Fibrary of the Museum
or
COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,

AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

Founded by private subscription, in 1861.

Deposited by ALEX. AGASSIZ.

No. 79 & 7.

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QUARTERLY JOURNAL

MICROSCOPICAL = SCTENCE

EDITED BY

EDWIN LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
AND

GEORGE BUSK, F.RB.C.S.E., F.B.S., F.LS.,

VOLUME V.

With Allustrations on Wood and Stone.

LONDON:
JOHN CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
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ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

The Practicau Use of the Microscorr. By J. Hepworru.
(Continued from Vol. IV, p. 111.)

In making a post-mortem examination of a man about
63 years of age, who had laboured under gastric disease
for two or three years and was extremely emaciated and
dropsical, I found the stomach small, and containing about
an ounce of yellowish mucus; there was no scirrhus, but the
ruge were thickened and more raised than natural, ecchy-
mosis had occurred in different parts of the inner lining, but
principally on the elevated ridges of the ruge ; the mucous
lining over two or three of these spots had given way, leaving
a small jagged ulcer. On examining one of these points I
found that the vessels retained their form (although quite
bare), except one or two, which had contracted and formed a
knob about the ;45th of an inch in diameter at the point of
rupture. There was a cicatrix, three quarters by five eighths
of an inch in diameter, in which the muscular coat was want-
ing, but the mucous covering appeared to have been repro-
duced. On examining the mucus, it did not contain Sarcina
ventriculi as I had anticipated, but some crystals of oxalate
of lime (which I never met with in the stomach before),
abundance of exudation corpuscles and what I conceive to be
a vegetation (vide fig. 1). The corpuscles appear to have
been the nidi of these formations, as I observed them in
different stages of progress, as though each granule of the
corpuscle supported a single cell, or plant; these becoming
elongated, and so numerous as almost to hide the whole
of the corpuscle from view.

The first appearance of any change in the corpuscle was
the unusual development of the contamed granules, as if
they would start through the cell wall. They then assumed
a light green colour, and appeared in the next stage either
to have become further protruded, or had a cell added
externally, which eventually became elongated into a semi-
ellipsis of a very acute angle. The centre of the mass was of
a brownish-olive colour; it had not a crystalline appear-
ance, but each cell was more like the hair of a plant, being
single.

On a superficial examination it appeared not unlike the
erystals of lactic acid, but these cells were very different to

VOL. V. B

2 HEPWORTH, ON THE MICROSCOPE.

the long bundles of the crystals of that substance ; the colour
was als6 unlike, with both reflected and transmitted light.

On examining the lining membrane of the pelvis ‘of the
kidney, im the same subject, I detected a vegetation, which I
shall, for want of a better, name Sarcina renis (vide Pl. I,
fig. 2.)

About two years ago I met with a similar substance whilst
examining some urine, but from its great similarity to one of
the Desmidiee, I concluded that it might possibly have got
there by accident, and made no memorandum of it, except a
sketch.

I find no notice of such a vegetation in Dr. L. Beale’s
excellent work on the microscope. In speaking of “matters
of extraneous origin frequently met with in urine,” he makes
this very judicious remark, “‘ With the microscopic characters
of these bodies (giving a list at page 196) the student should
be perfectly familiar as soon as possible, &c. Without this
precaution he will find himself in constant difficulty, and his
ignorance will cause him to make the most ludicrous mis-
takes.”

There was no particular symptom indicative of the presence
of these bodies, but in both the cases alluded to there was a
general low state of vitality, as is always the case where vegeta-
tions are formed; for instance, in Sarcina ventriculi, aphthe,
&e. This reminds me of a sketch which I took some years
ago of a specimen of aphthe from a consumptive patient,
which struck me as being peculiar (Pl. I, fig. 3). I am
not aware whether it assumes this appearance m consumption
invariably or not. The specimen (fig. 4) is a representation
of the ordinary aphthe in children.

A boy, 138 years of age, with enlarged cervical glands,
had complete obstruction of the bowels. There was hemor-
rhage, tympanitis, and occasional excruciating pain of the
whole abdomen, stercoraceous vomiting, &e.

Post-mortem examination, fifteen hours after death.—Thelum-
-bar glands were enlarged, and had implicated the ileum imme-
diately above the cecum; ‘small intestines very much increased,
and large ones much diminished in capacity. In the imme-
diate vicinity of the enlarged glands the intestines were not
more than five eighths of an ‘inch in diameter, and the obstruc-
tion was rendered still more complete by the protrusion of a
mass of coagulable lymph inwards, arising from the condensed
inner fibrous aponeurosis of the muscular coat, which was
completely absorbed, leaving only cellular tissue containing a
few vessels. There was general peritoneal inflammation and

HEPWORTH, ON THE MICROSCOPE. 3

all its consequences, effusion of serum, patches of lymph, &c.
The peritoneum at the contracted part was very much
thickened, brown, and scirrhous; the inner and outer fibrous
aponeuroses of the muscular coat were also very thick, white,
and dense, with transverse striz (fig. 5), and appeared to
have been pushed inwards considerably beyond the level of
the mucous coat, which had been reflected on each side of
the protruding mass. The accompanying sketch gives a
general outline of a longitudinal section of the contracted
part. The cellular tissue, which was left in place of the
muscular coat, appeared to pass through the inner apeneurosis
at intervals, probably opposite the valvulee conniventes.

The following is a note of the case above mentioned :

J. S—, about 26 years of age, had difficult micturi-
tion, with anasarca of the extremities. The symptoms led
me to examine the urine from time to time, in which I found
what I called, it appears, at the time, Sarcina vesice. The
urine did not coagulate on the addition of nitric acid. He
gradually recovered as the general tone of the system im-
proved. If this be the same vegetation as the other, it must
be im a state of germination ; it was about the same colour as
the one sent. IJ took no measurement of it, therefore cannot
say what size itis. You can make what use of it you please ;
perhaps a memorandum of it m a woodcut may cause others
to be on the look out for similar specimens.

4 SMITH, ON MEASLED PORK.

Notes of a Microscorica, Examination of ‘ Mrasuep ”
and other Pork. By Wru.iam Smit, F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History, Queen’s College, Cork.

Tue subject of the present paper has of late excited much
attention in this locality, the trade of the port of Cork and
the industry of the neighbouring counties being immediately
connected with the produce and export of provisions, a main
portion of which consists of cured pork.

The disease in pigs popularly known as “measles” (though
without any resemblance to the complaint bearing the name
in the human subject) is one of frequent occurrence in the
South of Ireland, and as its presence in the fiesh of the
animal is usually regarded as detrimental to its value as an
article of food, the market-price of the commodity is thereby
lowered, and the profits of the producer proportionally
diminished.

Questions connected with the supply of provisions to the
Crimean army having called increased attention to this sub-
ject, an attempt was lately made by the provision-merchants
of Cork to arrive at more certain conclusions respecting the
nature and extent of the disease, and its precise influence on
the character and condition of the flesh affected by it.

Having been invited to assist in this research, by reporting
on the microscopical appearance of the disease, and the meat
affected by it, the following notes of a careful examination of
fresh and cured pork, supplied to me, were my contributions
to the inquiry :

The facts noted are not new to science, the subject having
attracted the attention of several German, French, and
British physiologists, and the results of their investigations
being for the most part similar to my own.

The matter has not, however, been discussed in the ‘ Micr.
Journ.,’ and the following record of independent observation,
and personal inquiry, may interest the readers of this maga-
zine, and possess corroborative value when taken in con-
nection with the more important investigations of other
naturalists.

Nineteen specimens were supplied to me, viz. :

_6 of healthy fresh pork from various parts of different
pigs ;
6 of fresh muscle, “slightly measled ;”
6 of fresh muscle, “badly measled ;”
1 of cured pork, ‘ badly measled.”

bd

The “measles” are occasioned by the presence of a para-

~

SMITH, ON MEASLED PORK. 8)

sitic worm, known to physiologists and anatomists as the
* Cysticercus cellulose.”

This worm, as it occurred in the muscle or flesh of the
pork supplied to me, consists of an external bag or cyst of
delicate rugose membrane, enclosing the animal of the Cys#i-
cercus, retracted within its folds ; the space not occupied by
the worm being filled with a clear watery fluid.

Pl. I, fig. 1, represents the natural size of the “ measles”
in fresh muscle ; fig. 2 the same in stale or salted pork; and
fig. 8 the same from fresh muscle, magnified 6 diameters.

The animal of the Cysticercus, when withdrawn from the
eyst, within which it les invaginated, and curled up, in
all the specimens, consisted of a slightly enlarged head,
fig. 4 a, and a neck formed of numerous rings, fig. 4 4,
gradually enlarged into a bladder-lke vesicle, fig. 4 c,
which constitutes the body of the worm.

The neck and body of the Cysticercus are filled with a
mass of minute transparent bodies, which a further examina-
tion leads me to regard as cellules discharging the function
of assimilation, ¢. e., converting the material endosmotically
absorbed by the cyst and bladder-lke vesicle into the sub-
stance of the Cysticercus. The form of these cellules is
usually that of a flattened circular disc, and their average
diameter +3!5,th of an inch, but neither their size nor form
is constant, some being linear, others irregular in outline,
and many not exceeding ;,/55th of an inch in diameter.*

The head of the Cysticercus is provided, at its extremity, with
a circlet of about 24 hooklets (fig. 5 a), immediately beneath
which are situated 4 circular organs, 6, b, afterwards more
fully developed in the mature condition of the Cysticercus.

The hooklets, upon further examination with higher powers
of the microscope, are seen to consist of a stem fixed in the
flesh of the head (fig. 6 a), a barb (fig. 6 4), and a sickle-like
point (fig. 6 c).

The Cysticercus, as above described, constituting the
“measles,” is imbedded between the fasciculi of the muscle,
and occupies a chamber formed by the inflation of its cyst.

The cyst which in a fresh state fills the entire chamber,
on the death of the pig parts with its contained fiuid, which
permeates the surrounding tissues.

The chambers then collapse, and the muscle in consequence
becomes soft, and flabby to the touch.

* [These elliptical bodies are composed in most part of carbonate of lime,
and would appear to be intended more for the purpose of giving greater
firmness or solidity to the part of the entozoon in which they occur than for
any other fonebion = Boan

6 SMITH, ON MEASLED PORK.

The ‘ measles’ in the specimens supplied to me were all
visible to the naked eye, the cysts when inflated bemg of an
elliptical form, and having an average length of about one
third of an inch.

The coil of the enclosed worm was nearly globular, with
an average diameter of about one tenth of an inch.

In the “slightly measled”’ pork the size of the worm was
often less than in the “badly measled,” but in every case
the Cysticercus seemed to have reached the same degree of
organic growth, and in none of the specimens, “healthy ”
or otherwise, could I detect the slightest trace of the animal
in an earlier stage of development. Had the eggs, or young
animals, existed, they could not have escaped my notice. In
the specimens marked “healthy” there was no trace what-
ever of the Cysticercus.

The muscular tissues at a little distance from the cysts did
not present any distinct alteration in their normal and
healthy character, but in the immediate neighbourhood of
the cysts there were evident traces of the altered or diseased
condition of muscle known to physiologists under the name
of “fatty degeneration.’ Where the “measles” are nume-
rous fatty degeneration would be proportionally great in com-
parison with the amount of healthy muscle.

In the salted specimen the cysts were empty of fluid, and
the “assimilating cellules”? in the body of the worm had be-
come somewhat opaque, presenting a central granular nucleus
instead of the clear transparent appearance noticed in the
fresh specimens. I conclude from this that the lfe of the
Cysticercus is destroyed by the process of “curing.” Fig. 7
shows the appearance of the assimilating cellules in the fresh,
and fig. 8 in the cured specimens.

It is maintained by the most eminent physiologists of the
present day, that the Cysticercus of the pig is the “ scolex,”
that is, the intermediate or arrested condition of the “ Tenia
solium,” or tape-worm of man and other mammalia.

The organization of the Cysticercus, as above described,
goes far to establish this opimion, and direct experiments in-
stituted upon dogs and other quadrupeds fed upon fresh
“measled” pork seems to place it beyond a doubt.

In the present case there was neither time nor opportunity
to verify this theory by direct experiment.

The history of the early condition and future development
of the Cysticercus, the pathological and hygienic deductions
to be drawn from the above observations, and their bearing
upon the wholesomeness or otherwise of fresh, cured, or
cooked “ measled” pork are questions which appertained to

GREVILLE, ON DIATOMACE.2%.

the branch of the inquiry entrusted to my colleagues; I may,
however, observe, that the microscopical examination here
detailed would lead to the conclusion that the presence of
the Cysticercus in the small numbers which occur in “ slightly
measled”’ pork does not appreciably affect the healthy con-
dition of the muscular fibre, and that it is only when the
numbers of this parasite are considerable that the fatty de-
generation and watery condition of the muscles become
apparent; and as it further appears that the operations of
curing, or cooking, destroy the assimilating powers of the
cellules, and consequently the life of the Cysticercus, it
would seem that no apprehension need be entertained of
tape-worm following the use of “ measled”’ pork, provided the
flesh be carefully cured or thoroughly cooked.

Description of some New Dtaromaczous Forms from the
Wesr Inpizs. By Roserr Kaye Grevittr, LL.D.,
F.R.S.E., &c.

Some months ago I received a box of shells from my friend
Mrs. William Eccles, of Trinidad, among which was a small
marine species covered with an entangled tuft of sea-weeds
and zoophytes. This, as it appeared to contain Diatomacee,
I manipulated in the usual way, and on careful examination
found it to yield a number of exceedingly interesting kinds,
especially if the very small quantity of the prepared material
be considered. As it would scarcely serve any useful purpose
to work out every form which presented itself in a gathering
so trifling in extent, I propose to confine myself on the pre-
sent occasion to the description of such as seem to be new;
and J shall only mention that among the remaining forms
worthy of notice the following were observed: Synedra undu-
lata, Bail., S. superba, Kiitz., Cocconeis Grevillii, Sm., Navi-
cula Hennedyi, Sm., N. crabro, Eh.,* Amphora obtusa and

® As Professor Smith has not yet given a figure of this species, I can
only conclude from his description, which most accurately agrees with the
form before me, that I am correct in my reference. The figures engraved
by Ehrenberg, in his ‘ Microgeologie,’ Pl. XIX, fig. 29, are not satisfactory,
especially a and 6. The half frustule c, however, is probably the true form,
with the faint moniliform structure of the strize omitted, and the constric-
tion far too widely concave. In the absence of authentic materials, 1 cannot
venture to speak with any certainty of Navicula pandura of De Brébisson,

8 GREVILLE, ON DIATOMACEA.

A. lineata, Greg., Podocystis Americana, Bail., Climacosphenia
moniligera, Eh., Rhabdonema arcuatum and R. Adriaticum,
Kiutz., Grammatophora hamulifera, Kiitz., Asterolampra impar,
Shadb.

1. Cocconeis punctatissima, Grev. Valve elliptical-oval,
densely areolato-punctate; strize moniliform, concentric with
the extremities, the moniliform structure ceasing within the
margin so as to leave a simply striated border; median line
dilated towards the extremities. Length of frustule 0°0020”
to 0:0024"; breadth 0:0012” to 0:0015”. Strize 20 in 0-001”.
(POET; fis? 1.)

Hab.—All the species in this paper are marine, from the
Tsland of Trinidad.

One of the most beautiful species I am acquainted with,
and closely allied to a new MS. species from the Black Sea,
distributed by Professor Smith under the name of Cocconeis
Morrisii ; in fact, a mere cursory examination might readily
leave an impression on the mind that the two were nothing
more than varieties. A careful comparison, however, has
satisfied me that they are truly distinct. The general out-
line is the same in both, but the strie in C. Morrisii are
coarser and far less numerous than in the West Indian Diatom.
The beading is also much larger, more equal in size, and
more separated. In C. punctatissima the beading, i con-
sequence of the very numerous striz, becomes more minute
as it joins the median line, which latter presents the appear-
ance of a rather broadly linear, indistinctly defined, pale space,
dilated towards the extremities, where it terminates elliptically.
In the single valves, which are most frequently met with, there
is but one side, as it were, of the median line visible, which
gives them a very peculiar aspect.

It is more difficult to separate this species by a written
character from the variable C. placentula, although the

who defines the striae as simply costate. Under these circumstances, I take
the opportunity of offering an illustration of W. crabro, as it occurs in my
Trinidad gathering, in the hope that it may be regarded as a faithful typical
representation. The truth is, the group to which this species of Navicula
belongs is one of great perplexity, and I trust that my friend, Professor
Gregory, who is studying it, will do something towards clearing it up. The
two forms which he has named J. witida, Sm.? in the fourth volume of the
‘Transactions of the Microscopical Society,’ will probably prove to be the
same as our present species, the moniliform structure having been perhaps
overlooked from its extreme obscurity. As the name above mentioned does
not occur in the second volume of Professor Smith’s ‘ Synopsis,’ that of
NV. crabro has doubtless been substituted for it. The outline and general
character of Professor Gregory’s WV. ? pandura, Bréb.? is also extremely
similar to the Trinidad Diatom.

GREVILLE, ON DIATOMACES. 9

features are immediately appreciated by the eye. C. puncta-
tissima is more uniform, and considerably larger; but the
best mark is the conspicuous peculiarity of the median line,
which in C. placentula is simple.

2. Cocconeis crebrestriata, Grev. Valve elliptical, delicately,
closely, and uniformly punctato-striate; strize concentric
with the extremities; median line straight, simple. Length
of frustule 0:0022" to 0:0028"; breadth 0:0012” to 0:0014".
Strie 80 in 0:001”. (Pl. ITI, fig. 2.)

A well-characterised species. 'The strize are numerous and
closely arranged, with a faint appearance, requiring careful
adjustment in order to render them distinct. Under higher
powers the sculpture of the strize exactly resembles ordinary
cellular tissue, which under inferior powers causes the uni-
form oval-punctate appearance. Occasionally a border of the
valve is indicated by a faint line, as seen in the figure, but
this is not always apparent.

3. Cocconeis inconspicua, Grev. Valve nearly circular,
border broad, rather strongly striated; disc diaphanous ;
striz concentric with the extremities, faint, obscure in the
centre. Diameter of frustule 0°0011". Striz at margin 22 in
WOOL": ) (PLT, fig-'3:)

This is a most delicate form, so transparent as to be very
easily overlooked. The border bemg the most strongly
marked, first catches the eye, appearing lke a mere striated
ring, until the median line and nodule be brought into focus.
The strize of the disc are perceptible for about a third of the
space between the border and the median line, when they
gradually become quite obscure.

4. Campylodiscus fenestratus, Grev. Valve nearly circular,
the broad prominent border composed of a series of narrow
cells ; dise with four lattice-like sculptures formed by 3—4:
bars crossing each other at right angles. Diameter of frus-
tule 0:0023”". (PI. III, fig. 4.)

No drawing can do justice to the exceeding beauty of this
Diatom. The broad and prominent border is equal to about
a fifth part of the whole diameter, and is composed of narrow
parallel cells, which, at first sight, have the appearance of a
double series, a deception arising from an undulation in the
substance of the valve. Radiating striz appear to pass from
the border for a short distance towards the centre of the disc,
which is occupied by four remarkable sculptures, exactly
resembling square windows in miniature, the bars sharp and
slender, and the panes actually appearing as if they trans-
mitted light. The windows are not perfectly symmetrical,
as some of the rows of panes are larger than others; never-

10 GREVILLE, ON DIATOMACEA.

theless the resemblance is so perfect, that, if it were possible,
they might pass for the reflection of real windows. The
figure cannot give the effect of this, as the transparency of
the valve is necessary to complete the deception.

5. Campylodiscus Ecclesianus, Grev. Valve nearly circular,
the border composed of a double series of narrow-oblong cells ;
disc with two rows of short, broad, truncated bars, separated by
a broad median line, from each end of which radiate a semi-
circle of fine striz. Diameter of frustule 0:0024”. (Pl. III,
fig. 5.)

Of this fine species, not less charming in the elegance of
its sculpture than the preceding, the gathering furnished
two examples. It is similar in size to the last, but some-
what more contorted, so that, when one portion of the valve
is in focus, the details of the remaining portion are less visible
than as they are represented in the figure. The valve is very
concave. The central part of the disc occupied by the two
rows of bars is nearly flat; but on each side of the rows and
at their termination the disc is inflated; the lateral inflations
being unsculptured, the terminal ones ornamented with strie,
which radiate from the ends of the median line, and stop
before reaching the border, so as to form a semicircle. I am
not aware of any known species which can be brought into
comparison with this splendid form, on which I have conferred
the name of Mrs. William Eccles, a lady who has most kindly
collected for her friends many objects of natural history im
the Island of Trinidad.

6. Surirella eximia, Grev. Valve linear-oblong, rounded at
the ends, very slightly constricted in the centre; canaliculi
delicate, about 18 on each side, reaching the narrow-linear,
transversely striated median line, which is attenuated towards
the ends, and becomes as narrow as the canaliculi. Length
of frustule 0:0020" to 0:0028”; breadth 0:0008” to 0:0012”.
(Pl. III, fig. 6.)

This extremely delicate and hyaline Diatom approaches S.
lata in form, but differs in every other respect. The cana-
hieuli are equidistant, and as fine as those of S. gemma; the
alee narrow, but conspicuous. A characteristic feature is the
linear, transversely striated median line, which is gradually
attenuated at each extremity, until at about the third or
fourth pair of canaliculi from the end it becomes as slender
as the canaliculi themselves.

7. Navicula Gregoriana, Grey. Valve elliptical-oblong,
with abruptly produced and rounded ends; striz obscurely
moniliform, interrupted on each side by alongitudinal, linear,
blank space, which slightly converges towards the central

GREVILLE, ON DIATOMACE®. 1]

nodule. Length of frustule 0:0024" to 0:0038”"; breadth
0:0010” to 0:0014". Strive 25 in 0-001”. (Pl. ITI, fig. 7.)

A very striking and interesting species, of which I have
seen two individuals of the sizes indicated in the specific
character. Like others of the group to which it belongs, it
would appear to vary greatly in its dimensions. It seems to
be most nearly related to N. clavata of Gregory (‘ Trans. Micr.
Soc.,’ vol. iv. p. 46, Pl. V, fig. 17), which it closely resembles
in general outline; but, as Professor Gregory has already re-
marked, there can be no doubt regarding the distinctness of
the present form. The most conspicuous difference lies in
the blank space which interrupts the striation on each side
throughout the whole length of the valve. In N. clavata
this space follows nearly the same rule as in N. Hennedyi,
Sm., the outer boundary of the space corresponding with the
curve of the valve. Whereas, in the Diatom under con-
sideration, the blank space constitutes a mere limear band,
running parallel with the median line, except at the centre,
where it bends slightly towards the nodule. Between this
space and the median line the interrupted striz form also
lnear bands, which are continued into the produced extremi-
ties. The striz are more numerous than in N. clavata, and
very obscurely moniliform. Another species to which our new
Diatom bears, at first sight, no inconsiderable resemblance, is
Pinnularia (Navicula) Coupert of Professor Bailey, described
in his microscopical observations made in South Carolina,
Georgia, and Florida. (‘Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
ledge,’ vol. ii.) In that form, however, the ends are not suddenly
produced, the sides are somewhat constricted, the striation is
conspicuously moniliform, and the blank spaces, instead of
running parallel with the median line, and terminating at
the angle where the produced ends spring from the lateral
curve of the valve, are gradually attenuated, and converge
and terminate with the median line itself at the nodule. I
have much pleasure in dedicating this fine species to my
friend Professor Gregory, whose acuteness and perseverance
have converted the unpromising sand of Glenshira imto
“diggings” rich in new and curious forms.

8. Navicula compacta, Grev. Valve broadly oblong, con-
stricted at the sides, the shoulders much rounded, ends sud-
denly produced, obtuse; strize becoming faint towards the
middle, where they are stopped by a line running close to
and parallel with the median line. Length of frustule
0:0010"; breadth 0:0006". Striz about 42 in 0-001”. (PI.
III, fig. 8.)

12 GREVILLE, ON DIATOMACER.

I am not aware of any described species which approaches
the present minute form. The striz are slightly radiate,
and though quite evident at the margin, become gradually
faint. The line which runs on each side, parallel with the
median line, passes through the valve, as it were, to form the
produced extremities.

9. Pleurosigma compactum, Grey. Valve linear-lanceolate.
obtuse; flexure of the median line so great that it touches
the margin, about midway between the central and terminal
nodules, the curve following the same gradient to the ex-
tremity; striz obscure. Length of frustule 0°0035" to
0:0045"; breadth 00006" to 0:0008”. (Pl. III, fig. 9.)

This Pleurosigma, of which I possess several specimens, is
well marked by the excessive flexure of the median line,
which is greater than in any species known to me, while
the flexure of the valve itself as it is presented to the eye is
so moderate, that a straight line drawn from the terminal
nodules through the central one, passes considerably within
the margin. From the point where the curve of the median
line touches the margin, the latter, to the furthest extremity,
is nearly straight, and is just perceived exterior to the curve
of the median line, as the latter approaches the nearest end.

10. Mastogloia minuta, Grev. Valve elliptical-oval to ellip-
tical-oblong, conspicuously apiculate; loculi 12 to 18; striz
very fine and close. Length of frustule 0:0008” to 0-0010";
breadth 0:0004’. (Pl. III, fig. 10.)

Although I have seen numerous frustules of this minute
Diatom, I have been unable to obtain a front view. As a
species it is evidently allied to M. apiculata of Smith; but it
differs in being scarcely half the size, and essentially in the
much larger loculi. It is also much more decidedly apicu-
late, being generally even strikingly rostrate.

( 18 )
TRANSLATIONS.

AtGARUM UNICELLULARIUM GENERA nova et minus cognita,
premissis OBSERVATIONIBUS de ALGiIs UNICELLULARIBUS
m genere,

New and less known Genera of Untcetiutar Aiea, preceded
by OBSERVATIONS respecting UNICELLULAR ALG in general.
By Avex. Braun. (Leipsic, 1855; with six Plates.)

Tue author, after adverting to the important aid to be de-
rived from the study of the lowest plants, and especially of the
Alge, and more particularly of their evolution, in the advance
of our knowledge of the morphology and physiology of plants,
and the establishment of a systematic arrangement of the
vegetable kingdom, proceeds to some observations concerning
unicellular Alge in general, the substance of which is as
follows :

Whether or not unicellular plants really exist, appears to be
a question of no light moment towards the understanding of
the gradation of Nature in ascending from the lower to the
higher organisms, and especially towards the construction of
a methodical arrangement of the vegetable kingdom in con-
gruity with Nature, whose principles, as well as the correct
appreciation of the nature of each plant, are chiefly to be
sought in the study of the processes of evolution.

For our knowledge of the natural system of plants, which
is daily increasing, indicates, in scarcely dubious terms, a
parallelism between the primary divisions of the vegetable
kingdom and the principal stages of morphosis presented in
the development of each individual plant (that is to say, of
those belonging to the more perfect class) ; and thus is shown
a certain analogy between the vegetable kingdom and the
organism of the individual plant, and the prevalence of a
similar law of evolution proceeding by steps, in each.

It is well known that the primary germ and rudiment of
the nascent plant is a homogeneous and indifferent substance,
presenting scarcely any differences either in external form or
internal constitution. In phanerogamous plants this is ap-
parent in the formation of the embryo sac,* which is ulti-
mately changed into the substance of the endosperm, and to

* That the embryo sac is the commencement of the future plant, besides
by analogy, is proved by its nature, inasmuch as being disconnected from
the parent tissues, and destroying by its own growth the texture of the
surrounding cells, it leads as it were a parasitic life within the parent plant.

14 BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALG.

which, among the vascular cryptogams, the pro-embryo or
prothallium corresponds. After fecundation, there arises from
these transitory primordia another and principal series of
vegetable generations, commencing from the embryo, and pro-
ducing the vegetative stirps, by whose evolution in opposite
directions the differences of root, stem, and leaves are produced.
Subsequently, in the ascending portion of the stirps the mor-
phosis of the plant is continued, and those stages of the process
appertaining to the vegetative life having been established, it
passes into a new stage by the formation of the flower, and by
the intervention of the flower ultimately attains to the object
of the whole vegetation in the production of the fruit.

A similar kind of gradation is exhibited in the vegetable
kingdom taken as a whole. This begins, as is obvious, in the
more simple plants, which present only trifling distinction of
organs either external or internal, the root, stem, and leaves
being either, as it were, fused together or ambiguous. They
have neither flower nor any true fruit; the-organs-of fructifi-
cation are closely connected with those of vegetation, and the
act of fecundation, if any take place, is competent merely to
excite, as it were, the first stage of evolution of the plant,
since there is no succeeding generation whatever. _

To this category belong the lower cryptogamous plants,
aphyllous or simply cellular, and which have been, not imap-
propriately, termed by recent writers—protophytes or thallo-
phytes. They represent, as it were, the pro-embryos of the
higher plants, and constitute, in fact, the primordial vegeta-
tion in protogzean history, as well as in the existing economy
of nature, forming the broad foundation of the whole vegetable
kingdom.

This primary division in the natural system is succeeded
by another, characterised by a heteromorphous, duplex vege-
tation, for a knowledge of which we are especially indebted to
the discoveries of recent observers; for to the primary and
transitional vegetation, that is to say, to a homogeneous pro-
thallium, aphyllous and merely cellular, fecundation bemg
completed in the prothallium itself, succeeds another, charac-
terised by the distinct formation of external parts (stem, root,
and leaves), as well as by the constitution of the internal
texture composed of a mixture of cells and vessels. Thus
from a lower stage the vegetation is advanced by successive
generation to a higher, but without its ever attaining to the
ultimate goal, inasmuch as plants belonging to this division,
in which the progress of the metamorphosis is interrupted,
and remains at the stage of a vegetative stirps, never arrive
at the production of flower and fruit distinct from the vege-

BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALG&. 15

tative formations. To this category belong the higher, vas-
cular cryptogams, furnished with leaves, of which, according
to authors, and also from the historical evidence supplied
by geology, is constituted the second division of the vege-
table kingdom, formerly the highest throughout the more
ancient periods of the protogzean Flora. The term cormophytes
might be employed to distinguish the plants included in this
section.

The plants belonging to each of the above divisions, and
which have conjointly, since the time of Linnzeus, been termed
Cryptogamia, all agree in the circumstance of their wanting
flowers and true fruit, a character by which they were distin-
guished by those fathers in Botany who are esteemed by
Linneeus as the first orthodox systematists—Cesalpinus and
Ray. These are succeeded by the floriferous or pheeneroga-
mous plants (anthophytes), which again, like the cryptogams,
exhibit a binary division, according to the degree of evolution
which they reach ; for there are some in which the production
of the flower commences, indeed, through amore exalted me-
tamorphosis of the leaves, but is not fully completed, the
carpellary leaves which constitute the true fruit enclosing
seeds being deficient. As plants of this kind, which, though
furnished with a flower, have no true fruit, are to be regarded
the Cycadee and Conifere, which, formerly the subjects of
futile and vain attempts at explanation, are now admitted
without doubt to be gymnospermous, a truth for which we
are indebted to the sagacity of Robert Brown. That the
gymnospermous anthophytes really constitute a separate and
independent group, by no means to be associated with the
dicotyledons, with which they have hitherto been classed by
most systematists, is proved by their habit,* the very incom-
plete structure of the flowers, the disposition and unusual
form+ of the stamens, and by the structure of the wood, but
chiefly by the mode of generation, whose very manifest ana-
logy with that of cryptogams has been excellently illustrated
by Hofmeister. It is manifest, therefore, that they must be
put in the lowest place, among the phanerogams, contermi-
nous with the cryptogams, an arrangement which is favoured

* The habit of the Cycadee is manifestly filicoid, and that of the Conz-
fere to a certain extent like that of the Lycopodiacee. The foliation of
Salisburia can only be compared with the fronds of Marsilia and of some
ferns (Schizee, Adiantum).

+ Their disposition always in continuous spirals, never in determinate
cycles (verticells) ; form more or less foliaceous and expanded ; anthersife-
rous thecz frequently numerous, whence a certain degree of resemblance

to the sporanziophorous traits of Lycopodium, the sporophylls of Hguisetum,
&e.

16 BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALG&.

not less by geological than it is by morphological con-
siderations.

Another division, lastly, of phanerogams, in which the
highest stage of the vegetable kingdom is reached, em-
braces all flowering plants which at the same time produce
true fruit—angiospermous anthophytes; and in this section
the subdivision into monocotyledons and dicotyledons is of
secondary importance.

In what way the vegetable kingdom, as far as concerns the
scale or gradation of evolution, agrees in general with an indi-
vidual plant, may, with respect to the first commencement
of the lowest step, be so specifically compared, that a law of
analogy is clearly apparent in the accordance of the lowest
plants with the lowest state of a higher plant. It is evident
that every plant commences in a solitary and simple cell,
either a spore or an embryo sac; it is clear also that the suc-
ceeding (succedaneous) generation originates in a simple cell
(embryonic vesicle) ; the vegetable kingdom presents an ana-
logous commencement ; its lowest members are plants unicel-
lular throughout their life—plants, that is to say, constituted
of a single cell persistent through the whole period of evolu-
tion, and performing all the vital functions. The existence
of unicellular plants of this kind has been long and frequently
shown, though demonstrated by imperfectly known, and for
the most part erroneous examples, until Nageli laid a new
foundation for the doctrine, in his careful illustrations of several
genera of unicellular Alge, and their classification according
to anew method. But the limits withm which that expe-
rienced observer circumscribed the unicellular Alga, appear
to the author too restricted, and scarcely such as should be
closely observed; a circumstance which some have endea-
voured to turn to the disparagement of the doctrine itself,
going so far as wholly to deny the existence of unicellular
Alge at all, or even as to declare that the proposed genera
were most of them the primordia merely of more perfect
Alge or of other plants, whilst others were said to be the ova
of animalcules. It is scarcely worth while to attempt the
refutation of these opinions, since they are unsupported by
arguments derived from accurate observation, and because all
who may enter with unprejudiced views into the vast domain
of the lowest Alge will be convinced that the truth is other-
wise.

(To he continued.)

Gali}

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Note on Vorticella.—One evening watching an Actinophrys
Sol procuring his supper, more suo, my attention was attracted
to an object in another part of the field also feeding, but in a
manner never before observed by me.

This was a common Vorticella (Nebulifera) feasting on a
large jelly-like mass which much resembled the body of an
Ameba. Instead of the ordinary, apparently rotatory, vortex-
creating movements of the cilie, whereby food is usually
brought to the cesophagus, ciliz were seen protruded from
within the oral aperture and applied, as we would our finger
and thumb, in picking out from the gelatinous mass the oily-
looking particles with which it was studded. After appro-
priating several of these, the creature would suddenly retreat,
by the contraction of its pedicle, beneath a leaf of duckweed,
from which, in a few seconds, it would emerge, again to renew
its feast.

I continued to watch this proceeding until I had seen it
repeated a great number of times; and I distinctly noticed
that, as the highly refracting particles disappeared from the
gelatinous mass, the body of the Vorticella appeared to become
more and more charged with them.

Dr. Carpenter, in his recent work on the microscope,
observes—“ There is no reason whatever to believe that these
animalcules (Vorticelle) possess any organs of special sense.”
And again, “ If they are really endowed with consciousness,
as their movements seem to indicate, though other considera-
tions render it very doubtful, they must derive their percep-
tions of external things from the impressions made upon their
general surface, but more particularly upon their filamentous
appendages.”

I would merely remark that it is difficult for an ordinary
understanding to dissociate the phenomenon here recorded, of
this humble Vorticella selecting its food from corresponding
actions in beings possessed of undoubted “ consciousness ””—
difficult not to regard this diminutive creature, selecting its
dainty morsels, even as a type of our own humanity.—
H. Witson, Runcorn.

VOL. V. c

18 MEMORANDA.

Comatula rosacea—Encrinitic State——In his recently pub-
lished work on ‘The Microscope and its Revelations,’ Dr.
Carpenter has announced the discovery of the young or en-
erinitic state of the Comatula in Lamlash Bay, where, he
says, “it is so abundant that it may hereafter find its way
into almost every cabinet.”’ I have found it in the same
locality, when dredging along the shores of Holy Island.
Lamlash Bay, indeed, is rich in Echinodermata, yielding
many of the finer species, and amongst them the beautiful
Echinus Flemingii.

It may be interesting to some of the readers of the
‘Journal’ to know of a southern habitat for so great a rarity
as the young Comatula. I have obtained it in abundance in
Salcombe Bay on the Devonshire coast, between the end of
July and the middle of September. It occurs profusely on
sea-weeds, zoophytes, stones, &c. I have in my possession a
bunch of weed from this locality which is literally covered
with young Comatule, in every stage of development. Sal-
combe is on the South Devon coast, and about five miles from
the town of Kingsbridge.—Tuomas Hincxs, Leeds.

Glaucoma scintillans.—The germs of this Infusorium exist
in the atmosphere.

After boilmg an infusion of chlorophyll (dried juice of
cabbage and distilled water), im which I had been breeding
Glaucome, but from which all traces of life had disappeared,
I exposed the boiled solution to the atmosphere, and in less
than a week tolerably large Glaucome were again visible.

Form.— Glaucoma changes its shape from that of an elon-

‘gated oval in the earlier stage of its growth to various
other forms.

I have not been able to discern an external imtegument ;
the internal substance of the body, which appears semi-fluid,
solidifies towards the outer part as the animalcule imcreases
in size. Possibly the cells may be developed in the centre,
which always remains more liquid than the remaining portion
of the body.

Internal structure.-—Besides the vessels to be described,
there are many small granules which, on minute examination,
have the appearance of cells.

Glaucoma has no bowel.—What Professor Ehrenberg mis-
took for a winding canal is simply the vacant space between
the internal globules, which sometimes presents that appear-
ance when they are very numerous; at first sight it is very
likely to deceive the observer.

MEMORANDA. 19

The mouth is a slit or tear in the outer surface, it forms the
wide entrance to a conical gullet.

I have crushed a great number of Glaucome with the
covering glass, and on examining them immediately after-
wards, some which were still alive had been torn open at the
opposite side of the body, and food was entering there just as
at the mouth.

The particles of food enter the gullet and accumulate at the
pointed extremity. Whether they there are admitted into
a cell ready constructed, or simply form themselves into a
ball, I have not yet been able to see. But when the blue
globule (in case indigo is employed to feed them) has attained
a certain size, its own weight and the current from without
seem to force it into the substance of the body. Here it
remains fixed, and, with the exception perhaps of a slight
change of position as the body becomes filled with globules,
it does not move—certainly the food does not rotate.

The contractile vesicle is situated at the end opposite the
mouth, and as the animalcule becomes developed a system of
smaller ones, into which the fluid contents of the larger one
are forced when the latter contracts, makes its appearance.
If a young Glaucoma be dried up the contractile vesicle
emits rays or beams, which widen as their distance in-
creases from the central vesicle. Sometimes more than one
large vesicle are visible. I have seen a discharging orifice in
Glaucoma, but could not always distinguish one; probably one
is always present.

Glaucoma reproduces by self-division. I have never seen any
but ¢ransverse fissuration, and that frequently. That another
reproductive process exists is certain from the fact that
Glaucoma is developed from germs, and this, along with the
further development of the animal, I shall endeavour at some
further time to elucidate.—Jamers Samuetson, Hull.

Colour of Blood Corpuscles.—In the description usually
given of the coloured corpuscles of the blood, I discover an
error which ought not to remain uncorrected.

Thus Kolliker (‘ Microscop. Anat.,’ b. ii, p. 356), “ Die
Farbe der Blutzellen ist nicht roth wie die des Blutes,
sondern blassgelb, und zwar aus physikalischen Griinden
heller bei ganz abgeplatteten, etwas dunken bei mehr auf-
gequellenen zellen.”

Henle also (‘Anat. Générale, t.i, p. 457, trad. Jourdan,
1843) says that, “ Les corpuscules coloris du sang se dis-
tinguent sur-le-champ par leur couleur jauneatre.”

20 MEMORANDA.

Now I am perfectly aware that the above appearance is
given by some authors as presenting itself under the micro-
scope, but less distinguished writers make no mention of the
condition under which the yellow colour is observed, and
most elementary “text-books” of physiology for students
convey the idea that the coloured corpuscles are actually of a
faint yellow hue.

Now it stands to reason that no amount of yed/ow dises can
produce the intense scarlet of human blood; on the contrary,
T hold it as a positive fact that the colour of each particular
flattened, circular, or oval disc of mammifer, bird, reptile,
batrachian, or fish, is as deep and vivid as the mass of the
blood of which it is a constituent part. The scarlet dise of
man, when magnified by 500 diameters, fades almost to a
pale straw colour; for, as you know perfectly well, the
crimson that painted a surface the ¢-g}55th (about) of a
square line is diffused over a superficial extent of not less
than 2°10 square lines, which is a chromatic dilution of
142°800 times. It is not, therefore, surprising that the
homeopathic quantity of red in the amplified image, be-
sides /oss, should hardly be recognised as such.

Suppose fl5, 3°2, of fresh blood in a flat-bottomed glass
vessel, 1°5 inch wide (cylindrical); the mass will have
nearly the proportions of a blood dise, and a bright scarlet
hue. Imagine, now, the same blood im a similar vessel, 750
inches wide, and thinned out with transparent syrup, of the
specific gravity of the blood, until the mixed fluid would
stand 150 inches high in the glass; would not this liquor,
when viewed from above, give the same impression of colour
to the eye as a single blood-corpuscle as seen “ under the
microscope,” with a power of 500.

I beg to say, that I believe the error just poimted out in
descriptions to exist only in the terms used, without care
being had to explain why the red corpuscles appear faintly
yellow; but this inadvertence is calculated to mislead pro-
fessional men, and even some professors in this country,
who teach physiology entirely from books.—CurisToPHER
Jounston, M.D., Baltimore, U.S.

Use of the Microscope.—The following case is so interesting
a triumph for the microscope that I send it for your perusal,
and insertion, if you please, in the ‘ Journal.’

A few days ago a medical friend told me of a patient who
was then passing very large quantities of fat in her evacua-
tions, and who had been doing so for a long time; he offered

MEMORANDA. 21

to procure me some of the material for microscopic examina-
tion, and shortly afterwards I received a specimen. It seemed
very similar in appearance to a coarse butter, was soft, and
easily broken down, but it was dense, and sank in water. On
examining it with a half-inch object-glass not a single fatty
globule could be seen; neither did ether extract any oil.
The mass consisted of a great number of large cells loosely
aggregated, each had a clear transparent wall, without a
visible nucleus, and contained a light brown granular mass,
but which was separated from the cell-wall by a transparent
medium. Average size of cell ;j5th of an inch. It was
clear that the material more closely resembled vegetable than
animal structure, and the accidental discovery of a fragment
of fibro-cellular tissue strengthened the idea. I then boiled
a portion, and on the addition of iodine procured a dense
precipitate of iodide of starch. My next step was to
examine the mealy potato, as served at table. The size of
the cells was the same, but all were empty, or filled only with a
transparent fluid, and were puckered on the surface. The
presence of the granular mass in the others seemed to indi-
cate that the potatoes had been either uncooked or insuffi-
ciently boiled, the idea of their being taken raw seemed
incompatible with the loose state of aggregation m which the
cells were found. I hazarded the opinion that the patient
ate largely of mashed potatoes, and evidently was a sufferer
from a weak digestion, as she was unable to digest the starch
they contained. I was then told that the case was one of
long-continued dyspepsia, with an excessively irritable state
of the stomach and bowels, that the lady could only take
farinaceous food, and the doctor did not believe she took any
potatoes in any way. The symptoms and “ fatty ”’ dejections
had lasted for years. I assured my friend that there could
be no moral doubt about the facts as revealed by the micro-
scope, and next day I received a note from him to the follow-
ing effect :

“ Dear I.,—I have seen the lady, and you will be gratified
to hear that for a very very long time she has almost lived
upon mashed potatoes crushed small”? (not boiled).

I need scarcely add a word upon the flood of light thus
thrown by the microscope upon what otherwise would have
been veiled in great mystery ;—the facts speak for themselves.
—T. Inman, M.D., Liverpool.

22 MEMORANDA.

Conjugation of Diatomacez.—I have had a large stock of
Navicula amphisbena, in several gatherings, this summer from
the Thames, at Weybridge, and have three times distinctly
witnessed the following phenomenon, viz., what I suppose to
be the formation of a sporangium by the jomt conjugation of
three and four frustules, as in Cosmarium, and some other
species of Desmidiace.

The frustules, three in two cases and four in the other,
were attached to the sporangium by a short stipes proceeding
from the centre of the lateral suture of each.

In two of the cases the endochrome had been discharged
from all; the frustules in the third, in which four frustules
were attached to the sporangium; one retained the en-
dochrome, which entirely filled the lorica, and was of higher
colour, and more condensed appearance than is presented by
the species in its ordinary aspect.

Is it possible this frustule may have been antheridial?
This is only an idea.

The sporangial frustule was marked in a series of nodules
not unlike in appearance—though but just discernable with
Ross’s +-inch—the cells of a section of Echinus spine. I had
not the good fortune to trace the development of the sporan-
gium, having only seen it apparently near its perfection, nor
have I, i consequence of leaving Weybridge, and my stock
having been inadvertently thrown away, been able to follow
its further history.—THomas Cuar.tes Drucs, Chelsea.

(8)

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Microscoricau Society, May 28th, 1856.
Grorce SHapsoit, Esq., President, in the chair.

James Glaisher, Esq., Lewisham, was balloted for, and
duly elected a member of the Society.

A Paper, by Mr. Wenham, “On the Vegetable Cell,” was
read.

June 25th, 1856.
GrorGce SHADBOLT, Esq., President, in the chair.

J. 8. Bolton, Esq., Brixton Hill; Hon. R. H. Meade,
Belgrave Square ; and the Rev. A. B. Cotton, Keppel Terrace,
Windsor, were balloted for, and duly elected members of
the Society.

A Paper, by Dr. Davey, “On the Structure of Bryonia
dioica,” was read.

A Paper, by the Hon. and Rev. 8. G. Osborne, “ On Vege-
Growth in the Wheat Plant,” was read.

A Report from the Committee on Finders was read.

ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

Av the Meeting of the British Association, at Cheltenham,
a “ Notice,’ by Mr. J. Alder, was read of several new spe-
cies of Hydrozoa and Polyzoa, found by him on the coasts of
Northumberland and Durham. The entire number of species
described amounted to thirteen, but we are here able to give
only those belonging to the class Polyzoa,—four in number.

Class. Potyzoa.
Ord. P. infundibulata.
Sub-ord. Ctenostomata (s. Vesicularina).
1. Fam. Vesiculariade.
Gen. 1. Buskia, Alder, nov. gen.

Polyzoary corneous, consisting of a slender, tubular, creeping fibre, with
cells developed at intervals. Cells ovate, adhering through their whole
length; generally with lateral spine-like processes, also adhering ; orifice
terminal and circular. Polypide with eight tentacles, issuing from a sheath
of fasciculated setee. ,

B. nitens, Alder, n. sp. Pl. XIU, figs. 1, 2.

Minute, horn-coloured, shining; creeping fibre filiform, branching or
anastomosing, with occasional short spinous offsets; cells ovate or flask-
shaped, rather ventricose, tapering towards the orifice, the margin of which
is thickened, and slightly nodulous; sides of the cells produced into irre-
gular spines adhering to the substance on which it creeps. Length of
cell, 3th inch,

Ou Plumularia falcata, Campanularia plumosa, &e., from deep water,
Northumberland coast, rare.

This interesting little zoophyte has probably hitherto
escaped observation from its minuteness. The spine-like
processes at the sides give the cells an insect-like appearance ;
they are irregular and occasionally wanting. The cells are
also subject to some variation in form, especially in the size
of the aperture; they lie nearly parallel to the stem, which
frequently divides, and runs along each side of them, clasped
by the lateral processes.

Farrella pedicellata, n. sp. Pl. XIV, figs. 1, 2, 3.

Body ovate-oblong, yellowish, transparent, with long and very slender
pedicles, uniform in thickness throughout ; tentacles 12. Length of cell,
3th inch.

On old shells of Buccinum undatum and Fusus antiquus, from deep water,
Cullercoats; not uncommon.

ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 25

This species differs from the Laguncula (Farrella) elongata
of Van Beneden, in the great length and slenderness of the
pedicle, which is usually two or three times the length of the
cell, and does not enlarge towards the top, as in the latter
species. The cells are rather narrower above than in F.
elongata, and the number of tentacles does not exceed twelve
in any of the specimens that I have examined. The animal,
as seen through the transparent cell-walls, is of a pale
yellowish colour, with a brownish red patch, indicating the
position of the stomach. The ovaries are white. The base
of the cell is finely wrinkled, and at its junction with the
pedicle it forms a kind of joint, which can be more or less
twisted at the will of the animal.

2. Fam. Aleyonidiadge.
Alcyonidium mamillatum, n. sp. Pl. XIII, figs. 3, 4.
Encrusting, semitransparent, brownish, covered with rather long, stout,

and strongly wrinkled papille, from which the polypides issue; tentacles
16 or 18.

On old shells from deep water, Cullercoats ; not uncommon.

When carefully examined this species can be readily dis-
tinguished from those hitherto known by the greater size
and elevation of the papillz, which, although varying much
in length, according to their state of contraction, are always
sufficiently prominent to be easily recognised. When most
contracted they appear like strong mamille, but their more
usual form, when the polypide is withdrawn, is elongate-
conical; when it is expanded, they are cylindrical and nearly
linear. This species is parasitical on old univalve shells,
which it envelopes with a sub-coriaceous crust, never rising
into a free state. No septa are visible excepting in the
margin of young specimens, or when examined as a trans-
parent object in the microscope.

Alcyonidium albidum, n. sp. Pl. XIII, figs. 5, 6.

Encrusting, semitransparent, yellowish white; general envelope incon-
spicuous; polypides prominent, ventricose, flask-shaped, sub-recumbent,
becoming erect towards the aperture, which is truncate when contracted ;
tentacles 18.

Surrounding the stem of Playularia falcata in small patches ; from the
deep-water fishing boats, rare.

This species looks somewhat like a cluster of separate
animals; the polypides being prominent and united to each
other by narrow septa, which are scarcely perceptible. When
the polypide is extended it is columnar, tapering slightly
upwards, and expanding into a slight ridge below the fasci-
culated sheath.

VOLT Vie D

{
&
2

ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Piare XIII"
Fig.
1.—Buskia nitens, highly magnified.
2.—Two cells of the same; the upper one showing part of the polypide
with the sheath of sete.
3, 4.—Aleyonidium mammillatum, natural size and magnified.
5, 6.—Aleyonidium albidum, natural size and magnified.

Pratt XIV.

