“an ¥ ¥. ae y) Jue» ow Mig Wi . Gg Ny) \ Wy = VV Vg MY i i yw wr ¥ WJ WW | WM \ Vv , vy” y y vw v" eed bh Vl Ah LV) WHITNEY LIBRARY, MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. Ly 605 V ¥ Abate Wy vey Uv iV UV vv AW WM yy Wy a, We a WOU V uy eve " ce Vi whee wey y° iJ y y y Wi WW : V Y y Y ¥ : vi vi AV W “ y iw J WU d Vy Y V ¥ VY y y vy Wi yy v y V ' i y " d lad v" | UV V ) y Y Y V y UY ¥ \ \J WV Ni yu u \V/ vi \ Whe \ Ai wt UMW Bee yew wu, Wey 4yy vy | y y 5 ch y | ’ N Wil) AY 4} Vi; vy V Y ay WG Re v ve wy yee Wy Wy y V | 1S) Ve : vor WY Ny Wy Ww MWY yi \ N y Y u Nw v : YU wi, we V V \ \ y N WV Wy ' y WW "Wt i Ke . We yy y J Y NU wh eee» W Vv V W V V y ’ y \ Were y 1 MV V Ny A a a: = THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, EDITED BY JAMES SAMUELSON AND WILLIAM CROOKES, F.RS. VOLUME V. Gith Allustrations om Copper, Wood, and Stone. LONDON: JOHN CHURCHILL AND SONS, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. Paris: Leipzig: VICTOR MASSON ET FILS. ALFONS DURR. A nha MDCCCLXVIII. LONDON ; PRINTED BY W.CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS, oaibvid PAA SE. NO VIONVLS a Nv WY IEE OPW. _ WEP POO ML ‘LT ON 20uatog fo Teusnop Apzo1.weng THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. JANUARY, 1868. I. ON AN EXTRANEOUS MEAT SUPPLY. By James Samvenson, Editor. . THERE is no subject which has engaged the attention of the British public during the last few years, of such paramount importance as the great “meat question.” That staple food of our countrymen of all ranks has been gradually becoming more costly and difficult of acquirement; the highest class of agriculturists, the lettered men of the farm, although they have lost no opportunity to improve our breeds of domestic cattle, have observed with anxiety the constantly increasing demand and the disproportionate supply of live-stock ; whilst our labouring classes, the muscle and sinew of the nation, have found the description of food which is, to them, indispensable for the performance of their daily toil receding month by month from their reach. And in this, as in all similar emergencies, it is becoming the fashion to look to “Science” for aid, and to censure her should the relief not be immediate and effective. Our coal supply threatens to fail us—‘ Science” must enable us to penetrate more deeply into the bowels of the earth; and whilst she teaches us to economize and husband our present supply, must provide us with a larger store in the future. She, too, must bring distant lands nearer, enabling us to draw upon their mineral wealth. Already we are told that an exorbitant price in the London market would attract a supply of coal from Westphalia. Civil war sweeps over the great cotton-growing districts of the West, and, in consequence, famine makes rapid inroads into our manufacturing centres. The products of other lands in the far East are considered unfit for our purposes ; but soon the staple is improved abroad, new machinery is fitted up at home, and the bitter cup is averted by “ Science.” Nor must it be supposed, because one section of the scientific community is directing its attention to abstract questions with re- spect to food, as, for example, the relative heat-giving and work- sustaining properties of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances, VOL. V. B 2 On an Extvaneous Meat-supply. | Jan. that therefore scientific men are regardless of the more practical aspect of that matter. As we have already said, agriculturists are improving the breed of our cattle and seeking to bring a better supply to the meat mar- ket ; manufacturers are multiplyimg our stores of artificial fodder, so that a good or bad season for pasture is of less moment than formerly, and each succeeding year brings us stores of fresh mate- rials for this purpose from some new quarter of the globe; whilst chemists and meat curers are engaged in the keenest competition to preserve beef and other kinds of flesh abroad and at home; so that all the resources of art and science are being brought to bear in the effort to counteract the result of cattle plagues, the rapacity of butchers, and a rapidly increasing population. But there is, at present, one grave obstacle in the way of obtain- ing effectual relief from a short supply of meat, which extends to hardly any similar substance, and that is the difficulty of importing it from abroad in its fresh condition. Cotton shipped from distant parts arrives here unimpaired in quality and undepreciated in value; so too coffee, tea, wheat, and hundreds of other necessaries and luxuries of life; but with the exception of smoked or salted flesh imported from a distance, and the limited supply of lean cattle brought from nearer countries, and rendered still more limited by cattle plague regulations, we have so far been unable to avail our- selves to any large extent of the live-stock of other parts of the globe. Something has, however, been accomplished, and in what condition we should have been, were that not the case, it is im- possible to surmise. From Holland, Belgium, and other European countries we have for a long time past obtained supplies of lean- stock which has been rapidly fed in England (chiefly upon food originally the produce of Russia, India, and Africa), and placed upon our markets. Hams, bacon, and pickled or salted beef have formed a considerable feature in our North American import trade, and re- cent advertisements have informed the public that South American press-packed beef, of the finest quality and free from bone, is retailed “at a handsome profit to the dealer at fourpence per pound;” of the last named, it is right to say, that it cannot be looked upon as a description of food which will long maintain its footing, and the enterprising men who have so far succeeded in preserving their meat, must improve its quality, or it will not find its way into competition with our best English beef: to this subject we shall refer fully hereafter. A not unimportant feature in our meat-supply, and one for which we are solely indebted to Science, is the manufacture of the so-called “ Hatractum Carnis” of Professor Liebig, a process, as our readers are doubtless well aware, by which the nutritive properties of meat are condensed into a portable form, and brought from other parts of the world, from whence it would be difficult at 1868. | On an Extraneous Meat-supply. 3 present to import live stock or fresh meat with any chance of its arriving here in a sound or healthy condition. From its concen- trated form, and comparatively reasonable price, this extract of meat is now largely used in the preparation of soup, and the readers of such papers as the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal’ must see with surprise with what energy it is being pressed by the manufacturers upon the notice of the medical profession; it cannot fail to relieve m some degree the demand for fresh meat. Still, there is a great outery for an artificial, or rather for an extraneous supply of fresh meat, and when we come to look abroad, and consider the relative value of this commodity there and at home, we are not a little startled at the result of our inquiries. “ First-rate meat is sold in the market at Buenos Ayres by the piece and not by weight, a leg of mutton costing from 10d. to 1s., and beef is comparatively cheaper ;”* the flocks of sheep about the River Plate are so numerous, that “the term of natural life of the animal renders it henceforth necessary that there should be annually slaughtered and, for want of a better means of utilizing them, ‘boiled down’ more or less 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 sheep, other- wise they would die natural deaths or from starvation, and their carcass-products, the main sources of a breeder’s profit, be lost,” and on an “ Estancia” belonging to a well-known firm of breeders in Urugnay, which is now being converted into a joint stock com- pany, with a view to the breeding and feeding of cattle and the pre- servation of meat for the English market, there are nearly 90,000 sheep, 5,600 head of cattle, and 1,200 horses, valued together at 59,2271.; in other words, the sheep are valued at about thirteen shillings each, and about 7,000 head of cattle and horses are thrown into the bargain gratis, whilst the “freehold” land is said to be “rich bottom land, with scarcely a stone to be found on it, irrigated by numerous rivulets, producing most luxuriant fodder for sheep and cattle,” and it is set down in the valuation at eighteen and ninepence per acre.t In short, whilst in England the half-starved people are breaking into butchers’ shops to enforce a reduction of meat upon tenpencea pound, the same staple may be bought within five weeks’ steaming of us at a nominal price, and is annually de- stroyed in immense quantities to save the more valuable (because more easily preservable) fat and hides; and the land upon which the cattle is pastured may be bought under a pound an acre! We * «Report on the Methods Employed in the River Plate for curing Meat for European Markets,’ by Francis Clare Ford, Esq., Brit. Chargé d’ Affaires at Buenos Ayres. Presented to both Houses. 1866. London: Harrison & Sons. + Letter of Mr. W. Latham to ‘The Times,’ dated Buenos Ayres, Sept. 25, 1867. t ‘Supply of Meat from South America,’ by A. Prange, Esq. Mr. Prange wrote to the ‘The Times, Oct. 22, and his statement is confirmed by other writers in the same journal, that he can produce the best fed beef on his Estancia, Nueva Alemania, on the River Plate, at twopence per pound ! 