue and Celestial Photography. [ July, In fine, there are few branches of British out-of-door geology in which the student will find more to interest him than in the story of our old volcanoes, or where, by diligent work, he will be more likely to discover new facts, and thus add to the treasures of the science. The apparent repulsiveness of the subject will soon disappear as he enters fully into his self-appointed task ; and even if he should content himself with simply treading in the path that has been laid out for him by the laborious footsteps of earlier observers, he will not have spent a week or two in the pursuit without gain- ing new bodily vigour, and carrying away with him many pleasant memories of the rocks, quarries, and hill-sides among which he was at work. VI. DE LA RUE AND CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY. It is about twenty-seven years since we were told of a remarkable discovery, made by a Frenchman, of a process by which external objects were made to delineate themselves on prepared metal plates, placed in a camera-obscura, with a perfection of detail and a delicacy of delineation which had never been approached by the human hand. The pictures so produced by Daguerre were seen and admired. ‘The world of Science, once awakened to the fact, that the Sun’s rays could be made to copy, on prepared tablets, the objects which they illuminated, went busily to work investi- gating the curious phenomena involved in the art of Photography. It must not be forgotten that Wedgwood, assisted by Davy, pro- duced wnstable photographic pictures in 1805.* Mr. H. Fox Talbot, soon after the announcement of Daguerre’s discovery, produced his “ Photogenic” drawings, speedily followed by his beautiful “calotype” pictures. Sir John Herschel investigated, with much industry and skill, the chemical changes produced upon organic and inorganic substances by solar agencies; and Mr. Robert Hunt published, in rapid succession, his discoveries of the developing power of the proto-sulphate of iron, of the influence of the chemical rays in accelerating the germination of seeds, his “chromatype,” and other processes for producing photographic pictures. Beyond this, at the second meeting of the British Association at York, in 1844, this photographer showed that the chemical changes produced by the sun’s rays were not due to their luminous power, but were the consequence of dark radiations, for which principle or power he proposed the name of Acrinism—a term which has been generally adopted. . These researches appeared to confirm the results obtained * « Journal of the Royal Institution,’ vol. i. Vincent Brooks, lith ts ; ” a y t r * aye' : f i oe : ey 4 % zt > * ‘ | . ae ‘ ; ns } t ' > 3 H 1866. ] — Dela Rue and Celestial Photography. 359 and the hypotheses propounded by M. Berard, in 1812, which were reported upon by Berthollet, Chaptal, and Biot.* A few years passed away: Professor Schénbein discovered gun- cotton, and at the meeting of the British Association at South- ampton, in 1846, he introduced it as an important improvement upon gunpowder. As a destructive agent, gun-cotton has been slow in making its way as an agent for projecting cannon-balls or for rending rocks; but dissolved in ether, it forms that collodion which Mr. Archer, in 1851, taught us how to use in multiplying images of the beautiful, and the process to which it has given its name is now universally adopted, to the almost entire exclusion of every other kind of photographic manipulation. Ata very early period (1838-40), it was seen that the changes produced on the salts of silver by the sun’s rays might be used to render meteorological and other instruments self-registermg. In 1838, Mr. T. B. Jordan, then secretary of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, devised and used photographic methods for registering barometers, thermometers, and magnetometers.t These methods, modified by Mr. Brooks and Mr. Ronalds, were subse- quently introduced into the observatories at Kew and at Green- wich, where, at the latter especially, under the direction of Pro- fessor Airy, a beam of artificial light now registers through each day and night every movement of those steel bars which tell us of the variations in the earth’s magnetic intensity, and of the occurrence of the strange phenomena known as “ Magnetic Storms,” now proved, by the investigations of General Sabine, to be intimately connected with those solar spots which are being explored—if the term is admissible—by Celestial Photography. While photo- graphy was making progress as an art, it was employed in a few hands as an aid in scientific investigations. Sir John Herschel especially used chemical compounds, sensitive to solar influences, to determine the relative values of the solar radiations proceeding from different parts of the sun’s disc, and this led to the determination of the * «To show clearly the great disproportion which exists in this respect between the energies of different rays, M. Berard concentrated, by means of a lens, all that part of the spectrum which extends from the green to the extreme violet, and he con- eentrated, by means of another lens, all that portion which extends from the green to the extremity of the red. ‘This last pencil formed a point so brilliant that the eyes were scarcely able to endure it, yet the muriate of silver remained exposed more than two hours to this brilliant point of light without undergoing any sensible alteration. On the other hand, when exposed to the otber pencil, which was much less bright and less hot, it was blackened in less than six minutes.’—‘ Report of the Commissioners ;’’ ‘Annales de Chemie.’ See also, “ Report on the Chemical Action of Solar Radiations:” ‘Transactions of British Association for 1850,’ vol, Ixxxy., p. 309. + “On a New Method of Registering the Indications of Meteorological Instru- ments.” By T. B. Jordan. ‘Sixth Report of Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society,’ 1838, WOL,. 111. 2B 360 De la Rue and Celestial Photography. [July, fact at the same time, by two distinct observers,* that the chemical action produced by the rays coming from the edge of the sun were less active than those proceeding from its central regions. This fact has been, strangely enough, recently put forward as a discovery by Professor Roscoe,t without the mention of any previous observer, excepting Secchi, whose observations had reference to the calorific, and not to the chemical radiations. It is true that Professor Roscoe has made a series of excellent experimental observations, and that he has proved “that the intensity of the chemically active rays at the centre is from three to five times as great as that at the edge of the disc;” but in doing this he has only confirmed the results already published.{ Tor example, in 1840, Sir John Her- schel, in the ‘ Philosophic Transactions’ (Part I., p. 48), distinctly stated that he had detected “a real difference between the chemical agencies of those rays which issue from the central portion of the sun’s disc, and those which, emanating from its borders, have undergone the absorptive action of a much greater depth of its atmosphere, and yet I confess myself somewhat at a loss what other cause to assign for it. It must suffice, “however, to have thrown out the hint, remarking only that I have other, and, 1 am disposed to think, decisive evidence of the existence of an absorptive solar atmo- sphere extending beyond the luminous one. The breadth of the border, I should observe, is small, not exceeding 0°5, or one-seventh part of the sun’s radius; and this, from the circumstance of the experiment, must necessarily err in excess.” Mr. Robert Hunt, in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ already quoted, noticed the same phenomenon, and gave the same, as being the most familiar explanation of it; and subsequently M. Arago, in his ‘Memoirs on Photometry,’ again drew attention to this important fact. The results which have been obtained since 1840 appear to show, not merely that the chemical radiations generated near the edge of the solar disc are absorbed in passing through a greater depth of the sun’s atmosphere, but that there is an actual inter- ference (using this term in its ordinary acceptation rather than its scientific sense) exerted by the luminous radiations, and that the chemical radiations haye their orig in a lower zone, that which produces Light-energy. The protected band which is seen to surround the prismatic image of the sun is not due to a lowering * *Philosophical Magazine,’ vol. xvi., 3rd series, contains an abstract of the memoir read before the Royal Society by Sir John Herschel; and also a paper in the same monthly part of this magazine by Robert Hunt, on “ Experiments and Observations on Light which has permeated coloured Media, and on the Chemical Action of the Solar Spectrum,” in both of which this fact was, for the first time, stated. + “On the Measurement of the Chemical Brightness of various Portions of the Sun’s Dic.” By Henry Enfield Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S. Received June 12, 1863. { See “On the Present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations.” A report to the British Association, in 1850, by Robert Hunt. 1866. | De la Rue and Celestial Photography. 361 merely of chemical (actinic) intensity, as would be the case if it were an instance of loss by the absorption in the solar atmosphere ; but there is evidence of a changed condition, such as is shown by the protected bands observed under the yellow and the red rays, where luminous and calorific power attain their maximum influence. On this pomt we have yet a few more words to say. Professor Bond, of Cambridge, with Messrs. Whipple and Black, of Boston, in the United States, were the first to make a photographic picture of any celestial body. This was an image of the moon, obtained upon a Daguerreotype plate, which had been placed in the focus of the refracting telescope of the Harvard Observatory. In 1851, some of these Daguerreotypes of our satel- lite were in the American department of the Great Exhibition. In 1852, Mr. Warren De la Rue obtained positive lunar photo- graphs, in from ten to thirty seconds, on a collodion film, by means of an equatorially-mounted reflecting telescope of thirteen-inch aperture and ten-teet focal length. At this time Mr. De la Rue had not applied any mechanical driving motion to his telescope. He was therefore constrained to contrive some other means of following the moon’s apparent motion. This he accomplished by hand in the first instance, by keeping a lunar crater always on the wire of the finder, by means of the ordinary hand-gear of the tele- scope, but subsequently by means of a sliding frame fixed on the eye-piece holder, the motion of the slide being adjustable to suit the apparent motion of the moon. As the pictorial image of the moon could be seen through the collodion film, and could be rendered immovable in relation to the collodion plate, by causing one of the craters to remain always in apparent contact with a broad wire, placed in the focus of a compound microscope affixed to the back of a little camera-box which held the plate, this was effective. Excellent results were obtained under the disadvantages of the want of an automatic drivmg motion, which proved how perfectly the hand may be made to obey the eye. Mr. Warren De la Rue was admirably aided in his earliest experiments by Mr. Thornthwaite, since it was found impossible to work without the assistance of an experienced coadjutor. In 1853, Professor John Phillips communicated to the Hull meeting of the British Association the results of his experience in Lunar Photography, and he then exhibited some excellent pictures of our satellite. Mr. Hartnup, of Liverpool, aided by Mr. Crooke and other photographers, took some good pictures of the moon in 1854. Father Secchi, at Rome, Mr. Fry, i Mr. Howell’s observ- atory at Brighton, and Mr. Huggins, now so well known by his application of spectrum analysis to the stars, nebule, and comets, also produced lunar pictures. A great extension of pha Photo- B 362 De la Rue and Celestial Photography. [July, graphy was promised in 1857 by Professor Bond, who applied the process in measuring the distance and angle of position of double stars, and also in determining their magnitude. He suc- ceeded in obtaining pictures of fixed stars down to the 6—-7th mag- nitude, and everything gave promise of a fruitful future, when death put a stop to his labours. In the same year (1857) Mr. Warren De la Rue was successful in applying a driving motion to his telescope, which answered every purpose desired ; and since that time he has unremittingly followed up the subject of Celestial Photography whenever his occupations and the state of the atmosphere permitted it. The Academy of Sciences of Paris has lately recognized Mr. De la Rue’s labours, by the high distinction of the Lalande prize of Astronomy. From the address which was delivered on the occasion of its presentation, many of the following notices have been derived. As the facts thus detailed have all been subjected to the most search- ing examination, they stand beyond suspicion, and furnish the most reliable record which it is possible to give of the progress which has been made in an inquiry involving the use of the most perfect astro- nomical instruments, the most delicate physical appliances, and the most sensitive chemical preparations, directed by a zealous and thoughtful mind. It has been by means of an equatorial reflecting telescope of thirteen inches aperture, designed by himself and con- structed in his own workshop, that Mr. Warren De la Rue has attained that degree of perfection in Astronomical Photography which has earned for him the gold medal of the Astronomical Society and the Royal medal of the Royal Society. His splendid photographic delineations of our satellite, with which the scientific world is familiar, owe their excellence, first, to the perfection to which the optical part of the telescope was brought by machinery of his own contrivance ; and, secondly, to the remark- able performance of his clockwork-driving apparatus, which not only works smoothly and equably, but is capable of rapid and easy adjustment to the ever-varying velocity of the moon. Mr. De la Rue’s chemical training has, moreover, enabled him to secure that nice balance of affinities in his photographic preparations, which has materially reduced the time required to impress the image on the sensitive tablet, and consequently to diminish the bad effects of dis- turbance of the image, resulting from the unsteadiness of our atmo- sphere. By these means, pictures of the moon have been repeatedly taken by him in the focus of his reflecting telescope, so perfect as to bear considerable amplification—for example, to thirty-eight inches in diameter. These images admit of measurement with the microscope, so exact as to furnish excellent data for investigations in relation to a supposed physical libration of the moon. These pictures are also now being used as the foundation of the large map of the moon, 1866. | De la Rue and Celestial Photography. 363 six feet in diameter, which is being laid down by the Moon Com- mittee of the British Association, as the basis of the intended zone observations of the lunar surface, by the co-operative action of cer- tain English astronomers. The beautiful stereoscopic views of the moon, with which all are familiar, have done much, and are capable of doing more, in throwing light on the configuration of the lunar surface. It is especially the stereoscopic combinations of enlarged pictures which are calculated to impart a correct knowledge of the relative height and depressions of the terraces, undulations, dykes, and furrows of our satellite. In pursuing his favourite subject Mr. De la Rue has successfully taken pictures of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars, and of some of the fixed stars. The most valuable, however, of Mr. De la Rue’s con- tributions to Astronomical Photography was the designing of the photo-heliograph of the Kew Observatory, and subsequently of the micrometer used for measuring the solar autographs, so as to bring them under the domain of calculation. Sir John Herschel suggested that it would conduce greatly to a true knowledge of our luminary if a daily photographic record of the sun’s surface were obtained. Acting upon this suggestion, and at the request of the Royal Society, Mr. De la Rue designed the Kew heliograph, which was erected at the Kew Observatory of the British Association in 1858, and has since that time been more or less worked. In 1860, this heliograph was taken to Spain, at the desire of the Royal Society, and was successfully employed by Mr. Dela Rue at Rivabellosa, in obtaining a series of pictures of the solar eclipse of July 18, before, during, and after total obscuration. In the Bakerian lecture, read before the Royal Society on the 10th of April, 1862, the methods used in measuring these photo- graphs are fully set forth, and the results discussed at length.* From an early period several peculiar phenomena have been observed during eclipses of the sun, especially just before and after total obscuration. In 1783, Rydhenius, pastor of Forshem, states, “when the sun was about to lose his light, and also when he was about to recover it, he emitted rays that undulated like the aurora borealis and were of a fiery red colour.”+ Delisle has recorded an observation made in 1738 of the moon’s shadow passing upon a wall at the moment of total obscuration—tinged with different colours,t—by whom made we are not informed ; and in 1842 some French astronomers, according to Arago,§ observed similar pheno- * ¢ Philosophical Transactions for 1862,’ vol. clii., p. 333. t ‘ Acta Lit. et Scien. Succ.,’ tom. iv., p. 61. } ‘Memoires pour servir & |’Histoire et au Progres de l’Astronomie.’ St. Petersburg, 1738, § ‘ Annuaire, 1846,’ p: 399. 364 De la Rue and Celestial Photography. [July, mena to those just described. In 1836, on the occasion of the annular eclipse of May 15, Mr. Baily noticed a very striking appearance, which he thus describes: “ When the cusps of the sun were about 40° asunder, a row of lucid points like a string of bright beads, irregular in size and distance from each other, suddenly formed round that part of the circumference of the moon that was about to enter on the sun’s disc.” The same phenomenon occurred in a reverse order at the dissolution of the annulus. This pheno- menon had been observed previously (but never so perfectly described as it was by Mr. Baily*) by Halley in 1715, by Delisle in 1724, by Professor Bayne in 1737, by the Rev. Mr. Irvine in 1748, by Mr. 8. Webber in 1791,t and some others. Subsequent to Mr. Baily’s observations no opportunity has been lost by astronomers ; and other and yet more remarkable phenomena have claimed especial attention. By far the most striking, and we may almost say mex- plicable, are the red protuberances which appear on the edge of the sun when all the direct radiations are obscured by the body of the moon. The earliest notice which we have of those red protuberances beyond that of Rydhenius, already spoken of, is to be found im an account of the total eclipse of 1733, by Vassenius, in the ‘ Philo- sophical Transactions of the Royal Society.{ Vassenius speaks of them as “some reddish spots which appeared in the lunar atmo- sphere without the periphery of the moon’s disk.” These red spots appear to have attracted occasional attention; but it was not until the eclipse of 1842 that any degree of close observation was directed to them. M. Mauvais, who observed this eclipse at Perpignan, described the phenomenon as observed by him. He says, “I cannot give a more exact idea of their aspect than by comparing them to the peaks of the Alps illuminated by the setting sun, and seen afar off.”’§ M. Mayette, an officer of the French Engineers, compared the protuberances, as seen by him, also from Perpignan, to beautiful sheaves of flames. Each observer who has written on this eclipse has described the phenomenon as seen from the several points of observation along the line of totality. Mr. Baily, who was at Pavia, wrote of the luminous protuberances as having the appearance of mountains of a prodigious elevation, the colour of the peach blossom nearly representing their aspect.|| Mr. Airy was near Turin. He remarks that “in form they somewhat resembled saw-teeth in the position proper for a circular saw.” {| M. Littrow, of Vienna, and M. Otto Struve, have given carefully * ‘Memoirs of Astronomical Society,’ vol. x., p. 7. + Consult ‘ History of Physical Astronomy,’ by Robert Grant, F.R.A.S. } ‘Philosophical Transactions, 1733,’ p. 135. § ‘Annuaire, 1846,’ p. 409. | ‘ Memoirs of Astronomical Society,’ vol. xv., p. 6. 4 Ihid., p. 16. 1866. | De la Rue and Celestial Photography. 365 graphic accounts of these protuberances. They have also been noticed by other astronomers in all parts of the world. Sir John Herschel thus describes them: “ Distinct and very conspicuous rose-coloured protuberances were seen to project beyond the dark limb of the moon, likened by some to flames, by others to mountains, but which their enormous magnitude and their faint degree of illumination clearly prove to have been cloudy masses of the most excessive tenuity.”* In 1851, Dr. Busch succeeded in obtaining a Daguerreotype of the total eclipse of that year with the Konigsberg heliometer. In “i daguerreotype the protuberances were seen, but indifferently efined. In 1859, Mr. De la Rue commenced making the experiments necessary for securing a favourable photographic result, upon the occurrence of the total eclipse of 1860. The difficulties in the way of this were great. These will be gathered best from Mr. De la Rue’s own words: “I made inquiries of those astronomers who had witnessed the eclipse of 1851 respecting the intensity of the light of the corona and red flames as compared with that of the moon, and the relative brightness of one to the other, . . . . The general impression I formed from the information thus derived was, that the light emitted by the corona and red flames taken together was about equal to that of a full moon, less rather than greater; but no one recollected precisely the brightness of the prominences as compared with that of the corona.” Numerous experiments were made, and it was rendered evident that the utmost sensibility must be secured in the collodion plates to leave any hope of photographing those “cloudy masses of the most excessive tenuity.” The result of those preliminary experiments was that “nitrate of silver baths, prepared in the ordinary way with crystallized nitrate of silver, were taken and were used in depicting the several phases of the eclipse, with the exception of those of totality. In taking the latter pictures, the baths used were made with nitrate of silver which had been fused carefully in my own laboratory, and were so extremely sensitive that they would give photographs of the full moon in the focus of my reflector in less than a second of time, while with the usual bath five seconds were barely sufficient to give a picture of similar intensity.”} Thirty-four ewt. of apparatus, made up in thirty packing-cases, were conveyed to Spain in the ‘Himalaya,’ landed at the port of Bilboa, and thence conveyed to Rivabellosa, a distance of seventy miles, by the ordinary conveyances of the country. Everything was satisfactorily arranged, and “upwards of forty photographs were taken during the eclipse, and a little before and after it, two * «Outlines of Astronomy,’ edit. 1850, p. 235. + ‘Philosophical Transactions, 1862,’ vol. clii., p. 334. ~ Ibid. e 366 De la fue and Celestial Photography. [July, being taken during the totality, on which are depicted the luminous prominences with a precision as to contour and position impossible of attainment by eye observations.” ‘Thus was achieved a most important end ; and we have secured a record of some peculiar solar energy, or its effects, which will greatly aid us in determining the physical condition of the solar mass, and its enveloping gaseous spheres. For a full and detailed account of the apparatus used, and of the methods adopted, as well as for a graphic description of the eclipse itself, we must refer our readers to the Bakerian lecture already quoted. In that paper the methods used in measuring the photographs are also fully set forth, and the results discussed at length. It is there shown, by measurement of the positions of the luminous prominences in the totality of pictures obtaimed at two epochs, one immediately after the disappearance, and the other just before the re-appearance of the sun, that the angular change of position of the luminous prominences with respect to the moon corresponds to the theory of their fixature to the sun ;—That the “flames” change only apparently, not really, by the moon’s motion over them—that is, as the moon covers one portion and discloses another—and do not otherwise undergo any alteration ; so that when the clock, by which the telescope was moved, was adjusted to the sun’s motion, the “red flames” stood still. Moreover, it is therein shown by a comparison of the photographic pictures with the optical observations made by Mr. De la Rue at the same time, that luminous prominences invisible to the human eye are depicted in the photographs; thus pointing out and exemplifying by a new experiment the difference which has been frequently shown to exist between the solar, chemical, and luminous radiations. A curious question arises from the consideration of the chemical power evidently possessed by these prominences, be they flames or clouds. We never, as we have already stated, under ordinary circumstances obtain an impressed image of the sun without finding the indications of a protected circle—that is, one which proves a paucity of chemical power—surrounding the photographic disc. Yet, when the light of the solar disc is interrupted by the body of the moon, the radiations proceeding from the edge, or rather, perhaps, from beyond it, have a strong photographic power. What is the cause of this most remarkable difference? The question can only be answered satisfactorily by waiting for the evidence of future experiments. Those prominences become visible to the eye during an eclipse, because the eye is protected by the moon from the intense glare of solar light. ‘They evidently belong to the sun. This was yet further proved by a careful examination of the photo- graphs of the same eclipse obtained by Padre Secchi. The luminous prominences, due allowance bemg made for parallax, were e 1866. | De la Rue and Celestial Photography. 367 identical in both, thus proving that no change takes place in the form of the prominences for a period much longer than the duration of a total eclipse. It must be borne in mind that the eclipse occurred at an interval of seven minntes between Rivabellosa, where Mr. De la Rue was stationed, and Desierto de las Palmas, where Padre Secchi was located.* Now, why is it that the photographic tablet is impressed by those attenuated images during an eclipse— and even by such of them as do not give light enough to the visible at the period of totality—and that they do not effect the required chemical change upon our sensitive plates when the sun is unob- secured ? The only reply which we are at present in a position to give is, that the diffused light when the sun is shining is sufficiently powerful to overcome the weaker chemical radiations of those solar clouds or flames. If this reply approaches correctness, we have additional evidence confirming the view that the two principles existing in the sun-beam, /ight or luminous power, and actinism or chemical power, are not modifications of the same energy—to use the accepted term of the day—but rather forces balanced against each other, acting indeed in antagonism. That the luminous rays have the power of entirely subduing the chemical rays has been shown by several experiments by Sir John Herschel + and others. Referring to the ‘ Report on Celestial Photography in England, 1859, we find full confirmation of these views. “ Portions of the moon, equally bright optically, are by no means equally bright chemically ; hence the ight and shade in a photograph do not cor- respond in all cases with the light and shade in the optical picture. Photography thus frequently renders details visible which escape observation optically, and it therefore holds out a promise of a fertile future in selenological researches; for instance, strata of different composition evidently reflect the chemical rays to a greater or less extent, according to their nature, and may be thus distin- guished. The lunar surface very near the dark limb is copied pho- tographically with great difficulty, and it sometimes requires an exposure five or six times as long to bring out completely those portions illuminated by a very oblique ray, as others apparently not brighter but more favourably illuminated. The high ground in the southern hemisphere of the moon is more easily copied than the low ground, usually called seas, which abound im the northern hemi- sphere. From these circumstances, I ventured in another place (‘ Monthly Notices of Astronomical Society’) to suggest, that the * « Comparison of Mr. De la Rue’s and Padre Secchi's Eclipse Photographs.” By Warren De la Rue, F.R.S.— Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xiii, p. 442. + “Memoir on the Chemical Action of the Rays of the Solar Spectrum,”— ‘ Philosophical Transactions, 1840.’ 368 De la Rue and Celestial Photography. [ July, moon may have an atmosphere of great density, but of very small extent, and that the so-called seas might be covered with vege- tation.” * In 1853, Professor John Phillips indeed noticed this difference between the visual and the actinic brightness of portions of the lunar surface. The application of photography to the planets by Mr. Warren De la Rue and others confirms this fact. For example, the occulta- tion of Jupiter by the moon on November 8th, 1856, afforded an excellent opportunity for comparing the relative brightness of our satellite and that planet. On that occasion, Jupiter appeared of a pale greenish tinge, not brighter than the crater Plato, and accord- ing to Mr. De la Rue’s estimate, of about one-third the general brilliancy of the moon; but the actmic power was subsequently found to be equal to fully four-sixths or five-sixths of that of the moon. “Saturn,” says the same observer, “ required twelve times as long as Jupiter to produce a photograph of equal intensity, on an occasion specially favourable to making the experiment; yet I obtained a picture of Saturn together with that of the moon in fifteen seconds on May the 8th of the present year (1859), just as the planet emerged from behind the moon’s disc. The picture of the planet, although faint, is sufficiently distinct to bear en- larging.” Jupiter, Mars, and Saturn, together with several of the fixed stars, have been photographed; but the promise afforded by these chemical pictures is not of that high character which belongs to those of our satellite. Studyimg the large picture of the moon, hanging in the Royal Society’s room, which has been produced by the aid of photography, we cannot but feel that we have a wonderfully minute representation of the lunar surface before us. We see, and we can measure the heights of her mountains and the depths of her valleys. Her coasts and cliffs, against which we cannot but think an ocean has at one time beaten its waters, are readily determined. We cannot mistake the craters of eruption, and we are puzzled with such as we must call craters of upheaval, vast swellings, the result of some mighty power which was yet insufficient to burst the stony bubble. Precipices so vast that darkness reigns in the profound depths over which they rise, and glens which appear indeed resigned to all the influences which superstition crowds into such weird gloom are there. Can we not trace glacial moraines? But to what are we to refer the mysterious streaks of light which flow from some of the lunar mountains? We cannot but hope, seemg how much has been done, that we shall have continuous photographic records of the moon’s surface. We may then expect to have a more exact knowledge of that lovely orb which belongs especially to our Earth, * “Transactions of British Association, 1859,’ p. 145. , t Ibid., 1853.‘ Transactions of Sections,’ p. 16, 1866. | De la Rue and Celestial Photography 369 and which is therefore of no common interest to the inquiring mind. Upon the occasion of Mr. De la Rue’s visit to Rome, an attempt was made, as a secondary object, by comparing the distances of the moon’s and sun’s centres with the tabular places, to ascertain whether any correction was necessary to the sun and moon’s tabular diameters ; and it was found that the latter were in excess of the observed diameters. The correction assigned to the moon’s radius from two sets of the observations has been recently computed to be 2'-15, which agrees closely with the correction Mr. Airy has found to be necessary from M. Breins’ reductions of forty years’ observa- tions of disappearances and reappearances of stars at the moon’s dark limb durimg occultations.* From 1860 to the present time, the observations by the Kew heliograph have been placed by the Council of the Royal Society under Mr. De la Rue’s direction. From February, 1862, to February, 1863, the instrument was removed to the Observatory at Cranford, but a qualified assistant having been trained for the Kew Obser- vatory during that interval, it has been worked continuously at that establishment from May, 1863, until the present time. The object in view is, of course, to obtain the most perfect record possible of all the physical changes which take place on the sun. “The progress of science,” says Mr. De la Rue,f “ has hitherto only shrouded in deeper mystery than ever the origin of that won- derful outpouring of light and heat which is the sun’s most promi- nent characteristic; and to this very day it has not been finally decided whether this luminosity proceeds from the sun’s solid body, or from an envelope which surrounds it. Indeed, so strange and so unaccountable are many of the features presented to us, not only by our own sun, but by many of the stars, that it has even been conjectured that these bodies exhibit imstances of the operation of forces, of the nature of which we are yet ignorant. If we accept this view of the case, the study of our luminary becomes one of very great importance, but one in which we must be very careful to be guided by observation alone. We must obtain numerous and accu- rate representations of the sun’s surface, and study these carefully and minutely before we attempt to generalize.” In the ‘Researches’ from which we have quoted, we find recorded no less than 631 groups of solar spots, which have been ce erhed at the Kew Observatory from March 11, 1858, to ecember 31, 1864. The value of such a continuous record as this can only be thoroughly understood by those who have given some * ‘Monthly Notices of Astronomical Society,’ vol. xxv., p. 264. + ‘Researches on Solar Physics. By Warren De la Rue, F.R.S., Balfour et F.R.S., and Benjamin Loewy. (First Series, “On the Nature of Sun pots.”) 370 De la Rue and Celestial Photography. [ July, careful attention to this class of phenomena. ‘This is not the place to discuss the questions which have arisen with regard to the nature of solar spots. Still it is important that a general idea should be given of the conclusions to which Mr. De la Rue and other astro- nomers have arrived with respect to them. It was first stated by Dr. Alexander Wilson, of Glasgow, in 1773, that certain phenomena appeared to indicate that spots are’ cavities in a luminous photosphere which surrounds the sun. Mr. Dawes has shown that we have often connected with the same phenomenon—the formation of a sun spot—not less than five degrees of luminosity:—1. The facule, or bright streaks of irregular direction; 2. The ordinary photosphere; the /wminous envelope of the sun; 3. The penumbra, or shaded portion of a spot.; 4. The borders of the umbra; and 5, the very dark central nucleus. The term winbra is used by Mr. Dawes to denote a region of a spot intermediate in darkness between the nucleus and that designated as usual by the term penumbra. It should be understood that the photographs of the solar surface show with great distinctness those five degrees of illumination. Indeed, these are so decidedly delineated on the collodion tablet, that by calling in the aid of the electrotype process Mr. De la Rue has been enabled to obtain plates, from which any moderate number of copies can be printed off. The Kew photographs have already confirmed the results of some previous observations, and established some new and important facts. We have only space to state these as concisely as possible. 