1.—Farella pedicellata, highly magnified.
2.—A cell with polypide withdrawn, more highly magnified.
3.—The same with the polypide expanded.

( 27 )

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Monocrarn of the Genus AprotHatius (De Notaris and
Tulasne emend.) By W. Lauper Linpsay, M.D., Perth.

(Read before Section D. of the Meeting of the British Association,
at Cheltenham, in August, 1856.)

Tue genus Abrothallus, and especially the species here-
after described as A. Smithii, have long been familiar to
lichenologists under a variety of designations ; but their true
structure and place in classification were quite misunderstood
until the comparatively recent researches of De Notaris,* in
Italy, and Tulasne,t in France. A. oxysporus (infra de-
script.) has generally been regarded as a species of Endocarpon,
especially when it bore only young apothecia; while the
apothecia of A. Smithii have been denominated cephalodia,
and have been variously looked upon as the abortive, mon-
strous, or accessory apothecia of certain Parmelias, Lecideas,
and other lichens, or as parasitic fungi. Sir William Hooker,
in his ‘ British Flora,’ vol. ui, p. 200 (1838), says that Par-
melia saxatilis, and its variety omphalodes, “ are liable to be
infested with a parasite, which has been called Kndocarpon
parasiticum, Ach.” (‘E. Bot.,’ t. 1866.) On furfuraceous states
of P. saxatilis the Abrothalli are most abundant. In his
‘Flora Scotica’ (part ii, p. 44, 1821), Hooker gives as the
characters of this Hndocarpon parasiticum (Lichen parasiticus,
‘HE. Bot.,’ t. 1866) : “Thallus coriaceous, convex, rounded,
lobed, copper-coloured, at length rugged, black and shaggy
beneath, orifices scattered, sunk, minute, coal-black, at length
convex.” This description, in so far as it applies to the apo-
thecia, appears to confound the two species A. Simiéthii and
A, oxysporus ; and, in so far as it describes a thallus, it is
erroneous, since recent researches have proved the genus
Abrothallus to be really athalline. The latter error, how-
ever, is rectified in .the ‘ British Flora,’ p. 159, where it is
stated that the “Hndocarpon parasiticum, Ach., is now univer-
sally considered to be a portion of the thallus of Parmelia
saxatilis or omphalodes deformed by a parasite.” 'The view

* Mem. della reale Accad. delle Sc. di Torino.,’ ser. 2, vol. x, p. 351
(1849); and in ‘Giorn. bot. Ital.’ ann. ii, fase. iii-iv, part i, p. 192,
(1846).

+ “Mémoire pour servir a -l’Histoire organographique et physiologique
des Lichens,”’ in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ ser. 3, Botanique,
vol. xvii (1852), p. 112.

MOS Vic E

28 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

that the Abrothalli are abortive apothecia of certain familiar
foliaceous lichens is maintained so lately as 1850 in Schzerer’s
elaborate ‘Enumeratio critica Lichenum Europzeorum,’
(Berne, 1850). He describes the species mentioned by
Hooker as End. parasiticum, under the name of Parmelia
saxatilis, var. parasitica, in the following terms: “ Thallo supra
apotheciis abortivis, atris, subpatelleeformibus vel hemisphze-
ricis, Immarginatis, consito.” His description of the var.
abortiva of Parmelia conspersa is precisely similar. Of
Parmelia olivacea, var. abortiva, he says, “'Thallo supra
spherulis atris (apotheciis abortivis) distincto.” These
are characteristic descriptions of A. Smithii, the variety
which I have hereafter described as a, ater. To my variety
pulverulentus of the same species, he refers, sub nom.
Sticta fuliginosa, var. abortiva, when he says: “ 'Thallo supra
patellulis superficiaribus, olivaceo-viridi-pulverulentis, immar-
ginatis, distincto.”” Scheerer’s specific and generic charac-
ters have too evidently been founded wholly on external
appearances: he himself deplores his deficient microscopical
knowledge and skill. But he does not appear to have been
aware of—or at least he does not allude to—the researches
of De Notaris on the genus Abrothallus, which bear date
between the years 1846 and 1849,—prior to the publication
of his own ‘ Enumeratio.? Of Tulasne’s investigations he
could not avail himself, as they were published two years sub-
sequently. By other observers, again, there has been too
great a tendency perhaps to take for granted the bold and
sweeping assertion of Fries that “ Lichenes im aliis parasitici
normaliter nulli genuini,—an assertion whose incorrectness
the labours of subsequent observers have sufficiently proved.
It has been too much the custom lazily and ignorantly to
refer minute, black, point-like or spot-like parasitic lichens
to the great family of the Fungi; but I feel assured that
many species of Spheria, Dothidea, Peziza, and other fungi,
presently so-called, which are parasitic on the thallus of
various familiar lichens will ultimately be found to belong
themselves to the ranks of the lichens. I attribute, how-
ever, no blame to my predecessors for having erred in regard
to the structure and place in classification of these mimute
organisms. Nay, I do not see how such errors could have
been avoided; for the parasitic lichens, to which I refer,
could not have been properly studied prior to the introduc-
tion of the microscope. I believe it to be too common
now-a-days to depreciate the labours of the earlier botanists;
but the more we study the minuter Cryptogams the more
must we become convinced of the extent, accuracy, and value of

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 29

their observations. Most of the organisms with which we
are now acquainted were noticed and described by them; and
we cannot hold them altogether responsible for the misinter-
pretation of their nature and alliances.

While studying the furfuraceous and other abnormal states
of the thallus of the common Parmelia saxatilis, in various
localities in the neighbourhood of Perth, during the past
spring, I was struck by a peculiar deformation or anamor-
phosis of the thallus, which I first found in abundance on a
damp, shady, old wall on Craigie Hill, Perth. An examina-
tion of the lichen soon convinced me that the deformation
was the seat, if it was not also produced by the growth, of
a parasitic lichen, and that this parasite consisted of the
Abrothallus Smithii, A. Welwitzschii, and A. oxysporus of
Tulasne. The unusual interest connected with this genus on
many accounts led me to look carefully for it in similar
habitats elsewhere. I have since succeeded in finding these
species in comparative abundance in many parts both of the
Highlands and Lowlands, more especially of the former. I
have recently examined microscopically about 250 specimens,
chiefly from Highland districts, comprising both species in
every state and stage of growth. In the majority of cases
the habitat was old roadside walls—chiefly built of rocks or
boulders belonging to the primitive or metamorphic series.
In a comparatively small number of instances, the matrix
grew on loose boulders of the same rocks; and in a still less
number on trees, especially the ash and alder. In all cases
the parasites grew on furfuraceous forms of P. sazatilis.
From the frequency with which I have gathered the Abro-
thalli in the Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland, I have no
hesitation in asserting that, if carefully looked for, they will
probably be found comparatively common in Wales and Ire-
land, and—to a less extent perhaps—in England,—especially
the hilly parts thereof. In addition to the Abrothalli col-
lected by myself, I am indebted to the kindness of the Rev.
W. A. Leighton, of Shrewsbury, for specimens,—chiefly of
A. oxysporus, growing on Cetraria glauca and Parmelia con-
spersa, as well as on P. savatilis, from Barmouth, North
Wales. And lastly, I possess, in Leighton’s ‘ Lichenes Bri-
tannici exsiccati’ (fase. i, No. 46), specimens of A. Smithii,
Tul., growing on furfuraceous states of P. saxatilis, from the
Wrekin, Shropshire; and (fasc. vi, No. 191) of A. Welwitz-
schii, Mont., on Sticta fuliginosa, from rocks, New Cut, Mead-
fort, Torquay, Devonshire. These specimens have therefore
afforded me ample facilities for investigating, by the aid of
the microscope and chemical reagents, the anatomy of the

30 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

genus Abrothallus. My results, though im the main corro-
borative of the admirable descriptions of Tulasne, lead me to
take a somewhat different view of the numbers and characters
of the species; while they enable me to rectify or supply
various of his minor errors of commission or omission. For
example, Tulasne speaks of the “ Spermogoniz ignotee ;”
and, so far as I am aware, no previous or subsequent
author (for, im Korber’s ‘German Lichenography,’ pub-
lished during the present year, the spermogones are stated
“in der gewohnlichen Form bei Abrothallus zu fehlen
scheinen” *) has observed, or at least described, the sper-
mogones of Abrothallus, which I have been fortunate enough
to meet with several times. But I have other and perhaps
stronger grounds for bringing the anatomy of Abrothallus
under the notice of British botanists. It 1s destitute of a
thallus; is parasitic on another living lichen; and is possessed
of the accessory reproductive bodies, stylospores, contained in
conceptacles resembling in structure and site the spermo-
gones, and termed by Tulasne pycnides. In each of these
respects, the genus is peculiar and deserving of special study.
I believe that a knowledge of the origin, structure, and
mode of development of the deformations of the thallus of
P. savatilis, on which the Abrothalli grow, will assist us in
explainmg the nature of certain so-called erratic lichens,
which have been lately discovered. British botanists have
very recently been much puzzled to account for the origin
of a curious globular Parmelia, found by Sir W. C. Tre-
velyan, bowling freely before the wind along the surface
of the soil on the exposed chalk downs of Dorsetshire. A
careful examination has led me to the conclusion that this
wandering Parmelia is merely a hypertrophied condition of
the deformed thalli in question. Until within the last few
years, botanists were almost unaware of the existence of
lichens parasitic on other species. Even yet our knowledge
of parasitic lichens is exceedingly incomplete. The list of
British species is very meagre; but the patient labours of
such men as Leighton, of Shrewsbury, and Mudd, of Cleve-
land, are daily adding thereto. As illustrations of British
parasitic species, it will suffice here to notice the occurrence
of Calicium turbinatum, Lecidea inspersa, and Acolium stigo-
nellum, on Pertusaria communis: Scutula Wallrothit and
Celidium fusco-purpureum on Peltigera canina: Celidium

* «Systema Lichenum Germanie. Die Flechten Deutschlands (insbe-
sondere Schlesiens) mikroskopisch gepriift, kritisch gesichtet, charakteris-
tisch beschrieben und systematisch geordnet von Dr. G. W. Koerber?
3reslau, 1856.

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 3l

Stictarum on Sticta pulmonaria and 8. scrobiculata: Pha-
copsis varia on Parmelia parietina: Phacopsis vulpina on
Cornicularia vulpina: <Arthonia glaucomaria on Lecanora
glaucoma: Verrucaria rimosicola on Lecidea rimosa : Lecidea
vitellinaria on Lecanora vitellina : and Sphinctrina septata on
Thelotrema tepadinum. We doubt not that botanists have
only to direct attention to parasitic lichens in order to dis-
cover many new and interesting species. There is a wide
field open here for scientific research: we are but on the
threshold of the inquiry. K6rber most truly remarks
(p. 216) :

“Es offmet sich hier ein ebenso fiir die Physiologie, wie
fiir die systematik der Flechten tberaus reiches Feld der
Beobachtung, dessen Grenzen vor der Hand noch nicht abzu-
sehen sind, und dessen fleissige Bearbeitung uns einst iiber
die Verwandtschaft der Flechten mit gewissen Pilzordnungen
gentigendere Aufschliisse geben wird, als bis jetzt gegeben
werden konnten.”

The presence of stylospores and the absence of a thallus
tend to assimilate the genus closely to the Fungi. We are
daily finding closer links between the great families of
Lichens and Fungi; and the shades of distinction, the marks
of differentiation, in the lower tribes of both are becoming
less conspicuous. It were well, therefore, that the lower or
more minute, and hitherto little-known lichens should be
studied cotemporaneously by lichenologists and mycolo-
gists, or by botanists possessmg an intimate knowledge of
the structure and affinities of the Fungi as well as of those
of the Lichens. Standing as they do on a debateable and
ever-shifting border ground, their just claims in regard to
their position in the scale of vegetation can only be decided
by a species of scientific arbitration. Hitherto too many of
the lower lichens have been claimed as fungi. Lichenolo-
gists are now making raids among the ranks of the latter,
and there is a danger that, in their too eager search for
deserters, or animated by a spirit of retaliation, they may
seize plants which do not properly belong to them. More-
over, it is highly desirable that British microscopists should
take up the subject of the mimute anatomy of the lichens,
and especially of their reproductive organs. With the ex-
ception of the elaborate works of Mr. Leighton of Shrewsbury,
we have nothing to place in competition with the monographs
of Tulasne, Montagne, De Notaris, Flotow, Nylander,
Massalongo, and other Continental observers. And lastly, I
gladly avail myself of the opportunity of illustrating, in a
single small and comparatively unknown genus, the chief

32 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

forms of reproductive organs in lichens which have been
hitherto discovered and described.
Tulasne describes the five following species of Abrothallus,
VIZ. :
1. A. Smithii. 4. A. oxysporus.
2. A. Welwitzschii. 5. A. inquinans.
3. A. microspermus.

It appears to me that, probably from an examination of a
limited number of specimens, Tulasne has created an unne-
cessary number of species, which I think admit satisfactorily
of being reduced to two. The reasons which lead me to
propose such a reduction will appear more fully in the sub-
sequent analysis of the structure and character of the species,
so far as I have been enabled to examine them in Scotch,
Welsh, and English specimens. Meanwhile, I would state
here that Tulasne does not appear to have made sufficient
allowance for differences in minor characters produced by
variations in habitat, when we consider that the Abrothalli
grow on lichens so opposite in their habits as Parmela
saxatilis, P. caperata, P. conspersa, P. olivacea, P. tiliacea,
Sticta fuliginosa, Sticta sylvatica, and Cetraria glauca. I
cannot regard the characters on which he has founded the
differentiation of the first three species above mentioned as
sufficient or satisfactory. I shall, therefore, mclude them
under the same species, to which I shall retain the name of
the first—A. Smithii. But, while Tulasne’s characters are
insufficient to separate the lichens which he describes as
species, they are, to a certain extent, characteristic of
varieties. The more prominent of these characters, so far
as they accord with my own observations, I propose to
preserve under the varieties a, ater, fH, pulverulentus, and 64,
microspermus, of A. Smithii. The fourth species, 4. owy-
sporus, appears a most natural one. The fifth species, A.
mquinans, which Tulasne designates a “species recedens,”
I would discard as not properly pertaining to the genus
under consideration. It appears more to belong to Celidium
or an allied genus. It differs from the two species of
Abrothallus hereafter to be described—lst, im its apothecia
being superficial or epithalline, and not bursting through
the cortical layer of the matrix; 2d, in these apothecia
bemg minute and arranged in orbicular patches, the central
ones confluent in deformed macule; 3d, in the form of
the spores, which more resemble the oval stylospores of the
other species; and 4th, in its occurring on a tartareous
thallus, the sterile crust of a Beeomyces. In the description

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 33

of the amended characters of the genus Abrothallus, and of
the species A. Smithii and A. oxysporus, I have retained the
names originally bestowed on them by De Notaris and
Tulasne, not because I prefer them as peculiarly appropriate ;
but because I am averse to increase the “ confusion worse
confounded ” of lichenological nomenclature by altering old
and conferring new names, where it is not absolutely neces-
sary. A complex synonymy has too long been a stumbling
block to the lichenological student. 1 cannot, however,
omit to notice here the faultiness of the generic term origi-
nally proposed by De Notaris (Adrothallus, from 4&oo., thin
or delicate, in allusion to a supposed thin or delicate thallus),
he having mistaken deformed portions of the thallus of
P. saxatilis for the proper thallus of the parasite. Tulasne
has proposed a name, which is less objectionable, viz.,
Phymatopsis, from ¢tpa, a tuber, and fs, hike; but I prefer
retaining the first for the reasons just stated.

The insertion here of the amended characters of the genus
Abrothallus, and of the species A. Smithii and A. oxysporus,
—so far as based on my own researches,—will facilitate the
subsequent details of minute structure.

Kérber arranges the genus Abrothallus in the sub-family
Biatorinez, of the natural order Lecideacee ; and the struc-
ture of the apothecia appears to me to justify his classifica-
tion. He only, however, describes the species A. Smithii
and A. microspermus, the latter of which I shall show is to
be regarded as only a variety of the former; and he removes
the other species described by Tulasne out of the genus
Abrothallus, from which they are distinguished by their very
different spores. He does not appear to have had full
opportunities of studymg them; for he speaks of them as
hitherto unobserved in Germany. Hence his decision is
based on insufficient grounds.

Gen. Abrothallus, De Notaris emend.—Species athalline ;
parasitic on the thallus of various foliaceous lichens. Apo-
thecia developed in medullary tissue of matrix ; burst through,
sometimes fissuring im a radiate manner, the cortical layer,
which may form a raised border; finally seated on, or par-
tially immersed in, the alien thallus; at first flattened or
discoid, sometimes becoming pulviniform or globose ; immar-
_ ginate ; circumference agglutinated to matrix or free ; smooth
or pulverulent; mostly black. Hypothecium brownish or
greenish. Thece eight-spored, clavate, becoming obovate ;
amyloid reaction with iodine often inconspicuous or absent.

34 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

Paraphyses closely aggregated ; thickened, deeply coloured,
and cohering at their apices. Spores ovate-oblong and obtuse
at ends, or ellipsoid and acute ; two-locular—the loculi being
unequal in size, and the larger one always looking towards
the apex of the theca—or simple; of an olive-green or
brownish colour, or pale; frequently containing two or more
globular nuclei. Spermogones immersed, spherical, one-
locular, opening by a pomt-like or stellate-fissured ostiole ;
envelope of a deep brown tint. Sverigmata simple, slender,
iregular ; generating from their apices only, linear, straight,
slender Spermatia. Pycnides also immersed, spherical, one-
locular, opening by a simple or stellate ostiole, generally
larger and more conspicuous than the spermogones. Sterig-
mata short, simple, sometimes inconspicuous or absent ;
monospored, generating from their apices, the stylospores,
which are pyriform or obovate, simple, pale, obtuse at ends,
and contain an oily protoplasm or distinct oil globules.

Species I—A. Smithii, Tul. emend. (including the 4.
Smithii, A. Welwitzschii, and A. microspermus of Tulasne,
and the A. Bertianus and A. Buellianus, De Not. and
Massol. Ricerch., 88. Biatora Parmelarum, Fw., in litt.
Smmf. Lapp., 176 [sub. Lecid.] Hndoc parasit., Ach., Syn.
100. Fw., L. E., 451). <Apothecia epithalline, scattered,
rarely confluent, prominent, pulviniform or globose, normally
smooth and black, sometimes green-pruinose ; circumference
agglutinated or free; ultimately falling out and leaving dis-
tinct cyphelloid foveole, which have frequently raised and
dark margins. Hypothecium olive-coloured. Thece: amyloid
reaction with iodine feeble or none. Spores ovate-oblong
(Korber describes them as solezeform or “ schuhsohlenfér-
ning”), two-locular, upper segment broader and shorter
than lower, olive-green or brownish; vary in size; loculi
frequently containing one or two globular nuclei. Spermo-
gones absent. Pycnides abundant.

a, Var. ater. Apothecia black and smooth. (A. Smithii,
Tul. in part.)

B. Var. pulverulentus. Apothecia sparmgly or copiously
green-pulverulent. (A. Smithii, Tul. im part, and A.
Welwitzschu, Tul. Leight. L. E. fase. vi, No. 191.)

6. Var. microspermus. Spores small and pale. (A. micro-
spermus, Tul.)

Habitats.—\1. On furfuraceous states of Parmelia saxatilis ;

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 35

generally associated with A. ovysporus. In a large propor-
tion of cases, varieties « and # occurred on the same
specimen. Sometimes, however, var. a predominated or was
found alone,—for example, on dry exposed walls in Highland
districts, or on boulders on Highland mountains. At other
times, var. 6 was the more abundant form, chiefly on damp
and shady roadside walls, both m Lowland and Highland
localities. The var. 6, in which, according to Tulasne, the
spores are all small and pale, I have not met with.

A. Onwalls: im Highland districts, built chiefly of granite,
gneiss, mica slate, and other primitive or metamorphic rocks;
in Lowland districts, built chiefly of basalt, greenstone, por-
phyry, amygdaloid, or other members of the trap series, of
new or old red sandstone, &c.

1. Craigie Hill, Perth; with pycnides. Trap, primitive
and metamorphic rocks.

2. Birnam Hill, Dunkeld; with pycnides. Clay slate
series, including hornblende and chlorite slates.

3. Craig-y-Barns, Dunkeld; with pyenides. Mica slate
series.

4. Amulree road, Strathbraan, Dunkeld; with pyenides.
Clay slate and mica slate.

5. Highland road between Blairgowrie and Percy; with
pycnides. Gneiss.

6. Highland road between Percy and Spittal of Glenshee;
with pyenides. Gneiss and quartz rock.

7. Glenshee, Glen Beg, and Glen Clunie, between Spittal
of Glenshee and Braemar; pycnides more abundant
than im any other station. Mica, hornblende, and
chlorite slates; gneiss and quartz rock.

8. Road between Braemar and Corramulzie Linn; with
pycnides. Gneiss.

9. Glen-tilt road, about Linn of Dee; with pycnides.
Quartzose mica slate, and gneiss.

10. Deeside road, near Invercauld, Braemar. Gneiss.

11. Ben Lawers, Loch Tay; with pycnides. Mica slate.

12. Banks of Crinan Canal. Gneiss, mica and clay
slates.

13. Road between Sligachan and Portree, Isle of Skye;
with pyenides. Syenite, greenstone, compact felspar,
amygdaloid and other trap rocks.

14. Great northern road, Uig, Skye; with pycnides.

Trap rocks, chiefly amygdaloids, basalts, and green-
stones.

36 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

15. Road between Dumfries and Caerlaverock ; with pyc-
nides. New red sandstone.*

B. On boulders, or rocks én situ, on Highland and Lowland
hills: on the former, it is usually found at low elevations,
that is, towards the base of the higher Highland mountains ;
on the latter, it occurs at all elevations.

Moors to the west of Braemar ; with pycnides. Gneiss.
Craig-choinich, Braemar. Granite.

Mor-chone, Braemar. Granite.

Loch-na-gar, Braemar; with pyenides. Granite.
Glen Dee, Braemar. Granite.

Ben Nevis. Mica slate, gneiss, granite.

. Moncrieffe Hill, Perth. Basalt, greenstone, amygda-
loid, and other trap rocks.

ab oe iS

oe}

. On trees: the ash.

1. Road between Dumfries and Caerlaverock; with pyenides.

D. Special habitats unknown.
Li

Wrekin Hill, Shropshire. (Leighton’s ‘ Lich. Brit.
exsicc.,’ No. 46, fasc. 2.)
2. Barmouth, North Wales. (Rev. W. A. Leighton.)

IJ.—On Sticta fuliginosa.

1. Rocks, New Cut, Meadfort, Torquay, Devonshire.
(Leight. ‘ Lich. Brit. exsicc.,’ No. 191, fase. 6, var. £.
[sub nom. A. Welwitzschii, Mont.})

In addition to the habitats which I have given above,
Tulasne mentions the occurrence of A. Smithit on Parmelia
olivacea, P. tiliacea, and P. omphalodes, iw France. I have
never met with it on any of these species. I should doubt
its occurrence on P. omphalodes; and suspect that a dark-
coloured form of P. saxatilis has been mistaken therefor.
Korber also gives P. olivacea, P. tiliacea, and Cetraria glauca
as habitats for it in Germany. On the latter I have seen
A. oxysporus, but not A. Smithii. Var. 8, Tulasne’s A. Wel-
witzschii, is stated by him to occur on Séicta sylvatica, on the
Serra de Cintra Mountains, Portugal.

* The geologic age of this sandstone is disputed, some authorities regard-
ing it as properly the old red, and anterior in date to the coal series.—
Vide Nicol’s ‘Geology of Scotland,’ p. 43.

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALULUS. 37

Spec. I1.—A. oxysporus, Tul. emend.—Apothecia not pro-
minent, chiefly immersed, flattened or discoid, blackish-
brown, generally crowded. Thece: amyloid reaction with
iodine distinct. Paraphyses: tips light brown. Spores
ellipsoid, acute at ends, colourless or pale yellow, normally
containing two yellowish globular nuclei placed towards the
opposite extremities of the spore. Spermogones somewhat
rare. Pycnides absent.

Habitats.—1. On furfuraceous states of Parmelia saxatilis ;
generally associated with A. Smithii at most of the localities
already mentioned.

A. On walls:

1. Craigie Hill, Perth; with spermogones.

2. Birnam Hill,

3. Craig-y-Barns, ¢ Dunkeld.

4. Strathbraan,

5. Highland road between Percy and Spittal of Glenshee ;
with spermogones.

6. Glenshee, Glen Beg, and Glen Clunie, between
Spittal of Glenshee and Braemar ; with spermogones.

7. Road between Braemar and Corramulzie Linn; with
spermogones.

8. Deeside road, near Invercauld, Braemar.

9. Banks of Crinan Canal.

10. Road between Sligachan and Portree, Skye.

11. Road, Uig, Skye.

12. Road between Dumfries and Caerlaverock.

B. On boulders, or rocks i situ :

1. Moors to west of Braemar.

2. Craig Chomich, 7)

3. Mor-chone, > Braemar.

4. Glen Dee, :

5. Ben Nevis; with spermogones.

6. Loch Coruwisk and Glen Shgachan, Skye. Trap rocks,
porphyry, syenite, amygdaloids, &ce.

7. Moncrieffe Hill, Perth.

C. On trees: the alder.
1. Glen Nevis.

D. Special habitat unknown :
1

. Barmouth, North Wales (Leighton); with spermogones.

38 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

II. On Parmelia conspersa.

1. Barmouth, North Wales (Leighton); with spermo-
gones.

Il. On Cetraria glauca.

1. Barmouth, North Wales (Leighton); with spermo-
gones. Korber also speaks of it as abundant on
C. glauca in Germany.

In the earliest state in which I have observed them, the
deformations of the thallus of P. sawatilis, on which the
Abrothalli grow, occur as minute, simple, orbicular squa-
mules, smooth above, black-fibrillose below. If they are
studded over with the young apothecia of A. oxysporus, they
greatly resemble the scale-hke thalli of some Endocarpons.
They are very different in appearance from the lacinie of
P. saxatilis, which are sinuate-lacinulate, and the lacinule
divaricate-angulose with retuse extremities. They are epi-
thalline, seated upon the ordinary thallus of P. sawatilis,
from which they appear perfectly distinct. Hence such
squamules have the appearance of separate and parasitic
vegetations. Occasionally I have seen the Abrothalli grow-
ing on the normal laciniz of furfuraceous forms of P. saxa-
tilts, or on laciniz very slightly modified. In other cases,
the anamorphoses, in the structure of their laciniz, closely
resemble the ordinary thallus of P. savatilis. Occasionally
a few scattered apothecia of A. Smithii, with its pycnides,
occur on simple squamules; but this is comparatively rare.
With age these squamules undergo great modifications, and
it is generally at a somewhat later period of development
that they become the sites of the Abrothalli. The first
change consists in their becoming lobed and polyphyllous ;
in this condition they not unfrequently resemble the var.
complicatum of Endocarpon miniatum. A. oxysporus often
inhabits thalli of this kind. This condition is well marked
in specimens of A. oxysporus from Glen Nevis. Sometimes
the lobes or squamules preserve a concavity of surface; more
generally they acquire a convexity from a tendency to evolu-
tion or curling out of their edges, which in some cases are
much thickened. The surface is occasionally much cor-
rugated or pitted, and scattered over with grayish soredia or
warts, which frequently crown the ridges of the plice. I
have also seen the squamules pruinose like the thallus of
Parmelia pulverulenta. In some cases—as in A. oxysporus,
from Loch Coruisk, Skye, and in 4. Smithit, growing on the

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 39

ash on the roadside between Dumfries and Caerlaverock—I
have found cubical or octohedral crystals more or less abun-
dantly in the thallus, apparently consisting of the carbonate
or oxalate of lime. I have frequently detected crystalline
matters of various kinds in the thallus of other lichens.

The colour of the squamules varies greatly in different
habitats and localities. Sometimes they possess a peculiar
leaden hue; such squamules, whether simple or polyphyl-
lous, are generally sterile, or they bear pycnides scattered
sparingly towards the margins and unassociated with apothecia.
In Highland districts especially, the thallus is sometimes
of a rusty red or copper colour, depending apparently on the
absorption of peroxide of iron. ‘This species of coloration is
frequent also in the ordinary thallus of P. savatilis. At
other times the squamules have a light brownish tint on the
surface ; but the medullary tissue, as exhibited in fissures of
the cortical layer, or in the foveole left by the falling out of
the apothecia of A. Smithii, possesses a brilliant saffron tint,
resembling that of the under surface of Solorina crocea. In
other cases, the colour approximates that of the thallus of
P. saxatilis, on which the deformations occur.

The thalli on which A. Smithii is parasitic generally become
globose, irregular, gnarled masses, from the evolution of the
edges already alluded to, and from the development of suc-
cessive and super-imposed crops of new lobes or squamules.
This convexity increases; the base of adhesion becomes nar-
rowed by continued curling; and the globular mass may at
length be easily detached from the thallus of P. saxatilis, to
which it bears little or noresemblance. The most globular or
hypertrophic specimens I have metwith have been sterile forms
of a leaden hue or light grayish colour, apparently develop-
ments of the squamules on which the pyenides of A. Smithii
frequently occur alone. A section shows such a mass to consist
of a series of irregularly disposed layers of squamules or
lobes, separated by alternate strata of a brownish granular
matter, the débris of the rhizine or black fibrils of their
under surface. I have never seen these masses free; but,
from a consideration of their mode of growth, I have no
doubt that they may be ultimately detached by the wind or
other agencies, and, continuing to vegetate in the way I have
described, may become regularly globular, all trace of the base
of adhesion being obliterated. In a specimen of 4. oxysporus,
on Cetraria glauca, from Barmouth, North Wales, for which
I am indebted to Mr. Leighton, the parasite grows on pecu-
har bullose dilatations of the extremities of the laciniz, or
of some more central portion of the thallus of the Cetraria.

40 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

These peculiar deformities appear to arise as pustules of
the thallus, which gradually become distended and inflated,
till they assume a bladder-lhke form. At the same time, their
base sometimes becomes altered into a narrow peduncle,
apparently by a process of contraction in the surrounding
tissues, and a pyriform or globular bulla is produced. By
continued contraction of the base of adhesion the mass may
become free; the peduncle may disappear, and a regularly
globular form be produced. In such astate these bladder-like
bodies of extreme lightness would readily be carried great
distances by the wind, and might accumulate in particular
localities. This is doubtless Schzerer’s var. bullata of C.glauca,
of which he says (Enum. Crit. Lich. Europ.,’ p. 13, 1850) :
“Thalli lobulis extremis in capitula inflata transformatis.”
These pustules or bladder-like dilatations must be regarded
as morbid conditions of the thallus, produced by the growth
of the parasites. They are analogous to the blisters caused
on the leaves, and excrescences from the bark or stems of
various of the higher plants produced by the attacks of
insects. But it does not appear to me that the anamorphoses
of the thallus of P. saxatilis, on which the Abrothalli grow,
ean be placed in the same category. They are neither dila-
tations of, nor excrescences from, the parent thallus, but
distinct and superimposed, sometimes easily detachable,
growths. I think, therefore, that Korber has taken an
erroneous and limited view of the subject when he observes:
“Die stellen des Imbricarien- und _ Cetrarien-lagers,
welche von diesem Parasiten tberwiichert werden, bilden
eigenthiimliche bauschige Anschwellungen, welche das durch
den Schmarotzer bedingte Krankeln der Mutterpflanze
deutlich verrathen, friiher jedoch als eigne Lager dem Para-
siten falschlich zugeschrieben wurden (p. 216); (speaking
of P. saxatilis, p. 73): auf den eignen Lager eigenthtimliche
kleinlappige, krankhaft aussehende und mit dem parasi-
tischen Abrothallus Bertianus besetzte Polster bildend ; (and
of P. caperata): des Lager der Imbricaria caperata wird
von diesem Parasiten (A. microspermus) weniger krankhaft
verandert” (p. 216.) His error probably arises from his not
having carefully studied the origin and development of these
anamorphoses in any considerable number of specimens. In the
Braemar district I have not unfrequently met with globular
dilatations or excrescences of the thallus of Lecanora tartarea,
L. parella, L. ventosa, and other lichens, unassociated with
any parasitic growths. Nor have I ever seen such dilatations
or excrescences in P. saxatilis, on whose normal laciniz, as
I have already stated, the Abrothalli sometimes occur.

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 4]

The deformations of the thallus of Parmelia conspersa, on
which A. oxysporus grows, as examined in specimens from
Barmouth, communicated by Mr. Leighton, more resemble
those of C. glauca than those of P. saxatilis. In Welsh speci-
mens of 4. Smithii and A. oxysporus, growing on furfuraceous
forms of P. savatilis, the portions of thallus on which the
parasites occur have more the character of the ordinary laciniz
of P. saxatilis than in Scotch specimens. The thallus of
P. saxatilis in these specimens is whitish, friable, and mealy,
compared with Scotch ones, which are tough and coriaceous,
This difference is probably to be accounted for by differences
in the geological character of the habitat.

In addition to the other irregularities of structure or ap-
pearance already alluded to, I have occasionally observed,
particularly in Highland specimens, the cortical layer of the
deformed thalli partially or wholly eroded, apparently by
insects, the subjacent white or medullary tissue being thereby
exposed. This erosion sometimes appeared like a cross section
of a number of plicze on the same squamule, or of a series of
superimposed squamules or lobes. It occurs sometimes in
similar localities in the ordinary thallus of P. saxatilis, as
well as on its anamorphoses. Frequently the medullary
tissue exposed is of a brilliant saffron-yellow. I have fre-
quently noticed on damp walls a similar condition of Parmelia
parietina, giving the thallus and apothecia a white-variegated
appearance.

The origin and mode of growth of the globular deformations
of the thallus of P. saxatilis and Cetraria glauca above
described, appear to me to throw a new light on the nature
of the var. concentrica of P. saxatilis (Leight. ‘ Lich. Brit.
exsicc.,’ No. 232, fasc. 8, 1856), lately found by Sir W. C.
Trevelyan, rollimg freely before the wind on the exposed
sheep-walks or chalk downs of Dorsetshire, and particularly
on Melbury Hill, near Shaftesbury.* The characteristics of
this curious lichen are, its erratic nature, its globular form,
and its want of adhesion to any base of support. Its ex-
ternal appearance, as well as its characters on section, are
very similar to those of the lead-coloured or grayish, globose
anamorphoses of the thallus of P. saxatilis before referred
to. Specimens of the latter, if detached and rolled about on
the surface of the ground in a similar way, would undoubtedly
acquire a similarly globose form. This erratic form of P.

* Proceedings of the Botan, Society of Edinburgh, in ‘ Scottish Gar-
dener,’ March, 1856, p. 100; and Notes by Rev. M. J. Berkeley, in
‘Gardener’s Chronicle,’ Feb. 9th, 1856, p. 84, aad March 15th, 1856, p. 172.

42 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

saxvatilis appears to grow after detachment from its base of
support; and its peculiar shape seems due both to curling up
of the margins of the lobes, and to repeated and superimposed
epithalline growths from and upon the original nucleus. The
lobes or laciniz are smooth, shining, and of a light gray
tint. A few grayish soredia are occasionally scattered over
the surface; but I have not noticed, in specimens kindly
forwarded to me by Sir W. C. Trevelyan, nor in the specimen
contained in Leighton’s ‘ Lich. Brit. exsicc.,’ any of the re-
productive organs of the Abrothalli. 1 do not, however,
regard the absence of the latter as at all a disproof of the
lichen being developed in the way I have hinted; for I have
already stated that it most closely resembles sterile forms of
the deformations of P. saxatilis above described. It is
perfectly possible, moreover, that laciniz or squamules
bearing the pyenides, spermogones, or even apothecia of the
Abrothalli, have been covered over and concealed by subse-
quent epithalline growths. “There is no good reason why
they should not fructify,” says Berkeley in the ‘ Gardener’s
Chronicle,’ March 15th, 1856, p. 172; but if the view just
propounded of the nature and origin of these erratic masses
be correct, we should never expect to find on them the
normal apothecia of P. saxaiilis, though we might have good
grounds for anticipating the occasional occurrence of the
pycnides or spermogones of the Abrothalli. The theories
hitherto started to account for their peculiar form do not
appear to me to be satisfactory, viz., that they have been
formed round the droppings of sheep or rabbits, as nuclei, or
that they have grown on the twigs of trees, whence they
have been subsequently detached. Berkeley and Babington
regard the erratic lichen in question as a form of Parmelia
cesia, or one of the “short-lobed forms of the Parmelia
stellaris group; but Sir W. Hooker, Sir W. C. Trevelyan,
and Leighton consider it a form of P. saxatilis, and in this
opinion, though I had at first some difficulty m deciding, I
entirely concur. Further, there is a close resemblance
between this erratic species and various Lecanoras of a
globular form, and showing no point of adhesion, which have
at various times been described by travellers as suddenly
covering, like manna, large tracts of country in Asia, and as
being eaten by cattle and by nomadic tribes of natives.*
Such lichens are the Lecanora esculenta and affinis of Tartary
and Persia. I have not been fortunate enough to see
specimens of these interesting lichens; but I think it ex-

* Vide the author’s ‘ Popular History of British Lichens’ (Reeve, London,
1856), pp. 211 and 228.

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALUUS. 43

tremely probable that they are not independent species, but
merely malformations of some more familiar lichens. This
idea, Berkeley mentions, has also occurred to Sir W. Hooker.

I. A. Snithit—Of 7] sheets, containing about 250 specimens
of A. Smithti and A. oxysporus, generally intermixed, the
former species occurred in 54 cases, or about 76 per cent. ;
while the latter was found in 42 cases, or about 59 per cent.
Of the two species, therefore, A. Simithiti is the more
abundant, though the preponderance is not very greatly in
its favour. The young apothecia appear first to occur as
spherical, blackish warts in the medullary tissue of the
matrix (by which name I mean to designate the deformed
portions of the thallus of P. sawratilis, and other lichens, on
which the parasite occurs). Increasing gradually in size and
colour, such an apothecial wart pushes its way to the surface,
and perforates the ‘cortical layer, either by a slow process,
whereby the latter is thinned without fissuring, or rapidly,
whereby more or less extensive radiate-fissuring is produced.
In the former case the cortical border of the nascent
apothecium is comparatively entire; in the latter it is irregu-
larly broken by the stellate fissures, which, like the apothecium
itself, generally appear black. After its evolution through
the cortical layer, the apothecium swells, becoming globose ;
and its margins gradually overlap the cortical border. To
the latter the margins are at first more or less closely ap-
pressed: sometimes they become agglutinated; at other
times they remain, or become, with age, free. The latter
condition seems to be assisted, if not produced, by a
gradual contraction, as the apothecium becomes mature and
old, of its base,—the hypothecial tissue. This process goes
on till the apothecium falls away, leaving a saucer-shaped
cavity or foveola, closely resembling, at a later stage of its
development, or rather retrogression, the cyphelle of the
Sticte. With age, such cavities or pits become more
urceolate, and their edges better defined. The latter are
frequently distinctly raised and dark coloured; while the
cavity of the foveole may remain whitish, reddish, saffron-
coloured, or it gradually assumes a brownish tint. These
foveole are peculiar to A. Smithii, and are frequently seen
on the old thallus, especially in Highland districts. I have
never noticed them im A. oxysporus. When young and
emergent, especially if deplanate, the apothecia of A. Smithii
resemble somewhat the nascent apothecia of A. oxysporus ;
but a microscopic examination will at once detect the
difference. In specimens of A. Smithii from the neighbour

VOL. V. F

A LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

hood of Portree, Skye, I found the young apothecia indis-
tinguishable, by the naked eye, from those of A. oxysporus.
These apothecia were flattened and black, with rough or
pulverulent surface, agglutinated borders, and surrounding
radiate-fissuring of the cortical layer of the thallus. The
adhesion of the margins of the apothecia to the cortical layer
is sometimes so intimate, that the base appears gradually
shaded off or passing into the matrix, like the perithecia of
Verrucaria epidermidis. This, however, i is rare. I have seen
it only in a few hill specimens. The gradual contraction of
the hypothecium, or base of adhesion, renders the enucleation
of the old apothecia easy.

Of the mode of evolution of the apothecia in his three
species, Tulasne says that, in A. Smithii, “FE matrice lente
ac tali modo emergunt ut ejus cutem vix effringere illique e
‘contrario primum marginibus adglutinari videantur;” in
A. Welwitzschii, “ Matricis cuticulam ita in erumpendo
effrmgant ut istius frustula erecta hymenii discum quasi
vallo ambiant ; ” while, in A. microspermus, “ E matrice pede-
tentim emergit, cujus cuticulam fractam non sublevat et
isti e contrario toto ambitu adnasci s. conglutinari diu
videtur.” The relations of the spothecial margins to the
surrounding cortical tissue do not appear to me to furnish
good characters for differentiation. I think I have seen all
the appearances which Tulasne describes in different speci-
mens of the varieties which I have designated ater and
pulverulentus, even from the same locality. The A.
Welwitzschu of Leighton’s ‘Lich. Brit. exsicc. does not
differ, either in external characters or in internal structure,
from green-pulverulent forms of A. Smithii found by myself
abundantly on Craigie Hill and elsewhere; but it rises
directly from the ordinary thallus of Sticta fuliginosa. 'The
only specimen which I have had an opportunity of examining
has only two apothecia. One of these is flattened, not very
prominent, and appears agglutinated at the margins; the
other, on being moistened, becomes globose and substipitate,
and has distinctly no raised margin of cortical tissue.
Neither does the degree of flattening or convexity of the
apothecia afford a good means of differential diagnosis; it
differs widely in specimens from various localities. ‘The
apothecia of A. Smithii, says Tulasne, are “ discoidea,
pulviniformia, tandemque maxime convexa;’” those of A.
Welwitzschii are “magis vulgo deplanata ;’’ ‘while .4. micro-
spermus, “attamen puncta atra latiora et depressiora vulgo
sistit.”” I have frequently met with the apothecia both of
varieties « and # flattened, sometimes tuberculiform and even

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 45

confluent. In the latter case only two or three apothecia
were usually in apposition; their margins, though modified
by pressure, were distinct, and their surface was flattened.
So flattened, semi-immersed, and inconspicuous have the
apothecia of A. Smithiti sometimes been in Highland
specimens, that I have mistaken them, by the naked eye, for
those of A. oxysporus. I have also seen them, in the old
state, immediately prior to their falling out, when their base
of adhesion is constricted to a very narrow peduncle, capitate
or substipitate. The apothecia of var. a are sometimes
exasperate or slightly black- pulyerulent; or, still more
rarely, in Highland specimens, they have appeared to be
faintly marked by striz or gyre, like those of some of the
Unubilicarias. Another basis whereon Tulasne founds his
specific distinctions, is the presence or absence, as well as the
degree, of green-pulverulence, of the apothecia. According to
that observer, the apothecia of 4d. Smithii are “sparsim
virenti-pulverulentis aut glabris ;” those of d. Welwitzschi
are “pulvere chlorino velatis;” while m regard to those of
A. microspermus, he remarks, “nec pulverem virentem ei
imspersum vidi.’ The green-pulverulence, I believe, is
merely an illustration of the pulverulent or pruinose condition
of the apothecia, so common among lichens, and which is one
form of sorediiferous degeneration. The green powder, which
varies greatly in degree, consists chiefly of gonidia; as do
also the globose, greenish, powdery warts, resembling, in
general appearance, the apothecia, in var. 8 pulverulentus,
‘which I have met with occasionally on the same thallus,—as
in specimens from Craig-y-Barns, Dunkeld. These warts
are generally less regular in form than the apothecia in
question, from which, however, they are sometimes indis-
tinguishable without the microscope. I have repeatedly seen
black and green-pulverulent apothecia occurrmg on the same
thallus: but in certain localities the former predominate ; a
others the latter. On Ben Lawers I found only black
apothecia; on Craigie Hill, Perth, the green-pulverulent
ones are abundant. The latter I have noticed chiefly in
damp, shady places—precisely the situations favorable to
sorediiferous degeneration.

The development of the thecz and spores resembles what
obtains in the majority of other lichens. The theca arises
from the hypothecium as a small, colourless, spherical cell,
which gradually becomes elongated upwards so as to acquire
a clavate form. It contains at first a colourless, minutely
granular or amorphous protoplasm, which fills its whole
cavity. Gradually this is limited by the spore-sac, which is

46 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

seen, especially under the use of iodine and other reagents,
to be distinct from the thecal wall, more particularly at the
apex, where a considerable space sometimes intervenes be-
tween them. ‘The protoplasm slowly acquires a pale yel-
lowish tint, and become smore granular; bye and bye it
exhibits division into oval masses, which are the future
spores. ‘Two button-lke nuclei of a pale lemon-yellow
colour soon appear, and occupy those parts of the spore which
are subsequently divided by a central septum into the
two loculi. Meanwhile the theca has increased in breadth
towards the apex, and has assumed more of an obovate
form; the spore-sac and thecal wall have been distended by
the gradual development of the spores. At this stage the
theca is a very pretty object under the microscope. The
protoplasm, as yet faintly coloured and finely granular, is
studded over with the button-hke nuclei of the spores, which
are more prominent than their walls or septa. A similar ap-
pearance may be readily observed in the young thece of
Parmelia parietina and some other lichens. This button-
studded appearance, however, is much better marked in
A, oxysporus, 12 which the spores remain colourless or very
pale, and the lemon-coloured nuclei consequently very pro-
minent; besides the spores of A. Smithit do not always
possess or exhibit the nuclei m question. The septum of the
spores now becomes apparent ; their walls are better defined ;
their colour has passed through various shades of yellow and
ereen till it has become an olive-green; and the nuclei or
secondary cellules remain or disappear. The distension of
the theca progresses in proportion to the maturescence of the
spores, the inferior extremity or peduncle tapering suddenly
or gradually from the upper, sometimes almost spherical,
portion. Finally, the spore-sae and theca are ruptured at
the apex, and, immediately after the emission of their con-
tents, disappear. ‘The spores escape, and after they are free
they expand in dimensions, acquire more of a brown colour,
and have a better-defined wall and septum; the loculi are
separated by a distinct constriction, and they exhibit an
inequality of size, one being considerably broader than the
other. Tulasne speaks of the thece in the genus Abrothallus
being clavate; but this appears to me to be true of them
only in their young state. I have repeatedly tested the
amyloid nature of the thece by solutions of iodine, diluted
and strong, but with negative results. In one or two cases
only did I discover a faint bluish tint developed; in the
majority the iodime merely communicated its own tinge or
produced no effect. This result accords essentially with the

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. AT

observations of Tulasne, who says of the thecze of A. Smithit,
“Tn iode soluto immersi nonnisi apice et dilute, quandoque
etiam vix conspicue cerulescunt :” of those of A. Welwitzschii,
“nec nisi dilutissime in iode soluto cerulescunt :” while
those of A. microspermus consist of a “membrana crassa qua
fabricantur in iode soluto tantum sordide flavescit eodem
scil. modo ac spore.”

In all the varieties which I have examined the spores had
essentially the same characters. As measured by an eye-
piece micrometer, made by Bryson of Edinburgh, they gene-
rally varied in length from +745 to qs'55 mech, and in
breadth from 5255 to z:55: sometimes, however, they were
larger ; at other times smaller. In general appearance they
resembled the spores of Physcia ciliaris, and some of the
Calicia; and they appeared intermediate in size between
them. Korber describes them as shoe-sole-shaped (“ schuh-
sohlenformig”), which, though rather an awkward designa-
tion, conveys a very true idea of their appearance. In many
eases there was little distinction in size between the loculi:
these were chiefly young spores. The spores were gene-
rally olive-green—seldom of a deep brown. The latter tint
IT have observed only in a few instances—as in specimens of
var. a from Ben Lawers, the 4. Welwitzschit of Leighton’s
‘Lich. Brit. exsicc.’ &c., The spores of the Ben Lawers
specimens were dark umber-coloured, and broader than any
I have as yet seen: they had somewhat the appearance of a
figure of 8, and closely resembled on a small scale the spores
of P. ciliaris. Tulasne describes the spores of A. Sméthii as
“atree v. spisse fusce ;” those of 4. Welwitzschit as “ satu-
rate fuse ;”’ and those of A. microspermus as “vulgo
pallide.”’? I would suggest that the dark colour of the spores
observed by him may be due to his having examined chiefly
herbarium specimens. Iodine seems to have no reaction on
the spores of A. Smithii or A. oxysporus. 'ulasne allows a
similarity in the characters of the spores between his A.
Smithii and A. Welwitzschii ; for he says of the latter, “ ab
illis ejusdem lichenis forma crassitudineque non differunt.”
Of A. microspermus, he remarks: “Speciei criterlum in
seminum utriusque generis exiguitate preesertim ponitur.”
The paleness and minute size of the spores here constitute a
peculiarity ; but they do not appear sufficient to form specific
differential characters. Korber remarks: “ Die Unterschiede
von der vorigen Art (4. Sméthiz) sind nur gering, so
dass sie vielleicht besser als Varietaét zu dieser zu bringen ist ”’
(p. 216). Tulasne gives, as the habitat of this species,
Parmelia caperata. Korber says P. caperata with A. micro-

48 LINDSAY, ON ABYOTHALLUS.

spermus parasitic on it is rare in Germany. I have had
no opportunity of examining it. When its minute
anatomy is fully investigated, good grounds may appear for
retaining it as an independent species; meanwhile I cannot
give it a higher place than that of a variety. Tulasne
himself confesses, “ Abrothallum Smithn et hune preesertim
qui in Parmelia tiliacea parasitatur summopere eemulatur.”’

In A. Smithii “Guttula oleosa in utroque cujusvis
spore mature locello includitur,” says Tulasne. In
certain cases I have noticed secondary cellules or nuclei
m the spores: in others I have not. They were dis-
tinct in specimens from Craig-y-Barns, Dunkeld: they
were absent in 4. Welwitzechit, from Torquay, and in 4.
Smithii, from the Wrekin, Shropshire (both contamed in
Leighton’s ‘ Lich. Brit. exsice.) Frequently one compara-
tively large cellule occurred in each loculus, lying usually
towards ihe outer extremity thereof : Semen there were
two in each, their size being smaller; or one of the loculi
contained a large nucleus, ‘while the other contained two
smaller ones. In apothecia from certain localities, or on
particular thalli, this character of the spores was pretty
constant ; but the nuclei im question were as frequently, in
other specimens, absent. I could not satisfy myself as to
the oily nature of these bodies ; they appeared to me to be
too regular in their form, too uniform in their position, too
constant in certain specimens, while they were altogether
absent in others, to be mere “ guttula oleosa.” The use of
ether, aqua potassee, aqua ammonie, and other reagents,
has satisfied me of the oily nature of the globules and
protoplasm of the stylospores, and also of a por tion, at least,
of the protoplasm of the spores of A. oxysporus. But I have
been unable to convince myself that the nuclei of the latter,
or of the spores of A. Smithii, are solely or partially oily.
Another difficulty frequently occurs in regard to determing
the nature of the nuclei of certain spores. The characteristic
yellow nuclei of the spores of Parmelia parietina, for example,
have been variously regarded as an external coating of the
ends of the spore, as secondary cellules occupying the ‘opposite
extremities of the interior of a cell, having thin walls, or as
vacuoles hollowed in the material of a thick-walled or solid
spore, and full of an oily or other protoplasm. It seems
probable that spores and nuclei, possessing these varied
characters, really do exist, though, in particular mstances, it
is difficult to decide to which of the classes above mentioned
to refer them. In the spores of the Abrothalli the nuclei—
be they cellules or globules—appear to occupy the interior

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 49

of a free cavity. On the same apothecia I have sometimes
found the spores of both species of Abrothallus, as well as
stylospores ; and, on the thallus, the spores of various Le-
cideas and other lichens may also be met with. This illus-
trates the dissemination of the spores of lichens by the winds,
rains, and other agencies.