9 B 4 On an Hatraneous Meat-supply. [Jan., need not be surprised if here and there a practical man shakes his head sceptically, and asks, What is the use of Science if it allows such a state of things to exist ? As we have already said, the great difficulty to be overcome is the conveyance of the cattle to England or the preservation of the meat abroad, either in its raw state, or at least in such a condition as to render it fit to be brought into competition with English meat, and many persons are engaged both practically and experi- mentally in endeavouring to gain that end. Mr. Ford, in his Report already referred to, notices three processes employed at Buenos Ayres. for the preservation of meat, namely, Morgan’s, Liebig’s, and Sloper’s; and Mr. Prange in his pamphlet mentions that of Messrs. Medlock and Bailey, of Wolverhampton. ‘Mr. Morgan’s process is based on forced infiltration,” and he has adopted the circulatory system of the body as a means of intro- ducing brine into the tissues. The operation is performed by allowing all the blood to escape through artificial incisions made in the heart of the animal after death, and by the subsequent injection into the heart, and through it to the whole circulating system, of a fluid consisting of water and salt (“one gallon of brine to the ewt.”), and “a quarter to half-a-pound of nitre, carefully refined.” The writer of the report considers this system of curing superior to that by means of salt outwardly applied, as he believes that the “natural juices and alimentary substances” are retained; and he says, ‘The meat has hitherto arrived in England sound and good, and I am enabled from personal experience to testify to the admir- able quality of the samples I tasted which were inviting and palatable.” It will occur to the reader, however, to inquire whether Mr. Ford tasted this “inviting and palatable” beef in Buenos Ayres before it was shipped (for his report comes from thence), or after it had passed through the ordeal of a long sea-voyage in the confined hold of a vessel; and if in Buenos Ayres, then, whence he derives the authority for his statement, that the meat “has hitherto arrived in England sound and good.” We have often seen it exposed for sale, at a price below that of salted beef, and although it is some- times purchased out of curiosity by the middle classes, we may confidently say that it does not compete with home-grown beef, and is of a very inferior quality. Of Liebig’s process, which Mr. Ford describes in detail, we have already spoken ; and will now add a few particulars which may in- terest our readers. “The meat of the animal after being killed is allowed to cool for twenty-four hours; it is then placed in round iron rollers (armed inside with points) which, being revolved by steam, reduce the meat to a pulp. This pulp is thrown into a large vat with water, and allowed to steam for an hour, and is then passed into a reservoir (shaped like a trough with a sieve at 1868. | On an Extraneous Meat-supply. 5 the bottom), from whence the fluid of the meat oozes mto another vat from whence the fat is drawn off.* The pure gravy is then put into open vats supplied with steam-pipes and with bellows on the surface, which produce a blast and carry off the steam, thus helping the evaporation and preventing condensation. Here it re- mains from six to eight hours, when it is passed into a filtering vat and drawn off in the form of extract of meat. When cool it partially hardens, and is ready for packing in tins and exportation.” Mr, Ford tells us that eight small tins will hold the concentrated alimen- tary matter of an entire ox, at the price of 96s., and will make over 1,000 basins of good, strong soup, costing, therefore, rather less than a penny a basin. Mr. Ford speaks rather doubtfully of Mr. Sloper’s process ; —and, whilst he is very enthusiastic about Morgan’s (to which reference has been made), he says concerning that of McCall and Sloper, “These gentlemen profess to be able to preserve meat in its fresh and raw state, which is to arrive in England or elsewhere in the exact condition as butcher’s meat just killed, &., &e.” He observes, in another part of his report, that the price paid for Morgan’s beef is barely remunerative, so the other gentlemen are probably adopting the wiser course of bringing their system to perfection (af this can be done) before applying it in a practical manner. It must be clearly understood that we do not wish to discourage the attempt to preserve meat chemically, but believing that as at present imported it gains little favour, and is calculated to raise a prejudice which it may be found very difficult to remove hereafter, we would recommend the greatest caution in the practical application of any new system. Messrs. Medlock and Bailey use Bisulphite of Lime, and Mr. McCall Bisulphite of Soda in the preservation of his meat; both these processes are patented, and we believe the system of injection is employed as described above. By far the most valuable, as it is the simplest, system of pre- servation, however, is that of packing the meat in tin cases as practised in America, Australia, and at home, and to this we shall now direct the reader’s attention. At Mr. McCall’s Factory in Houndsditch this operation may be seen in perfection, and no secret is made of the process. On entering the factory, the visitor is struck with the long rows of legs of mutton and venison, and pieces of meat to be preserved ; and is introduced into a large shed where a great many butchers are employed in cutting the bone and a portion of the fat from the meat, and reducing it to a suit- able form for preserving in tins. The raw meat is then packed tightly in these tins (varying in weight from half-a-pound to six _ * Weare quoting Mr, Ford, and must not be held responsible for tle verbiage of a State document. 6 On an Eatraneous Meat-supply. [Jan., pounds), and a little water being added the lids are closed, a small hole being left in each cf them; and a considerable number are then placed in a bath in such a manner as to leave the upper part of the tins exposed. This bath contains Chloride of Calcium in solution raised to about boiling point, and whilst the contents of the tins are boiling, the water escapes as steam through the holes punctured in the lids. After a time the air is all expelled, the holes are soldered up, and the tins with their contents trans- ferred to another bath, but raised to 260 degrees, and should any of them be imperfectly soldered they at once begin to leak. After boiling there for some time the meat is in a fit state for being kept any length of time, and it only remains to ascertain whether the air has been perfectly excluded. For this purpose the tins are placed in a dry chamber warmed up to about 90 degrees, and are left there for a time. The workman then gives each tin a light tap at the upper end, and if it emits a hollow sound, in- dicative of a space below, he is satisfied there is a vacuum and marks the tin as perfect; but should the sound be dull, as though the meat were in immediate contact with the lid, such a tin is not considered fit for retention and is set aside. Meat so preserved is already very largely employed for ships’ use, and it 1s hardly necessary to say that as so simple an operation may be, and is, per- formed abroad where meat is cheap, as well as in England where it is dear, the development of this branch of industry will have a most important effect upon our meat-supply. The great desideratum will be to provide a quality of meat suitable for preservation, and as that applies to all systems, whatever they may be, we shall now direct our attention to this phase of the subject. Of the remarkable facilities which exist on the River Plate for the breeding of sheep and cattle we have already spoken, and we would now, in passing, direct the reader’s attention to the illustration accompanying this paper, which will convey some idea of the appearance of an Hstancia, or cattle-breeding and sheep- shearing farm in Uruguay. In the foreground are the cottage with its Corral, or cattle-pen, its store and shearing house, and in the distance, the sheds, wharf, and vessels loading hides, tallow, and wool. These are the chief products of the live stock, besides the calcined bones, which the breeder aims to secure, the flesh being quite a secondary matter, and all authorities are at present agreed that the meat offered for sale on the River Plate is not suitable for preservation and exporta- tion. The reasons are that the cattle is wild and unfit for slaughter, that no attempt on a large scale has been made to breed such as would produce good meat, and that if even the stock sent to Buenos Ayres be of a good description when it leaves the Estancia, it arrives there “miserably fatigued, the effect of which on the meat cannot but be disastrous, as after that its nutritive power is 1868. | On an Kxtraneous Meat-supply. 