1. These photographs prove the central portion of the solar dise to possess a higher degree of luminosity than the borders. 2. They have shown that the wnbra of a spot is nearer to the sun’s centre than the penumbra. ‘That is, it is at a lower level. The solar spots are, therefore, cavities in the photosphere. 3. It appears fair to conclude from the examination of all the sun pictures in which the facule# are copied, that “Solar faculee consist of solid or liquid bodies of a greater or less magnitude, either slowly sinking or suspended in xquilibrio in a gaseous medium.” Another paragraph must, from its importance, be quoted —*“ The idea that facule are portions of the photosphere raised above the general surface, appears to be confirmed by stereoscopic pictures of spots obtained by Mr. De la Rue, where the facule appear as elevated ridges surrounding the spots. Accepting this conclusion, we next remark that facule often retain the same appearance for several days together, as if their matter were capable of remaining suspended for some time.” The deductions to be drawn from a careful study of those solar autographs are, that the lower parts of a solar spot are of a lower 1866. ] De la Rue and Celestial Photography. 871 temperature than the photosphere in which it is formed. Whether this is due, as some suppose, to the lower temperature of the body of the sun, or to matter coming from a colder region, as is more generally thought, remains yet to be determined. Chacornac and Lockyer have recorded observations, on the behaviour of the matter surrounding a spot, which appear to suggest the existence of a downward current, which is, therefore, a current from the colder regions above. The facule in the larger number of examples fall behind the spots. This appears to suggest an ascending current carrying the hot matter behmd. Thus possibly two currents are concerned in the formation of a sun spot; if so, assimilating them to our terrestrial cyclones, which in many other respects they resemble. The importance and the extension of this system of continuous observation must be evident to all; and it is satisfactory to know that a second heliograph has been made under Mr. De la Rue’s direction for the Russian Government, which is now erected at Wilna, the director of that observatory, Dr. Sabler, having received instruction at Mr. De la Rue’s observatory at Cranford. On several occasions, at the Astronomical Society, Mr. Warren De la Rue has pointed out the advantages which will be derived from the use of photographic apparatus for recording future transits of Venus. In the words of the address on the presentation of the Lalande prize, we may bring our notice of Celestial Photography to a conclusion :—“ By his own example, by giving instruction to others who desired it, and by continuous observations of his own, Mr. Warren De la Rue has been untiring in promoting astronomical photography ; and it may be safely claimed for him that the bringing of this branch of science within the domain of calculation, marks a new era in practical astronomy.” CRGT2**) " [July, VII. GEOLOGICAL MAPS: THEIR RELATION TO AGRI- CULTURE AND COAL SUPPLY. 1. A Geological Map of England and Wales. By G. B. Gree- nough, Esq., F.R.S. (on the basis of the Original Map of Wilham Smith, 1815). New edition, revised and improved, under the superintendence of a Committee of the Geological Society of London, from the Maps of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, 1836-63, and Maps and Documents contributed by Sir R. I. Murchison, Professor Phillips, Joseph Prestwich, R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, and others. Six sheets. Scale, nearly six miles to one inch. , Published by the Geological Society, July, 1865. 2. Geological Map of England and Wales. By Andrew C. Ramsay. Third edition. One sheet. Scale, twelve miles to one inch. London: Stanford, 1866. 3. First Sketch of a new Geological Map of Scotland. By Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., and Archibald Geikie, F.RS.E., F.G.S. One sheet. Scale, twenty-five miles to one inch. London, 1861. 4. General Map of Ireland, to accompany the Report of the Rail- way Commissioners, showing the principal Physical Features and Geological Structure. Geologically Coloured by Sir R. J. Griffith, Bart., LL.D., i 1855. Six sheets. Scale, four miles to one inch. London and Dublin. 5. Geological Map of Ireland, to accompany the Instructions to Valuators appointed under the 15th and 16th Vic., cap. 68. Reduced from the large map of 1855. Scale, about seventeen miles to one inch. 6. The Geology of the Country round Stockport, Macclesfield, Con- gleton, and Leek. Explanatory of Quarter Sheets, 81 N.W. and S.W. of the Map of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. By Edward Hull, B.A., F.G.S., and A. H. Green, M.A., F.G.S. London, 1866. Tuat geological maps are often puzzles to the public is not won- derful ; but that they are sometimes a source of discussion to men of science* is much to be deprecated. If, at the outset, we endea- vour to answer comprehensively the question, What is a geological map ? we are met with some considerable difficulties, and we can only pretend to do so im accordance with the practice of our geological surveyors, and not with what we conceive to be the fundamental principle of the subject. * See ‘ Reader,’ March 31, 1866. 1866. ] Geological Maps. 373 A geological map of any given district ought to be as nearly as possible a faithful representation of the outlines and superficial extent of those rock-formations which occur nearest to the surface in that area—the vegetable soil being disregarded. But in prac- tice we generally find that the geologists disregard, not only the vegetable soil, but an important series of “ detrital” or “superficial” deposits which overlie and mask the more regularly stratified for- mations. It therefore becomes interesting to ascertain why this should be the case, and for what reason these so-called “ superficial deposits ” should be treated as something differmg in kind from the rest of the rock-masses which form the crust of the globe. _ From a scientific point of view, it is easy to draw one great distinction between the “drift” or “superficial ” deposits and other formations—namely, that whereas the latter generally conform to certain general rules of dip, strike, &c., and bear a more or less definite relation to the strata above and below them, the latter are altogether irregular in their occurrence, distribution, and inclina- tion. Doubtless exceptions may be quoted which would appear to disprove the correctness of even this wide distinction; but we are inclined to think that it is, nevertheless, correct in so far as it ex- presses a broad general fact. ‘This being the case, it is certainly much easier to map the formations older than the glacial period than the glacial deposits, and the sands and gravels of more recent date. There is also no question that the distribution of the regularly stratified formations possesses a much higher scientific interest than that of gravel and other drift-deposits, which are of more or less uncertain age, and which are chiefly characterized by occurring anyhow. From an economic point of view it is not quite so easy to pro- nounce in favour of one plan to the exclusion of another; but we think that the farmers of England have as great a right to the consideration of the Director-General of the Geological Survey as the miners and the geologists ; in other words, it is expedient that the gravels and drifts should be mapped with the same care as the older formations, and more especially in districts which do not yield valuable minerals. A farmer who knows that some of his land has a gravelly subsoil, and the rest a clayey, wishes to ascer- tain the boundary-lines of the two deposits. ‘To tell him that the clay is London clay, and is only irregularly covered by the post- glacial gravel, is to give him information that he neither requires nor understands, and to ascertain which he would never spend a sixpence. We believe that this fact has of late been recognized by the directors of the Geological Survey, and the more recently pub- lished sheets of the survey-map of Great Britain contain either delineations or indications of the outcrops of the superficial deposits. 374 Geological Maps. [ July, Fortunately for the farmers, they have a powerful ally in the opacity of even superficial formations; and the reflecting geologist is no doubt often staggered at the hardihood of surveyors who draw a wriggling line of outcrop to a stratum which is known to be buried fifty, a hundred, or more feet beneath drift-deposits, and beyond the ken of mortal men. Much may be said, no doubt, on the part of the surveyors, who, to do them justice, are really not in the habit of mapping the outcrops of strata without some tangible warrant for so domg. If a given series of beds is observed where properly exposed to “behave” in a particular manner towards those above and below them, and towards the “form of the ground,” it is reasonable to infer that they will do the same at a short distance, although they may not there be seen at the surface. Thus the geological sur- veyor has to take note of the most trivial circumstances that may be within the reach of observation, so as to decide for future guidance what phenomena are general and what accidental. In this manner, a roadside bank speaks volumes, and a ditch reveals wonders, while a railway-cutting affords an opportunity of luxurious survey- ing, which ought to stimulate the surveyor to take a sanguine view of the prospects of all projected lines. After all, the fact remains, that perhaps the greatest desidera- tum in British geology is a good map of the surface-deposits of the United Kingdom. We have several first-rate geological maps (in the ordinary sense) of England and Wales, and of them all, the most generally useful is no doubt Professor Ramsay’s beautiful sheet, the geology of the new edition of which is much improved, while the actual and ideal sections have required no change. ‘The new edition of the Greenough Geological Map is probably the most accurate yet published, so far as the wretched topography of most of it will allow of geological precision ; indeed, it embodies the whole of the information in the possession of the Geological — Survey, and the Council of the Geological Society, almost up to the date of publication ; at any rate, that portion of it which was con- sidered sufficiently authentic to be published. The only reliable geological map of Scotland, at present in existence, is the small one by Sir R. I. Murchison and Mr. Geikie ; that is to say, if the views held by the great majority of geologists, in opposition to Professor Nicol, are correct. This map leaves yery little to be desired except surface-geology and a larger scale; and we hope that when anew edition is called for, the scale will be increased. Of Ireland, the old map of Sir Richard Griffith and the small reduction of it still remain the best ; but we hope they will soon be superseded by a map compiled by one of the officers of the Trish Survey, for that survey must necessarily have modified our knowledge of the distribution and limits of the several geological formations in that island. 1866. | Geological Maps. 375 Returning to the geological maps of England and Wales, it is noticeable that if we compare the more recent with the older editions, we shall find Sir Roderick Murchison’s view of the Permian age of the St. Bee’s and Corby sandstones adopted both by the Council of the Geological Society and by Professor Ramsay. ‘This is a matter of practical as well as scientific importance ; for if these sandstones be of Permian instead of Triassic age, the chance of coal occurring at a reasonable depth beneath them is very much increased, more especially as the Coal-measures themselves crop out and are extensively worked at Whitehaven, immediately to the north. The question of coal-supply, by the way, appears at last to be attracting the attention of public men; but whether any practical result will flow from this revived interest appears more than doubt- ful. ‘There are many considerations respecting the supply and consumption. of coal, to which Mr. Jevons did not attach sufficient weight, and which would cause us to measure England’s period of commercial supremacy more favourably than that author. Never- theless, there is sufficient cause for our striving to answer the question—By what means can we put off the day when our manu- factures will cease to be able to compete with those of cotton- and iron-producing countries? That things must come to that pass sooner or later is logically certain, and American manufactures may be able to compete with ours much sooner than we expect. Closely connected with this inquiry, though not a matter of such vital importance to the nation, is the probable duration of our coal-fields ; and in this view it is that the determination of those new districts where coal may still be wrought at moderate depths becomes such an important element in the solution of the problem. That the latent abundance of coal will not of itself ensure our commercial supremacy is sufficiently demonstrated by the present condition of America. The consideration of most consequence is the price at which the coal can be produced, and the relative abundance or scarcity is only one out of several elements which together determine the price. Facts are not wanting which tend to show that the area of our coal-fields will probably be very much increased within a few years. We have already mentioned one case of such a probable extension, and it may be worth while to give another, which is the present result of an attempt to ascertain whether workable coal-seams occur at moderate depths beneath the Lower Permian and Triassic sand- stones bordering the Poynton coal-field. This attempt is described by Mr. Hull in the memoir illustrating the quarter-sheets 81 N.W. and 81 §.W. of the Geological Survey-map of Great Britain ; and he states that a seam of coal three feet in thickness, and unknown in the Poynton district, was passed through by driving VOL. III. 20 376 On a Temporary Outburst of Light [July, a horizontal tunnel from the Park pit at a depth of 200 yards from the surface; “beyond this, Coal-measure shales and clays with Stigmaria were proved, and the tunnel was left off in a red- ae grit, similar to those found in the Coal-measures of Denton and yde.” It is from private enterprizes of this nature that the area of our workable coal-seams will become extended as the geological sur- veyors make us acquainted with the exact structure of the districts bordering our known coal-fields ; but there is a more speculative kind of “ prospecting ” which we venture to think is a more fit, though a much more novel, subject for national expenditure than a great many others, including even expeditions to the North Pole. We refer to the probability of coal existing at no enormous depth beneath the Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits of the south-east of England, just as it is known to do beneath the chalk of Valen- ciennes, where it has been extensively worked; and of Calais, where it has been reached by borings. Geologists have even mapped the probable direction and extent of the subterranean pro- longation of one of our great coal-fields ; but opinions are divided as to the particular English coal-field with which the French (and therefore also the hypothetical London) field is connected. Mr. Godwin-Austen, who first started the notion of a London coal-field, considers it to be connected with the South Welsh and Midland coal-basins ; but others hold the balance of probabilities to be in favour of the Northern coal-field. It would cost the nation com- paratively little to demonstrate, by boring, the correctness or error of one or both of these views; and if coal were won, the expense might easily be defrayed, and a large source of revenue created, by a tax on the consequent yield. VITI—ON A TEMPORARY OUTBURST OF LIGHT IN A STAR IN CORONA BOREALIS. By Witu1am Hvaers, F.RBS. OccasIONALLY, but at rather long intervals, men have been startled by the extraordimary spectacle of the sudden appearance of a brilliant star in a part of the heavens where before no star was to be seen. During the first seventeen centuries of the present era, perhaps eight or nine of these strange visitants astonished the world. It is probable that many of the objects in the Chinese catalogue of Ma- tuan-lin are not stars, but, as their observed motion appears to show, 1866. | in a Star in Corona Borealis. 377 trainless comets. If we add those in this catalogue which may be supposed to be new stars, perhaps altogether about twenty of these remarkable objects have been recorded during the last two thousand years. Since 1670, no new star of sufficient splendour to attract general attention has appeared. On April 28, 1848, Mr. Hind discovered a star of between the 4th and 5th magnitude, occupying a position in Ophiuchus, where previously no star even of the 9°5 magnitude could be seen. This star has not disappeared, but remains of about the 11th magnitude. The splendour of all these objects was temporary only. Ina few days, or weeks, or months, they had waned to a great degree of faintness, and were supposed to have become extinct. Whether they really ceased to exist, or merely became invisible to the naked eye, appears to be uncertain. For centuries the intensely interesting questions have agitated the minds of the more thoughtful of mankind. What are these strange objects ? To what cause can the great but very transitory splendour of these stars be ascribed? Are they new creations, celestial ephemere, born to die? Are these new stars merely the more remarkable and extreme examples of the large class of stars which wax and wane in accordance with a special period of variation ? Tycho Brahe had the good fortune to witness the apparition of the most brilliant of these objects, the celebrated star of 1572. This star, when it first appeared, surpassed in brilliancy Sirius, Vega, and Jupiter, and could be compared alone to Venus when nearest to the earth ; within seventeen months the star had become invisible to the naked eye. Telescopes had not yet been in- vented. The star of 1604, at its first appearance, surpassed the stars of the first magnitude, and also Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; but Kepler considered that it was not equal in brilliancy to Venus. This star became invisible after about fifteen months. Tycho Brahe believed that the star of 1572 had been formed by the agglomeration and condensation of a portion of the nebulous matter diffused through the universe. The Aristotelic philosophy, which then swayed men’s minds, prevented the reception of a theory which was not in accordance with the absolute perfection of the heavens. The phenomena of the sudden splendour and. rapid waning of these stars were sought to be explained on the suppo- sition that no real change occurs in the star, but that it suddenly advances towards the earth with extreme rapidity, and then retraces its steps until it vanishes in the remotely distant region from which it had emerged. No words are needed, now that the velocity of light is known, to show that this hypothesis must be rejected. 2c 2 378 On a Temporary Outburst of Light | July, Riccio, in 1651, extended the Chaldean hypothesis of the moon to the temporary stars, and suggested that these objects may be luminous on one side only. ‘The variation in their brilliancy might, he supposed, be produced by a rotation about an axis. The intermittent light of some of our modern lighthouses may be men- tioned as an illustration of this theory. Riccioli added, “ When the Deity wishes to exhibit to mankind any extraordinary sign, he makes one of these stars turn rapidly upon its axis.” In modern days the opinion seems to have been growing that the new stars of history may be the periodic maxima of permanent but extremely variable stars. M. H. Goldschmidt has brought together reasons to show that the new stars of a.p. 393, 827, 1203, and 1609 were probably periodic outbursts of light in one and the same star. In a recent work of considerable interest,* Dr. J. C. Zéllner endeavours to explain the phenomena of the heavens in accordance with the hypothesis of a nebulous origin of the universe. He sup- poses that a fiery mass in the process of cooling would become sur- rounded with a crust of cooled matter. He conceives further that the sudden bursting of this external crust and the outflow of glowing matter from within might present appearances not unlike those fur- nished by the temporary stars. Thanks to the researches of Kirchhoff and others we now pos- sess a method of analyzing the nature of a distant source of light, which, it might be expected, would give to us some information of the true condition of the enormous changes which must be taking place in these stars of ephemeral lustre. The observations of the writer and his distinguished colleague, Dr. W. A. Miller, have shown that matter of a nature common to that of our system, and subject to physical laws similar to those which prevail on the earth, exists throughout the stellar host. It was therefore to be expected that the phenomena of the temporary stars were due to physical changes, of which the precise nature might be revealed by prismatic examination. It has been the good fortune of the writer, conjointly with Dr. W. A. Miller, to examine the spectrum of a bright star, which during the past month suddenly burst forth in the constellation of the Northern Crown. The sudden outburst of light in this star appears to have been first seen by Mr. John Birmingham, of Tuam, on the 12th of May. In a letter to the writer, Mr. Birmingham describes the star as appearing on that evening “ very brilliant, of about the 2nd mag- nitude, certainly more brilliant than « Corone.” * «Photometrische Untersuchungen mit besonderer Riicksicht auf die Physische - Beschaffenheit der Himmelsk6rper.’ Leipsig, 1865. 1866. | in a Star in Corona Borealis. 879 The next evening, the 13th, the star was seen by M. Courbe- baisse, at Rochefort, France. On the 11th, this observer had not noticed any new star in the Crown. On the 14th it was observed in Canada by Mr. W. Barker. It was then of the 3rd magnitude. The star was again independently discovered by Mr. Baxendell, on the 15th, at Manchester. On the 16th, the writer received a letter from Mr. Baxendell, in which he describes the star as “about somewhat less than a degree distant from ¢ Coronz, in a south-easterly direction, and last night was fully equal in brilliancy to £ Serpentis, or y Herculis, both stars of about the 3rd magnitude.” On the same evening, the 16th, the writer and Dr. W. A. Miller commenced a prismatic examination of its light. The star was then below the third magnitude, but brighter than < Coron. In the telescope it was surrounded with a faint nebulous haze, extending to a considerable distance, and gradually fading away at the boundary. A comparative examination of neighbouring stars showed that this nebulosity really existed about the star. On the 17th, this nebulosity was suspected only ; on the 19th and 21st, it was not seen. When the spectroscope was placed on the telescope, the light of this new star formed a spectrum unlike that of any celestial body hitherto examined by them. The light of the star is compound, and has emanated from two different sources. Each light forms its own spectrum. In the instrument these spectra appear super- posed. The principal spectrum is analogous to that of the sun, and is evidently formed by the light of an incandescent solid or liquid photosphere, which has suffered absorption by the vapours of an envelope cooler than itself. The second spectrum consists of a few bright lines, which indicate that the hght represented by it was emitted by matter in the state of luminous gas. These spectra are represented with considerable approximative accuracy in the following diagram. Spectrum of absorption, and spectrum of bright lines forming the compound spectrum of a new star near to e Corone Borcalis, From this diagram the reader will notice-at the red end of the spectrum a little more refrangible than Fraunhofer’s C, two strong 380 On a Temporary Outburst of Light [July, dark lines ; between these and a line a little less refrangible than D, are a number of fine lines very near each other. About the place of solar D is a less strongly-marked line, and between’ that and the position of b in the solar spectrum there are numerous faint thin lines of absorption. Beyond 6, as far as the spectrum can be traced, are close groups of strong lines. This is the spectrum of the light of the photosphere interrupted by the special absorption of the cooler vapours which surround it. The spectrum of the light from a gaseous source consists of fine bright lines. These appear in the instrument, as they are repre- sented in the diagram, as if superposed upon the spectrum already described. The brightest of these lines was found by micrometric measures to coincide with Fraunhofer’s F. On the 17th, this ine was found by a simultaneous observation of it, with the lines of hydrogen, to agree exactly in position with the middle of the expanded line of hydrogen in the green. Another bright line occurs in the red, and appears to coincide with solar C and the red line of hydrogen. There are two bright lines more refrangible than TF’, and a fifth line was seen by glimpses near G of the solar spectrum. This may possibly comeide with the. blue line of hydrogen. The compound spectrum of the rapidly waning star was observed on several evenings up to May 28th. No important changes were noticed. From the 16th to the 20th the spectrum from the photosphere appeared to fade more rapidly than the bright lines from the gaseous source. The position of the groups of dark lines shows that the light of the photosphere, after passing through the absorbent atmosphere, is yellow. The light, however, of the green and blue bright Imes makes up to some extent for the green and blue rays (of other re- frangibilities) which have been stopped by absorption. To the eye, therefore, the star appears nearly white. However, as the star flickers, there may be noticed an occasional preponderance of yellow or blue. Mr. Baxendell, without knowing the results of prismatic analysis, describes the impression he received to be “as if the yellow of the star were seen through an overlying film of a blue tint.” These observations, with the prism, enable us to form the fol- lowing conclusions respecting the constitution of this remarkable star. There must be a photosphere of matter in the solid or liquid state emitting light of all refrangibilities. Surrounding this must exist also an atmosphere of cooler vapours, which give rise by absorption to the groups of dark lines. Besides this constitution, which it possesses in common with the sun and the stars, there must exist the source of the gaseous 1866. | in a Star in Oorona Borealis. 381 spectrum. That this is not produced by the faint nebulosity seen about the star is evident by the brightness of the lines, and the circumstance that they do not extend in the istrument beyond the boundaries of the continuous spectrum. The gaseous mass, from which this light emanates, must be at a much higher temperature than the photosphere of the star, otherwise it would appear impos- sible to explain the great brilliancy of the lmes compared with the corresponding parts of the continuous spectrum of the photosphere. The position of two of the bright lines suggests that this gas may consist chiefly of hydrogen. If, however, hydrogen be really the source of some of the bright lines, the conditions under which the gas emits the light must be different from those to which it has been submitted in terrestrial observations; for it is well known that the line of hydrogen in the green is fainter and more expanded than the brilliant red Ime which characterizes the spectrum of this gas. On the other hand, the strong absorption indicated by the line F of the solar spectrum, and the still stronger corresponding lines in some stars, would indicate that under suitable conditions hydrogen may emit a strong luminous radiation of this refrangibility. When the information received from spectrum analysis is con- sidered in connection with the sudden outburst of light in the star, and its rapid decline in brightness from between the second and third magnitude down to the eighth magnitude in about twelve days, the bold speculation presents itself that the star has become suddenly enveloped in flames. In consequence of some great con- vulsion, on the precise nature of which it would be idle to speculate, enormous quantities of gas have been set free. A principal part of this gas consists of hydrogen, and this is burning about the star by combination with some other element. This flaming gas emits the light represented by the spectrum of bright lines. The spectrum of the other part of the star’s ight shows that this fierce gaseous conflagration has heated to vivid incandescence the solid matter of the photosphere. The writer regrets much that he had not the opportunity of examining the spectrum of the light of this star at an earlier period. It would be of importance to know whether, at the first outburst, the bright lines of the gas only would liave been seen. Some little time would appear to be necessary for the photo- sphere to acquire the temperature necessary for incandescence. As the free hydrogen becomes exhausted, the flames abate, the incandescence of the photosphere becomes less vivid, and the star rapidly wanes. We must not forget that light, though a messenger swift of wing, requires time to traverse celestial space. The great physical convulsion, of which we have been the spectators, is already a 382 On a Star in Corona Borealis. | July, matter of history in the case of the star itself. The star has been for years (for ages ?) in the enjoyment of the new conditions which this fiery catastrophe has originated. An important question remains, Is the star really new? The Astronomer Royal informs the writer that meridian observations of this star at Greenwich show that its position agrees precisely with a star observed by Argelander of the 9:5 magnitude. Sir John Herschel has informed the writer, that on June 9th, 1842, he saw a star of the 6th magnitude in a position in Corona nearly the same as that of this new star. As the place of the star was laid down merely by naked eye allineations, the object seen by Sir John Herschel may possibly have been the same star during a former sunilar outburst of light. 1866. | ( 383 ) CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE. I. AGRICULTURE. Tue gradual decline of the cattle plague during the past quarter has amply justified those measures of repression and restriction which had been enacted at the date of our last publica- tion, and to which we then alluded. The latest report of the Commissioners appointed to investigate the subject points out that, up to the date of the Act which authorized the compulsory slaughter of infected cattle, the fatality of the disease was con- stantly creasing ; but that, after that date, it at once commenced a continual decline which has since been almost regularly main- tained. This diminution has not only been coincident with the action of the new restrictive measures, but runs a course closely parallel to the operation of the most important of those measures—compulsory slaughter. “Rigid and systematic means of disinfection,’ “ un- sparing strictness and unremitting watchfulness,” will alone, in the opinion of the Commissioners, be sufficient to extirpate the disease, and when these measures have been successful, there will still remain the duty of guarding against its re-introduction. A few cases have been reported in the north of Ireland; but the rigid isolation of the infected spot appears hitherto to have prevented its extension there. The hability to its re-importation is, however, strikingly illustrated by the Irish experience, and this will, we fear, necessitate a constant and increasingly careful inspection at all those points of debarkation at which we now receive our supplies of foreign cattle. This, combined with either quarantine or im- mediate slaughter, will be necessary; for the complete investigation of the subject, which a quarter of a million of cases has forced upon us, only deepens the conviction that no remedy exists for the malady when once the poison has been received. The Commis- sioners inform us that all forms of medicinal treatment have been equally successful, and all have been equally unsuccessful. The regulation of diet has, however, been serviceable—“ judicious feed- ing with soft mashes of digestible food has tended to increase the proportion of recoveries. And it is a noteworthy circumstance, that the proportion of recoveries is larger in the case of small herds than in that of large flocks, thus pointing out how much may be done by careful nursing and individual attention.” ‘“ Among cottagers’ cattle, generally fed on mashed food, the recoveries were 73 per cent.; in large stocks, where dry food has been given 384 Chronicles of Sctence. [July, during convalescence, the recoveries were 57 per cent.; with mixed food of mashes and hay, they were 22 per cent.; while, among cattle fed entirely with dry food, and treated medicinally with drugs, the recoveries were but 13 per cent.” These results were gathered out of the history of 503 cases, of which 191, or nearly 38 per cent. on the whole, recovered. We add that the returns published on June 1st intimate that 244,455 cases, in all, had occurred up till that date, of which 1,207 were reported during the previous week ; the weekly numbers having been sink- ing very rapidly indeed since the month of March, when the number of attacks amounted in one week to as many as 18,000. The number of animals hitherto reported as having died or been slaughtered does not much exceed 200,000 of all ages, or barely 5 per cent. of the number which recently published statistics declare to be the present cattle population of Great Britain; but the losses have no doubt been greater on the whole than the Government returns declare ; and there is this especial aggravation of their severity, that they have not been evenly spread over the country, but have fallen with destructive effect on particular coun- ties. In Cheshire, for example, which is almost exclusively a dairy county, no fewer than 4,800 places have been visited by the plague. In these places there were 90,434 cattle, of which 60,574 have been attacked, and upwards of 50,000 of them are dead. The quiet arithmetical view of the subject as a national loss, which a mere statist may be disposed to take, thus altogether ignores the almost absolute ruin which has befallen individual localities and even counties. Our immunity for the future depends a good deal upon the efficiency of the dismfectants which have been employed in those localities where the disease has occurred, and where, if the poison which is left by it has not, been thoroughly destroyed, it will be almost certain to occur again. It appears to us that some risk arises here out of the insufficient distinction made in the popular estimate of them between true disinfectants and mere deodorizing antiseptics. The latter do, in effect, merely lock up the poison which they deal with ; and the harmless condition to which, for the time, it is reduced by their agency, may be only a temporary result of their employment. Lapse of time may set it free again; and, plainly, it is only those agencies which decompose and break up the organic matters implicated, redistributing their elements in new forms of combination, that are unquestionably and ultimately trustworthy. For these reasons, we should greatly pre- fer, after a thorough washing of the infected premises with some alkaline ley, the use of sulphurous acid or chlorine gas—the one obtained by burning sulphur and the other by adding hydro- chloric acid to the peroxide of manganese—in the cow-house where the plague has been, to the use of carbolic and other tar 1866. | Agriculture. 