So far as my observations enable me to decide, this species
possesses no spermogones of the ordinary type—that 1s, of
the structure usual in those of most lichens. I shall pre-
sently show that I am inclined to regard the pyenides as
another or extraordinary type of spermogones,—in certain
exceptional cases taking their place and fulfilling their
functions. A. Smithit and A. oxysporus are frequently so
intimately associated that the one may appear to possess
spermogones and the other pycnides. In a few cases, I have
seen spermogones intermixed with, and apparently belonging
to, A. Smithii; and pyenides scattered among, as if pertain-
ing to, a young state of A. orysporus ; but in the former case
they really belonged to A. oxvysporus, and in the latter to
A, Smithii, the apothecia of which were also interspersed.

Of fifty-four sheets of specimens of A. Smitiii (generally
associated with A. owysporus, and growing on furfuraceous
states of P. savatilis), 1 found pycnides present in thirty-
four cases, or about 63 per cent.; while in forty-two shects
of A. oxysporus (similarly growing, and with which 4.
Smithii was associated), Spermogones occurred only in five
instances, or about 12 per cent. ‘The pycnides were there-:
fore upwards of five times more frequent in A. Smitha, than
the spermogones in A. oxysporus. Hence the normal, or
usual, type of spermogones is comparatively rare in the genus
Abrothallus ; while the pyenidian, or exceptional, type is
somewhat common. This is one of the characteristic fea-
tures of the genus. In twenty-seven of the thirty-four cases,
in which pyenides occurred, they were associated with the
apothecia of A. Smithit ; in four cases they were found alone,
chiefly on the bluish or lead-coloured squamules already
described ; and in three instances they were intermixed with
young apothecia of A. oxrysporus, to which species they
appeared (but erroneously) to belong. In site and external
appearances, the pycnides closely resemble the spermogones
of A. oxysporus, hereafter to be described ; and are extremely
apt to be mistaken therefor or confounded therewith. Like
the latter, they occur as minute, black points, scattered gene-
rally over the surface, or only towards the periphery, of the
squamules or lobes. Each point or spot is perforated by a
simple or stellate pore, whose edges may be flattened, raised,

50 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

or occasionally depressed. This ostiole is, however, gene-
rally larger and more prominent than that of the spermo-
gones, and its edges more frequently swollen and raised.
Sometimes—as in specimens of A. Smithii from Glen Shee
and Glen Beg—the pycnides are superficial, and prominent,
forming rough, tuberculated, black warts, seated on the sur-
face of the thallus, each pierced by a distinct pore. ‘The
body of the pycnidis is immersed, spherical, and enclosed in
a brown cellular tissue. When moistened, the pyenides
appear as brown translucent spots, precisely like the sper-
mogones. Tulasne says that the pycnides of A. Smithie
are “interdum copiosissime, imo apotheciis multo fre-
quentiores,” especially when they occur on Parmelia tiliacea;
he also describes those of A. microspermus as abundant; but
of A. Welwitzschii, he remarks, “‘ Pyenides desiderantur.”
I have found the pycnides indiscriminately associated with
varieties a and 6, and am convinced that the description of
the pyenides of his species A. Smithw applies equally
to those of his A. Welwitzschii. I have never, however,
noticed pyenides so abundantly distributed as Tulasne would
seem to imply. I have seen an intermixture of spermogones
with young apothecia in A. ovysporus, associated on the same
squamule with A. Smitha, “interdum copiosissime ;”” and it
appears to me possible, from the great resemblance, that
Tulasne may have hurriedly overlooked the distinction
between them, more particularly as he speaks of the “ sper-
mogonize ignotee”’ of the genus Abrothallus. I have most
frequently found the best specimens of pycnides scattered,
to the number of four or six, near the margin of sterile
squamules, which had a leaden or grayish hue, and were
thickened, corrugated, and warted. While the other cha-
racters are similar, the pycnides differ remarkably from the
spermogones in containing stylospores, instead of spermatia.
These are cellular bodies, having much the appearance of
certain spores, about +3155 to z3/5y meh long, by 3355 to so'a5
broad. They are normally pyriform or obovate; but they
are sometimes spherical, oval, oblong, navicular, fusiform,
or present irregular bulgings. These abnormalities of form
generally occur in Highland specimens. Viewed in different
lights, they may be colourless or of a pale yellow tinge;
sometimes the contained globules were pale yellow ; at other
times the whole stylospore was of a distinct yellow. In
the latter case, in Highland specimens, the stylospores were
generally small and shrivelled. With regard to their con-
tents, Tulasne remarks, “ Nune protoplasma subliquidum
fereque homogeneum, nunc guttulas oleosas 2—38 fovent,’’

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALULUS. 51

~ A. Smithii; while in A. microspermus, they are “ mate-
reque oleosa et homogenea feetas.” All these conditions
fre quently exist in the stylospores of the same variety.
Very frequently a single large globule occupied the cavity
of the stylospore, extending across 1t8 whole breadth, but
leaving interspaces at the ‘extremities ; ; or a large elobule
filled the broader end, while the opposite contained two or
more smaller globules. Sometimes the stylospore contaimed
amass of small globules and granules of different size; at
other times the protoplasm was finely granular or grumous;
or it was perfectly homogeneous and transpe arent. This
appeared to be the highest state of development of the
stylospore. The application of ether, aqua potassze, and
aqua ammonize satisfied me that m all these cases the
protoplasm was oily. The oil globules could readily be
squeezed from the pepo and made to coalesce into
larger globules; and the styl ee almost invariably
eedeaeed“sometunes to a marked extent—with free, fioat-
ing oil globules. Under the reagents these free oil globules
were g ereatly increased in number and size, and the globules
contained in the stylospores could be seen eradually being
dissolved or broken up into a homogeneous fluid. These

globules, ke other oil globules, refracted light powerfully,
and were very prominent objects in the interior of the
stylospores. Their numbers and size differed greatly in
specimens from various localities. They were very large
and numerous in Ben Lawers specimens, in which the
stylospores were associated with a large quantity of free oil
globules. A similarly large intermixture of oil globules, espe-
cially in the young state of the stylospores, was also observed
in specimens from Glen Shee, the vicinity of Dumfries, and
other localities. Some of the stylospores, in specimens from
Ben Lawers, bore a resemblance to certain cellular spores,
especially when elongated and containing two or more large
globular nuclei. Here also there was considerable deformity
of shape; some of the stylospores, which were among the
largest I have seen, were almost spherical in form, and might
have been mistaken for empty gonidia. This was not unfre-
quently the case also in other specimens. I have occasion-
ally—as in specimens of A. Smith from Glen Shee—seen
the stylospores, from their shape and the arrangement of
the contained globules, resembling certain states of the
spores of A. oxvysporus. Of the colour of the stylospores
Tulasne says, “ Singulatim spectata dilute flavida diceres ; ”’
while “horumce corpusculorum congeries in pycnidis sinu
albescit copiosumque admittit aerem.” He remarks further,

52 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS

“ Tode protoplasma fucatur, membrana autem utriculi vix mu-
tatur.’ I did not find iodine produce any change further
than communicating its own tinge. Like the spermatia,
the stylospores are borne on a series of sterigmata, closely
crowded together, and arranged in relation to the walls and
eavity of the pyenidis as the spermatial sterigmata are to
those of the spermogone. But the filaments generating the
stylospores are uniformly simple and one-spored—the stylo-
spore invariably being thrown off from the apex, and never
from the sides. These filaments vary greatly in length;
generally they are very short or inconspicuous ; sometimes
they appear to be absent. There is considerable variety also
in thickness; being sometimes thick and short, at other
times long, slender, and thin. In both cases they are
usually very delicate. Sometimes they become shrivelled,
and are retained, as caudate appendages, by the sty lospores ;
this I frequently observed in the small yellow stylospores In
Highland specimens. Each sterigma would appear to gene-
rate—as do also the spermatial sterigmata—a continuous
series of stylospores, which in this case are thrown off as termi-
nal cells or buds. The sterigmata of A. Smithii, Tulasne de-
scribes as “ brevissimis stipatissis quandoque vix conspicuis
crassis ac monosporis ;”’ while, in A. microspermus, they are in-
conspicuous and but rarely “ linearibus et longiusculis.”’? The
stylospore first appears as the rounded, bulging, or obovate
extremity of a short, simple filament, which resembles,
except in length, the paraphysis of a lichen. The end of
this filament is full of a finely granular matter, which accu-
mulates especially in the bulging portion; the latter is
gradually separated by a septum. ‘The terminal cell becomes
broader towards its free end, and narrower towards its inser-
tion upon the sterigma, until, at length, it is thrown off as
the stylospore. The latter appears to attain its full size
only after it is free; it expands in all its dimensions and
acquires a pyriform shape. The granular protoplasm now
becomes more distinct and more coarse; there 1s a gradual
fusion of the smaller granules into globules, and these into
larger globules, until the cavity of the stylospore is occupied
by one or more large globules as I have already described.
Finally these appear to deliquesce into a homogeneous,
colourless, oily fluid, which gives rise to the colourless pyri-
form stylospore with apparent double contour. I have seen
nothing like germination in the stylospores.

Stylospores have been hitherto found only im another minute
parasitic genus—also described recently by Tulasne in his ad-
mirable memoir on the organography and physiology of the

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS 53

lichens—Scutuda. Their relation to the function of reproduc -
tion has yet to be determined. In certain respects they bear an
analogy to the spermatia; in certain other respects to true
spores. ‘They are generated in conceptacles closely resem-
bling, in site and external form, the spermogones; they also
appear to precede the spores in order of development, and to
be rather cotemporaneous with the spermatia; they are
moreover, extra-thecal or extra-cellular, and are thrown off
from the apices of peculiar filaments or sterigmata. On the
other hand their size and form, and the nature of their con-
tents, approximate them more to the character of true spores.
There is a remarkable resemblance, however, between the
stylospores and the pyriform or obovate bodies described as
the spermatia of the Peltigerze by Tulasne (‘ Mém.,’ p. 200).
The section of aspermogone of Peltigera precisely resembles,
in the form and arrangement of its sterigmata and spermatia,
the pyenidis of Abrothallus. <A careful investigation will
demonstrate that there is a regular gradation, in form and
size, between the ordinary, straight, rod-shaped, minute
spermatia of Parmelia parietina, P. physodes, or Physcia
ciliaris; the ovoid spermatia of Lichina confinis and L.
pygmea, or of Urceolaria calcarea and U. scruposa; and the
pyriform, comparatively large spermatia of Peltigera canina.
From the anatomy of the genus Abrothallus,—which alone,
however, is not sufficient to decide a question of such impor-
_tance,—I am strongly inclined to regard the pyenides as
merely an unusual form of spermogones, and hence unde-
serving of a separate designation and consideration. In A.
Smithi, I have already stated I have never observed sper-
mogones; and in A. oxysporus I have not met with pyenides.
But the pyenides appear to bear precisely the same relation
—in regard to site, predevelopment to the apothecia, &c.,—
to the former, that the spermogones do to the latter. They
are, therefore, probably endowed with similar functions, and
act as substitutes for each other. Kdérber also regards the
pyenides as the analogues of spermogones, for he says: “Ich
halte dieselben fiir Analoga der Spermogonien, die, in der
gewohnlichen Form, bei Abrothallus zu fehlen scheinen,
wobei freilich die bedeutendere Grésse der Stylosporen vor
derder spermatien der tibrigen Flechten sehr auffallig ist ”’
(p. 215). Prior to the elaborate researches of Tulasne and
other careful observers, the pyenides would undoubtedly have
been regarded as the reproductive organs of some parasitic
fungus. But we now know that some of the more minute
fungi possess so many as four or five different kinds of repro-
ductive bodies; and from the close affinity between the

54, LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. ~

lower tribes of fungi and lichens, there is good ground for
believing that a similar diversity may occur also in the latter.
Tulasne, who is no less eminent as a mycologist than as a
lichenologist, regards the pycnides, which I have described,
as properly pertaining to the genus Abrothallus ; and
Berkeley, than whom there is no more competent authority
in this country, holds a similar opmion. In a recent cor-
respondence with the latter distinguished botanist, he
informs me that he is acquainted with one fungus—Hry-
siphe (Ascomycetes, subord. Perisporiacet of Lindley’s
‘Veget. Kingdom,’ ‘3d. ed., 1858, p. 43)—which has no less
than five different forms of reproductive bodies or organs,
none of which can be looked upon as spermatia according to
Tulasne’s views; that many species of Diplodia, Spheeropsis,
Phoma, &c., belong to Spheria, Tympanis, Cenangium, &e.;
and t} hat, prior to the recent discoveries on the reproduction
of lichens, the pyenidis of the Abrothallus would have been
designated a Phoma. The fact that the lower fungi and
lichens may possess several very different reproductive cor-
puscles must greatly modify our future views of classification
and nomenclature. ‘So convinced am I,” says Berkeley,
“of the near relation of lichens to fungi that, in the por-
tion of my introduction to ‘ Cryptogamic Botany’ which is
printed, 1 make one division, Mycetales, to include Fungales
and Lichenales” (in lit.)

I have occasionally noticed in the tissues forming or sur-
rounding the walls of the pyenides, peculiar tubes, presenting,
at irregular intervals, bulgings, which ultimately, by
elongation and expansion, become dilated into obovate cells,
destined to be thrown off like buds or gemme. In these
lateral dilatations the granular protoplasm of the parent
tubes appeared to accumulate, a septum was gradually
developed, and the gemmule fell off at the point of division.
These tubes generated large numbers of such cellular bodies,
which increased in dimensions after their separation, and
frequently bore a close resemblance to the stylospores, except
that they were generally less regularly pyriform. Similar
structures I have also noticed in the tissues of other lichens ;
but I have not yet directed special attention to their nature,
and can, therefore, throw no light on the part which they
play (if any) in the function of reproduction. The sperma-
tial sterigmata in dA. oxysporus appear sometimes to be
developed laterally from tubes in a similar way. I have also
observed in the tissues of various lichens, a tendency in
certain filaments to develop lateral and terminal cells, of a
round or obovate form, varying greatly in size, and generally

ar)

or

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

more or less granular internally. Similar appearances are
figured in the elaborate but highly speculative memoir of
Bayrhoffer. * JT mention these crude cbservations suggestively
here, not only from a wish to show that the reproduction of
the lichens is even yet imperfectly understood, and that the
subject of these accessory or secondary reproductive cor-
puscles will amply repay elaborate research, but because I am
desirous of entering my protest against exceptions taken by
Tulasne to certain observations made by Berkeley and
Broome, Dr. J. D. Hooker and Babington, in this country.
From some, apparently casual, observations of these botanists,
it would appear that the paraphyses may sometimes assume
the function of sterigmata, generating from their apices
spheroid corpuscles, or may themselves be transformed into re-
productive bodies. Tulasne throws a distinct doubt on the
accuracy of the observations in question (‘Mem.,’ pp.
110 and 111), and endeavours to explain them as the result
of an optical error. He remarks, and with great truth, that
the spores of certain species, from their tenuity and other
characters, closely resemble the paraphyses (e. g. among the
Peltigerez); that after emission from the theca they some-
times become entangled among the paraphyses, and may there
germinate ; and that in such a case true spores might appear to
be generated by, instead of only among, the paraphyses. I have
never seen the phenomena described by Berkeley and Babing-
ton, and therefore cannot vouch for the accuracy of their ob-
servations. But I have seen the terminal cells of the paraphyses,
especially under the use of reagents, remarkably resembling
gonidia or stylospores, or the cellules which I have described
as generated, laterally and terminally, from peculiar tubes.
Under the use of aqua potasse, for example, I have seen the
tips of the paraphyses of the apothecia cf A. Smithi dis-
sociated, the brown colouring matter dissolved out, and the
obovate terminal cell occupied by a colourless globule or
globules, giving it precisely the appearance of many of the
stylospores of the same species. So long as we are ignorant
of the origin, development, and functions of the corpuscles
which I ene mentioned, and while there is reason to believe

* ‘Winiges ttber Lichenen und deren Befruchtung.’ Bern, 1851.

Compare pl. i, figs. 1] and 12. ** Einzelne fasern mit an den Enden und
Seiten befindlichen runden Zellchen.” Figs. 13 to 15. ‘* Fasern mit Zellen
der mannlichen Gonidien-zellen.”

Pl. ii, figs. 7 to 11. “ Mannliche Prosphysen—mit runden Endzellen”—
“mit eiformigen Verlangerungen”—“ mit walzenformigen Verlangerungen
(abgeschniiret. die Androsporen und noch einigen runden Zellchen).” Figs.
17 to 20. “ Weibliche Prosphysen in verschiedenen Entwickelungs- stufen.”

Pl. iii, fig. 12 @ “ Losgeléste Prosphysen.”

56 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

that we shall ultimately find the means of multiplication in
the lichens wonderfully varied, and not at all im accordance
with our preconceived notions, I consider it hazardous and
improper to doubt or depreciate the observations of any
botanist, and especially of men of such scientific eminence
as the gentlemen whose names I have enumerated.

II. A. oxysporus.—I have already given so many details re-
garding the structure of A. ovysporus, in contrasting it with
A. Smithii, that little now remains for me to add. Korber says,
“ane iibrigen Abrothallus-Arten [besides 4. Smithit and A.
microsp. | welche Tulasne noch unterscheidet, aber in Deutsch-
land bisher noch nicht beobachtet zu sem scheinen, gehoren,
nach ihrem Sporencharacter, nicht in diese Gattung” (p. 216).

I cannot regard the mere character of the spore to be a
sufficient reason for constituting species; else we should split
up the lichens into an endless number. 4. Smithit and A.
oxysporus occur so constantly and intimately associated, the
mode of evolution and growth of the apothecia in both is so
precisely alike, and their apothecia are frequently so similar
in external appearance, that I must look upon them as per-
taining to one genus. The pycnides of the one, and the
spermogones of the other, also serve to distinguish them;
but I think only as species. I cannot here omit a protest
against the unnecessarily and mischievously elaborate classi-
fication of Kérber, who, in his last publication, enumerates in
Germany 136 genera, while I feel assured less than one third
would be found amply sufficient. It is this splittmg up of
species and genera; this multiplication of new and difficult
names; this complete changing of old familiar terms, that
operate as one of the most powerful barriers to the study of
lichenology. It is only, I am convinced, by simplifying the
science—by making genera and species as extensive as pos-
sible and thus diminishing names—by merging special pecu-
liarities in general laws, that we can hope to make licheno-
logy attractive. As a general rule, whenever A. Smithii
occurs, A. ovysporus may be looked for. In the majority of
cases, T found them growing together on the same thallus ;
under which circumstances it is very difficult to determine
to which species to refer the spermogones and pycnides
generally more or less plentifully imtermixed. On Craigie
Hall, | met with both species abundantly. In other localities
the one or other predominated—e. g. A. ovysporus on Mon-
erieffe Hill, and A. Smithii on Ben Lawers. The geogra-
phical distribution of the Abrothalli seems very irregular,
and is controlled by circumstances with which we are not

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 57

yet fully acquainted. I have never found them on the ordi-
nary thallus of the common Parmelia savatilis (the var.
leucochroa of Scherer’s ‘Enum. Crit.’) ; and I have looked
for them in vain on furfuraceous states in a variety of loca-
lities. Mr. Leighton mentioned to me recently (én Ht.) that
he has never found Abrothalli in Shropshire, though he has
frequently looked for them; and that in Wales they are by
no means plentiful. It is very desirable that collectors should
direct attention to this subject.

The apothecia first appear about the centre of a squamule,
where also the oldest and most fully developed specimens are
to be found. The thalli on which A. oxysporus occurs are
more frequently simple or polyphyllous squamules, and tend
less to become globose and hypertrophic than those habited
by A. Smithii. The young apothecia are punctiform, black,
and scattered : they are frequently very similar to the spermo-
gones, from which they can only be distinguished by the
absence of an ostiole, and by microscopical examination. In the
process of evolution, they more frequently fissure the cortical
layer than those of oe Smithii ; the surface of a squamule is
sometimes marked by a network of these fissures, which run
into, or anastomose with, each other. In the old state the
apothecia sometimes become tuberculiform or maculiform ;
their surface is seldom raised much above the level of the
surrounding cortical tissue, unless when moisture is applied.
In the latter case the apothecium swells, the surface becoming
more or less raised or convex. Moisture generally also
changes its colour from a black to a light brown, but not
invariably. The moistened, brown, swollen apothecium some-
times appears as if it were a discoid mass of gelatinous con-
sistence. I have occasionally observed the apothecia depressed
or saccate, as in specimens from the Highland road between
Blairgowrie and Spittal of Glenshee. 'Tulasne says the apo-
thecia are “ punctiformia s. potius discoidea;” the former
character appears to apply, however, only to young and
undeveloped specimens, and not to normal mature apothecia.
Besides the different effects of moisture on the apothecia of
A. Smithii and A. oxysporus, the former remaining black,
the section shows a deeper colour in the former than in the
latter—black to the naked eye, but brown under the micro-
scope. I have frequently observed sections of the apothecia
of A. Smithu of a purple tint; while those of A. oxysporus
have been invariably hight brown. Besides the spermogones,
the young apothecia are apt to be confounded with the
pyenides of A. Smithii, and with certain parasitic fungi,
which I have occasionally found interspersed; but these,

58 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

hough bearing a close resemblance, to the naked eye, are
generally more superficial, and their microscopic structure is

uite different. I have, on several occasions, mistaken, by
the naked eye, small, black, point-like parasitic fungi for the
apothecia both of ‘A. Smithii and A. ee dad among which
they were interspersed ; most frequently for the latter. I have
also sometimes found them erowing on these apothecia,—as in
specimens from Glen Dee, Braemar, where they inhabit those
of A. Smitha. They are generally, however, much more
irregular in shape, being usually more or less rough, tuber-
culated, and flattened. On microscopical examination, they
are found to consist of a cellular envelope of a more or less
deep brown tint, enclosing myriads of very mmute, globular
brown spores. I have already stated that the apothecia of
A. oxysporus may be saccate. On the other hand, they are
sometimes so prominent and convex,—as in specimens from
Loch Coruisk, Skye, that 1 have mistaken them for young
deplanate apothecia of A. Smithii.

The thecee, says Tulasne, “ subito deorsum acutate et cunei-
formes factz.” This is, however, only one phase of their
existence, due to distension of the spore-sac and theca, with
the maturescent spores,—the lower part, or pedicle, as I have
already explained, sometimes tapering suddenly from the
upper, which bulges into a sphere or obovate vesicle. The
theca consists, the same observer continues, of a “ membrana
qua struuntur, crassissima et achroa, quum iode soluto roratur
statim tota ameene spisseque ceerulescit, talique modo tincta diu
(scil. 20 horas et quod excedit) consistit.” In regard to the
amyloid reaction with iodine, the thecze of this species contrast
strongly with those of A. Smithii. I uniformly obtaimed a
blue colour, which was generally best marked in young thece,
and at the apex, where the membrane is thickest. In some
cases the hypothecial tissue, and, in others, the mtercellular
substance, which glues together the tips of the paraphyses,
appeared to strike a blue cclour with iodine, especially during
the young state of the thecze. 'Tulasne refers to this cireum-
stance in regard to the paraphyses: “ Materie amorpha
cujus ope adglutinari videntur abundat cxeruleoque colore
in iode confestim inficitur.’ I am not certain, notwith-
standing, that this amyloid matter does not really pertain to
the thece. The tips of the paraphyses are of a much lighter
brown than those of A. Smitii; the colouring matter appears
here also more diffused. Their apices are so closely united,
that it is generally impossible, without the assistance of
reagents, to discover the outlines or characters of the indivi-
dual terminal cells. But aqua potassze at ence causes their

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 59
dissociation, and dissolves out the colouring matter, rendering
distinct the terminal cell and its septum. In some cases a
delicate colourless membrane appears to overlie and connect
the apices of the paraphyses, but is really probably a thin
layer of the mucilage or intercellular substance already
referred to.

The spores are usually about 74455 to qa/55 Inch long by 5595
t0 4955 broad; they are rather longerthan those of A. Smithii,
but about equal in breadth. They vary greatly both in size and
form. Normally, they are ellipsoid, with acute extremities ;
colourless or pale yellow, having a double contour, and
usually a lemon-coloured globular nucleus, arranged in the
central axis, at eitherend. But they are sometimes lanceolate,
fusiform, or caudate; or they are short and broad, swelling
nearly into an ovoid or spheroid. In the latter case there is
sometimes only one nucleus; or, if two, they are eccentric.
In some cases the spores are empty, or full apparently of a
homogeneous, colourless, oily fluid, resembling in this respect
many of the stylospores ; or they are filled with globules and
granules of different size. The latter condition occurs in an
abortive form or a permanently undeveloped type; and also
in the old state, in which the nuclei become broken up into
globules and granules. In certain states, when devoid of
nuclei, the spores bear a resemblance to those of some Pel-
tigeras and Stictas. Like the spores of A. Smithiz, they
appear to be arranged in the thece in a spiral manner. Their
nuclei are much more constant in their occurrence than those
of the spores in A. Smithii; they occupy those portions of
the spore which, in the latter species, become the loculi.
They germinate hke many other spores, sending out a deli-
cate filament from one extremity. They are, says Tulasne,
“ nucleo ineequali heterogeneo vixque (saltem de specie) oleoso
gravidee, in sinu cujuslibet asci inordinate generantur.” Ido
not fully comprehend this description. The intra-thecal
development of the spores I have already described when
referring to those of A. Smithiz.

The spermogones I have seen more or less abundantly in
specimens growing on P. savatilis, from Craigie Hill, Perth ;
Birnam Hill, Dunkeld; various parts of the Highland
road between Blairgowrie and Braemar; various localities
round Braemar; Ben Nevis; Barmouth, Wales, and other
localities ; and also on Cetraria glauca and P. conspersa from
the latter locality. They occur as extremely minute, black,
point-hke bodies on the surface of the thallus, scarcely dis-
cernible by the naked eye. With the aid of a good lens,
each of the point-like spots is found perforated in its centre

VOL. V. G

60 ' LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

by a simple or stellate ostiole or pore, with flat, more fre-
quently raised, and sometimes, but rarely, depressed borders.
Even under the lens, and especially m young spermogones,
the pore is often imperceptible. It may be made more
prominent by moistening the spermogone, whose tissue is
very hygrometric, swelling rapidly and greatly in water; the
ostiole becomes thus more patent, and its edges better
defined. With age also the ostiole becomes more open and
generally stellate, the cavity of the spermogone being empty
and its walls hardened. In old spermogones also the de-
pressed or saccate character of the ostiole is occasionally
observed. The ostiole leads into a somewhat spherical and
simple cavity, whose envelope consists of a brown cellular
tissue, and whose internal walls are lined by a compact series
of sterigmata,—arranged perpendicularly to the spermogonal
walls, and convergently to the centre of the spermogonal
cavity,—generating from their apices myriads of spermatia.
When moistened, the spermogones assume a light brown tint ;
and when the thallus or matrix is moistened and viewed by
transmitted light, they constitute a series of brownish,
translucent, round spots, amid the surrounding dull opaque
green (of the gonidic layer shining through the brownish
cortical tissue). The sterigmata are simple, cylindrical, or
almost linear cells, frequently very irregular in form, being
sinuous in their outline, and presenting bulgings or bendings.
On tracing carefully their connection with the walls of the
spermogone, they appeared to me to be given off as a series
of hollow buds, at irregular intervals, from a peculiar tubular
tissue. The wall of the parent-tube presented a bulging
which became dilated and elongated mto the form of a
sterigma. From the apex of the latter a smaller bud was
developed, which became elongated imto a linear, very
slender, straight rod-shaped body; on attainmg a certain
length, a septum became visible at the poimt of junction be-
tween this body, the spermatium, and its sterigma, and a
severance took place. The sterigmata often came off im
groups from the parent-tubes, and, when‘ elongated and
narrow, not unfrequently resembled the fingers of the hand.
Sometimes the sterigmata were nearly as narrow as their
spermatia, into which they gradually tapered. The spermatia
were either seated perpendicularly on the apices of the
sterigmata, or they came off at various angles, which were
occasionally very acute. In the latter case there was fre-
quently a bulging or dilatation of the sterigmata immediately
before they gave off the spermatia.

The spermatia between about x55 andszy5 mch long. I

LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS. 61

had abundant opportunities of observing the peculiar,
wriggling, swimming, and diving motion which has at-
tracted the attention of so many lichenologists, and given
origin to so many ingenious theories as to its nature. But
I see no reason to doubt for a moment that it is merely the
molecular or Brownian motion now so familiar to botanists.
The movements occur only in free, isolated, floating sper-
matia; en masse they are at perfect rest. Iodine had no
effect on the spermatia or sterigmata further than communi-
cating its own tinge; but the network of tubes from which
the latter spring, or the intercellular matter, appeared some-
times to assume a bluish colour.

It may be advisable here to point out the resemblances and
differences between the spermogones of the Abrothallus and
those of P. saxatilis. I have examined the spermogones of
P. saxatilis on various furfuraceous forms from Norway,
Ben Lomond, the Kyles of Bute, and other localities. In
external characters they closely resemble those of the
Abrothallus. They occur as extremely minute, black points
scattered over the surface and towards the extremities of
smooth lacinize. Each spot is perforated by an almost im-
perceptible ostiole—simple or stellate—which leads into the
spermogonal cavity. The sterigmata which line its walls,
however, are very different from those of the Abrothallus.
Here they are equally delicate and narrow; but they are
articulated, ramose, and much longer. There is, however, a
great want of uniformity in length, some of them projecting
far beyond the others. The articulations consist of simple,
cylindrical cells, generally jomed to each other at more or
less irregular angles. Spermatia are given off perpendicu-
larly, or at various angles from the apex of each articulation ;
consequently the sterigmata generate spermatia both from
their apices and sides. The latter, indeed, appear to come
off from the former as a series of minute lateral branches
or buds. The spermatia are very abundant; they are about
the same length as those of the Abrothallus, but they fre-
quently appear more slender. K6rber describes ‘ Spermo-
gonien auf den Runzeln des Lagers als schwarze gehiufte
Wiirzchen bisweilen wahrnehmbar, mit sehr kleinen, fast
kugligen [?] Spermatien” (p. 73). In addition to the sterig-
mata there arises from the walls of the spermogone a series
of very delicate ramose filaments, which project far beyond
them, and fill its cavity with a delicate network formed by
their anastomoses and ramifications. These filaments are
sterile. Sometimes they are articulated or septate at the
extremities, which may appear proliferous ; but this is pro-

62 LINDSAY, ON ABROTHALLUS.

bably an illusory appearance due to adhesion of some of the
abundant floating, free spermatia. These filaments generally
terminate in a rounded bulging extremity, the interior of
which contains a more or less finely granular material.
From their abundance, growing as they do from among the
sterigmata, they are apt to conceal the latter. They occur
also in the spermogones of several other lichens—such as
Parmelia physodes, and some of the Ramalinee and Umbili-
carie. The nature and function of these peculiar filaments
have not hitherto been determined. Possibly they are
abortive and hypertrophied sterigmata; or their terminal
cells are thrown off as accessory reproductive bodies of a
kind with which we are as yet unacquainted. Further re-
searches of course are necessary to settle this point.

In specimens of A. oxysporus, growing on P. conspersa, the
spermogones of the Abrothallus and Parmelia are apttobe con-
founded. One of the most prominent characters of P. conspersa
is its black-punctate thallus; hence, indeed, its very appro-
priate name. The minute black points, so abundantly
scattered over its surface, are the spermogones. These
thallme spots are each perforated by an ostiole which leads
into the cavity of an immersed, spherical, one-locular sper-
mogone. Here, however, as in the analogous case of P.
saxatilis, the resemblance ceases; for the sterigmata and
spermatia are much more delicate or slender, and the former
are articulated, each joint beimg a narrow linear cell. Its
spermogones are frequently also dotted over the outer surface
of the thalline exciple of the apothecia, and also on the
hypothecium, after the fallmg out or erosion of the hy-
menium or lamina proligera.. The falling out of the latter
leaves a saucer- or cup-shaped organ of similar colour to the
thallus.

In searching for spermatia, it is necessary to bear in mind
that the spermogones precede, in order of development, the
apothecia; and that, by the time the latter have attained
maturity, the former have been long since emptied of their
contents. Young spermogones containing spermatia should,
therefore, be looked for on young or sterile thalli or lobes, or
on those bearing only nascent apothecia. I have found the
spermogones in best condition on portions of thallus destitute
of apothecia. The same remark may be applied to the
pyenides of A. Smithii. Though strong grounds exist for
régarding the spermatia as fertilizing or impregnating cor-
puscles, the process of impregnation has not been hitherto
detected in lichens. It still remains a problem for micro-
scopists. The discovery of spermogones in lichens has already

DENNIS, ON FOSSIL BONE. 63

made, and is destined still further to create, great changes in
our knowledge of the structure and classification of the more
minute lichens. It has been lately determined that the
genus Pyrenothea constitutes the spermogonesof various more
familiar lichens,—e. g., P. leucocephala, Fr., consists of the
spermogones of Lecidea abietina, Ach., and P. vermicellifera,
Kunz, of those of Biatora luteola, Fr.

“Pycnodites nondum innoturunt,” remarks Tulasne tersely.
This statement my own experience—as I have already men-
tioned in describing the pyecnides of A. Smithii—enables me
to corroborate.

The existence of Brrps during the deposition of the Stones-
FIELD Suate proved by a comparison of the Microscopic
Structure of certain Bones of that formation with that
of Recent Bons. By the Rev. J. B. P. Dennts, F.G:S.,
Bury St. Edmunds.

From extensive observations made upon the bones of birds,
I find that, in their microscopic characters, their bones are
as distinct from those of mammifers as the latter are from
the bones of saurians. As the lacuna in the saurian bone
exceeds that of the mammal in the size of its canaliculi, so
does the latter exceed that of the bird ;* and as they are more
numerous and more branched in the bird than in the
mammal, so in hke manner are they more so in mammalian
than in saurian bone.

It is in birds that the Haversian tubes attain their most
elegant and varied reticulations, not fortuitously, but with
design, and that imtimately connected with the life and
habits of the animal. In fact, each bone is a study in itself,
and involves a knowledge of the muscles that move it as well
as of the use it is designed for; and in a bird of flight the
shape of the wing, the extent of the surface covered by the
quill feathers, whether it is pointed or round, whether the
secondary quills are strong or weak, are all matters of deep
consideration, and comparison with the internal structure of
the bone, which the microscope reveals to the eye. I feel
that I need the powers of the consummate naturalist and

* This, of course, is speaking generally. I do not observe much differ-
ence between the canaliculi of the hare and those of Bewick’s swan as to
size. Again, the lacune of the mole are as small as those of birds, but
then the Haversian tubes totally differ. As a general rule, the bone-cells
in birds are smaller than they are in mammifers.

64, DENNIS, ON THE MICROSCOPIC

comparative anatomist, to do entire justice to the subject.
All I can hope to do is to pioneer the way, and furnish fresh
data from which science hereafter may perhaps draw her
unerring deductions. My present object is to prove, from a
general exposition of the structure of birds, that they had
representatives on this planet when the Stonesfield Slate
was still the soft mud of a large estuary ; and I purpose, for
the thorough elucidation of the question, not only to con-
‘sider the structure of birds, but also of those mammifers
and saurians which more or less approach birds in their
power of flight, for they are intimately (especially the Ptero-
dactyle) connected with the subject. Amongst mammifers,
the bats alone have the power of maintaining a continued
fight, by the rapid vibrations of membranous wings, which
are in fact but a modification of the arm and hand, so
adapted as to enable them to extend a thin canvas by which
their bodies are conveyed through the air. To this end the
fingers are greatly increased in length, as well as the humerus
and radius; the scapula also is large, and lengthened in a
slanting direction at its lower portion, for the better attach-
ment of muscular power, and to afford greater support to the
stroke of the wing; the clavicles are curved like the furcula
of the bird, and perform the united functions of the furcula
and coracoids, preventing the compression of the chest and
keepmg the humerus in its place when acted upon by the
pectoral muscles. It must, however, be borne in mind, that
there is no deviation in this flymg mammal from the plan
Nature has laid down in the construction of mammifers ;
the bat, because it flies, is not a bird, no more than the bird
that swims and cannot fly is a fish. If you examine the fin
of the penguin, you will observe the same plan of construc-
tion that exists in the wing of the eagle; so the wing of the
bat is im accordance with the same design that framed the
hand of man. Nature can adapt without confusion, and
although, as Cuvier says, the bats seem to have the appear-
ances of wings—“ Un examen attentif démontre que ce sont
de véritables mains, dont les doigts sont seulement un peu
plus allongés.”

The bones of bats are excessively strong, hard, and semi-
transparent, the radius is a long bone curved laterally and
inwards like a bow. Along the convex surface runs the
extensor muscle with its tendon, which crossing over the
carpus becomes connected with the tendons that extend the
fingers. On the opposite side of the bone is placed the
muscle and tendon that closes the wing. ‘The ulna in bats is
either absent or rudimental, the muscles of the forearm are

STRUCTURE OF FOSSIL BONE. 65

exceedingly insignificent when compared with those of birds ;
their bones are harder in texture, and only the very large
bats possess Haversian tubes, for even the largest indigenous
to this country are without them,* and the Pteropus, the
largest of the family, has only short and straight ones, and
these not at all numerous. Not carrying elastic and power-
ful quills, the bat does not need the same muscular develop-
ment that is necessary for the bird, a simpler power of
extension and flexion of the wing is all it requires in its
forearm ; where great muscular power is wanted there it has
it. The chest is enormously developed, the ribs are strong
and flat, the sternum has a ridge, the scapule are approxi-
mated to those of the bird, and the whole strength of the
animal is concentrated in the chest and shoulders. In fig. 1,
plate VI. are shown the Haversian tubes and lacunz of
the Pteropus, or flying fox as it is popularly called; the Haver-
sian tubes are more like long lacunz, and are, in the humerus,
straight, unconnected, and not numerous, but the lacune
are very abundant; these become more fusiform in the
phalanges, as may be seen im fig. 2, which represents a
phalanx with its medullary cavity of one of our small bats.
The canaliculi of the bat are large for mammals. The
Haversian tubes in the phalanges of the Pteropus are longer
and finer than in the humerus, and a slight ramification is
seen in the extreme ones. I conceive the reason of the
paucity or absence of these tubes in the bats, is to be found
in the character of their wings, and the habits of the animal.
Bats require light but strong bones, hardly at all flexible,
for were they so their great length and slenderness would
make the wing so pliable, that it would be powerless in
resisting the air, and thereby enabling the animal to sustain
itself in flight. Lightness is obtained by numerous lacune,
and numerous and comparatively thick canaliculi, and no
more elasticity is imparted to the bone than is sufficient to
preserve its structure, and obviate any fracture, in flight. In
the bird, on the contrary, elastic resistance to muscular pres-
sure is of much importance; and hence appears to have
arisen that admirable application and adjustment of the
Haversian tubes, so conspicuous in the economy of birds.
Besides bats, there are other mammifers, such as the Galeo-
pithecus, flyng Phalangers, &c., which, though they do not
fly in the true acceptation of the word, yet are enabled to
perform flights to some extent in the air by the aid of a

* T have found them in the jaw, a thick stem with a few straight branches
between the fangs of the teeth. The jaw is a good object of comparison with
that of the mole. (See p. 76.)

66 DENNIS, ON THE MICROSCOPIC

lateral extension of their skin, which being spread out like a
parachute sustains them for some time. I have examined
the leg-bones of two species of flying Phalangers, and a few
words will be necessary about them. In such animals light-
ness and elasticity, but especially the former, are of para-
mount importance. In the smaller flying Phalanger, the
Haversian tubes, especially in the tibia, are large and
numerous, the lacunze are very numerous, and the canaliculi
large; every particle of unnecessary weight seems to have
been abstracted from their bones, that the light animal
may float almost like a feather in the air. Fig. 3 gives the
appearance of the Haversian tubes in the tibia of the smaller
species ; they are disposed in the most advantageous manner,
running in parallel longitudinal courses, with only an occa-
sional junction between them.

Amongst recent reptiles, the Draco volans is enabled, by
an extension of its false ribs, to expand a fan-like membrane,
by which it can, like the Phalangers, for a little time sustain
itself in the air. I have examined also the bones of this most —
interesting reptile; they are hollow and thin, but strong,
without Haversian tubes, and having very numerous lacune ;
the canaliculi are fine for a reptile, but partake, in other
respects, of the reptilian characters. The ulna of the Draco
volans compares very much with that of the frog in the cha-
racter of its lacunz ; in the femur they approach more those
of the Phalanger ; there is, however, an admixture of roundish
lacunee, but this admixture is apparent also in the bones of bats.
As the animal is an agile climber, strength in its bones is
as requisite as lightness; and as the parachute is altogether
disconnected from its limbs, it would seem to be with the in-
tention of giving them absolute freedom—the long ribs
being mobile, and the membrane folding up by the creature’s
sides until occasion requires its expansion, offermg no im-
pediment in the way of its progression (fig. 4 represents the
ulna).

Before I make any remarks upon the Pterodactyle, I
would describe some of the leading features of the bones of
the gannet, and say something of the structure of birds in
general. The gannet beg peculiarly characterised by the
length of its wing-bones, is a very appropriate bird to
compare both with the bats and Pterodactyles; its habit is
to take its finny prey by fallmg headlong upon it with
immense velocity, and often from some height. It possesses
to a surprising extent the power of inflating its body with air,
and from the great buoyancy of its body would seem to be
incapable of divi ing, and, though web-footed like the cor-

STRUCTURE OF FOSSIL BONE. 67

morant, is said to have no predilection even for swimming ;
as, however, the force by which it descends, evinced by the
cloud of spray it scatters around, must have the primary
effect of carrying the bird to a great depth, unless resisted
by muscular power, aided by the buoyancy of its body, its
legs become powerful instruments in bringing the gannet to
the surface so soon as it has secured (as it never fails to do)
its prey. The bill of the bird is strong, without clefts for the
nostrils ; the furcula strong and bowed out, and the portion
especially that meets the resistance of the sea is bent down
at about a right angle with the coracoid, and it is there ex-
cessively strong 1g, with a powerful articulation and a pointed
process, extending for half an inch on the imside—taking
the furcula, coracoids, and breast-bone together, they form
an admirable piece of machinery, adapted to the habits of the
bird. The keel of the sternum is small and thrown forwards,
so that the outer edge and the furcula constitute an extended
arch, very different to the depressed character of the furcula
in the shag; the keel of the breast-bone is straight, without
any curve, as in the shag. The socket also, where the
coracoid fits into the sternum, has a very strong and expanded
articulating surface, and there is an impression both in the
sternum and the coracoid for an oblong ligament, which
braces the coracoid strongly to the sternum; on its outer
edge it is not truncated as the shag’s, but 1s shaped like the
point of a bill-hook. I will now, however, describe the
microscopic structure of some of the principal bones. The
humerus, radius, and ulna partake of the characters I have
observed in all birds whose wings are long and pointed. In
the humerus vertical section (fig. 17), the Haversian tubes
do not reticulate, but run nearly parallel, and ultimately
converging to a point, from which extends another tube which
converges in a similar manner. The lacune are long, and, for
the most part, narrow; in the transverse section the
Haversian tubes appear as round dots, the lacunze as small,
irregular specks, and the canaliculi beautifully reticulate.
The ulna compares very nearly with the humerus; in the
radius the Haversian tubes are more numerous, more parallel,
with fewer connections; the lacunz also are rather longer.
There is nothing particular to notice in the scapule, the
Haversian tubes observing a pretty similar arrangement ; but
the furcula, and especially the coracoids, are worthy of par-
ticular notice.

In the furcula (fig. 18) the Haversian tubes are not so
numerous as in the humerus, have no connections, and the
lacunze are very fusiform. In the coracoid (fig. 19) a

68 DENNIS, ON THE MICROSCOPIC

complete change and one anomalous, so far as I have ob-
served, in the structure of that bone in birds, takes place; in
the vertical section the Haversian tubes are beautifully and
regularly reticulated, the reticulations forming circles gene-
rally of a very regular form, and the long and fusiform
lacunz are replaced by roundish ones; in the transverse
section the Haversian tubes appear as truncated branches,
and the lacunz are large, which would seem to indicate that
their form is pretty circular. The femur of the gannet
(fig. 20) very nearly compares with the coracoid, without so
much regularity in the Haversian circles; the lacune are
often roundish oval, sometimes irregular, or long and thickish.
In the transverse section (fig. 21) the Haversian tubes appear
in parallel rows, with the excised ends of others between; the
lacunze have irregular canaliculi, beautifully reticulated.
In the tibia (fig. 22) vertical section the Haversian tubes
run longitudinally, with numerous transverse, diagonal con-
nections, characters not at all uncommon in the same bone
in other animals ; the lacune are small sharp-pointed ovals,
and differ little either in the vertical or transverse sections.
In the tarsus the Haversian tubes are not so numerous, but
very much thicker, and also of variable dimensions; in the
toes the reticulations are numerous, but not circular, and
rather appearing as traces to the longitudinal tubes. In the
rib (fig. 24) of the gannet there is a striking correspondence
in the characters and paucity of the Haversian tubes with
those of the humerus of the Pteropus; and we may also
notice, in the furcula (fig. 6) of the swift, the same diminu-
tion of the Haversian tubes, a bird of very peculiar construc-
tion in its wing, with an enormous muscular development.
The swifts have by far the shortest humerus, and the longest
metacarpal bones and phalanges, of any bird I have dissected.

The sternum of the gannet, being exceedingly transparent,
affords an excellent view of the coarser Haversian tubes
without the use of the microscope ; in the keel they radiate
from the thick portion, where the coracoids articulate, like the
spokes of a wheel to the edge, appearing looped and braced ;
in the sternum plate they are bowed outwards from the
central line towards the coracoids, being very close together,
with numerous cross braces; in the ilia they run longitudi-
nally with much reticulation at the edges; m the flat
surface of the back, behind the sockets of the femur, they
pass across to the anchylosed vertebre, being met by others
at right angles that extend longitudinally along the narrow
part of the bone until they approach the pelvis, when they
reticulate until they are lost sight of in the thickness of the

STRUCTURE OF FOSSIL BONE. 69

bone. There is nothing particular worthy of notice on
this occasion as to the other bones.

The structure of the gannet, so far as I have described it,
in the principal bones, admirably exhibits the beautiful
adaptation of the microscopic structure of bone to the move-
ments, habits, and well-being of the creature, and in no bone
is that adaptation more clearly shown than in the coracoid
—the circular reticulations of the Haversian canals in
which bone are assuredly designed to enable it to sustain
the shock it must receive when the bird impinges on the
water; the powerful bill first cleaves the waves, the strong
bows of the furcula next meet the shock, and the injurious
effects of the concussion, which would perhaps be too much for
an ordinary coracoid, are obviated by the circular disposition
of its Haversian canals. But this is only a single instance.
We find wonders of omniscient providence in every skeleton.
How admirable is the design displayed in the keel of the
sternum. Take that of the heron, for instance; the same
tender care is shown for the preservation of the bone when
acted upon by the powerful pectoral muscle. It is composed
of two plates, with diploé between; the Haversian tubes in
the plates meet the pressure at all points. Examine the tibia
of the same bird, and it will be found that they are longitu-
dinal in the reticulations. Or if we turn to another kind of
bird, the starling, for instance, we find beautiful reticulations
in the ulna, with straight Haversian tubes in the coracoid,
the very opposite of the gannet. Or if we examine the wing-
bone of the razor-bill or guiilemot, which is used by the bird
to swim with under water, and seldom for flight, we observe
not only an external adaptation of the bones, but the micro-
scope shows also that there is an internal one as well. And
from the numerous observations which I have made, no
doubt whatever remains in my mind as to the important ends
and services of the Haversian tubes, lacunz, and canaliculi.

There are not two bones in animals, unless they are of the
same kind, that agree perfectly in the arrangement of the
Haversian tubes, or even of the lacunz ; hence the certainty,
as our knowledge increases by careful observations, of ascer-
taining the habits of any animal from the microscopic cha-
racters of its bones, a truth which I surmised and hinted at
in a previous paper.

That the size of the canaliculi is dependent, as has been
supposed, on the size of the blood discs does not appear to
be supported by observation; but that it is dependent upon
the habits and requirements of the animal observation tends
to show. The lacune and canaliculi not being of universal

70 DENNIS, ON THE MICROSCOPIC

occurrence in fish, seems to show that when they are present
it is for some other purpose than the transmission of blood
dises to the bone. Again, why should the lacunee be of dif-
ferent shapes even in the same bone? Surely this can only
be explained upon the hypothesis of their connection with the
structure of bone, as that is connected with the hfe of the
animal. The canaliculi also seem to differ in size, as in the
femur and bone plates of the back of the armadillo. I think
the facts I have adduced tend to throw light, not only upon the
general structure of bone, but also upon the variation that
appears in fishes. In the fin-bone of the sturgeon the
lacunze are assembled in masses, so also in the dermal plates ;
and the bone of the plates is excessively hard for fishes’ bone.
It would appear that a combination of strength and tough-
ness 18 thus imparted to a greater degree than would be given
by any homogeneous mass of bone. The very principle has
been carried out in the tubular Menai bridge, which has
numerous cells or compartments, which add infinitely more
to the strength and stability of the structure than if it had
been a homogeneous mass; and besides, by the dispensing
with superfluous matter, a reduction of specific gravity is
also obtained. For ordinary purposes, the gelatinous, homo-
geneous bones of fishes* seem sufficiently strong for their
mode of living, but a much more elaborate structure is
requisite in the higher Vertebrata. Only examine the fine
structure exhibited in the bones of the lion or the horse—
animals which require strength combined with lightness and
elasticity or resistance to violent shocks in their bones. ‘The
canaliculi of the lion, which possesses great strength, and the
horse, which can carry or draw great burdens, are in both
numerous and fine. In the whalebone whale, which descends
to great depths, they are also numerous and fine; in the
elephant, where massive strength is required, they are not
numerous. In the Jcthyosaurust and Plesiosaurus, the cana-
liculi, though finer than those of some other saurians, are
few in number; hence their bone is perfectly distinct from
that of mammifers or birds; they have also, at least in parts,
straight Haversian tubes. Thus the whole structure of bone
is a portion of animal mechanism which, when thoroughly

* Some have, as the cod, Haversian tubes without bone-cells: they are
seen well in the vomer.