7 diminished and it cannot keep,’* and Mr. Latham considers that “it will take two or three pounds of Argentine meat zn its usual condition to equal in nutritive value one pound of English-fed meat.” It must therefore be obvious to every reflecting person, that if such meat be exported to England, and arrives here in the best condition, the price at which it is offered, say fourpence a pound, cannot afford a sufficient inducement to purchasers, who would find a better investment for their money in home-grown meat at sevenpence or eightpence per pound. There is, however, nothing impracticable in the way of feeding-up suitable animals, and the land and cattle owners do so for their own use on the farm. Mr. Prange writes to ‘The Times’: “I have every year reared a small number of oxen for household consumption, and I may safely say that their beef is as tender and juicy as the fine joints I dine off at this hotel.”+- “ Beef,” he further adds, “from the cattle as now reared can be bought in Uruguay at a half-penny per pound ; and I shall make a fine business of it, if in a few years I can sell 6,000 oxen, fattened on my land, at 2d. per pound for the best beef.” Seldom have words of so encouraging a kind appeared in the leading journal, and we have no hesitation in saying that as such a result can be attained within four or five weeks’ voyage of our shores, the time is not far distant when a large supply of wholesome meat will find its way into our markets. As long as there was no regular outlet for such beef—it bemg worth in Buenos Ayres less than a penny a pound, and employed only as “charqui,” or jerked beef for export to Brazil and Havannah for the use of the slave population—it was not likely that the breeders would trouble them- selves to improve its quality. Soon, however, it will come into competition with English preserved meat; and an Estancia has just been sold to a German Joint Stock Company established for the manufacture of the extract of meat, whilst another has for some time been worked by the “Antwerp Liebig’s Meat Extract Com- any.” i With respect to the improvement in the breed of Cattle, and the fattening of stock, there appears to be no difficulty whatever. Mr. Latham in his letter to ‘ The Times,’ and in his excellent work on the River Plate, has discussed the subject fully and impartially, and what he tells us agrees entirely with the statements of the owners of large Estancias. For many years past, English bred cattle has been imported for the purpose of crossmg with and improving the native breeds, and on the better regulated Estancias good cross-bred * Mr. G. Bell’s letter to ‘ The Times,’ October 28, 1867; and ‘ The States of the River Plate’ (p. 140), by Wilfred Latham. Longmans. 2nd edition. 1868. + Morley’s. ¢‘ The States of the River Plate,’ pp. 15, 19, 22, 23, 34, 44. 8 On an EHxtraneous Meat-supply. | Jan., (short-horn cross) cows are kept. Oxen are also fed up (as stated by Mr. Prange as well as Mr. Latham) for the use of farmers, and the latter gentleman informs us that the produce of crosses of short- horned and Hereford bulls. with selected native cows, when some- what extra care is taken to secure the even growth, is, as he has seen and proved, highly satisfactory, especially in the third or more advanced crosses, and “on the same feed, they will make nearly double the beef and fat that can be attained from the native breed.” As to sheep, Leicester, Lincoln, Southdown, and Shopshiredown varieties have been imported and successfully intercrossed with native breeds. Then with regard to the feeding process. The natural resources of the country appear likely to suffice, without the necessity of im- porting artificial food. There is “succulent, as well as tall, sedgy, and hard grass,”* and the grasses are more tender and less coarse in the province of Buenos Ayres than in the other provinces. We are informed also by the owners of large Estancias that some of the pastures teem with rye-grass and clover. Moreover, we find that many flesh, as well as fat-forming grains, such as wheat, barley, aid Indian corn, are largely grown, whilst the oleagimous seeds, such as linseed, &c., could easily be cultivated. Mr. Latham even speaks of a wild thistle growing in “camps,” and covering immense tracts of land, on the oleaginous seeds of which the sheep feed and grow fat. All the requisites for artificial feeding are therefore accessible, and there is really no reason why the finest stock should not be raised there, as it is in England. Nevertheless this work should not be left to untutored hands, and we cordially endorse Mr. Latham’s re- commendation, that if the attempt be made to produce and fatten stock for exportation, alive or dead, “such an initiatory and experi- mental undertaking must necessarily be placed under the direction of men who have a good practical and theoretical knowledge of cattle feeding, and also of the country, its climates, products and agricultural capabilities, together with perseverance and zeal.” + As to the difficulties of conveying the meat to England when a good quality is obtained, those will, we think, be found to diminish year by year. If it has been possible to transport selected stock in safety from England to the Plate for breeding purposes, it is obvious that there can be no serious obstacles to the importation from thence of live stock, more especially if large steamers are fitted up for the purpose. In fact the Liverpool steamers to the River Plate have already commenced to carry deck-loads of live sheep from thence to Rio. The next plan is that of preservation in closed packages as already described, in which case the meat should be lean, and flesh-forming food should, we think, be largely used in the feeding * ‘States of the River Plate,’ p. 16. + Ibid., p. 46. 1868. | On an Eatraneous Meat-supply. 9 process. Of the chemical preservative operations we have already spoken at length. At present they do not inspire much confidence where the object is to preserve meat for long voyages, for if there be anywhere in the world a fastidious diner, it is the Englishman of every rank. What improvements in these systems may be in- troduced concurrently with the production of an improved quality of meat abroad we are unable to say, but we would recommend those who are practically engaged in the rearing of cattle and the preservation of beef to turn their attention to the smoke drying and curing processes already in use. In this case also the cattle must not be too fat, for the fat decomposes more readily than the flesh: and of the curing processes known to us, that which appears the most likely to be immediately successful and remunerative is the one by which “Hambro’ smoked beef” is prepared. This kind of beef is becoming a great delicacy even in England; and as the breeders on the Plate have, from their associa- tions and connections (many being Germans) peculiar facilities for perfecting the process there, where the raw meat has only a nomi- nal value, we hope soon to see it sent over in large quantities, and of a quality equal to that now imported from Germany. These are a few of the numerous devices by which it is sought to ‘supply our home market with imported meat of a wholesome and nutritious description, and the reader will perceive that the resources of trade, navigation, art, and science are bemg brought to bear in the execution of this all-important object. There is no unmixed evil: indeed what we in our ignorance are apt to regard as an evil is often designed by Providence as the incentive to exertion and progress ; had it not been for the alarm excited by the cattle plague, it is not improbable that the vast resources of the River Plate and of our own Australian Colonies, to the development of which the energies of the adventurous trader and agriculturist are now being directed, would have lain dormant for years to come, until perhaps, with an increased population, we should have found ourselves reduced to an extremity and exposed to fatal dangers which may now be happily averted. ( Qs. [Jan., II. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL. By W. Farrzarrn, F.BS. Henry Bessemer, like his prototype, Cort, has effected a revolution in the manufacture of iron and steel; and the present improvements exhibit a means of development by which the former will ultimately double its strength, and in the state of steel be substituted for purposes of construction. The result of this change, when applied to structural purposes, is considerable, as half the weight of steel is equal in strength, and consequently is cheaper than a given weight of iron. In almost every case where iron is at present used, steel would then be employed: as in the construction of bridges, ships, and other structures to which iron is now applied. It only requires certainty and uniformity of character in its manu- facture, to ensure its superiority and extend its application. This has not as yet been accomplished; but the Bessemer process, by depriving the crude metal of its carbon im a separate vessel, certainly tends in that direction; for by this process increased facilities are not only afforded, and new combinations formed, but the introduction of measured quantities of the same metal, containing the requisite quantity of carbon, poured into the con- verting vessel, appears to be the only true principle on which steel in its varied conditions of ductility, tenacity, &c., can be pro- duced. ‘These quantities, when duly proportioned, indicate the quality of the steel to be obtained from this process, and, when cast into ingots are ready either for the forge or the rolling-mill. From this it will be seen that every description of homogeneous iron or steel may be produced, care being taken to ascertain the exact percentage of carbon requisite to be infused in order to combine with the mass of refined metal. This process of conversion as adopted by Mr. Bessemer is en- tirely new, when compared with the old method employed in the converting furnace with the bars embedded in charcoal, which required at least a fortnight for the refined iron to absorb the necessary quantity of carbon to form steel. By the new system steel is produced in the Bessemer vessel in less than twenty minutes, whereby a great saving of time, fuel, and other expenses is effected. As this process is extremely interesting, it may be briefly described as follows :— A quantity of pig-iron, containing an average quantity of car- bon, say 5 per cent., is melted in one or more reverberatory furnaces, according to the size of the converting vessel to be used, which varies in capacity from five to ten or twelve tons. When the metal becomes fluid, it is run into the converting vessel, to which is a aterly Journal of Science Newh7: vd Y AMM yy ———— A Ae SS ff —— \ \ \ NS — — IAA YL ill ] /) f = lith M&N Hanhorte, WE OALOQTT 1868.] On the Mechanical Properties of Iron and Steel. 