385 acids. And we believe that the agricultural public are greatly indebted to Dr. Voelcker, the chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and to Mr. Walter Crum, F.B.S., for that distinction urged by them between disinfectants and antiseptics, which does not appear to have received due attention in the recommendations of the Cattle Plague Commissioners. Reference was made last quarter to the then impending attempt to collect statistics of our live stock. The returns have since been published, and we learn that on the 5th of March (when, however, neither the calving nor the lambing season was over) we had the following quantity of live stock in the country :— ENUMERATED, 1866. Cattle. | Sheep. Pigs. England ° ° 5 ° . 3,307,034 15,124,541 2,066,299 Wales. . = 4 . e 541,401 1,668,663 191,604 Islands ° = A ° . 17,700 57,685 22,887 Scotland c “ 5 : E 937,411 5,255,077 219,716 Treland ° . . : . 3,493,414 3,688,742 1,299,893 Total - = . . §,316,960 25,794,708 3,800,399 This amounts, as regards Great Britain, to about 10 cattle of all ages, 40 sheep, and 6 pigs, to every 100 acres of England ; and to 5 cattle, 28 sheep, and 1 pig, to every hundred acres of Scot- land, of which, of course, so much larger a proportion is waste and moorland. Another table in the Government returns on this sub- ject indicates the corresponding live-stock population of other countries. Comparing it, however, not with the acreage, but with the human population of the several countries, the extent of their dairy husbandry is very strikingly illustrated by this table, which shows, that while there is only one cow for every nine persons in Great Britain and Ireland, there is one for every two in Denmark, one for every three in Holstein, one for every three-and-a-half in Sweden, Holland, Prussia and Saxony; one for every six in Austria, and one for every six-and-a-half in France. The uni- versality of the cattle plague in Cheshire is shown in these returns by the number of cattle in that county, 95,844, as compared with 90,439, which is the number on those farms where the disease had appeared. The meat supply of the country has received ample discussion during the past quarter at the hands of both local and central societies. The increase of fertility by both deeper tillage and more liberal manuring, the adoption of special rotations of crop, and, in particular, the cultivation of green crops in succession to one another ; the use of potatoes, and of home-grown grain, as cattle food; the selection of fitting breeds and animals and their * 386 Chronicles of Science. [July, management during the growing and the feeding periods, which are now understood to be coincident from beginning to the end of each, was fully discussed by Mr. Robert Smith before the London Farmers’ Club, and by Messrs. Hope, Wilson, and McCombie, before the Edinburgh Chamber of Agriculture. The special details of cultivation and field management necessary to a large production of food for live stock on the farm have been carefully described by Professor Wrightson, of the Royal Agricultural College, before the Cirencester Farmers’ Club, and by Mr. Alderman Mechi, before the Wenlock Farmers’ Club: and capital papers on the general management of live stock, and on that particular treatment of this department of farm management which the cattle plague has called forth, have been delivered before English, Scottish, and Insh Farmers’ Clubs. The society which has probably done least for any serviceable mitigation of the calamity which has befallen us is the Royal Agricultural Society of England, whose council were, at the late general meeting of the society, taken vigorously to task by Mr. Arkell, a Wiltshire farmer, for the inaction they had dis- layed. : ie must except from the charge of that usually deficient and imperfect discussion of agricultural subjects which they receive at the occasional meetings of the English Agricultural Society, one very instructive lecture recently delivered in its rooms by Dr. Voelcker, on the proper conditions of field-experiments. The followimg were the points to which he referred :— 1. Such experiments need not be on a large scale. One- twentieth part of an acre of root crop, one quarter of an acre of corn or grass, will answer fairly any simple question that is put to it by the application of a manure. A larger extent sometimes involves a fatal difference of treatment in the several parts of it, and unless the plots be small enough to be treated virtually together, the results will not be capable of comparison. 2. These experiments ought to be conducted on soil of what may be called an indifferent character —level, fairly drained, uniform as to depth, and without any marked character as to com- position or texture. It should be neither stiff nor light; nor should it be too rich, for as the distinctive effect of different foods cannot appear in the case of a man already fully fed, so manures cannot produce their characteristic effect, or indeed any effect at all, on soil already full of all that plants require. 3. The result of the experiment depends on the time and mode in which it is conducted. As to time:—Experimental manurings on grass lands on which it is proposed to try the effect of slowly dissolving fertilizers should be done in autumn. Even ammoniacal salts may be applied in autumn, if on land possessing any retentive character. Nitrates, on the other hand, which the soil allows to 1866. ] Agriculture. 387 pass through it, must not be applied till sprmg. It is thus plain that a comparison of ammonia salts with mtrates sown together in autumn will give very different results from a similar comparison made in spring time. As to mode:—Care must be taken to ensure the uniform distribution of the fertilizers. Concentrated manures should be mixed with at least three times their bulk of some harm- less diluent. The broadcast manure distributor should be employed to ensure their uniform application to grass or corn, or they may be sown by hand over the drilled fields for roots before the plough covers the dung in the drills by splitting the intervening ridgelets. 4. A careful record must be kept of the composition of the manures employed, of the character of the soil, and of its past agri- cultural history, in order that the result may be read in the light of the information thus preserved. 5. It is of the greatest importance that the experiment be devised so as to reply to a very simple question. If complicated mixtures of manures be used, the result cannot be attributed to its proper cause with any certainty. Let the experiment be devised so as to be sure that it shall answer “ yes” or “no,” as to the effect of a single ingredient. 6. The experiments, moreover, must have regard to the fitness of the soil and climate to the plant which is employed to test the manures by. It is as useless to try the effect of manures on Indian corn in Scotland as it would be to test them by means of mangel wurzel in Sweden. So also the soil should be fitted to the habits of the plant. The lupine fails on land with a hard, cold subsoil, not because the food it requires is not present, but because its deep tap- root requires a subsoil in which it can extend. 7. In reading the results of experiments, regard must be had to the character of the season, wet or dry, early or late, cold or warm. And extreme diligence should be used in noting all the successive appearances of the crop under variations of weather throughout the ear. Lastly, the operator must not only have unbounded patience— waiting long and putting his question frequently before he satisfies himself that he has got the answer—but he must have both pluck and self-denial enough to throw his results into the waste-paper basket, rather than mislead his brother farmers by the publication of unsatisfactory conclusions. On this same subject Professor Buckman has pointed out that careful observation by the farmer of the varying natural conditions under which the ordinary rules of farm practice are carried out, will often teach as much as can be learned from well-defined experiment, provided a careful record be kept of the field-results which are obtained under the varying circumstances of early or late farming, cold or warm, wet or dry air and soil, and even deep or shallow 388 Chronicles of Science. [ July, tillage and seed bed, all of which may have been imposed upon him by the character of the year. The list of recently introduced agricultural plants, on which Mr, Buckman comments in the columns of the ‘ Agricultural Gazette,’ includes the following :—Schroeder’s Brome grass, a coarse species of a coarse genus, which is not likely, except under sewage irrigation and excessive consequent succulence of growth, to be of much service to English agriculture: Anthyllis vulneraria, or Lady’s fingers, a common English wild plant, whose hairiness and dryness are said to be diminished or to disappear under cultivation, so that in certain circumstances it becomes a useful forage plant : Symphytum asperrimum, the prickly comfrey, yielding a large bulk of forage useful as cow-food, which, however, requires to be cut often while young, as it soon becomes too rough and unmanageable: and the cattle gourds or melons, which furnish in hot summers a great quantity of somewhat insipid and watery flesh, also good for cow-food. Among other subjects less within the scope of this “ Chronicle,” to which the attention of agriculturists has been directed during the past quarter, are the need of central chambers of Agriculture, through which attention to class interests can be urged upon Government ; the necessity of altered arrangements for the supply of animal food to consumers—an extension of the dead-meat market at the expense of the existing live-cattle markets, i London and in other large inland towns; and the existence of considerable dis- satisfaction in many country districts with the rate of payment for farm-labour. No doubt this will gradually rise, and it 1s very desirable that it should. The rapid draught which is being made upon the number of the labouring class in rural districts by other better-paid occupations tends inevitably to this result. And the greater need of labouring men which exists in agriculture, with every extension of the meat manufacture now stimulated so much by market prices, acts in the same direction. II, ASTRONOMY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society.) Mr. W. L. Dicxryson has read a paper before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, containing the results of caleu- lations relative to the Eclipse of the Sun, and to two Occultations of the star Aldebaran by the Moon, visible this year. The calculations have been made for the Observatory of Robert Worthington, Esq., F.R.A.S., Crumpsall, near Manchester, Lat. 53° 30' 50" 0 N., Long. 0° 8’ 56.16 W. The elements used in the computations have been obtained from the ‘Nautical Almanack.’ The partial 1866.] Astronomy. 389 eclipse of the sun, October 8, 1866, is partly visible at the Observatory, and Begins . . . . 4h. 19m. 39s. tester pins : LS Mean time at Greenwich. At Crumpsall the Sun will set at 5h. 27m. Magnitude of the eclipse (Sun’s diameter = 1). 0-480. x . 4 2 act, 43° . : ’ aan ee ead ne 3 : \ Towards the west for direct image. At the same meeting of this Society, Mr. Brothers, F.R.A.S., stated that, while observing the Moon with his five-inch achromatic telescope, at about eight o’clock on the evening of March 25, he observed a small dark body cross the disc diagonally, from left to right, a little below the spot Copernicus. ‘The motion was very rapid, and similar to the passage of a luminous meteor across the field of view. He conceived it might be a meteoric body passing through space at a distance considerably beyond the limits of the earth’s atmosphere. Mr. Daubrée has given to the Academy of Sciences a continua- tion of his ‘‘ Synthetical Researches relative to Meteorites.”’ In this part he shows that the siliceous constituents of meteorites are, for the most part, basic silicates, differing from the silicates constituting the superficial crust of the earth, but closely resembling the eruptive rocks. He supposes the masses to have been formed originally at avery high temperature, but for several reasons believes that they have crys- tallized at a lower temperature than in his own experiments to re- produce them. He supposes also that the fragments which reach our earth have been detached from much larger masses, probably at a far distant period of time. Butalthough long circulating in space, it is only when they reach our atmosphere that they suddenly become incan- descent, by which their exterior becomes vitrified, while the interior remains unchanged. The interior, therefore, represents the state of the mass as it circulated in space. It is clear, however, that oxygen has played an important part in the formation of meteoric stones, and the author also thinks in the formation of all planetary bodies. This part of M. Daubrée’s paper is very long, and we have only indicated the principal pomt. ‘The memoir is a valuable contribu- tion to chemical geology. PROCEEDINGS OF THE RoyAt ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. By desire of the Rev. R. Main, Director of the Radcliffe Obser- vatory, Oxford, Prof. F. Kaiser, Director of the Observatory at Leyden, has presented to the Royal Astronomical Society a brief account of his investigations of Airy’s double-image micrometer. The Astronomer Royal himself has given a complete theory and description of this micrometer. From that theory and description 390 Chronicles of Science. [ July, it appears that, with the double-image micrometer, errors are to be feared arising from the following sources :~-(1), Periodical errors of the micrometer screw; (2), Variability in the mutual distance of the threads of that screw; (3), Distortion of the images. The periodical errors of the screw may be very different at small differences in the readings of the micrometer-head, and require therefore a particular inquiry. The errors arising from the sources (2) and (3) do not compensate themselves in brief periods, and their common amount may be determined by the same inquiry. In the micrometer as made by Simms one half-lens is quite fixed, while only the other can be moved by the micrometer-screw. This construction makes it impossible to eliminate the periodical errors of the screw at the measurements themselves. If the fixed half-lens could only be moved so much as the amount of one revolution of the micrometer-screw, we could hereby (according to Bessel’s theory) eliminate at each measurement the periodical errors of the screw, and this would be a great gain. If the fixed half-lens could be moved as much as the movable one, the measurements could be extended to angles twice as large as can now be measured with the micrometer. Then it would, however, be shown together, with relation to the fixed lenses. By this modification the price of the instrument would certainly be considerably raised, but it would be well worth the extra expense. After a long and elaborate investigation of the various errors and methods of eliminating their influence on the final results, Prof. Kaiser arrives at the conclusion that the Astronomer Royal has, by the invention of his double-image micrometer, rendered an important service to astronomy. Indeed, he doubts whether, besides the heliometer, a second double-image micrometer exists by which measurements can be effected so accurately as by Airy’s instrument. That instrument requires, however, a very rigorous and difficult inquiry, in order to give it the accuracy of which it is capable, and it demands also great prudence in the use of it. A micrometer like Airy’s can only render its services if it is adapted to a large and precious refractor. The price of the micrometer would, even if it were doubled, still remaim very insignificant in comparison with that of the refractor. Therefore it would appear very desirable to give to the micrometer the more complicated construction above alluded to, even if its price were thereby considerably increased. Rey. T. W. Webb has given a further notice of the great nebula in Orion. A comparison of the various representations of the great nebula in Orion, which have been given for a period of many years, seems to lead inevitably to the conclusion that our knowledge of its real aspect is still far from complete. While Mr. Huggins’s most important discovery of its true constitution renders 1866. | Astronomy. 391 the idea of change more conceivable, it must be admitted that any alterations of form or brightness which may have been in progress since the employment of the telescope are so masked by discre- pancies of declination as to preclude the possibility of drawing any fully satisfactory conclusion. It would be superfluous to refer-to the variations which are so well known to arise from diversity of weather, instruments, eyes, and pencils, and especially from the unwarrantable careless- ness of engravers: it only remains to be considered whether these are the sole causes of the striking differences by which we are confronted, or whether, after making due allowance for all these sources of error, there may yet bea residuum of actual change. ‘No other means of investigating this point seem so promising as the multiplication of designs by different observers, in different climates, and with different optical means. From such an accumu- lation of testimony we might hope to deduce a much closer approximation to the truth. The sketch, of which a copy was shown to the meeting, was commenced in December, 1863, and continued with many interrup- tions till the present season. In this attempt to show some part of what may be visible in a certain circumscribed portion of the nebulosity, with an achromatic of 54 inches aperture and an eye of average capacity, the object has been to represent the general arrangement of the luminous haze; and the few stars contained in the sketch are inserted merely for the purpose of more convenient identification and reference. The author stated that he had the less hesitation in bringing forward these particulars, as he had the pleasure of knowing that his observations on the “rift” and the “lake” or opening, had been in great measure confirmed by Mr. Knott with his beautiful 74-inch object-glass; and it was therefore believed there would be little difficulty on the part of any adequately provided observer in veri- fying them. A. 8. Herschel, Esq., has given an interesting account of the Path of a Detonating Meteor. Shooting-stars, it is well known, are so abundantly observed on certain nights of the year, that already, at the end of the last century, the term meteorode was applied on this account to the night of the 10th of August. It is suspected that large meteors also make their appearance on fixed nights of the year, although not with the same frequency or regu- larity as the most constant star-showers. On the 21st of November, 1865, at 6h. 5m., G. M. T., a meteor about three times as bright as Venus is at its brightest, and having an apparent diameter of 8’ or 10’, was observed by Mr. Warren De la Rue, near Cranford. The meteor rose from the eastern horizon, being surrounded at first, like a comet, by a parabola-shaped -hale VOL. III. 2D 392 Chronicles of Science. [July of light, reminding an observer of the zodiacal light in its form, but rapidly rising and becoming brighter. When at an altitude of about 40° due east, the meteor emerged like a fireball from a roman candle, of a blue colour, about a quarter of the apparent diameter of the full Moon in width, and drawing after it a trail of reddish- coloured sparks, 24° or 3° in length ; as it passed overhead the out- pouring and falling behind of the matter forming the train became distinctly visible. At Wimbledon, near London, where the meteor was seen by Mr. F. C. Penrose, it vanished suddenly, or at any rate very rapidly, about 8° N.W. ofa Lyrz. It traversed the entire length of the valley of the Thames—a distance of seventy-five miles—from forty-one miles above the Nore to twenty-seven miles above the earth’s surface in the neighbourhood of Henley-on-Thames. On the average of four separate accounts, estimated by different observers between four and ten seconds, the time taken by the meteor to travel the entire distance, about seventy-five miles, was six seconds and a half. On this estimate the velocity of the meteor relatively to the earth’s surface was about eleven miles per second. ‘The direction of the actual position of the meteor’s flight was from a point in the neighbourhood of the constellation Taurus, between Taurus and the head of Cetus. The distance of the meteor at the moment of its disappearance from Wimbledon, collectively determined from these accounts, is about thirty-six miles. At Wimbledon, Mr. F. C. Penrose heard a loud report, like that of a cannon fired off at the distance of some miles, distinct enough to be heard very plainly by one other person at Wimbledon, about two minutes and twenty seconds after the meteor disappeared. Sound, with its ordinary velocity of 1,090 feet per second in common air, would take two minutes and fifty-four seconds to travel the entire distance of thirty-six miles from the point of the disappearance of the meteor to Wimbledon. Consider- ing, as before, the difficulty of fixing the exact position of the apparent path of the meteor, and hence the approximate nature of the real path concluded from the independent statements of the observers, the agreement of the calculated time with the time observed by Mr. Penrose, between the disappearance of the meteor and the occurrence of the sound, must be regarded as a near coin- cidence. There can be little doubt from this circumstance—from the nature of the sound, the great apparent brightness of the fire- ball, and from its near approach to the earth—that this meteor was really a detonating fire-ball. Detonating meteors are described in the British Association Reports as having taken place in England during the last five years, very nearly on the same date of the year as the meteor of the 21st of November, 1865. The epochs of the 9th—11th of February, and the 19th—21st 1866. | Astronomy. 398 of November are, therefore, dates deserving special attention, partly with a view of determining for the future the directions of the detonating meteors, and partly as showing, by their frequent return within very narrow limits of time about these dates, that aérolitic meteors, like the acknowledged star-showers of August and November, revolved in fixed orbits round the Sun. In a note on the spectrum of the variable star « Orionis, W. Huggins, F.R.S., and W. A. Miller, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., men- tioned an important change which has been recently observed in the spectrum of this star. « Orionis is a variable star of great irregularity, both of period and of extent of change of brightness. These ob- servers have recently found that the group of lines, and “shading as if of fine lines,” terminated at its more refrangible end by the strong line No. 1069°5 in their diagram, is not at present visible in the spectrum of the star. The absence of this group is of great interest in connection with the variability of the star’s light, especially as the time of disappearance of this group coincides with the epoch of the maximum brilliancy of the star. Mr. Baxendell, whose successful prosecution of this branch of astronomy is so well known, mentioning this star, says:—“ The yariable « Orionis is irregular both in the extent of its variation and the duration of its period. I have often thought its light was at times variable in colour as well as intensity, being sometimes perceptibly more ruddy than at others.” The variation in colour, so well described by Mr. Baxendell, corresponds exactly to the change in colour of the star which would be produced by the absence or presence of the group of lines referred to above, since the position of this group in the spectrum is about the boundary of the “ orange” towards the “ yellow.” The Astronomer Royal read an important and interesting paper “On the supposed possible Effect of Friction in the Tides in influencing the Apparent Acceleration of the Moon’s Mean Motion in Longitude,” in reference to a communication to the Institute of France by M. Delaunay, in which he explains a portion of the apparent acceleration of the Moon as possibly due to a real retarda- tion of the rotation of the earth, and conceives that such retardation may possibly arise from friction in the tidal movement of the waters. In suggesting this explanation, he lays down as fundamental theorems the two following :—First, that if the solid globe of the earth were covered with water, there would be high water under the Moon (considered as the only tide-producing body); secondly, that the effect of friction would be to make the semi-diurnal tides later than they would be if there were no friction. Any treatment of the tides is, necessarily, very imperfectly applicable to the real motion of the waters, under all taeis com- 2D 394 Chronicles of Science. [ July, plicated circumstances of unsymmetrical boundaries, varying depths, and unknown laws of friction. Still attempts have been made upon different hypotheses admitting of mathematical treatment, by which the different pomts of M. Delaunay’s theory may be tested. Newton, Laplace, and Airy agree in this, that there will be low water under the Moon. In a subsequent part of the ‘ Principia,’ Newton thinks that the high water would in some measure follow the Moon’s place. Airy shows that the effect of friction is to accelerate the time of each individual tide. It is a result of this friction that the velocity of the earth’s rota- tion is not affected. It is a further result of this friction, and the consequent disturbance of the form of the waters, that the Moon’s motion is affected ; her orbit is made to become large, and her motion in longitude is retarded. The phase of low water (and consequently of the tide) is accelerated by the friction. Amongst the conclusions arrived at in this elaborate memoir are the following :—The friction of the tides does not tend at any instant either to accelerate or to retard the rotation of the solid globe. The friction of the tides produces a retardation of the Moon’s mean longitude. It would seem probable that the reaction of these forces will in some way produce a retarding effect on the earth’s rotation. There are other instances in the lunar theory in which the Moon’s action on the equatorial protuberance of the earth is accompanied by action of that protuberance on the Moon, both producing well- recognized effects. But in a case like this before us, where the very existence of the force depends on friction, and consequent disturb- ance of the law of vis viva, the author does not profess himself able to follow out all the consequences. It will probably be difficult to say what is the effect of friction in more complicated cases. Conceive, for instance (as a specimen of a large class), a tide-mill for grinding corn. The water which has been allowed to rise with the rising tide is not allowed to fall with the falling tide, but, after a time, is allowed to fall, thereby doing work and producing heat in the meal formed by grinding the corn. It is not doubted that this heat is the representative of vis viva, lost somewhere, but whether it is lost in the rotation of the earth, or in the revolution of the Moon, Prof. Airy is quite unable to say. In an addendum, dated April 5, the Astronomer Royal says he has at length discovered two terms which appear to exercise a real effect on the rotation of the earth. By a process of mathematical reasoning, he proves that there is a constant acceleration of the waters as following the Moon’s apparent diurnal course. As this is opposite to the direction of the earth’s rotation, it follows that from the action of the Moon there is a constant retarding force on the rotation of the water, and therefore (by virtue of the friction between 1866.| Astronomy. 395 them) a constant retarding force on the rotation of the earth’s nucleus. The author concludes by saying :—“I am very happy to give my entire assent to the general views of M. Delaunay on the existence of one real cause for the retardation of the earth’s rotation.” C. G. Talmage, Esq., gives an account of a probable observation of Biela’s comet. He states that while sweeping for Biela’s comet, on the 4th of November last, he came upon a nebulous object which is thought very likely to have been the comet. From brief oppor- tunities afforded to Mr. Barber and Mr. Hind, it is very probable that Mr. Talmage’s object was really nucleus L of this comet. Unfortunately the weather was too unfavourable to allow of sub- sequent observations. Mr. Huggins, F.R.S., has contributed an interesting paper on “The Bright Granules of the Solar Surface,” to which we shall refer in our next number. Ill. BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. Russta.—The ‘ Bulletin of the Imperial Society of Naturalists at Moscow,’ vol. xxxviii., No. 3, 1865, contains fourteen short botanical papers, morphological, anatomical, and physiological, by Paul Reinsch, with two plates of microscopic drawings delineated from nature, which are very valuable contributions to science. As the plants which have furnished the illustrations are familiar and easily obtained, the observations of M. Remsch may be readily verified. Four of these papers are devoted to the subject of vegetable cyclosis, or the motion of the protoplasmic currents in the individual cell. The plants and the parts in which M. Reinsch has observed cyclosis, and which have furnished the beautiful illus- trations of the first plate, are—1. The cilia on the leaves of Sempervivum tectorum ; 2. The youngest developing cells in the whorls of Nitella syncarpa; 3. The individual cells of the root and parenchyma of Hydrocharis morsus rana; 4. The cells of Closterium lunula. M. Reinsch describes three kinds of cyclosis, viz. the rotatory movement which is confined to one portion of the cell; the circulatory movement, where the proto-plasmic current sweeps around the entire circumference of the cell ; and the rotato- circulatory, which is a combination of the two preceding movements. The rate of motion in the cells, or parts of cells, is variable, being accelerated and retarded by a rise or a fall of temperature. The quantity of protoplasm in the current is also variable. The remainder of these papers consist of interesting articles “On the reproduction of Bryum by axillary buds ;” “On the Infusoria in the cells of Sphagnum ;” “The development of the Stellate cell in the 396 Chronicles of Science. [July, pith of the Cyperacee ;” “Acrosyncarpia in Brywm cxspitiewm,” beg an abnormal development of the sporangium; “The antheridia of Nitella syncarpa ;” “The reproduction of Tetraspora lubrica,” of a new species of Staurastrum, and also of those familiar Desmids, Huastrum margaritiferum, Ehren., and Cosma- rium cylindricun, Ralfs.; and, lastly, a paper on the development of the spores of Scapania nemorosa, Nees. France.—The Influence of Light on Plants—The Parisian Academy of Sciences have received a highly interesting communica- tion from M. Duchartre on certain well-known plants, which, too weak to support themselves, tend to twine around the nearest objects. They generally do this from left to right, that is, inversely to the motion of the sun, but some species turn in the contrary direction, and it is impossible to make either the one or the other change its direction. Palm, Von Mohl, Dutrochet, and latterly Darwin, have successively expressed the opinion that light was the cause of this tendency; but further experiments being wanting to confirm this theory, M. Duchartre, who had discovered that the Chinese yam could live a long while in the dark, resolved to try the effect of absence of light upon it. At the end of May last he placed one in a pot, and as soon as it showed its stem above ground he took it down to a cellar, where it remained in complete darkness until the 2nd of August following. The stem, in the course of seven weeks, grew to the length of a metre and a half. It looked withered and whitish, but was upon the whole strong and even stiff and perfectly straight, showmg nowhere a tendency to twine itself round the stick which had been placed there for its support. Another yam was planted nearly a month later, and left exposed to daylight until it had twined itself twice round its stick. It was then taken and placed in the cellar, where its stem, still obeying its natural tendency, went round once more, but in a more yertical direction than before; after which it grew straight up along its pole, to which it was fastened as it grew. It was now again taken up into the garden, where it immediately began to twime round again, making five close turns; and when it was once more taken down into the cellar it continued its growth again in a straight line, and so on, according as it was alternately in the light or in the dark. The same phenomenon was observed, not only in the yam or Dioscorea Batatas, but also in the Mandevillea suaveolens; but, on the other hand, the bean and the Ipomexa purpurea continue to twine round their supports in the dark.” In the ‘ Bibliotheque Universelle’ of the 25th of March, 1866, there is a “ Note on some new facts in Botanical Geography” by Edmond Boissier, from which we learn that there are certain * *Galignani’s Messenger,’ 1866. } Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 397 plants whose congeners inhabit very distant regions, which have recently been discovered in Europe and Asia Minor, and which may be truly regarded as disjomted species. The first is the Dzoscorea Pyrenaica, Bub., found by M. Bubani, an Italian botanist, on the Pyrenees. The genus Dioscorea is very numerous in the tropics, only a few species having been found in the temperate zones—for example, the Dioscorea villosa, L., in the United States, and the Dioscorea Batatas in Japan. No European species was known until this one was found in the Pyrenees by M. Bubani. Another curious fact is the discovery by M. Kotschy of a Pelargonium in the Taurus mountains in Cilicia, the same plant having been subsequently found along the whole chain from Pamphylia to Armenia. ‘The Pelargoniums, which include the so- called Geraniums of our conservatories, were supposed to be exclu- sively indigenous to the Southern hemisphere, most of the species inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope, and a few Australia. The third case mentioned by M. Boissier is that of a Pilostyles, a parasitic plant which grows in great abundance upon the branches of a leguminous plant, described as an Adesmia, and which Bolero collected in Chili. This plant has no root, stem, or leaves, its flower is campanulate, about two lines in diameter, and sessile upon the bark of the Adesmia, the epidermis of which it tears during its development. It belongs to the family Rhizanthee, and is, in fact, a miniature representative of the gigantic Raftlesia Arnoldi of Sumatra. Another species of the same genus was discovered by the naturalist Pohl growing upon the branches of a Bauhinia in the forests of Brazil. M. Boissier, in examining a fascicle of dried plants brought by M. Haussknecht from the mountains of the east of Asia Minor, found the branches of a spiny Astragalus covered with a Pilostyles, which on examination he determined to be a new species. M. Boissier calls it the Pilostyles Haussknechtii, and it completes a genus hitherto known only from South America, and of which, singularly enough, all the species are parasitic on leguminous shrubs. The Pilostyles is a dicecious plant, and so far only the male plant has been found, the female flower remaining still to be discovered. It would be easy to enlarge this list of disjointed species—that is, of species growing isolated in botanical regions far distant from the rest of their family or genus. Take, for instance, the well- known fact that there is in the floras of Southern Europe only a single myrtle and a single laurel, whilst numerous genera and species of these shrubs inhabit the tropical and sub-tropical countries of both continents. “If, however,” as M. Boissier suggests, “ we consider that, in the Tertiary period, the myrtles and laurels were diffused in Central Europe, we get a glimpse of an explanation, being led to assume—as has been so well shown by 398 Chronicles of Science. [July, M. Alphonse De Candolle in his ‘“Géographie Botanique’—that species are of different antiquities, and to hope that as our knowledge of the floras of preceding geological epochs becomes more complete, it will by degrees make us better understand the present distribution of lants.” ; It appears that M. Reveil, recently deceased, sent for com- petition to the French Academy an essay “On the Action of Poisons on Plants.” According to his observations, not only mineral but. organic acids, as citric and tartaric acids, in dilute solution, will cause the death of the plant which absorbs them. It is the same with several saline solutions and mixtures much diluted with alcohol and ether, which may be absorbed with impunity by animals. The committee to whom this paper was submitted, have marked their appreciation by the award of an honourable mention. Scortanp.