+ Haversian tubes, or the semblance of them, I have only as yet found in
the jaw; inthe ribs it appears to be an extension of the cancellated structure,
of which, in fact, the bone of that animal seems to be composed. The
small paddie-bones are very curious, and have a singular complicated set of
bone circles at their edges. The peculiar cancellated cavities I at first mis-
took for Haversian tubes.

STRUCTURE OF FOSSIL BONE. 71.

understood, may prove of service in the arts ‘and advance
the mechanical powers of man. Comparisons with the same
bones in birds of similar flight and configuration of the
wing are highly useful in elucidating this subject. Take,
for instance, such birds as the ring-dotterel, turnstone,
dunlin, pigmy curlew, little stint, and other birds of that
description, whose mode of flight is so similar that I will
defy the most practised sportsman to distinguish one from
the other by its flight. Now if we examine a portion of the
ulna, taken from the same part of the bone in any cue or
all of these birds, we shall at once observe a similar and
smegular correspondence in the disposition of the Haversian
tubes. Examine next the ulna of the greensand piper, a
bird whose wing is broader than, and not so pointed as, the
above mentioned, and whose flight is easily recognised from
its congeners by the sportsman, and you will notice an
entirely different arrangement of the Haversian tubes, which
are reticulated in every direction, while in the rest they
observe longitudinal directions ; what conclusion can we
arrive at, but that these tubes are arranged in accordance
with the flight of these birds. The starling, the raven, the
jay, &c., have all fine and numerously reticulated tubes, and
the secondary quills of all these birds are well developed.
In the fowl they are very powerful, and the ulna contains
numerous and fine tubes; in the owls the same; in the
hawks the Haversian tubes are large and much reticulated,
and are easily recognised from those of other birds. It
seems, therefore, possible, from the microscopic structure of
the bone of a bird, to divine the shape of its wing and the
character of its flight, there beg a perfect correspondence
the one with the other, just as a perfect knowledge of the
femur will inform us whether a bird could swim, or only run,
or walked ; and this may be done even in a fragment of a
bone, after we have acquainted ourselves with the general
principles by very numerous and exact observations.

In the coracoid, for instance, the ordinary disposition of
the Haversian tubes would be longitudinal, braced more or
less, because that would be the best arrangement to resist the
powerful action of the pectoral muscles. In the gannet, as
has been shown, a circular arrangement is preferable, but
this is apparently an exception, and connected with the pecu-
har habits of the bird. The ulna of the razor-bill and guil-
lemot is more reticulated than would primarily be expected
in the wing of a bird where the secondary quills are so very
weak; but then it must be considered that those birds use
their wings much more like fins when under water than as

72 DENNIS, ON THE MICROSCOPIC

instruments of flight, as they seldom take wing, but inva-
riably dive, when they are approached, and may be observed
to use their wings under the water with surprising. ease and
agility. The wing, in fact, is more constructed lke an oar,
and the bones are flat, especially the humerus, and the wrist
is strongly braced to the forearm. The ulna and femur of
the red-throated diver exhibit a very singular sort of smuses
in the Haversian tubes, which seem to swell out; the struc-
ture of these is peculiar, and at present I have not been able
quite to make it out, there being a great deal of oily matter
in the bones of these birds.* I have observed a structure of
bone something similar in the medullary cavity of the ulna
of the Draco volans (fig. 4). The tibia of the red-throated
diver (fig. 5) is introduced on account of this peculiarity.
The goosander exhibits somewhat similar reticulations to
the Stonesfield fossil.

Having so far given the general features of the microscopic
characters of the bones of birds, we may now attempt to
grapple with the microscopic structure of that most singular
reptile the pterodactyle.

The Pterodactylus longirostris perhaps affords us the most
perfect means of studying the singular proportions of its
skeleton. A larger and less-perfect, but exceedingly useful
one, was discovered by Miss Anning, at Lyme Regis, and
which is now placed in the British Museum. Also portions of
the jaws of a very large kind have been discovered in our
Chalk formation, with other bones now supposed to have
belonged to a similar animal. From these specimens we
learn that the animal was a true saurian, apparently adapted
for flight, and for arboreal and terrestrial movements, and
instead of possessing, like the bat, an extension of all the
fingers, it had only one prolonged, the others beg used for
progression ; it differed also from the bat, in having a well-
developed ulna as well as a radius. ‘There did not, however,
exist between them the space, that, in birds, is adapted to
receive so much muscular power; but as the forearm per-
formed double the duty of that of the bat, we may reasonably
suppose that its muscles were more numerous. In the bat,
the extensor of the fingers is a small muscle, which, arising
from the external condyle of the humerus, and, passmg over

* L find in the lower jaw of the Péeropus numerous Haversian tubes,
parallel with the length of the jaw, and having enlargements or sinuses in
them very similar to those in the red-throated diver. Surely this is a fur-
ther proof of the adaptation of the Haversian tubes to the habits of the
animal. The tubes are also branched and connected, very different to the
way in which they appear in other parts of the skeleton.

STRUCTURE OF FOSSIL BONE. 73

the carpus, sends forth extremely fine tendons over the
convex surface of each of the fingers, terminating in the last
joit. In the pterodactyle, the digitus auricularis that forms
the wing, would seem to require proper extensors and flectors ;
and we may suppose that the pterodactyle, in some de-
gree, in the use of its limbs, approached the frog; we also may
assume it possessed extensores carpi radialis and ulnaris,
an extensor digitorum communis, also an extensor proprius
digiti minimi (auricularis), as well as flexores carpi radialis
and ulnaris, a flexor digitorum communis, a flexor proprius
digiti auricularis, and possibly a pronator and supinator. The
bird, indeed, has two muscles which occupy the place of the
pronator teres, which are not used for pronation but flection.
We may therefore imagine that the muscular development of
the forearm of the pterodactyle was something between that
of the bat, frog, and bird. The presence of quills in the bird
has evidently materially affected the muscular development of
the forearm; as also their being bipeds involved a greater
development of the muscles of the leg, it would be, how-
ever, unnecessary to enter upon them. In the pterodac-
tyle, the strain upon the bones of the wing would be prin-
cipally in the long direction, there being no lateral pres-
sure, from feathers being attached to the bone. In the bird
the quill feathers are a very important element, and it has
been shown that the Haversian tubes vary according to the
shape and uses of the wing; but there is no reason to sup-
pose that any such variations would be required in the ptero-
dactyle. In the Phalangers they extend longitudinally ; we
may therefore suppose that such was principally the case in
the pterodactyle; we have every reason to conjecture this
from analogy. ‘Take, for instance, the bill of the pelican,
which is long; how do they run? longitudinally; or the
tibia of a heron? longitudinally also; or in the spicule or
shafts of bone that shoot across the interior of the humerus
of a goose, or in the ordinary coracoid of a bird, the same
direction is observed.

Next, with regard to the lacune; of what shape would
analogy teach us to expect them to be in the pterodactyle?
Surely long poimted ovals; as indeed they have been so
figured ; only the mistake made was the supposing such a
shape was peculiarly characteristic of the pterodactyle ;
whereas the shape of the lacuna is characteristic of no class
or order of vertebrate animals, but is only connected with
the requirements of the bones of the animal, and may be
long or round in the same animal as occasion requires.* The

* Our common roach beautifully exhibits this.

74 DENNIS, ON THE MICROSCOPIC

lacunz, in fact, obey the same laws as the Haversian tubes
do, and are placed in that position, and are of that form,
which best suits the necessities of the bones they constitute
a portion of.

Since I had written the above remarks, I have very oppor-
tunely received a portion of a bone from the Chalk, through
the kindness of H. Catt, Esq., of Brighton, which precisely
exhibits these characters. The Haversian tubes are princi-
pally longitudinal, the lacunze are long like those m the bill
of the pelican; and, indeed, the Haversian tubes very nearly
compare, especially in size. There is, however, a peculiarity
in the bone which I was not altogether prepared for, having
observed it in no bird-bones, though I have noticed some-
thing like it in the frog. It is the way in which the lacunz
cross.* There appears to be a set running longitudinally, and
a set above them running in the opposite direction, which
gives a very marked and peculiar character to the bone, and
makes me think that this bone, which came from the Chalk,
and which is a hollow bone with very thin walls of a peculiar
texture, is pterodactyle bone; another thing further confirms
me in this view, the canaliculi are not numerous like those
of birds, and coarser (it is figured in figs. 7 and 14) ; if so this
is a further confirmation of those general principles I laid
down in a previous paper on the characters of bone—the
pterodactyle, though it could fly like the bird or bat, yet
showing its saurian characters, both outwardly and inwardly,
in its bones. The fossil bone from Stonesfield, which I have
selected for comparison, is in the possession of W. Adams,
Esq., of Buriton, Petersfield, who has very kindly fur-
nished me with other most interesting fossils; and I have
chosen this from several other supposed fossil bones of
birds from Stonesfield, as one of the greatest interest, from
its striking similarity in structure to the humerus of the
heron. It belonged, however, to a smaller kind than our
common heron, and appears from a drawing, (for I have
only received fragments of the bone,) to be the distal end of
the humerus; the bone has quite the texture of bird-bone
in its outward appearance, and is decidedly different from
that of the pterodactyle from the Chalk, which looks rather
silky, an appearance apparently caused by fine lines on its
surface, which the bird-bone is free from.

The vertical section of a portion of this bone gives the
following characters: Haversian tubes for a bird of medium

* T have since observed something like this crossing in the skulls of some
birds and the bone plates of the armadillo.

STRUCTURE OF FOSSIL BONE. 7a

thickness ; reticulate, but without any precise form or size in
the loops, but rather a marked irregularity is shown, some
appearing square, others triangular, others oval, in fact of
all shapes and sizes; sometimes they somewhat interlace ;
they do not entirely maintain a uniform diameter, the reti-
culations are inclined to form combinations, which produces
a variety in their appearance, sometimes two or three of
a similar shape and size uniting. The lacunz are numerous,
small ovals, and round, but more pointed ones than round.
The canaliculi are fine, much branched, and very numerous.
That this is the bone of a bird, from the evidence I have
adduced, there can be no doubt. My object is rather now
to attempt to discover what kind of bird it might have been.
We have no reason to suppose it belongs to the Raptores,
for it does not exhibit their peculiarities of structure, the
Haversian tubes being peculiarly large in the diurnal birds
of prey. Neither did it with much probability belong to
the Corvide, for in them they are finer and more reticulate ;
still, neither did it belong to the Colwmbide or the gallina-
ceous family. All the goose, duck, and gull tribes, with the
divers, perhaps mergansers, cormorants, &c., may also be
excluded, for they have, as far as I have examined them,
marked distinctions. By this process of separation we have
narrowed the field of our research, which leaves us with the
cranes, herons, egrets, and bitterns, and birds of that
description, to discover a living representative of this ancient
bird. But for the present, I shall only attempt to show that
our common heron exhibits a very marked agreement in
many particulars.

The bones of the heron, like those of other animals, exhi-
bit a varied adaptation of the Haversian tubes, and certainly
do not at all compare with the fossil in some of them, as the
tibia for mstance; but in the humerus there is a very great
similarity, more so than in the ulna or radius. The Haver-
sian tubes in the humerus appear to be constructed on the
very same plan, so that a description of the one would be
only the counterpart of the other, only they appear rather
larger in the heron. The lacunze have also the same shapes,
with nearly the same admixture of round ones; the heron
appearing to have a greater number. The canaliculi also
perfectly agree. Supposing the fossil bone to have been
a humerus, its correspondence with the humerus of the heron
would indicate that its wing was similar in shape and its
mode of flight corresponding. Should further investigations
substantiate this surmise, it will be another triumph of the
microscope in the field of science.

VOL. V. H

76 DENNIS, ON THE MICROSCOPIC

Addenda.

The general truth of my observations may be easily tested
by an examination of the bones of some of our common
animals, such as the hare, rabbit, squirrel, rat, mole, &c.
As mere microscopic objects, they will repay all the trouble ;
and the only apparatus required will be a fine saw, which is
best home-manufactured out of the main spring of a watch;
a small hand grindstone; a common slate hone; and a piece
of leather to guard the fingers. Botha cutting and a writing
diamond will also be necessary. If the person is residing in
the country, let him take a walk to the first gamekeeper’s
residence, and ask him to show him where he hangs the
vermin; or let him look out for a bush where the mole-
catcher hangs his moles; or if he has rabbits for dinner, let
him save, to the utter astonishment of his servants, the bones.
The dainty morsels conveyed home, a rich mental feast is
soon prepared. Let me suppose the operator compares the
metatarsal bone of the rabbit or the hare with one of
the polecat or the mole. He will find numerous Haversian
tubes in those of the rabbit and hare, not half so many in the
polecat, and quite a different arrangement in the mole, with
complicated reticulations at the ends, and few Haversian
tubes, and of a peculiar character, in the shaft, quite distinct
from the rabbit, &c. Ifthe whole under jaw of the mole is
ground down, the Haversian tubes will be found to send up
a tree-like stem between the fangs of the molars, with
branches across. The under jaw of the weasel is a very
suitable object to compare with the mole; and their distinc-
tive characters are easily recognised. The parietal bone of
the mole is also a nice object for comparison with that of the
weasel, and in the latter the Haversian tubes are much
reticulated, and compare more with those in the joints of the
hind metatarsal bones of the mole; that is, they have that
complicated character. Now, the weasel is remarkable for a
very powerful muscular development in its head; and so its
jaws show, in their microscopic characters, great strength of
action; and the play of the powerful temporal muscles is
registered in the disposition of the Haversian tubes, which
are more open in the mole, and less complicated im their
character. Let next be picked out one of the little vibrating
bones from the ear of the mole—it is itself almost microscopic,
but grind it down, and it will be seen to be marvellously full
of highly reticulated Haversian tubes; or let the lower

jaws of the rabbit, hare, squirrel, and rat, be taken, and let

STRUCTURE OF FOSSIL BONE. 77

a piece be sawn out just under the long incisor tooth; the
piece from the rabbit will be found to be full of fine tubes
parallel with the tooth; that of the hare with coarser and
more irregular ones ; in the rat few, and only the truncated
ends, will be seen; and in the squirrel none at all.* Do not
these variations accord with the habits and mode of life of
these different animals; the rabbit and the hare can neither
gnaw a hole through wood, nor extract the kernel from a nut ;
but the rat can do the one in a masterly fashion, and the
squirrel the other. But I might multiply an infinity of
instances until I became tedious, and it is better that micro-
scopists should work them out for themselves. I merely
exhibit a few instances out of many from which I have arrived
with certainty at the law that governs the texture and com-
position of bone, which may be thus briefly explained :

That the Haversian tubes are connected with the move-
ments, habits, and mode of life of the living creature in which
they may be present.

That the lacunz obey the same law, and adjust themselves
to the strains, pressure, and requisite density of any bone.

That the canaliculi serve it also, and yet without any con-
fusion of the great classes of vertebrate animals.

That all conspire in evincing the admirable unity of design,
and the harmonious correspondence of the bones with the
muscles, tendons, &c., of an organized being; so that while
each living creature obeys the general law, each maintains
also its distinctive characters.

* Perhaps an odd one may appear, the cut requires to be carefully made,
as there are Haversian tubes on the side of the jaw, but different to those
of the rabbit. At the extreme edge there are round holes in the bone,
these are much more developed in the rabbit ; the course of the bone-cells
is irregular, mostly across, whereas they run longitudinally in the rabbit.

78 HUXLEY, ON DYSTERIA.

On DystERIA; a new genus of INFUSORIA.
By Tuomas H. Houxtey, F.R.S.

Tue credit of the discovery of the animal which will be
described in the following pages is due to my friend Mr.
Dyster, of Tenby; and many of the most important state-
ments regarding its structure and habits are based upon his
observations. I think, therefore, I cannot do better than
name the genus of which it will form the type after him.*

The creature was found in swarms among the alge coating
the shells of a Patella and of a Littorina which had long
inhabited a marine vivarium. I had the opportunity of ex-
amining its structure when visiting my friend during the past
autumn, and the following paper must be regarded as an
account of Mr. Dyster’s work, with some additions of
my own.

Dysteria armata (Pl. VII, fig. 13,) has an oval body,
z25th—+1 5th of an inch long, by zi5th—,1,th broad, which
is not altogether symmetrical—the one side presenting a
considerable, evenly rounded convexity, while the other, less
prominent, is divided by an angulated, longitudinal ridge (m, 4)
ito a smaller, dorsal, and a larger, ventral, area. The edges
of both lateral surfaces are sharp and thin; dorsally they are
separated by a shallow groove (n,0), but along the ventral
line of the body the groove is deep and narrow, and the
produced edges of the lateral parietes (m,0) resemble the
valves of a bivalve shell.

The ventral and dorsal grooves pass into one another in
front, but posteriorly the lateral edges are united for a short
space (h). The edge of the left, less convex, side of the body
ends anteriorly in an obtuse point (m), which corresponds
with the anterior termination of the angulated ridge, and
does not extend, by any means so far forward, as the edge of
the right side, which remains thin, and forms the anterior
extremity of the body.

At the anterior extremity the large oral aperture (a) is seen,
just below the angulated ridge and occupying the bottom of
a deep fossa, which here takes the place of the dorsal and
ventral grooves. The left wall of this fossa is thickened, and
projects inwards so as to form a cushion-like lobe, clothed

* Sticklers for classical terminology may however, if they please, derive
the name from dv¢ and repac, “a difficult sort of monster,” or otherwise, -

from décreorc, * perversely disputatious,” on account of the controversies to
which the obseure structure of the animal may give rise.

HUXLEY, ON DYSTERIA. 79

with remarkably long cilia; and these cilia are continued
into the oral aperture itself—the posterior ones being large,
usually directed transversely to the axis of the body, and
having at times much the appearance of vibratile membranes.

The bottom of the oral fossa is strengthened by a curious
curved rod (/), which terminates superiorly in a bifid tooth,
while inferiorly it appears to become lost in the wall of the
fossa.

But there is a much more prominent and easily distin-
guishable apparatus of hard parts situated on the opposite
or ventral side of the mouth, and extending thence through
two thirds of the length of the body (4,c). It consists of two
portions—an anterior, somewhat rounded mass, in appo-
sition with a much elongated, styliform, posterior portion.

It is very difficult to assure oneself of the precise structure
of the anterior portion ( f E but it would seem to be a deep
“ring, composed of three pieces—two supero-lateral and mu-
tually corresponding (q, fig. 14), united with a third, inferior,
azygos portion (p). The Jatter is somewhat triangular, with
a broad base and rounded obtuse apex; the latter being
directed forwards and immediately underlying the oral aper-
ture, while the former is turned backwards, and unites with
the two supero-lateral pieces. Hach of these is concave inter-
nally and convex externally, so as to form a segment of a
circle, and presents a clear median space, the optical expres-
sion of either a perforation or of a much thinned spot.

The anterior edge of each supero-lateral piece is nearly
straight, but the posterior is convex, and it is by this edge that
it articulates with or is apposed to, the anterior extremity of
the posterior division of the apparatus. Viewed laterally this
posterior portion appears to consist of two styles, which are
somewhat like nails in shape; their anterior extremities being
truncated so as to present a sort of nail-head, while the
posterior extremity seems to take to a fine point. Rather in
front of the middle of its inferior edge each style seems to
give off a short process downwards (s), and this process is, m
botanical language, decurrent upon the style. Careful ex-
amination of the dorsal or ventral aspect of these parts shows
that the decurrent process is in fact only the expression of a
delicate membrane, which is bent so as to have a ventral
convexity, and connects together the two styles (fig. 15). It
might be said, therefore, that the posterior part of the appa-
ratus is a triangular membrane, deeply excavated in front,
bent so as to be convex downwards, and having its margins
thickened and produced into styliform enlargements. This
curious piece of mechanism is directed upwards and back-

«

80 HUXLEY, ON DYSTERIA.

wards, and terminates in the substance of the body without
any apparent connection with other parts.

The whole apparatus is moveable. The posterior portion
is pushed against the anterior, and the heads of the styles
come into contact with the posterior convex edges of the
supero-lateral pieces, and push them forwards; the posterior
portion is then retracted, and the whole apparatus returns
to its previous arrangement.

In one Dysteria, which had swallowed a filament of Oscil-
latoria, so long, that the one extremity projected from the
mouth, when the other was as far back in the body as it
could go, these movements took place as many as twenty
times in a minute.

Mr. Dyster further informs me that, in one of these ani-
mals which he saw feed, the frond of Oscillatoria was rather
“swum upon” than seized, ingestion being accomplished by
a smooth gliding motion, apparently without displacement
of the styles ; but that when the act was completed the styles
‘gave a kind of snap and moved slightly forwards.”

Mr. Dyster is inclined to think that the Oscillatoria passed
through the anterior ring-like portion of the apparatus. I
have not seen the animal feed, but on structural grounds I
should rather have been inclined to place the oral aperture
at (a, fig. 13,) and to suppose that the food would pass above
the anterior rmg. The apparatus is destroyed by caustic
potash, but remains unaltered on the addition of acetic
acid; it is therefore, probably, entirely composed of animal
matter.

Immediately above the annular portion of the apparatus,
there is invariably present a remarkable amethyst-coloured
globule (¢), apparently composed of a homogeneous fluid. It
has on an average a diameter of 5,/55 ich, and it is entirely
lodged in the more convex portion of the body.* In many
specimens no other colourmg matter than this can be
detected, but in some, minute granules (;;},5 ich) of a
similar colour are scattered through the body. What con-
nection these have with the large constant globule is not
clear, since, although the dimensions of the latter vary
from the size given above to one fourth or less, no relation
could be observed between this diminution and the presence
of the granules in other parts of the body.

Behind the amethystine globule the substance of the body
has the appearance, common to the Infusoria generally, of a

* Tn one or two specimens a minute amethystine globule, not more than

one sixth the diameter of the large one, was visible immediately below and
behind it. Acetic acid destroys the colouring matter.

HUXLEY, ON DYSTERIA. 81

mass of “ sarcode,” in which the ingested matters are im-
bedded, and no clear evidence could be obtained of the exist-
ence of any digestive cavity with distinct walls.

A little behind the middle of the body, and towards its
ventral edge, there is a clear spheroidal ‘contractile space” (d),
which varies a good deal in size. One measured ;3';,th of
an inch in diameter, and became entirely obliterated in the
contracted state.

The contractions are not rhythmical, but take place irre-
gularly. On the approach of death the space becomes irre-
gularly and enormously enlarged, until it occupies perhaps a
third of the whole contents of the body.

Immediately beyond the contractile space there is a curious
oval body (e), having its long axis (35555 m.) directed upwards,
and containing a comparatively small central cavity, so that
it appears like a thick-walled sac.

Indications strongly suggestive of an inferior opening were
sometimes observed in this body, but no demonstrative
evidence of the existence of any such aperture could be
obtained.

The walls of the ventral groove are provided with long and
powerful cilia, a remarkably strong one being attached behind
the base of the “ appendage,” and by their means the animal,
when free, is propelled at no very rapid rate through the
water. Its more usual habit, however, is to remain fixed by
means of the peculiar appendage (f), and then the cilia act
merely in creating currents, by which nutritive matters are
brought towards the mouth.

The appendage referred to is attached to the surface of the
body, rather towards the convex side, at the bottom of the
ventral groove, and is distant about one fifth of the whole
length from the posterior extremity. It is ;Ajth to +,)5th
of an inch in length, and is not altogether unlike a boot, with
a very pointed toe, in shape ; and the toe appears to be viscid
at its extremity, so as readily to adhere to any foreign object.
The appendage then forms a pivot on which the whole body
turns about, and this appears to be the habitual and favorite
position of the Dysteria.

Internally, the appendage contains a canal (y), wider above
than below, and apparently blind at each extremity.

No “nucleus” could be found, though carefully sought for
with the aid of acetic acid.

The occurrence of transverse fission was noticed very
distinctly im one case; but it is remarkable that, notwith-
standing the great number of specimens which were observed,
no other instance of this mode of multiplication came under

82 HUXLEY, ON DYSTERIA.

the notice of Mr. Dyster or myself. It would appear that
the “apparatus” disappears, and is reproduced during fission,
for in the single case observed, mere rudiments of it were to
be seen in each half of the strongly constricted mass.

Dysteria has not hitherto been observed to become en-
cysted, although this condition has been carefully sought for.

There can, I imagine, be little doubt as to the true sys-
tematic position of Dysteria. The absence, in an animal
which takes solid nutriment, of an alimentary canal with
distinct walls, united with the presence of a contractile
vesicle, with the power of transverse fission, and with cilia
as locomotive organs, is a combination of characters found
only in the Jnfusoria. In this class, again, the existence of a
sort of shell or lorica, constituted by the structureless outer
layer of the body; the presence of a submarginal ciliated
groove around a large part of the margins of the body; and
the inequality of the two lateral halves, leave no alternative
save that of arranging Dysteria near or in the Euplota of
Ehrenberg.

Indeed there is one species figured by Ehrenberg (‘ Infu-
sions-thierchen,’ p. 480, pl. 42, fig. xiv), Euplotes macrostylus,
found at Wismar, on the Baltic, which, in general aspect, and
in the possession of a foot-like appendage, so closely resem-
bles the present form, that were it not for the absence of any
allusion to the amethystine globule, or to the “ apparatus,”
I should be strongly inclined to think it identical with
Dysteria. That an internal armature is not inconsistent with
the general plan of the Euplota, is shown by Chlamidodon,
whose apparatus of styles would probably repay re-exami-
nation.

Notwithstanding certain analogies which might be shown
to exist between the manducatory apparatus of some Rotifera
(see, e.g., that of Furcularia marina, figured by Mr. Gosse,
in his excellent memoir, ‘Phil. Trans.,’? 1846) and the
“apparatus”? of Dysteria, 1 see no grounds for regarding
the latter as in any way an annectant form between these
groups.

( 83 )

On the Ortein of Greensand, and its Formation in the
Oceans of the Present Erocu. By Professor J. W.
Barttrey, West Point, New York.

(Communicated by the Author.)

As an introduction to the subject of this paper, it is proper
to refer to various observations which have been made of facts
intimately related to those which I wish to present. That
the calcareous shells of the Polythalamia are sometimes re-
placed by silica, appears to have been first noticed by Ehren-
berg, who, in a note translated by Mr. Weaver, and published
in the ‘L. E. and D. Philosophical Journal’ for 1841, vol.
Xvili, p. 397, says:

«] may here remark that my continued researches on the
Polythalamia of the Chalk, have convinced me that very fre-
quently in the earthy coating of flints, which is partly calca-
reous and partly siliceous, “the original calcareous shelled
animal forms have exchanged their lime for silex without
undergoing any alteration in figure, so that while some are
readily dissolved by an acid, others remain insoluble ; but in
chalk itself, all similar forms are immediately dissolved.”

The first notice of casts of the cells and soft parts of the
Polythalamia was published by myself in the‘American Journal
of Science’ for 1845, vol. xlviii, where I stated as follows:

“The specimens from Fort Washington presented me with
what I believe have never been before noticed, viz., distinct
casts of Polythalamia. That these minute and perishable
shells should, when destroyed by chemical changes, ever leave
behind them indestructible memorials of their existence, was
scarcely to be expected, yet these casts of Polythalamia are
abundant and easily to be recognised in some of the Eocene
Marls from Fort Washington.” This notice was accompanied
by figures of well-defined casts of Polythalamia (1. ¢., pl. iv,
figs. 30, 31).

Dr. Mantell also noticed the occurrence of casts of Polythala-
mia and their soft parts, preserved in flint and chalk, and
communicated an account of them to the Royal Society of
London, in May, 1846. In this paper he speaks of the
chambers of Polythalamia as being frequently filled with chalk,
flint, and silicate of iron. (‘ Phil. Trans.,’ 1846, p. 466.) To
Ehrenberg, however, appears to be due the credit of first
distinctly announcing the connection between the Polythala-
mia and the formation of Greensand, thus throwing the first
light upon the origin of a substance which has long been a
puzzle to geologists. In a notice given by this distinguished

34 BAILKY, ON GREENSAND.

observer upon the nature of the matrix of the bones of the
Zeuglodon from Alabama (see ‘ Monats-Bericht,’ Berlin,
February, 1855), he says:

“That Greensand, in all the numerous relations in which I
have as yet examined it, has been recognised as due to the
fillmg up of organic cells, as a formation of stony casts (Stein-
kernbildung), mostly of Polythalamia, was stated in July of
the preceding year.” He then refers to the Nummulite
Limestone of Traunstein, in Bavaria, as rich in green opal-
like casts (Opalstemkernen) of well-preserved Polythalamian
forms, and mentions them as also occurring, but more rarely,
in the Glauconite Limestones of France. He then proceeds
to give an account of his detection of similar casts in the
limestone adhering to the bones of the Zeuglodon from
Alabama, and states that this limestone abounds in well-
preserved brown, green, and whitish stony casts of recogni-
sable Polythalamia. This limestone is yellowish, and under a
lens appears spotted with green. These green spots are the
Greensand casts of the Polythalamia, and they often form as
much as one third ofthe mass. By solution in dilute chloro-
hydric acid, the greensand grains are left, mixed with quartzose
sand, and with a light yellowish mud. The latter is easily
removed by washing and decantation. The casts thus obtaimed
are so perfect, that not only the genus, but often the species
of the Polythalamia, can be recognised. Mingled with these
are frequently found spiral, or corkscrew-like bodies, which
Ehrenberg considers as casts of the shells of young mollusks.

With reference to the perfection of these casts of the Poly-
thalamia, and the light they throw upon the structure of these
minute animals, Ehrenberg remarks :

“The formation of the Greensand consists in a gradual
fillmg up of the interior space of the minute bodies with a
green-coloured, opal-like mass, which forms therein as a cast.
It is a peculiar species of natural injection, and is often so
perfect, that not only the large and coarse cells, but also the
very finest canals of the cell walls, and all their connecting
tubes are thus petrified, and separately exhibited. By no
artificial method can such fine and perfect injections be
obtained.”

Having repeated the experiments of Ehrenberg upon the
Zeuglodon Limestone, I can confirm his statements im every
particular, and would only add that, besides the casts of
Polythalamia and small spiral mollusks, there is also a con-
siderable number of green, red, and whitish casts of minute
anastomosing tubuli, resembling casts of the holes made by
burrowing sponges (Cliona) and worms.

BAILEY, ON GREENSAND. 85

In the ‘ Berlin Monats-Bericht,’ for July, 1855, Ehren-
berg gives an account of very perfect casts of Nummulites,
from Bavaria and from France, showing not only chambers
connected by a spiral siphuncle, but also a complicated sys-
tem of branching vessels. He also gave at the same time
an account of a method he had applied for the purpose of
colouring certain glass-like casts of Polythalamia, which he
had found in white tertiary lmestone from Java. This
method consists in heating them in a solution of nitrate
of iron, by means of which they can be made to assume
different shades of yellow and brownish red, still retaining
sufficient transparency when mounted in balsam to show the
connection of the different parts.

The interesting observations of Ehrenberg which are alluded
to above, have led me to examine a number of the cretaceous
and tertiary rocks of North America in search of Greensand
and other casts of Polythalamia, &c. The following results
were obtained :

Ist. The yellowish limestone of the cretaceous deposits of
New Jersey occurring with Teredo tibialis, &c., at Mullica
Hill, and near Mount Holly, is very rich m Greensand
easts of Polythalamia and of the tubuliform bodies above
alluded to.

2d. Cretaceous rocks from Western Texas, for which I am
indebted to Major W. H. Emory, of the Mexican Boundary
Commission, yielded a considerable number of fine Greensand
and other casts of Polythalamia and Tubuli.

3d. Limestone from Selma, Alabama, gave similar results.

4th. Eocene limestone from Drayton Hall, near Charleston,
South Carolina, gave abundance of similar casts.

5th. A few good Greensand casts of Polythalamia were
found in the residue left on dissolving a specimen of marl
from the Artesian Well at Charleston, 8.C.; depth 140
feet.

6th. Abundance of organic casts, in Greensand, &c., of
Polythalamia, Tubuli, and of the cavities of Corals, were
found in the specimen of yellowish limestone, adhering to
a specimen of Scutella Lyeliii from the Eocene of North
Carolina.

7th. Similar casts of Polythalamia, Tubuli, and of the
cavities of Corals, and spines of Echinus, were found abun-
dantly in a whitish hmestone adhering to a specimen of Ostrea
selleformis from the Eocene of South Carolina.

The last two specimens scarcely gave any indications of the
presence of Greensand before they were treated with dilute
acid, but left an abundant deposit of it when the calcareous

86 BAILEY, ON GREENSAND.,

portions were dissolved out. All the above mentioned spe-
cimens contained well-preserved and perfect shells of Poly-
thalamia. It appears from the above, that the occurrence of
well-defined organic casts, composed of Greensand, is by no
means rare in the fossil state.

I come now to the main object of this paper, which is to
announce that the formation of precisely similar Greensand
and other casts of Polythalamia, Mollusks, and Tubuli, is
now going on in the deposits of the present ocean. In an
interesting report by Count F. Pourtales, upon some speci-
mens of soundings obtained by the U. 8. Coast Survey in
the exploration of the Gulf Stream (see ‘ Report of U. 8.
Coast Survey,’ for 1853, Appendix, p. 83), the sounding, from
Lat. 31° 32’, Long. 79° 35’, depth 150 fathoms, is mentioned
as “a mixture in about equal proportions of Globigerma and
black sand, probably greensand, as it makes a green mark
when crushed on paper.’ Having examined the specimen
alluded to by M. Pourtales, besides many others from the
Gulf Stream and Gulf of Mexico, for which I am indebted to
Prof. A. D. Bache, the Superintendent of the Coast Survey,
I have found that not only is Greensand present at the above
locality, but at many others, both in the Gulf Stream and
Gulf of Mexico, and that this Greensand is often in the form
of well-defined casts of Polythalamia, mmute Mollusks, and
branching Tubuli, and that the same variety of the petrify-
ing material is found as in the fossil casts, some being well-
defined Gr eensand, others reddish, brownish, or almost white.
In some cases I have noticed a single cell, of a spiral Poly-
thalamian cast, to be composed of “Greensand, while all the
others were red or white, or vice versa.

The species of Polythalamia whose casts are thus preserved,
are easily recognisable as identical with those whose perfectly
preserved shells form the chief part of the soundings. That
these are of recent species is proved by the facts that some of
them still retain their brilliant red colourmg, and that they
leave distinct remains of their soft parts when treated with
dilute acids. It is not to be supposed, therefore, that these
casts are of extinct species washed out of ancient submarine
deposits. They are now forming in the muds as they are
deposited, and we have thus now going on in the present
seas a formation of Greensand by processes precisely analogous
to those which produced deposits of the same material as long
ago as the Silurian epoch. In this connection, it is im-
portant to observe that Ehrenberg’s observations and my
own establish the fact that other organic bodies than Poly-
thalamia produce casts of Greensand ; and it should also be

OSBORNE, ON VEGETABLE GROWTHS. 87

stated that many of the grains of Greensand accompanying
the well-defined casts are of wholly unrecognisable forms,
having merely a rounded, cracked, lobed, or even coprolitic
appearance. Certamly many of these masses, which often
compose whole strata, were not formed either in the cavities
of Polythalamia or Mollusks. The fact, however, being esta-
blished beyond a doubt, that Greensand does form casts in
the cavities of various organic bodies, there is a great pro-
babilty that all the masses of this substance, however
irregular, were formed in connection with organic bodies ;
and that the chemical changes accompanying the decay of
the organic matter have been essentially connected with the
deposits in the cavities, of green and red silicates of iron, and
of nearly pure silica. It is a curious fact in this connection,
that the siliceous organisms, such as the Diatomacez, Polycis-
tineee, and Spongiolites, which accompany the Polythalamia
in the Gulf Stream, do not appear to have any influence in
the formation of casts.

The discovery by Professor Ehrenberg, of the connection
between organic bodies and the formation of Greensand, is
one of very great interest, and is one of the many instances
which he has given to prove the extensive agency of the
minutest beings m producing geological changes.

Further OpsERVATIONS on VEGETABLE GROWTH.
By the Hon. and Rev. Stpnry GopoL_pHin OsBorne.

Ir may interest the readers of the ‘ Journal’ to know that
further observation has given me a deeper insight into the
structure of the wheat plant in the earliest stage of its
growth. I find there is a “circulation” in every one of the
long suckers put forth from the roots; it may be seen very
plainly under a power of 800. Although I can trace it with
ease along the outer edge of each sucker, running from the
root towards the blunt point, I cannot trace any current re-
turning towards the root.

In the case of the spiral fibre in the early plumule, I now
find it to have im every case its own investment ; that, in fact,
it is within a tube of very thin cellular texture. By careful
management of the light, lines running vertically the whole
length of this tube can be seen; I presume these to be the
outlines of a fine wall of cells, of which this tube is formed.
The coils of fibre, if attached at all to this tube, are only
partially so, as I have succeeded by pressure in extending a

88 OSBORNE, ON VEGETABLE GROWTHS.

coil without disturbing im any way the tube itself. That they
exercise considerable pressure upon the tube, at the points
where the coils are close, is quite evident by the extension
that they there clearly give to it.

Although I have failed in every endeavour to make out the
existence of spiral fibre in the grain of wheat, in other vege-
tables I can clearly trace it, but only im the embryo seed. A
very fine section of a young “ vegetable marrow,” made so as
to pass through the embryo seeds, will show coils of spiral
fibre passing from the flesh of the fruit into these seeds ; and
at the narrow extremities of each seed, it can with ease be
made out with a power of 500. The embryo seeds are, in
fact, connected with the fruit by a small bundle of this fibre.
I believe this to be the case with the wheat, and I have little
doubt but that a careful dissection of the attachment of each
grain in an ear of such corn, made at the time when the
grains are just assuming their form, would prove it.

I have been much interested by a continued close study of
the “double ovate” vesicles to be ever found imbedded in
the plasm im which, if not from which, the root cells of the
wheat root are formed. I have the strongest impression that
these are the earliest organisms of plant life, so far, at least,
as the roots of plants are concerned. I will not now hazard
the publication of all the extraordinary features I have ob-
served in them; one, however, not the least extraordinary, I
will mention. JI have now preparations of the formative
matter of the wheat root, sealed hermetically more than six
months since, and floating in “ Thwaites’s fluid,” the double
ovate cells of which are in as active a motion at this time as
they were the day I put them up from the growing root. By
the use of the twelfth power B eye-piece, and good light,
they may be seen to have taken up the pigment in which I
have grown the plants; indeed, I am now satisfied it is by
their close aggregation within the cells of the roots, that I
get the rich colour I do, when the plants are grown in
coloured media. The divisions of my micrometer eye-piece,
with the twelfth power, as given me by Mr. Ross, are +355
(0:000074). One of these active vesicles will occupy rather
more than one of these divisions. The movement of these
minute bodies is very different from the molecules of gamboge
and other substances; I have never seen anything the least
resembling it, except in preparations I have made from pre-
pared glasses, exposed for a time to the atmosphere in the
early days of summer, when the air is full of spores.

What life it is I know not, but I believe it to be positively

life.

( 89 )

On Stetatep Muscutar Fisres in the Sxin of the HuMANn
Liv. By Dr. Woopnam Wess, Lecturer on Histology
at the Grosvenor Place School of Medicine, London.
(Plate VII, fig. 16.)

KOLLIKER, Eylandt, Henle, and Lister have accurately
enough described the unstriped muscular fibres connected with
the hair-sheaths and sebaceous glands in the scalp and other
parts of the skin. These are now well known by the signifi-
cant name of Arrectores pili, given to them by Eylandt.
Huxley has also figured branched muscular fibres of the
striated kind attached to the vibrisse of the rat. But no
notice has yet been published of a series of striped fibres and
bundles of fibres existing in the human lip, and having there
corresponding relations and actions. Such, however, may be
found proceeding, in numerous small groups, from the orbicu-
laris oris, and passing outwards through the corium. These
minute bundles of muscular fibre are thrown off from the
outer layer of the orbicularis oris, and are to be traced in
compact masses to the base of the hair-sheaths and sebaceous
glands. At this point the fibres separate, spread themselves
over the surface of the gland, form more or less close attach-
ments to the membrane investing the glandular structure,
and appear to interlace with each other. Above the gland,
they are reduced to the condition of independent fibres,
diverge somewhat widely, so that those from adjoining glands
cross each other, and continuing outwards, gradually lose their
striated character ; becoming at the same time much smaller.
They ultimately merge into the connective tissue which forms
the basement membrane of the papille, im the same manner
as the muscular fibre of the tongue is described by Dr.
Hyde Salter to pass directly into the bundles of the sub-
mucous connective tissue. It has not been observed that
any of these ultimate fibres are branched; nor are there
any traces of the coexistence of non-striated muscular ap-
pendages. The points of attachment below, around, and
above the glands and hair-sheaths, sufficiently explain the
action of these muscles ; the nature of the part in which they
are situated accounts for the deviation in the arrangement
of the respective structures from that prevailing elsewhere ;
and it may easily be understood how, though so small indi-
vidually, these muscles, by their conjoint action, assist in
determining the expression of the parts about the mouth.

( 90 )

TRANSLATIONS.

AueGaruM UNICELLULARIUM GENERA nova et minus cognita,
premissis OBSERVATIONIBUS de ALeis UNICELLULARIBUS
im genere.

New and less known Genera of Untcretiutar Ate, preceded
by OBsERVATIONS respecting UNICELLULAR ALG& im general.
By Augex. Braun. (Lipsiz, 1855; with six Plates.)

Continued from No. XVII, p. 16.

In one respect only does the question appear to require
more strict definition, a careful distinction should be made
between Alge which are unicellular only in the looser sense
of the term, and those which have a more direct title to the
name; for several genera of Alge (among the Palmellacee,
Desmidiacee, and Diatomacee), though formed indeed of
isolated cells, or of cells loosely connected merely by a gela-
tinous matter, nevertheless exhibit a vegetative division of
the cells, by means of which they are multiplied through a
more or less extended series of generations, until the cycle of
vegetation terminates in the production of gonidia or of
spores. In these genera, therefore, as in the multicellular
Alga, divers generations of cells are to be distinguished :—
1, ordinal,* which by their conjunction constitute the vege-
tating individual, either continuous, or broken up and dis-
sected into parts (individuals of a lower order) ; and 2, car-
dinal,+ by which fructification is accomplished, and the tran-
sition to a new series of ordinal cells effected. It is obvious,
therefore, that Alge of this kind, since they really pass
through a multicellular vital cycle, and are unicellular only
in appearance (pseudo-unicellular), must, im a_ biological
sense, be regarded as multicellular ; whence it is readily seen
that they cannot be separated from other multicellular A/ge
formed of contiguous cells, by any strict line of demarcation
either morphological{ or systematic.§ Unicellular Alge, in

* «Reihengenerationen,’ Nag. einz. Algen, p. 25.

+ ‘Uebergangsgeneration,’ ibid. (Schlussgeneration).

t Compare the Diatomacee and solitary Desmidiacee with the catenated
forms: Zetraspora with the Ulve, through 7. bullosa, which is referred _by
Thuret to the Ulvacea, under the name of Monotrema ; compare also Hor-
mospora with Ulotriche, Stichococeus with Hormidium, Synechococcus with
Oseillaria, &e.

§ The Diatomacee and Desmidiacea, placed, according to Nageli’s classi-

BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALG. 91

the wider sense of the term, would be distinguished by a
more essential character, if with them were conjoined all
those which exhibit similar generations of cells, so that aspe-
cific idea is equally represented* in each cell, either free or
united with others. But such a character, if the matter be
more closely scrutinised, is scarcely anywhere really exhibited.
among Alge endowed with the property of vegetative division,
since, at any rate, the cells of the cardinal generation differ
from the rest physiologically and sometimes also morpho-
logically ; and in the cells themselves of the ordinal gene-
rations some differences, which can hardly be regarded as
fortuitous, and chiefly relating to magnitude,t may be ob-
served. It is obvious, therefore, that in all these instances a
specific idea can only be really completed by a certain cycle
of cells. :

The more strictly unicellular Alga, however, present con-
ditions altogether different, their entire and undivided vital
cycle being completed by the continuous evolution of a single
cell. In them there is no division of the cell throughout the
whole course of vegetation, nor any multiplication and diver-
sity of generations, since the same cell successively assumes
the functions of thadlus and of organ of fructification (of gonio-
eyst or sporo-cyst, vulg. “sporangium”’). But among these
also some diversity is presented, by which the forms, in the
strictest sense of the term, unicellular, are separated from
those which, in a certain sense, hold an ambiguous place; for
the unicellular Alge differ with respect to the generation of
the gonidia, which in some is effected by the direct separation
and transformation of the cell-contents,{ and in others is
preceded by a previous repeated act of division. That the
former are unicellular, in the strictest sense of the term, no
one will doubt, since they exhibit no series of generations
within the vital cycle; but the latter, which, after the uni-
cellular state of vegetation, pass through intermediate quasi
multicellular states, in order to complete their fructification,
might be regarded as multicellular A/ge, if indeed the term
cells could properly be applied to those transitory generations,
composed merely of portions of the plasma of the primary

fication, among the unicellular A/ge, are very closely allied to the Zygnema-
cee among the multicellular 4/ge; and in the same way the Chroococcacee
are intimately related to the Wostochinee (in the wider sense).

* Nageli, einz. Alg., pp. 2 and 3.

+ Compare the Diatomacee and Desmidiacee (especially the Closteria), as
well as the Gleocapse, Tetraspore, &c.

+ As in Hydrocytium, Codiolum, Chytridium, Bryopsis, Botrydium, and
Hydrodictyon.

§ In Cystococeus, Characium, and Pediastrum.

MOT. Me I

92 BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALG.

cell (primordial or naked cells as they are termed), scarcely
separated by any proper membranes, and presenting no indi-
cation of vegetative evolution. However this may be, it is
clear that these transitory generations perform the functions
of imperfect gonidia, destined to undergo a second division,
on which account, and from their close similarity m habit*
and other characters, this ambiguous section should perhaps
be referred to the unicellular type, though it cannot be
denied that a connecting lnk with the multicellular Alge
(pseudo-unicellular) is presented im it.

From the unicellular Alge, besides the pseudo-unicellular,
are also to be distinguished those which are typically d-
cellular, producing two heterogeneous cells, one of which
constitutes a thallus, the other a goniocytium or a sporocytium.
These plants have, it.is true, a unicellular thallus, but have
also gonocytia or sporocytia distinct from and exclusive of the
thallus. ‘The simplest state, such as is exhibited in extremely
depauperate specimens of Vaucheria, represents a simple
vegetating cell, terminated above in a single goniocytium.
But generally a more complex bicellular type is exhibited in
those forms, the vegetating cell branching in various ways,
and consequently supporting several fructification-cells, which
differ in different cases, according as they constitute gonidia
and spores. In Codium but one mode of fructification (that
of gonidia, within a goniocytium) is known, whilst m Vau-
cheria, Achlya, and Saprolegnia, a double, or even threefold
kind of fructification may be observed.t

The author is not acquainted with a ¢tricellular type of evo-
lution among the true Alge; but in the mycetoid plants
analogous to Alge ,{ this mode of evolution is manifested
very distinctly in Pilobolus,$ which is truly a tricellular
Jungillus whose thallus is divided into two cells—a root, as
it were, and a stem, which supports a third cell (sporo-
cytium).

* Compare, for instance, Characium with Hydrocytium, Pediastrum with
Hydrodictyon.

+ The corniculate ramules of Vaucheria which accompany the lateral
sporocytia containing hypnospores, from the observations of Karsten (Bot.
Zeit., 1852, p. 86), which, however, should be received with caution, the
author scarcely doubts to be gonzocytia, emitting lesser zoogonidia (micro-
gonidia). [On this point ede Pringsheim’s observations, given in the
‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ vol. iv.}] Hence it will
be perceived that Vaucheria presents a triple apparatus of fructification.

¢ The mucorine /uzgi, amongst which P2/obolus belongs, together with
the closely allied Saproleguie (including Leptomitus lacteus), wholly agree
with the Vaueheriacee (and with the Codiez) in their usually unicellular

thallus, and the endogenous formation of their spores.
§ Cohn, in Nov. Acta Nat. Curios., 23, 1, p, 492, tab. 51.

BRAUN, ON-UNICELLULAR ALG&. 93

- But to return to the true unicellular A/ge. The number
of genera belonging to this class at present known is small,
but amongst them great diversity exists. The greatest care
is requisite in their determination as independent organisms ;
nor should this be decided, unless every stage of their evolu-
tion from beginning to end is known. Especially must we be
careful not to regard the young state of Alge of a higher
order, or depauperate generations (paupercule), as unicel-
lular genera.* Nor, on the other hand, should less caution
be observed not to confound associations of unicellular Alge
with the multicellular. For in several genera of the latter
class the closest and most regular associations of distinct
individuals, which at first are sometimes freely motile, are
met with. ‘These forms are in the highest degree fallacious,
presenting as they do a false resemblance to a cellular texture.
They are well worthy of more particular attention, and a
comparison of them with the families or colonies of the
pseudo-unicellular Alge may not be considered superfluous.
These compound bodies, however, in Alge, more or less
properly speaking unicellular, formed by the association of
cells, are so well treated of by Nageli (‘ Kinz. Algen.,’ p. 24),
as regards their origin, composition, and diversity of form,
that the author has scarcely anything to add beyond certain
distinctions, belonging more especially to unicellular Alge in
the stricter sense of the term. For the associations of Alge,
less properly so termed, or of the pseudo-unicellular class, are
always formed by the vegetative multiplication of cells; and
those of the really unicellular by true propagation: the
former, therefore, merely represent individuals divided into
more or less independent and loosely coherent parts, and
cannot be distinguished by any strict definition from a con-
tinuous thallus; whilst the latter are really constituted of
several individuals distinct from the first. The associations
of pseudo-unicellular Alge are evolved from a single cell
(spore or gonidium) by successive multiplication, the number
of cells gradually increasing through a more or less deter-
minate series of generations; whilst the associations of the
more strictly unicellular Alge, on the contrary, are constituted
of several cells (gonidia), distinct ab origine, the number of
cells never increasing, owing to the absence of any vegetative
division; the former, in fact, constitute families of cells, pro-

* Paupercule of this kind, that is to say, individuals normally depau-
perate, and curiously simulating 1-2 cellular parasitic plants, are produced
in some species of Wdogonium, as well as in Bulbochete, from microgonidia.
Vide Braun, ‘ Rejuvenescence,’ p. 151; Ant. de Bary, in ‘ Mus. Sekenb.,’
1854, pp. 63, 87, t. ii and iv.