11 applied a strong blast of air, which combines with the carbon at an intense white heat. This is continued for about eight or ten minutes, until the whole of the carbon is consumed, when the blast is stopped. In this stage a quantity of metal, containing the requisite percentage of carbon necessary to form the exact quality of the steel required, is poured into the vessel, and this combining with the refined iron gives to the mass all the properties and characteristics of steel. To show the facility with which the crude iron may be converted into refined iron or steel, the converting vessel may be placed if necessary so near to the blast furnace as to allow the iron to flow direct into it; or the metal in the shape of pig-iron may be melted in reverberatory furnaces, as is now generally the case, and thence run direct into the converting vessel. This vessel is of the shape shown in the Plate, supported on trunnions at a, which enable it to turn upon its centre and discharge its contents into a large ladle when the process is complete. The general apparatus will, how- ever, be better understood by referring to the Plate, which is a view of the interior of the converting house. It will be seen that two vessels, A A, are employed; they are placed in such a position as to throw the sparks and slag away from each other, and into the lower part of the chimneys, B B, which have hoods at B* to conduct the flame into them. The casting pit is semicircular in front, and central to it is placed the casting crane c, which supports the ladle into which the steel flows, and from which it is delivered through a cone valve, a, at the bottom of the ladle. One of the vessels is shown in section in the act of pouring out the fluid steel into the ladle, while in the other the process of conversion is going on. When necessary both vessels may be worked at the same time, and their contents poured into one large ladle, so that an ingot of 20 tons may be made from what is usually styled a 10-ton apparatus. It will be observed that the hydraulic casting crane, c, is brought so far from the line formed by passing through the centres of the converting vessels as to allow one vessel to be moved round if necessary, while the ladle is in front of the other vessel. This position of the crane enables the casting pit to be made larger, and gives more space for the moulds. In the act of pouring the steel from the converter into the casting ladle, the crane is steadily lowered and its bend moved round to accommodate the curved path in which the spout of the converting vessel moves. This lowering of the crane is effected by a boy on the valve stand, which is situated at a distance of about twenty feet from the casting pit, and in a line with the centre of the casting crane. On this stand the cocks for the moving of the vessel are placed; here also are the handles of two large balanced air-valves by which the blast is regulated. 12 On the Mechanical Properties of Iron and Steel. [Jan., To ascertain the comparative values of steel when subjected to transverse, compressive, and tensile strains, the following abstracts of results have been taken from “ Fairbairn’s Experimental Researches ” on the mechanical properties of Steel im its present improved state of manufacture. Abstract of Summary of Results from the E.cperiments on Transverse Strain. Deon waine, D, Bosmeet Were a2 yas of os : . t ti lasticity, E, tion, U,| it _ MANUFACTURER. for ae of Pres, Goeeaponains to torah of Working sure and Section,/112 lbs. Pressure.| Section. Strength. werd. Tons, Messrs. Brawn & Co........-| *0012739 31,551,000 52-721 5918 » Cammell & Co.......| °0013518 30,650,000 | ‘35-9897 5°921 » Naylor & Vickers....| °0013007 29,481,000 65-049 67548 » 8. Osborn & Co. .....| 0014296 27,540,000 52°574 5°622 » Bessemer & Co.......| *0016584 28,673,000 49-489 9°659 » Sanderson Brothers ..| *0013229 29,355,000 47411 5°521 Se, eLurton/ a SOnS) sey. °0013120 30,750,000 52°680 5°886 The Titanic Steel Co. ...... “001235 33,088,000 63°542 6435 Mean. 0013615 | 30,141,000 | 55-420 5939 In this short abstract we are unable to give the experiments in full or the General Summary of Results, our limited space admitting only the mean value of each sample of bars as received from the different works. These bars were of different qualities, and were tested separately in order to determine their tenacity, elasticity, ductility, &c., and the details of each are given separately in the general table of Results. From these tables we have merely taken the mean of the resistances to strain and the working values of the. bars as determined from the experiments and the samples, taken collectively, from each marker. In the general report, the strength and other properties of the different specimens are given separately, and for these details we must refer the reader to the ‘ Transactions of the British Association’ for 1867. It will be observed that the above and the followimg tables of Results are taken from the General Summary, where the deflections, elongations, and compressions are carefully recorded; and from these are deduced the different powers of resistance and working value, as exhibited in the columns of each table. The difference in this case is, that the mean results are taken from the whole number of specimens received from each maker, and not from the separate bars experimented upon, as given in the Tables. The first column gives the names of the makers, or the works from which the steel was obtained; the remaining columns give respectively the deflections for unity of pressure and section, the modulus of elasticity corresponding to 112 lbs. pressure, the work 1868.| On the Mechanical Properties of Iron and Steel. 13 of deflection and the unit of working strength, which is the mean value or working tenacity of each set of bars, as deduced from the experiments in their collective form. Abstract of Summary of Results from the Experiments on Tension. Weight laid sane Corresponding Value ou in Ibs. ain per | elongati Ww MANUFACTURER. peatiiea tl cana Ycororaea| ie acct rupture. of Section. of length. rupture. Tons. Messrs. Brown, & Co... 2... «ae. e:| 00,003 | 40:35 OSS e200 ees Camel) hi COs, sousis.s erie) ale 33,718 45:14 “0591 | 2714 » Naylor & Vickers........ 39,448 48°25 0372 | 1826 ' S. Osborn & Co. ......... 44,129 46:07 "0340 1842 Fie ebbessemenr: & Conse «<0 .oosLoo 40°15 0705 ule toe le » Sanderson, Brothers......| 39592 42°65 ‘0229 1253 eae Ly Parton & Songs 2s ke 39,925 41°61 0165 807 IE OCROS Ea GRIGIO CREE RCO Race aes 38,372 43°46 0461 | 1951 | | From the above it will be seen that the mean of all the speci- mens of steel experimented upon is greatly in excess of iron, which, taken at a breaking strain of 20 tons per square inch of section, gives a ratio of 43:46:20, or as 2°17 to 1, bemg more than double that of iron in its resistance to tension. These and previous ex- periments clearly show the advantages which this material has over iron in its malleable state, and the important benefits which it is likely to confer when rightly applied in constructive art. Abstract of Summary of Results from the Experiments on Compression. Greatest |Corresponding ital ES MANUFACTURER. ear DEE TE Of Bees inch. length. fae 5 Tons. Messrs. Brown & Co. ........- 100°7 B47 39,101 pa ee Cammmellogn COnseres 32-572) LOO “339 38,231 » Naylor & Vickers........| 1007 ‘287 32,300 eo OS DONINGG COs saycciosten, 9 1 LOOKS 267 30,014 5 istasainginga (Gis, Solesiddeal| ey 379 42,720 , Sanderson, Brothers .... 100°7 328 36,906 » &. Turton & Sons’ ....\..