— Vegetable Nosology.—This important but little understood part of Botany is attracting some attention. At the meeting of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Dr. Lauder Lindsay read a paper “On the Diseases of Plants in connection with Epidemics in Man and Animals.” The ‘ Lancet’ of the 14th of April also contains an abstract of Dr. Salisbury’s views and experi- ments on the Cryptogamic origin of disease. The fungoid origin of disease is no new opinion. Hight years ago, the late Dr. Mitchell, of Philadelphia, published a pamphlet on this subject, which was very favourably received. ‘The prevalence of certain diseases amongst plants, produced by microscopic fungi, and at the same time of certain infectious diseases amongst animals, was known even in the middle ages. The course which investigation has recently taken on this subject will doubtless lead to discoveries of great value. At the same meeting Dr. McNab contributed a paper “On the Development of Leaves.” He reduces them in all their varieties of form to seven types—1. Basifugal, or leaves with the leaflets developing first at the base; 2. Basipetal, the leaflets developing first at the apex; 3. The Cyclical type—leaflets developing. in a circle, ex. Lupinus; 4. The Divergent type—the central leaflets developing first, and those of the apex and base last; 5. The Simultaneous type—all the leaflets developmg together; 6. The Ternate type—ex. Thalictrum, Aquilegia, &c.; 7. The Parallel type. Dr. McNab thinks that both simple and compound leaves belong to these types, the difference bemg merely one of degree of development and not of type. We append to these views of Dr. McNab the following synoptical table of the types of nervation of leaves taken from the ‘Physiotypia Plantarum Austriacanum’ of Professors Ettinghausen and Pokorny, a work recently published by the Austrian Govern- ment, as likely to prove interesting to English botanists. | 1866. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 399 I.—Forms of Nervation, with a single Primary Nerve. 1. Nervatio Camptodroma. Bowed or inflected nervation. a. Dictyodroma—netted ; ex. Willow. 6. Brochidodroma— looped; ex. Circeea. ¢. Vere—True; ex. Rhamnus. 2. Nervatio Craspedodroma. Marginate nervation. «a. Sim- * plices—simple; ex. Fagus, Castanea. 0b. Compositaa— compound ; ex. Polemonium ceruleum. 3. Nervatio Hyphodroma. Concealed nervation ; ex. Coniferz. II.—Forms of Nervation, with several Primary Nerves. 4. Nervatio Parallelodroma. Parallel nervation ; ex. Grasses. 5. Nervatio Campylodroma. Curved nervation ; ex. Musacez. 6. Nervatio Acrodroma. Convergent nervation. a. Perfecta ; ex. Conyallaria. 6. Imperfecta; ex. Arnica. 7. Nervatio Actinidroma. Jadiated nervation. a. Reteformis —netted; ex. Nepeta. 0b. Imperfecta—imperfect; ex. Urtice. ¢. Marginales—marginated ; ex. Acer. March 8.—The Botanical Society of Edinburgh were pre- sented by Dr. Carrmgton with specimens of Scapania Bartlingit, Nees, a species of Hepaticaee new to Britain. May 10.—Captain M. Norman, R.N., Madeira, read before this Society a paper “ On the Effect produced on the Operator by the Poisoning of Plants in a Herbarium.” In consequence of using an alcoholic solution of camphor and corrosive sublimate in poisoning his Madeira plants, Captain Norman had suffered twice from severe salivation. It appears that the plants were kept in a room much frequented by him, and being thus under the influence of a mercurialized atmo- sphere, he had suffered in the way he described. In the conver- sation which ensued after the reading of this paper, it was stated that none of the operators, engaged in poisoning plants for the herbarium of the University of Edinburgh, had experienced any inconvenience. Mr. Gilbert Stuart said that he had slept six months in a room where poisoned plants were kept, and had not felt any bad consequences. The only inference that could be deduced from these facts was that Captam Norman, and probably others similarly organized, are peculiarly susceptible to the effects of mercury. AmericA.—The manufacture of white paper from wood is now quite a success at the Manayunk wood-pulp works, Pennsylvania, N. America. The wood used is that of the Liriodendron tulipifera, L., or Tulip poplar, and the Abies Canadensis, Michx, or Hemlock spruce. Itis brought to the works as ordinary cord wood, and is cut into chips by means of two immense machines, having cutters attached to rotatory discs, capable of cutting from thirty to forty 400 Chronicles of Science. | July, cords of wood in twenty-four hours. ‘These chips are conveyed in wagons to the boiling-house, and placed in boilers, where the reduction to pulp is effected. The pulp thus reduced is then con- veyed to pulp-engines, is worked in these engines, and run through cleaning machines. From the cleaning machines the pulp is taken to the bleaching-house. After haying been bleached, it is then ready to be made into paper—in the same way as any other pulp. Excellent white printing paper very good for newspapers, and at a price of three cents per pound less than is charged for the same quality of paper made from rags, is manufactured from this pulp by Martin Nixon, at the Flat-rock paper-mills, adjacent to the pulp works. The wood-pulp must, however, be mixed with about twenty per cent. of straw-pulp, this mixture improving the quality of the paper. These works have been so successful, that the price of paper for newspapers has declined three cents per pound since they have been in operation. ‘This is a very great step in the progress of those arts which contribute so greatly to our comfort and civilization. Enaianp.—At the meeting of the Royal Horticultural Society, held on the Ist of May, at South Kensington, Mr. W. G. Smith exhibited a fine specimen of Morchella crassipes, Kromb., a species entirely new to Britain. This plant is admirably figured by Klotzsch in Krombholz’s magnificent work on ‘Fungi.’ It was found in red soil by Miss L. E. Lott, at King’s Kerswell, near Newton Abbot, Devonshire, at the end of April last. Osrruary Noricr.—English science has sustained a severe loss in the death of Dr. W. Harvey, F.R.S. and L.S., Professor of Botany in Trinity College, Dublin, and well-known by his valuable works on ‘ Algz,’ and on the ‘ Botany of South Africa.’ Dr. Harvey died on the 15th of May, of phthisis, at Torquay, whither he had repaired for the benefit of his health. IV. CHEMISTRY. (Including the Proceedings of the Chemical Society.) But few additions of general and popular interest have been made to the knowledge of chemical science since our last publication, M. Baudrimont has made some curious experiments illustrating the Allotropism of oxygen. It is well known that when hydrochloric acid reacts on binoxide of barium, binoxide of hydrogen is pro- duced, while by the action of the same acid on binoxide of manganese chlorine is set free. It seems clear, then, that chlorine has more affinity for barium than for the oxygen that peroxidizes 1866. ] Chemistry. ‘ 401 the barium ; while the contrary is the case with the manganese and the oxygen which peroxidizes it. This may be demonstrated by filling a bottle with chlorine and introducing some finely-powdered binoxide of barium mixed with a little water. An active efferves- cence ensues, and after a time the chlorine will be found to have disappeared, its place beg taken by oxygen, which, however, will not affect ozone paper. Another difference between the two metallic peroxides is also mentioned. Sulphovinic acid when heated with binoxide of manganese yields aldehyde; but when heated with binoxide of barium it yields oxygen, olefiant gas, ether, and sulphurous acid. Binoxide of hydrogen prepared from binoxide of barium is decomposed by binoxide of manganese. M. Baudri- mont states that he has succeeded in preparing binoxide of hydrogen from binoxide of manganese, which is decomposed by binoxide of barium. And further, the two oxygenated waters from these different sources when brought together mutually destroy each other. The author also states that when oxygenated water is sub- mitted to the action of the battery, equal volumes of hydrogen and oxygen are obtained, showing that the binoxide of hydrogen is decomposed in preference to the water. M. Baudrimont speculates reasonably enough that all bodies may exist in two allotropic modifi- cations. Hydrogen, for example, giving, as we have seen, two distinct binoxides, it is probable that it is present in distinct and complementary states in those oxides. Some new compounds of sulphur and carbon have been obtained by O. Loew. Sesquisulphide of carbon is an amorphous brown body, which decomposes into its constituents when heated to 210° C., indicating a loose state of combination of the elements. A hydro-sesquisulphide of carbon is also a brown amorphous body, having a faint odour of garlic. When this body is boiled with alkahes it gives oxalic acid and lower sulphides of carbon. By acting on a chlorime compound of hydro-sesquisulphide of carbon dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, with a solution of bromine in bisulphide, the author obtained a body which appeared to be mono- sulphide of carbon, but found it impossible to procure the com- pound perfectly pure. Among the novelties in organic chemistry, we may first allude to the discovery by Drs. Bence Jones and Dupré of a substance resembling quinine in all the tissues of the body—resembling quinine, that is, in being precipitable by the same reagents, and in being possessed of the property of fluorescence. About the chemical composition of the substance nothing is as yet known or has been made public. The substance is obtained by first treating the animal matter with a dilute acid, then neutralizing the acid solution with an alkali, and subsequently extracting the fluorescent substance with ether. Not having as yet obtained the substance in 402 Chronicles of Science. | July, a crystalline form, the discoverers have provisionally named it Animal Quinoidine. It deserves to be mentioned that the experi- ments undertaken in the course of this research showed the extreme delicacy of the fluorescence test for quinine itself. The author found that a grain of quinine dissolved in one million eight hundred parts of water showed the blue fluorescence distinctly in twenty grains of the solution. For further information on this very interesting matter, we may refer the reader to Dr. Jones’s lecture.* M. Berthelot’s continued researches on Acetylene have led him to the important discovery that at high temperatures various hydro- carbons will combine with each other, and with hydrogen to form higher carbides of hydrogen; and have also suggested to him a new theory of the origin of petroleum. . Daubrée has speculated that the alkaline metals may exist in the free state in the centre of the earth. Carbonic acid, M. Berthelot states, 1s everywhere infiltrated in the crust of the earth, and may come in contact with the alkaline metals at very high temperatures. In this way acetylides would be formed. The same acetylides, he states, would also be formed by the contact of alkaline metals with earthy carbonates below even a dull red heat. By the action of steam the alkaline acetylides so produced would set free acetylene, and this body being unable to exist under the conditions in which it must be placed, we obtain instead the products of its condensation, bodies allied to petroleum and bitumen.t ‘This view of the formation of the natural carbides of hydrogen, by purely mineral reactions, will no doubt attract much attention from chemical geologists. While speaking of the carbides of hydrogen, we must not omit to mention the discovery by Mr. Schorlemmer of a new series in that still unexhausted mime of discovery, coal-tar. These bodies are still under investigation, and we shall probably have to refer to them on another occasion. In analytical and technical chemistry we have observed nothing that requires a notice. In chemical literature a few useful books have appeared. Mr. H. Spencer, B.A., has. published a very useful book, ‘Hlements of Qualitative Chemical Analysis,’ which is unfortunately disfigured by a large number of errata, not all of which are corrected in the long table at the beginning of the work. This is a great fault in a book intended for beginners, who will seldom take the trouble to make the corrections before they commence to use the book. One very useful feature in the work is the explanation of all the reactions by equations. It need only be added, that the symbols and equations are expressed in the new system of notation, which alone will give the work a value in the estimation of many. * *Chemical News, April 27, 1866. + ‘Comptes Rendus,’ lxii., p. 949. 1866. | Chemistry. 403 A_new edition of Bowman’s ‘Practical Chemistry,’ edited by Mr. Bloxam, has been issued. In this edition the editor has omitted the symbols and equations ; but at the same time he has contributed considerably to the practical value of the work by re- arranging and adding to the analytical part. A ‘Report of the Proceedings of the Chemical Department of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, made by the chemist to the Society, Dr. Anderson, deserves the attention of agricultural chemists. In it Dr. Anderson shows, in opposition to Liebig, that the manurial value of uric acid is quite equal to that of the other nitrogenized ingredients of Peruvian guano. There is also a very useful paper “On the Growth of the Bean Plant,” and another “On the Adulteration of Oil-cake.” PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY. On March 1, Professor Church made a communication “On New and Rare Cornish Minerals;” and Mr. J. A. R. Newlands read a paper, entitled “The Law of Octaves, and the Causes of Numerical Relations among the Atomic Weights.” Professor Wanklyn described “A New Method of Forming Organo-metallic Bodies.” A paper, by Mr. C. Wright, “On the Action of Sunlight upon Sensitive Photographic Papers,” was also read. The author has made an extensive series of experiments in order to determine the relative sensitiveness of paper prepared with different reagents. His practical results are given in the following table :-— Paper prepared with Chloride of Silver . : . 1-000 35 Chloriodide of Silver . = on O78 “ Chlorobromide of Silver . - 4:022 5 Bromide of Silver . > 25396 Rs Bromiodide of Silver . F - 4°060 On March 25, Dr. Hugo Miller read a paper “On Hydro- eyan-Rosaniline.” When aqueous solutions of a salt of rosaniline and of cyanide of potassium are mixed, the red colour of the rosani- line salt is destroyed, and a white precipitate of the compound above- named is formed. ‘The production of this compound affords, the author believes, the means of determining the commercial value of samples of rosaniline, the crystallization of which, he has found, to be no proof of purity. At the same meeting, Dr. Frankland gave an account of “ Metropolis Waters during the years 1865-66,” founded upon the results of his monthly analyses. This, with a very useful account of the analytical methods adopted, will be found in the ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society,’ for June, 1866. At the next meeting, on April 5, Mr. J. Spiller read a paper 404 Chronicles of Science. [ July, “On the Estimation of Phosphorus in Iron and Steel.” The process usually adopted by analysts is that of Fresenius, which the author finds may be considerably curtailed without impairing the accuracy of the results. Following Fresenius as far as the partial reduction of the ferric solution by sulphurous acid, Mr. Spiller dis- penses with the next step—precipitating the phosphoric acid with the remaining ferric oxide by boiling with acetate of ammonia—and adds sesquicarbonate of ammonia to the partially reduced solution until the precipitate, at first red, becomes greenish, showing the precipitation of some ferrous oxide. The temperature of the solution must not exceed 70° or 75° Fah. while this part of the operation is conducted. The precipitate being collected, is next dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and to the warm solution is added in succession citric acid, ammonia in excess, and sulphide of ammonium. By this means the whole of the iron is precipitated, and may be separated by filtration. The filtrate being slowly evaporated with full exposure to air, and the sulphur deposited removed, the phosphoric acid may be precipitated in the usual way. Professor Wanklyn afterwards read a paper “On Magnesium,” showing the ordinary magnesium ribbon of commerce to be re- markably pure, and pointing out the resistance offered by this metal to the action of chlorine, bromine, and iodine. The author also showed that magnesium-amalgam decomposes water with greater facility than sodium amalgam. Mr. E. T. Chapman then made some observations “On Mercury-Ethyl,’ and Mr. W. A. Tilden read a paper, entitled “Further Contributions to the History of the Periodides of Organie Bases.” Mr. M‘Leod afterwards exhibited an experiment, showing, on a large scale, the formation of acetylene by the incomplete combustion of marsh gas.* Mr. M‘Leod employed the form of apparatus used by Dr. Hofmann to show the combustion of oxygen in hydrogen, ammonia, or coal gas, in the present experiment burning the oxygen (atmospheric air may be employed) in an atmosphere of marsh gas,t and causing the products of combustion to pass into an ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride. Mr. M‘Leod then showed the explosive properties of the characteristic red precipitate pro- duced by acetylene in the copper solution, and hitherto called acetylide of copper, but the exact composition of which has not yet been made known. ‘The author believes it to contain cuprous oxide in combination with the acetylide. Dr. Hofmann subsequently made some observations “On the Synthesis of Guanidine.” * ¢ Journal of Science’ for April, p. 266. + The apparatus will be found described in the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society’ for May, 1866. ~ a io 1866. | Entomology. 405 On April 19, Professor G. C. Foster delivered a lecture “On the Thermal Phenomena accompanying Chemical Action ;” and papers “On Picric and Oxypicric Ethers” were communicated by Drs. Stenhouse and H. Miller. On May 3, Dr. J. H. Gladstone read some notes “On Pyro- phosphodiamic Acid;” and Mr. R. Warington, junior, gave an account of his “ Researches on the Phosphates of Calcium, and upon the Solubility of Tricalcic Phosphate.” The latter showed that the solubility of the Tricalcic Phosphate was much greater in water containing chloride of ammonium, or saturated with carbonic acid, than in pure water. At the meeting on May 17, several papers were read, of which we can only give the titles:—“On the Production of Acetic and Propionic Acids from Amylic Alcohol,” by Mr. E. T. Chapman ; “On the Oxidation of Ethylamine,” by Professor Wanklyn and Mr. K. T. Chapman; “On the Action of Acids on Napthylamine,” by Mr. Chapman. On the same evening Sir Robert Kane gave an account of “Some Derivatives of Acetone,” and the Rev. T. Gibsone gave the outline of a criticism of “ Dalton’s and Gay Lussac’s Formule for the Calculation of Vapour Densities.” Afterwards a paper, by Mr. Hadow, ‘‘ On the Nitro-prussides, their Composition and Manufacture,” was read. ‘The mode of manufacture proposed by the author is complicated, but its success was proved by a large and beautiful specimen of crystallized nitro-prusside of sodium exhibited at a previous meeting. For the production of this body the author first passes nitrous acid, formed by the action of nitric acid on starch, into a solution of caustic soda. A calculated quantity of this solution of nitrite of soda is then added to a mixture of acetic acid, ferridcyanide of potassium, and corrosive sublimate. A rather complicated reaction ensues, and the solution will contain nitro- prusside of sodium, cyanide of mercury, acetate and chloride of potassium, which may be separated by crystallization. V. ENTOMOLOGY. (Including the Proceedings of the Entomological Society.) Tue devastation of a species of white ant in St. Helena was the subject of a communication from Mr, E. L. Layard, made to the Entomological Society at its meeting in May. Introduced in timber from the west coast of Africa, about twenty years ago, it had latterly become so destructive as to threaten the ruin of James Town. Everything made of wood was destroyed ; the books of the public library had been devoured, the theological works being especially preferred, because, it is supposed, less used, and the 406 Chronicles of Science. [July, insects, therefore, less disturbed in them than in the others. Partially Kyanized wood had been found ineffectual to prevent their eating through to the untainted part beyond ; and tin-plate, owing to the corrosion of the metal from the probably acid secretion of the animals, afforded no permanent protection. So far the ravages had been confined to the town. At a recent meeting of the Oxford Microscopical Society, Mr. Robertson exhibited some Acari obtained from the chest and abdomen of a common fowl, which had been killed for the purpose of dissection. They presented the appearance of small white specks on the peritoneum, and in the chest around the bifurcation of the trachea ; they were also dotted over the surface of the lungs. All the acart had four pairs of legs. We have lately received a work on Italian Entomology, pub- lished at Padua. It is entitled ‘ Entomologia Vicentina,’ and com- prises a list of imsects of all orders found in the province of Vicenza, with descriptions of the commoner species. It is by the “ Abate Francesco Disconzi,” and forms a royal octavo volume of 318 pages and 18 plates. Such a work from the Italian press deserves to be recorded in the ‘“ Chronicles.” The Royal Society of Sciences of Liege has just issued the first part of Dr. Chapuis’ monograph of the Scolytidx, with excellent outline figures representing all the species. These are the insects— one of which is our well-known Scolytus destructor—which are popularly supposed to do so much injury to trees. There is little doubt, however, that they attack exclusively trees in a state of decay, and that therefore, as has been well observed by Mr. Wallace, they are to be regarded rather as benefactors, “ teaching us, by their presence, that there is something wrong” than as enemies. To those in want of a good and reliable work on our native Coleoptera, we would recommend Mr. Rye’s ‘ British Beetles,’ just published, with sixteen coloured plates—the best as to the drawing and engraving this country can produce ; it is at ten-and-sixpence, a marvel of cheapness. If “not, i the common sense of the term, a popular book, it is, in fact, something much better,” and it has the advantage over many popular books, of being written by one who understands his subject. ENtTOMOLOGICAL Socrery. March.—At this meeting two Japanese collections of insects were exhibited, one by Mr. Stevens from Hakodadi, the other by M. Tegetmeier from Nagasaki, formed by a native. These and other collections clearly prove that Japan, like Northern Asia generally, derives the insect portion of its fauna from Europe, 1866. | Entomology. 407 Several nests of the Vespa sylvestris were exhibited by Mr. F. Smith ; many of these were interesting from their abnormal forms, the workers having been deprived of their queens. A large and important collection of insects was also exhibited by the Rev. 0. FE Cambridge, made by himself in the Holy Land. This, it was understood, would form a portion of the materials to be used by the Rey. H. B. Tristram in his forthcoming work on the natural history of that country. In reference to a twig of a mulberry-tree sent from Saugor by Captain Alexander, on which were deposited a multitude of eggs of a species of Ascalaphus, Mr. McLachlan remarked on the statement made by Geoffroy that the Myrmeleon fornmicarius laid eggs which never produced anything ; that these so-called eges were the meconium, which, instead of being voided in a liquid shape, here took the form of egg-like bodies. A paper was read by Mr. Edward Saunders, entitled “A Catalogue of the Buprestidz collected in Siam, by the late M. Mouhot.” Le com- prised three new genera and thirty-three new species. April.—aA_ very curious arrangement of the eggs of a species of Chrysopa (?) from Australia was ‘brought under the notice of this meeting by Mr. W. Wilson Saunders ; they were arranged in a line on the bark of a tree, each egg supported on a stalk, the first, third, fifth, and so on, placed longitudinally and at right angles with the bark, while the intervening numbers were placed transversely at an angle of about 45°. Mr. Rogers sent for exhibition several indi- viduals of Pimpla oculatoria, which he had bred from the egg-bag of a spider, on which it was parasitic. Mr. J. Jenner Weir exhibited some larvee of the common meal-worm (Tenebrio molitor), which had done great damage in an extensive cellar by eating through the corks of bottles containing port wine, and thus allowing it to escape; they had also attacked the corks of ‘the sherry bottles, but had invariably stopped short of eating through them. It was supposed that these larvee had been introduced in the bran which had been used for packing the bottles. Mr. W. W. Saunders remarked that a quantity of manufactured corks in one of the London Docks had been destroyed by the larvae of Dermestes lardarius, which were brought into the docks in a cargo of skins infested by these insects. Mr. F. Smith exhibited a specimen of Bembex olivacea, taken near Gloucester ; the insect was figured as British by Donovan, but its claims as a British species have long been doubted. May.—Mr. W. Wilson Saunders exhibited a very remarkable nest—supposed to be a spider’s—from New South Wales, formed by bending a stout lanceolate leaf at certain definite angles into four portions, which, beg cemented in some way at the edges, presented the figure of a nearly perfect cone; the base of the leat’ constituted the floor, one side being left uncemented, evidently for VOL, III. 25 408 Chronicles of Science. [July, entry and exit, and as this was underneath and skilfully protected by the side immediately above it, the whole must have been quite impervious to rain. Mr. Stainton exhibited a number of highly- finished drawings of the larve of various species of Miero- lepidoptera, collected at Cannes, and of their mining operations in the parenchyma of the leaves of the plants affected by them. Mr. Newman sent for exhibition some dead larvee of Hepialus lupulinus. The interior of their bodies had been occupied by some species of fungus, which had sent out their mycelia in all directions through the skin. Mr. Janson exhibited Throscus elateroides, taken at Rochester, and new to Britam. Mr. E. L. Layard called the attention of the meeting to the devastation of the white ants at St. Helena. The Rey. Douglas Timmins contributed a paper entitled “Notes on the Insects of Hyeres.” VI. GEOGRAPHY. (Including Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.) THE newest discovery in geography must necessarily be that fresh distribution of land which has taken place since our last report. We are now speaking of physical distributions, for the political changes of Europe cannot well be chronicled in a scientific record until they are so well known to the world in general that they have lost all interest, whereas the works of nature, partaking, to some degree, indeed, of the capriciousness of human proceedings, still have a stability in themselves, or, at all events, excite so little hostility, that they may be set down at once as soon as they have taken place, without awaiting for the subsidence of the effervescence of their first appearance. The new distribution of land to which we refer, then, is not a partition of already existing territory among rival States, new boundaries to Denmark, Prussia, Austria, Italy, France, which will make antiquated the newest maps of Europe we have in our libraries, and will cause infinite perplexity to those who have to instruct the ingenuous youth from manuals, the result of careful filtering of standard works of some years back; but the actual redistribution of land and water in the Mediterranean by the appearance of a new volcanic island in the Bay of Santorin, an island in the Archipelago, about half-way between Europe and Asia, and a little way to the north of Crete. Thus this eruption, unlike political ones, is confined to the extreme south-eastern portion of the kingdom of Greece ; but it resembles its prototypes to which we have referred in threaten- ing destruction to the old whilst it promises that which is new. The exploration of Palestine has proceeded with excellent suc- — a ae 1866. | Geography. 409 cess—maps have been corrected and improved, positions of many sites determined astronomically, a great number of important photographs prepared, two or three localities excavated, and steps taken towards the identification of some disputed sites. At the same time that much steady progress has been made, no startling discoveries have rewarded the labourers, and though the im- portance of all their discoveries cannot as yet be justly determined, nothing has yet transpired that would lead us to suppose that any- thing very new or very important has been brought to light. For some time past a series of papers have appeared in the ‘ Reader,’ being translations of a “ Note on the Formation of the Basin of the Dead Sea, and on the Changes which have taken place in the Level of the Lake,” by M. Louis Lartet, a subject that belongs more properly to geology than geography, but which is important enough from both points of view to merit attention. Notwithstanding the tragical fate of Baron von der Decken, African exploration still continues to afford excitement to many travellers of various tastes and temperaments. The German Niippel is on a journey to Abyssinia, in which undertaking he is assisted by a grant from the Senate of Frankfort. The fate of Englishmen, the survivors of the wreck of the St. Abbs Indiaman, supposed to be in captivity among the Somali, has caused much excitement. Besides the means for their recognition mentioned below, the Rev. Mr. Rebmann, a missionary stationed at Rabbai Mpia, near Mombaz, has made several journeys into the interior, and meditates, if he can obtain further support, a more extensive search. Herr Gerhard Roblfs intends to penetrate, if possible, to Wadai, with a view to recover- ing, if possible, the papers of Edward Vogel, who there met with his death. A former servant of Vogel’s, and an eye-witness of his death, promises to accompany him. Professor Lepsius, too, has gone to the northern coast of Africa, and has been fortunate enough to meet with a tablet of the same sort as the Rosetta Stone—v7z., an inscription in hieroglyphic and demotic characters, accompanied by a Greek translation, which will no doubt give additional confirmation and assistance to Augyptolo- gists. Besides these travellers, the Roman Catholic missionaries have published several works on the languages of Central Africa. The latest of these was published at Brixen, on the great pass from the Tyrol into Italy, and consists of a grammar and dictionary of the Dinka tongue. The travellers educated in Africa (if we may so speak of the later life of one of these) carry into other continents the research and perseverance they have acquired in that remarkable quarter of the globe. Captain Burton, whose African exploits have made us almost forget his Asiatic deeds, has found a new sphere in South America. He has traversed the Rio Iguipe, and having discovered pal gee 2 410 Chronicles of Science. [ July; a volcano in a district (Brazil) hitherto considered devoid of these phenomena, he is intending, as soon as the weather will permit him, to continue his research. Further north, General Lyon, of the Southern States, has discovered one of the ancient cities of Mexico, the ruins, just as they were deserted, being surrounded and blocked up by trees. ; We have to announce the death of Mr. John MacDougal Stuart, the explorer of a large portion of the Australian continent. After two journeys into the interior, he succeeded in crossing from Southern Australia to the north coast, a feat acknowledged by sub- stantial grants from the colonial legislature, and Honorary Fellow- ships of the Royal Geographical Society of London, and that of Berlin. PROCEEDINGS OF THE Roya GEOGRAPHICAL Socrery. A trustworthy account of the barbarous murder of Baron yon der Decken, concerning whose fate we were in doubt when our last report was written, has been received through the British Consul at Zanzibar, Colonel Playfair. It will be remembered that the Baron had left his party in charge of a wrecked steamer, and had gone back to Berdera with Dr. Link. The camp in which this party remained was attacked by a band of Somali, and Lieutenant Schickh, and those under his command, were compelled to descend to the coast, whence they hoped to send assistance to the Baron. In the meantime the latter lost his boat, and was separated from his companion. Both attempted to return to the wreck, in which attempt the Doctor was successful; but each was surrounded by the natives and barbarously murdered. The murderers are far from all European influence, and consequently not amenable to justice. The Sultan of Berdera is supposed to have connived at this cruelty. In connection with this subject a paper, by Colonel Rigby, was read on Englishmen in captivity in Somali land, in which it was stated that there was a great probability that some of the crew of the St. Abbs Indiaman were still living in bondage among this people. It has since been announced that the Political Resident at Aden has commissioned a very intelligent Somali, who has been interpreter in the police court, to return to his native country and determine positively whether any Europeans are there or not. } ‘Travellers’ tales” have become proverbial for their untrust- worthiness ; but much as we are apt to distrust the accounts of men who have journeyed over ground not hitherto traversed, it is seldom that we find a case so glaring as that detected by Sir H. Rawlinson, of a lengthy account of a journey that was never undertaken. In a paper, entitled “Observations on a Memoir 1866. | Geography. 