94: BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALGA.

ducing, from a single mother-cell, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary, &c., cells up to a certain stage; whilst the latter,
formed, as it were, from sister-cells, and never producing any
offspring admitted mto the society, might rather be termed
cenobia. One exception to this rule only is known to the
author, presented in Sciadium, a strictly unicellular plant, but
which is nevertheless evolved into a true family, formed,
however, not by vegetative multiplication, but by way of
propagation. i

The author, therefore, from the foregomg considerations,
would classify the associations of the lower Alge, according
to their principal differences, in the following manner :

A. An association evolved by successive generations of cells from a single
mother-cell (spore, gonidium): FAMILIA;

a. Cells arising by vegetative division (more or less distinct, but retained
in connection by means of the parent membrane): the family repre-
senting an individual biologically single (a thallus broken up) :

a. Order of cells immutable: Hormospora! Palmodactylon ! Merismo-
pedia! Tetraspora, Gleocapsa, Gleocystis ;
B. Order mutable: Nephroeytium, Gleothece, Aphanothece, Apiocystis.
4. Cells arising by true propagation: FaminIa CRNOBIOTICA, composed
of individuals really distinet : Setadium.
B. Association constituted of several cells (gonidia) originally distinct :
CA&NOBIUM;

a. Constituted of zoogonidia, which become united after a motile stage,
and grow into immotile cells ;

a. Order immutable: Hydrodictyon ;
8. Order mutable: Pediastrum.

5. Of immotile gonidia, which grow into immotile cells ;
a. Order immutable: Scenedesmus, Sorastrum ;
3. Order mutable: Celestrum ?

e. Of immotile gonidia, which change into vibratory cells ;
a. Order immutable: Gonium, Stephanosphera, Synaphia ;
B. Order mutable: Pandorina.

To this arrangement another is subjoined, in which @
synoptical comparative view is given of the differences exhi-
bited in the lower Alge, derived from the simple or multiple
generation of cells described above :

A. MonocytiwE&, or Unicellulares, exhibiting a unicellular vital cycle :
a. True, or unicellular in the strictest sense of the term ; no transitional
generations of gonidia ;

a. Lremobie, growing with a solitary cell: Protococcus, Nig., Hydre-
cytium, Codiolum, Ophiocytium, Polyedrium ? (Chytridium) ;

BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALG. 95

8. Cenobie, the unicellular individuals associated into a cenobium
(pseudo-multicellular) : Hydrodéctyon ;
y. Synoicobia, associated into families (pseudo-multicellular): Setadiwm:
6. Ambiguous, #.e. forming gonidéa by means of transitional generations,
and indicating the transition to the multicellular d/ge :
a. Eremobie, as above: Cystucoccus, Charucium ;

B. Cenobiea, as above: Pediastrum, Scenedesmus, Gonium, Pandorina,
Stephanosphera, Synaphia.

B. Ouicocytiwe, the vital cycle limited to few cells; cells, two or three,
heterogeneous.
a. Bicellular: Codium, Vaucheria (Saprolegnia, Achlya) ;
4. Tricellular: Pilobolus.

C. Potycyripr%, or multicellular, the vital cycle including many cells:
4. Homeocytidee, cells (the vegetative at any rate) subsimilar :
a, Schizocytidee, cells more or less separate from each other (pseudo-
unicellular) :
* Choristobia, cells quite separate: Navicula, Closterium, Pleurococcus,
Chroococeus.

** Syaecobia, cells loosely connected by gelatinous envelopes, asso-
ciated into families: Schizonema, Hormospora, Palmodactylon,
_ Palmetia, Hydrurus.

6. Synechocytidee, cells contiguous (the family of cells becoming a
continuous ¢hallus): Himantidium, Desmidium, Spirogyra, Oscatl-
laria.

4. Neterocytide, cells obviously differing in nature: Nostoc, Cylindrospo-
rum, Rivularia, Qdogonium, Bulbochate, &e.

In this classification, the first section (A) alone contains
Alge, in the author’s opinion, truly unicellular, although
Alge, unicellular according to Nageli’s definition, are in-
cluded in sections A, B, and C, a, a and # (in part). It need
scarcely be remarked, however, that all the sections in this
classification taken from single characters are merely artificial,
and do not correspond with families founded upon a real and
intimate affinity. Nor, indeed, would it seem that all uni-
cellular Alge, in the stricter sense of the term, are of neces-
sity so closely allied as to be included in a single and peculiar
tribe; points, the discussion of which is reserved till the
description of each genus is given.

Some observations remain to be made respecting the ter-
minology of the Alge. The vegetative substance of the
Alga, as regards the varieties of forms, has received various
appellations, but by Kiitzing it has been termed in general
phycoma, for which the author would substitute phyioma, a

96 CIENKONESKI’S REMARKS ON DR. STEINS’S

term extending to the vegetative substance of all plants.
Were the term phycoma to be admitted, the phytomata of
other classes of plants would also require to be designated by
special names, e.g., for the Fungi mycoma, for the Mosses
bryoma, for the Ferns pteridoma, would have to be adopted,
which the author regards as superfluous, since only two
kinds of phytomata need be distinguished on morphological
grounds, viz., phytoma cormodes for the phanerogamous and
higher cryptogamous plants, and phytoma thallodes for the
lower cryptogams. The author, therefore, thinks it would be
right to employ the term thallus to designate the vegetative
body of both the Lichens and Fungi.

The cell is by him expressed by the Greek term cyfis,
which is also employed by others, whence the derivatives
cytioblastus, cytioplasma, cytioderma.

(To be continued.)

Remarks on Dr. Ste1n’s Doctrine respecting the AcINETA-
Forms. By Dr. H. Crenxowsk1.

(From the ‘Bulletin de la Classe Physico-Mathematique de lAcademie
Imperiale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg,’ January, 1855.)

Srern’s observations respecting the Infusoria have justly
excited great astonishment among the micrographers. The
wonderful phenomena of “ Alternation of Generations” have
been represented by this observer as occurring more exten-
sively among the Protozoa than perhaps in any other class of
animals. The Vorticellina, in consequence of a process of
“encysting,” are transformed into Acinete, and these again
into Vorticelle, by means of internal motile embryos, which
‘are emitted from them.

In order to arrive at an independent judgment with re-
spect to these Acineta-forms, I have examined the followmg
species: Podophyra fixa, Ehr., the Acineta connected with
it, and Vorticella microstoma, Ehr. Now, if the doctrine be
substantial and not merely hypothetical, two important state-
ments should be borne out by facts ; viz., the transition of the
Vorticelle into Podophrye, and, secondly, the transformation
of the offspring of the Podophrye into Vorticelle.

Stein arrived at the former conclusion by comparing
Podophrye remaining at an early stage of development with
metamorphosed Vorticella-cysis. Among Podophrye of the

DOCTRINE OF THE ACINETA-FORMS. 97

common form, others not unfrequently presented themselves
whose spherical body was enclosed in a usually wide case,
which was produced into a hollow funnel-shaped peduncle.
This case presented equidistant annular constrictions, alter-
nating with acute, parallel, angular ridges. Most of the
individuals in this condition were unarmed; but occasion-
ally Stein noticed them to be furnished with numerous capi-
tate tentacles.

On the other hand, Stein observed that, in the older cysts
of Vorticella microstoma, the enclosed parent-vesicle had
undergone a change. Its naturally smooth, even surface,
almost everywhere closely fitted to the cavity of the cyst,
was in many places separated from the cyst-wall and de-
pressed towards the interior, in deep sinuosities, whilst in
other parts the parent-cyst was protruded into caeca—which
from their considerable size impinged with such force against
the wall of the cyst, that it appeared as if they were endea-
vouring to rupture it.

These metamorphosed stages of the Vorticella-cysts, as
Stem further remarks, appeared to merge imperceptibly into
the above-described undeveloped conditions of the Podo-
phrye ; it being assumed that the vesicular dilatations of
the parent-vesicle within the Vorticella-cysts were only the
commencement of a still greater enlargement of the parent-
vesicle ; whose forcible extension ultimately ruptured the
walls of the contaiming cyst. In cases where the cyst is dis-
tended uniformly by the parent-vesicle contained within it
which would happen when the cyst is free all round—the
Vorticella-cyst with its contents would of course be trans-
formed into an Actinophrys; but when this uniform disten-
sion in all directions is in any way prevented, in consequence
of the cyst being attached to some solid substance, all the
Vorticella-cysts would be transformed into Pedophrye, sup-
ported on longer or shorter peduncles.*

These are the real facts upon which Stein supports the
doctrine of the transformation of Vorticella-cysts into Podo-
phrye. For the circumstance that im infusions containing
cysts of Vorticella microstoma, Podophrye afterwards made
their appearance, can certainly not be regarded as decisive
in favour of the notion which would view the two Infusoria
as standing in any connection of development.

With respect to the second proposition concerning the
transformation of the motile embryo into a Vorticella, Stein
admits that he has not directly observed it, as in spite of

* Stein, ‘ Infusionsthiere.,’ p. 145.

98 CIENKOWSKI'S REMARKS ON DR. STEIN'S

every endeavour he was never able to keep the embryo long
enough in the field of view. ‘The only proof, therefore,
would exist in the extraordinary resemblance of the motile
embryo, in form, ciliation and movement, to the detached
gemmated embryo of Voriicella microstoma.”’ *

My own researches on Podophrya have led to the follow-
ing results :

Podophrya fixa, Ehr., occurred in great abundance in an
infusion containing multitudes of Stylonychia mytilus and
S. pustulata. The spherical body was furnished on all sides
with capitate retractile rays, and fixed on a peduncle, or
free. The peduncle was enlarged on the free extremities,
straight or shghtly curved, and it was as long or longer than
the body.

The contents of the body were m most instances more or
less opaque, coarsely granular, and enclosed a round con-
tractile space, and an oval, straight or curved nucleus ;
which could be perceived only in those individuals in which
the contents were fluid. I could not perceive any mem-
brane surrounding the body. Nearly every specimen of the
Stylonychie was infested with one or several Podophrye.
In proportion as the body of the Stylonychia diminished im
size and broke up, did the colour of the Podophrye become
deeper and deeper, and their size increase. In many indi-
viduals, fed in this way, a shallow circular depression might
be seen surrounding the body equatorially (fig. 1). In
about half an hour this annular constriction had advanced
to complete transverse fission (pl. VII, figs. 2, 3). About ten
minutes afterwards the upper segment had assumed an
elongated form, was more cylindrical, a little indented in the
middle, and rounded at each end; and at the extremities
shght oscillations to the right and left could be perceived
(fig. 3). A transverse and, frequently, curved nucleus was
visible in the fiuid contents, and a lateral contractile space
could be clearly distinguished in the upper parts. The
vibrations increased in frequency and force until the segment
became wholly detached and escaped. During the process
of division both segments were furnished with tentacles ;
but when the oscillations of. the cylindrical portion com-
menced, very fine and short cilia might be seen, though with
difficulty, vibrating on the free end, the tentacles at the
same time being retracted, and remaining visible only on the
posterior segment. 1 now followed uninterruptedly the
movements of the liberated segments. They moved for the

* Stein, l. c., pp. 167, 168.

DOCTRINE OF THE ACINETA-FORMS. 99

most part in curved lines, in the course of which the
motile segment appeared to seek the illuminated side of the
drop of water. Cilia could not be perceived over the whole
surface (fig. 3’). The contractile space during the move-
ments was always in front. The motions were rapid, but
still such as to allow of their being followed with a mag-
nifying power of 370 diam. After waiting patiently for
twenty minutes I saw the motion cease, and at the same
time short tentacles made their appearance, which were pro-
truded more and more, and in a few minutes afterwards the
segment regained the spherical form; thus, after moving
about freely for a time, it was again transformed into a
Podophrya.

This process of division was witnessed by other observers.
It takes place more especially when sufficient nutriment is
supplied by numerous Stylonychie to the Podophrye. The
Podophrya does not always divide into two equal halves—the
segments are more frequently unequal. After repeated divi-
sion the specimens always become more transparent.

If Podophrye are allowed to remain for several days upon
the object-glass, and care is taken not to let the water dry
up, every stage towards the quiescent condition—that is to
say, towards the ‘ encysting””—may be followed.

In Podophrya, this process takes place in the following
manner: On the surface of the body a gelatinous mucous
layer appears to be secreted, through which the tentacles
pass (fig. 4). The tentacles disappear in the neighbourhood
of the peduncle, and the gelatinous layer in this situation
hardens into a loose, transversely plicated membrane ; whilst
at the upper end it is still soft, and the tentacles clearly visi-
ble (fig. 5). Ultimately these also are retracted, and the
entire body of the Podophrya is enveloped in a wide, loose
membrane; the plications are caused by parallel, annular
constrictions, placed at equal distances apart and separated
by circular, angular or rounded ridges; these plications are
in a plane perpendicular to the peduncle. At the summit of
the Podophrya, and often also at the base, the membrane
presents deep depressions (figs. 7, 6); the enclosed body
of the Podophrya acquires on its surface a sharply defined
smooth membrane; whilst the contents of the body become
somewhat opaque, enclosing a round clear space (figs. 6, 7,8).
The Podophrya-cyst thus formed is supported by a peduncle,
which is widened at the base. In many instances in which
the membrane was not plicated, but loosely enclosed the
Podophrya like a sac, I noticed that the peduncle of the cyst
was continued uninterruptedly into the membrane, of which

100 CIENKOWSKI'S REMARKS ON DR. STEIN’S

consequently it must be regarded as a protrusion, and that
it had no connection whatever with the original slender
peduncle of the Podophrya itself. In fact, I noticed cysts in
which this original slender peduncle was appended to the
saccular envelope (fig. 8). I am unable, therefore, to adopt
Stein’s view that the Podophrye are enclosed in a mem-
brane, of which the slender peduncle is simply a tubular
protrusion.* This is true only with respect to the short
peduncle of the encysted Podophrye.

What afterwards becomes of the cysts I have been unable,
in spite of observations continued for months, to determine.t

Comparison of my fig. 5 with that of Stem (1. ¢., pl. iv,
fig. 31), will remove all doubt as to their representing
identical forms. These forms, as has been mentioned, are
regarded by Stein as transitional stages from the Vorticella-
cysts into Podophrye. I have traced their derivation, step
by step, in the same specimens, from Podophrye ; they are,
most certainly, not metamorphosed Vorticella-cysts, but
the commencement of the encysting of a Podophrya,—
Podophryet are not formed out of them, but, on the contrary,
from the latter arise the forms above described, which
Stein looks upon as Podophrye remaining at an early stage
of development. The metamorphosed contents of older Vor-
ticella-cysts, regarded by Stein as the first commencement
of the formation of a Podophrya, indicate, according to what
1 have seen in other infusorial cysts,$ and to what Stein
himself states, with regard to Vorticella microstoma, the
commencement of the breaking up of the entire contents
into numerous smaller “ swarm’’-cells.

I now proceed to show the relations of the motile embryo.

In a watch-glass in which I kept a great many specimens
of Hydra fusca in water, numerous Acinete occurred in the
mucoid deposit, which could in no respect be distinguished
from those represented in Stein’s figures 28, 38, 41, pl. iv.
They were oval, spherical, or two- to four-lobed bodies ; in
the spherical forms the long slender tentacles were usually
grouped in two opposite bundles ; in the lobed forms often

* Stein, l.c., p. 144.

+ The Podophrya-cysts have been described by Dr. Weisse under the
name of Orcula trochus. ‘ Bull. de la Classe phys. math.,’ t. v, No. 15;
t. vi, No. 23.

£ Sic in origine. [ Vorticelle?]

§ I have observed the formation of several cells in the cysts in S/ylonychia
pustulata, S. mytilus, and Nassula ambigua. In the latter, these cells con-
stitute protrusions, and their entire contents break up into numerous, mo-
tile, monadiform corpuscles.

DOCTRINE OF THE ACINETA-FORMS. 101

seated upon wart-like eminences. The contents were clear,
fluid or grumous, enclosing from one to four contractile
spaces. Most of these Acinete were without peduncles, and
had no limitary membrane, although numerous specimens
might be seen with a short peduncle and imbedded in a
mucoid thick envelope; and this was especially observed
when the Acinete had lived for about a week on the object-
glass (figs. 9, 10). Although numerous points of relation
exist between these Acineta-forms and Podophrya fixa, Khr.,
I am, nevertheless, unable to determine whether they should
be regarded as identical, or, with Stein, whether Podophrya
and Actinophrys should be considered as the extreme links
in the morphological cycle of one and the same species.*
The peduncle of an Acineta is a tubular elongation of the
enveloping membrane; whilst, in the membraneless Podo-
phrya, it is an independent formation. When the Podo-
phrye are left in water for a few days upon the object-glass,
they form the very characteristic pedunculate cysts, but
under the same conditions I have never been able to follow
the Acineta-forms now in question to the formation of cysts ;
the former multiply by division—whilst, in the Acinete, I
have never noticed the occurrence of that process. What
Stein describes as <Actinophrys is really a non-pedunculate
Acineta ; the Actinophrye have no tentacles, but sete, though
perhaps occasionally some of these setz are capitate. In
almost every specimen of the Acinete in question, might be
seen rotating a round or oval embryo, of various size and
position, with one or two contractile spaces (fig. 9). This
embryo slowly approached the wall of the Acineta, caused it
to protrude a little outwards, and, after remaining for a short
time quiescent, it slowly made its way through the wall, and
quitted the parent site with the rapidity of lightning, when
it had freed about half of itself. This rapidity was so great
that the course could not be traced with a magnifying power
of 170 diam. (fig. 10). About five minutes elapsed from
the commencement of perceptible motion to the complete
liberation of the embryo; and on many occasions I saw |
two rotating embryos liberated in succession. When the
embryo is half out of the parent-cyst, a transverse ring of
very fine vibratile cilia may be perceived at a short distance
from its summit. I was prevented from further pursuing
this observation, which was made in June, and it was not
before November that I found the same Acinete, but in far
smaller numbers.

* Stein, |. c., p. 143.

102 CIENKOWSKIS REMARKS ON DR. STEIN’S

After waiting for a few weeks in vain, I at last noticed
individuals contaiing rotating embryos. But the motion
was very slow, and the embryo often reached the surface of
the Acineta without its being able to make way through it,
in which case it perished. The number of rotatmg embryos
gradually increased, and their liberation, although very slow
(half to three quarters of an hour), may be frequently wit-
nessed. The half-freed embryo in these cases also moved
off with extraordinary rapidity. I determined to follow the
embryo in its hasty wanderings, and actually to convince
myself of the supposed transformation into a Vorticella.

I endeavoured in the first place to retain as many full-
grown specimens of Acineta, as possible, upon the object-glass,
so as not to be interrupted by any deficiency in the number of
“motile”? embryos. I employed in the inquiry a simple
microscope of low power. Having fixed a large <Acineta
containing a rotating embryo, I witnessed the liberation of
the latter, and followed it—by moving the object-glass—step
by step.

The embryo traversed the drop of water from one side to
the other, in divers straight and undulating lines, as quick
as lightning. Upon meeting a mass of mucus or the edge
of the drop, it bounced back again—repeating the manceuvre
on each occasion of the same kind; sometimes, though more
rarely, the movement was circular around the margin of
the drop.

Judging from what I had noticed in the division of the
Podophrye, I expected that the movement would not be of
long duration. But after a continuous observation for fully
five hours of the active motions of the tiny brilliant point, a
determination of blood to the head obliged me to desist.

A fresh drop of the infusion, in which two embryos were
in active motion, was observed at intervals of a quarter of an
hour. At the end of five hours the rapidity of the move-
ment was notably diminished—it became tremulous, and
then perhaps for a time as rapid and energetic as before. I
now placed the object under the compound microscope, and
continued my observation of the indefatigable embryo for
another quarter of an hour ; the embryo became stationary—
I awaited with drawn breath what would come next: its
form from oval became spherical; at the border appeared
short, thick, equidistant rays, which after awhile were
developed into elongated, capitate tentacles (figs. 11, 12) ;
the contractile space was visible—and I could not longer
doubt as to the Acineta nature of the creature. This obser-
vation was twice repeated.

DOCTRINE OF THE ACINETA-FORMS., 103

It can, therefore, no longer be doubted that from the
Acineta-embryo, after a prolonged motile stage, another
Acineta is formed. My observations do not, of course, show
that it is impossible that the motile Acineta-embryo should
be transformed into a Vorticella, and a Vorticella-cyst into
an Acineta ; but the field of possibilities is very wide, every-
thing is possible if it only be founded on facts. I believe,
therefore, that it may justly be concluded that Stein’s
Acineta-doctrine, as concerns Vorticella microstoma, Ehr.,
must be regarded as fyvothetical, and not based upon
facts.

_ VARIOUS DIMENSIONS.
Diameter of the so ce : . 004 —0:07m.

Length of peduncle . : - 0:025—0°05m.
Thickness of ditto. : . 0:005m.
Length of divisional embryo. , . 0:075m.
Breadth of ditto F : . 006m.
Diameter of the cyst : . 0:05—0°08m.
Length of peduncle of cyst . : . 003m.
Thickness of same at the cyst . 0:025m.

Diameter of enclosed globular body . . 0:05m.

( 104 )

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

The Infusoria—Great uncertainty still prevails with respect
to the internal organs of these forms, and from the details
recently published regarding them (chiefly abroad), it appears
that a more intimate knowledge of their physiology tends to
show that, although not so highly organized as they were
represented by Ehrenberg, they are not so simple in their
internal structure as they were supposed to be by some later
observers.

Under these circumstances, I may be allowed briefly to
submit the chief results of my observations during the past
twelve months, so far as they bear upon the subject under
consideration.

Alimentary vesicles—Having repeatedly watched the in-
gestion of food, both with and without adding indigo to the
water in which the Infusoria were contained, I have fre-
quently observed—lst. The alimentary particles, which are
driven in by the action of the oral cilia, and are accompanied
by more or less water, enter the gullet, accumulate just
beyond its termination within the body, and there form a
ball. This ball, as is well known, sinks into the body after
it has attained a certain size. 2d. That the globules or balls
thus formed appear fixed in Glaucoma, &c., and to rotate in
Nassula, &c., as mentioned in your number of last January.
But I would now add, that in the former types they also
move, but so slowly, that their motion is only perceived after
long and careful observation. 38d. Sometimes, when there
have been but few particles of mdigo, I have seen the globule
formed by the admission of water, and within that globule
small particles of indigo rotated rapidly so long as the
process of formation continued; but as soon as the globule
sank into the body, the rotation ceased. This must not be
considered as a proof that the action of the oral cilia is
constant and mechanical; for I have often seen Glaucoma
scintillans with its body as clear as crystal, and perfectly free
from food-globules or any vesicles, excepting the contractile
vesicle. The alimentary vesicles appear to get rid of their
contents gradually, the refuse passing through the anal
orifice, wherever that may be situated.

Contractile vesicles.—Of the various theories that formerly
existed concerning these organs, two opposite ones still

MEMORANDA. 105

remain. By some microscopists they are regarded as por-
tions of a water-vascular system—these observers believing
that they have found an external opening communicating
with the water; by others they are supposed to form a
rudimentary circulating system (heart), by which the liquid
produced from the digestion of food is circulated through the
body ; my own present view will be gathered from the follow-
ing observations :

The contractile vesicle I have almost invariably found to
be near the surface of the body.

Glaucoma scintillans is furnished with one central vesicle,
and when that contracts, it forces the fluid into others which
appear to be temporarily formed around it; these in their
turn amalgamate and form the central vesicle by fusing their
contents together. This, I believe, to be the whole circula-
tion in the form named, and I do not find in this case that
the surrounding vesicles have any outlets or canals as de-
scribed by Lieberkuhn. The central vesicle 1 have almost
always found to be on the side furthest removed from the
object-lens (the animalcule appears to move in this position),
and the auxiliary vesicles are formed inwards—i. e., the fluid
rises into the body, and there forms the vesicles. This may
be tested by raising the object-lens whilst the central vesicle
is contracting, and depressing it when the amalgamation
takes place (of the smaller vesicles). I believe that my ob-
servation in this respect is accurate, as I have frequently
repeated it, and am therefore somewhat inclined to regard
the contractile vesicle as a heart; that it should be near the
surface is natural, and by bringing the nutritive fluid into
close contact with the water, it renders the admission of that
medium into the body unnecessary. The nutritive fluid seems
to alternate between the central and surrounding vesicles.

In Paramecium caudatum, a species of Amphileptus, a
freed Vorticella, &c. I have frequently and clearly traced
the canals that empty themselves into the contractile vesicle.
In the second-named species, these canals were very per-
ceptible; they proceeded along the edge of the body where
the cilia were the most active (also probably because there
the current of fresh water would be constantly renewed), and
at the embouchure into the central vesicle, swelled into a
bulb-shape. In the Vorticella, the contractile vesicle had a
canal which communicated either with the external surface,
through the oral aperture, or passed round the oral wreath.
I was inclined to believe the latter to be the case (perhaps
my bias may have influenced the observation).

106 MEMORANDA.

In certain Infusoria there appears to be a more active vital
power than in others. Thus, in Glaucoma, Vorticella, &c.,
the food-balls move very slowly, whilst in more highly
organized types the motion is more rapid. In the former
(especially such as are probably larval forms), the contractile
vesicle appears to have the power only to form a row of
auxiliary vesicles around it; whilst in Amphileptus (which _
approaches the Planarians in its character), the Setifera or
bristle-bearers, and other types, it is more powerful, and the
fiuid is ejected with sufficient force to work its way into the
body, and form canals, or arteries, however primitive they
may be. The progressive vitality I have often noticed in the
same form at different stages of its growth.

The foregoing remarks are not made for the purpose of
pushing forward my own views and opinions, for these must
necessarily become changed or modified as the science pro-
gresses ; but with a view to direct observation to the subject,
and obtain for it a greater share of the attention of English
microscopists than has hitherto been bestowed upon it.—
JamMus SAMUELSON.

When are Diatoms common in a Slide ?— All who have
received gatherings of diatoms have been frequently puzzled
by the observations which accompanied them in regard to
the scarcity or abundance of a particular species; and it
appears to me that some law on the subject would be of
essential service, and might save many from disappointment.
Unless it be mentioned that the species sought is only to be
met with in the heavier or lighter portions, it is understood that
the average is intended, as obtained by shaking the little
tube in which the preparation or “boiling” is kept; and
with that understanding, the following observations will
indicate the principles on which more definite terms may
be founded.

Dr. Gregory, in last number of the ‘ Micr. Soc. Trans.,’
enumerates 304 species found in the Glenshira Sand, of
which, however, a few appear not to be diatoms ; some sup-
posed new, seem (if one may judge from the descriptions
and figures) to be only varieties of well-known species, and
others are of that extreme scarcity as not to form 7345 per
cent. of the preparation, and therefore are to be seen in few
of the slides; on no one slide can there be said to be 200
species. Again, according to Smith’s Synopsis of Diato-
mace, there appear to about 500 species in Great Britain ;
as nearly one half of these are marine, the rest from fresh

MEMORANDA. ’ 107

water, and as we cannot expect all of each sort to be present
in a gathering, the above number (200) is an ample allow-
ance, and I myself have never seen so many in a slide.

Assuming this to be the probable number, each species
ought to occupy a space equivalent to the z3sth part of the
area allowed for diatoms, or portion protected by the cover.
As the specimens should not be crowded, I hope that I
make a liberal allowance for a vacancy, when I ask only
the ;3,th part of the whole area to be devoted to any one
species, in order that it may have as much space allotted to
it as to the others; when, therefore, it occupies the =1,th
part, it ought to be called neither “common” nor “ rare.”
To this line there may be allowed a margin, so I propose
that when a species occupies from the 35th to the ,94,th
part, it may be denominated as above; and this may be con-
veniently divided into those which oceupy from the 53,th to
the =2,th, and from the =!,th to the ,,1,,th part; the former
receiving the name of “not common,” the latter of “not
rare.’ In the same way from jth to 53,th may be
called “‘ common,” and from ;/55th to z jy5pth “ rare ;” beyond
these extremes, on either side, we have “ very common,”
and “very rare.”

To apply this: If the cover be about half an inch =°5 in
diameter, the area of diatoms is *5 x ‘5 x °7854 = °2 nearly ;
in which case, if a species does not occupy 3355 = ‘00004,
it is “very rare;” from that to ‘0002 “rare;” from that
to ‘0004 “not rare,” from that to ‘001 “not common,”
from which to ‘005 “ common,” and if more copious, “ very
common.” In measuring any diatom, it is sufficient to multi-
ply together the length and greatest breadth, allowing the
vacancy caused by its not having a rectilinear figure to be
added to the vacancy already mentioned. If we now take
Campylodiscus costatus, its length and breadth in the un-
twisted state is about ‘003, and its surface, got in the
way just alluded to, ‘00001 nearly; hence dividing by this
number, we get less than 4 frustules when “very rare”
(v.r.), in a slide, from 4 to 20 when “rare” (r.), from 20
to 50 when “not rare” (mr.), 50 to 100 when “ not
common” (z.c.), and from 100 to 500 when “common”
(c.) In Ewunotia tetraodon, the average length is about
‘002, and breadth :001, and surface ‘000002 ; hence, when
there are not 29994 = 20 under a cover half an inch in
diameter, it is “very rare,” from 20 to 100 “rare,” and
soon. In Navicula cryptocephala, the average surface is
‘0011 x 00035 = -0000004 nearly; so when there are

VOL. V. K

108 MEMORANDA.

not 29994, = 100 in the slide, it must be accounted
“very rare;”’ above 100, but not exceeding 500, “rare”

only, this giving almost one to every field of a “4” object-
lass.

? And this leads me to observe that when the specimens are
small, or so numerous that they are entitled to be called
“common,” they ought to be seen in every field of a “34”
object-glass ; and then we may decide on the appellation to
be given by counting those observed in the field at one time,
or by taking an average of two or three fields. The object-
glass I employ has, with a low eye-piece, a field of -02 inch
in diameter, and therefore an area of about 0003 nearly ;
hence to be “not common,” each species ought to occupy
from °%°03 to 9903, that is from ‘0000006 to ‘0000015 ; and
to be “common” from ‘0000015 to 0000075. In the case
of Campylodiscus costatus already mentioned, its area is
‘00001 ; and as the greatest of these numbers (0000075),
divided by ‘00001, only gives *75 or 3, only three specimens
may be expected in four fields of view; and therefore,
although one only occurs in every field, the species ought to be
esteemed “very common.” In Eunotia tetraodon, the sur-
face is ‘000002; hence, when there are from one to four in
the field at once, it may be called “common,” more than
that “very common.” Navicula cryptocephala has a surface
of 0000004; and as ‘9999996 — 3; go, unless are there at least
three specimens to every two fields of view, the species must
be held as only “not rare,” if, mdeed, it be not “rare,”
or “very rare,” when we must have recourse to the area of
the cover.

A very slight practice will render the actual calculation
unnecessary ; but there ought to be some check, for many slides
sold are almost worthless, from not containing specimens of
the species labelled, and for which it is purchased, in a suffi-
cient number to illustrate its variations.—A.

The Microscope as a means of Diagnosis.—Singular case of
Intestinal Concretions.—The value of the microscope as a
means of diagnosis is now universally acknowledged by every
medical man. Many are the instances I could enumerate,
in which, without its assistance, no clear or definite opinion
could be arrived at. Among the many cases which have
come under my observation, the followmg one may not be
uninteresting, as I know of no other similar case, save one
mentioned by our esteemed friend, Mr. Quekett, in his first
volume on ‘ Histology.’ I give you the history of the case

MEMORANDA. ; 109

as detailed to me by Dr. Wilkinson, of Manchester, under
whose care the patient was placed, and to whose kindness I
am indebted for the account.

R. L—, aged 52 years, a power-loom weaver, has never
been the subject of any ailment until four years ago; in
fact, he does not remember ever having had a day’s illness.
At that time he suffered slightly from indigestion, felt some
uneasiness at the pit of the stomach, with at times, though
rarely, actual pain. The food taken frequently returned at
intervals, varying from ten minutes to two or even four hours
after ingestion. The vomit, if retained for some houwrs, pre-
sented the appearance of butter-milk and treacle. He never
vomited except when the stomach contained food; but he
was subject to frequent eructations of a small quantity of
clear fluid, intensely acid; sufficiently so to set the teeth on
edge, and to produce even a shudder at the recollection.
About this time he perceived a hard body directly below the
ensiform cartilage, but somewhat to the right side, lying as
it were between the depending point of the cartilage and the
right costal cartilages. He judged that the lump he felt
was a hard substance about the size of a hen’s egg. He
felt this lump pass down along the course of the duodenum
and intestines, until it arrived in the left hypochondriac
region. A short time after this it was passed by stool, being
several weeks after he had first noticed it. The whole of the
time he had severe and continued pain; and after it had
passed, per rectum, he suffered for thirteen hours severely.
Sixteen days afterwards another concretion was passed; and
at the end of sixteen days more one still larger. There were
no other concretions passed for two years, and then another
of a smaller size.

He then felt a hard tumour in the abdomen on the right
of the umbilicus which has since gradually increased; con-
tinuing hard, moveable, and somewhat changes its position,
but does not seem to move along the canal.

The concretions which have been passed have not varied
greatly in appearance being irregularly oval. The one he
presents is hexagonal, apparently presenting articular facets
of a lightish brown colour.

He states that he has lived since childhood principally on
oatmeal porridge with treacle, has taken little animal food;
and, during the four years he has been unwell, has taken
magnesia as a purgative. He, however, says that he took no
magnesia before the first concretion was passed.

Such is the case as sent me by my friend with a portion
of the concretion for microscopic analysis. Chemistry and

110 MEMORANDA.

all other means had failed to unravel the mystery of the
composition of this concretion. I macerated a portion of it
for some time in distilled water, expecting to detect
the starch granules of the oat by the polarizing apparatus of
the microscope, but in this I failed. 1 continued the mace-
ration, separating the parts a little with very fine needles,

and at last was able to detect very beautifully masses of the
hairs of the palea of the oat, of which, and the husks of the
oat, the concretion seemed to be entirely made up.

I need say no more, the value of the microscope in this
case is undeniable; and I have only to present you with a
slide and a drawing of the analysis for your own inspection.
—H. Munrogz, M.D., Hull.

On Microscopic Apparatus.—Allow me to call your atten-
tion, and that of your readers, to two little contrivances of
mine, as they may be found useful.

The first is a simple apparatus for illuminating objects
under the microscope ; and will be found particularly of use
when examining Diatomacez. Knowing that there are many
microscopical observers like myself, not able to expend large
sums in accessory apparatus to the microscope, I particularly
recommend it to their notice.

It consists of a plate of glass (s, fig. 1) (an ordinary slider),
three inches by one; to one side of which, in the centre, is
attached, by Canada balsam, a plano-convex lens (L), and this
may be of about one quarter-inch focus. Lenses of different
powers can be used, although I have found one of half-inch
and one of a quarter-inch focus to be the most useful. The
way in which this is used is seen in the first figure. The
rays of light (r) fall on the lens (1), placed on the microscope-
stage (x), so that the flat side is uppermost, upon which is

MEMORANDA. 111

placed the object to be examined. The rays are brought to
a focus (F), at some distance above the object (0), thus giving
an even white light over the whole field of vision, and this I
have found particularly advantageous when using low powers

Fig. 2.

for viewing objects. We can modify this arrangement by
placing the lens below the stage (as in fig. 2), and at a point
where it can be adjusted by a rack and pinion, so that the
rays from it are focussed on the object. However, the first
arrangement I have found the most generally useful. To
- this can be added a diaphragm (fig. 3), which any one can
make for himself, to fit the microscope, of blackened card-
board. The general utility and cheapness of this simple
contrivance will, I think, recommend it to the considera-
tion of all whose purses are not as large as their desire for
knowledge.

I should also mention that I have found this illuminator
particularly useful on dull days, when, by the mirror alone,
only a gray light could be obtained, while, with the addi-
tion of my condensing lens a clear white lght is obtained ;
and, from the reason of most of the rays falling obliquely on
the object, the markings of certain of the Diatomacez can
be easily resolved with it. When the diaphragm (fig. 3) is

V2 MEMORANDA.

added, with its numerous apertures, and which can be varied
to suit the fancy, we get an apparatus which, on important
occasions, will be found to fill the place of the more expen-
sive achromatic condenser.

Fig. 3.

The second contrivance of which I have to speak is a
clasp to hold bottles at the end of the rod with which the
searcher for minute organisms is provided. Many micro-
scopists have found the ordinary contrivances, for this pur-

MEMORANDA. 1138

pose, troublesome or requiring fine workmanship ; and have
been led to invent more simple ones for their own use—thus
has it been with me.

_ My clasp consists of a strip of sheet-brass (a, fig. 4), ten
inches by one half of an inch, and about as thick as stout
Bristol board; indeed,.so thick that it will bear the weight
of a two-ounce bottle without bending. This is bent, as is
seen in the figure (4), and around it is wrapped another
piece of brass, so loosely that it will slide upon it. To the
end of the rod which is used for the purpose, is attached a
brass tube (4), the end of which is slightly turned over,
inwards. The bottle is now placed in the loop (c), and the
end (d) being brought down on a, the slide (e) is pushed up so
that it holds and clasps the bottle firmly. The spring part (/)
is now forced into the ferule (4), until the catch ( g) holds it in
its place. When it is wished to remove it, we have but to
press the spring-catch at /, and it can easily be taken out of
the ferule.

I offer these remarks with much readiness, and shall be
pleased if you deem them worthy an insertion im your valua-
ble periodical Artuur M. Epwarps, College of Physicians
and Surgeons, New York City, U.S., October 20th, 1856.

(114 )

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Microscopicat Society, September 29th, 1856.
Grorce SHADBOLT, Esq., President, in the chair.

A short Communication from the Rev. 8S. G. Osborne,
being a continuation of his Paper “On the Growth of the
Wheat Plant,” was read.

A Paper, by J. S. Bowerbank, Esq., “On the Structure
and Vitality of the Spongiade,” was read.

November 26th, 1856.
Grorce SHapsott, Esq., President, in the chair.

J. Brand, Esq., 36, Nicholas Lane; Jas. Hopgood, Esq.,
Clapham Common ; Dr. T. H. Barker, Bedford; Dr. Shearman,
Rotherham; John Anderson, Esq., 4, Bedford Terrace,
Clapham Rise; and E. C. Hulme, Esq., 19, Gower Street,
were balloted for, and duly elected members of the Society.

Dr. Lankester made some remarks explanatory of the
Rev. S. G. Osborne’s views respecting the Growth of
Plants.

December 10th, 1856.
Grorce SHapsoit, Esq., President, in the chair.

Charles May, Esq., H. C. Rothery, Esq., Dr. Donkin,
John Loxley, and Dr. Ladd, were balloted for, and duly
elected members of the Society.

A discussion on the expediency of introducing one uniform
Screw for Object-Glasses, took place.

( 115 )

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

On some points in the Structure and Puystotocy of certain
Fune1, with notices of the occurrence of some species new to
this country. By Freprrick Currey, Esq., M.A., F.L.S.

Tue object of the present communication is sufficiently de-
scribed in the title given above. Being the result of a number
of observations made at various times, the paper may appear
to some extent discursive and unconnected, but I venture to
hope that the facts recorded will be considered of some
scientific value. Such of the subjects as required illustrations
to render the discussion of them intelligible, are figured in
the accompanying plate from drawings made (with the ex-
ception of figs. 42, 43) with the Camera lucida.

Helminthosporium Smithi. (B. and Br., ‘ Annals and Mag.
of Nat. Hist.,’ s. 2, vol. vu, pl. v, fig. 5.)—On holly, Chisel-
hurst, Kent, September, 1855. This is a magnificent species,
and has been well characterised as the prince of the genus.
It is described at length in the volume above referred to, and
I notice it only with the view of recording some observations
on the form and mode of germination of the spores. In the
figure in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ the endochromes
are closely united, but it is stated in the text that they are
here and there surrounded by a broad cavity. Figs. 1 and 2,
Pl. VIII, represent two of the spores of my specimens, mag-
nified 220 diameters ; they vary much in size; and the latter
figure will give an idea of the enormous length which these
spores attain. It will be seen that the endochromes vary in
their degree of approximation to each other, but that each
one is quite separate from its neighbour, and this was the
case in all the spores which 1 examined. Germination takes
place by the protrusion of a colourless filament from each
extremity of the spore, which filament very soon forms septa
in its interior, and throws out lateral branches. There is
nothing more in this than has been observed in many other
fungi, but it is interesting to notice that precisely the same
process took place when a spore was broken into fragments.
Figs. 3 and 4 represent two detached pieces of spores, which
have thrown out filaments from each of their extremities, and
commenced growing, just in the same way as the perfect
spore. ‘This seems to show that each portion of the endo-
chrome has an independent power of germination, and if so it is

VOL. V. Te

116 CURREY, ON FUNGI.

difficult to see in what way the spore in this case differs from
an ascus, for although the spores which are produced in asci
usually escape and become free before commencing germina-
tion, the contrary is by no means uncommon. I did not see
any germination except from the extremities of the spores,
but it is very possible that in their natural condition germs
may be thrown out from the intermediate endochromes, or
the whole coat of the spore may dissolve and set the separate
endochromes free. What is perhaps more singular even
than the germination of the fragments of the spores, is the
fact that the same thing takes place with the fragments of
the flocci. Fig. 5 shows two such fragments, in which
processes, precisely similar to the germ-filaments of the
spores, have been protruded from each extremity. It is easy
to distinguish the fragments of flocci from the spores, the
former having real septa, which are not to be found in the
latter. The septate appearance which, according to the
figure in the ‘Annals of Natural History,’ exists some-
times in the spores of this species, would be produced by the
contact of the endochromes, and not by the existence of real
partitions. It is very important, in describing the spores of
fungi generally, to distinguish between real septa and those
which are only apparent. :
Helminthosporium fumosum. (Dactylium fumosum, Corda,
‘Flore illustrée de Mucedinées d’ Europe,’ pl. xxu.)*—This in-
teresting addition to the British Helminthosporia occurred
im the neighbourhood of Blackheath, upon the dead stem of
some Umbelliferous plant. It was first described by Corda
im the work above mentioned, under the name of Dactylium
fumosum, but it clearly belongs to Helminthosporium, and
has no affinity with Dactylium. The flocci are stiff and
erect, and, when ripe, of a very dark brown or almost black
colour, being so opaque that it is a matter of difficulty to
make out that they are septate. At the apices of the flocei
there origimate several rows of almost colourless cells,
arranged in a moniliform manner, and spreading in different
directions. The spores are attached in rows at the ex-
tremities of the chains of colourless cells, and are of a rich
brown colour, usually somewhat narrowed at each end, and
divided by several transverse lines having the appearance of
septa, but which I believe to be only lines formed by the
mutual pressure of the divisions of the endochromes. Fig. 6
represents three spores jomed together, magnified 220

* This is the same work as the ‘ Prachtflora Europaischer Schimmelbil-
dungen.’ It was published both in French and German

CURREY, ON FUNGI. 117

diameters. Corda mentions the decaying stems of Um-
bellifers as the habitat of the plant, but adds that it some-
times grows on patches of Yorula punctata and Torula
herbarum. It is hardly distinguishable from Torula her-
barum by the naked eye, but the latter has a greenish tinge
under a lens which can hardly be mistaken. There were a
very few spores of the latter Torula in company with my
specimens of the Helminthosporium.

Botryosporium pulchrum. (Corda, 1. c., pl. xix.) —This mould
forms large white mealy patches upon dead or living plants,
upon annuals by preference, according to Corda. I found it
upon a fragment of some herbaceous plant in a rubbish
heap at East Bergholt, in Suffolk, in the month of October,
1854. The flocci are very delicate, forming a woolly-looking
mass, and the spores are arranged in four or five compact
globular masses at the extremities of short ramuli, which are
alternate upon the main threads. Corda’s figure is very
good, but I have not seen the tubercles upon the main flocci,
to which, according to his statement, the lateral branches
are articulated.

Phragmidium.—N otwithstanding the numberof observations
upon the Phragmidia which have been made and published
from time to time, there are points connected with their ana-
tomy and physiology upon which differences of opinion exist,
and which render the genus one of especial interest to the
microscopical observer. In the first place, the question of
the relationship between the Phragmidia and the Uredo,
with which they are almost imvariably associated, can hardly
be considered to be finally decided. All mycologists, I should
suppose, would admit that both kinds of fruit belong to the
same plant, 7. e., are the produce of the same Mycelium, but
it seems to me to be still an open question, whether the
Phragmidia represent a highly developed state of the grains
of the Uredo, or whether the two productions are essentially
distinct forms of fruit. M. Tulasne, in his memoir in the
‘ Annales des Sciences’ for 1854, merely states his accordance
with Unger’s opinion that the transformation of the Uredo-
grains into Phragmidia is inadmissible ; but it cannot be de-
nied that when a number of these fruits are mixed together
it is sometimes hardly possible to say to which sort one par-
ticular specimen belongs, so delicate are the gradations by
which the one kind passes into the other.*

Another question which would admit of discussion is that

* In the ‘ Botanische Zeitung,’ 1853, p. 787, Itzigsohn suggests that

the Uredo-grains are produced from the interior of the Phragmidia, an
opinion which I cannot reconcile with my own observations.

118 CURREY, ON FUNGI.

of the generic distinction between Phragmidium and the
allied genera Puccinia, Uromyces, Triphragmium, and Xeno-
dochus. The number of divisions or apparent divisions of
the spore affords no safe criterion, for it is not uncommon to
find Phragmidium and Puccinia reduced to a single dis-
sepiment, and the reniform shape of the so-called sporidia,
which are produced by the germinating filaments of the
latter, and which Tulasne mentions as a distinguishing cha-
racteristic, is not constant, as I have myself witnessed. The
fruit of Phragmidium, moreover, sometimes assumes a form
quite similar to Triphragmium. There is a species of Tri-
phragnium (7. deglubens, Berk. and Curt.) m which the
dissepiments are arranged precisely as in Phragmidium.
The number of the pores through which the germinating
filaments make their exit has been advanced as another
ground of distinction between these genera; but here, again,
there is no sufficient certainty, for Phragmidium has a vari-
able number, and the rest have only one. These pores,
moreover, are frequently, I may say usually, not discernible
in the natural condition of the fruit, and only become visible
upon the application of some chemical agent, which renders
the epispore more transparent.

It is quite impossible to arrive at any correct notion of
the anatomy of Phragmidium by examination with the
microscope alone, for the fruit in its natural condition is
far too opaque to admit of its structure being ascertained by
inspection. The idea of the fruit consisting of sporidia
united together and forming a chain is certainly not in
accordance with the true structure, which will be found to
approach more nearly to that of the ascigerous fungi than
any other tribe. The sporidia are not united to one another
in any way, but, although closely packed for want of space,
they are in fact free in the interior of what may be called a
sporangium or ascus. Perhaps the term sporidia is hardly
applicable to the bodies in question, but, before discussing
this point, it will be better to show what the structure of the
fruit is, and the mode of ascertaining it—and the best method
I find to be as follows.*

A considerable number of the spores of the Phragmidium
must be scraped off with a lancet or fine-pointed knife, care
being taken to scrape gently, so as to avoid tearing off the
tissue of the leaf, which would interfere with the observation.

* The term “sporidia” was originally applied to the apparent joiuts of the
fruit; and some confusion has been introduced by the application of the
same term by Tulasne to the globular orange-coloured bodies produced in
the early stage of germination, and which are noticed hereafter.

CURRREY, ON FUNGI. 119

The spores must be placed on a common glass slide in a drop
of alcohol, so as to drive away the air, which otherwise clings
pertinaciously to the mass of spores. Before the alcohol has
quite evaporated, two or three drops of strong nitric acid
must be added, a piece of thin glass must be placed over the
spores, and the slide should then be gradually warmed over
a spirit lamp. The acid must not be allowed to boil, at least
not for any length of time, because the action then becomes
so powerful as to obliterate the structures which it is wished
to exhibit. By following this process it will be seen that
the fruit consists of an outer colourless membrane, almost
transparent, which in most of the species is studded over
with small tubercles, being prominences of the membrane
itself. This membrane encloses a number of cells, being the
cells constituting the apparent joints of the fruit, and which
in their natural state are of a squarish or oblong shape, occa-
sioned by their mutual pressure. Fig. 15 (Pi. VIII) represents
a spore which has been acted on by the acid, but not toa
sufficient extent to dissolve or rupture the outer membrane ;
which, however, has swollen and become loosened from the
inner cells. When by the action of the acid the outer hyaline
membrane is ruptured or dissolved, these cells escape, become
detached from one another, and assume the shape shown in
figs. 7 and 8.

They exhibit a broad brownish or yellow rg surrounding
a central area of paler colour, and in the interior of each of
these areas is to be seen, what for distinction may be called
an inner cell, which in its normal form is globular, but which
frequently assumes an irregular shape. Fig. 8 represents a
ringed cell with its ner cell fillmg the whole of the cavity,
and fig. 7 shows a ringed cell with an inner cell of irregular
shape. I have not yet been able quite to satisfy myself as
to the structure of the ringed cells. It appears at first sight
as if the ring were an integral part of the cell itself, so that
if the observer be supposed to be looking upon the pole of
the cell, the rmg would form a mass of bulging matter at its
equator ; but opposed to this is the fact that under the action
of the nitric acid the rmg sometimes entirely disappears,
leaving a pellucid, globular, colourless cell, having the inner
cell in its interior as shown in figs. 9 and 10. The ring is
sometimes marked with concentric lines having the appearance
of wrinkles in the membrane.

Fig. 11 represents an inner cell quite free, exhibiting its
granular contents and a central nucleus. The iner cells have
far greater power of resisting the action of the acid than the
sporangial membrane or the ringed cells, for if the acid be over-

VOL. V. M

120 CURREY, ON FUNGI.

heated the membrane and the ringed cells entirely disappear,
leaving only the inner secondary cells, which when free are
usually globular, as shown in fig. 11. These latter cells are
colourless and of a granular aspect, but have a clearly distinct
membrane of their own, and are not merely the coagulated
contents of the cells within which they are produced. 'They
become of an intense brown colour upon the application of
solution of iodine. Before using the above process I had
ascertained the existence of these internal cells by soaking
the spores in hydrochloric acid and pressing the thin glass
cover, which resulted in the fracture of the coats of both the
sporangium and the ringed cell, and the escape of the mner
cell, as shown in fig. 13. In many of the fruits upon which
the hydrochloric acid had been left to act without pressure,
the pores became extended into broad circular cavities, and
the inner cell protruded itself in the manner shown in fig.
14, producing an appearance which at first sight might be
taken for germination.