| 100-7 260 29,256 IWICATI taiscsanile sclactnsserssct LOOK *315 35,504 This table shows the resisting powers of steel to a force tending to crush it; the middle column exhibits the amount of compression produced by 100-7 tons, the mean of which is 315. These experiments also indicate the superior resisting powers 14 Experiments for ascertaining [Jan., of steel, which in every case is greatly superior to iron in all the varied forms of resistances to strain to which it may be subjected. We have given this short abstract from a long series of recent experiments in anticipation of steel superseding iron in almost every case where strength 1s required. That the time is not far distant when this will be accomplished, we have every reason to believe, and assuming that the change will be of great national benefit, we shall hail with the liveliest satisfaction the disappearance of iron and the substitution of steel as a superior material for general purposes of construction. Ill. ON EXPERIMENTS FOR ASCERTAINING THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH’S CRUST. By Epwarp Hutt, F.RS. THE question of the rate of increase of temperature of the Earth’s crust from the surface downwards is one which engaged the atten- tion of members of the British Association at the recent meeting in Dundee, and to the investigation of which, by actual experiment, the Association is likely to devote some portion of its funds. In anticipation of such operations, we venture to offer a few observations both as regards what has been done and what may be done and the mode of doing it, even at the risk of suggesting matters which have already occurred to the minds of those who are to carry out the experiments entrusted to them. It is desirable that whatever money and labour are to be devoted to this purpose should not be uselessly expended in the repetition of observations which have already been made with a degree of accuracy as great, perhaps, as the case admits of, but that they should be used in perfectly new and un- tried grounds, or, in other words, for the testing of hitherto unex- plored depths. Before entering, however, upon this branch of our subject, we shall prepare the way by bringing to the reader’s notice examples of what has already been done by previous investigators. Although the opinions of philosophers regarding the condition of the internal nucleus of the globe are widely different, all are probably agreed as regards an actual increase of temperature from the surface downwards to an unknown depth; and that this is the fact the evidence both of a theoretical and experimental character is probably conclusive. It is no argument against this view that we find strata, in their natural or unaltered state, which on stratigra- phical grounds we believe to have been at one time buried beneath newer strata to a depth of several thousand feet ; for assuming the increase of heat to be at an average rate of 1° Fahr. for every 60 1868. | the Temperature of the Earth’s Crust. 15 feet, the boiling point of water would not be reached under 12,720 feet ; and while on the one hand it is doubtful whether metamor- phism would take place in ordinary strata at this temperature, it is seldom we meet with rocks which we are certain had originally been buried at much greater depths. Whether this increase of temperature is continuous for any considerable distance in reference to the semi-diameter of the earth, or whether it increases or diminishes according to definite laws, are questions which are probably beyond solution by actual experiment, for, in the words of Humboldt, the question of the internal central heat, as a mathematical problem, “ yields rather negative than positive results.” The experimental evidences, however, as far as they come within the range of investigation, all point to one conclusion. They are also of several kinds, derived from observations of the tempera- ture of the water springing from different depths through artesian borings—those obtained from testing the temperature of the water issuing from coal-seams and fissures in mines, and those obtained from observations made during the sinking of mining shafts both through wet and dry strata. It is on the experimental evidences we propose here to dwell, and taking some examples from authorities within our reach, to present the reader with a succinct account of what has already been achieved, and afterwards to offer some sug- gestions as to the best manner, in our opinion, for pursuing further investigations. One of the most remarkable and carefully-observed cases of artesian borings is that of the Puits de Grenelle, near Paris. The sinking of this bore-hole was watched by Arago till 1840, down to a depth of 1,657 feet, when the borer had left the Chalk formation, and was beginning to penetrate the Gault. The series of observ- ations were completed by Walferdin in 1847. ‘The surface of the basin of the well at Grenelle lies at an elevation of 119 feet above the sea, and the borings extend to a depth of 1794-6 feet from the surface. The water which rises from the Lower Greensand formation is of a temperature of 81:95° Fahr., and the increase is at the rate of 1° Fahr. for every 59 feet.* The next boring we shall describe is that of Neu Saltzwerk, in Westphalia, and situated 231 feet above the level of the sea at Amsterdam. It penetrated to an absolute depth of 2,281 feet from the surface. The salt-spring lies, therefore, at a depth of 2,052 feet below the level of the sea, a relative depth which is, perhaps, the greatest that has yet been reached. The temperature of the brine is 91:04° Fahr., and as the mean annual temperature of the air at these works is about 49°3°, we may assume there is an increase of 1° Fahr. for every 54°68 feet.| This boring is 487 feet deeper * «Cosmos.’ Trans of Otté and Dallas, v. 1. v., p. 35-6. + Ibid., p. 36-7. 16 Experiments for ascertaining | Jan., than that of Grenelle, and the temperature of the water is 9:09 Fahr. higher. An artesian boring in the vicinity of Geneva to a depth of 724 feet, and at an elevation of 1,600 feet above the sea-level, showed the increase to heat at the rate of 1° Fahr. for every 55 feet ; while another at Mendorff, in Luxemburg, which penetrated to a depth of 2,394 feet, gave a result of 1° Fahr. for every 57 feet. This boring is particularly interesting and valuable, not only for its depth, but from the fact of its passing through several formations, including the Lias, Keuper, Be, Gies bigarré, and entering slaty rocks.* Some years since, Mr. R. Were Fox undertook a series of expe- riments on the temperature of the Cornish mines, which are reported in the ‘Transactions of the British Association.+ These experi- ments appeared to show that the increase of temperature was in a decreasing ratio to the depth ; but it is to be recollected that in the case of mines, the temperature is affected by several sources of error, such as ‘the spontaneous combustion of pyrites. The results, however, are not without value, and are as follows :— Atadepth of 354 feet the temperature was 60° Fahr. 7 te) 9 792 ” ” ” 1,434 ,, z BOP iS orl Assuming the invariable temperature, presently to be explained more fully, to be 50° Fahr., the rate of increase would be arrived at as follows :— 10° at 354 feet, less 50¢ = 304 feet, or 1° in 30-4 feet. of 10° at 438 _,, or 1° in 43°8_,, and of 10° at 684 ,, or 1° in 64:2, The observations taken in ne Tresavean mine in 1837, which were the deepest of the series, gave the following results :— At 1,572 feet from the surface the temperature was ee a Fahr. Atl 74 OnF ” , At the above depth in another lode a8 oe 50 s in a third lode 92-12) % Giving the mean temperature for a depth of i. 740 fet Oi emer Mr. R. Hunt, F.R.S., who has made some observations in refer- ence to the question of increase of temperature in mines, states that he has found the temperature as high as 100° at a depth of 1,920 feet (820 fathoms) in the Tresavean mine. Several carefully executed experiments carried on in coal mines have been recorded; and amongst the earliest on which much reli- ance is to be placed, are those of Professor J. Phillips, F.R.S., at * «Cosmos. Trans. of Otté and Dallas, vol. v., p. 3-56. + Vol. ix. + 50 feet from the surface is here assumed as the depth of no variation of temperature all the year round. 1868. | Temperature of the Earth’s Crust. 17 Monkwearmouth Colliery, near Sunderland, at a depth of 1,590 feet, from water issuing from a coal-seam at a depth of 1,499 feet below the sea-level, and which gave a resulting increase of tempera- ture of 1° for every 60 feet.