411 recently published by M. Veniukof, on the Pamin Region in Central Asia,” Sir H. Rawlinson proved tolerably satisfactorily that M. Veniukof and the Russian geographers, as well as Kiepert and Stanford, had published maps and accounts of a little-known region lying between the northern frontier of Kashmir and the south of the Russian empire, mainly in reliance on a MS. journal of travels, discovered in the archives of the Military Topographical Depot at St. Petersburg, purporting to be written by a German gentleman named Georg Ludwig von ——, who had been em- ployed by the East India Company to purchase horses for them, but which MS. journal was a groundless forgery. The original work is described to be elaborately furnished with maps and sketches, to be accompanied by a French translation (in a separate volume) of the German original. ‘The mention of an active volcano, north of Srinagur, in a well-surveyed province, where no such volcano is known—the traversing 120 miles of difficult mountainous country in two days, and other improbable distances—the mention of a Lieu- tenant Harvey, whose existence is unknown to the Indian Army List—the want of agreement of names with any that are known—the omission of the mention of Yaks or wild goats, and the mention of black rabbits, as yet unknown in Central Asia, with many other improbabilities, make the authority of the MS. rather more than doubtful. The Leichhardt expedition into the interior of Australia has met with some reverses in the loss of all its horses, and in sufterings amongst the explorers from drought. The camels, however, sur- vive, and the expedition will continue its work. The Peninsula of Sinai has been well surveyed around its coast and in a line across its northern boundary, by the Rev. F. W. Holland, who holds opinions different from those of most travellers on the subject of the passage of the Israelites. In an interesting paper on the subject, the author described various roads, ruins, &c., discovered by him in unfrequented localities, bespeaking a period of considerable population and civilization in the interior of this now deserted peninsula. The Sinaitic inscriptions and ancient turquoise mines (some of which have been mistaken for copper mines) yielded him some important results, and might be expected to produce more, if they were fully and carefully investigated. Owing, we suppose, to the influence of a prominent member of the Geographical Society, who constantly views with suspicion the politics of this region, Central Asia contributes a considerable share to the Proceedings. Captain T. G. Montgomerie, R.E., contributed a paper on a subject with which he was not personally acquainted—“The Geographical Position of Yarkund and other places in Central Asia.” The cir- cumstance which led this gentleman to be interested in this subject 412 Chronicles of Setence. [July, has been his employment in the trigonometrical survey of India by the Government; and whilst in this position he endeavoured to extend his knowledge beyond the limits of the country assigned to him. Whilst occupied in this manner he succeeded in becoming acquainted with a Moonshee, named Mohammed-i-Hameed, suffi- ciently instructed to be able to work ordinary surveying instruments and willing to convey those entrusted to his charge as far as was required of him. This man started and accomplished the main objects of his mission; but, unfortunately, was unable to return. He died within a short distance of the termination of this journey. His papers, however, were conveyed to Captain Montgomerie, who has obtained some very important results from them. Yarkund has proved to be in latitude 38° 19’ 46”; longitude, 77° 30’ E., and at an altitude of 4,000 feet ; the distance from Jummoor is said to be 430 miles, so that the narrowest breadth of this portion of the Himalayan range cannot be estimated at less than 400 miles, a distance that it took the Moonshee fifty-one days to traverse, forty- tive of which were spent at a greater elevation than 9,000 feet, and twenty-five at not less than 25,000. The climate seems to be severe ; the mass of the people Mahommedan, though under Chinese rule. Commander Forbes furnished a paper “ On a Journey to the Western Shore of Volcano Bay im Yesso,” which described the volcanic phenomena of this northernmost island of the Japanese empire, and gave an account of the Ainos, a race of hairy men supposed by some to belong to a different and more aboriginal race than the present Japanese, a position Professor Huxley to some extent controverts on the authority of similar conformation of skulls, which, though elongated, are distinct from the Esquimaux, and altogether unlike the crania of the races of Hastern Asia. Other papers and communications read before the Society have been—“ On the Settlement of Lukoja on the Niger,” by Mr. T. Valentine Robins; A letter from Commodore Eardley Wilmot, Commander-in-Chief of the West African Station, “On the Niger Settlement ;” “A Description of Peking,” by Mr. W. Lockhart, M.R.CS.; “On a Visit to Dana, in Tibet,” by Captain A. Bennet. At the anniversary meeting of the Society, the medals were awarded as follows:—The Founder’s, to Dr. Thomas Thomson, M.D., for his exploration of the Western Himalayas and Thibet, and for his work thereon; the Patron’s, to Mr. William Chandless, M.A., for his survey of the River Purus. M. Du Chaillu received one hundred guineas to reimburse him for the loss of his mstru- ments in Western Africa. Sir Roderick Murchison delivered a lengthy address, which alluded first to the deaths of Fellows during the last year. He then described the advance made of late in chartography and meteor- 1866. | Geology and Paleontology. 413 ological observation and registration. Dr. Livingstone has arrived at the mouth of the Livuma River, whence he will advance into the interior, to supplement, and as far as possible reconcile, the dis- coveries of Speke, Grant, Burton, and Baker. Mr. Whymper, of Matterhorn celebrity, accompanied by a well-trained Danish guide, is meditating a trip to the glaciers of the interior of Greenland. Central Asia is receiving much attention at the hands of Russian geographers, especially in the neighbourhood of the mountains lying between Little Thibet and Turkistan, a range which, for 450 miles, has peaks rising from 21,000 to 28,300 feet above the level of the sea. VII. GEOLOGY AND PALAXONTOLOGY. (Including the Proceedings of the Geological Society.) We cannot pretend to chronicle this quarter a very extensive list of new and important discoveries ; but some few real advances have been made, and several questions of theoretical interest are still under discussion. To begin, Dr. E. Percival Wright has made public the remark- able results of a systematic search for fossils at the Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny, the expense of the exploration having been defrayed by a grant from the British Association. Professor Huxley and Dr. Wright have been able to distinguish in the collection made, species of no less than six genera of Labyrinthodonts, of which at least five, named respectively Urocordylus, Ophiderpeton, Ichthyerpeton, Keraterpeton, and Lepterpeton, are new, while the sixth may be the known genus Anthracosawrus of the Glasgow coal-field. The authors therefore justly remark, that “one Irish coal-pit has thus yielded, in the course of a few months, by careful exploration, more genera than are known from all the American coal-fields, and nearly as many as have been obtained from Europe generally.” Besides these genera, however, there are indications of the existence of several others, as well as a large collection of fish-remains, including anew genus of ganoids, which is to receive the name of Campy- loplewron. It appears that Ophiderpeton may be taken to repre- sent either the type of Amphiuma or that of Cxeilia amongst existing Batrachia, while the rest fall into the salamandroid division, the better known genus Archxgosaurus being the ancient represent- ative of the Perennibranchiata. Consequently the tailless froglike form is the only one now unknown from Carboniferous strata, and, curiously enough, that is precisely the form in which the original genus Labyrinthodon was erroneously restored at the time of its discovery. 414 Chronicles of Science. [July, The recent eruptions in the neighbourhood of the Kaimeni Islands have afforded material for numberless newspaper paragraphs, and an excellent excuse for an agreeable trip to some half-dozen geologists and an untold number of tourists; but we are not aware that they have contributed much to our knowledge of volcanic phe- nomena. Heaps cf lava, a new fissure, and even two new islands, though startling enough to those living in their immediate vicinity, have no special interest for the geologist, and those men of science who have visited the spot have either discovered very little of theo- retical importance or have not yet made their discoveries known. We must, however, notice the report of M. Fouqué to the French Academy of Sciences, by which learned body he was sent to Santorin. From what he writes, it appears that neither the newly-formed George promontory of Nea Kaimeni nor the new island of Aphroessa is a true crater, but merely a heap of lava; that the eruptions have been on a very small scale and of an insignificant degree of intensity, and that the terror of the inhabitants was to a great extent created through the burning of a ship and the death of its captain by volcanic action. M. Fouqué also records the appearance of another new islet, to which he gave the name of Réka, situated in a line with the George promontory and the island Aphroessa. In con- sequence of the disengagement of combustible gases mixed with salts of soda from the lava of Aphroessa, that island has generally been enveloped in a yellow flame. If M. Fouqué is right in this respect, it is certain that under favourable circumstances volcanic eruptions may be accompanied by flame. ‘To some it may appear extraordinary to question the fact, as the emission of flames is popu- larly supposed to be one of the chief characteristics of such pheno- mena; but it is well known that these apparent flames are merely the reflection of the colour of the liquid lava on the scoriz and lapilli ejected by the volcano, consequently it has been doubted whether flames ever occur during an eruption, and even now it seems more probable that they occur after the event than that they accompany it. Mr. Croll’s speculations on cosmical causes of changes of tem- perature and on the submergence of the northern hemisphere during the Glacial Period have continued under discussion ; but the nature of the controversy has somewhat changed, and the medium is now the high-class ‘ Philosophical Magazine.’ The state of the case previous to this discussion may be thus stated :—Post-phocene marine shells of an Arctic character have been found in England at various heights up to 2,300 feet above the sea-level, and this has ordinarily been considered a proof of submergence to that extent during the Glacial Period ; but it has been thought a little extra- vagant by some geologists to suppose that the land could have been really upheaved so many hundred feet since so recent a date. Mr. 1866. | Geology and Palxontology. 415 Croll’s notion of an ice-cap is one of the mgeniously devised loop- holes of escape, which command admiration and deserve success. They obtain the first im abundance, the second in a very slight degree. ”'The March number of the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ contained a very elaborate mathematical paper by Mr. Heath, in which he showed that if Mr. Croll’s theory “ cannot explain elevations or depressions of 1,000 feet, it does teach us there is an agency at work in nature, which had perhaps been overlooked, which must be. borne in mind in all speculations where tens of feet are material.” We are very glad that Mr. Croll can be said to have done so much service inci- dentally. In the April number, however, Mr. Croll makes an onslaught on Mr. Heath, restates his theory of an ice-cap, and recalls one or two recantations he had previously made. His paper is followed by a note by Professor W. Thomson, who gives a for- mula for the calculation of the depression caused by the flow of water to the pole in consequence of the ice-cap altering the centre of gravity. In the May number of the same periodical Mr. Croll was vigorously attacked by Mr. J. Carrick Moore and _ Professor Haughton; two assailants of undoubted power, both mathemati- cians and both geologists—a rare combination. It is quite obvious that the ice which Mr. Croll supposes to have “ capped” the North Pole durmg the Glacial Period must have been derived either entirely from that now existing round the South Pole, or more or less from the water of the present seas. Mr. Carrick Moore assumes, in the first place, that the ice was obtained at the expense of the sea, and shows that an ice-cap, as supposed by Mr. Croll, of 7,000 feet thickness at the pole, would, on this view, cause at lat. 60°, a depression of the sea level, not an elevation, to the extent of 833 feet, in consequence of the drain of sea-water exceeding the elevation caused by the attraction of the ice-cap to that extent. Secondly, he proves that if the ice which formerly existed in the northern hemisphere had been derived from the southern, and has now returned there, an ice-cap of a uniform thickness of 2,000 feet over the Antarctic regions, which is certainly an exaggerated esti- mate of the existing ice, would not supply one-twentieth part of that required to cause a submersion of the land at lat. 60° to the extent of 2,300 feet. Finally, Mr. Carrick Moore observes that, “as the quantity of ice to be supplied by the melting of that at the south pole is so greatly disproportionate to its object, it is unnecessary to discuss what appears to me to have been too lightly assumed—viz. that when one pole is under glacial conditions, the opposite will be entirely free from ice.” With respect to Mr. Croll’s notion of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit being connected with changes of climate, the Rey. 416 Chonicles of Science. [July, Professor Haughton remarks that the law received by astronomers is—“ That the quantity of heat received per annum from the sun varies inversely as the minor axis of the orbit,” that is to say, the heat ¢nereases with the eccentricity. Mr. Croll’s view* was based on a contrary opinion—namely, that the greater the eccentricity the colder the chmate. In point of fact, however, he has not only to prove that astronomers are wrong, but also that the difference in temperature owing to the eccentricity of the orbit is sufficiently great to be the determining cause of a Glacial Period. It is satisfactory to learn that the conclusions of mathematicians respecting the ice-cap theory correspond with those arrived at by a study of facts. Indeed, Mr. Croll has never yet, we believe, attempted to show that the known phenomena of the Glacial Period square with his theories ; and unless he can do that, they would not advance us a step, no matter how beautifully symmetrical or mathematically exact they might be. At present we are merely discussing whether they are extraneously possible; their intrinsic probability is quite another question. Mr. John Evans, of flint implement celebrity, has lately pro- pounded before the Royal Society another theory of the cause of supposed changes in the earth’s axis of rotation. He takes the case of a sphere consisting of a mass of viscid or fluid matter, sur- rounded by a crust of inconsiderable thickness, and ina condition of revolution about a given axis. He then supposes the equilibrium to be disturbed by the protrusion of a portion of the crust some- where between one of the poles of the sphere and its equator. The result would be, as Mr. Evans states, that the greater centrifugal force possessed by this protruded portion would tend to bring it towards the equator, and thus alter the axis of rotation of the external crust, which would adjust itself about the internal plastic and still spherical mass within. The rotation of the sphere and this excess of centrifugal force possessed by the protruded portion would cause the latter to describe a spiral, as it were, of gradually increasing dimensions, until at last it became in the line of the equator of the sphere, and described a circle, when the axis of rotation would again become fixed until some fresh cause of dis- turbance produced a repetition of the process. In the same manner Mr. Evans supposes the upheaval of large mountain-masses to have operated on the earth’s axis of rotation, the only distinction he draws being that, from the spheroidicity of its figure, there would be more difficulty in the crust adjusting itself over the fluid nucleus. This theory looks very plausible, but if we inquire a little further into the case of the supposed sphere, we shall get an indication of the kind of difficulty it fails to meet when applied to the earth. ‘Imagine a second mass to be protruded after the first shall have * «Phil. Mag.,’ Jan., 1866. ~*~ — 1866. | Geology and Palexontology. 417 arrived at the equator. Before we had to deal with a sphere having no tendency to revolve on one particular axis more than on another ; but now there is resistance to be overcome—a resistance intensified by the rotatory motion of the sphere. So, in the case of the oblately spheroidal earth, for a mountain-mass to affect the axis of rotation it must possess a centrifugal force sufficient to over- come the resistance presented by that of the greater protrusion of the earth at the equator, that protrusion being equal to a belt 64 miles thick at the equator. For some months past geologists have been awaiting with curiosity the publication of the details of an alleged discovery of Bracklesham fossils in beds beneath the Landénien inférieur (Thanet sands) of Belgium. It was felt that if this discovery were really such as it was represented to be, the “Colony” prin- ciple must be admitted as an essential element of uncertainty in the determination of the age of a stratum from the evidence of its fossils. Now that MM. Cornet and Briart’s paper has been pub- lished,* we are in a position to judge of the value of the evidence on which this asserted discovery rests. It appears that a well- section at Obourg, near Mons, revealed sandy beds underlain by limestones, and that these limestones yielded twenty-two species of Bracklesham (Calcaire Grossier) fossils, with about 120 others, mostly new. The sandy beds are considered to be identical with those near Angres and Tournay, which yield Pholadomya Koninckii, and are therefore of Landenian age. The proofs of this identity rest partly on a certain amount of lithological corre- spondence, and partly on sections which seem to prove the unin- terrupted continuity of the strata from one locality to the other. But it does not appear that Pholadomya Konincki has yet been obtained from the same section as the Bracklesham fossils. After an endeavour to weigh this evidence impartially and without prejudice, it appears to us that the following is a fair conclusion :— The evidence would be sufficient to establish, until disproved, the position assigned to these fossils by MM. Cornet and Briart, if no violation of previously received geological principles were involved ; but, under existing circumstances, this Tertiary “colony ” cannot be considered authentic until Pholadomya Koninckii, or some equally conclusive fossil, has been found in direct superposition to the Bracklesham shells. Even then the case would seem to be as good for an extension of the range of Pholadomya Koninckit as for the “ Calcaire Grossier ” colony. The ‘ Geological Magazine’ for the past three months contains * “Note sur la découverte dans le Hainaut, en dessous des sables rapportés par Dumont au Systeme Landénien d’un Calcaire grossier avec faune Tertiaire.” Par MM. F. L. Cornet et A. Briart. ‘ Bull. Acad, Roy., Belgique,’ 2™° série, vol. xx., LANG 418 Chronicles of Science. [ July, so many interesting papers, that our space will not allow us to do justice to them all. In the March number, Mr. 8. V. Wood, jun., concludes his memoir on the structure of the Thames Valley. His conclusions are rather heterodox, and could only be understood after a careful perusal of the paper. The most remarkable inference is that the south side of the Thames Valley was subjected to violent convulsions after the deposition of the brick-earth deposits, and the author gives sections showing several faults of very recent date. He also states that in the present Thames Valley there is “ nothing analogous to terrace-formation, or to the modification of an estuary by the successive elevation of the land and cutting down of its bed, until the estuary has become a river.” He considers the brick-earth deposits to be of three different ages, and the “ upheaval of portions of the original valley, the dislocation of its deposits, and the extensive denudation of the uppermost of them,” &c., to have taken place after the deposition of the newest of the three. These and many other conclusions are contained in a paper of about thirteen pages, and if Mr. Wood finds that geologists do not accept them, he ought not to be surprised. It would require all those thirteen pages to prove conclusively one of his inferences—e.g. that the brick-earths of the Thames Valley are of three distinct ages. There is hardly a fragment of evidence, whether paleontological, strategraphical, or lithological, given in support of a single state- ment ; and it really appears as if the author considered matters of fact too trifling for publication. We recommend Mr. Wood to expand his thirteen pages into a couple of hundred, and give in full the evidence on which his conclusions rest. Professor Phillips describes a new species of Libellula from the Stonesfield slate, and starts the question whether the Oolitic insects “manifest any special affinity with congeneric forms now visible in Australia, as do the Cycads, Waldheimia, Trigonia, Cucullea, and Phascolotheria, which are their companions in the deposits of Stonesfield, with the plants, shells, and mammals of that old- fashioned corner of the earth.” This is a captivating inquiry for an entomologist, and we hope it will be taken up by a competent authority. Mr. E. C. H. Day gives a paper “On an Ancient Beach and a submerged Forest near Wissant,” and another “ On a Raised Beach and other recent formations near Weston-super-Mare.” In the first paper Mr. Day asks, “ Why has Wissant ceased to be a Port?” and he suggests that it is not because “the growth of the sand-dunes had obliterated its harbour,” but because of the harbour having been silted up, the shoal which formerly acted as a natural breakwater having been gradually destroyed. ‘The description of the raised beach is also interesting in connection with the questions recently discussed by My. Prestwich in describing the neighbouring beach of Sangatte. 1866.] Geology and Palxontology. 419 In the April number, Captain Hutton gives an interesting sketch of the geology of Malta, and Professor Rupert Jones adds some notes on the fossils from each of the strata described. The Rev. P. B. Brodie contributes a paper “On a Deposit of Phosphatic Nodules in the Lower Greensand at Sandy, Bedfordshire.” Mr. Mackintosh supplements his paper, “The Sea versus Rain and Frost,” by one entitled “The Sea against Rivers ; or, the Origin of Valleys.” Mr. Wyatt Edgell describes a new Lichas from the Llandilo Flags; and Professor Church gives a note on Chinese figure-stones. We should have been tempted to discuss Mr. Mackintosh’s paper had it not been ably met by a paper in the May number from the pen of a very eminent geologist, Mr. Poulett Scrope, M.P. The author’s arguments are chiefly drawn from the Auvergne district, and he conclusively shows how great has been the influence of “ Rain and Rivers” in scooping out valleys in that district. He also adds that they have done their work “ wherever land lay exposed to their influence above the protecting surface of the great waters.” But Mr. Scrope is not a red-hot partisan, as will be seen by his concluding sentence: ‘The object of this paper is simply to suggest that the two denuding agencies have been always at work upon the surface of the earth, and that there is ample reason to consider the one to have produced effects quite as considerable as the other.” Professor Owen gives, in the same number, a description of a new Mammal (Stylodon pusillus) “nearly allied to Spalacotherium tricuspidens (Ow.), and from the same formation and locality, viz. the Marly bed, Upper Oolite, Purbeck, Dorsetshire.” The locality and horizon appear to be rather indefinite, and would scarcely be understood but for the reference to Spalacotherium. Mr. H. M. Jenkins notes the occurrence of T'rigonia Lamarckit (a recent species) in the Tertiary deposits of Victoria, which he considers of importance because of its bringing the Oolitic and recent types of the genus into such close proximity. Mr. H. Woodward records the occurrence of Ceratiocaris in the Wenlock Limestone, and Mr. T. M‘Kenny Hughes adds a “Note on the Silurian rocks of Oasterton Low Fell, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland,” one of the localities which yielded the specimens of Ceratiocaris described by Mr. Woodward. There is also a paper “On the Junction of the Chalk with the Tertiary beds in East Kent ;” but, like many of its associates, we must pass it by without further notice. PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL Society. A very bulky number of the Society's journal contains this quarter a very insignificant instalment of the Society's proceedings, more than half of it being taken up with the Annual Report and the 420 Chronicles of Science. | July, President's address. The report represents the society to be in a very flourishing condition, both numerically and “ financially.” The address contains notices of a large number of the more im- portant geological works that were published during 1865 ; but as most of them are by this time familiar to our readers, we shall not stop to discuss them. We cannot, however, refrain from noticing an opinion, which is very heterodox, but which, nevertheless, may one day turn out to be valuable, perhaps premonitory of a great discovery. Mr. Hamilton (the president of the society) thinks “ that the time is come when it is desirable to investigate this question— Whether the theory of central incandescent heat is tenable?” So far so good, except that it seems difficult to imagine heat itself as “incandescent ;” but the sequel is extraordinary—namely, ‘‘ Whether the plastic condition of the earth, to which its oblate spheroidal form has been attributed, be not owing to an aqueous rather than to an igneous origin?” Mr. Hamilton further enunciates the following problem as a corollary :—“ Whether the formation of the earth may not have commenced with a central nucleus consisting of an aqueous paste, gradually increasing in size as matter was deposited around it from the circumambient fluids and gases which filled the solar space before solid matter was aggregated round those spots which now form the planets in our solar system?” Mr. Hamilton suggests these and other questions for the consideration of the society ; but the inquiry is purely one for physicists and astronomers. Two out of the three papers contained in the same number of the ‘Quarterly Journal’ are deserving of notice. In the first, “On the Western Limit of the Rhetic Beds in South Wales, and on the Position of the Sutton Stone,” Mr. E. B. Tawney shows that the Rheetic beds are continued as far westward as near Pyle, west of Bridgend; and that the Sutton stone and some beds above (named by him the Southerndown series), which occur at and near Dunraven Castle, Sutton, &c., do not belong to the Lias but to the Rheetic beds. He also expresses the opinion that the Sutton beds are slightly anterior in time to the Avicula-contorta series, so that his discovery of Ammonites in them is of somec onsiderable importance. In a note to this paper, Dr. Duncan gives more decided evidence respecting the age of the Sutton beds as the result of an examination of the corals. He states that these corals “in the Alpine Trias would be deemed St. Cassian,” and the only consideration which induces him to make any reservation about the St. Cassian age of the Sutton beds, is the defective nature of our information respecting the range of the St. Cassian corals, and their relation to those of the Dachstein and Koéssen strata. If further researches confirm the high antiquity here suggested as belonging to the Sutton beds, a zone of life will have been discovered in 1866. | Mining, Mineralogy, and Metallurgy. 421 England by Mr. Tawney, which has hitherto been supposed to be confined in Europe to the Triassic districts of the Alps. The only other paper we shall notice is that by Dr. J. W. Dawson, “On the Conditions of the Deposition of Coal, more especially as illustrated by the Coal-formation of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.” The title of this paper is very unfortunate and very deceptive, for so far from the author believing in the “ depo- sition” of coal, he contends that the occurrence of Stigmaria under nearly every coal-bed proves beyond question that the material of the coal was accumulated by a growth 7m situ, and this reasoning has always obtained the full consideration to which it is entitled. Dr. Dawson’s paper treats of so many other points that in a chronicle of this nature it is impossible even to enumerate them. Amongst these is the contrast afforded by the characters of the intervening strata to what is yielded by those of the coal and the underclays—namely, while the latter prove the growth of the coal in situ, the former prove the abundant transport of mud and sand by water; that is to say, the conditions employed are such as prevail in the swampy deltas of great rivers. One subject touching on the philosophy of geology is discussed by Dr. Dawson with great effect—namely, the bearing of the lithological characters of the successive beds in each great formation on the interpretation of the sequence of events which occurred during their deposition, and his opinion is, that we must regard each of the great formations as the evidence of a period “ presenting during its whole continuance the diversified conditions of land and water, with their appropriate inhabitants,” and “as forming a geological cycle, in which such conditions were to a certain extent successive.” In conclusion, we may state that this is a capital paper, philosophically conceived and carefully executed. VITI.—MINING, MINERALOGY, AND METALLURGY. Mininc. ‘Try and copper mining were never in a less profitable state than they are at present in this country. There are scarcely ten mines in the United Kingdom, producing those metals, which are not at the present time working at a loss. The aspect around is gloomy ; nowhere does there appear a bright spot to kindle hope. Never during any one year has there been a larger quantity of tin ore raised from the mines of Cornwall and Devonshire than during 1865. This rash process continues, and the tin ore sales of last month were larger than in any previous month, with one solitary exception. The consequences of the American civil war led to an extinction of the tin-plate trade, and thus greatly reduced 422 Chronicles of Science. | July, the consumption of tin. This produced naturally a reduction of price. Upon this the Cornish mines,—for the purpose of maintaining their dividends, preventing calls, and keeping the miners, who have long shown a disposition to emigrate,—have been made to yield a quantity of tin ore, much in excess of the requirements of the manufacturer. At the same time, tin, in unusually large quantities, has been thrown into the English market by the Dutch speculators. Banca and Billiton tin haye, from their having improved in quality, and being cheaper, taken the place of English tin, in many of our large works. At the present time the price of tin ore is not sufficient to pay the expenses of producing it, yet the mines continue to press their ores upon the smelters, in the face of a serious present loss and a too evident future failure, which must be ruinous. A monthly metal circular now before us says :—“ We have received about 2,000 slabs of Straits tin from America, and there is little chance of any demand for export hence to that country ; while, owing to the stagnation of the tin-plate trade, consumption of tin must have fallen off, and will continue to do so for the next two months.” The quantity of tin here and in Holland on the 31st of May was as follows, compared with the three preceding years :— Tons. 1866 ‘ ‘ ‘ ; ~ : - 10,457 1865 ’ ‘ : : : : . 10,000 1864 Z is : 3 : . e 8,690 1863 an age: y , 5: ae = ‘yi Silas In the face of the continental disturbance which threatens, we cannot dare to hope for a better report in our next. The copper mines suffer from other causes than those influencing the tin mines. ‘The present price of English tough cake copper is 197. per ton below the average of the last sixteen years. The influences through which this state of things has been brought about are not clear. It has been referred to.the failure of the usual demand for copper in India; but this appears quite insufficient to create this extreme depression. Our supplies of copper from Chili have fallen off in consequence of the war with Spain, and for some time to come we cannot expect any large quantity of copper from that country. The deficiency will certainly not be made up by any increased supplies from other parts of the world. We may, conse- quently, hope, in a little time, to,see our English copper mines becoming more profitable than they have been for some time past. Tons. The tin-mines of Cornwall and Devonshire produced, in 1865, of Black Tin ‘Tin Ore) . . : . . . . . - 15,686 The production in 1864 having been . ° A ‘ . «| a2 The quantity of Copper Ore produced from the mines of Cornwall and Devonshire in 1865 was. : : f . . S - 159,406 The production in 1864 being . . » 163,336 The Swansea sales of Irish, Welsh, and Foreign Copper Ores were, in 1865 : 2 : . . ‘ : ; : : . Bao Against, in 1864. . . . : . ‘ . ‘ . 32,413 1866. | Mining, Mineralogy, and Metallurgy. 423 Our notices of mining operations in other countries must neces- sarily be brief. A considerable degree of excitement has been ereated in relation to mining in California, and not a little, especially in America, in connection with the development of the wonderful Lake Superior district. By the courtesy of the proprietors, we have been favoured with copies of the ‘American Journal of Mining,’ published in New York. This new periodical, embracing “Milling, Oil-boring, Geology, Mineralogy, Metallurgy,” &c., has a sufficiently expanded field tor its labours. Within the United States territory, nearly every metalliferous and earthy mineral has been found. The extent of the American coal-fields is vast, and roads and railways are rapidly opening out districts from which the supply of fuel can be abundantly obtained. A new industry has been created in the oil regions, and the rapidity with which the iron manufacture of the United States is expanding, shows that such a journal as that now before us, if conducted with strict honesty of purpose, must become important, equally to the miner, the metallurgist, the manu- facturer, and the public. The ‘American Journal of Mining’ evidently takes the ‘ Mining Journal’ of this country as the example it would follow. Reports on mines and mining, correspondence on these, on metallurgy and mineral manufactures, with notices of these sciences which bear upon any of those industries, and a very extensive share-list, form the bulk of the papers yet issued. Amongst the original papers, those on “ Petroleum,” by Professor Francis E. Engelhardt, promise to be as valuable and instructive, as they are interesting. From the “ Mining Statistics,” by Dr. Ki. P. Stevens, we abstract the following particulars relative to several branches of mining and metallurgy :— The rapid increase of mining and metallurgical works in America are a striking proof of the rapid development of those important industries in that great continent. We find it stated in United States’ official documents that there are now 157 mining establishments engaged in raising iron ore, employing 3,177 men. ‘There are 97 bloomaries, 286 furnaces, 256 rolling mills, 16 mills for drawing iron wire, 17 car-wheel manufactories, 1,412 establishments for castings, 19 for locomotives, 74 for sewing-machines, 239 for arms, 443 for hardware, 382 for steel, 99 for nails, 154 for scythes, and 14 for printing-presses. Copper.—There are 42 mining establishments in Michigan, New Mexico, Tennessee, and North Carolina, producing 499,534 tons of ore. Coal.—In round numbers the production is stated at 15,000,000 tons. In our last, we gave it from a strictly reliable source as 14,593,659 tons. The collieries employ 36,469 workmen. Lead and Silver.—Lead mining and smelting are stated to have VOL. III. 2F 424 Chronicles of Science. [July, prednged about 12,000,000 dollars, and silver about 5,000,000 dollars. Gold.