From the above description it will, I think, be seen that the
fruit of Phragmidium hardly differs from that of the ascigerous
fungi. Perhaps a closer resemblance might be found in the
abnormal fruits of some of the Coniomycetes, such as Hender-
sonia, Steganosporium, or Prosthemium, but there is little
doubt that these latter fruits are themselves only modified
forms of the asci of well-known fungi of a higher class. It
may be as well to state, that the outer membrane spoken of
above usually dissolves altogether under the action of the acid,
or breaks up into fragments, which adhere to the ringed cells
after their escape ; but if a sufficient number of observations
be made, and under different degrees of heat of the acid,
some specimens will be found in which the internal cells have
escaped, leaving nothing behind but the transparent outer
membrane in the form of an empty sac.

The structure of the pedicel of the fruit requires a passing
notice. In the ‘ Botanische Zeitung’ for 1853, Fresenius, in
criticising some figures in the ‘Handbuch der Allgemeinen
M yeologic, ridicules Bonorden for speaking of a “ Saft- .
Zelle,” in the interior of the pedicel, and leaves it to be
implied that such a cell exists only in Bonorden’s imagina-
tion. It is strange that so accurate an observer as Frose-
nius should have fallen into such a mistake, for the existence
of the internal cell may be demonstrated without the least
difficulty by merely soaking the spores in water. Figs.
16 and 17 represent specimens of PAr ‘aginidium bulbosum
and Phragmidium mucronatum treated in that manner, in
which the outer membrane of the pedicel has given way,

CURREY, ON FUNGI. 121

disclosing the internal cell in the clearest manner possible.
Corda, too, has figured the internal cell in his ‘ Icones Fun-
gorum,’ vol. iv, pl. v, fig. 70, 6 £; he calls it “ Mark-Zelle.”’

The germination of the spores of Phragmidium, Puccinia,
and Triphragmium, is well worth some trouble to witness. I
know no microscopical objects of greater beauty than a
number of fruits of Phragmidium in active germination.
Tulasne was the first to call attention to it, and I am not
aware that any subsequent observations have been published.
I have myself seen the process in a few species, the particu-
lars of some of which may be worth mentioning. I found
(as was previously observed by Tulasne) that the fruits of
Phragmidium and Triphragmium would not germinate in
the summer in which they were produced, but I think fur-
ther observations are necessary before it can be assumed that
this is invariably the case. If, however, the fruit be taken
from leaves which have either lived, or fallen and lain on the
ground, through the winter, and be placed in water and kept
in a moist atmosphere, there is no difficulty in producing
germination. Long tubular filaments are produced from the
different cells, which attain a length of four or five times
that of the fruit. ‘These filaments have a small quantity of
granular orange-coloured matter, which usually accumulates
towards the extremity. At the end of these filaments septa
are found, varying in number, but not exceeding four, and
dividing the extremity into as many small joints, each of
which ‘protrudes a small spicule or sterigma, the apex of
which expands ito a globular cell, into which the orange-
coloured endochrome passes. These globular cells (which
Tulasne calls sporidia) eventually fall off, and commence
germination on their own account. Figs. 18 and 19 repre-
sent two fruits of Phragmidium bulbosum, the germ-fila-
ments of which have already produced their sporidia. Two
of them have each produced two sporidia, one of them has
produced three, and the other four. These sporidia are of
a brilliant glittering orange colour, which, contrasted with
the transparent filaments and the rich dark brown of the
fruit itself, produce a combination of colour which is very
striking. Fig. 20 represents a sporidium which has fallen off,
and commenced germination by throwing out two filaments,
one of which exhibits lateral protrusions which seem to be the
commencement of branches.

With regard to the germination of the Puccini, which in
substance is very similar to that of Phragmidium, I have
noticed two instances of departure from what 'Tulasne con-
siders to be the rule. I understand his opimion to be that

122 CURREY, ON FUNGI.

the sporidia of Puccinia are always distinguishable from those
of Phragmidium by their reniform shape, and that the germ-
filament of the upper cell of Puccinia always makes its way
out through the apex of the fruit ; but I have seen Puccinia
graminis produce globular sporidia as shown in fig. 21, and
I have seen the germ-filament of the upper cell of Puccinia
Lychnidearum make its way out at the side of the upper cell,
as shown in fig. 22, instead of through its apex.

The germination of Triphragmium is described by Tulasne
as precisely similar to that of Phragmidium, but im the only
instance in which I have succeeded in procuring germination in
the former plant it took place in a manner somewhat different,
and which I have drawn in fig. 23. The filament grew to a
considerable length, and formed four septa at its extremity ;
no sterigmata or sporidia were produced, but the orange-
coloured endochrome became accumulated in each of the
four terminal cells in the form of two globular masses, as
shown in fig. 23. One of the four terminal oblong jomts
fell off, and commenced germination, as shown in fig. 24,
and it was obvious that the remaining three joints were on
the point of becoming separated from one another.

In illustration of the gradation from the fruit of Uredo
to that of Phragmidium, and of the close resemblance be-
tween Phragmidium and its allied genera, I would here call
attention to figs. 25 to 33; they all represent different forms
which I found in the fruit of the same specimens of Phragmi-
dium potentille. Fig. 25 represents the normal form of the
Uredo; figs. 26 and 27 show the commencement of the
formation of a division which becomes complete im fig. 28.
Fig. 29 is quite undistinguishable from an Uromyces, as is
fig. 830 from a Puccinia, and figs. 31 and 32 might well be
taken for fruits of Triphragmium, and if seen apart from the
others could not be named with certainty. Although the
fruit of Triphragmium has usually only three divisions, it is
by no means uncommon to find four. Fig. 83 shows the
perfect normal form of fruit of this species of Phragmidium.

In the fruits represented by figs. 25 to 28 the colour was
the bright orange of the Uredo; im the rest, the colour was
the usual dark brown of the Phragmidium. I may here
observe that the spines or prominences seen in the Uredines
which accompany the Puccinie, and which have been ad-
vanced as a mark of distinction between the two kinds of
fruit, exist, I believe, only on the surface of the endosporium.
I have frequently noticed that these Uredo grains, although
at first sight truly echinulate, are surrounded on the exterior
by an extremely delicate and perfectly smooth membrane.

CURREY, ON FUNGI. 123

This membrane is not visible unless the edge of the spore be
exactly in focus. Mr. Busk, without my having called his at-
tention to it, noticed the existence of this membrane in some
spores of the Uredo of Puccinia pulverulenta which I sent to
him, and thought that he could perceive a slight blue tinge
in it upon the application of iodine and sulphuric acid.
Xenodochus carbonarius, Schlecht.—This plant, first observed
by Schlechtendal, and described by him in the ‘ Linnea,’
vol. i, p. 237, pl. iii, is mentioned in the ‘ Annals of Natural
History’ to have been found by Mr. Churchill Babington, in
Leicestershire, and I have received specimens of it from the
Rev. A. Bloxam, but it seems to be of rather uncommon occur-
rence. It has been found only on the leaves of Sanguisorba
officinalis, and was formerly supposed to be parasitical upon
Uredo miniata, in company with which it grows. There can
be little doubt that the Uredo, like those of Phragmidium,
Puccinia, &c., is the produce of the same Mycelium as the
Xenodochus itself. The fruit forms little black tufts, which
differ in no respect to the naked eye from the tufts of
Phragmidium. One of these fruits, in its natural state, is
represented in fig. 34, magnified 220 diameters. If treated
in the manner mentioned above, with regard to Phragmidium,
it will be found that their structure differs in no respect from
those of the latter plant. It will be seen that each consists
of a clear outer membrane, enclosing a multitude of rmged
cells, each of which latter cells has another cell in its interior,
which under the action of the acid is set free, and exhibits a
well-defined, circular nucleus. There is, in fact, no difference
between Phragmidium and Xenodochus, excepting the num-
ber of the ringed cells of the latter, unless there be a difference
in the number of the pores, which, however, would be a very
unsatisfactory ground of generic distinction. In fig. 34 is
seen a bead-like row of cells proceeding from one of the
upper joints of the Xenodochus, and which appeared after
the fruit had been kept in water for some hours. I do not
suppose this to be the normal mode of germination of Xeno-
dochus, for it is hardly likely that its germination should
differ materially from that of Phragmidium, Puccinia, and Tri-
phragmium. Small cells of the nature of those forming
the beads in fig. 84 are sometimes given out by the spores of
fungi, and the process is perhaps analogous to that which
takes place in some of the lower fresh-water Alge. In some
spores of Spirogyra, for instance, which I gathered in the
month of March last year (1856), and kept by me to watch
their germination, although many of them, when the proper
time arrived, became green and threw out their regular
germs, there were many in which the contents became trans-

124 CURREY, ON FUNGI.

formed into small, globular, colourless cells ; and I have seen
the contents of one of the large orange-coloured spores of
Volvox aureus become transformed into six rather large,
globular, colourless cells, which fioated about im a mass of
coloured endochrome, being the remains of the contents of
the parent-cell. In fig. 46 I have drawn a spore of Spheria
amblyospora, which 1 observed to throw out a number of
these small cells into its own gelatinous envelope, whilst the
regular mode of germination in this Spheria takes place by
the emission of long branched filaments, very similar to that
of its ally, Steganosporium cellulosum, figured in vol. iv of
this Journal, Pl. XI.

Gymnosporium (arundinis ? Corda)—I am doubtful whe-
ther the plant here referred to is Corda’s Gymnosporium
arundinis. It forms small black spots on the stems and
leaves of Phragmites communis, and is of very common
occurrence, although not, I think, described amongst the
British Fungi. It is possible that it may be only an imper-
fect state of some ascigerous fungus, but I mention it here
for the purpose of calling attention to its germination. Fig.
35 will show the manner in which the spore opens by the
swelling of the inner membrane. The epispore bursts, and
is sometimes carried out on each side, as in figs. 385 and 36,
or it bursts on one side only, as in fig. 37, where it has the
appearance of a bivalve shell opening on a hinge. The pro-
trusion of the germ-filaments was accompanied by the
emission of minute staff-shaped bodies, such as are repre-
sented in figs. 35, 36, and 37. It may perhaps be objected
that these bodies were not connected with the fungus, but
were developed in the water in which the spores were placed,
and I was at first doubtful whether this was so; but their
position with regard to the germinating spores, the very
short time in which they made their appearance, and the fact
of their having occurred in several other instances (to one
of which I shall call attention presently) im the immediate
neighbourhood of germinating spores, and their non-appear-
ance in water containing spores in which no germination has
taken place, are facts which lead me to think that the bodies
in question are connected with germination, and I have
therefore thought it worth while to mention their occurrence
with the view of directing the attention of other observers
to a fact which may be of physiological importance.*

Peziza aurantia, Pers—In this very common Peziza, I
have noticed what I take to be a kind of germination, and

* Tn one or two instances Ihave seen a distinct wriggling motion in these
small bodies, quite different from Brownian motion.

CURREY, ON FUNGI. 125

which is probably of the same nature as that observed by
Tulasne in Bulgaria sarcoides, Peziza bolaris, Peziza Cylich-
nium, Peziza tuberosa, and Peziza vesiculosa. It consists in
the formation of minute spherical or subspherical utricles on
the surface of the spore, and which Tulasne has called sporo-
genous spermatia. ‘The bedies observed by Tulasne were
sometimes (in Bulgaria sarcoides, for instancc) upon the ex-
posed endosporium, sometimes upon short tubular appendices;
sometimes they had very short pedicels, and sometimes
they were sessile; they were sometimes joined together in
rows, sometimes in bunches,butwere more frequently solitary,
and they were often produced successively,7. e., as one of them
dropped off another supplied its place, until the power of the
spore was exhausted.. In the spores of Peziza aurantia, to
which I have referred, similar utricles were produced, but
they were all sessile upon the surface of the inner membrane
of the spore, and in many of the spores the outer mem-
brane (although extremely thin and fine, and easily to be
overlooked) was sufficiently discernible upon a careful ex-
amination, entirely enclosmg the utricles. In fig. 39 are
shown three of the spores of Peziza aurantia in their usual
form, as they appear in the interior of the asci, magnified
315 diameters ; and fig. 88 shows three of the same spores
after they have escaped from the asci, and lain some time
upon the surface of the hymenium, and commenced the
process above-mentioned. In some cases, the growth had
taken place before the escape of the spores from the asci.
In some of the spores, the utricles produced at one extremity
or pole were somewhat longer than those in the other posi-
tions. The spores of Peziza aurantia, as of those of several
allied species, are elliptical, and there are almost invariably
found two globular nuclei, or oil drops, of equal size, occupy-
ing the two foci of the ellipse. In those spores in which
the above growth had taken place, the nuclei were less dis-
tinct than in those in which no change had occurred, and in
some instances the two nuclei had broken up into several ;
the spores also had increased in size. This is just what
Tulasne noticed in Peziza vesiculosa, for he states that in
that plant the spores which produced a Mycelium, as well as
those which he calls the spermatophorous spores, increased
in size sensibly before vegetating, and that their oily con-
tents lost at the same time their homogeneity and assumed a
granular aspect. ‘There was another remarkable circum-
stance connected with this change of form and germination
in the spores of Peziza aurantia, and that was the contem-
poraneous appearance of an enormous mass of minute staff-
like bodies, precisely similar to thosementioned above as occur-

126 CURREY, ON FUNGI.

ring during the germination of Gymnosporium arundinis. 1
did not ascertain as a fact, but I suspect, that these small bodies
were produced from the interior of the germinating spores ;
and if this be so, it is not impossible that they may be pos-
sessed of some fecundative power; for although there has
' lately been, perhaps, too great a tendency to consider every
small unaccountable vegetable organism as connected with
impregnation, still, with what is now known with regard to
the Algze, and what is suspected inthe lichens, it is not un-
reasonable to suppose that the male sexual organs of fungi,
if they exist, will prove to be of a nature somewhat similar
to the bodies just mentioned.

Triposporium (sp.?)—In fig. 40, I have drawn the fruit
of a Triposporium, which occurred in January, 1855, near
Bexley, m Kent, upon a small fallen branch. It differs
from Triposporium elegans in the colour of the threads and
spores, which are olive brown, with a tinge of green, and
much darker to the naked eye than those shown in Corda’s
fig. in the ‘Flore Ilustrée,’ tab. x. The branches of the
filaments also do not exhibit the bulbous enlargement at the
base which is so peculiar a feature in Triposporium elegans.
Mr. Berkeley, who, at my request, kindly examined one of
my specimens, thought the plant was Triposporium Ficinusium,
which is figured in Sturm’s ‘ Deutschlands Flora ;? but the
spores of 7. Ficinusium are of a somewhat different colour,
and are not so much elongated, as will be seen by comparing
fig. 40 with the plate in Sturm’s work. (See Abt. iii, Heft
30, fig. 8.) 1 may observe that the tufts of my Triposporium
are accompanied by a vast number of the perithecia of some
Spheria, the perithecia beimg surrounded by and embedded
in the threads of the Triposporium. It is probable that the
spores of the latter may be only a secondary product of the
Mycelium of the Spheria. Unfortunately, the perithecia are
barren, so that I have been unable to ascertain the species
of the Spheeria.

Clonostachys araucaria, Corda, ‘ Flore Illustrée,’ tab. xv. p.
31.—I have found this mould in my own neighbourhood and
also in Wales, in both instances forming white patches upon
the bark of small twigs. It is remarkable for the peculiar
arrangement of the spores, which form long dense spikes like
ears of corn. It is figured also in Bonorden’s ‘ Handbuch,’
pl. vu, fig. 155, under the name of Stachylidium araucarium.
Corda’s specimens appear to have grown upon garden
mould, but his description of the habitat is ambiguous.

Zygodesmus fuscus, Corda, ‘ Kinleitung,’ pl. B. 8, fig. 1;
‘Icones Fungorum,’ vol. iv, fig. 81—I have found this mould
near the Hassock’s GateStation,on the Brighton Railway, and

CURREY, ON FUNGI. 127

also in the neighbourhood of Tunbridge Wells, upon the bark
of fallen branches ; it is easily recognised by the reddish-brown
colour of the filaments, and bythe echinulate spores, but I have
found it difficult of observation from the densely tangled mode
of growth of the flocci. The structure is not always such as
is represented in Corda’s figures, where the spores are borne
singly upon the tips of short filaments proceeding from the
main flocci. I have distinctly seen three sterigmata produced
at the apex of a fructifyimg thread, and the latter was of some
length, and slightly swollen at the apex, not a short, stiff,
pointed thread as in Corda’s figures. Fig. 41 represents
a fertile thread, magnified 220 diameters, and by the side
of it are shown three spores similarly magnified. The fertile
threads sometimes, I think, produce four sterigmata.*

Coryneum Kunzei, Corda, ‘ Icones Fungorum,’ vol. iv, taf.
x, fig. 151.—On oak, Shooter’s Hill Wood, autumn, 1853.
Corda distinguishes this species from all other Corynea by
the nature of the epispore, which he states to be continuous,
whereas, in the other species, he considers the fruit to con-
sist of a number of distinct cells united together. I have,
unfortunately, mislaid my specimens, and am unable to test
the accuracy of Corda’s views of their anatomy, but I sus-
pect there is no real difference in structure between this and
the other species. Coryneum Kunzei is stated by Corda to be
very rare, and I do not know that it has occurred in England
except in the above locality.

Trichia cerina, Ditmar.—Peridium ovoid, of a greenish
yellow colour ; stem elongated, fuligmous ; sporidia globose,
colour of the sporidia and capillitium the same as that of
the peridium. (Ditmar, in Sturm’s ‘ Deutschlands Flora,
t. xxv, p. 51. Trichia clavata, (B. olivascens, Fries, ‘ Syst
Mye.,’ 1, p. 186.) On wood, Sketty, near Swansea, Sep-
tember, 1855.

My specimens accord well with Ditmar’s figure and descrip-
tion. Fries considers the plant as only a variety of Trichia
clavata, but the latter has a yellow shining peridium of a very
different appearance. There is also a marked difference in
the spiral threads. In Trichia cerina the threads are pale
coloured, and taper gradually to a very thin point at each
extremity ; the spiral markings are very delicate, and the
threads themselves are simple, detached from one another,
and of a definite and moderate length. In Trichia clavata,
on the other hand, the threads form an extensive complicated

* Mr. Berkeley thinks it possible that the species of Zygodesmus may be
conditions of certain Thelephoroid Fungi. See ‘ Introduction to Cryptogamic
Botany,’ Bailliere, 1857.

128 CURREY, ON FUNGI.

capillitium, in which it is rarely (if ever) possible to trace a
single thread from one extremity to the other, and their
colour is darker. The markings also are strongly defined,
and altogether very different from the very delicate ones of
Trichia cerina. .

Trichia nigripes, Fries, ‘Syst. Myc.,’ 11, p.186.—Gregarious,
peridia various in form, even, yellowish; stem very short,
blackish ; capillitium and sporidia of a yellowish ochre.
Near Eltham, Kent, and near Weybridge, in Surrey; common.

This species, as Fries has remarked, is closely allied to
Trichia varia—indeed, the elaters of the two are (generally
speaking) not distinguishable. The peridia, however, of
Trichia varia, are considerably smaller, of a brighter yellow,
and frequently assume a reniform shape, which I have never
found to be the case with Trichia nigripes. The stem of the
latter varies much, and is sometimes quite obsolete. In all
the specimens which I have found the peridia are uniformly
ovoid, and the lower part when empty has the transparent,
shining, skinny appearance noticed by Mr. Berkeley in Tr.
clavata. I have figured the elaters of this species, in a paper
on those organs, in the 3d vol. of this journal.

Trichia rubiformis, Pers.—Weybridge, January, 1856.

Some confnsion seems to exist between this plant and Trichia
Neesiana. The two are figured side by side in Corda’s ‘ Icones
Fungorum,’ vol. i, taf. vi, 288 B, 288 c, and are, at first sight,
very different in appearance. ‘The threads of the former are
represented as being smooth, and those of the latter as
strongly echinulate. The peridia in the Weybridge speci-
mens exactly resemble fig. 288 B, but the threads are com-
pletely covered with spines. I cannot help thinking that
Corda has figured the threads of some other species by mis-
take, for, in his previous memoir, ‘ Ueber Spiral-faser-zellen,’
he has represented the threads of 7. rubiformis as spinous.
It is true that there are some Trichiz in which the threads,
although usually smooth, exhibit occasionally a few spines,
but I have never found the extremes of roughness and smooth-
ness united in one species, as must be the case if Corda’s
figures be correct. There are specimens marked Trichia
Neesiana in the Hookerian Herbarium, which, through the
kindness of Sir William and Dr. Hooker, I have had an op-
portunity of examining, and the threads are quite undistin-
guishable from those of 7. rubiformis. The peridia in the
Kew specimens are, unfortunately, in an imperfect condi-
tion, but they appear to have been stemless, like those in
Corda’s fig. 288 c. It is to be observed that the peridia of
T. rubiformis do not always grow in a fasciculate manner,
and the only difference between detached specimens of 7.

CURREY, ON FUNGI. 129

rubijormis and T. Neesiana is the absence of a stem in the
latter species, a difference hardly sufficient to justify their
separation, when it is considered that the broad expanded
form of the base from which the peridium springs is common
to both species. It is probably therefore right that the two
should be united under one species, as was suggested some
time since by Messrs. Berkeley and Broome, im the ‘ Annals
of Natural History.’

Trichia Lorinseriana, Corda, ‘ Ic. Fung.,’ vol. 1, p. 23, taf.
vi, 288 p.—Subsolitary ; stem long, of a dirty brown colour,
flexuous and furrowed, the ridges between the furrows being
sharp edged ; peridium turbinato-ovate, smooth above, burst-
ing irregularly or in an operculate manner; spiral threads
short, very pale yellow, with very delicate markings, each
extremity of the thread tapermg gradually to a very long,
thin point, the spiral markings not extending into the narrow
extremities of the threads. Weybridge, January, 1856.

The above description differs slightly from that in the
‘Icones Fungorum,’ but I see no reason to doubt that my
specimens belong to the species there described. The spiral
threads are simple and detached, very similar to those of
Trichia serotina, from which they differ only in beimg con-
siderably longer.

With regard to the spiral threads of the British Trichie,
generally, | may observe that their form, colour, and micro-
scopic structure afford material assistance in the distinction
of species: those of 7. nigripes, pyriformis, chrysosperma,
serpula, and Neesiana (or rubiformis) are figured in vol. in. of
this Journal, Pl. Il. The only other British species which
have not been already referred to are Trichia fallax, varia,
and Ayresii. Those of Trichia varia are not distinguish-
able from the same organs in T. nigripes, but I have found
T. varia with echinulate threads; and the same thing occa-
sionally occurs in 7. chrysosperma, I have had no opportu-
nity of examining 7. Ayresii, but the threads are described
as tawny and strongly echinulate. Specimens of Trichia
fallax exist in the Hookerian Herbarium, but they have been
gathered young, before the formation of the threads, and I
have seen no other specimens.

I noticed on a former occasion that in Trichia pyriformis
the membrane of the threads had the property of unrolling
itself in a spiral manner, a peculiarity which is still more
manifest in Tricia clavata and T. turbinata. In some threads
of the latter which had been soaked in hydrochloric acid, I
found that the tube of the thread had burst in several places
by a perfectly smooth spiral fissure, thus converting the tube

130 CURREY, ON FUNGI.

for short distances at the points of rupture into a flat band,
which was seen to be traversed by five bright narrow lines,
running longitudinally in the manner shown roughly in fig. 42.
These are the markings which Mr. Henfrey has explained as
arising from the deposit of a spiral fibre, but which seemed to
me to be caused by a ridge in the membrane. I should cer-
tainly mistrust my own opinion when opposed to Mr. Henfrey’s;
but Mr. Busk, who carefully examined some specimens of the
threads, has stated to me his decided opinion against the exis-
tence of any fibre. The editors of the ‘ Micrographic Diction-
ary’ have objected that aridge round a tube is a structure un-
knownin the vegetable world, but circular ridges were observed
by Mr. Berkeley, some time since, in the capillitiumof Arcyria
umbrina, and longitudinal ridges have been noticed by M.
Trecul in the vessels of Impatiens fulva. The fact of the
ridge taking a spiral direction can hardly be of importance,
more particularly when it is considered that with reference
to the narrow band of membrane, by the twisting of which
(in some species at least) the threads are formed, the ridges
are, in fact, longitudinal. Pringsheim describes the outer
coat of the spores of Spheroplea annulina as covered with
ridges running, as it were, in meridian lines from pole to
pole of the spores.

Trichia ?—On very rotten fir wood, at Weybridge, Surrey,
January, 1856.

This is a plant of which the generic position is somewhat
doubtful, but it comes nearer to Trichia than to anything
else, and as I have only once found it, it will be better perhaps
to place it, provisionally at least, in that genus. It differs
from the known species of Trichia in the shape of its peri-
dium (which alone would not be of much importance), and
in its capillitium. The peridium is globular, of a dull
tawny colour, and supported upon a comparatively long
stem; the shape wil! be seen by a reference to fig. 43, which
shows two specimens of the fungus slightly magnified.
The spores are yellow and globose, and about half the size of
the spores of T’richia chrysosperma. The capillitium consists
of amass of reticulated threads, not having the usual spiral
markings peculiar to Trichia, but spread out at short imter-
vals into broad membranous expansion, the latter having a
chequered appearance, somewhat lke that of the scalariform
vessels in other plants. JI am not certain whether these
expansions are formed of a single layer of membrane, or
whether they are hollow sacs, but I rather think the latter.
Fig. 44 shows a fragment of the capullitium, which bears a
slight resemblance to the capillitium of Lycogala terrestris,

CURREY, ON FUNGI. 131

figured by Corda in his ‘Icones Fungorum,’ vol. vi, taf.
i, fig. 37; but Corda states that the markings in the
Lycogala are caused by wrinkles in the membrane, which is
not the case in the present plant. It has occurred to me
that this fungus may be a true species of Trichia, in which
the development of the capillitium has been arrested. I
have not had an opportunity of tracing the growth of the
spiral threads of the Trichiz from the state of mucilage in
which the plants originate; but in Didymium, I have
observed that the commencement of the formation of the
capillitium regularly takes place by the drawing out of the
mucilage into threads, which threads at first are always
expanded at moderate distances into broad membranous
spaces precisely similar in form to those in fig. 44; and if
the subsequent growth were stopped at that period, the
capillitiuam im Didymium would exactly resemble in form
(although not in colour or marking) that of the above plant.

Trichia ?—Glen Alla, near Lough Swilly, County Donegal,
Treland.

This is another doubtful species, for which, as for many
other interesting objects of natural history, I am indebted to
_ Miss Wilcox, of Tenby. The peridia are sessile, crowded,
subglobose, and of a dull brownish-yellow colour, looking
like very small stunted specimens of Trichia chrysosperma.
The peculiarity of the plant consists in the total absence of
capillitium or elaters. The spores are small and subglobose,
forming a dull yellow dust in the interior of the peridia. It
might be a question, whether the absence of the internal
threads would justify its separation from Trichia. Fries,
who treats the elaters as secondary appendages of no impor-
tance, would probably say not. At all events no such separa-
tion could be made upon the faith of the one small specimen
in my possession, in which the growth of the capillitium may
from some unknown cause have been suppressed.

Ophiotheca chrysosperma.—Under this name I described
a new fungus in vol. 1 of this Journal, and stated the
points of distinction between it and the genus Arcyria, one
‘of which was the existence of a capillitium consisting of two
kinds of threads. Since that paper was published, I have
found at Sketty, near Swansea, a very minute Arcyria, not
belonging to any of the British species hitherto described,
and which exhibits a double capillitium of a precisely similar
kind. This reduces the difference between Ophiotheca and
Arcyria to the single pomt of the shape and dehiscence of
the peridium, and whether this would be sufficient to keep
the genera apart, I must leave for others to determine.

132 CURREY, ON FUNGI.

Choiromyces meandriformis, Tul. Rhizopogon meandri-
formis, Corda. Tuber album, Sow.—A single specimen of
this very rare truffle occurred in my own garden, at Black-
heath, in the month of November, 1855. I believe only
one other specimen of it has been found in England since
Sowerby’s time, and that was by Mr. Broome, in Marl-
borough Forest. Mr. Berkeley tells me he has an authentic
specimen of Sowerby’s Tuber album, and that it is the same
plant. My specimen was found near the surface, in a some-
what stiff soil, very near the roots of a walnut tree, and mn a
spot where but few rays of the sun can ever penetrate, and
those only for a very short time m the day. It is possible
that other specimens may have been destroyed, as the ground
for a considerable space within two feet of the spot had been
dug out to a depth of several feet for repairmg the founda-
tion of a wall. With the exception of this disturbance the
ground had not been moved for years, being in a part of
the garden where it was impossible to induce anything to
erow. A description of this plant is to be found in Tulasne’s
7 Fungi hypogzei,’ and in the sixth vol. of Corda’s ‘ Icones
Fungorum.’ The spores are globular and covered with
sharp excrescences. Fig. 45 represents an ascus with spores
magnified 220 diameters. ‘The ascus figured contained only
six spores, but the usual number is eight. The spores are of
a pale yellow colour. I made a careful search last autumn
(1856), in the hope of finding more specimens, but without
success.

Claviceps purpurea, Tul., ‘Annales des Sciences naturelles,’
ser. 3, vol. xx, p. 45. Spheria purpurea, Fr. 8S. M., ui,
325, &e.

Claviceps microcephala, Wallr., &c.

These two plants, of which the synonyms are too nume-
rous to mention here, have not hitherto, as far as I am aware,
been found in their natural state in this country, although
they must be of frequent occurrence. ‘They are the ultimate
produce of the ergot of rye and other grasses, and the
former (Claviceps purpurea) has been grown artificially by
Messrs. Berkeley and Broome, by sowing the ergot of rye
in common garden mould. I have myself procured the
erowth of the former (Claviceps purpurea) sparingly, and of
Claviceps microcephala abundantly, by merely keeping the
two kinds of ergot in a continually moist atmosphere. ‘The
nature of ergot, as is well known, had been for many years
a subject of discussion, and the views of botanists with regard
to it were apparently tending to the opinion in favour of its
being a diseased state of the grain of the grasses in which

CURREY, ON FUNGI. 133

it occurs, when the matter was taken up by M. Tulasne, who
in 1853 published the result of a vast number of observa-
tions, and came to the conclusion that the systematic posi-
tion of the ergots was amongst the Sclerotia, in which they
had been placed by De Candolle. According to Tulasne’s
views, the ergot, although usually causing abortion in the
ovary, is quite unconnected with the fruit of the grass
attacked by it, and is in fact only a compact Mycelium
(Mycelium condensatum), which after lymg dormant for some
months produces eventually a species of Claviceps. He
found the Claviceps purpurea produced uniformly by the
ergot of rye, and Claviceps microcephala by the ergot of
Phragmites communis. In the ‘ Botanische Zeitung’ for
February 2d, 1855, Cesati, in a paper on the Nature of
Sclerotium, mentions the occurrence of Claviceps purpurea
upon the ergot of Phragmites, and seems to think that this
fact throws considerable doubt upon Tulasne’s theory. He
says,— “Je prie de vouloir bien remarquer ce fait contra-
dictoire a mon avis primitif sur la signification des Sclerots
et qui leur éte davantage l’importance du role assigné par
M. Tulasne. La méme espéce d’ergot serait la base de
deux Claviceps fort differens.”’

I can myself confirm the occurrence of Claviceps purpurea
on the ergot of Phragmites, for early in last summer (1856)
I found a panicle of the previous year of Phragmites com-
munis full of ergot, the ergot itself being covered with spe-
cimens of Claviceps purpurea, without a single specimen of
Claviceps microcephala. The question then arises how far this
fact is consistent with Tulasne’s theory, and I confess there
seems to me to be considerable difficulty in reconciling the
two; although there is the great weight of Mr. Berkeley’s
opinion on the other side. Mr. Berkeley, in defending
Tulasne’s doctrine, says—“ It is possible that the sporidia of
two species of Cordyceps (Claviceps) may be equally capable
of affecting the grain of the same grass, though the ergoted
grains arising from the action of the two species may not be
distinguishable ; and even supposing that at one and the same
time the ergot might produce Claviceps purpurea and C.
microcephala, no reason can be adduced why the sporidia of
either species should not concur in the production of the
ergot.” From the mention of ergoted grains, it would seem
that Mr. Berkeley considers the ergot and the grain as in
some way connected in growth, and if this were so no doubt
the difficulty would be got over, for the same grain might
easily harbour the latent Mycelium of the two species of
Claviceps, but the essence of Tulasne’s theory is that the

134 LEIPNER, ON SILICA IN PLANTS.

ergot is a body unconnected with the ovules of the grass,
taking its rise at the bottom of the cavity of the spermato-
gonium of the Sphacelia or fungoid growth, which is the first
symptom of the disease. The difficulty might be got rid of
by supposing the ergot to be a compact mycelium of a com-
pound nature, formed by the sporidia of both species of
Claviceps concurrently ; but the mode of origin of the ergot
in the interior of the spermatogonium renders this supposition
impossible, except upon the assumption that the spermato-
gonium itself is formed by the sporidia of both species, and
this can hardly be cousidered probable. The only explana-
tion consistent with Tulasne’s theory seems to me to be,
that the ergot of the Phragmites, which produces Claviceps
purpurea, and the ergot of the same grass which produces
Claviceps microcephala, are essentially although not percep-
tibly distinct; and that the ergot of Phragmites producing
Claviceps purpurea is identical with the ergot of rye, but
modified in size by growing upon Phragmites instead of upon
rye. It is obvious that this explanation would fail if the
two species of Claviceps should be found upon the same
identical specimen of ergot, but I am not aware that this
has ever been observed. I do not understand from Cesati’s
statement that the two species were produced contempora-
neously, and such was not the case in the specimens which I
found in my own neighbourhood.

BiackHeatu Park, 8.E.;
February, 1857.

On the presence of Sitica in the Rusiacem and in ACHILLEA
prarMica. By Apvo.pn Leiener, Esq.

(The substance of this paper was read to the Bristol Microscopic Society,
January 14th, 1857.)

Amonest the various inorganic elements which we find
present in plants, there is hardly one more interesting than
silica, either to the amateur microscopist or to the truly
scientific botanist. Some microscopic preparations of siliceous
parts, obtained from the Equisetacez, Graminez, from the
Deutzia scabra, and some other plants in which it has been
discovered, are rarely wanting in the limited collection of the
tyro, whom they please,—and never, I may say, in the
cabinet of the experienced physiologist, whom they still, to
some extent, puzzle.

The simple fact of the presence of silica in these plants has

LEIPNER, ON SILICA IN PLANTS. 135

long been known, its position defined, and its quantity
determined. It might at first sight appear unnecessary to
lay much stress upon the existence of silica in a new order of
plants, when we already have the two orders above named
affording such abundant examples of its presence, but there
are two points of interest in this manifestation of it.

Ist, that as yet, so far as I am aware, the presence of
silica has not been noticed in any indigenous exogens, and

2dly (which is of more importance), that the silica exists
in such small and varied proportion, as to offer vastly
superior opportunities for investigating its mode of deposition.

In the Graminez and Equisetacez the silica occurs chiefly
in the epidermis, where it exists in the form of a siliceous
tissue, exhibiting all the details of the epidermis, the outlines
and exact form of the epidermic cells and stomata; and enters,
moreover, into the composition of all the various structures
which are developed from it, such as spines and hairs. After
having destroyed all organic matter, either by burning, or,
what is still better, by boiling im nitric acid and subsequent
charring, we therefore still retain the epidermic structures in
the form of what might be called a siliceous cast.

With regard to the Rubiacez, I have to make the same
remark, viz., that it is chiefly, if not solely, in the epidermis
that silica exists. But in order to define its exact position,
it will be desirable to recall attention to the structure of the
epidermis, and the first formation and after-development of
the vegetable cell.

The epidermis consists of two organs, the cuticle and the
true epidermis.

The cuticle, which, according to the present opinion of
most botanists, is present in all plants, is a thin, colourless,
transparent membrane, which overlies the true epidermis,
and is in general considered to be a secretion from the
outside of the epidermic cells below it. Only the stomata
are not covered by this membrane.

Underlying the cuticle is the true epidermis, consisting of
one or more layers of flattened and compressed cells. In the
order before our notice, the outlines of these cells are all
flexuose, the stomata occurring at intervals between them,
but only on the under side of the leaves and near the angles of
the stem.

It is in the underlying or true epidermis, that the silica
occurs not only in the Rubiacee, but also in the Graminez
and Equisetaceze. But on observing an individual cell,
whether epidermic or not, and examining its first formation,
its growth and completion, we notice at first a simple vesicle,

VOL. V. N

136 LEIPNER, ON SILICA IN PLANTS.

formed by a transparent membrane, composed of pure
cellulose, an unazotized substance of 2 (C,, Hy) O,)) + HO.
This membrane is permeable by fluids, not by means of pores,
but by the process of endosmose. The interior is occupied
with mucilaginous matter, the ‘ protoplasm” of Mohl, which
is at first homogeneous, but assumes by degrees a granular
appearance, and forms ultimately a layer on the inner
surface of the original cell, denominated by Mirbel and
others the “ primordial or internal utricle.”’ By successive
layers on the primordial utricle, the mucilagimous contents
of the cells form all the various secondary deposits, which are
frequently arranged spirally ; but as this process of thicken-
ing by deposition advances, the original cell-wall itself
becomes finally united with the secondary deposits.

With regard now to the siliceous deposits in cells, it must
be remarked, in limine, that according to the opinion of all
physiologists the original cell-membrane is never composed
of anything but pure cellulose; the silica must therefore
take, as it were, the place of the secondary cell-membrane
and cell-deposits. It is true, that by decarbonizing a sili-
ceous epidermis, either by chemical means or by burning, we
obtain a perfect membrane or tissue, in which the cells are
all attached to each other; but this does not prove, that the
silica entered into the composition of the original cell-mem-
brane ; it merely proves that the secondary deposits have,
as I before stated, united in their more advanced stage with
the primary cell-walls. That this is actually the case, my
own observations of the epidermis of canes and straw seem
to verify. For by continuing the action of chemical agents,
I have observed that the cells separated; from which I
have inferred that the cellulose membrane between the
individual cells, or in other words the primary cell-wall, had
been at length destroyed, which no doubt would have taken
place before, had it not been so intimately blended with the
secondary siliceous deposits.

So far most physiologists I think pretty well agree; but
when we come to inquire further: “ What is the relative
position of silica and organic matter in the cells? and what
is its mode of deposition? ’”’? we meet either with very con-
flicting opinions, or with the most indefinite ideas.

It thus happens, that though I have taken much pains to
consult the writings of such eminent botanists and physiolo-
gists as Lindley, Henfrey, Balfour, Quekett, and my fellow-
countryman Schleiden, with others, I have not been able to
meet with even a clearly expressed theory upon this imterest-
ing point.

LEIPNER, ON SILICA IN PLANTS. 137

I have already referred to the small and variable quantity
of silica present in the Rubiacez, and propose to take advan-
tage of this peculiarity in further investigations, by which I
hope to arrive at more positive conclusions upon the vexed
question of the nature of siliceous deposits; whether they
obey the ordinary laws of inorganic bodies, and are simply
deposited from the secretions in the manner of raphides, as
Schleiden appears to think, or whether they are deposited
part passu with organic atoms as an integral part of the
cell-growth, and in conformity with organic development.
In confirmation of the latter supposition, I may here slightly
advert to a peculiarity which I have noticed in treating
siliceous membranes with nitric acid. If the action is main-
tained only so long as is required to destroy the adhering
organic substances, a siliceous membrane perfectly homoge-
neous in its structure is presented; but if this membrane be
further treated with nitric acid, it loses its homogeneous
appearance, and seems to be studded all over with small
granules, and the more so the longer it is boiled in the
acid. This can be better seen by changing the focus, as
some of the granules are more deeply imbedded in the mem-
brane than others.

In concluding this communication I may state that I
have found silica in every one of the four genera of which
the British Rubiaceze are composed, viz., Rubia, Galium,
Sherardia, and Asperula ; in fact, although I have examined
all indigenous plants of this order, with the exception of
Galium pusillum (i.), G. erectum (Huds.), and G. Vaillantii
(D. C.), I have failed to distinguish the silica-deposit only
in Galiwm cruciatum (L.) In all of the others, I have
found siliceous epidermic tissue in the stem as well as in the
leaves, which depolarizes light if it is present in sufficient
thickness; this is especially the case in the prickles, which
all these plants have at the margin of the leaves and the
angles of the stem. I have also detected it in the cotyledon-
leaves of Galium mollugo (L.), the only species in which I
have examined this organ.

That the Rubiacez are not the only exogenous order in
which silica is to be sought will appear from the fact, that
I have also found it in Achillea ptarmica (l.), one of the
Compositz. This plant, which bears the popular name of
““ sneeze-wort yarrow,” possesses a particularly large amount
of silica in the prickles forming the sharp double serratures
of the leaves, which is doubtless the cause of its errhine pro-
perties when powdered and used as snuff.

( 138 )

On the Zootoeicay Posttron of Dysteria.
By P. H. Gossz, F.R.S.

Durine my stay at Tenby last summer, I had some oppor-
tunities of studying the new and singular animal Dysieria,
the subject of Professor Huxley’s excellent memoir in the
January number of the ‘ Quarterly Journal.’ While I can-
not but admire the skill with which he has worked out the
interior structure, some parts of which presented to my own
investigations insuperable difficulties ; and while, in respect
to most of the details which I did succeed im resolving, I
agree with him; I had, before his memoir was published,
formed a different judgment as to its zoological position.

At first sight I was ready to conclude, with Mr. Huxley, that
it was an Infusorium of the family Huplotide ; and, indeed,
long before that gentleman’s allusion to the Chlamidodon mne-
mosyne of Ehrenberg, I had shrewd suspicions that our Tenby
stranger might be no other than that species. The peculiar
outline of the lorica, its delicate longitudinal striation, the
“large, oval, bright central gland” (contractile space ?), the
marginal row of cilia, longer in front, playing beneath the
overlapping edge of the lorica, the marine habitat, and espe-
cially the brilliant rose-coloured vesicles, are all characters
(remarkable in their cumulation) which poimt to such an
identification. It is true there are important diversities be-
tween Chlamidodon, as described and figured, and our Dys-
teria ; but those who have been accustomed to examine
minutely the figures of the eminent Prussian zoologist, and
to compare them with the living animals, will not hastily
pronounce their identity impossible.

Presuming Dysteria to be an Infusorium, it must be a
species sui generis, with no close affinity with the Euplotide.
An animal whose soft parts are enclosed between two deeply
compressed valves, and which crawls by the aid of a hinged
shelly foot, is widely different from one greatly depressed,
covered with a dorsal plate, and whose organs of locomotion
are short flexible seta, scattered over the soft ventral sur-
face.

But I am by no means sure that it should be placed
among the Infusoria at all. Mr. Huxley observes that
“the absence in an animal which takes solid nutriment, of
an alimentary canal with distinct walls, united with the pre-
sence of a contractile vesicle, with the power of transverse

GOSSE, ON DYSTERIA. 139

fission, and with cilia as locomotive organs, is a combination
of characters found only in the Infusoria.”’*

Now the presence of a contractile vesicle, and of locomo-
tive cilia, are quite as characteristic of the Rotifera as of
the Infusoria. The absence of an alimentary canal is, I
think, not proved : it seemed to me that the animal possessed
a defined digestive cavity, though very ample. In Sacculus,
—an indubitable Rotiferon, which carries its large eggs in
the manner of a Brachionus,—the alimentary canal, without
apparent distinction of stomach and intestine, is so large
that it occupies fully five sixths of the whole volume of the
lorica ; and though it is invariably found filled with a green
alga, on which the animal feeds, the walls of the digestive
cavity are not better defined than in Dysteria. There re-
mains then. only the fact of increase by transverse fission.
This, I confess, is a strong point, if well established. But
it does not seem certain, from Mr. Huxley’s words, whether
he witnessed the progress of constriction, from an early
stage, until two perfect animals were formed out of one, or
only saw an individual so strongly constricted that the re-
sult seemed legitimately inferible. If the latter was the
case, is it not just possible that 1t was an example, not of
spontaneous fission, but of malformation, instances of which
are frequent among the highest animals? It is highly worthy
of note that the nucleus, so characteristic of the Infusoria,
was not found, even under careful search with acetic acid.

The presence, position, and movements of the foot, hinged,
as it 1s, upon a tubercle, and the form of the principal organs
of manducation, seem to me to determine the place of Dys-
teria within the class Rotifera; while, at the same time,
the lack of internal motion, the apparent want of distinct
muscle-bands, the great extent of the vibratory cilia, and the
absence of a rotatory arrangement, show that it occupies
one of the vanishing points of the class.

If this allocation be admissible, it is interesting to inquire,
what are the recognised forms among the Rotifera to
which this animal makes the most obvious approaches. The
following points of relationship occur to me:

1. The oval form and bivalve character of the lorica sug-
gest the Coluride, with which the creature associates ; but
they have the valves separate only on the ventral edge.

2. The Salpinade, on the other hand, have the lorical
plates separate down the dorsal edge, but soldered together
ventrally, the foot playing in a fissure.

* Loe. cit., p. 82.

140 GOSSE, ON DYSTERIA.

3. The excavation in the interior part of the head causes
the part above it to assume the form of a hook, the point of
which is downwards and forwards.

Now in the Coluride, as well as in some other allied
genera, a broad frontal hook is very characteristic. It is
true, that in these it is apparently articulated to the lorica,
of which it forms a firm appendage, and is endowed with
separate motion. In Stephanops, however, it is fixed and
immoveable.

From these slight analogies we may perhaps link the form
with Colurus and its allies.

But the predominance of resemblances is with another
group,—that which includes Monocerca and Mastigocerca ;
and some of these poimts of similarity are the more in-
teresting, because they are such as already isolate (though in
a much less conspicuous manner) these genera from the
more normal Rotifera.

1. They are single-toed; whereas the majority of footed
Rotifera are two-toed.

2. Some of them are unsymmetrical; as Mastigocerca, in
which the dorsal carina leans over to the right side, and the
left series of manducatory organs is more developed than the
right ; and Monocerca, in which the right malleus is wanting,
and (in some species) the antennal processes and the frontal
spines are unequally developed.

3. The manducatory apparatus is of far greater com-
parative length in these genera than in any other known
Rotifera; in Monocerca porcellus and M. stylata approaching,
and in Mastigocerca carinata, equalling, half the length of the
lorica.

4. These genera, when crawling on a smooth surface (as a
plate of glass), are able to render themselves stationary, and
acquire a point d’appui for their progression, by the curious
provision of a thick glutimous fluid. This is secreted in the
hinder region of the body, and thrown out in a copious
stream, which may be often seen passing down the long foot
like a thick entwining cord, and then left trailing behind, as
the animal moves forward. Now this interesting contrivance
is paralleled in the new form we are considering ; for Mr.
Dyster tells me that the pomt of the foot remams glued to
the glass after death, “ probably from some exudation.”

From these analogies, I incline to give to this animal a
place in the family Monocercade, as a very aberrant genus.
I consider that it has remote relations also with the Salpinade,
and especially with the Coluride (through Monura) ; and
that it 7s an annectant form between the Rotifera and the

HEPWORTH, ON COMPOUND NUCLEATED CELLS. 141

Infusoria, with a preponderance of the characters of the
former class.
I propose the following generic characters for the animal :

CLASSIS ROTIFERA.
Famit1ra MonocercaD2.
Genus Dysteria (Huxley).

Lorica bivalvis, ineequivalvis, feré tota margine hiante. Corporis facies
capitales et ventrales ciliates. Apparatus manducatorius valdé elongatus,
in mastace dignoscenda non inclusus. Cavitas digestiva amplissima, sim-
plex. Pes inarticulatus, indivisus, spathulatus, compressus.

Sp. D. armata (Huxley). Species unica.

On Comrounp Nuciratep Criis. By J. Hepworrn, Esq.

AurnHoucH many writers speak very positively as to the
compound nucleated cell being invariably a characteristic
sign of cancer, my observations for some years past have
led me to doubt the truth of this. I believe it is more fre-
quently found than otherwise ; but not always.

H. J., a female, aged fifty-five years, applied to me, having
an ulcer on the upper lip, which had all the characteristic
signs of cancer, except the nucleated cell. 1 removed a V-shaped
portion of the lip, including the disease; the parts healed,
and I heard nothing more of the case until after a lapse of
two years, when the woman presented herself again, with a
similar ulcer on the nose; so situated, that the knife could
not be used with advantage. It resisted every remedy, and
gradually went on, though slowly, to a fatal termination ;
after destroying the nose, and dipping into the orbit.

I frequently examined very carefully the secretions from
the surface, and from time to time snipped small portions
from the parts; but never detected a nucleated cell; I only
found pus-globules, altered blood-discs, and exudation-cor-
puscles.

L. T.,a man, aged forty-five, died of cancer of the stomach ;
on examination, the greater and lesser omenta colon, and
stomach were all shrivelled up into a hard scirrhous mass, the
coats of the stomach were three quarters of an inch thick,
the pylorus was ulcerated; although I had no doubt as to
the nature of the case, I detected no nucleated cells.

142 HEPWORTH, ON COMPOUND NUCLEATED CELLS.

There are some objects that we occasionally meet with
which have some resemblance to nucleated (cancer) cells, at
first sight, but on closer examination they are found other-
wise ; for instance, in the deposits after desquamatory inflam-
mation of the tubuli urimiferi, the epithelial scales, when
clustered together, and heaped one upon another, have some-
what that appearance (fig. 1, Pl. IX). There are other com-
pound cells, which have not the least resemblance to the so-
called cancer-cell, as fig. 2, which represents cells found in
the fluid drawn from a sac in ovarian dropsy, in which there
were abundance of pus globules ; indeed these appear to have
formed the nuclei of the compound cells. The other draw-
ings represent cancer-cells, from different sources. (Fig. 3.)
Cells from a cancroid tumour of the brain. (Fig. 4.) Cells
from epithelial cancer of the fore-arm, of a fine old woman
of eighty-three years of age; now under treatment; the
axillary glands have become affected with the disease, which
is progressing rapidly. (Fig. 5.) Cells from the mamma.
(Fig. 6.) Cells from the uterus.