* During the sinking of Rose Bridge Colliery, near Wigan, to the celebrated Cannel-seam, between the years 1854—61, careful observ- ations of the increase of temperature were made by the manager, Mr. Bryham, and communicated to the author; the following are the results :— At a depth of 483 feet the temperature was found to be 64°5° Fahr. AR 66° ” o64 »” ” ” ” » 1,650 ,, ” ” 78° ” 1,800+ > ” ” 80° % Taking the invariable temperture at 50°, and at a depth of 50 feet, the resulting rate of increase is 1° Fahr. for every 58:3 feet. But of all the observations as yet made, perhaps the most elaborate are those which were undertaken by Mr. W. Fairbairn, F.R.S., during the smking of the Astley Pit of the Dukenfield Colliery in Cheshire.t These observations were carried on over a period of ten years (between 1848-59), and reach downwards to a total depth of 2,151 feet from the surface. Great care was taken to remove the thermometer from the disturbing influences either of the air in the shaft, or of water in the strata. The instrument was as often as possible inserted in a dry borehole in advance of the sinkings, and left in its bed from two hours to two days, according to circumstances. Fifty-two observations are recorded, and range from an invariable temperature of 51° Fahr. at a depth of 164 feet from the surface to 75°5° at the bottom of the pit, and 75:0° at 22 yards lower in the roof of the “ Black coal,” taken seven months afterwards. This last observation does not in all probability give the original temperature of the stratum, which we may well suppose was somewhat lowered, owing to contact with the air. Rejecting for the above reason the last observation, we find that there has been an increase of 245° in 2,040 feet ; so that the average rate for the whole depth is 1° for every 83:2 feet. This series of observations is the most valuable of any that have been made in this country, both as regards the unsurpassed depth to which they extended, and the care that was taken to ensure accu- racy. On the whole (with occasional minor variations) they show a remarkable uniformity in the rate of increase, and induce confidence * Philosophical Magazine,’ vol. v. + Another observation was made nine months afterwards, when it was found the temperature had cooled down 8°, or from 80° to 72°, owing to contact with the down-current of air. { See-account of these observations by Mr. W. Hopkins, F-.B.S., in the ‘ Philo- sophical Transactions,’ vol. exlvii. VOL. V. C 18 Experiments for ascertaining [Jan., in the results. From the following analysis, it will be observed that at the lowest depths the rate of imcrease was nearly as great as at any portion of the descent :— The first observations gave 51° as the invariable temperature at a depth of 164 feet, as already stated. Between 693 feet and 710 feet the temperature was nearly uniform at 58°, Between 710 and 927 feet the rate of increase was 1° for 62°4 feet. Between 927 and 1,257 feet the rate was 1° for 60 feet. Between 1,257 and 1,839 feet the rate was 1° for 86°91 feet. Between 1,839 and 2,055 feet the rate was 1° for 65°6 feet. And the mean of the whole series of observations gives 1° for every 83-2 feet, which is under the average of the observations. The increase of temperature appears to be independent of alti- tude, of the place, or of the density of the air, as proved by the observations of Humboldt.* ‘Thus, in a silver mine in the Andes of Peru, at an elevation of 11,875 English feet above the sea, the temperature was found to be 25:4° Fahr. higher than the external air. Inanother mine at the same elevation, the difference between the temperature of the internal and external air was found to be 15°8° Fahr., and the water streaming down the rock showed 52°3° Fahr. These observations were repeated in other localities with similar results. The concurrent testimony, therefore, of all the observations which have been made, is in favour of an increase of temperature, though at rates varying considerably from one another, and this has been established as holding good down to a depth of about 2,400 feet from the surface. What seems to us now to be required, and for several reasons, is a series of experiments made at even greater depths. First.—With so many recorded observations, all approximately concurring towards one conclusion, any sinkings or borings to a depth of less than 2,000 feet would, in all probability, only afford another series of similar results, and would be so much money use- lessly expended ; and secondly, it seems probable that at greater depths several sources of error would be avoided. Of all these sources of error—the percolation of water through the strata—is probably the most formidable ; now it has generally been found that the quantity of water in coal-mines derived by percolation from the surface, decreases in proportion to the depth, and that at depths greater than 500 or 600 yards the mines are dry. It is somewhat difficult to account for this where there are thick beds of porous sandstone, but it is to be recollected that a rock which is full of joints and fissures at the surface, is often found extremely solid at a considerable depth, and the friction, or resistance to percolation, * ¢ Cosmos,’ Sabine’s Trans., vol. iv. 1868. | the Temperature of the Earth’s Crust. 19 of the particles of which it is composed, offers an accumulative obstacle to the passage of water downwards, more than balancing the hydrostatic pressure, and amounting at length to an absolute stoppage. This is a conclusion which wells in the New Red Sand- stone—itself a very porous rock—seem to offer, for after a certain depth has been reached, the increase of supply appears to take place in a diminishing ratio to the depth,* and we may suppose a zero point would ultimately be reached. As far, then, as our experience goes, it is very probable that at depths greater than 2,000 feet, no water would be found in ordinary coal-measure strata, and thus by sinking in this formation a prin- cipal source of error would be avoided. Other sources of error (such as those arising from differences in density, and conducting power in the several varieties of strata) beng of less moment, would disappear, or become inappreciable, on taking the mean temperature of very deep borings. After much consideration, the plan which we venture to recom- mend, in case of experiments being undertaken by the British Asso- ciation, or any other scientific society, would be, not to commence at the surface, but at the bottom of a coal-mine, of not less depth than 600 yards. There are several collieries, particularly in Lancashire and Cheshire, sufficiently deep for the purpose. It would be an easy matter to excavate a’ chamber in the coal and its roof, where the borings might be carried on. The chamber ought to be a short distance from the bottom of one of the shafts, and out of the way of mining operations. As the process of boring progressed, obsery- ations should be taken at every 10 yards, and at every change of strata from sandstone to shale, or coal. The boring might be carried down at least to a total depth of 1,000 yards from the surface, and having been completed under proper supervision, could not fail to give results of value to science. It is also probable that a proprietor of some colliery of the required depth would willingly afford the facilities for carrying on the experiment for the sake of the information he would derive regarding the minerals underlying the coal-seam then being worked. Before closing these observations, some further explanation is required regarding the depth of invariable temperature, or, in the words of Humboldt, the depth of “the invariable stratum.” The surface of the earth undergoes a change of temperature according to the season of the year. In summer the rays of the sun and the warmth of the atmosphere affect the surface and penetrate gradually downwards with decreasing intensity, while in winter the cooling * As may be gathered from the account of the sinkings at the Green Lane Well of the Liverpool Corporation Waterworks. See ‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’ vol. ii., p. 421. e2 ad 20 the Temperature of the Earth’s Crust. ~ [Jan., influences prevail from the surface downwards, and the result is, the formation of an envelope or stratum of invariable temperature at a short and variable distance from the surface all over the globe. The temperature of the invariable stratum approximates to that of the mean annual temperature of the place, and, according to Hum- boldt, its depth is regulated by the latitude (increasing from the Equator towards the Poles), by the conducting power of the rock or soil, and by the amount of difference between the temperatures of the hottest and coldest seasons. At Greenwich, the mean tempera- ture is 49°5°, and that of the invariable stratum about 50°5° at a depth of about 50 feet from the surface. Tt will be evident, on reflection, that the stratum of mvariable temperature is the standard of departure for all measurements at greater depths, and this point would require a separate series of ex- periments for its determination at the locality selected for the deep borings; but for ordinary purposes it is probable 50° Fahr., at a depth of 50 feet, may be taken as the temperature and depth of the invariable stratum over the greater part of Central England.* In the latitude of Paris (48° 50’) the depth and temperature of the Caves de ’ Observatoire (86 feet and 53°30 Fahr.) are generally re- garded as those of the invariable stratum. It is scarcely necessary to point out the questions on which an accurate series of observations extending to great depths might throw light. As one illustration, we may select the subject of meta- morphism of rocks, which is full of difficulties requiring solution, such as that presented by the rocks of the highlands of Scotland, where we find the metamorphosed Lower Silurian rocks reposing on unchanged Cambrian sandstones. Again, the change of bituminous coal into anthracite is only as yet partially explained in such instances as those of South Wales and the coal-field of the Don, where the same beds occur in both forms at opposite sides of the field. The nature and the fluidity of the interior of the earth itself is also at this moment (and probably ever will be) a matter of controversy among physical philosophers,t and one of those questions on which possibly some light might be thrown by the proposed experiments, though considering the small fraction of the earth’s radius which comes within reach of man’s feeble operations, one cannot be very sanguine on this head. It is to be remembered, however, that in prosecuting physical researches, it is not necessary to have a definite end in view, except that of adding to our knowledge. No new and well-certified observation will be allowed to lie for ever useless. * See Professor Forbes’ ‘‘ Experiments on the Temperature of the Earth at different Depths.’”’