—7,202 mining establishments are reported. These are situated in California, New Mexico, Oregon, North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, and South Carolina, placing the States in the order of their productiveness. The gold they produced is given as 47,566,000 dollars. ) Those who are interested in the mode of occurrence of petro- leum may obtain a large amount of information by referring to the ‘ Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society for May, 1865,’ in which will be found a very satisfactory description of the petro- leum deposits in the eastern coal-field of Kentucky, by Mr. T. P. Lesley. The general condition of an “Oil” country is thus described. Mr. Lesley is writing especially of the neighbourhood of Paint Lick Creek, Kentucky. ‘ Petroleum is the mineral that excites most interest at present in all this region, and the show which it makes upon the surface is extraordmary. It issues in numerous places from the base of the cliffs which form the walls of the cafions, through which flow the main Paint and its many branches. It saturates the slopes and banks of loose sand. It flows off, when the sand is stirred with a stick, as a shining scum upon the surface of the stream. It has been caught against booms and barrelled for sale. It unites, also, with the sweepings from the sub-conglomerate ore and coal shales, and forms slimy ore-bogs and muck-heaps, where the base of the conglomerate is at any greater height than usual above the water-bed, and the slope from it is therefore longer than usual. Such is the case at the Old Oil Springs, on the north line of the May and Ross Survey, where it crosses the Little or South Fork of Paint; and again 200 yards lower down, at Pendleton’s Oil Springs. “A black reservoir of tar-like oil here occupies the centre of a sloping bog, and is kept always full from a spring at its upper limit, near the top of the slope and the foot of the cliffs, about twenty feet above the level of the stream.” A remarkable extension of shale mining for the production of petroleum is also taking place in this country. More than 100 retorts have lately been set to work in North Staffordshire. In Derbyshire and in Yorkshire many works are rapidly progressing towards com- pletion, for the distillation of oil. All the old works in Flintshire are actively distilling cannel coal and shale; and in addition to the established works in Scotland, using the Torbanechill mineral, several others are starting. The consequent enormous production of “ coal ou” in this country, added to the immense importation of petroleum from America, must lead to a great reduction of price, and an extension of its use for illuminating and lubricating purposes. 1866. | Mining, Mineralogy, and Metallurgy. 425 The coal production of this country, as we learn, shows but a slight increase in 1865 over the production of 1864. A con- siderable excitement has arisen on the “ Coal Question” since Mr. J. S. Mill drew attention to Mr. Stanley Jevons’ book in the House of Commons. In this journal Mr. E. Hull has already dealt with the subject. On the 12th of June Mr. Hussey Vivian moved, in the House of Commons, “that an humble address be presented to Her Majesty, praying that she will be graciously pleased to issue a Royal commis- sion to investigate the probable quantity of coal contained in the coal-fields of Great Britain, and to report on the quantity of such coal which may be reasonably expected to be available for use; whether it is probable that coal exists at workable depths under the Permian, New Red Sandstone, and other superincumbent strata, and whether they would recommend that bore-holes should be sunk in any and what localities ; to ascertain and report on the quantity of coal at present consumed in the various branches of manufacture, for steam navigation and for domestic purposes, as well as the quantity exported, and how far and to what extent such consump- tion and export may be expected to increase; how far the increase of population must necessarily accord with the increased consump- tion of coal, and the relations which one is likely to bear to the other ; and whether there is reason to believe that coal is wasted either by bad workmanship, or by carelessness, or neglect of proper appliances for its economical consumption, and whether they would recommend legislation, with a view to avoid such waste.” After an interesting debate on this important subject, in which all agreed that an inquiry was necessary, Sir George Grey said, “'The Government thought it desirable to associate with the chief members of the Geological Survey Department, men of great practical knowledge and experience in the working of mines and manufacturing operations, with a view to a searching and impartial inquiry, in the result of which the country might place confidence. They thought that the commission should consist of a mixed body, and include men of the highest scientific attainments, among whom he hoped Sir R. Murchison would allow himself to be placed. Upon that understanding the Government were prepared to agree to the motion.” We may, therefore, hope that the “Coal Question ” will receive a satisfactory solution. MINERALOGY. The most important contribution to this science during the quarter has been Bernhard von Cotta’s ‘ Treatise on Lithology ’* in * ‘Rocks Classified and Described: a Treatise on Lithology.’ By Bernhard von Cotta. An English edition, by Philip Henry Lawrence. Longman, Green, & Co. 2Fr2 426 Chronicles of Science. [ July, its English form, for which we are indebted to Phihp Henry Law- rence ; the translation, however, being revised by the author. The original work of Cotta is well known. Opinions vary widely as to its merits, but it has passed through two German editions, and a third is in preparation. This alone speaks loudly in favour of a work which is purely scientific, and may be accepted as the best possible testimony to its general merits. Professor Cotta informs us—“ This English edition may be considered as the third edition of my original work, although, if the appearance of a third German edition should be delayed for some time longer, there will doubtless be new matter and fresh alterations to be introduced; for science marches with unin- terrupted steps towards new fields of discovery, and every year alters its aspect. Ina system of lithology, however, most of the names which are in use will probably remain, and one chief object of this book is to define these so as to render intelligible the ideas which each name should convey, and both author and translator are actuated by the desire and ambition of arriving, as far as may be possible, at a common ground for all nations in respect of the important matter of rock nomenclature.” A careful examination of this important work must be reserved, and will probably be presented to our readers on a future occasion ; it is sufficient now that we have directed attention to the first appearance in the English language of a comprehensive treatise on Lithology. The following mineralogical works have appeared during the quarter :—‘ Die Minerale der Schweiz,’ von Dr. Adolf Kenngott. Leipzig. 1866.—‘ Vorlesungen tiber Mineralogie, von Kokscharow. 1 Band. St. Petersburg. 1865. (Received by us not until March, 1866.)—‘ A Catalogue of Siberian Topazes, by Kokscharow. St. Petersburg. 1866. (Written in the Russian language.) Analyses of Rahtite, of Marcylite, and of Moronolite, by Mr. §. W. Tyler, are given in ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ by Professor Charles U. Shepard.* Rahtite was distinguished as a new species by Mr. Tyler in 1861, during a survey of the Ducktown copper-mines, Tennessee. It is found associated with melaconite, chalcopyrite, and Redruthite, in the decomposed portions of the great copper lodes of these mines. The colour of the mineral is a dark lead-grey, with a tinge of blue, not unlike some of the ores of antimony. Its structure is massive, though at first inspection it seems highly crystalline; but this deceptive appearance arises from its being traversed in all directions by slender prismatic cavities, imparted to it by some unknown mineral which has wholly disappeared. The walls of these cells are polished and bright. The analysis of Rahtite, which is so named after Captain Raht, * orks Osmium . : : : 5 ~ oe Sulphur. . . . 5 > - 31°79 This mineral—which appears to be the first example found of a natural sulphide of the platinum group—is not attacked by either nitro-muriatic acid, or by bisulphate of potash at a red heat. It fuses, however, with hydrate of potash and nitre, formimg a brown mass, which gives a fine orange-coloured solution. M. Berthollet has recently published a new hypothesis on the origin of carburets and the combustible minerals.* Although those combustible minerals, which obviously result from the trans- formation of organic matter, admit of explanation, there are others which are not so produced, as the carburets observed in the products of voleanic eruptions, and such as have been detected by M. Daubrée in meteorites, which require some other explanation. M. Berthollet supposes carbonic acid, penetrating the crust of the earth, 1s brought in contact with the alkaline metals at a high temperature, that thus acetyl is first formed, which undergoes a series of reactions, giving rise to the almost infinite series of hydro-carbon compounds. We must refer our readers to the original communication and to M. Berthollet’s previous experiments. M. Pisani in one of the last séances of the Académie des Sciences presented a note upon a new mineral, which had been especially examined by M. Adam. It is an arseniate of copper, but differmg * Sce ‘ L'Iustitut,’ May 16, 1866. 1866.] Mining, Mineralogy, and Metallurgy. 429 from the arseniates which had been analyzed by Bournon, Haiiy, and Beudant, in containing a notable quantity of oxide of iron. Amongst the analyses which have been made of Aphanese or Clinoclase as it was supposed, was one by Chenevix, which gave arsenic acid 33°5, oxide of copper 22°5, oxide of iron 27°5, water and sand 15:0. This was suspected to be an error until Mr. Adam analyzed a specimen for M. Pisani, and proved it to be a species different from the other arseniates of copper. His analysis was:— Arsenic Acid . ° ° ° e ° 32° 20 Phosphoric Acid . ° . : a AP atL Oxide of Copper . : . . s yole70 Oxide of Iron . ‘ A - ' wah Lime 5 : . ¢ c 2 « O34 Water 3 é . : = 5 POR 100°30 To this mineral, which so nearly approaches the arseniate of copper analyzed by Chenevix, it is proposed to give the name of Chenevixite. It is found in little compact masses in the quartzose rocks of Cornwall. They are usually so interpenetrated with the gangue, that it has been impossible to separate the one completely from the other; thus the density which has been obtaimed 1s only approximate, namely, 3°93; its hardness beng 4°8. It is opaque, with a conchoidal fracture, and of a dull-green colour passing to yellow.* A peculiar example of a physical change in a diamond has recently been brought under the notice of the Académie des Sciences of Paris. M. Frémy exhibited at the meeting on the 7th of May a diamond weighing more than sixty grains, which at the ordinary temperature is lightly shaded yellow, but which, when submitted to the action of an elevated temperature, assumed a rose tint, which it preserved for several days, returning gradually to its normal yellow tint. This diamond being rose-coloured at one séance, will, if pre- served in the cabinet of the Institute until the next séance, again exhibit its original yellow colour. The ordinary price of a diamond of this weight would be about 60,000 frances ; with the rose-colour, if this was permanent, the value would be at least tripled. We believe this is the first example of a diamond of variable colour. Professor J. D. Whitneyt has been examining Clear Lake in California and its neighbourhood. This lake is sixty-five miles north-west of Suisun Bay, and is about twenty-five miles long. On the south-west side of a narrow arm of this lake is a small lake about two-and-a-half miles in circumference, known as the “ Borax Lake.” From the waters of this lake, evidently of volcanic origin, there can be extracted, without much trouble, a large quantity of * «Les Mondes,’ April 12, 1866. ‘Comptes Rendus,’ No. 12, p. 690. + ‘ Geological Survey of California, by J. D. Whitney, State Geologist. 430 Chronicles of Science. [July, borax in the condition of nearly absolute purity. The value of this discovery is great indeed. We have seen natural crystals of borax from two to three inches in length brought from this remarkable region. We understand that an English chemist is now engaged im investigating the matter, and there is no doubt but im a short time, by either English industry or American energy, this new source of borax will be brought into active rivalry with the lagoons of Tuscany. Indeed, a “ California Borax Company” is already formed. A new source of the metal Indiwm has been found by Dr. Kachler in the zinc blende of Schoenfeld, near Schloggenwald, in which mineral it is associated with tin and other metals in such proportion that some grains of it can be separated. The blende is roasted, dissolved in sulphuric acid, and the solution treated with metallic zine, the Indium is then precipitated with the other metals, from which it can be ultimately separated. M. Henry Soliel has presented to the Académie des Sciences of Paris a memoir “ Upon the Direction of the Optical Axis in Rock Crystals.” This is a very elaborate examination of this optical question, to which M. Henry Soliel appears to have found a very perfect solution. This memoir will appear in the ‘ Comptes Rendus’ of the Academy. Leuchtenbergite is the name of a mineral, to which the Duke Nicholas of Leuchtenberg has recently drawn the attention of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, with a view to remove the uncertainty which surrounded it. Breithaupt considered it as an altered Chlorite; Komonen found but 8°62 per cent. of water; Cloizeaux regarded this mineral as a variety of Pennine ; while Nauman regarded it as a variety of Clinochlore. The Leuchtenbergite is found near Slatoust and in the moun- tains of Chichime in the Ural. It is a talc-like mineral, with a hardness of 2°5 and a density of 2°61. The analysis of the mineral gives :— Silica A : ; ; . 30°60 Oxide of Iron . : 5 c ; « 1202 Lime 1 Magnesia } dig’ Alumina . 2 : ; 4 2 BO ES: Water ; s : 5 > > Ha 2i6 99°42 This is nearly the composition of Clinochlore ; but its physical characteristics induce the Duke of Leuchtenberg to regard it as a distinct variety, appertaining to the group of Chlorites. Dr. Heddle communicates to the ‘ Philosophical Magazine™* the following notice of a British variety of Wulfenite :— * * Philosophical Magazine, April, 1866. 1866. | Mining, Mineralogy, and Metallurgy. 431 “Greg and Lettsom doubt whether or not Wulfenite may rank as a British species. In Thomson’s ‘ Mineralogy,’ vol. i., p. 565, we find the following remarks on a specimen (a single specimen) in the possession of the Stockholm Academy':—‘ It was ticketed lead spar, from Mendip, near Churchill, in Somersetshire ; it was chiefly carbonate of lead, but it contamed two portions of a yellower colour than the rest, which attracted the particular attention of Berzelius.* One of them being examined by the blowpipe proved to be molyb- date of lead ; the other portion was an oxychloride of lead.’ “This, so far as I know, is the only published record of the occurrence of this substance in Britain. Lately a new pit was sunk for some thirty fathoms at the ‘South of Scotland Mines,’ at Lack- entyre, near Gateshead, in Kirkcudbrightshire, and amongst many interesting minerals brought me thence by Mr. James Russel, of Airdrie, there was a single.specimen of the molybdate. The asso- ciated minerals are galena, carbonate and phosphate of lead, and cupreous calamine ; the molybdate occurs in well-pronounced and unusually brilliantly polished crystals of about } inch in size; the crystals are thin, transparent, and bright yellow. The pit in which this specimen was found proved unproductive, and has been aban- doned ; there is thus little hope of others being obtained.” Our Mineralogical notices would not be complete without a record of the following papers :—“ Uber den Titanit im Syenit des Plauen’schen Grundes,” von P. Grosh.t—*“ Uber der Natur der Sili- cate,” von Dr. Mohr.t—“ Neubildung von Schwefelkupfer in ver- gelbtem Papier alter Biicher,” Kerner.S—“< Mineralogical Corre- spondence.” || —“ Kondroarsenit, ein neues Mineral.”[——“ Alloklas, ein neues Mineral.”**—“ Uber den Klipsteinit, ein neues Mangansilicat,” von Prof. Kobell.+{—* Preisaufgabe aus dem Gebiete der Mine- ralogie.”t{—* Mineralogische Studien,” von Breithaupt.§§ M. Daubree has published ‘ Expériences synthétiques zelatives aux Météorites. Rapprochments auxquels ces Expériences con- duisent, &e.;” | || and M. Boussingault writes,1 “Sur la nitriére de Tacunga, dans |’ Etat de I’ Equateur.” METALLURGY. Although there are several patent processes, of more or less merit, which may eventually require a notice from us, these are all * “Kong. Vet. Acad. Handl.’ 1823, p. 184. + ‘ Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie,’ 1 Heft, p. 45. } Ibid., 2 Heft, p. 181. § Ibid., p. 227. || Ibid. 7 ‘ Journal fiir Praktische Chemie,’ No. 1, p. 60. ** Thbid., No. 2, p. 125. tt Ibid., No. 3, p. 180. ji ‘Oesterreiche Zeitschrift fiir Berg. und Hiittenwesen,’ p. 102. §§ ‘ Berg. und Hutten mannische Zeitung.’ \| || ‘Comptes Rendus,’ No. 5, p. 200; No. 8, p.. 369; No. 12, p. 660. \] ‘ Annales de Chemie et Physique,’ Mars, p. 358. 432 Chronicles of Science. | July, at present in the condition of undeveloped schemes. Beyond those, there is an entire absence of any real improvement in any branch of metallurgy to be noticed. M. L. Cailletez has an interesting memoir on the “ Dissociation des gaz dans les foyers métallurgiques,” in which he confirms the results obtained by M. H. St. Claire-Deville by experiments on a laboratory scale.* IX. PHYSICS. Liaut.—F ather Secchi has sent to the Academy of Sciences an account of the spectra of some stars, as recently seen by him in a new spectrometer by Merz, with a prism by Hofmann, of Paris. A drawing of the spectrum of « Orionis accompanied the communica- tion. The spectrum of Sirius is described by the learned author as resembling that of sulphur. A suggestion, which is likely to be of considerable value to photographers, has been made by Dr. Angus Smith, F.R.S. The cause of the destruction of photographs, apparently by the action of time only, is generally considered to be due im reality to the presence of a minute quantity of hyposulphite of soda remaiming in the paper. Hitherto almost the only plan of getting rid of this agent has been long and continuous washing in cold or hot water. Dr. Angus Smith has suggested oxidizing the hyposulphite of soda into sulphate of soda (which is likely to be harmless), by means of dilute peroxide of hydrogen. Peroxide of hydrogen has been little known to chemists, and even now it is seldom obtained in its pure state. It is, however, to be had in a solution, and in a state sufficiently strong for many important purposes in analysis. Oxides, such as in the case of manganese, which will not fall till more highly oxidized, are with advantage treated by it. The lower oxide may remain unobserved in a solution, and in a state of minuteness sufficient to keep it in suspension; but at the moment of contact with the peroxide of hydrogen it blackens and falls. When the peroxide is poured into a solution of hyposulphite of soda, the change is not observed, as there is no coloured oxide to be formed ; but when a salt of barium is afterwards added, it is found that sulphuric acid has taken the place of hyposulphurous. The strength of the solution does not require to be great. That which is sold contains about nine volumes of available oxygen. If diluted a thousand times, a solution is obtained capable of oxidizing hypo- sulphites. It appears that all the hyposulphurous acid is instantly converted. Peroxide of hydrogen is in reality an oxide of water ; when the * © Les Mondes,’ April 19, 1866. 1866] Physics. 433 oxygen leaves it to do its work nothing but water is left ; nothing being added to be washed out. The peroxide, as sold, contains a little acid (sulphuric) ; when made alkaline it does not keep so well. If a drop is put upon a photograph it very slowly bleaches; its use in this undiluted state is not recommended. Again, if the peroxide, as sold, is neutralized, the bleaching does not take place, at least in an hour, an ample time. or neutralization soda may be used. Hzat.—M. Cailletet has continued the experiments of Deville on the dissociation of compound gases at high temperatures. The author, by peculiar contrivances, drew air from blast furnaces, and submitted it to analysis. The first analysis is of gas taken from the hottest part of a furnace, and rapidly cooled by a stream of water, on the plan of M. St. Claire-Deville. The mixture was composed of— | Ig ES Oxygen ° . : - 15°24 15°75 Hydrogen. 5 ° ‘ 1:80 a4 Carbonic oxide c ; Peal 1°30 Carbonic acid “ é feo. 00 Dai Nitrogen f - ; - 77°86 80°80 100-00 100-00 These results confirm those of Deville, and show that oxygen does not combine with hydrogen, carbon, or carbonic oxide at very high temperatures. The author afterwards took air from furnaces at lower temperatures, and the results show the gradual disappear- ance of the oxygen with the abasement of the temperature, and of course the increase of carbonic acid. M. Cailletet concludes that compound gases cannot exist at high temperatures. A curious fact in relation to the storage of solar heat for future use has been communicated by M. Jeannel to the French Academy of Sciences. Fused acetate of soda, allowed to cool in the open air, crystallizes in prismatic needles at + 58°; allowed to cool, however, in a limited amount’ of moist air, it does not crystallize even at zero, but becomes a soft translucent mass. If, after having been so cooled, it is exposed freely to dry air, and touched with a dry solid body, it suddenly assumes the ordinary crystalline form of prismatic needles, and rises to the crystallizmg pomt + 58°, or near it. M. Jeannel remarks that this experiment shows how solar heat may be stored up and made to re-appear again at will. It is possible, he says, in our climates to raise acetate of soda under bell-glasses or glass frames to + 59°. The acetate so exposed and cooled, sheltered from the air, does not crystallize, and is always ready to give out the heat again on being touched with a dry solid body. M. de Vignette Lamotte has sent tothe French Academy a long 434 Chronicles of Science. | July, } memoir, “On the Preservation of Wines by the Employment of Heat.” M. Pasteur, reviving an old suggestion of Appert, pro- poses to heat wine for a few minutes to 70 or 80 C. The author objects to this, and says it is better to submit the wines for some time to a temperature not exceeding 45 C. He seems to admit, however, that Appert’s or Pasteur’s plan answers well with the more saccharine and alcoholic wines, like ports and sherries, &e. Some remarkable results of the exposure of phosphorus to heat have been communicated by M. Hittorf to the ‘ Annalen der Physik und Chemie.’ Schroetter states that red phosphorus returns to the state of ordinary phosphorus at 260° C., but M. Hittorf finds that this change does not take place under a temperature of about 447° C. At a lower temperature red phosphorus may volatilize, and its vapour acquire a high tension without ceasing to belong to the red modification. The transformation of ordinary into red phosphorus may easily be effected by heating m*a closed vessel at a temperature above 300° C. In vaporizing amorphous phosphorus, it does not melt; in this resembling its congener arsenic, which resemblance induced M. Hittorf to endeavour to crystallize this variety of phosphorus, which he believed would take rhomboidal forms like arsenic ; his experi- ments proved him to be right. Of the numerous attempts made by M. Hittorf, we will cite only that which was successful: it consists in heating red phosphorus and lead in a closed vessel, the lead dissolved the phosphorus, and then deposited it in a crystallized state. The operation was per- formed in a fusible green glass tube, a quarter filled with ordimary phosphorus, and the rest with lead ; the tube was first cleared of air by means of a current of carbonic acid gas, then exhausted, and afterwards sealed. It was now introduced into an iron muffle, and the spaces filled with calcined magnesia, pressed round the whole of the glass tube. After ten hours’ heating, the lead was covered with brilliant flakes of metallic-looking phosphorus, the finest appearing red when held to the light. No polyhedrie form could be recognized in these crystals, but the lead retained some. These were isolated by treating by nitric acid of 1:1, which has no action on phosphorus, while it readily forms nitrate of lead. The crystalline powder accumulated at the bottom of the vessel was “metallic ” phosphorus, which was then in the form of a mass of microscopic rhombohedra, resembling crystals of arsenic. In this state phosphorus is a conductor of electricity; at 15°5° C. its density is 2°34. M. Hittorf classes the new modification of phosphorus in the same category with red phosphorus, and gives to the two the generic 1866. | Physics. 435 name of metallic phosphorus, which he subdivides into metallic crystallized and metallic amorphous. Commercial amorphous phosphorus is often in the crystalline state. Microscopists and others who are occasionally engaged in the examination of organic tissues and gelatinous substances, will be glad to know of a method by which these bodies can be dried without the application of heat. A large number of substances, like gum, &c., have, as is well known, the property of agglomerating, upon drying, into amorphous masses, more or less solid and translucent, by which, on the one hand, the original appearance of the freshly made preparation is lost, and, on the other, complete desiccation rendered very difficult. In order to obviate this adhesion of the elementary particles occurring during the drying of such substances under ordinary circumstances, Reischauer has proposed to carry on this operation out of contact with the atmosphere, and by the aid of a suitable ethereal medium. The apparatus employed for this purpose is, in its simplest form, a well-closed glass vessel filled with ether or a similar liquid, at the bottom of which is placed the chloride of calcium, quicklime, calcined sulphate of copper, &c., intended to absorb the water. A shallow vessel is placed below the surface of the liquid for the reception of the substance to be dried. The modus operandi is now avery simple one. ‘lhe ether continually yielding its water to the chloride of calcium constantly withdraws it in turn from the substance to be dried, until, finally, the latter corresponds in its hygroscopic state with that of the desiccating agent. The thorough wetting in this manner of the constituent particles of the substance to be dried (which, of course, must be insoluble in an ethereal liquid) prevents their sticking together, and the original appearance is retained when dry. Gum, separated by precipitating the aqueous solution with alcohol, gives an amorphous white mass of very slight adhesiveness, and with no trace of the common glass-like condition. The so- called diastase, or the body obtained by precipitating the extract of malt with alcohol, deprived of water under ether, forms spongy and very light granules. In this state it retains its effect upon starch. The microscopical examination of starch paste dried by this process leaves scarcely a doubt that the starch grains exist in paste in a state only of extraordinary expansion, and not in that of actual solution. Hops give a mass similar to diastase, but, however, no longer capable of producing fermentation. The organs of plants dry rapidly under this treatment, commonly retaining their colour, unless unusually delicate. Taken from the ether, they soon become moist again in the air, and rapidly lose their colour, which by a continuance in the liquid appears remarkably fine. The behaviour of animal productions under this method -of 436 Chronicles of Science. [July, drying is of especial interest. It may be remarked, that generally, while vegetable matters are distinguished by their great brittleness in the dry state, those of animal origin are characterized by a remark- able toughness, which reaches its highest degree in the fibrous for- mations of the skin. The pliability of thick skin dried in ether over chloride of calcium is very extraordinary. Other animal pre- parations at the same time preserve their original form in the dry state, the usual contraction of the parts being thus avoided. The whole intestines of a young dog treated in this manner formed a remarkable anatomical preparation, in which the delicate structures were preserved in the most complete manner upon drymg. The lungs and liver, to preserve which vain attempts have hitherto been made, formed a light spongy mass, retaining completely their organization. It is more than probable that anatomists can make use of this process in many cases; as, for instance, in the micros scopical examination of the kidneys, pancreas, &c., particularly in those which have hitherto required the solidification of the object by chromic acid, &c. The use of the ether in a liquid form is fre- quently not necessary. The skin of animals, animal membrane, &e., readily assume in an atmosphere saturated with the vapour of ether containing a suitable strongly hygroscopic substance, a condition similar to that of white dressed leather. A like satisfactory result, however, is not obtained in the desiccation of inorganic substances, oxide of iron, alumina, &c., in artificial media. It is obvious that this process may be rendered useful under suitable modifications for other purposes. It is a ready method, according to Reischauer, for removing acid bodies soluble in ether from their aqueous solutions, by putting them into an ethereal liquid with caustic lime or potassa. In chemical research it is frequently desirable to have the means of producing a very low temperature ; but owing to the trouble and delay in preparing a freezing mixture, it is seldom employed. Mr. Crookes has described a plan by which a very low temperature is produced, by forcibly blowing a mixture of air and volatile liquid through a fine jet. The instrument is the well-known one made by Messrs. Krohne Sesemann, for the purpose of producing local anzesthesia in surgical operations, and the liquid recommended to be used is perfectly pure ether. Two ounces of liquid were put into the four-ounce bottle belonging to the instrument; the air was forced im by means of a small india-rubber hand-pump, and the jet was about the size of that of an ordinary mouth blowpipe. By means of small wires the inner orifice of the jet could be contracted at pleasure. When the liquid used was ordinary ether from methylated spirit, and the distance of the bulb of the thermometer from the jet $ mch 1866. | Physics. 437 the lowest temperature was — 20°°7 C., and the bulb of the thermo- meter became quickly coated with ice, condensed from the atmosphere. Water in a test-tube held in front of the jet commenced to freeze immediately. With pure ether, sp. gr. *720 C., prepared expressly for ansesthetic purposes, a temperature of — 21°-6 C. was produced, and a considerable quantity of 1ce condensed round the bulb of the ther- mometer, so as to impede the cooling, unless occasionally removed. Absolute alcohol gave a temperature of + 8°:0C. Pure methyl alcohol, sp. gr. *803, + 1°1C. Solution of ammonia, sp. gr. ‘880, — 11°C. Chloroform, — 5°1C. Bichloride of carbon, — 2°2C. Bisul- phide of carbon gave a temperature of —17°6 C.; large quantities of ice condensed on the bulb, coating it nearly +in. thick. In a few minutes the bisulphide of carbon ceased to issue regularly from the jet, and miniature snow-balls were blown out at intervals. The bisulphide of carbon apparently contained water. The temperature of the room was 18°: C. Most of our readers are acquainted with the ingenious apparatus of M. Carré for the production of a low temperature by means of ammoniacal gas. M. Knab has proposed a new process for its condensation. Chloride of calcium absorbs its own weight of ammoniacal gas, which is again evolved on the application of heat. The chloride will serve an indefinite time. M. Knab considers that his discovery will be found very useful: 1, Because chloride of calcium saturated with ammonia is a dry powder easy of transport ; 2, because chloride of calcium is of very little value; and 3, while water will only hold in solution 20 per cent. of ammonia, the chloride will hold 50 per cent., so that the cost of sending ammonia about will be greatly diminished. Execrriciry.—M. E. Becquerel has presented to the French Academy a memoir ‘“ On the Thermo-electric Powers of Bodies, and on Thermo-electric Piles.” In his last memoir the author stated that bars of sulphide of copper obtamed by fusion were very differently endowed with electro-motive energy. He now publishes his dis- covery that all these bars may be made to exhibit an equal power by simply subjecting them, after fusion, to a dull-red heat for several hours. ‘The second part of the memoir is devoted to an account of the electro-motive force of various alloys, in which he shows that an alloy of equal equivalents of cadmium and antimony may advan- tageously replace tellurium in the construction of piles for the study of calorific radiation. M. Gerardin has described a battery of iron turnings. The zinc of a Bunsen’s battery is replaced by iron borings. ‘The iron is placed in common water. ‘The porous vessel contains a solution of perchloride of iron in aqua regia. The positive pole is made of powdered coke agglomerated with paraffine. Such a battery may 438 Chronicles of Science. i [ July, be made of large dimensions, and a great deal of electricity obtained at small cost. M. Torreggiani has also described a new battery and a practical application of it. Atter repeated experiments, he has proved that a pile in which the positive pole is represented by metallic lead, and the negative by carbon, and containing a saline solution (an alka- line acetate), gives, besides electricity, a large quantity of pure car- bonate of lead, which may be profitably employed. The author considers that this is an easy and innocuous way of making white lead. All discoveries in electricity which have been made for many years have been surpassed in practical importance by one, the particulars of which were communicated to the Royal Society a few weeks ago by H. Wilde, Esq. Space will not permit of our giving more than a brief account of this invention; but in our next issue, we propose to lay before our readers a full account of his entirely new magneto- electric machine. The principle is not difficult to understand. An armature wound round with insulated wire is made to reyolve rapidly in front of the poles of a large permanent magnet. The currents of electricity thus induced in the insulated wire are carried round a large electro-magnet, which is thereby excited to a very high degree. In front of this electro-magnet a second covered armature is rotated, and the electric current thus generated is carried round a third electro-magnet. It is from a rotating armature in front of this third magnet that the electric current ultimately used for heating or lighting effects is produced. At each passage round the electro- magnets, and induction in the rotating armatures, the electric cur- rent becomes magnified to an extraordinary degree, until ultimately it is powerful enough to melt iron bars in a minute or two, and to produce a light surpassing that of the sun itself. The machine is driven by means of a steam-engine, and as almost the only current expense is for motive power, it is not an im- probable supposition that ere long electric lights of the most intense description will be as common in large factories and public build- ings as gaslights are at the present time. X. ZOOLOGY AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. (Including the Proceedings of the Zoological Society.) Erxnotocy or Anthropology is one of those studies which are as yet in a very infantile condition, and those who pursue it have to content themselves with the accumulation of facts, waiting the time when their material may justify the establishment of those broad generalizations 1866. ] Zoology and Animal Physiology. 