Dr. Inman’s case, of Liverpool, is an excellent illustration
of the ‘ Practical use of the Microscope.” If other gentle-
men would publish the results of similar observations, it
would lead to useful investigations by many.*

* ‘Quart. Journ. Mier. Science,’ vol. v, p. 20.

( 143 )

TRANSLATIONS.

AuGarumM UNICELLULARIUM GENERA nova et minus cognita,
premissis OBSERVATIONIBUS de ALGIs UNICELLULARIBUS
im genere.

New and less known Genera of Untcrttvutar Aue, preceded
by OBsERVATIONS respecting UNICELLULAR ALG@ in general.
By Avex. Braun. (Lipsiz, 1855; with six Plates.)

Continued from No. XVIII, p. 96.

Tue organs of fructification, and in particular the cells, by
which the Alge and cryptogamous plants in general are
propagated, have received the most various names, for the
most part insufficiently defined and applied in different
senses.* Propagative cells undoubtedly occur widely differ-
ing among themselves, and frequently differing, and this is a
point of the greatest importance, in the same plant.t For
some differ but little, others as widely as possible from the
vegetative cells ; some are endogenous in their origin (in a
simple parent-cell, or in two conjugated cells), some acro-
genous ;{ they may be enclosed in a membrane either soft
or rigid, simple or multiple; they may be inert or active
(furnished with motile cilia); some are subservient to fe-
cundation either in a direct $ or indirect || manner, some to
germination, others altogether sterile. Among those which

* The following terms have chiefly been employed: spora, sporidium,
sporidiolum, spermatium, speirema, spherospora, zoospora, gonidium, gemmi-
dium, conidium, gongylus, spermatozoidium, antherozoidium, &c.

+ Fructification of the double kind is extremely common; of the triple
kind instances are afforded amongst the A/ye, in most of the Moridee, in
Edogonium, Vaucheria, Saprolegnia, and Chlamidococcus ; anong the Lichens,
in Scutula (Tulasne, ‘Ann. d. Se. Nat.,’ 17, p. 118, t. 14); among the
Fungi, in Cenxangium Frangule (Tulasne, |. c., 20, p. 136, t. 16), Bulgaria
(ib., p. 129, t. 15), Dacrymyces (b., 19, p. 211, t.13), Hrysiphe, Stemphylium
(De Bary, ‘Verh. des pr. Gartenbauer, 1853, p. 178, t. 2), Peronostoma
(from the very recent observations of Caspery), &c.

+ Conidia, stylospores, basidiospores, and spermatia of the Fungi and
Lichens.

§ Spermatozoidia of the Filicoidee, Muscoidee, Fucoidee, Floridee ; sper-
matia of Lichens and Fungi.

|| Microspores of the Lycopodiacee and Rhizocarpec.

€| Most microgonidia (Chlamidococeus, Pediastrum, Stephanosphera, Hy-
drodictyon, Cutleria), the pseudo-gonidia (spermatospheria, Itzigs.) of Spiro-
gyrd, &e.

144 BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALG#.

germinate, some require fecundation, others germinate spon-
taneously, some at once, others after a long or shorter term
of rest, some in totality, others after throwing off the peri-
spore; most producing only a single individual, whilst some
(under a divided germination) give rise to several individuals.*
Propagative corpuscles (spores), moreover, also occur, either
bicellular or multicellular. This being the case, a diversity
of terms also becomes requisite, but what these should be,
and upon what principle they should be framed, is at present
not easy to determine, seeing that numerous considerations
relative both to the origin and to the structure of the propa-
gative cells, but more especially concerning their physio-
logical import, fecundation, and germination, have not as yet
been sufficiently inquired into. The terms, therefore, here
set forth are proposed more for the temporary purpose of
their being considered and judged of, than for use.

The author, in his work on ‘ Rejuvenescence in Plants,’
p- 148, has endeavoured accurately to determine the diffe-
rence between spores and gonidia, a difference which, at the
present day, though difficult to sustain, it is neither incon-
gruous nor useless to discuss. Gonidia are formed either in
the vegetative cells themselves, or in cells only slightly
differing from the vegetative character, filled with the same
material, and for the most part resembling the vegetative
cells in nature and colour; so that they represent, as it were,
a cytoplasma liberated from the envelopes. Covered with a
special delicate and soft integument, they proceed to germi-
nate at once and in totality. From gonidia, which move by
means of vibratile cilia, a transition to ciliated spermatozoids
is afforded through the sterile microgonidia.t Spores, on the
other hand, originate within cells more widely differmg from
the common vegetative cell, and are themselves distinguished
by the altered nature of the contents and their peculiar
colour. Furnished with special coats, double or multiple,

* The multicellular spores of most Lichens and Ascomycetes, many
Gymnomycetes, and also of some Hymenomycetes (Tulasne, ‘Aun. d. Se.
Nat.,’ IL, 9, p. 215, t. 18, Dacrymyces), represent in all respects compound
spores, protruding in like manner from every cell, germinal filaments. The
multicellular spores of Pedlia (‘Hofmeister vergl. Unters.,’ p. 10, t. 4;
Groaland, in ‘ Ann. des Sc. Nat.,’ LV, p. 18, t. 2), are of a different nature,
representing a single germinal plantule, formed by a premature division of
the primordial cell.

+ Whether the gonidia of Lichens are altogether analogous with those
of Alge is not quite clear. Endogenous, as it would seem, in their origin,
they agree with the gonidia of d/ga, but remaining within the texture of
the ¢hallus they are changed into free vegetative cells, which produce new
and repeated series of gonidia.

BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALGA. 145

they constitute, as it were, tunicated gonidia; in their germi-
nation, rupturing and throwing off the envelope (exosporium).
Quite inert and dormant, as it were, they retain their vitality
until the proper period for their germination arrives. But
that the male function is also not incongruous with the form
of a spore is shown in the pollen of phanerogamous plants,
which is directly subservient to fecundation; and in the
microspores of the Lycopodiacez and Rhizocarpez, from
which fecundating spermatozoidia are produced.

Spores and gonidia, thus defined, agree in this, that they
arise from an endogenous and a free formation of cells.*
The acrogenous propagative cells constitute a series differing
from both, which, formed at the summit of the supporting
cell,+ and at length proceeding to form an articulated series
of cells, might be generally termed conidia. These occur
very rarely in the class of Algz,{ but are extremely common
and of varied construction in the Lichens and Fungi; some
being very closely allied to vegetative cells (conidia, from the
mycelium of Fungi), some assuming the nature of spores,
whilst others, again, are analogous, in a certain sense, to
spermatozoids; that is, they do not germinate, and the
author is not aware that they are subservient to fecundation
(spermatia) of Lichens and Fungi.

The author proposes the following conspectus of these
organs, based upon the foregoing considerations :

A. A series of GONIDIA (macrogonidia and microgonidia, according to their
size in the same species); protogonidia, deuterogonidia, telogonidia,
if transitional generations of gonidia exist :

a. Gonidia immotile, in their nature very closely approximating vegetative
cells (all germinating without fecundation): PuyToGonrptia :

* Tn the ultimate generation of cells, naked: Gleocapsa, Oscillaria,
Scytonema, Mastichonema, Zooglea (the gonidia of Zooglea,
though tremulous, have no vibratile cilia) ;

** Formed by the division of the contents of a single cell: Scene-
desmus, Celastrum ;

* By a free cytogenesis, though in the widest sense of the term, the
sense in which it is very recently defined by Pringsheim in his observations
on the structure and origin of the plant-cell, who comprehends under the
term “free cytogenesis,” every formation of cells arising without inflexion
of the cytoderm and from the contents alone. (Pringsh., ‘ Unters. ib. d.
Bau u. die Bildung der Pflanzenzelle,’ 1854, p. 62.)

{ In what way these are formed, whether by a process of division, or
by the coalescing of a free cell with the parent utricle, demands further
inquiry.

+ In Batrachospermum and Lemanea.

146 BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALG.

*** Formed by the union of the contents of two conjugated cells:
Diatomacee ;

**** Produced within special organs: “ gemmidia” in “ cystocarps,”
as in the Moridie (7).

6. Gonidia motile by means of vibratile cilia, otherwise differing but little
from the common shape of cells (oblong and rounded), ZooGconrpIa
(vulgo ‘* zoospores ”’) :

a. Germinating (without fecundation), producing normal individuals :

* Solitary : macrogonidia of Vaucheria, @dogonium, Bulbochetes,
Cutleria ; gonidia of Coleochetes, Chetophora, &e. ;

** Numerous, arising from successive generations in the same cell
(telogonidia): Characium, Ulothrix ; macrogonidia and (?) mi-
erogonidia of Ulva ;

*** Arising in the same cell, in a group by the simultaneous division
of the cytoplasm (protoplasm): Codium, Codiolum, Bryopsis,
Hydrocytium, Chetomorpha, Cladophora, Laminaria ; macrogo-
nidia of Hydrodictyon.

8. Germinating, but producing only depauperate individuals, which
soon perish (paupercule): microgonidia of @dogonium, Bulbo-
chates ;

y. Sterile, neither germinating nor fecundating: microgonidia of Hy-
drodictyon, Pediastrum, Stephanosphera, Chlamidococcus, Cutleria ;

6. Fecundating (spermatogonidia) :*

* Produced in numbers in the same cell: Fucoidee ;
*® One in each cell: Moridee.f

c. Gonidia motile by means of cilia, further removed from the nature of
cells, filiform and twisted in spiral forms (spermatozoidia) :

One formed in each cell: Characee, Muscoidee, Filices, Hquise-
tacee, Lycopodiacee, Rhizocarpee.

* The spermatozoids, as they are termed, of the Fwcoidee, although,
since the experiments of Thuret and Pringsheim, no doubt can be enter-
tained as to their function, are widely different, with respect to their form,
from the spermatozoids of the higher Cryptogams, and agree in all points
with the germinating gonidia of the Hetocarpee, Myrionemee, Laminariea,
&c. Agardh (Spec. gen. et ord. Alg. I, p. 9) terms the Zoogonidia in
general and the spermatogonidia of the Fucoidee in particular “ Sporidia,”
speaking of them in the following words: “The sporidia of the Pucotdee
are without doubt analogous, on the one hand, with the sporidia of the
Zoospermee, and on the other with the spermatozoa of the Musei, Hepuatice,
and Characee. It is of little moment whether their functions be the same
or different. That the most various functions may be assigned to analogous
organs is shown by very numerous examples. The pollen and spores are
the same organs, but differing in function.”

+ That the spermatogonidia of the //oride@ move by means of cilia, has
been noticed in several genera by Derbés and Solier (‘ Mém. sur la Physio-
logie des Algaes ’).

BRAUN, ON UNI ELLULAR ALG&. 147

B. A series of Sporgs (macrospores and microspores, if differing in size in
the same species ; hypnospores, if dormant for a long time) :

a. True germinating spores (some without fecundation) :
a. Simple, developed into a single germinal plantlet :

* Produced singly in each naked cell: Gdogonium, Bulbochete,
Ulothrix (Hormotrichum), Vaucheria ;

** Gregarious in each naked cell: Saprolegnia, Spheroplea ;
*** Solitary in a pair of conjugated cells: Desmidiacee, Zygnemacee ;

**** Serial, in cells (asci) of a compound organ (apothecium, perithe-
cium ; the simple spores of some Lichens and Ascomycetes) ;

*&e** Quaternary in the primary maternal cells (singly in the secondary)
within compound organs: Floridee (“spheerospores ” without
fecundation ?), Musci, Hepatice, Filices, Equisetum, &c. (fecun-
dation 0).

f- Compound (multicellular),* throwing out several germs,—PHRAG-
MATOSPORES, POLYPLASTIC SPORES :
Serial in the cells (asc?) of a compound organ (apothecium,
perithecium ; most Lichens and Ascomycetes).
y. Sectile, breaking up within the perispore into several gonidia, each
of which germinates :

* Undergoing fecundation: Fucoidee ;
** Without fecundation: Closterium (?), Euastrum (?), Rivularia (?).
b. Subservient to fecundation—aNDROSPORES :

a, Directly fecundating :
Pollen of phanerogamous plants.

y. Indirectly fecundating, producing spermatozoidia in their interior :
microspores of Selaginella, Isoétes, and the Rhizocarpea.

C. A series of Conipia:

a. Conidia in the more restricted sense of the term, arising from a
thallus (mycelium) differing very little from vegetative cells, for the
most part smooth-skinned (leptodermatous), germinating at once and
in totality :

To this category appear to belong the spores of Batrachospermum
and Lemania ;+ and obviously those of the Hyphomycetes, as
well as of the Pyrenomycetes (Zrysiphe) and Hymenomycetes
(Dacrymyce).

4. Acrosporss of authors (sporoconidia), produced in special organs more
distinct from the thallus; widely different from vegetative cells, for

* The individual cells of compound spores have by some been termed
*sporidia,” terms analogous to “folium” and “ foliolum;” Fries employs
the term “sporidia” to designate the naked spores of the Hymenomy-
cetes.

+ The spores of Lemania arising from the separated joints of the in-
ternal filaments germinate together with the perispore itself. (Vid. Wart-
mann, Anat. und Entwickelungsgeschichte der Algengattung ‘‘ Lemania”
(1854), p. 12, t. 3, f. 5.

148 BRAUN, ON UNICELLULAR ALGA.

the most part pachydermatous, and germinating through pores or a
rupture of the exospore :

The naked and acrogenous spores of most of the Coniomycetes
and Hyphomycetes (often compound or multicellular); the
basidiospores of the Gasteromycetes and Hymenomycetes (for
the most part simple); the stylospores of the Ascomycetes
(Bulgaria, Cenangium, Dermatia, &c.) and of the Lichens
(Scutula).

c. SPERMATIA (spermatoconidia, androconidia), very slender, minute cells,
often exhibiting a tremulous motion, sterile or fecundating :*

In the Lichens and Ascomycetes, and also in the Hyphomycetes,
e. g., mn Trichothecium; and the Hymenomycetes, e. g., in
Tremella and Dacrymyce.

With respect to the parts, lastly, by which the propagative
cells are produced, it is well known that, in the different
orders of Cryptograms, parts widely differmg in value are
designated under the same name, or that parts essentially
identical have received different appellations, so that a more
accurate terminology is much required. Thus it is, in the
first place, desirable to distinguish in the organs of fructifica-
tion those which are directly such, and simple, 7. e., parent-
cells, within which propagative cells are generated, and those
which more remotely perform the function and are compound,
—those within which parent-cells are formed and contained.
The former the author would term—1, sporocytia,+ when
they contain spores; 2, goniocytia, if contaming gonidia ;
3, spermatocytia,t if contaiming spermatogonidia or sperma~
tozoidia ; and the latter, for the same reason—l, sporangia
(sporocarpia, Schleiden), to which belong the sporangia of
Ferns and Equisetacez, analogous to which are the locula-
ments, or thece, of the anthers in phanerogamous plants, and
also the sporangia of two kinds of the Lycopodiacez (“ an-
theridia” and ‘‘oophoridia,”’ Spring), those of the Musci and
Hepatice, and lastly the apothecia, or cymatia, and perithecia
of the Lichens and Pyrenomycetes, as well as their pycnides
(Tulasne), contaming stylospores, and the peridia of the

* Tulasne has noticed the germination of the spermatia of Claviceps
purpurea (Sphacelia segetum), of Spheria typhina, and S. Laburni; and
Hoffmann (‘ Bot. Zeit.,’ 1854, p. 268) the incomplete germination of the
spermatia in Hagenia ciliaris, tubercularia, and Trichothecium roseum ; the
boundary, therefore, between the spermatia and other kinds of conidia would
seem to be but ill defined.

+ Schleiden terms these organs ‘ Sporangia,” a term elsewhere frequently
used to express compound sporiferous organs; in the Alge they are called
sometimes ‘‘ sporocysts,”’ sometimes “ perispores” (as in the ucacea) ; the
sporocytia of Lichens, Pyrenomycetes and Discomycetes are known under
the names of “asci” and “ thecs.”

+ “Antheridia” of the Fucacee.

COHN, ON VOLVOX GLABATOR. 149

Gasteromycetes ; 2, goniangia, to which would appear to
belong the cystocarps of the Floridez and the conceptacles of
the propagula (Scyphi) of the Hepatice (Marchantia, Blasia) ;
and 3, spermatangia, including the spermogonia (Talasne) of
the Lichens and Fungi, and the antheridia of Ferns, Equi-
setaceze, Mosses, Hepaticee, and Characez. The term sporo-
corpium, lastly, should be reserved for organs distinct from
the vegetative parts in which the sporangia themselves are
inclosed, and which occur in the family of the Rhizocarpee.
These organs are commonly termed “ receptacles,” or “ con-
ceptacles,’ under which term, indeed, widely different spo-
rangiophorous organs are included, e. g., the peculiar leaves
bearmg sporangia externally in Kguisetum (sporophylla,
Schleiden, sporidochia, Liuk, carpophora, Bisch), to which
may be added the fertile fronds of the Ophioglossez and of
some Ferns; and besides these, the peltate inflorescence (to
use such a term) of the Marchantie, as well as the altered
parts of the thallus, containing associated sporangia, in the
Fucaceze (carpomata, Kitz), to which the stromata of the
Pyrenomycetes are in some respects analogous.

These introductory observations are succeeded by the de-
scription of several new or less known genera, viz., Codiolum,
Hydrocytium, Characium, Sciadium, Ophiocytium, Hydro-
dictyon, and Pediastrum (subdivided into four sub-genera),
illustrated with numerous figures.

CouHN on VOLVOX GLOBATOR.

In a paper recently read before the Academy of Sciences
in Paris, Professor Cohn states that his own observations on
the Volvocinez have convinced him that the members of that
family must be regarded as belonging to the vegetable
kingdom, and that the Volvor globator, in particular, is
properly placed among the Algze. In this singular plant, as
well as in Eudorina, Gonium, Stephanosphera, and other Vol-
vocinez, each spherule is, properly speaking, not so much an
individual as an association or family of individuals,—a sort
of vegetable polypary. The globe of Volvox is formed at its
periphery of an infinitude of very minute hexagonal cells,
attached to each other in the same way as are the elements
of an epidermic tissue. Each of the cells is furnished with

150 COHN, ON VOLVOX GLOBATOR.

two motile cilia, and may be compared with a Chlamydococcus.
The green endochrome is suspended, as it were, in the cavity,
being connected with the wall only by means of filiform
processes.

Like all the Algz, the Volvocinee present two distinct
modes of reproduction ; but up to the present time naturalists
have been acquainted with only one of these, consisting in
the repeated segmentation of the constituent cells, and re-
sembling the fissiparity of Chlamydococcus and Gonium, or
that of most of the Palmellacez.

The second mode of reproduction of Volvor requires a
sexual conjunction, and is not observed indifferently in all
individuals. The spherules, endowed with the sexual function,
are distinguished by their volume and the more considerable
number of their component utricles; they are generally
monzecious, that is to say, they enclose at the same time male
and female cells, although the majority of their contents are
neuter. The female cells soon exceed their neighbours in size,
assume a deeper green colour, and become elongated lke a
matrass towards the centre of the Volvox. The endochrome
of these cells does not undergo fission. In other cells, on the
contrary, which acquire the size and form of the female cells,
the green plasma may be seen to divide symmetrically into
an infinity of very minute particles, or linear corpuscles
associated into discoid bundles. These are furnished with
vibratile cilia, and oscillate, at first slowly, in their prism, but
the movement soon becomes more active, and the bundles
speedily break up into their constituent elements. The free
corpuscles are very agile, and it is impossible to regard them
as anything but true spermatozoids; they are linear and
thickened at the posterior extremity ; two long cilia are placed
behind their middle, and the rostrum, which is curved like
the neck of a swan, possesses sufficient contractility to execute
the most varied movements. These spermatozoids, so soon
as they are able to disperse themselves in the cavity of the
Volvox, quickly crowd around the female cells, into which
they eventually penetrate; arrived there, they attach them-
selves by the beak to the plastic globule, destined in each cell
to form a spore, and with which they are gradually in-
corporated. Fecundation having been thus effected, the re-
productive globule becomes enveloped successively by an in-
tegument exhibiting conical pointed eminences, and by an
interior smooth membrane ; the chlorophyll which it con-
tained is now replaced by starch grains, and a red or orange-
coloured oil. This is the condition of the spore at maturity,
and occasionally forty of these bodies may be counted in a

COHN, ON VOLVOX GLOBATOR. Low

single globe of Volvox. The germination of these repro-
ductive bodies has not yet been observed, so that their history
cannot be regarded as complete; but from analogy it may,
in the meanwhile, be assumed that they germinate in the
same way as do the spores of Aidogonium, Spheroplea, and
other Algz belonging to the same order. It may be main-
tained, moreover, as certain that the Spherosira volvox, Ehr.,
is nothing else than a monexcious Volvox globator ; that his
Volvox stellatus is also V. globator, observed at the time when
it is filled with stellate spores; and, lastly, that the V. aureus
of the same author differs from the other forms of the same
species, simply im the smooth [and coloured] condition of
the spores.

[ Note.—With respect to the relations of Volvox aureus and
V. stellatus to each other and to V. globator, observations
precisely in accordance with those of Professor Cohn are con-
tained in a paper by Mr. Busk, in the first volume of this
Journal ; and the description there given of the formation of
the hypnospore, in the variety termed V. aureus, corresponds,
in all respects, excepting the introduction of spermatozoids,
with that above afforded. In the same place it is also hinted
that this orange-coloured spore of V. aureus represents the
“ still-” or hypno-spore of other Algze. It is also suggested,
in the same paper, that Spherosira volvox, Ehr., “may
eventually be found to represent a peculiar mode of develop-
ment of the same species.” It is also noticed that the
ultimate result of the segmentation of the zoospores in
Spherosira consists in the formation of numerous minute
ciliated cells or corpuscles, forming by their aggregation a
discoid body, in which the separate fusiform cells are con-
nected together at one end. The important discovery (if
confirmed by future observation) by Cohn that these fusiform
bodies represent the spermatozoids of other Algze, constitutes
the important point in the paper of which the above abstract
is given.—EHps. |

VOL. V. G

(152 )

On a Pecuttar Structure in the Cotumnar EpirHectan
Creiis of the Intestines, in connection with the Ansorr-
TION Of Farry Martrers. By A. KOxuixker.

(From the ‘ Verhandl. d. phys. med. Gesellschaft,’ vol. vi, 1855.)

1. Tue epithelial cells of the small intestine in mammals,
birds, and amphibia have on the side turned towards the
cavity of the intestine a thickened wall, in which, under
favorable circumstances, and with a eood microscope, a
manifest delicate striation may be perceived; which also,
though with far more difficulty, and with certainty almost
exclusively in the rabbit, when viewed from above, appears as
a fine punctation.

2. This thickened, striated cell-wall, which may be readily
perceived even in isolated cells, swells up in water and dilute
solutions to more than double its primitive thickness, becomes
very manifestly striated, even breaking up, as it were, mto
separate fibrille, so that the cells assume the aspect of ciliated
cells. Ultimately water destroys the entire border from
without to within, the innermost portion offering the longest
resistance. Besides this, water induces two especial changes
in the intestinal cells. In the first place, it forces mucous
drops out of the uninjured cells, which have been erroneously
explained as being swollen cells; and secondly, also, it fre-
quently raises off the thickened membrane in toto ; both of
which circumstances are generally very readily distinguishable
from each other.

3. In herbivorous mammals, the thickened and striated
membranes are absent in the large intestine, as well as in the
amphibia and birds; whilst in the carnivora and in man a
faint indication of its presence may be discerned in this
portion of the intestinal canal as well; in the stomach the
membranes of the columnar cells do not present this
characteristic.

4. In the mammalia, the fat before its absorption is trans-
formed into immeasurably minute molecules, i which form
it also enters the epithelial cells. The larger oil-drops, which,
under certain conditions, are seen within perfectly recent
cells, do not necessarily show that the fatty matter had
entered in that form.

5. Among the common epithelial cells, there are found in
all animals, and in every part of the intestine, other granular
cells, of a more clavate form, mostly without distinct nucleus,

KOLLIKER, ON EPITHELIAL CELLS. 153

and which must be regarded as cells in a state of regeneration,
ruptured at the upper end.

To these facts Kolliker subjoins the following possibilities
and suppositions, which he recommends as subjects for further
research :

1. The striz im the thickened cell-membrane are pore-
canals.*

2. Should this supposition prove correct, it would seem, in
the first place, proper to place these canaliculi in direct
relation to the absorption of fat; though, at the same time,
it is also conceivable that they possess a more general signifi-
cance, and that they stand in a general relation to the
reception and secretion of material through cells. The former
view is supported by the circumstance—

1. That in many animals (herbivorous mammals, amphibia,
birds, &e.) the striated, thickened cell-membranes exist only
on the surface of the small intestine, whilst they are wanting
in its glands, as well as in the large intestine and stomach.

2. The columnar and ciliated epithelium of other localities
presents no indication of the existence of a structure re-
sembling pore-canals.

3. That the fatty matters are absorbed in the form of
molecules, so minute, as, at any rate, to be capable of pene-
trating through the canals in question.

* In a note, Kolliker remarks that his supposed pore-canals have nothing
in common with the imaginary pores stated by Keber to exist, not only in
epithelial cells, but in all other bodies. (Yzde ‘Quart. Journ. Micros. Soc.,’
vol. ili, p. 152.)

( 154 )

REVIEWS.

Empvusa Musca, and the disease of the Common House-fly.
A contribution towards the knowledge of Epidemics cha-
racterised by the presence of parasitic Fungi. By Dr. F.
Coun. Breslau, 1855 (pp. 59, with three plates).

Tue subject of this paper is the well-known, curious
disease which prevails among common house-flies, at the
period when the departing warmth of autumn induces them
to seek shelter within doors.

At this time innumerable dead bodies of flies may be seen
adhering to the windows, walls, shutters, &c., in all parts of
the room. The dead insect, though dry and so friable as to
crumble into dust upon the slightest touch, retains so far the
attitude of life that it is difficult, without touching, to believe
that it is not a living fly on the point of taking flight.
Insects in dying usually draw up the legs and cross them
beneath the body, but in the case of the disease now under
consideration the dead body is supported upon the out-
stretched legs, whose feet retain their adhesive property, and
by the protruded proboscis, with which the fly would seem to
be sucking, and by which, even when the feet may happen to
be detached, the body is still retained im situ. The dead flies
in this condition are always surrounded with a halo, about an
inch in diameter, composed of a whitish dust, which, upon
examination, is found to consist of the spores of a fungus.
The abdomen is much distended, and the rings composing it
are separated from each other, the intervals being occupied
by white prominent zones, constituted of a fungoid growth
proceeding from the interior of the body. Further ex-
amination will show that the whole of the contents of the
body of the fly have been consumed by the parasitic growth,
and that nothimg remains but an empty shell lined with a
thin, felt-like layer, composed of the interlaced mycelia of the
innumerable fungi.

This disease appears to have been long noticed, though, of
course, in the absence of sufficient microscopic assistance, its
true nature was not at first known.

First noticed, as it would seem, by De Geer in 1782, it did
not escape the acute eye of the illustrious Goethe, who gives
an accurate description of the phenomena attending it, and
especially of the appearance of the white dust between the
rings of the body, and its dispersion in a wide area around
the dead insect. Accurate microscopic observations upon it

COHN, ON EMPUSA MUSC&. 155

were made by Nees v. Esenbeck in 1827, though he did not
arrive at any very definite conclusion as to the nature of
what he observed. But, in 1835, M. Duméril declared the
fine white dust to be a true mould, which had probably caused
the death of the animal, in the same way that plants are
killed by different species of Exysiphe. He compares it to
the “ muscardine” of the silk-worm.

In 1841, Mr. Berkeley determined the mould observed by
Duméril to be the Sporendonema musce, Fries., with the
following characters: “S. floccis simplicibus in cespitulos
sublobatosalbos conglutinatis” (‘Systema mycologicum,’ 1829,
ul, p. 434) ; the fertile filaments (flocci) are said to be filled
internally with serially disposed, spherical sporidia.

Cohn, though admitting that the last-mentioned circum-
stance may be explained by the action of water upon the
contents of the filament, thinks it necessary, in giving a new
diagnosis, also to dignify the fungus with a new name, and
to erect it into a new genus under that of Hmpusa, with the
following characters : ‘ Empusa, entophyta, e tribus constans
cellulis, quarrum infima in insecti cujusdam alvo eyvoluta,
mycelii instar tortuosa et ramificata superne prolongatur in
mediam, extrorsum tandem erumpentem, stipitis vel basidii
instar spora simplici, elastice demum protrusa coronatum.”’

Em. musce, n. sp.: Cellula myceliformi 52," lata, sursum
in claviformem +,’ latam excurrente, spora campanuli-
formi = +},"".

The author gives a long, interesting, and very particular
account of his observations upon this parasitic growth, and
finally sums up his conclusions in the following propositions,
which include all the main points in the paper.

In a postscript noticmg M. Tulasne’s observations on the
development of the Uredinex,* he himself, however, admits
that they are calculated to throw very strong suspicions upon
the correctness of one of the main propositions which it
seems to have been the object of this memoir to establish,
viz., “that in the fluid which fills the abdominal cavity of the
diseased fly numerous cells arise by free cell-formation, which
cells, by gradual development, are formed into the tricellular
Empusa.’ A sort of equivocal generation, the establishment
of which in any case will indeed require very much stronger
evidence than has yet been afforded, and especially in the in-
stance of growths like the present, of whose modes of develop-
ment much still remains to be made out.

* «Mémoire sur les Urédinées et les Ustilaginées.’ (Ann. d. S. nat., 4 sér.,
t. ii, 1854, pp. 77—193.)

156 COHN, ON EMPUSA MUSCA.

1. In the autumn the common house-fly is subject to a
fatal disease, which occurs epidemically, and disappears in
the course of the following winter.

2. This disease is characterised by the development of a
microscopic fungus—Empusa musce—in the interior of the
body of the fly; the death of the insect is caused by the
vegetation of this parasitic growth.

3. The disease is manifested externally, at first by a de-
gree of slowness in the motions of the flies; at this stage,
the fluid (blood) which occupies the interspaces between the
viscera increases greatly in amount, and is found to contain
innumerable fat-drops, which give it a milky appearance.

4. Innumerable very minute free cells make their appear-
ance in the blood, having a very delicate, at first indistin-
guishable membrane, and granular contents.

5. These cells rapidly attain to a very considerable size,
and when uniformly nourished retain their original spherical
or ovoid form ; but usually, owing to the unequal supply of
nutriment, probably referable to the circulation of the blood,
they assume the form of longer or shorter tubes.

6. The globular or tubular forms exhibit towards water
and other reagents, precisely the same reaction as do cells
originating in free cell-development. When placed in
water they swell out considerably, and even the most elon-
gated tubes soon acquire a globular figure, their contents at
the same time coagulating and exhibiting large oil-drops ;
the membrane, in the younger stages, is dissolved altogether
in the water; older cells merely burst at one end, through
which the contents escape.

7. A few hours before death the fly ceases to exhibit any
spontaneous movement; the abdomen becomes much dis-
tended by the increased quantity of blood-fluid, and in con-
sequence of the immumerable, free, occasionally very large
fungus-cells floating in it.

8. At this time all the fungus-cells have regained the
ovoid form, probably owing to the uniform nutrition which
they receive when the circulation of the blood ceases; at
one, more rarely at two points of these cells, ceecal processes
are formed, which elongate in a root-like manner, interlace
with each other, and throw out branches. Many thousands
of them in this condition surround the viscera without pene-
trating into their substance ; nevertheless, it is soon appa-
rent that the parasitic fungi are nourished at the expense
of the tissues.

9. After death, the body of the fly exhibits peculiar con-
tortions and extensions of the legs, wings and abdomen;

COHN, ON EMPUSA MUSO#. 157

the proboscis is protruded, and firmly adheres by suction to
the wall, &c. ; m consequence of their adhesion by this part,
and by the outstretched legs, the dead insects remain at-
tached to the surface, just as if they were still alive; their
bodies dry completely, and become excessively friable.

10. The blood-fiuid, as well as the viscera, are gradually
consumed by the parasitic Empusa, whose radical extremity
continues to elongate, whilst the opposite end expands into a
clavate head. Owing to the development of the parasitic
growth, the abdomen of the insect continues to enlarge more
and more, and the rings of the abdomen to separate from
each other.

11. Eight to ten hours after death the delicate membrane
by which the segments are united, is perforated by the clavate
extremities of the Hmpusa-cells, which then appear on the
exterior, forming white zones, which continue to increase in
width, between the rings of the abdomen.

12. The clavate exterior extremity of the fungus-cells
grows rapidly, and by the formation of a dissepiment at the
lower (internal part) becomes divided into two, so that the
fungus now consists of two cells—a radical and a peduncular.

13. The peduncular cell is elongated at the apex into a
short, cylindrical process, which soon expands into a vesicular
form, is filled with the plasma which continues to flow into
it, and separated from the lower portion by a transverse dis-
sepiment. In this way is formed the unicellular spore, which
soon assumes a bell-shaped form. The Hmpusa, conse-
quently, is a typical, tricellular plant.

14. From the elastic pressure exerted by the peduncular
cell, the spore is projected to the distance of about an inch.
The scattered spores form a white dusty area around the
dead flies, and adhere firmly to their wings and legs.

15. The spores are often found enclosed in vesicles, and
thus become assembled into little masses ; the origin of these
vesicles has not yet been ascertained with certainty.

16. Success has not yet attended attempts to effect the
germination of the spores, either in water or moist air, or
by artificially affixing them upon or introducing them into
the interior of living flies.

17. If a fly dead of this disease be placed in moist air,
fungi are developed upon it, but belonging to forms which,
manifestly, have no genetic connection whatever with Kmpusa
(Penicillium).

18. At present, consequently, there is no evidence what-
ever to show the relation of the Hmpusa-spores to the ap-
pearance of this fungus and of the disease, whilst the

158 COHN, ON EMPUSA MUSC&.

chemical and optical relations of the innumerable, free cells
in the blood-fluid, the absence of any special, self-extending
mycelium, and especially the entire history of the develop-
ment, appear to favour the notion of the origination of the
Empusa-cells in a free cell-development in the morbidly
altered blood.

19. This disease of the fly, so far as at present known,
finds its only analogue in the epidemic disease of the silk-
worm termed “ Muscardine,’ which has been ascribed to an
entirely different fungus—Botrytis Bassiana.

20. But until the “ Muscardine” shall have been subjected
to renewed and thorough investigation, no accurate judgment
can be arrived at with respect to the relation of the two dis-
eases to each other, a few observations rendering it doubtful
whether the Botrytis Bassiana, or, more probably, a fungus
allied to the Hmpusa musce, may not play the principal part
in this disease.

The above account of Hmpusa musce, the author observes,
was in print before the appearance of M. Tuslasne’s
Mémoire sur les Urédinées et les Ustilaginées’ (Ann. d.
Scien. Nat.,’ 4 sér., tom. ii, pp. 77—198, 1854) ; m which
paper an account is given of the development of numerous
“smut-fungi,” which differs from all that was previously known
with respect to the development of these microscopic organ-
isms, and which, moreover, would seem calculated to throw a
new light upon the origin of certain morbid phenomena.

In the germination of this class of fungi, for instance, the
peculiar, uni- or multi-cellular hypnospores, containing much
oily matter, and having a double membrane, are not at once
and directly developed into a new mycelium, but the endo-
sporium breaks through the outer membrane (cuticula) of the
spore and elongates into a short tube, which in length but
slightly exceeds the spore ; this germinal tube, tube-germe, pro-
mycelium (which would appear to correspond with the pro-
thallium of Mosses or the pro-embryo of Ferns), then bears a
considerable number of secondary sporidia,—in the “ smut” of
wheat (Tilletia caries) 8—10 in number,—of a long-fusiform,
fusidium-like shape, united in pairs by a transverse band, and
consequently altogether dissimilar to the peculiar, primary
spore. These sporidia soon detach themselves from the
germinal tube, whose entire protoplasm was employed in
their formation. These secondary spores even do not usually
appear directly to throw out a mycelium, but first become
elongated into peduncles, supporting at the summit reniform
cells—tertiary sporidia. At present it has not been observed

COHN, ON EMPUSA MUSCS. 159

whether the tertiary sporidia, when they have reached a wheat-
plant, are directly developed into the “smut-fungi”’ from which
are produced the well-known (primary) 7%letia-spores, and
thus close the entire cycle of a complicated alternation of
generations. (These results of M. Tulasne’s observations
have been confirmed by H. Kuhn, of whose merits as an
observer Cohn speaks highly, and also by himself).

These observations indicate, at any rate, that in the above
class of parasitic fungi each spore does not immediately
produce a new-plant, but im the first place a considerable
number of spores of another form and structure, from which
only the true mycelium is developed. A very few spores,
therefore, are sufficient to produce a vast number of fungi,
and in this way to destroy whole ears of corn.

The author’s conclusions respecting the development of
the Empuse in the fly were based principally upon the fact,
that their origin could in no way be explained according to
the views at present prevailing in science, since neither the
true spores of the fungus, which are never met with there,
could penetrate directly into the abdominal cavity of the
diseased animal, nor could any mycelium, in any way origi-
nating, form spores which might have germinated upon the
surface of the fly. Since, moreover, the youngest conditions
of the Empuse, which I have observed, he says, in the fly’s
blood, were far smaller than and of an entirely different
structure to the characteristic spores, and were also from the
first present in vast numbers, the only conclusion left to be
drawn was that they had arisen im free cell-development.
M. Tulasne’s discoveries have now, however, at any rate,
shown us the possibility of another mode of origin by means
of the spores. It might be supposed that in the interior, or
on the outer surface of a fly, a few, and therefore readily
overlooked, Empusa-spores may have become developed, and
at first, like the “ smut-fungus,” may throw out short germ-
tubes, which afterwards, in some way, produce a great
number of smaller, differently formed cellules (sporidia),
which subsequently grow into complete Empuse. In this
way, at all events, may be explained the multitudinous ap-
pearance of free, minute Empusa-cells, without any necessity
for the entrance of as many Empusa-spores, or of a spreading
mycelium.

Although M. Tulasne’s researches indicate the possibility
of such a mode of development, also, in the genus Empusa, it
must be allowed that it has not been proved that such a
process really takes place. In opposition to such an assump-
tion we have, he says, not only the want of all the supposed

160 SMITH, ON BRITISH DIATOMACEE.

intermediate stages, but, in particular, also are the anatomi-
cal, physical, and chemical conditions of the younger Empusa-
forms, which appear in all respects to present the characters,
not of spores, but of young, newly formed cells. Further
researches are requisite to bring this question to a satisfac-
tory determination.

A Synopsis of the British Diatomacee. By Wi.11AM Smita,
F.L.8S. London: Smith and Beck, and Van Voorst.

THosE microscopists who are working at the British Dia-
tomacez will rejoice to know that the second volume of
Professor Smith’s work is at last completed. They have now
a complete work to which they may refer for information
with regard to all forms of British Diatomacee. This
second volume is a worthy companion of the first. The
descriptions of the species are ample, the notes are valuable,
and the plates, if possible, exceed the last in their beauty
and accuracy. With regard to the latter, we are sure that
Professor Smith would be amongst the first to acknowledge
how greatly the value of his work is enhanced by the unri-
valled skill with which Mr. Tuffen West has delineated the
beautiful objects he has described.

Since the publication of the first volume in 1853, many
new species belonging to genera there described have been
discovered ; and although Professor Smith has given a list of
those in an appendix, with references to the works in which
they are described, mostly in our own Journal, yet every
one will be glad to hear that he mtends publishing a Supple-
ment. Many of the new species require criticism and revi-
sion, and a Supplement will afford Professor Smith an oppor-
tunity of not only hauling over the contributions of his friends,
but some of his own.

The Introduction to the present volume contains some
interesting remarks on the history of the Diatomaceze. The
first section takes up the question of reproduction. Little
seems to be added as to the nature of this process, since the
first observations of Mr. Thwaites. The fact of the produc-
tion of the spore as the result of conjugation has, however,
been observed up to the present time in no less than thirty-
two species, belonging to seventeen genera. Of these, Pro-
fessor Smith gives a list. On the modifications of this pro-
cess, Professor Smith makes the following remarks :

“T, We have two parent-frustules, and two sporangia as

SMITH, ON BRITISH DIATOMACEA. 161

the result of their conjugation. This mode is seen in
Epithemia, Cocconema, Gomphonema, Encyonema, and Col-
letonema.

“TI. From the conjugation of two parent frustules we have
a single sporangium. This occurs in Himantidium.

“TIT. The valves of a single frustule separate ; the contents,
set free, rapidly increase in bulk, and finally become con-
densed into a single sporangium. This may be seen in Coc-
coneis, Cyclotella, Melosira, Orthosira, and Schizonema.

In Melosira nummuloides, M. Borrerii, and M. sudflexilis,
the second valve of the conjugating frustule is rarely found
united to the mucus surrounding the sporangium, the con-
jugation taking place only in the last frustule of the fila-
ment; but im Melosira varians and Orthosira orichalcea,
conjugation taking place throughout the entire filament, both
valves are usually found adherent to the sporangium or its
surrounding mucus.

“TV. From a single frustule, as in the last method, two
sporangia are produced in the process of conjugation. This
takes place in Achnanthes and Rhabdonema.

“On the whole, the facts at present within our knowledge
seem fully to warrant the conclusions that the conjugated
state of the Diatomacez is the first step in the reproductive
process of these organisms, and that the sporangial products
of this condition become the parents of numerous young
frustules, destined to renew the cycle of phenomena which
accompanies the hfe and growth of the species from which
the sporangia have themselves originated.”

In the next section Professor Smith enters upon the
question of the nature of the Diatomacez, and successfully,
we think, vindicates their claims to be regarded as members
of the vegetable kingdom. Although he does not refer to
any experiments, he states that the Diatomacee give out
oxygen from their tissues, and take up carbonic acid gas.
If this has been proved by experiment, we should regard it
as conclusive of their vegetable nature, as the performance of
these functions seem to be the most universal condition of
the existence of plants of which we have any knowledge.

In the concluding sections Mr. Smith treats of the deter-
mination of species, and of the distribution and uses of the
Diatomaceze. We can only repeat that this volume fully
maintains the reputation of the first, and express our convic-
tion that the whole work is one of the most important contri-
butions ever made to microscopic natural history in this
country. ‘

( 162 )

Hints on the Pathology, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treat-
ment of Thoracic Consumption. By J. C. Haut, M.D.
London: Longmans. :

In the ordinary course of noticmg works interesting to
those who use the microscope, we are not often called on to
bring before our readers works devoted to the practical
departments of medical science. At the same time, we are-
convinced that this does not arise from any deficiency in the
microscope; but from the want of skill in the use of it
amongst those who practise the medical profession. In an
art so dependent on a correct appreciation of facts only
known to exist by sight, it must be evident that the mi-
croscope will become essential to all conclusive investiga-
tions, and that scarcely any correct diagnosis will be made
without its aid. We notice, therefore, Dr. Hall’s book,
because in the first place we think he has made good use of
the microscope in the diagnosis of disease, and in the second
place because he has been kind enough to put one of the
plates, illustrating his work, at our disposal (Pl. X.) We shall
not, however, criticise Dr. Hall’s book, but let him speak for
himself on the subject of the use of the microscope im the
diagnosis of tubercle. He says:

“Since the publication of the former editions of this work the microscope
has thrown no little light on the true nature of tubercle, which may, in
almost every instance, be regarded as an exudation of proteine material
rapidly passing into the solid form, and never advancing beyond the lowest
grade of development. In examining tubercles from the lungs, it has ever
appeared to me that considerable difficulty must be experienced in arriving
at a correct histological definition ; for no little risk is of necessity incurred
of regarding half-destroyed tissues as new products, and hence one reason
for the different opinions expressed by different writers on this subject.
With regard to the seat of tubercle in the lungs, it may be stated that,
tuberculous matter is deposited primarily on the free surface of the lining
membrane of the air-vesicles, the inter-vesicular passages, or the lobular
bronchi. Dr. Clark, in his remarks made to the Pathological Society on
the preparations illustrative of the seat of tubercle, shows that the deposit
of tubercles takes place primarily on the free surface of the lining membrane
of the air-vesicles, the inter-vesicular passages, or the lobular bronchi—that
it extends to the walls of the air-vesicles, the areolar tissue around the
blood-vessels and bronchi; and between the lobules only at an advanced
period of growth, when such retrogressive changes have set in as involve
destruction of the structural elements of the lung; and that it does not
oceur indifferently at. any point external to the blood-vessels.

“There are two principal varieties of tubercle known as gray tubercle and
yellow tubercle, of which the admirable delineations of Mr. Tuffen West in
the plate convey to the eye a correct representation. The tuberculous
matter for the most part assumes a spherical form, its origin being in a
blastema exuded from the adjoining capillaries, which, effused in a fluid

HALL, ON THORACIC CONSUMPTION. 163

condition, infiltrates the tissue. The elements of tubercle, according to
Wedl, Vogel, Lebert, Gluge, Rokitansky, and as far as my own observations
enable me to judge, may be described as—

(a) Molecules, assembled in superimposed layers, some too minute to
be measured.

(4) Flocculent masses, consisting of proteine bodies, only seen when the
tubercle is carefully spread out.

““(e) Rounded or oval nuclei, imbedded in a hyaline matrix, with
scattered molecules.

“(d) Flattened angular, granular corpuscles, rarely with a distinct
nucleus, which become transparent on the addition of acetic acid.

**(e) Cells, occasionally elongated, with distinct nuclei.

* Gray tubercle is of uniform consistence, toughish or soft, compressible,
and of a pearly gray colour; it is composed essentially of ‘a basis substance,
which is solid and homogeneous, and serves as the uniting medium of certain
corpuscular elements ;’ such as oily-looking granules, nuclei, and a few cells;
the elements of the tissue in which it is deposited may also frequently be
seen. I have never discovered any vessel in separate tubercles, although
when several are aggregated together, in the interspaces some traces of those
belonging to the tissue may be observed.

* Yellow tubercle, which usually forms in larger masses than the gray,
varies in colour, though generally of a whitish-yellow hue. These tubercles
are from the first opaque, of a cheesy consistence, containing a large
abundance of fine proteine molecules, among which may be detected the
elements of gray tubercle, shrivelled, indented, and wrinkled, and of a
yellowish lustre. The relation of the two varieties of tubercle to each other
is a point of considerable interest; and Laennec without doubt was right
when he taught that gray tubercle sooner or later is converted into yellow
tubercle. This undergoes two metamorphoses of very great importance to
the practising physician ; ove is that of softening —the other that of cretification.
That yellow tubercle should be thus regarded as a secondary form of gray
tubercle is generally correct, and also in strict accordance with the fatty
metamorphoses of normal and newly formed elements; but it has been
suggested with some probability that the remains of the proteine compounds,
which have not been used in the formation of the organic elementary parts,
may at once undergo fatty degeneration; and, consequently, that it is not

absolutely necessary that the yellow tubercle should have previously been of
the gray kind.”

Further on, Dr. Hall gives precise directions for ex-

amining the expectorated matter in cases of disease of the
lungs :

“To form a correct opinion of the nature of the sputa submitted to us
for examination requires no little time and study. It obliges a thorough
knowledge of the appearances of the secretion natural to the mucous and
salivary glands, the epithelium of the mouth, of the fauces, and the pharynx,
and the results of the varied morbid processes which may take place in the
several parts. Portions of fungous vegetations, which are so frequently
present at the back of the mouth and in the matter secreted by the tonsils,
are very often seen in the expectoration, mingled with the remains of the
food that has been taken; such as muscular fibre, starch, oil globules,
various vegetable and animal substances, &c. It must not, therefore, hastily
be concluded that everything we see in the sputa, under the microscope,

164 HALL, ON THORACIC CONSUMPTION,

comes from the air-tubes. And, again, in examining the expectoration in
certain trades—such, for example, as the grinders of Sheffield—various small
particles of stone and of steel may be readily detected. The appearances
vary a good deal, however, in these men with the time of the day at which
the expectoration has been coughed up, and whether or not they have been
working within a short period at the wheel. Pus, blood-corpuscles, claws
of Echinococci, and portions of hydatids, are sometimes present, and in the
more advanced stages of pneumonia numerous large cells containing oil
globules will be seen, together with many finely granular cells, not very
unlike pus globules, but which, on the addition of acetic acid, do not exhibit
the presence of central bodies. Sometimes the sputa contain small frag-
ments of pulmonary tissue, frequently distinct and well defined, but which
are easily overlooked without a good deal of care. The small white cal-
careous masses which are not unfrequently present in the sputa in cases of
arrested thoracic consumption, and of which Mr. Tuffen West has given a
good illustration in the plate, as well as of some crystals of cholesterine, are
best examined by mounting them as opaque objects, on a black ground, and
looking at them through an inch object-glass. Sometimes in the cheesy
matter found so largely in tuberculous masses we may not be able to detect
crystals of cholesterine ; it is better then to place a little bit of the mass on
a slide, and to add a small quantity of alcohol. As this evaporates, crystals
of cholesterine gradually form, and may then be easily examined under the
microscope. They are very beautifully seen by polarized light. If the cal-
careous masses to which reference has just been made be placed in a watch-
glass, and tested with a little acetic acid, they will dissolve with effervescence,
demonstrating the presence of a carbonate. If to one part of the acetic acid
solution an excess of ammonia be added, a precipitate of phosphate of lime
takes place, and a little of a solution of oxalate of ammonia added to the
other portion will detect the presence of lime.”

The following remarks apply to the character of the sputa
in true cases of tubercle of the lungs. The appearances
described in the following paragraphs are illustrated im
Plate X of the present volume of the Journal.

“The first kind of expectoration observed in thoracic consumption is
frothy, and is characteristic of irritation. So far as my own experience
goes, it does not enable us to arrive at any correct conclusion as to the
existence of tubercle when placed under the microscope; and many of the
appearances may arise from other causes. After a longer or shorter
yeriod, as the disease may be impending or established, the expectoration
etna gelatinous, rather transparent, and resembles a solution of isinglass.
This expectoration is generally brought up in a morning in the dressing-
room, and scarcely noticed by the patient. It consists of a transparent and
very tenacious semi-fibrillated matrix, in which we may sce imbedded oily
matter, molecules, granules, and corpuscles. This kind of expectoration
may often be seen in various forms of pulmonary congestion. ‘The investi-
gations I have made in numerous cases of phthisis enable me to conclude
with certainty that we have, in looking at this kind of expectoration, a
diagnostic guide of very great practical importance; for where there is no
special tuberculous tendency the corpuscles are of one uniform kind, but
when the deposit of tubercle has taken place or is impending the corpuscles
are of various forms and sizes. Some are ovoidal, some spherical, and
resist the action of acetic acid; others are abruptly defined, obscurely
granular or nebulous, requiring the application of reagents to render their

HALL, ON THORACIC CONSUMPTION. 165

nuclei apparent. Others, again, are compressed and elongated; another
set may be seen of a spherical form, which are filled with granules of fat or
pigment, and these are often in process of disintegration; and, lastly,
corpuscles may be seen with depressions, from which nuclei have been
extruded. The first kind of corpuscles, Dr. A. Clark considers to consist
of very young epithelial cells and extruded nuclei; the other varieties are
unquestionably diseased epithelial cells, in various stages of degeneration.
The jagged outlines of the corpuscles (to which allusion is made in the
case described pp. 46 and 47), is a point of great interest to the practitioner,
and almost certainly diagnostic of phthisis. Dr. C. Radclyffe Hall has
drawn attention to the appearance in the sputa, of exveloped blood-corpuscles,
at the commencement of thoracic consumption. In a great majority of the
eases in which I have examined the sputa this microscopic hemoptysis has
been evident, even when to the naked eye there was no trace of blood, and
the opinion of this physician, that this appearance is seldom absent in
cases of the disease in which the more obvious expectoration of blood is
wanting, is strictly in accordance with what I have observed.