-—‘ Trans. Royal Society of Edinburgh,’ vol. xvi., 1849. + I reier more particularly to the views stated by Dr. Sterry Hunt in his lecture before the Royal Institution, London; and the reply thereto by Mr. D. Forbes.— See ‘ Geological Magazine,’ vol. iv., pp. 357 and 443. 1868. ] Sap y gas IV. THE PAST AND PRESENT OF CHEMISTRY. By Dr. Herrmann Kopp, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidelberg. CuEmistry is generally regarded as one of the youngest of the sciences, and as exhibiting most unmistakably several characteristics of youth. Some think that, whilst she has made rapid progress of late, her development has achieved, in some aspects at least, but little of a solid and lasting character. Others allege, as a charac- teristic of her youth, that she often presumptuously gives her opinion and advice. She brings her judgment, supported by know- ledge only just acquired, to bear upon older sciences, whilst she claims to be heard in the discussion of subjects with which her elder sisters have earnestly occupied themselves for centuries. In fact the venerable science of medicine, with her continually changing aspect, the somewhat younger natural philosophy with her glorious modern developments,—these and many other sciences long held in respect, may assert that they were already well grown when chemistry was still in her babyhood, talking nonsense, and mani- festing the most perverse tendencies,—that they can remember the time when they took the infant under their fostering care, and led her by the hand. Chemistry cannot deny this. She even gratefully acknowledges it, notwithstanding that, under their care, she was at times some- what grossly maltreated. She cannot avoid the confession that, in her present aspects and pursuits, she is still very young; on the other hand, however, she may fairly plead that she does not quite date from yesterday. She can prove by documents, which, though not altogether indisputable, have yet considerable claims to authen- ticity, that she was at least im existence 1,500 years ago. It must be admitted that this is a respectable age, although insignificant as compared with that of some other sciences whose birthdays are lost in the gray mists of antiquity. How can this ripe age of chemistry be reconciled with the youthfulness to which she generally confesses, and on account of which she has not unfrequently to submit to many reproaches ? The mystery is explained when we take into consideration that the science which was known as chemistry to the ancients occupied itself with the solution of problems of an entirely different nature from those which engage the attention of chemists at the present day. For a long period chemistry, with childish illusion, pursued a phantom, and attempted the solution of an insoluble problem. Comparatively recent is her occupation with the task which we now consider to be her legitimate employment, and which as re- gards her way of dealing with it, we now look upon as the correct 22 The Past and Present of Chemistry. [Jan., method of investigation. Chemistry had a long childhood, and the more mature phases of her life are compressed into a comparatively short and recent period. Chemistry in childhood and chemistry in youth are almost as two distinct individuals. Let us endeavour to compare the characteristics of this childhood and this youth—the problems of the one and the pursuits of the other—the past and present of chemistry. If we search for a connecting link between early and modern chemistry, we find it in a problem, the solution of which has occu- pied the minds of chemists in all ages. This problem, always more or less prominently kept in view, is the composition of the different substances found in nature or produced by art—the different hetero- geneous materials which can be extracted from, or made to combine and form, a homogeneous substance. The ancients made hardly any attempt to ascertain the chemical composition of substances. First, among the Greeks, and later among the Romans, we find sagacious observations on the diver- sities of bodies, but it was rather the physical than the chemical differences concerning which scientific observations were made. According to the doctrines of Aristotle, which, promulgated 2,200 years ago, so long maintained their authority, the fundamental properties of everything corporeal and palpable were considered to be dryness or moisture (that is, solidity or liquidity), and warmth or coldness. ‘These are obviously physical conditions and different degrees of a physical property, and on the occurrence and the pro- portion of certain of these fundamental properties, other qualities, such as density or lightness, hardness or softness, were thought to depend. The assumption of the four elements, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, offers to the mind a representation of the simulta- neous occurrence of these fundamental properties. To Earth, as the representative of all solids, were ascribed dryness and cold; to liquid Water, moisture and cold; to Air or vapour, moisture and heat; to Fire, heat and dryness. The four elements of Aristotle represented fundamental conditions of matter, and the properties of bodies were regarded as depending on the proportion in which they contained the elements—the producers of those qualities. The whole conception was formed from a physical point of view rather than from one having even the faintest approximation to that of chemistry. The elements of Aristotle, as such, were not regarded as contained in different substances —as combining to form them, or as separable from them by analysis. The assumption of their existence did not therefore involve even the merest rudiments of a chemical idea. ‘They were not regarded as different kinds of matter, but as different fundamental conditions which, when added to indifferent matter, endowed it with various properties. This view, that the difference of bodies depended essentially 1868. | The Past and Present of Chemistry. 23 upon their physical properties, was the natural consequence of the slight knowledge of chemical qualities which the ancients possessed. The idea of chemical composition had not yet been conceived ex- cept, perhaps, in its very crudest form, as suggested by the com- position of metallic alloys artificially prepared. But the well-known metals were scarcely distinguished from each other ; thus lead and tin were regarded by the Romans as differently coloured varieties of the same metal—as dark and light lead. Of the most important chemical problems, such as those relating to combustion, to the changes effected in metals by the action of fire, or the caustic qualities of quicklime, we find scarcely a single one proposed, still less any attempts made at their solution. In regard to their knowledge of chemistry the ancients may be compared to ignorant or half-educated tribes of the present age; knowledge of important chemical pheno- mena they did not lack, but they made no attempt whatever to discover the causes of these phenomena. This almost total ignorance on the part of the ancients, espe- cially the Greeks, of any of the aspects of chemistry, is due entirely to their method of scientific investigation. Chemistry is essen- tially an experimental science, but experimental methods were little known either to the Greeks or Romans. The favourite mode of investigation with the most highly-cultivated people of antiquity, consisted in attempts to attain, by a pure effort of the intellect, to the conception of an universal principle by means of which all phenomena might be predicted and explained. Such a method of research could not even enable them to approach the domain of a science like chemistry. A few centuries later, however, we find the art of experimenting more advanced, and a real, if somewhat vague attempt being made to obtain a knowledge of the chemical composition of at least one class of bodies. It is true that this knowledge was sought after, not for its own sake, but as an aid to the solution of the problem of the transmutation of the common into the nobler metals. Alchemy existed in the fourth century of our era, and for more than a thousand years presented almost the only, and certainly the most important field for the development of chemistry. Our knowledge of the spread of alchemy, and of the resulting progress of chemistry, is very defective for the period between the fourth and the thirteenth centuries, and we know nothing whatever of the origin of alchemy, nor where it was first attempted. All that can with certainty be said is, that alchemy is undoubtedly older than the most ancient testimony that has reached us concerning it (from the fourth century), for this testimony does not speak of it as a new pursuit but as one which had long been carried on. The confident assertions regarding the practicability of alchemy do not now concern us, but it is important to a clear comprehension of the % 24 The Past and Present of Chemistry. [Jan., present state of chemistry that we should know what were the grounds of the belief that one metal could be transformed into another. The foundation of this belief was a theory of the