439 which constitute the foundations of a true science. Mr. Mackintosh has lately published some remarks on the “Comparative Anthropology of England and Wales,’* which in their disconnected character well exhibit the want of some systematic principles to connect the observa- tions of the practical ethnologist. The paper is illustrated by a plate containing portraits of some twenty-eight individuals, male and female, from various parts of England and Wales; and it is from the study of physiognomy and habit that the author has attempted to draw some conclusions as to the sources of the population of our country. He remarks on the character and appearance of the inhabitants of various localities, and from his observations draws conclusions as to the races inhabiting different counties, much in accordance with those of previous observers. At the same time, it may be remarked that the evidence submitted—namely, a selected series of twenty- eight portraits—is hardly satisfactory with regard to the facial characters of such a various and mixed population as that of Eng- land and Wales. It is hardly a safe thing to theorize upon the similarity between the countenances of Professor Steenstrup and the inhabitants of the north and east of England ; nor can Sir Bulwer Lytton’s novels be accepted as works of authority in ethnology. A very detailed examination and very careful ulustration will be necessary in order to establish many of the bare assertions and hypotheses contained in this pamphlet; it may, nevertheless, be valuable as indicating a direction in which research may be extended. Mr. Luke Burke, the editor of the ‘ Ethnological Journal,’ is at the present time publishing in his pages a series of articles on the “ Principles of Ethnology,” and it is much to be hoped that he may succeed in laying some solid foundations on which the Science may rest. In the ‘ Bulletins of the Anthropological Society’ of Paris last issued, is an interesting paper, by M. Paul Broca, “On the Seat of the Faculty of Articulate Language.” He endeavours to show that the faculty of speech is specially subject to the third convolution of the frontal region of the cerebrum, and brings forward several cases of injury or natural deficiency in this part to support his view. It appears, however, that in the great majority of cases the left hemi- sphere of the brain was alone affected, whilst injury to the right hemisphere produced no effect. M. Broca explains this by remind- ing us that nearly every person is right-handed, and that con- sequently the left side of the brain has to take the lead in nearly all voluntary actions; moreover, Gratiolet has observed that the convolutions of the left hemisphere are developed at an earlier period than those of the right. Hence, M. Broca argues that it is the left-third frontal convolution which is pre-eminent in the faculty * © Anthropological Review,’ January, 1866, VOL, IIL, 24 400 Chronicles of Science. [ July, of speech, and that though when this is injured, by long trial the right side may be made to do its work, yet m the normal state the right side takes no very active part. He compares the case to the attempt to use the left hand for writing, when the right hand, which has been trained to work with facility, has been injured. M. Broea’s argument is certainly ingenious, and will doubtless give phrenolo- gists some hope of yet mapping out the convolutions of the brain to their respective “ faculties.” The Sohygmograph, which is exciting some attention just now, is one of those ingenious instruments which have been devised of late years, promising really to assist medical men in reducing their art to something like a science. Its great merit is this, that it gives a permanent and minutely accurate record of a phenomenon which before was known only by the very unsatisfactory discrimi- nation of the sense of touch.* . The sphygmograph is an instrument for producing a self- written record of the swellings and contractions of the arteries known as the pulse. Its inventor, Dr. K. J. Marey, is a Paris phy- sician, who is well known for many valuable physiological essays. The main features presented by the instrument are the followmg :— A principal beam of light construction is fastened on the arm by care- fully padded straps ; to this is attached a lever of nearly the length of the fore-arm; the shorter arm of this lever rests gently but firmly on the pulse; at each rise of the artery and subsequent fall the motion is exactly imparted to the lever, and the end of the longer arm performs the same movements as does the shorter, but ona much larger scale. To the end of the longer arm is attached a fine-pointed pencil, in contact with which a smooth strip of paper is made to move by clockwork in a horizontal direction. The effect of this arrangement is, that a straight line would be drawn on the piece -of paper were it not for the rhythmic perpendicular movement caused by the pulse, which results in the production of an undulated line, the waves in which represent the separate expansions of the artery ; of course, it is evident that smce the movement of the paper is invariably uniform, the variations in the pulse will be distinctly indicated by the height, length, and form of the waves ; and accord- ingly we have a most accurate and valuable means of comparing the pulse in various individuals and under various circumstances. Some interesting results have been obtained by studying the pulses of diseased persons, and the mstrument has been found to exhibit phe- nomena in the pulse which it was quite impossible to detect by the rough-and-ready means of the fingers. . The “ sphygmogram” of a person afilicted with a certain disease of the heart, for example, is found to exhibit a series of undulations, the ascending line of which is *¢On the Use of the Sphygmograph in the Investigation of Disease.’ By Balthazar W. Foster, M.D., M.R.C.P. Lond., Professor of Ciiniecal Medicine in Queen’s College, Birmingham. 30 pp. Crown 8vo. 1866. ] Loology and Animal Physiology. 441 very long and tremulous, and but slightly oblique, while the descend- ing is abrupt and nearly perpendicular. The application and value of the instrument will be apparent from these remarks. Dr. Edward Schunck has communicated a paper to the Royal Society “On the Colouring and Extractive Matters of Urine.” He is led by his experiments to conclude that human urine contains at least two peculiar colourmg matters,—one soluble in alcohol and ether, while the other is soluble in alcohol but not in ether. The existence of a third insoluble extractive matter appears very doubtful. Tn our last “ Chronicle” we noticed the researches of M. E. Alix, on the “ Parturition of the Marsupials,” in which he attributed the discovery of the mode of performance of this function to M. Jules Verreaux, and also on anatomical grounds supported Sir Everard Home’s views in opposition to those of Cuvier and Owen. Prof. Owen has now sent a communication to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, in which he overthrows the claims of M. Alix to a discovery, and at the same time reviews his own labours on the question at issue, and gives an account of the parturition of a Macropus mayor, which he had isolated at the Zoological Society’s Gardens for some time, several years since. It appears that M. Alix had only con- sulted Prof. Owen’s researches through the medium of a Cyclopedia. Dr. Drosier, of Caius College, Cambridge, has lately been making some observations on the Functions of the Air-cells and the Mechan- ism of Respiration in Birds. He remarks that several of the commonly received views are quite untenable, such as that the air- cells are intended to assist in supporting the bird in flight by rendering it lighter, in consequence of the rarefaction of the air in _ the air-cells and the hollow bones; and again, that the air-cells are a sort of second respiratory apparatus, so that birds may be described, as they were by Cuvier, as animals having a double respir- ation. In disproof of these views, Dr. Drosier has shown that a pigeon weighing ten ounces would have its weight in air diminished by less than one grain, in consequence of the rarefaction of the air in its air-sacs and hollow bones ; so that the floating-power result- ing from such rarefaction would be almost inappreciable. Again, the air-cells are so sparsely supplied with vessels, that they can offer but very little blood for oxidation. It has been frequently sup- posed that air passes from the air-sacs into the cavities of the eritoneum and pericardium, and even between the muscles. This 1s, however, an error, as was shown by Guillot and Sappey. Dr. Drosier conceives that the air-sacs are simply appendages to the lungs for the reception of air. The respiration of birds is necessarily very rapid and vigorous, and at the same time the lungs are small. The large quantity of air inhaled at a respiration is received into the air-sacs, and by the alternate contraction and expansion of the 2a2 442 Chronicles of Science. [July, thoracic and abdominal cells, a continuous stream of air is made to play upon the naked capillaries of the lungs. The hollow bones Dr. Drosier believes are filled with air not for respiratory purposes, but to remove the moisture from the interior of the bones, which would otherwise accumulate and render them heavy. Dr. Drosier is intending to extend his researches and publish them in a volume. Mr. Harry Seeley has lately published an article in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ entitled “An Epitome of the Evidence that Pterodactyles are not Reptiles, but a new Sub-class of Vertebrate Animals allied to Birds (Saurornia).” Mr. Seeley is a clever and persevering osteologist, and has been for many years working at the Pterodactyles, which are so numerous in the Cam- bridge Greensand deposits. He has in this paper succeeded in showing that the affinities between Pterodactyles and Reptiles are very little stronger than those between Pterodactyles and Birds ; in fact, that though these flying lizards resemble birds and reptiles more than they do any other vertebrates, yet the resemblance is very small, and hence he separates them as a distinct group, Saurornia. It is, nevertheless, quite a question for consideration whether Pterodactyles depart more from the exceedingly plastic Reptilian type than do the Chelonians or Ophidians, or than do the Bat and Whale from the Mammalian type. It must be borne in mind that while Birds, of all Vertebrata, are the most fixed and uniform in their general structural form, Reptiles are among the least so; and hence it is no such astounding anomaly to discover a winged lizard, while the occurrence of a lizard-like bird might be deemed improbable. . M. Victor Fatio has been writing on the various modes of Coloration of Feathers. The question of changes of plumage has presented itself im various ways. Is a new coloration always the peculiarity of a new feather? or may the coloration sometimes undergo alteration in the same tissues? It is very certain that when a feather has once grown, its colour cannot be affected by nutrition, inasmuch as all communication between it and the blood- vessels is at an end—the pulp having dried up. M. Fatio there- fore attributes the alteration in the colour of completely-grown feathers to the humidity of the air, temperature, light, movements, and the grease of the bird. The modifications produced by these agents are the various development of certain parts, the solution and diffusion of the imternal pigment and the rupture of the external parts. M. Gerbe has communicated some important papers lately to the French Academy on the larve of marine Crustacea. With regard to his observations on the vascular and nervous systems, there has been some little contention, since M. Milne-Edwards has inserted a note in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ stating that he has much satisfaction in finding that M. Gerbe’s results accord entirely with 1866. | Zoology und Animal Physiology. 445 his own, published more than thirty years since. MM. Coste and Blanchard, however, defend the value of this part of M. Gerbe’s work. It appears that no one had previously studied the Phyl- losoma, and that the earlier observations had reference to a branchiferous disposition of the vascular system, while M. Gerbe has carefully described the vascular apparatus in these abranchiate Phyllosomatous larvee of Decapods. In his last note published, M. Gerbe gives the following among the conclusions to be drawn from his researches. It is not until the fifth or sixth moult which follows birth that the general form of the adult can be detected in the larvee of Podophthalmatous and Edriophthalmatous Crustacea, and it is to these transitory forms, so different from those of the perfect animals, that a crowd of false species, of false genera, of doubtful families belong, and even, in the case of Phyllosoma, an entire order which is spurious. With the exception of the lobsters, the larve of all genera are when born destitute of any branchial apparatus, and hence their respiration bemg tegumentary, the circulation is neces- sarily very different from what it afterwards becomes. None of the larvee ever present even rudimentary reproductive organs. The development and reproduction of the Nematode worms is a subject which has lately been receiving considerable attention. Professor Leuckart has been most successful in tracing the modifi- cations of several forms. Herr Mecznikow, who has been working in Professor Leuckart’s laboratory, discovered that Ascaris nigro- venosa, which inhabits the lung of the brown frog, produces larve which enjoy a free existence, i which they attain to a sexual development. This very remarkable discovery has been exciting some contention, inasmuch as both Professor Leuckart and his pupil are anxious to receive credit for it. The larva which exhibit this curious phenomenon differ considerably from their parents; their development was traced by keeping them in a watch-glass with moist earth, and a part of the contents of the rectum of the frog. By this manipulation many forms of Nematodes may be kept for study and observation, which would perish wien kept in pure water only. Professor Leuckart has carefully watched the development of the embryos produced by ova from the female larve, duly impreg- nated by the males, and has traced them into the perfect Ascaris nigrovenosa in the frog’s lung, and has found that they are all invariably females, so that there can be no doubt that the produc- tion of young in the parasitic Ascaris is entirely parthenogenetic. It is beyond doubt also, he says, that this mode of parthenogenesis is widely diffused among the Nematodes, and cites as a tolerably certain instance of it the case of Filaria medinensis. With respect to this species, it seems probable from Carter's observations that, as in A. nigrovenosa, there are two kinds of generations, a parasitic and a free, and if so, we should have an exact analogy with the parasite of the frog’s lung. ; 444 Chronicles of Science. [July, Max Schultze’s ‘Archiv fur Mikroskopische Anatomie’ is a journal which has been started by the Professor at Bonn, and has already attained to its fifth number. It contains many very valuable papers. Amongst others there have been three on various matters relating to those strange little creatures, the Tardigrada, or “ bear-beasties,’ as the German name for them may be translated. Dr. Richard Greef contributed a paper on their nervous system to the first number, as also another in the last issue, relating to the genus Macrobiotus, both of which are excellently illustrated. A paper ‘On the Movements of the Diatomacer,” by Prof. Schultze, in the fourth number, is one of great interest—it is the author’s opinion that a sareodic organic substance is spread over the whole external surface of the Diatom which is the chief agent in rapid movement. He does not, however, consider that this affects the question of the animal or plant-nature of Diatoms. The papers in this journal which are devoted to the mechanical wants of microscopists will be found very good. There are many useful and important pieces of apparatus described in its pages which English makers would do well to introduce for us into this country. A paper, by Professor Leydig, of Tiibingen, “On Phreoryctes Menkeanus, Hofm.,” appears in the third part of this journal, and is well worthy of attention. This extraordinary worm was originally discovered by Herr Menke in a brook at Pyrmont, and it was first described by Hofmeister as Haplotaxis Menkeana, which name was afterwards changed to its present appellation. or a long time the only known habitat was the original site in which the worm was discovered, but it has since been met with by Leydig at Tubingen, and it is stated by Leuckart to be common at Giessen, so that we may hope to hear of its occurrence in this country. A second species, apparently belonging to the same genus, was described by Schlotthauber in 1859. The worm, which strongly resembles a Gordius, has a cylindrical body, about half a line thick and more than a foot long. When viewed alive, it is at once seen to pre- sent all the characters of a true Annelid. There are four rows of sete on the sides and ventral aspect, each segment presenting on either side a larger seta, which is placed quite on the ventral aspect, as in the common earth worm, and a smaller one, which from its position might almost be termed dorsal. In the middle portion of the body the ventral sete sometimes occur in pairs on either side, but more usually only one is met with. The sete themselves have a slight sigmoid flexure, with a small enlargement in the middle. According to Schlotthauber, the proper habitat of the worm is moist earth ; but according to Leydig’s observations it would seem to be truly aquatic, or, at any rate, to require exceedingly wet mud for its abode. 1866. | Zoology and Animal Physiology. 445 ZooLoGicaL Soctery or Lonpon. Mr. St. George Mivart has, during the past quarter, communi- cated two memoirs to the Society, on the Anatomy of Quadrumana —a subject in which he has already been working for some time. One is on the dentition, and other points of structure, in the rare Lemurine animai Microrhynchus laniger, of Madagascar ; the other is a joint paper with Dr. Murie (the prosector to the Society), “ On the Anatomy of the Lemuroidea,” principally relating to the myology of these animals. The appointment of a prosector, and the building of a well- arranged dissecting-room in the Society’s gardens, have, no doubt, done much to assist the study of comparative anatomy. Besides the above papers we have, as a result of this lberal movement, during the past quarter, an excellent paper by Dr. Murie and Mr. St. George Mivart, “On the Anatomy of the Agouti (Dasyprocta cristata),” principally in reference to the myology of this animal. Among the papers relating to descriptive zoology are deserip- tions of three new monkeys, by Dr. Gray, Cercopithecus erythro- gaster, living in the menagerie; Nasua dorsalis, from South America; and Macacus inornatus, also living in the gardens. The Society has also lately obtained for its menagerie a rare monkey from Demerara, Pithecia leucocephala. Dr. Gray has also described a new Porcupine (Acanthion Grotet), specimens of which are in the Gardens and also in the British Museum; also a new Bat from Angola (Scotophilus Welwilchit), and a new Bush-bock (Cephalophus breviceps), as well as various mammals recently received from Port Albany, North Australia, amongst which were several species new to science. A large number of new and rare birds have also been noticed and described at the meetings of the Society by Mr. Sclater, Mr. Gould, Dr. Hartlaub, and others. Mr. Tegetmeier exhibited a drawing of the Dodo (Didus ineptus), supposed to be an original one, from which it appeared that the plumage of this remarkable bird was white. Mr. Sclater and Mr. Salvin have laid before the Society a catalogue of the birds collected by Mr. Edward Bartlett during his recent expedition up the river Ucayali, in Eastern Peru, with notes and descriptions of the new species. The total number of specimens contained in Mr. Bartlett’s collection was about 700, referable to 252 different species, of which twelve proved to be new to. science. Some valuable communications on Lepidoptera have been pre- sented to the Society by Mr. A. G. Butler ; and Mr. Flower at one meeting exhibited some insects captured in the Atlantic on board the ship ‘ Hotspur, about 300 miles from land. Amongst Mollusca, a list of species collected in Formosa, by Mr. Swinhoe, was furnished by Mr. H. Adams. ( 446) { July, THE INTERNATIONAL HORTICULTURAL EXHIBITION AND BOTANICAL CONCRESS. Tus grand meeting of English and foreign Botanists and Horti- culturists, so long expected, took place on the 22nd of May, at South Kensington. This meeting is only one of a series, the first of which was held at Brussels in 1864, the next at Amsterdam in 1865, this year, 1866, in London; in 1867 the Congress meets in Paris, and in 1868 at St. Petersburg. It is expected that the country where the Exhibition and Congress is held, will endeavour to give as complete a representation as possible of its own Botany and Horticulture. Hence, in the late Horticultural and Botanical display at South Kensington, our great nuxserymen and botanists were legitimately masters of the position. And well did they maim- tain our national pre-eminence in Horticulture! Never was there a larger or a better flower-show exhibited on English soil. The general plan consisted of a rectangular plot of ground, 560 fect long by 300 feet broad, covered throughout by 40,000 yards of canvas, forming a vast pavilion or tent, overspreading about 34 acres. The ground thus enclosed and covered was laid out as an orna- mental garden, with broad and winding gravel walks, grass-terraced banks, waterfalls, artificial lakes, hills and valleys, and rockeries, the object of the whole arrangement being to display the plants to the best advantage, and give the visitors every facility for seeing them. The view on entering the tent was truly beautiful and pleasing, reflecting much credit on the taste and judgment of the gentlemen: of the Executive Committee, who devised the plan, and by whom all the arrangements were effected, viz. Mr. Gibson, Mr. Eyles, Dr. Masters, Mr. T. Moore, and Dr. Hogg. From the raised ground at the southern end, a very fine and comprehensive cowp-d’cel was obtained of an undulating landscape of flowers, shrubbery, and trees, every zone and climate under heaven having apparently been ran- sacked of its botanical treasures to furnish the brilliant and imposing scene. A valley of Rhododendrons slopmg down to the banks of an artificial lake !|—masses of bloom grouped on every eminence and covering the green shelving banks, magnificent Azaleas and Pelar- 1866.| The International Horticultural Exhibition. 447 goniums in full dress, their stems and flowers tied to rmgs and hoops like a lady’s crinoline—certainly a method of perverting the natural growth of the plant, which will be one day abandoned— Calceolarias and Cape Ericas in astonishing perfection, Roses of every hue, and Coniferous evergreens,—here and there a tall and noble tree-fern (Cyathea medullaris), towering aloft with its gracefully drooping fronds, Bananas, Palms, Draceenas, Pandani, Cycadacee, and other tropical evergreens—the whole scene was one from fairy- land. It was, however, in the Orchid tent that the main horticultural attractions were centred. This department, separated from the rest of the pavilion by a canvas screen, 500 feet in length and 40 feet in width, was heated throughout by iron pipes, furnished gratuitously by Mr. Henry Ormson, the horticultural engineer. A broad, central, gravel walk, with sloping grass-covered terraced banks on either side, traversed its entire extent. On the eastern side the chief attractions were variegated-leaved plants, Caladiums, Marantas, Begonias, Lycopodiacex, Cypripediums, Japan Lilies, and ferns ; on the western side, a space of about 400 feet of the bank was allotted to the Orchids, some of them of the very rarest kinds and of almost fabulous value. These gorgeous epiphytes of the tropical forest, which take the place of moss and lichen on the stems of the trees of the temperate zones, were here exhibited in all their beauty and fra- grance, Vandas, Cattleyas, Dendrobiums, Onycidiums, Epidendrons, Odontoglossa, and Phaleenopsis being the most conspicuous genera. We noticed also, on the same bank, the beautiful Cypripedium bar- batum, and very fine samples of the Sarracenia purpurea, or North American pitcher-plant Beneath the bank of Orchids, on the same side of the tent, there was an interesting collection of economical and medicinal plants exhibited by Mr. Linden, of Brussels, includ- ing the tea, coffee, and cocoa shrubs, the spice plants, gamboge, maho- gany, lignum vite, nux-vomica, gutta percha (Isonandra guttata), and India-rubber trees (Ficus elastica) ; and at the southern end of the tent were to be seen some most superb specimens of the pitcher- plant of the East Indies (Nepenthes). Amongst the vegetable rarities on exhibition we noticed the Ouvirandra fenestralis, or lattice-plant of Madagascar ; the Rapha- nus caudatus, or rat-tailed radish, first introduced into England from India by Mr. Bull. It is a straggling plant, about two feet in 448 The International Horticultural Exhibition [July, height, with Cruciferous flowers, and slender drooping pods which form the esculent portion or radish. Although the seeds of this plant when first introduced sold at the rate of eight for a guinea, yet as it thrives well in this country, it will probably soon become one of our commonest esculents. The Liliwm auratwm, the first bulb of which cost Messrs. Veitch 1,200 guineas, and Mr. Linden’s exquisitely delicate white flower, the Psychotria nivosa, attracted universal admiration. There were also some very lovely specimens of Anzectochilus. A box of 50 Alpine and herbaceous plants exhibited by Mr. James Backhouse, of York, not at all showy in appearance, neyver- theless attracted considerable attention on account of the variety and rarity of its contents. We noticed in this box the North American Cypripedium acaule and Dodecatheon integrifolum, Ranunculus glacialis which flowers amidst the melting snows of the Alps, the Myosotis montana or mountain forget-me-not, which forms a dense little bush of large clear blue flowers, Gentiana acaulis showing as in its mountain home its large deep-blue flowers, the scarlet-flowered Anemone fulgens, and several other Alpine beauties, familiar to the tourist, forming altogether a most interesting collection, reminding, doubtless, some of the visitors of Chamouni, the Grindelwald, and the mountains of Switzerland, with their robes of eternal snow. To attempt to enumerate all the rare and beautiful plants beneath the covering of that capacious tent is indeed a hopeless task. Messrs, Veitch alone had about 10,0002. worth of plants on exhibition, and 30,0002. would not have purchased the collection of Orchids. Some idea of the immensity of the collection may be gathered from the lament of a well-known Hammersmith horticulturist, that he could scarcely find his name in the garden although he had sent down twenty wagon-loads of plants and trees ! Prof. De Candolle, the President of the Botanical Congress, together with some of its most eminent foreign members, were pre- sented to the Prince and Princess of Wales, who, accompanied by Prince Alfred, the Princess Helena, the Princess Mary of Cam- bridge, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, and Prince Teck, honoured the opening day with their presence. Amongst the numerous foreign contributors to this truly inter- national display, who must have been at considerable expense in the importation of their plants, the collections of Mr. Linden, of aoe 1866. | and Botanical Congress. 449 Brussels, and Mr. Verschaffelt, of Ghent, stood pre-eminent. But to both English and foreign horticulturists, the public owes hearty thanks for a sight of so many rare and beautiful plants. When it is remembered that cultivators prize such plants quite as much as artists prize choice and beautiful pictures, the expense connected with their culture and transportation, and that they must necessarily suffer more than works of art, when shown to great crowds, by the conditions to which they are exposed, the noble emulation which could forget all personal and selfish considerations, and prompt to their exhibition on a rare occasion like the present, will be under- stood and acknowledged. The public indeed appeared thoroughly to appreciate this floral display, so that instead of four days the Council decided that it should be kept open for nine days. On the evening of the opening day a banquet was held in Guildhall, the Lord Mayor presiding, to which 100 distinguished foreigners were invited as guests. After the usual loyal toasts had been duly honoured, Sir Went- worth Duilke proposed the health of the foreign visitors, and especially Professor De Candolle, the President of the Botanical Congress. Professor De Candolle returned thanks in the French language. He said the unhappy state of things on the Continent had prevented many foreign botanists and horticulturists from coming. “What science wants above all is liberty, not only political liberty, which is to a certain extent very necessary ; but, above all, that hberty which is accorded to the individual by public opinion. Those who seek for scientific truth require to be pro- tected by the public, even more than by a free political system. Science prospers when allowed this freedom, and then neither revo- lutions nor war can stop its onward progress.” The Botanical Congress held its first session on the 23rd of May, in the Raphael Cartoon Rooms, in the South Kensington Museum. It consisted of about 130 representatives from foreign countries—France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Russia, Italy, Switzerland, Portugal, and America being each represented in the Congress by one or more members; Professor Alphonse De Can- dolle, from Geneva, presiding. After the introductory address, which was delivered in the French language by the president, papers were read by the various botanists, British and foreign, in their own language, discussions occasionally following the reading 450 The International Horticultural Exhibition [duly, of the paper. On the 24th, the Congress held at the same hour its second and final session. The attendance each time was large and brilliant, many ladies being present. These two meetings will long be remembered as a happy and instructive holiday by those who were so fortunate as to take part in them. Many were the personal acquaintances made there for the first time, by horticulturists and botanists, who had previously only known each other by name and reputation. Nearly fifty papers in English, French, German, and Italian were sent in to the Congress, the principal topics discussed in these papers being the practice of horticulture, vegetable mor- phology and physiology, structural botany, the geographical diffusion of plants, and their classification. The company assembled included M. De Candolle of Geneva, Professor Koch of Berlin, M. Reichenbach of Hamburg, M. Lecoq of Clermont Ferrand, M. Caspary of Konigsberg, M. Weddell of Poitiers, M. Meissner of Basle, Pro- fessor Morren of Liege, M. Schulz Bipontinus of Deidesheim, M. Van Houtte of Ghent, M. Linden of Brussels, Verschaffelt of Ghent, Van Heuzck of Antwerp, Wendland of Hanover, Triana of New Granada, and the principal British botanists: Bennett and Gray, of the British Museum; Berkeley, Bentley, Hogg, Masters, Howard, and Ward, of London; Dr. Daubeny, of Oxford; Dr. Moore, of Dublin; and Dr. Dickson, of Edinburgh. In opening the Congress, the president, Professor De Candolle, said :—“ Before I commence my address in French, allow me to say a few words in English: first, as a mark of respect to this great country, and next in explanation of my views for the conduct of the present and future meetings of this kind. We have to choose between two alternatives, either that every member should speak in his own language, or in that of the country where the Congress meets. This last method would destroy the equality between members which is desirable in every public assembly, not a few would be reduced to silence, or, at least, prevented from taking part in the discussions, and several distinguished men would, there- fore, avoid international congresses. The other plan, of letting every one speak in his own language, appears to be much more convenient. For these reasons I shall address you in French, and in doing so I establish, in fact, the right of every Englishman to speak in English at Paris or at Berlin, at Florence or at Vienna, under similar circumstances.” 1866.] and Botanical Congress. 451 Professor De Candolle then read his inaugural address. He commenced, by showing “the service that horticulture renders, or may render, to Botany. The most remarkable experiments of physiologists—viz. those of Hales, Duhamel, Knight, Gaertner, and M. Naudin—have been made in gardens. Horticulture has done much to advance the progress of physiological botany, but it has still much to do.” M. De Candolle then suggested the con- struction of experimental green-houses and hot-houses, and gave his views as to the plan to be adopted in their erection, so as best to serve the purpose of the physiologist. “A building such as I propose, would allow of light being passed through coloured glasses or coloured solutions, and so prove the effect of the different visible or invisible rays which enter into the composition of sun- light. M. Von Martius placed some plants of Amaranthus tricolor for two months under glasses of various colours. Under the yellow glass the varied tint of the leaves was preserved. The red glass impeded the development of the leaves, and produced at the base of the limb, yellow instead of green; in the middle of the upper surface, yellow instead of reddish brown; and below, a red spot instead of purplish red. With the blue glasses, which allowed some green and yellow to pass, that which was red or yellow in the leaf had spread so that there remained only a green border or edge. Under the nearly pure violet glasses, the foliage became almost uniformly green. Now that plants with coloured foliage are becoming fashionable, it may interest horticulturists to know that by means of coloured glasses, provided they are not yellow, they may hope to obtain at least temporary effects as to the colouring of variegated foliage.” “ Nothing would be easier than to create in the experimental hot-house an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas, such as is supposed to have existed in the coal period. Then it might be seen to what extent our present vegetation would take an excess of carbon from the air, and if its general existence were inconvenienced by it. Then might be ascertained what tribes of plants could bear this condition, and what other families could not have existed, supposing the air had formerly had a very large proportion of carbonic acid gas.” “ Horticulture has a com- mercial tendency which may be carried too far. A horticulturist, who allows himself to be influenced by a scientific spirit, necessarily frees himself from over-selfish tendencies.” The above extracts 452 The International Horticultural Exhibition [July, will show the spirit of this admirable address, and the enlarged and philosophical views with which it abounds. At the close of the reading a vote of thanks, proposed by Sir C. Wentworth Dilke M.P., and seconded by Sir Roderick Murchison, was carried by acclamation. The following are some of the most important papers which were read at the two sessions of the Congress :— Professor Caspary, of Konigsberg: “On the Change of the Diree- tion of the Branches of Woody Plants.” Professor Caspary has determined the following facts:—1. There is in winter a lateral movement of the branches of trees sometimes to the left, and also to the right-hand side, which movement is directly in proportion to the intensity of the frost. 