“The next kind of expectoration is met with at a more advanced stage
of thoracie consumption. A highly characteristic example is given (pl. 1,
fig. 6) of this flocculent sputa, im which will be seen a large piece of the
curled elastic tissue surrounding the pulmonary vesicles. The expectoration
was obtained from Sarah Ann Chambers, aged 18, admitted during the
month of October, 1856, under my care, at the Sheffield Public Dispensary,
with signs of softening at the apex of one lung. It is at the period of the
formation of these excavations in the lung that I most frequently observe
the elastic tissue forming the areole of the air-vesicles, partially obscured
by masses of molecular matter in which tubercle-corpuscles may be seen,
and it then becomes an important aid to the formation of a correct diagnosis.
I may observe that the elastic tissue shown in the plate is exactly a quarter
of the actual size of one of the pieces in the preparation put up by me,
from which Mr. Tuffen West’s drawing was made. The pus globules,
shrivelled cells, disintegrated nucleated cells, &c., &c., found in the sputa of
this patient, will be described at the end. I have never yet met with a
case in which I discovered, with the microscope, the elastic tissue of the
lungs in the absence of all other symptoms indicative of thoracic consump-
tion. Such a case, however, has occurred, in which that accomplished
physician, Dr. Bennett, after a careful examination with the stethoscope,
could not detect any physical sign of consumption. The case was seen
with W. T. Iliff, jun., Esq., of Kennington. Professor Bennett says, ‘the
chest was well formed; careful percussion and auscultation elicited posi-
tively nothing; the percussion note was normal and equal on both sides ;
the respiratory murmurs were normal, and there was no increase of vocal
resonance.’ There was cough and muco-purulent expectoration. This
patient, a lady, aged 23, had an impression she was in the habit of spitting
up fragments of her lungs, Some of them were examined by Dr. Bennett,
Mr. Quekett, Mr. Rainy, and Dr. Beale, all of whom agreed as to the fact
of the expectorated matter containing portions of human lung. After a
time the physical signs of the disease became more clear, and on examina-
tion after death extensive tuberculous disease of both lungs, with cavities
in their apices, was found. This case has fully impressed Professor Bennett
with the importance of a microscopic examination of the sputa whenever the
symptoms and a suspicion of thoracic consumption exist, without any clear
evidence derivable from auscultation being present ; and when such signs
are present as lead to the conclusion that a cavity is just forming, micro-
scopic appearances of the sputa, such as are shown on the sixth figure of the

166 HALL, ON THORACIC CONSUMPTION.

first plate, afford, I am certain, no little evidence confirmatory of our
opinion.

“At a more advanced period of the disease, when there is a large cavity,
the sputa is little more than pus, mucus, large granulous cells, and sometimes
portions of opaque tubercle, and confervoid vegetations.”

Dr. Hall’s volume is small, and is written in a manner
which gives it a claim to be read by all who are interested in
the study of tubercular disease of the lungs.

Ueber die Entwickelung und den Bau des Séugethierzahns.
Von Dr. ApotpH HANNoveER.

(‘ Verhandlungen der Kaiserl, Leopold-Carolinschen Akademie,’
vol. xxv, p. il.)

In this beautifully illustrated memoir, Dr. Hannover con-
tributes much interesting information with regard to the
histology of the dental tissues in the Mammalia generally ;
but we suspect that both by the author, and by the scientific
public, the pith of the essay will be considered to le in the
views respecting the development of the teeth, whose expo-
sition occupies so large a portion of it. It is to these,
therefore, that we shall chiefly direct the reader’s attention
in the course of the followimg critical analysis. Dr.
Hannover commences his work thus :

“The dental sac of Mammalia contains four elements, which, without
coalescing, lie in contact, and are distinguishable by their very peculiar
structure. Below, on the bottom of the sac and coalesced (verwachsen)
with it, lies a soft body, which at a very early period acquires the form of
the crown of the tooth. This body is the dentine-germ (dentin-keim) ;
by a process which we shall call ‘dentification’ it becomes dentine, a sub-
stance characterised by the branched tubules which it contains. The
dentine-germ is immediately covered by the enamel-germ : this consists of
cells (the enamel-cells), on the whole arranged perpendicularly, which are
at first very soft, but subsequently, by calcification, become solid columns,
and constitute the hardest substance of the tooth—the enamel. Most
externally in the dental sac lies the cement-germ, which, by a process of
ossification quite analogous to that which takes place in bone, is changed
into cement, characterised by its osteal lacunze and medullary canals. The
cement-germ, however, lies in immediate contact neither with the enamel
nor with the dentine, but is separated from them by a peculiar membrane,
not yet sufficiently distinguished ; this carries upon its inner surface the
enamel-cells, which are disposed perpendicularly upon the dentine, and con-
sequently it separates the cement-germ from the enamel-germ ; but where the
enamel-germ ceases it separates the cement-germ from the dentine-germ.
We shall term this membrane the membrana intermedia ; in the complete
tooth it appears as the stratum intermedium.” (p. 3.)

HANNOVER, ON DENTAL TISSUES. 167

The careful study and collation of different passages in
Dr. Hannover’s work show that his dentine-germ is the
dental papilla of English writers; that the enamel-germ is
the membrana adamantine ; that his membrana intermedia is ©
the layer of what Nasmyth (‘Researches on the Develop-
ment, &c., of the Teeth, 1849, p. 107) describes as “oval
cells,” seated on the deep surface of the stellate tissue of the
enamel-organ; and that his cement-germ is nothing more
than the stellate tissue of the enamel-organ, which he
confounds with the vascular “actinenchyma” or peculiar con-
nective tissue of the proper wall of the dental sac.

Under the head of the development of the enamel, Dr.
Hannover offers us nothing new; but repeats, without
bringing forward new evidence, and as if it had never been
disputed, the old view that the enamel is produced by the
direct calcification of the columnar cells of the membrana
adamantine. Nor can we find any essential difference
between Dr. Hannover’s theory of the formation of the
dentine and that advocated by Professor K6lliker and others,
except that he denies the existence of a membrana prefor-
matwa, and affirms that—

“This so-called membrane is, in my opinion, nothing but the outermost
layer of dentine-cells, in which dentification has just commenced.” (p. 12.)

How this can be reconciled with the unquestionable facts
that the membrana preformativa can be traced with great
ease, uncalcified, on to the primary cap of dentine, and that
it is a structureless membrane in which no trace of cells has
ever yet been detected, we know not; but we are inclined to
suspect that Dr. Hannover has never seen the true membrana
preformativa.

As regards the membrana intermedia we are desirous to do
Dr. Hannover no injustice in endeavouring to explain, what
seems to us to be, his erroneous view of its functions and
homologies in the adult tooth, and we will therefore cite his
account of it at length.

“A, Membrana intermedia.

“T have bestowed this name upon a membrane which has not as yet
received sufficient attention.* It is a fine and delicate membrane, which
must not be confounded with the membranous expansion of the enamel-

* Kolliker has, perhaps, figured it in his ‘ Mikroskopische Anatomie,’
p. 99, fig. 211d, without, however, recognising its true nature. What
Tomes has termed “ basement membrane” appears to have been not exclu-
sively the membrana intermedia.

VOL. V. Pp

168 HANNOVER, ON DENTAL TISSUES.

cells, and which lies within the cement-germ, between it and the enamel-
cells. It appears in transverse sections of the germ as a fine white line; is
a tolerably firm and opaque membrane, and consists of a structureless mass,
in which very numerous small, round or oval, angular or pointed nuclei,
without distinct nucleoli, are imbedded. The boundary towards the cement-
germ is sharp and linear, and the cells of the cement-germ are pressed
against it (fig. 11@). The boundary towards the enamel-cells, which lie
upon the opposite surface, is also well defined (fig. 19 a). The enamel-cells
may be detached with tolerable ease, whilst it is only with difficulty that
the membrana intermedia can be separated from the cement-germ. It is,
therefore, best examined in connection with the cement-germ, and, indeed,
in the teeth of the new-born infant. In order to observe the attached
enamel-cells, the membrane may be folded, because in thin sections the
enamel-cells easily fall off.

“The thickness of the membrana intermedia differs considerably in dental
sacs of different ages. In the persistent teeth of the new-born infant it is
hardly visible to the naked eye; in their milk-teeth it is very easily recog-
nisable, in consequence of its white colour, and has considerably increased
in thickness ; it is thickest, perhaps, about the constricted part or neck of
the dentinal germ, with which it is also more intimately connected. Fig. 19 a
shows its thickness in the deciduous molar of a new-born infant.

“The membrana intermedia does not belong to the crown or the enamel
alone, for it is continued uninterruptedly upon the fang, here separating the
dentine from the cement, and, as in the crown, lying upon the inner surface
of the cement-germ. However, I have not been able to demonstrate it here
in an isolated form, because, immediately on the formation of the outermost
layer of dentine, it coalesces with it, and can be recognised only from its
appearance in the complete tooth, where we shall find it as the stratum
intermedium. If we consider the membrana intermedia as a whole, it may be
regarded as a sac-like structure which is inclosed within the dental sac, so
that the cement-germ is situated between the membrana intermedia and the
dental sac; perhaps the membrane becomes reflected over the inner surface
of the dental sac.”

Now there can be no doubt as to the existence of this
layer. It was, as we have seen, described by Nasmyth ; it is,
as Dr. Hannover justly states, figured by Professor Kélliker ;
and we have repeatedly seen it ourselves without feeling
inclined to lay any very particular stress upon its existence.
If there is any advantage in calling it membrana intermedia,
we shall be happy to adopt this term. But we must demur
to Dr. Hannover’s view of its ultimate fate, as contained in
the following passage (p. 110) of his memoir.

“A. Stratum intermedium.—The nucleated membrane, which during the
development of the tooth is closely united with the cement-germ, and serves
for the attachment of the nucleated end of the enamel-cells, and to which
we have given the name of membrana intermedia, is always sufficiently
obvious in the perfect tooth, though much changed. It receives its persistent
form only after the enamel-cells are calcified throughout their whole length ;
since it lies between the enamel-cells and the cement, the ossification of the
cartilaginous cement-germ can only take place after the completion of the
development of the membrana intermedia. ence in the crown it always
separates the enamel, in the root, the dentine, from the cement. Since,

HANNOVER, ON DENTAL TISSUES. 169

however, the cement-germ as a rule does not ossify, but becomes abortive
on the crowns of teeth with conical dentine-germs, the membrana intermedia
in such crown lies free, and in teeth which have not been worn forms what
Kolliker terms the cuticle of the enamel.”

Dr. Hannover then goes on to speak of the identity of his
stratum intermedium with the “persistent capsule” of Nasmyth;
and he describes the mode of raising up the membranous
stratum intermedium in young teeth, by the action of dilute
acids, which he states to have been discovered by Erdl in
1843.

Dr. Hannover appears to be unaware that this persistent
capsule, or “ Nasmyth’s membrane,” has of late been the subject
of special investigation on the part of Professor Huxley, M.
Lent, and Mr. Tomes, and therefore he does notattempttomeet
the obvious objections which an acquaintance with the known
relations of Nasmyth’s membrane in the young dental sacwould
have suggested. Inasmuch, in fact, as Prof. Huxley’s state-
ment, that Nasmyth’s membrane lies on the inner side of the
cells of the membrana adamantine, between these and the fibres
of the enamel, has been confirmed both by M. Lent and by
Mr. Tomes, it will probably be admitted to be correct; and
consequently the membrana intermedia of Dr. Hannover,
which lies outside the cells of the membrana adamantine, and
is separated by their entire length from Nasmyth’s mem-
brane, can have nothing to do with the latter. In fact, we
believe that the “ membrana intermedia” is an entirely tran-
sitory epithelial structure, and enters in no way into the
composition of the tooth.

We must express the same opimion with respect to the
“stellate tissue””—Dr. Hannover’s cement-germ. Dr. Han-
nover, after giving an account of the early changes of the
epithelial lining of the dental sac, and the production of the
stellate cells, in a manner not essentially different from that
contained in Mr. Nasmyth’s last work, seems to us to make
the mistake which has already been committed by more than
one writer on these subjects, of supposing the actinenchyma
of the thickened wall of the dental sae to be a later stage of
the stellate epithelial tissue —with which it has nothing to do,
and from which it is separated by the basement membrane
of the dental sac. We have in our possession figures, drawn
long ago, of sections of the thickened wall of the dental sac,
in all essential respects corresponding with Dr. Hannover’s
fig. 13; and having worked carefully over the relations of
the actinenchyma (which is nothing but such connective
tissue as may be met with im any soft young organ), with

170 HANNOVER, ON DENTAL 'TISSUES.

the stellate tissue, we venture to speak positively on this
question.

If the cement then is really developed within the actinen-
chyma, as Dr. Hannover describes it to be, the establishment
of the fact will simply prove that his “cement-germ” (2. e.,
stellate tissue of enamel-organ) has as little to do with the
cement, as the membrana intermedia has with the stratum
intermedium or Nasmyth’s membrane.

It may be worth while, before concluding this notice, to
consider in a few words the present state of our knowledge
of the development of the teeth.

In an essay published in this Journal some years ago (vol. i,
p- 149), Prof. Huxley endeavoured to prove that all the dental
tissues, whether cement, enamel, or dentine, are developed
beneath the basement membrane of the dental sac, which,
on the dental papilla itself, has received the name of membrana
preformativa; and that the so-called enamel-organ—consisting
from within outwards of the membrana adamantine, the
membrana intermedia of Hannover, the stellate tissue, and
the deep layer resembling the membrana intermedia, next the
basement membrane of the sac—was to be regarded as a
transitory epithelial structure, which has as little connection
with the development of the tooth as the various modifications
of the epithelium of the root-sheath of a hair have with that
of the shaft of the hair.

Evidence was offered, Ist, that the enamel-fibres, from
their first appearance, lie beneath Nasmyth’s membrane.
2dly. That Nasmyth’s membrane is continuous with the
membrana preformativa, 8dly. That no traces of cells or
endoplasts can be discovered within the enamel-fibres nor in
the dentine, and that these tissues are not produced by the
direct calcific conversion of pre-existmg elements. 4thly.
That the cement is morphologically the continuation of the
enamel, but whether it is or is not developed by conversion
from the pulp was left an open question.

The first of these statements has received full confirmation
from subsequent observers, including M. Leydig, in his
recently published, valuable ‘ Lehrbuch d. Histologie,’ p. 291.

The second assertion has been confirmed by M. Lent, and is
not directly controverted in Mr. Tomes’s paper on the De-
velopment of the Enamel, published in the 15th number of
this Journal.

The third statement appears to be justified whenever
writers on this question state what they have observed, and
not their conclusions from their observations. We are not

HANNOVER, ON DENTAL TISSUES. V7

aware that any one has as yet absolutely seen endoplasts or
their remains in distinctly formed or forming enamel or
dentine.

Mr. Tomes, in the excellent essay we have cited, endeavours
to prove that Nasmyth’s membrane is formed by the union
of the ends of the cells of the membrana adamantine, which
coalesce into a membrane; and this view woulda undoubtedly
relieve one of much difficulty in understanding the formation
of the enamel, and would bring it nearly into the same
category as that of molluscan shell; but until it can be
shown that Nasmyth’s membrane is not continuous with the
membrana preformativa, and is not an alteration of it, we must
adhere to the view that the enamel is, like the dentine, formed
under the membrana preformativa. Hitherto no one has
attacked this side of the argument, nor has the evidence
derived from the obvious continuity of the membrana pre-
formativa over the whole surface of the teeth in fishes and
Amphibia been in any way shaken. > El te

( 172 )

ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

Class. PoLyzoa.
Sub-order. Cheilostomata.
Fam. Salicornariade. Busk.
Gen. Oxchopora, Busk. (‘ Quart. Journ. Micr. Se.,’ vol. iti,
p- 320
1. O. Sinclairii, n. sp. Busk. Pl. XV, figs. 1, 2, 3.

Cells ovate, ventricose, attenuated at the bottom, slightly keeled in front,
the upper part of which is occupied by a scutiform area, having in the
centre a lunate pore; mouth large, sub-orbicular, the lower lip nearly

straight; surface smooth; ovicell raised, globose, large, with a prominent
central umbo, from which coste radiate on the sides and summit.

Hab. New Zealand, Dr. Sinclair, Dr. Lyall.

The characters of the genus Onchopora will require to be
altered to admit the present form, which is obviously too
closely allied with those previously included in it, and espe-
cially with O. mutica, to allow of their being separated. The
alteration will consist in the omission of the last part of the
character given as above, or that referring to the ovicell,
which in the present species is very large and peculiarly
marked.

The polyzoary of the present species, which has something
of the habit of a Salicornaria, is constituted of cylindrical
branches of various lengths and usually dividing dichoto-
mously. The whole forms a more or less dense rounded
tuft.

2. Lepralia, Johust.
1. L. thyreophora, n. sp. Busk. Pl. XV, figs. 4, 5.
Cells ovate, upper half in front occupied by a scutiform area, in the
centre of which is a lunate pore, and on either side a single row of punctures (?)
which also extends across the front of the cell immediately below the

mouth, which is rounded above with a straight lower lip; ovicell lofty,
rounded, faintly punctated.

Hab. New Zealand, Dr. Sinclair.

This Lepralia, which is parasitic upon O. Sinclairii, im some
respects resembles L. Malusii (B. M. Cat., pl. 103), differing
from it, however, in its having a distinct scutiform area on
the front of the cell, and in the arrangement of the apparent
perforations or puncta, which exist only around the margin
of the scutiform area and across the upper border of the cell,
whilst in L. Malusii the entire front of the cell, except in the
centre, is punctated.

ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 173

Another species with which the present might also be
confounded, and from which it appears to differ only in
the absence of oral spimes—is the Escharina cornuta of
D’Orbigny (‘ Voy. & Amer. occid.,’ plate v).

2. L. Cecilt, Audouin, Exp. I, p. 239. Pl. XV, figs. 6, 7.
Savigny, Egypt, pl. ix.
Cells ovate. with a central umbo, surface punctate; mouth rounded
above, with a straight lower lip, in the middle of which is a narrow sinus ;
ovicell raised, surface granulose.

Hab. Jersey, Mrs. Buckland.

This large and beautiful species, for which the British
Fauna is indebted to Mrs. Buckland, corresponds so closely
with Savigny’s figure of L. Ceciliz, that there can be little
doubt of the two being identical.

Sub-kingdom. CmLenTERata.
Class. HypRazoa.
Order. Hydroida.
Fam. Sertulariade.
Gen. Cryptolaria, n. g. Busk.
Cells completely immersed in a cylindrical polypidom, composed of
numerous tubes.
1. C. prima, nu. sp. Busk. Pl. XVI.
Sp. unica.
Hab. New Zealand, Dr. Sinclair.

This curious Sertularian appears to constitute a peculiar
type of the family to which it belongs.

The specimen from which the description and figures were
made, collected by Dr. Sinclair in New Zealand, and now in the
British Museum, is about six inches high, and consists of a
single central stem or rachis, with alternate branches on either
side in the same plane, and which become shorter as they
approach the summit. The lower part of the rachis or stem
is toothed on each side, the teeth evidently representing the
roots of branches which have been broken off. Towards the
lower part of the pinnate portion, one or two small branches
also simply pinnate may be seen springing from the main
stem.

The stem and branches are composed of small tubes; and
the cells are completely immersed among these tubes; the
mouth even, being depressed below the surface, and present-
ing itself in the upper part of an elongated pit, surrounded
with a raised border, which arches above the mouth of the
cell,

174: ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

The cells are disposed in longitudinal series, one above the
other—but alternate with each other in the contiguous series.
The mouth of the cell is contracted, circular, and simple.

On a New Srecizs of Bueuta. By Josnua Axper, Esq.

Bugula turbinata, P|. XVII, figs. 1—4.

Polyzoary orange-coloured or yellowish, paler when dry; one to two
inches high, forming an ascending spiral, the branches dividing dichoto-
mously, truncated at top, and arching outwards. Cells in two to five series,
clongated, the aperture reaching nearly to the bottom; a single erect
spine at each upper angle. Avicularia of two sizes, those on the outside
moderately large, with a rounded head, and a short back abruptly bent at
the point; situated on the upper part of the margin of the cell; inner
avicularia small. Ovicapsules subglobose, with a rim rising into a peak in
front.

Cellularia avicularia, Pallas, ‘ Blench. Zooph.,’ 68 (?).
Gosse, ‘Ramb. Dev. Coast.,’ p. 195, t. x.

This species has hitherto been confounded with Bu-
gula avicularia, to which it bears a strong resemblance,
but is nevertheless quite distinct. In its mode of growth it
is rather more robust than that species, and may readily be
distinguished from it by the number of cells increasing to
three, or occasionally even to five longitudinal rows in some
of the branches ; in B. avicularia, there are never more than
two throughout. On examining the two kinds microscopi-
cally, other differences are found. The cells in B. turbinata
have invariably only a single large spine on the outer angle;
B. avicularia has two spines, as correctly represented by
Professor Busk,* though the smaller one has been frequently
overlooked. The avicularium is rather smaller in B. turdi-
nata than in B. avicularia, and has the head more rounded,
and the beak much shorter and more abruptly bent at the
point (fig. 4). It is also set higher up on the margin of
the cell, frequently close below the spme. The ovicapsule
in this species is smaller, and has a border generally rising
into a peak in front.

The only published figure of this species that can be re-
cognised with certainty is that of Mr. Gosse, in his inte-
resting ‘ Rambles on the Devonshire Coast,’. where it is well
described under the name of Cellularia avicularia. The
magnified figures G, H, pl. xxxviti of Ellis’s ‘ Corallines,’
would seem to represent this species, having only a single

* © Catalogue of Marine Polyzoa,’ pl. liii.

ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 175

spine on each angle of the cell, but the small figure (7) is
more like B. flabellata, to which it has been usually referred.
Pallas describes his Cellularia avicularia with three to five
longitudinal series of cells, and a single spine at each upper
angle; characters which taken together only belong to
B. turbinata, and the general accuracy of his descriptions
' favour the supposition that he had this species in view; his
var. 8 being probably B. flabellata, to which Crisia flustroides
of Lamouroux, and Flustra angustiloba of Lamarck, may also
be referred, though the former author describes only a single
spine at each angle of the cell: this is likewise the case in
Dr. Johnston’s description of Flustra avicularia, but his
figure more correctly shows two or three spines on each
side. The Cellularia avicularia of Van Beneden is evidently
B. flabellata.

B. turbinata appears to be quite as common on the British
coast as B. avicularia, if not more so. It occurs principally
within tide-marks, or in shallow water. The finest speci-
mens I possess were got under stones at low-water mark in
the island of Herm. They were of a deep orange colour
when alive. I have met with it at Guernsey and in the
Menai Straits, and have had it sent from Falmouth by Mr.
Cocks. Mr. Hincks informs me that it is the common species
on the Devonshire and Yorkshire coasts; and Mr. Busk has
favoured me with the examination of a specimen sent from
Tenby by Mr. Dyster. It has not yet occurred on the
Northumberland coast, nor can I trace it into Scotland,
but it would be premature at present to fix any limits to
its range.

On some New Britisu Potyzoa. By the Rev. T. Hrncxs.

Tue new British Polyzoon which I am about to describe
is, IN many poits, so nearly related to the well-known
Scruparia chelata, that I have determined to rank it in the
same genus with this species, although the generic character,
as given by Mr. Busk in his ‘ Catalogue,’ must be revised to
allow of its admission.

Polyzoa INFUNDIBULATA.
Sub-order. Cheilostomata.
Fam. Scrupariade.
Gen. Seruparia (Oken).

Polyzoary erect, branching, subcaleareous; cells clavate; apertures on
one aspect, oblique, subterminal.

176 ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

S. clavata, Hincks, n. sp. Plate XVII, figs. 5, 6, 7, 8.

Cell slender, elongate, enlarged upwards, tapering off below; aperture
subterminal, oval; branches given off from the back of a cell; ovicelligerous
cells placed back to back with the ordinary cells.

Polyzoary sparingly branched, the branches originating
from the back of a cell; cells ovate-elongate above, and
tapering off below, each one springing from behind the
aperture of another, and attached to it by a somewhat cor-
date expansion of the base; aperture oval, small as com-
pared with that of S. chelata, and not marginated. 'The
position of the ovicelligerous cells is very peculiar. They
are (generally) attached to the back of the ordinary cells, to
which they are adherent throughout, and are irregularly dis-
tributed over the polyzoary. Occasionally they occur at the
side. They are inferior in size to the ordinary cells. The
ovicell is of the usual form.

The polypide has, I believe, about ten arms.

Dredged off Filey, on the Yorkshire coast, parasitical on
Crisidia cornuta; not uncommon. Lamlash Bay, Arran.

Sub-order. Ctenostomata.
Fam. <Aleyonidiade.

Sir John Dalyell, in his work on ‘ Rare and Remarkable
Animals of Scotland,’ has described and figured an Alcyoni-
- dium under the name of A. Mytili. The species has escaped
the notice of Dr. Johnston, and is not included in the ‘ His-
tory of the British Zoophytes.’ Sir J. Dalyell’s description
displays his accustomed accuracy, so far as it goes, but he
did not observe the ovaries, and his account of the species is
therefore necessarily incomplete. The name which he has
assigned it is altogether inappropriate, and conveys a false
impression, inasmuch as the species is by no means a para-
site of the Mussel exclusively, but is found encrusting Fuci,
stones, and shells of various kinds. It is manifestly unde-
sirable that such names should be retained, and I therefore
propose to change it. I do this with the less hesitation,
because the species has thus far attracted very little atten-
tion, and Sir John Dalyell’s name for it has not obtained a
footing in our nomenclature.

Alcyonidium heragonum, Hincks. (A. Mytili, Dalyell, ‘ Rare and Re-
markable Animals,’ vol. ii, p. 36.)
Encrusting, fleshy, of a dingy-white colour, composed of hexagonal cells,
the septa of which show distinctly on the surface, and thickly covered with
small obtuse prominences.

Hur ISuarw Ve V Pal

ae

ee
AH. del. Taften West hth. W.West Imp.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I,

Illustrating Mr. Hepworth’s paper on the Practical Use of the
Microscope.

Fig. -

1.—aa. Exudation corpuscles.

6. The same, having undergone a slight change.

ce. The same, having undergone a further change.

dd. Fully developed vegetations.

e. Crystals of oxalate of lime.

2.—a. Sarcina renis.

bb. Epithelial scales.*

e. Part of one of tubuli uriniferi.

d. Casts of ditto.*

3.—Aphthe from a case of consumption.
4,—Ordinary aphthe (thrush) in children.
5.—Longitudinal section of diseased intestine.

a. Thickened scirrhous peritoneal coat, the outer portion being dark
brown, fibrous, and striated, the strie being transverse to the
section.

6. Outer cellular tissue containing—

cc. Blood-vessels.

d, Outer aponeurosis of what should have been the muscular coat.

e. Cellular tissue (in place of muscular coat, which was wanting) pass-
ing at intervals through—

f- The inner aponeurosis of muscular coat.

ggg. Masses of coagulable lymph.

h. Reflected mucous membrane.

* The epithelial scales and casts were not from the same subject; it is
from a drawing I took some time ago, and having often met with scales of
this colour with casts, I have introduced it here.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II,

Illustrating Professor Smith’s paper on Measled Pork.

Fig.

1.—The “ measles,” as it appears to the naked eye, taken from fresh pork.

2.—The appearance of the “ measles” taken from salted pork.

3.—The Cysticercus and its cyst, magnified 6 diameters.

4.—The animal withdrawn from its cyst, which is broken away, magnified
6 diameters.

5.—The head of the Cysticercus, magnified 25 diameters.

6.—A hooklet, magnified 400 diameters.

7.—The “assimilating cellules” of a living Cysticercus, magnified 620
diameters.

8.—The same in a Cysticercus from salted pork.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III,
Illustrating Dr. Greville’s paper on Trinidad Diatomacee.

Fig.
1.—Cocconeis punctatissina (a small example), showing the median line as

it appears when both valves are united.
1*—The same; a single valve.
2.—Cocconeis crebrestriata.

3.— 5, inconspicua.
4.—Campylodiscus fenestratus.
5.— 3 Ecclesianus.

6.—Surirella eximia.
7.—Navicula Gregoriana.

Since the description of this Diatom was printed, | have been led
to suspect that it may possibly prove to be Navicula lyra, Ehr.,
as the blank linear spaces in that species seem to be very variable
in their character.

8.—Navicula compacta.
9.—Pleurosigma compactum.
10.—Mastoglota minuta.

The scale adopted is that of Professor Smith in his admirable Synopsis, except
when otherwise indicated.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES IV, V,
Illustrating Dr. Lindsay’s paper on the Genus Abrothallus.*

PLATE IV.
Fig.
1.—Portion of furfuraceous thallus of Parmelia savatilis, bearing both
Abrothallus Smithii and A. oxysporus.

a. A. Smithii—showing apothecia and intermixed pyenides. The
portion of thallus on which it is parasitic differs in colour and
other characters from the ordinary thallus of P. sazatilis ; it is
becoming globose from the curling of the margins and the super-
position of squamules or lobes.

b. A. oxysporus in its young state. The squamules are more flat-
tened, or concave, and simple than those habited by 4. Simithiz.

e. A young and simple squamule, bearing only the spermogones of
A. oxysporus. ;

d. Rudimentary, as yet sterile, squamules. The black-fibrillose nature
of the under surface may be observed.

e. Ordinary lacinie of P. saratilis, showing their retuse extremities
and the black-fibrillose under surface.

2.—Portion of thallus bearing 4. Smithii, magnified.

a. Mature apothecia.

6. Young emergent apothecia causing fissuring of the cortical layer of
the thallus.

c. Pyenides.

d. Cyphelloid foveole (produced by the falling out of the apothecia)
with raised dark margins. In one, the medullary tissue thus
exposed is seen to be white; in the other, red.

e. Black-fibrillose under surface of thallus.

/. Fissure showing rusty red medullary tissue (common in Highland
specimens).

3.—Section of young apothecia of 4A. Smithit, showing their mode of
evolution from, and relation to, their matrix.

a. Young apothecium covered by a veil of the cortical tissue of
matrix.

6, c, d. Young apothecia gradually emerging through cortical layer.

4.—Section, showing mature apothecia @, 4, and foveola ce.

a. Globose.

4. Somewhat deplanate.

c. Urceolate foveola left by falling out-of an old apothecium.

5.—Section, showing relation of the pyenides to the apothecia.

a. Mature apothecium.

4, Mature pycnidis.

ec. Young or non-developed pycnidis.

* The observations, from which the illustrations of minute structure were
drawn, were made chiefly under power 380 of a Nachet’s microscope.

PLATE IV (continued).

Fig.
6.—Pycnides of 4. Smithit.
a. Showing the stellate-fissured ostiole.
&. Section showing cavity 4, and ostiole c.
7.—Portion of thallus bearing 4. oxysporus, mag.
a. Mature apothecia.
6. Young or emergent apothecia causing radiate-fissuring of cortical
layer. The squamule is covered with a network of such fissures.
ec. Spermogones intermixed with young apothecia.
d. Black-fibrillose under surface.
8,—Section, showing the relation of the apothecia of 4. oxysporus to the
matrix.
a, b. Young apothecia covered by a veil of cortical tissue.
e. Mature apothecium; flattened, resembling a plano-convex lens.
d. Mature apothecium; convex and discoid.
9.—Showing relation of spermogones to the apothecia of 4. oxysporus.
a. Mature apothecia.
6. Mature spermogone.
ec. Young or non-developed spermogone.
10.—a. Young apothecium of 4. oxysporus causing fissuring of the cortical
tissue of matrix, through which it is bursting.
b. Spermogones.
11.—Section of portion of apothecium of 4. Smithii.
a. Tips of paraphyses, of a much darker brown than those of 4. oay-
Sporus.
6. Filaments of paraphyses.
ec. Hypothecium, consisting of a brownish cellular tissue.
d. Young thece, full of a homogeneous or finely granular, pale or
colourless protoplasm.
e. Mature theca full of nearly ripe spores.
tg. %. Thece at earlier stages of development. The button-like
markings of the young spores is shown at f.
z. Apparent membrane connecting the apices of the paraphyses.
12—Spores of 4. Smithii in different stages of development.
a. Mature spores showing the two loculi and their unequal size, as
well as the nuclei which frequently occupy them.
6. Deformities by elongation. Usually found only in old apothecia
and in Highland specimens.
ce. Young spores, showing the gradual division into loculi, the appear-
ance of nuclei, and the acquirement of colour.
13.—Old spores, undergoing a process of disintegration.
14.—Paraphyses of 4. Smithit, isolated.
a. Unaffected by reagents, showing dark brown extremities.
b. Under action of aqua potasse, showing the terminal cells, which
have acquired a resemblance to stylopores.
15.—Section of a portion of the apothecium of 4. oxysporus.
a. Showing action of iodine on the thece.
16.—Spores of .4. oxysporus in different stages of development.
a,d. Mature spores, showing the occasional double contour and
terminal nuclei.
6. Deformities by elongation.
c. Spore in process of germination.
e, f. Old spores, undergoing a process of disintegration.
gy. Young spores with a granular protoplasm.

Mior Sur VV AV.

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W.L Lindsay MD.del. Tuffen

PLATE V.
Fig.
1.—Section of a spermogone of 4. oxysporus.

a. Cortical tissue of deformed portion of thallus of P. saxatilis on
which the plant is parasitic.

6. Gonidic tissue of same.

c. Medullary tissue of same.

e@. Envelope of spermogone formed of a brownish cellular tissue.

. Sterigmata forming the inner walls of the spermogone, and gene-
rating the spermatia from their apices.
/. Free spermatia escaping by spermogonal ostiole.
2.—Sterigmata and spermatia more highly magnified.
a, Sterigmata.
6. Spermatia.
3.—Section of a spermogone of P. saxatilis. Its structure is similar to
that of A. orysporus ; but the sterigmata are seen to be articulated,
the spermatia to be generated from both sides and apices, and the
interior of the spermogone to be occupied by a loose network of
very delicate, ramose filaments, which spring, along with the sterig-
mata, from the inner walls of the spermogone.
4.—Portion of the tissues forming the spermogonal walls, more highly
magnified.

a. Component cells of the brown envelope.

6. Articulated sterigmata.

e. Spermatia, which arise generally at an angle from the apices of the
constituent joints or articulations of the sterigmata.

d. The ramose delicate filaments, whose anastomoses and intertwinings
constitute the network of the spermogonal cavity. Some of them
appear septate or articulated at the apex, where also they are
generally granular and dark.

5.—Section of one of the pycnides of 4. Smithii.

a. Cortical layer of matrix (deformed thallus of P. saxatilis).

4. Gonidic layer of the same.

e. Medullary tissue of the same.

d. Brownish cellular envelope.

e. Sterigmata close-set, short, delicate, forming the inner wall of the
pycnidis, each bearing at its apex a stylospore.

J. Free stylospores escaping by the ostiole.

6.—Stylospores in different states and stages of development. Many of
them are seen to contain large or small oil globules, or to be filled
with an oily protoplasm.

a. Mature stylospores. The colourless transparent specimens are full
of a homogeneous, oily, liquid protoplasm.

b. The same, from some Highland localities. The oil globules have
here a yellowish tinge.

ec. Shows the effects of pressure or reagents in rendering more evident
the oily nature of the protoplasm. The oil globules are seen
escaping from the ruptured stylospores, and many of them are
floating free.

d. Stylospores of large size and irregular form from various Highland

PLATH V (continued).
Fig.
specimens of 4. Smithii. Some of the specimens figured resemble
certain compound or cellular spores; others might be mistaken
for empty gonidia.

e. Stylospores retaining their sterigmata. They are of small size, and
somewhat shrivelled. Those coloured yellow are from Highland
localities.

J. Small yellow stylospores from Highland localities.

7.—Development of the stylospores from their sterigmata.

a. Sterigmata.

6. Stylospores.

The sterigmata appear first as simple filaments, with a rounded
or bulging extremity ; this gradually becomes dilated and separated
from the sterigmata by a septum. The terminal cell then consti-
tutes the stylospore, which speedily falls off, and for some time
increases in size, acquiring more of a pyriform shape.

8.—Portion of the thalline lacinie of P. saratilis, showing the spermo-
gones a, and the black-fibrillose under surface 0.
9.—Bullose dilatation of thallus of Cetraria glauca, bearing the apothecia
and spermogones of 4, oxysporus. The section shows that it is
hollow and stipitate.

. Sir Snurn Wh V POV

ores ghee

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI,

Illustrating the Rev. J. B. P. Dennis’s paper on Fossil Bones
from the Stonesfield Slate.

Fig.
1.—Pteropus; humerus.
2.—Bat ; phalanx.
3.—F lying phalanger ; tibia.
4.—Draco volans; ulna.
5.—Red-throated diver ; tibia.
6.—Swift ; furcula.
7.—Mr. Catt’s fossil (pterodactyle).
8.—Pelican ; bill.
9.—Stonesfield fossil, vertical section.
10.— Ditto, transverse section.
11.— Ditto, vertical section.
12.—Heron ; humerus.
13.—a. Heron; humerus.

6. Stonesfield fossil; lacune.
14,—Mr. Catt’s fossil (pterodactyle) ; lacune.
15.—Stonesfield fossil; lacune.
16.—Heron; lacune.
17.—Gannet ; humerus.
18.—Ditto; coracoid.
19.—Ditto; furcula.
20.—Ditto ; femur, vertical section.
21.—Ditto; femur, transverse section.
22.—Ditto ; tibia.
23.—Ditto; tarsus.
24.—Ditto; rib.

* Figs. 13, 14, 15, 16, magnified 300 diameters, the remainder 75 diameters.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII,

Illustrating Dr. H. Cienkowski’s paper on Acineta-Forms.
Fig

1.—Transverse division of Podophrya jira, Ehr.

2.—The divided Podophrya with the half becoming detached.

3.—The independent segment.

4, 5.—Stages towards encysting.

6, 7, 8.—Cysts of Podophrya fixa, Ehr.

9.—An Acineta with rotating embryo.
10.—An Acineta with the embryo escaping.

11.—The embryo, after a prolonged motile stage, becoming transformed
into an Acineta.

12.—The transformation of the embryo into an Acineta completed.

The figures 1—8 are x 370 diam., 9—12 x 170 diam.

Illustrating Mr. Huxley’s paper on Dysteria.

13.—Dysteria armata.
14.—Parts of mouth of ditto.
15.—Process between two styles.

Illustrating Dr. Webb’s paper on the Human Lip.
16.—Muscular fibres in skin of human lip.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII,

Illustrating Mr. Currey’s paper on some points in the

Structure and Physiology of certain Fungi.*

Fig.

1.—A spore of Helminthosporium Smithit.

2.—A spore of the same plant germinating.

3, 4.—Fragments of similar spores germinating.

5.—Fragments of two of the vegetative threads of the same plant pro-
truding filaments similar to germ-filaments. The filaments from
the two upper ends have become united in growth.

6.—Spores of Helminthosporium fumosum.

7 to 11.—Various states of the cells constituting the so-called joints of
the fruit Phragmidium bulbosum after their escape from the enveloping
membrane under the action of heated nitric acid.

12.—The bottom internal cell and the internal stem-cell of a fruit of
Phragmidium bulbosum.

13.—A fruit of Phragmidium bulbosum which has been subjected to hydro-
chloric acid and then ruptured by pressure, showing the escape of
one of the inner cells.

14.—A similar fruit, under the action of hydrochloric acid, showing the
spontaneous protrusion of two of the inner cells.

15.—A similar fruit in which the outer membrane or ascus has become
swollen and separated from its contents by the action of heated
nitric acid.

16.—A similar fruit, after having been soaked in water for some hours,
exhibiting the internal stem-cell.

17.—A fruit of Phragmidium mucronatum under the same circumstances,

18, 19.—Fruits of Phragmidium bulbosum in germination.

20.—One of the so-called ‘ sporidia” produced by a germinating filament
of Phragmidium bulbosum which has become detached and commenced
germination on its own account (magnified 420 diameters).

* Except where it is otherwise mentioned, all the figures are magnified
220 diameters.

PLATE VIII (continued).

Fig,
21. Krai of Puccinia graminis oe and producing globose ‘ spo-

ridia.”

92.—Fruit of Puccinia Lychnidearum germinating (magnified 315 diameters).

23. —Peculiar germination observed in Zriphragmium Ulmaria. (The figure
only shows a portion of the germ-filament, magnified 420 diameters.)

24.—A joint of the above filament of Zriphragmium Ulmarie which has
separated itself and commenced germination.

25 to 33.—Various forms of fruit of Phragmidium Potentille.

34.—Fruit of Xenodochus curbonarius.

35, 36, 37.—Spores of a species of Gymnosporium in germination.

38. —Spores of Peziza aurantia, exhibiting the peculiar germination referred
to in the text.

39.—Spores of Peziza aurantia in their ordinary state.

40.—Spore of a species of Triposporium.

41.—Filament of Zygodesmus fuscus, showing the sterigmata at the apex.
On the right hand are three spores detached.

42.—A fragment of the capillitium of Zrichia turbinata acted on by hydro-
chloric acid, showing the mode of spiral unrolling of the membrane
and the five internal bands (highly magnified, but to no particular
scale).

43.—Two specimens of a doubtful 7richia (slightly magnified).

44,—A portion of the capillitium and some spores of the last-mentioned
plants.

45.—Ascus and sporidia of Choiromyces meandriformis.

46.—Sporidium of Spheria Amblyospora giving out small colourless cel-
lules into its gelatinous envelope.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX,

Tilustrating Mr. Hepworth’s paper on Compound Nucleated
Cells.
Fig.

§
1.—Epithelial scales from kidney, after desquamation of the tubuli
uriniferi.
a. Blood dises.
6. The same altered by exosmosis.
2.—Compound cells from cyst of ovarian dropsy.
3.—Nucleated cells from cancroid tumour of the brain.
4.— Ditto from forearm of an old woman, aged 83.
a. Epithelial scales.
5.—Nucleated cells from mamma.

6.— Ditto from uterus.
PLATE X,
Illustrating review of Dr. Hall’s work on Thoracic
Consumption.*

1.—Yellow tubercle.

a. Tubercle corpuscles.

6. Simple tubercle cells.

e. Granular matter in quantity.

d. Curled elastic tissue.

2.—Gray tubercle.

a. Hlastic tissue of the air-cells.

6. Tubercle elements.

c. Compound tubercle cells, and epithelium in a state of fatty dege-
neration.

3.—Yellow tubercle liquefied.

a. Fluid of a creamy consistence from the centre of crude yellow
tubercle. Small tubercle corpuscles, granules, and oil in a state
of minute division.

6. Pus-like fluid from yellow tubercle completely liquefied.

ec. Pus-cells.

d. Granule cells.

e. Columnar epithelium.

f. Oil molecules.

g. Free granules.

h. A few single tubercle corpuscles.

5.—Sputa from chronic bronchitis.

a. Pus and mucus.

6. Bronchial columnar epithelium.

c. Shrivelled and abortive cells.

d. Blood corpuscles ; some of these appear to have a delicate envelope.

e. Leptomitus (a minute fungus).

5.—Gelatinous sputa, consumption.

a. Enveloped blood corpuscles.

6. Cells with a few granules, molecular matter, and oil.

6.—Flocculent sputa, consumption.

a. Pus and mucus, shrivelled cells, with irregular edges, granular
matter, and oil.

b. oe of cells, with pigment ; probably from one of the bronchial

ands.

c. Curled elastic fibre.

* All the figures on this plate are enlarged 250 diameters.

ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

PLATE XV.
Fig.
1.—Onchopora Sincluirii, natural size.
2, 3.—Magnified figures of the same.
4, 5.—Lepralia thyreophora.
6, 7.—Lepralia Cecilii.

PLATE XVI.

1.—Cryptolaria prima, half natural size.
2, 3.—Portions of a branch.
4,—Section of ditto.

PLATE XVII.

1.—Bugula turbinata, natural size.
2.—Front view.

3.—Back view.

4.—Ovicell.

5, 6, 7.—Scruparia.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI,

Illustrating Dr. Lindsay’s paper on Lecidea lugubris, Sommf.*

Fig.
1.—Fragment of the lichen, slightly magnified.
a. Apothecia in different stages of development.
6. Spermogones scattered over the squamules.
2.Fragment of the thalline squamules, magnified, showing the—
a. Apothecia.
6. Spermogones.
3.—Sterile squamules, magnified, showing spermogones.
a. Papillate ostiole.
6. Depressed ostiole.
4.—Section of two spermogones—
a. Having a papillate ostiole ; and
&. A depressed ostiole.
5.—Section of apothecium, magnified.
a. Exciple or margin.
6. Hymenium or thalamium.
6.—Section of apothecium and spermogones, showing their relative position,
a. Apothecium.
6. Mature; and
c. Young, undeveloped spermogones.
7.—Section of apothecium, showing—
a. Knobbed extremities of paraphyses.
b. Filaments of ditto.
ce. Hypothecium.
d. Mature theca: its body.
é. Ditto, its pedicle.
fs Ditto, ruptured, showing the mode of escape of the
spores,

* The observations, upon which the drawings are based, were made chiefly
under power 380 of a Nachet’s microscope.

PLATE XI (continued).

Fig.
: g. Young thece in different stages of development.
h. Mature spores escaped from thece. The reaction of iodine on
the thecz, paraphyses, and spores is exhibited at a, 8, d.
8.—Isolated paraphyses, showing the knobbed terminal cells—the seat of
a dark indigo pigment—and the delicate filaments.
9.—Shrivelled or aborted spores, retaining the thece as caudate anpen-
dages.
10,—Mature thecx, showing moniliform appearance, caused by distensions
or bulgings of the cell-wall by the spores.
11.—Young theca, showing the development of few spores at intervals in a
ribbon-like protoplasm.
12.—Spores.
a. Mature.
b. Young.
ec. Old.
13.—Section of a spermogone, showing—
a. Cortical tissue of thallus.
6. Gonidic layer of thallus.
c. Medullary tissue of thallus.
d. Envelope of spermogone.
e. Sterigmata forming inner walls of spermogone.
J. Cavity of spermogone full of free spermatia mingled with mucilage.
g- Free and mature spermatia escaping by ostiole.
14.—Sterigmata and spermatia,
a, Spermatia,
6. Sterigmata.
15.—Sterigmata arising from articulated, thick, ramose tubes.
16.—Free, mature spermatia.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII,

Illustrating Mr. Brightwell’s paper on Noctiluca.

Fig.
1.—Front view, showing the tail, cilium, &.,
a. A vacuole containing a bright red-brown granular mass.

2.—Side view, showing pyriform shape, position of the fissure, &c.; strue-
ture obscure, from the quantity of food contained in the animal,
a recently captured specimen.

3.—View showing the somewhat thickened angular portion ; the nucleus
is generally situated opposite to this, as well as the origin of the
tail, so as to be indistinct in this view.

4,—Specimen in which the tail was undeveloped; most of the individuals
taken during the winter months were thus imperfectly formed.

5.—Early stage of self-division: division of the nucleus has just taken
place. The perfect development of the new tail at this period is
remarkable.

6.—Division somewhat further advanced; the nuclei have removed far
apart and a fissure is commencing. The vacuoles in this indivi-
dual (which was drawn with great care) have almost entirely dis-
appeared.

7.—Shows a further progress towards division.

8.—Shows self-division nearly complete, and two individuals now only held
together by a slender cord.
9.—An individual just after complete separation and before the connecting
portion is absorbed.
10.—Abnormal portion of the body thrown off by the animal, and in which
no nucleus is found.

11.—Shows the effects of gentle, steadily continued pressure. At the first
an appearance, as of a most delicate sac, is protruded, into which the
globules, vacuoles, and sometimes the nucleus are received. The
inner menbranes peel off from the cell-wall, and when the contents
are out the creature suddenly collapses entirely. The appearance of
the sarcode (membrane and threads) gently leaving its connections,
“like threads of a very viscid liquid,”’ and collapsing, is very remark-
able.

12.—Oral orifice, &c., x 200.

13.—* Prehensile organ” and “ trembling organ,” x 400.

14.—Cell-wall, x 400; a tolerably thick, firm, and resisting structureless
membrane.

15.—Sarcode membrane, with its thickenings, forming the immediate inter-
nal investment of the cell-wall. The thicker portions form a toler-
ably regular network over it; from these spring the fibrils.

16.—Tail, showing a section, x 400. This is concave in the part which
comes in apposition to the body, and convex in the part which
reaches beyond the body.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIII,

Tilustrating the Rev. J. B. Dennis’s paper on the Microsco-
pical Characters of so-called Cetacean Bones of the Red
Crag.*

Fig.

1.—Crag fossil from detrital bed, Red Crag.
2.—Drift elephant.
3.—a. Free lacune of Crag fossil, detrital bed, Red Crag.

b. Free lacune of Drift elephant.

4.—a. Haversian lacunee of Crag fossil, detrital bed, Red Crag.
b. Haversian lacunz of Drift elephant.
5.—a. Hippopotamus.

b. Rhinoceros.
6.—Crag fossil, detrital bed, Red Crag.
7.—a. Crag fossil, detrital bed, Red Crag.

b. Fossil elephant from Himalayan mountains.

8.—Jaw of Greenland whale.
9.—Vertebra of fossil whale.

10.—a. Free lacune of Greenland whale.

b. Free lacune of fossil whale.

11.—a. Haversian lacune of Greenland whale.

b. Haversian lacune of fossil whale.

12.—a. Free lacune of recent elephant.

b. Haversian lacune of recent elephant.
13.—Crag fossil from detrital bed, Red Crag.
14.—a. Elephant from Suffolk Gravel.

b. Decomposed recent cetacean bone.

* Bigs. 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, are magnified 300 diameters, the remainder
50 diameters.

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