2. The frost causes the branches of some trees to droop, and of others to rise, the extent of the down- ward and upward movement varying according to its mildness or . severity. 3. In some instances the branches of trees exhibit both the above movements, rising when the frost is mild, and drooping when it becomes severe. Mr. J. E. Howard, of London: “ Observations on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Species of Cinchona.” In this paper Mr. Howard mentions the fact of the great variability of the specific forms of this genus of plants. Every well-defined region of the Andes has its own prevalent and characteristic Cinchonas, which are incapable of being reduced to any one typical form. Mr. Howard believes that no species has been clearly proved to remain unchanged from end to end of the Cinchonaceous region. He has succeeded in obtaining, from a cultivated specimen of Cinchona officinalis, nearly as much quinine as from the bark of a plant of the same age grown abroad—probably the first time that quinine has ever been extracted from bark grown in Europe. Mr. James Anderson, of Glasgow: “ Observations on the Tem- perature of Water, and its Effects on Plant Cultivation.” Mr. Anderson advocates the importance of employing water as warm as the air of the stove, or a little warmer, for watering tropical plants, - especially orchids. Tropical plants so treated were invariably more vigorous and healthy. Those acquainted with Brazilian forests— the habitat of the Orchids—know that the rain-drops are always warm. This accounts for Mr. Anderson’s success as a cultivator, and confirms the truth of his views. — 1866. ] and Botanical Congress. 458 Professor De Candolle, Geneva: “ On a Recent very exact Mea- surement of the Diameter of the Trunk of one of the gigantic Sequoias of California.” M. De Candolle exhibited a strip of paper reaching nearly across the room, and in explanation said that it was an exact measurement, recently made by M. De la Rue and an assistant, of the diameter of one of the gigantic trees of Cali- fornia—that known as the “Old Maid.” The trunk of this tree had been broken off by a storm at a height of 128 feet, and its base now forms the floor of a dancing-room. M. De la Rue had mea- sured it in the following manner :—A slip of paper was stretched across the diameter of the trunk, and the annual rings were marked off by a pencil on the paper. This paper he now ex- hibited. The number of rings was counted by M. De la Rue and his assistant, one counting from the circumference to the centre, and the other from the centre to the circumference; 1,223 rings were counted in the one case, and 1,245 in the other. The mean of the two observations, which was no doubt nearly correct, gave the age of the tree as 1,254 years. The diameter of the tree, at the height of about six English feet from the ground, was 26 feet 5 inches, and its entire height, before the upper part of the stem was broken off, was, approximately, 350 feet. The Sequoias grew very uniformly. ‘The lines on the slip would show that at the age of 400 or 500 years the annual rings were still thick, while, in ordinary trees, the layers became thin at from 80—120 years. This demonstration excited the most lively interest in the Con- gress. Very able and interesting papers were also read by Professor Karl Koch, of Berlin, “On Systematic Botany ;” Dr. Moore, of Glasnevin, “ On the Climate, Flora, and Crops of Ireland ; ” Professor Horren, of Liege, ‘On the Influence of Gaslight on Plants ;” and Mr. W. G. Smith, of London, “On the Corona of Narcissus.” The President then declared the Congress at an end; on which Mr. Bennett, of the British Museum, proposed, Dr. Daubeny, of Oxford, seconded, and Dr. Schultz Bipontinus, of Deidesheim, sup- ported, a vote of thanks to the President, and the meeting separated. The following are some of the papers forwarded to the com- mittee ; but as the time of the Congress was fully occupied with the reading of those already sent in, they were unavoidably excluded, but will probably be published at some future day. 454 The International Horticultural Exhibition. [July, Mr. W. Bull, Chelsea, “On the Relation of Horticulture and Botany to Mankind in general ;” Mr. B. Clark, London, “On the Floral Envelopes of the Lauracez ;” Dr. Masters, London, “ Double Flowers ;” Dr. Hildebrand, Bonn, “On the Necessity of Insect Agency in the Fertilization of Corydalis cava ;” Mr. Tuffen West, London, “On the Structure of the Testa of the Seed of the Solanaceze.” It is impossible to enumerate all the public and private enter- tainments given. Mr. Veitch gave a magnificent déjewner at his exotic nurseries, Chelsea, to the foreign members and English botanists, before the formal business of the Congress commenced on Wednesday. The most distinguished of the foreign visitors were invited to their anniversary dinner, by the President and Council of the Linnean Society. A large number were hospitably entertained at Kew, by Dr. Hooker. The conversazione at the South Kensing- ton Museum was equally brilliant and successful with the exhibi- tion, being crowded with visitors, foreign and English, distinguished by their rank or scientific position. Upwards of 500 gentlemen dined at St. Martin’s Hall, under the presidency of Lord Henry Lennox. M. De Candolle and our foreign guests appear to have enjoyed themselves thoroughly, having been received with true English hospitality. When the most distinguished savans of different nations meet together to advance science, which has already conferred so many benefits on mankind, each expressing his thoughts in the Congress in his own language, may we not hope that national animosities and prejudices created for political pur- poses between nations will be counteracted, and that mankind will continue to advance in the knowledge and appreciation of those physical and moral truths so essential to their happiness, and which alone can form the basis of a permanent and enduring civilization ? 1866. | ( 455 ) Quarterly List of Publications received for Webiew, 1. A Dictionary; Geographical, Statistical, and Historical of the various Countries, Places, and Principal Natural Objects in the World. By J.R. McCulloch. New Kdition, carefully revised by Frederick Martin. In Four Vols. Vol. I. Longmans & Co. 2. Notes on Hpidemics, for the Use of the Public. By Francis Edmund Anstie, M.D. Jackson, Walford, & Hodder. 3. A System of Medicine. Edited by J. Russell Reynolds, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., Physician to University College Hospital and to the National Hospital for the Paralyzed and Epileptic. Vol. I. containing General Diseases. 960 pp. Demy 8vo. Macmillan & Co. 4. Rocks Classified and Described. A Treatise on Lithology. By Bernhard von Cotta. An English Edition, by Philip Henry Lawrence. Revised by the Author. 430 pp. Post 8vo. Longmans & Co. 5. A Treatise on Astronomy, for the Use of Colleges and Schools. By Hugh Godfray, M.A., Mathematical Lecturer at Pembroke College, Cambridge. 320 pp. Demy 8vo. With Engravings on Wood. Macmillan & Co. 6. Mind in Nature ; or, the Origin of Life and the Mode of Develop- ment of Animals. By Henry James Clark, A.B., B.S., Adjunct Professor of Zoology in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. With over 200 Illustrations. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 7. Handbook of Natural Philosophy. By Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L. Electricity, Magnetism, and Acoustics. Seventh Thousand. Revised and Edited by George Carey Foster, B.A., F.C.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in University College, London. 400 Engravings. 460 pp. Crown 8vo. Walton & Maberly. 8. The Harmonies of Nature; or, the Unity of Creation. By Dr. G. Hartwig. 420 pp. Demy 8vo. 200 I/ustrations. Longmans & Co. VOL. Il. 4H 456 List of Publications received for Review. [July, 9. Cholera in its Home. With a Sketch of the Pathology and Treatment of the Disease. By John Macpherson, M.D., late Deputy-Inspector-General of Hospitals, H.M. Bengal Army, and formerly of the European General Hospital, Calcutta. 160 pp. Crown 8vo. John Churchill & Sons. 10. The English and their Origin. A Prologue to authentic English History. By Luke Owen Pike, M.A., of Lincoln’s Inn, Barrister-et-Law. 290 pp. Demy 8vo. Longmans & Co. 11. The Physiological Anatomy and Physiology of Man. By Robert B. Todd, William Bowman, and Lionel §. Beale, Fellows of the Royal Society, former and present Professors of Physiology and of General and Morbid Anatomy in King’s College, London. A New Edition, by the last-named Author. Part I. Longmans & Co. 12. On the Anatomy of Vertebrates. Vol. I1.—Birds and Mammals. By Richard Owen, F.R.S. 406 Wood Engravings. 600 pp. Demy 8vo. Longmans & Co. 13. Relique Aquitanice ; being Contributions to the Archeology and Paleontology of Périgord and the adjoining Provinces of Southern France. By Edouard Lartet and Henry Christy. Part II. Bailliere. 14. The True and the False Sciences. A Letter on Homeopathy. 40 pp. Demy 8vo. John Churchill & Sons. 15. Rain and Rivers; or, Hutton and Playfair against Lyell and ail Comers. By Colonel George Greenwood. Demy 8vo. Longmans & Co. 16. On the Use of the Sphygmograph in the Investigation of Disease. By Balthazar W. Foster, M.D., M.R.C.P. Lond., Professor of Clinical Medicine in Queen’s College, Birmingham. 30 pp. Crown 8vo. From the Author. 17. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and of the Museum of Practical Geology. The Geology of the Country round Stockport, Macclesfield, Congleton, and Leek. By Edward Hull, B.A., F.G.S., and A. H. Green, M.A. F.G.S. With Map. 102 pp. Royal 8vo. Longmans & Co. 18. A Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. Edited by the late W. T. Brande, D.C.L., F.R.S., and the Rev. George Wm. Cox, M.A. Part IX. Longmans & Co. 1866. | List of Publications received for Review. 457 PAMPHLETS, PERIODICALS, PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, &o. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Vol. IV. Part 3. Vol. V., Part I. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India.—Paleontologia Indica. 36-389, 41. Catalogue of the Organic Remains belonging to the Echinodermata in the Museum of the Geological Survey of India, Calcutta. Annual Report of the Geological Survey of India, and of the Museum of Geology, Calcutta. Ninth year, 1864-5. Catalogue of the Specimens of Meteoric Stones and Meteoric Trons in the Museum of the Geological Survey, Calcutta. On the Function of Articulate Speech, and on its Connection with the Mind and the Bodily Organs. Illustrated by a Reference to recent Observations on certain Diseased States of the Brain. By W. T. Gairdner, M.D., Professor of Practice of Physic in the University of Glasgow. 37 pp. Demy 8vo. Case of Aphasia, or Speechlessness. By the same Author. 13 pp. Demy 8vo. On the Physical Cause of the Submergence and Emergence of the Land during the Glacial Epoch. By James Croll. With Note by Professor W. Thomson, F.R.S. 6 pp. Demy 8vo. On the Excentricity of the EHarth’s Orbit. By James Croll. 2 pp. Demy 8vo. From the Author. Extracts from the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Papers on New Mollusca. By Isaac Lea. 32 pp. Royal 8vo. From the Author. Description of a Double Fotus. By Jeffries Wyman, M.D., Hersey Professor of Anatomy in Harvard College. 10 pp. Demy 8vo. Boston, U.S.A. Report of a Committee appointed to consider certain Questions relating to the Metropolitan Department of the Board of Trade. Observations and Experiments on the Effects of Prussic Acid on the Animal Economy. By T. 8. Ralph, M.R.C.S. (Read before the Medical Society of Victoria, December 6, 1865.) Index to the Foreign Scientific Periodicals contained in the Free Public Library of the Patent Office. 458 = List of Publications received for Review. | July, 1866. Brief Remarks on Cholera : being the Result of Observations during the two last Outbreaks of Cholera in England, &c, To which is added, a Short Table of Practical Rules for general Use during an Epidemic. By R. J. Spitton, M.D. Churchill & Sons. The Action of Fungi in the Production of Disease. By Tilbury Fox, M.D. London. 21 pp. Demy 8vo. From the Author. On the Deposits occupying the Valley between the Braddons and Waldon Hills, Torquay. By W. Pengelly, F.R.S, F.G.S. &e. (Read before the Torquay Natural History Society, May 9, 1866.) On the Origin of Muscular Power. By Dr. A. Fick, Zurich, and Dr. J. Wislicenus, Zurich. Report on the Health of Liverpool, during the year 1865. By W.S. Trench, M.D., Medical Officer of Health. Speculations on the former Topography of Liverpool. Part I. By Joseph Boult, F.R.I.B.A. Liverpool: Brakell. On Kent’s Cavern, Torquay. By W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S., Lecture at the Royal Institution. North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club. 1866. Report. 10 pp. Demy 8vo. Proceedings of the British Naturalists’ Society, with the Annual Report, Treasurer's Account, and List of Members. Edited by W. Lant Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc., Honorary Reporting Secretary. 24 pp. Demy 8vo. The Printers’ Register. Westminster Review, April. Trubner & Co. Geological Magazine, April. Trubner & Co. The American Journal of Science and Arts. Journal de Médecine Mentale, Féy. Masson et Fils. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Impériale Zoologique d’Acclima- tation, Avril. Scientific Review. American Journal of Mining. Proceedings of the Royal Society. Royal Astronomical Society. Royal Geographical Society. Chemical Society. Geological Society. Zoological Society. London: Printed by W. Clowns & Sons, Stamford Street and Charing Crosa, Se Pr a et ee MAP Dy) (ORTHE COAL FIELDS OF THE Wao th LD WONAGaxSIH REFERENCE England & Wales Scollagid Ireland France & Belquen Saarbriich. Prussta Hanover & Westphalia Bohemiw & Silesia Poland Turkey Sporn & Portugal aster & Westerm Russia Cae Tiss Southern. Donety Asiatic Turkey 7 19° Australia D Tasmania & New Zealand 21 Brit. Possessions N America 2 Uited States. ke QZ], Extension of Coal deposits Lagrata . Hazhart ith THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. OCTOBER, 1866. I. OUR COAL SUPPLIES AND OUR PROSPERITY. With a “ Coal Map” of the World. In the year 1862, Mr. Edward Hull, of the Geological Survey, published a small compact work on the coal-fields of Great Britain, in which he incidentally discussed the question “ How long will our Coal-fields last ?” and replied by expressing his belief that they would last upwards of 1,000 years, at the then rate of production. In 1863, Sir Wm. Armstrong, the President of the British Associ- ation, in his address at Newcastle, took up the inquiry in what was at that time considered rather a sensational spirit, and declared the probable limit of the coal-fields to be about two centuries. In 1865, Mr. W. 8. Jevons, M.A., published a work on the “Coal Question,” with “an inquiry concerning the progress of the nation, and the probable exhaustion of our coal supply ;” in which he said, “ If our consumption of coal continue to multiply for 110 years at the same rate as hitherto, the total amount.of coal con- sumed in the interval will be one hundred thousand millions of tons ;’ and as Mr. Hull, whose figures he adopted, only estimated the whole available resources of the country at about eighty thou- sand millions of tons, there is, according to Mr. Jevons’s view, a fair prospect of our supply being entirely stopped within a century. When the startling work of Mr. Jevons was given to the world, the sensation created by Sir Wm. Armstrong’s remarks at New- castle had somewhat subsided, and the book was neglected until Mr. J. 8. Mill, the political economist, took up the subject of the reduction of the national liabilities in the House of Commons last spring. He did not exactly say that he agreed with Mr. Jevons’s calculations, but he gave them sufficient weight to justify their employment: for the end he had in view, and his argument may thus be briefly stated: “ We are fast consuming the stock-in-trade of our posterity ; do not let us bequeath them our debts.” The Chancellor of the Exchequer (Mr. Gladstone) ae this a VOL. III. I 460 Our Coal Supply and our Prosperity. [ Oct., convenient lever to enable him to introduce a measure haying the object proposed ; for whilst the less scientifically-informed members of the Lower House were compelled to look on with astonishment, and dared not open their lips in the presence of so inexorable a schoolmaster as Mr. Gladstone, the initiated smiled, and allowed the effort to be made to diminish the national indebtedness—a very wise course on the part of both sections of the House. It is right, however, that we should, en passant, remind our readers that not alone is the credit of having awed the House of Commons due to Mr. Jevons, but that they will find in the penul- timate chapter of his work the suggestion thrown out that the effect of the rapidly decreasing coal-supply should be counteracted by the reduction of the National Debt. No sooner, however, was the financial measure brought in, than other gentlemen in the House of Commons, practically acquainted with the question, called upon the late Government to appoint a Commission of Inquiry; and shortly after the subject was intro- duced by Mr. Mill, such a Commission was nominated, which ig at present prosecuting its labours. It is, of course, well known to our readers that the change of ministry brought also a changed financial policy. Mr. Disraeli with- drew the measure which was intended as the commencement of a new account in our national ledger, and all we have left now is the ery of dwindling coal resources and a Royal Commission of Inquiry. No doubt these gentlemen will in due time present a Report to Her Majesty, which will be full of valuable information and suggestions; but as we apprehend that all the data for arriving at a sound conclusion (or as we shall presently seek to show, for not being able to arrive at a positive conclusion,) are as ripe now as they will be when a Report is issued, we shall venture to lay before our readers the best information at our command, and such views as we trust will at least have the effect of calming appre- ‘hensions that might otherwise be kept alive until the Report of the Commission is presented and published.’ And let us first state, with regard to Mr. Jevons’s book, which has created such a hubbub, and in which, a long year after its publication, our legislators and critics have discovered so much profound wisdom, that it presents evidence of honest care and perseverance ; contains a great number of valuable facts intermingled with conscientious but erroneous opinions; and that whilst many of the generalities uttered by the author are undoubted truths, which might have been deduced with equal if not greater justice from facts totally unconnected with “the Coal Question,” it un- fortunately attributes the decline which the author apprehends, as it temporarily props up the supremacy of our people, upon an unstable materialistic support which really has very little to do 1866. | Our Coal Supply and our Prosperity. 461 with the permanent foundations of our imperial grandeur and national prosperity. We shall not merely content ourselves with thus passing judgment on the book; in the course of our inquiry some of Mr. Jevons’s thoughts will serve as our points of departure, although it will appear that they lead us to conclusions totally at variance with those of the author. This book may be re- viewed in the identical terms which he, curiously enough, applies to the opinions of one of the earliest writers on the subject of which he treats, viz. “The Reputed Quantity of Coal of Britain.” “‘ His remarks are highly intelligent, and prove him to be one of the first to appreciate the value of coal, and to foresee the conse- quences which must” (we should rather say “might ”) “some time result from its failure. This event he rather prematurely appre- hended.”. . . “Still his views on this subject may be read with profit even at the present day.” We propose to conduct our inquiry as follows: First. We shall inquire: What are the present sources of our coal supply in Britain ? Secondly. Are those sources likely to extend? May we, in the course of time, have greater facilities for obtaining coal in Britain than we at present possess ? Thirdly. Ave there any means by which such additional supplies should now be sought or encouraged ? Fourthly. How is our present supply consumed ? Fifthly. What general changes are likely to occur in the application of our coal resources ? Siathly. From the foregoing, we shall endeavour to arrive at some conclusion as to the probable future of Great Britain, as it is likely to be affected by changes in our manufacturing industry, consequent upon a modification of our coal supply. In all these inquiries our words must necessarily be few, and as we have derived our information from the best sources, we must leave it to our readers to employ the best means at their disposal for the rectification of our errors, if they should have difficulty in accepting any of our statements. “% First, then,—“ What are the present sources of the coal supply in England and Wales? ” From 17 coal-fields (of which 3, Anglesea, the Forest of Wyre, and Shrewsbury, are inconsiderable), which may be arranged under three groups: 1, The Eastern; 2, Western; and 3, Southern.* The coal-fields of Scotland, 6 in number, form another group, the Northern. The yield from the whole of these coal-fields was 98,150,587 tons in 1865.t If we take the estimate of Mr. ; * See ‘ Quarterly Journal of Science,’ No. 1. + Mineral Statistics. RB. Hunt, F.R.S. 212 462 Our Coal Supply and our Prosperity. [Oct., McCulloch of the yield in 1840 at 30,000,000 tons, the total increase in 25 years will have been about 68,000,000, or at the rate of 2°6 millions per annum, which was nearly the amount assumed by Sir W. Armstrong (2,750,000 tons per annum). There is no probability of absolutely new sources of supply beyond these coal-fieids and their marginal tracts of Permian and New Red Sandstone. The geological evidence is against the sup- position of the existence of coal under the Eastern and Southern counties of England, with the possible exception of a narrow trough under the cretaceous rocks of the Thames valley. This is owing to the uprising of the Silurian rocks beneath the newer formations of which we have indications in Leicestershire, War- wickshire, South Staffordshire, and Shropshire. It is also certain that the Somersetshire coal-fiell terminates to the eastward under the lias, and is disconnected with any possible coal-strata under the Thames valley. There are several coal-fields of which it may be confidently affirmed that they have passed their prime, and are verging on decay ; of these the coal-fields of Coal-brook Dale, in Shropshire, the Flintshire, and the South Staffordshire are the examples. There are others which have nearly attained their meridian of development, such as Durham, Lancashire, Warwick; Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Notts (all one); and there are others which are capable of considerable increase in the amount of their yield; of which the examples are Denbighshire, North Staffordshire, Leicester- shire (especially under the adjoming New Red Sandstone areas), Forest of Dean, and South Wales. Some districts of the Scottish coal-fields have also seen their best days, but on the whole the resources of the coal area of Scotland are on the same parallel as those of England and Wales.* The following is a summary of the outputs of the coal-fields from the mineral statistics of Great Britain for 1865.t Tons. Condition. 1. Durham and Northumberland. . . . . 25,032,694 (increasing) 2.' Cumberland 2° 5 s09s) wa 2) se 1, 14311037 (Gmcreasina) 5. Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Notts. . . . 15,046,350 (increasing) 4: elcestershine saint i oes dias. es colseneec ihe 965,500 (increasing) Do: Warwickshire, Were) a. as ee 859,000 (increasing) 6. Staffordshire and Worcestershire . . . . 12,200,989 (increasing) 7. Lancashire ‘ j; . . . 11,962,000 (increasing) 8. Cheshire } ened 1 850,000 (increasing) * An interesting inquiry into the actual quantity of gas-coal, or cannel, in the United Kingdom, has just been concluded by Mr. R. Hunt, F.R.S., and is addressed to Messrs. Baxter, Rose, Norton, and Co., of Westminster. From this it appears that the total quantity of this valuable mineral is very limited; that the present supply of 1,418,176 (1865) might be increased to 3,172,000, which would go far towards exhausting the mineral in a period considerably less than half-a-century. + Mine-al Statistics. R. Hunt, 1865. 1866. | Our Coal Supply and our Prosperity. 463 Tons. Condition. Vie, SUTOpPSbITe mee Mpa! F beyieth sto al snl 5) 1,135,000 (declining) 10. Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and Devon- SHiInG te AMeme startin eee »_. « 1,875,000 (ditto) 11. South Wales coal-field (including Mon- INOUHISHITE eee sures cts a lush ye 12,036,507 (increasing) Mee NO GUNOV GLGS! ute pe kort.) (es ce, ee oes 1,983,000 (increasing) LSSCOLlandgma ot st Jan a halo ON SUVA 12,650,000 (increasing) A eelreland nate fan Hebets ci eek Oot Mae Tae es 123,500 (declining) The total output was 98,150,587 tons from 3,256 collieries ; but the present progressive or retrogressive state of any of the above coal-fields is not always a criterion of their resources. We now enter upon our second inquiry : Are our sources likely to extend, or may we in the course of time have greater facilities for obtaining coal in Great Britain, or from other countries, than we at present possess ? Tt is hardly necessary to remind our readers that upon the replies to this inquiry mainly depend the estimate of the probable duration of our coal-fields. Let us therefore ask, first: Will improved systems of mining and ventilation enable us to procure coal below 4,000 feet, calculated by Mr. Hull to be the extreme depth? The answer involves many important considerations. It may probably be admitted that high temperature can never prove a serious impediment to deep mining. Mr. Vivian has, we think, disposed of this question ;* as it is one which may fairly be left to the progress of invention to solve. As Mr. Vivian remarks, “Tf heat were produced by additional barometrical pressure, it was equally true that by rarefaction we produced cold;’ and he states that the process of rarefaction by machinery is now employed in the deep mines of France and Belgium. Although there ig therefore no reason for supposing that the calculation of Mr. Hull of the combined temperature of the strata and air (120° F.), at a depth of 4,000 feet is incorrect, yet it is one of those objections to deep coal-mining which may safely be dismissed. This we believe to be Mr. Hull’s present opinion. A more formidable obstacle is likely to be found in the pressure of the superincumbent strata. And this may be experienced, not so much in the greater density of the coal, as in the difficulty of supporting the roof and sides of the air-passages, and the “ goafs,” or chambers from which the coal has been extracted. Already, with our comparatively shallow mines, this is often a difficulty ; and how much greater is it likely to become, when instead of dealing with a pressure from 2,000 feet of strata, the depth is doubled. It is generally supposed that when the coal is removed the overlying strata form a natural arch which at first supports * His ‘Speech.’ Ridgway, 1866. 464 Our Coal Supply and our Prosperity. ' [Oct., the roof. This may be, when the strata are unbroken by faults or fissures over wide areas ; an exceptional state of things. In such a case Mr. Vivian’s analogy of “the small hole in the wall ”* holds good, but if the cohesion of the beds is destroyed by ruptures (a very common occurrence in the form of joints and faults), we may expect the weight of the strata to exert an irresistible effect. We have been strongly impressed with the force of this reasoning, by a case which occurred in Dukinfield colliery, as stated by the manager about two years since. In the workings of the coal, 42 feet in thickness, at a depth of 2,500 feet from the surface, the pressure was found powerful enough to crush in cireular arches of brick-work, four feet in thickness; and in one instance a pillar of cast-iron, 12 inches square, 44 feet in height, and supporting a roof of only 7 feet square, was snapt in twain. Notwithstanding these considerations, we cannot but feel that in questions of this kind experience is likely to be the only safe euide, and we think this is one of the points on which the Royal Commissioners ought to ascertain the experience of the colliery managers and viewers of the deeper mines throughout the king- dom. Admitting, for the moment, the possibility that neither temperature nor pressure is likely to be found an insuperable obstacle even at the depth of 4,000 feet, we may confidently assume that only coal-seams of superior quality and thickness, capable of being mined economically, will be followed to this or any greater depth. The question of outlay of capital and additional cost per ton due to increase of depth, becomes formidable, and as Mr. Jevons has shown, this will be the last court of appeal in all questions of mining. To open out a colliery at the present day to a depth of 600 or 700 yards, cannot be accomplished under an outlay of 100,000/., which sum has to be recouped in a term of twenty-five years or so, and to bear interest at the rate of 10 per cent. in order to form a successful speculation, and this can only be done where the seam is of good quality, proper thickness, and comparatively free from accidental irregularities, such as rock- faults, dykes, and “ horse-backs.” When therefore the outlay comes to be nearly a quarter of a million, as it assuredly will be when the depth is 1,000 yards and upwards, instead of 600 or 700, we may feel sure that only seams of superior excellence will justify such an outlay. It is therefore inconvenient to adopt any sharply-defined limit of depth, as we may ~ easily conceive the case of a seam of coal of such value, that it might be followed even to a greater depth than 4,000, while we may safely conclude that there are very few seams in any coal-field which will eventually justify such an effort. Still, admitting this, * “The fact was, that you might make a small hole in a wall and yet not cause the wall to tumble down.’—His ‘Speech. Ridgway. 1866. | Our Coal Supply and our Prosperity. 465 we cannot grant all that Mr. Vivian demands in his estimate of the resources of the great South Wales coal-field. Not one of Mr. Vivian’s mines in South Wales has reached one-half the depth of which he makes so small an account, and yet he must have a tolerable experience of the difficulties and outlay of mining by machinery even to the moderate depth of 400 or 500 yards. If it were taken for granted that because the coal is there it must be accessible, the Royal Commission would not be needed. Let us now ask: Are we likely to procure a supply from below the sea, or estuaries of Great Britain ? The districts in which coal-measures extend under the sea are certainly few, considering the large areas the coal-fields occupy in the land. We cannot expect any great addition to our supply from these tracts, as it is evident the entrance to the mines must be always above the limit of high tides. In Cumberland, Flint- shire, and a few other places, coal has been worked under the sea with success for many years—one of the mines af Whitehaven extending 3,200 yards from the shore. In Scotland the coal formation constitutes the sea-board of parts of Ayrshire, Fifeshire, and the Lothians. In England we may expect a very large quantity of coal to be recovered under the sea between the north of the Tyne and the Tees, provided great care be taken to leave barriers for stopping off the waters for some distance from the outcrop of the seams downwards. We may also expect at some future time, coal to be wrought under the estuary of the Dee, and possibly that of the Mersey, and again along the coast of the Vale of Clwyd near Rhyl. But the most important tract is that which is covered by the waters of Swansea and Carmarthen Bays. In the latter case many hundreds of acres of the lower and most important seams are under water, and we shall not be surprised if, at some future time, steps be taken to reclaim from the ocean by embankments a sufficient extent of the estuary to allow of the recovery of the whole of the coal. To this inquiry let us add the parallel one: In what districts and under what formations may there be coal still undiscovered ? It is perfectly true, as stated by Mr. Vivian, that some of our coal-fields are merely outcropping portions of larger concealed coal- fields. If we take the Lancashire and Cheshire coal-field on the North, the Flintshire, Denbighshire, and Shropshire coal-fields on the West, the North Staffordshire coal-field on the East, and the South Staffordshire coal-field on the South, we inclose an enormous area under nearly the whole of which we may safely state that coal exists within a depth of 5,000 feet of the surface.* If we were to adopt a limit of 4,000 feet, the area would be considerably reduced, * See Map of the Coal-bearing Tracts of Great Britain, ‘ Quarterly Journal of Science,’ No. 1. Also, Hull’s ‘ Coal-fields of Great Britain.’ Second edit. 466 Our Coal Supply and our Prosperity. [ Oct., especially in Mid-Cheshire ; but within this latter depth there are large areas in Leicestershire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Notts, and probably the eastern districts of Yorkshire, along a band of country ranging from the estuary of the Tees southward by York, and crossing the Humber near Goole. This tract is overspread by Liassic and Oolitic formations, containing the ironstone of the Cleveland Hills; and if Mr. Vivian’s somewhat sanguine views as regards depth be adopted, it would be quite possible to conceive of a shaft entering the ground at the outcrop of the Liassic ironstone, and penetrating to the underlying coal; the depth, however, would be considerably greater than 1,000 yards over the whole district. Into the overlying Permian and Triassic formations, collieries have already advanced to a considerable extent. The Magnesian Lime- stone of Durham, Yorkshire, and Notts has been and is being pierced by many shafts, while the water which saturates this and the underlying Permian Sandstone, and which at first was a formid- able impediment, is pumped for the supply of the towns. The New Red Sandstone along the southern margin of the Lancashire coal-field, as also that near Rugeley, Cannock Chase, and Ashby-de- la-~Zouch have been pierced, and the underlying minerals won ; while in Somersetshire, owing to the thinness of the Triassic rocks, the Lias itself has been pierced by several collieries. Thus has been commenced a phase of coal-mining under the overlying geological formations, destined at no distant day to assume much larger proportions. While maintaining that there are very large areas—larger in fact than the areas of the English and Welsh coal-fields themselves —which contain coal overlaid by Permian, Triassic, and Liassic formations, we at the same time hold that this area has been over- estimated both by Mr. Vivian and those who have given an opinion on the subject. We concur with Mr. Jukes* in his view that the coal-measures were never deposited in that part of Worcester- shire south of the Clent and Licky Hills; and Mr. Hull has shown that, both from the thinning away of the coal-measures towards the south-east, and from the uprising of the Old Silurian rocks during the coal period, we are not to look for coal under the eastern counties of England. The discovery of slate rock at a depth of 1,035 feet at Harwich, beneath the Cretaceous formations, is significant evidence of the credibility of these conclusions. The foregoing considerations lead us to pause for a moment in our inquiry, and to ask our readers whether, provided these views be correct, all calculations as to the probable duration of our coal supply are not at once invalidated by the fact that it is at present beyond the power of any living person to estimate what that supply *