cause of dif- ference in matter, which finds its best expression in the doctrine of Aristotle already alluded to, that matter itself is everywhere one and the same thing, and that its varieties are produced solely by a variation of its qualities. Changes in the properties of substances, and especially of metals, were recognized at an early period. Thus it was known that, by the action of certain substances, copper could be made as yellow as gold, and, by that of others, as white as silver, the transformation being effected throughout the entire mass. We now know that when red copper is turned into yellow copper (brass) or into white copper (German silver), a change takes place in the composition as well as in the colour; but at the period when alchemy flourished, such a change was not thought of any more than we now consider it as taking place when soft steel is trans- formed into hard steel—a transformation with which the ancients were also acquainted. The hardness, colour, ductility, fusibility, and some other properties of certain metals could be altered, and hence it was thought that it must be possible so to change all the properties of one metal into those of another, that the one metal would reaily be transformed into the other. Until the fifteenth century, and even somewhat later, the idea underlying the pursuits of alchemy, was the existence of an universal matter which, endowed with various properties, forms all known substances, and consequently all the metals; in short, that a change in appearance constitutes a veritable transformation of a metal. If a fragment of iron be dropped into a solution of blue vitriol, the iron gradually disappears and in its place we find copper. We now know that the iron is dissolved and the copper contained in the vitriol precipitated ; we do not regard the visibly iron-coloured metal, which is dropped into the solution, as including the same matter as the visibly copper- coloured metal which is afterwards found in its place, but in the alchemical stage of the science a totally different view prevailed, and the mythological nomenclature then used, such as Mars for iron, and Venus for copper, clearly expresses the then prevailing theory. The same material which in Mars’s coat of mail appeared as iron, reappeared in the garb of Venus (as copper) after beimg acted upon by the vitriol. In the sixteenth century chemistry emerged from its previous degraded condition, and passed into the hands of men who were not trammelled by the doctrines of Aristotle. The physicians who were the followers of Paracelsus paid but little respect to ancient authorities, and relied entirely upon their own observations and investigations. Three properties of matter especially excited their 1868. | The Past and Present of Chemistry. 25 attention, vz. :—first, that of enduring the action of fire without alteration ; secondly, that of being volatilized by heat, in an un- changed condition; and thirdly, that of burning or undergoing change by fire. They assumed that an ideal something, which they called salt, was the cause of the property of resisting the action of fire; that another ideal, something which they termed mercury, was the cause of the property of volatility ; and that a third substance, also ideal, and named sulphur, was the cause of combustibility. And as one at least of these properties occurs in every substance, their supposed causes came to be regarded as the constituent ele- ments of all matter. If a substance were found to be combustible, it contained this ideal sulphur ; if it volatilized without change, the ideal mercury was present, whilst if it left an unchanged residue, ideal salt was amongst its constituents. These so-called elements—sulphur, mercury, and salt—the original notion of which may be traced farther back than the sixteenth century, played a most important part in the medical science of that and the seventeenth century. Physicians then believed that the health of the human body, as well as of its Separate organs, depended on the combination in certain proportions of the before-mentioned elements, that disease was the result of a disturbance of these proportions, and that restoration to health was effected by their re-establishment. These applications, however, do not now immediately concern us, but they are important as in- dicating the gradual development of the theory that different substances differ, that is, exhibit different qualities, because they are composed of different ingredients, or of the same ingredients in different proportions ; nevertheless the conception of this idea was still so crude that totally dissimilar substances, such as the incom- bustible portions of the most widely different bodies were all known as the salt constituent, the universally-accepted elements were purely fictitious, and that hardly any attempt was made to extract them from the substances in which they were supposed to exist. But whilst chemists were thus busying themselves with these imaginary elements, they were also making gradual progress in the sounder recognition of the composition of a great number of sub- stances. They discovered, for instance, that copper is present in substances which; to the eye, reveal no appearance of metallic copper, as in blue vitriol, and that vermillion contains mercury and sulphur—not the imaginary elements known by these names—but real mercury and real sulphur. Such knowledge as this steadily increased and became more prominent. Towards the end of the seventeenth century it had in fact made such progress, that the re- cognition of the substances which a body may be proved to contain, was considered as the only problem which chemistry should strive to solve, whilst investigations, involving the assumption of elements, 26 The Past and Present of Chemistry. [Jan., the existence of which cannot be demonstrated, and which, when more closely examined, prove to be imaginary, was regarded as a mischievous fallacy. It was Robert Boyle, who, about the year 1660, first expressed himself decidedly on this subject, and so laboured for the recognition of this truth, that we must regard it as having been established by him. From that time forth those sub- stances only were regarded as the constituents of bodies, which could be extracted from them by analysis, or which had been added to them by synthesis, and those substances only were considered to be elements which defied all known means of analysis. Further, these chemical elements were regarded as fundamentally different kinds of matter of the simplest constitution then known. What a contrast is exhibited between the ancient idea of the cause of difference in various forms of matter and that which ob- tained from the time of Boyle! If we consider these two opposite conceptions historically, and the transition from one to the other, they appear like two totally dissimilar pictures; but, like dissolving views, changing, the one into the other by slow degrees. In the first place we have the Aristotelian idea, according to which, matter itself devoid of properties, becomes endowed with characteristic qualities by the addition of properties, and forms, when invested with these properties, the various substances known in nature ; then this idea passes gradually into that of the alchemists, but becomes confused in the transition, inasmuch as the differences of physical conditions and properties are no longer regarded as the only causes of variety in substances; the difference in chemical properties receives more attention, the existence of elements, the producers of such properties is assumed ; and thus the path is pre- pared which leads to the idea of chemical composition. Then we see the Aristotelian theory gradually becoming indistinct, whilst the idea of the importance of the chemical deportment and compo- sition of bodies assumes prominence, and at last we see clearly that the differences between the substances which nature presents to us in such overpowering numbers, or which we have ourselves formed artificially, depend upon differences in their chemical composition. The idea of chemical composition, which makes its first appearance indistinctly in. the history of the chemistry of the middle ages, now forms the foundation of the science. In modern times a clear com- prehension of it is the essential condition of all progress. Turning to modern chemistry: we now recognize sixty-three different simple forms of matter which we term elements, and which, when combined, form all known compound substances. The dis- similarity of these elements and the difference in the modes and proportions according to which they are capable of combining, are now believed to be the causes of dissimilarity in those substances which are regarded as chemically different. Such dissimilar com- 1868. ] The Past and Present of Chemistry. 27 pounds are regarded as being composed either of different materials, or of the same materials in different proportions. ‘Tin, silver, mercury, and sulphur are regarded as fundamentally dissimilar substances; but in wood, in alcohol, in acetic acid, and in many other bodies, the same substances, vzz. carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen, are contained in different proportions. Until about the year 1830 it was believed that the chemical differences of bodies depended solely upon the causes just enu- merated. It was supposed that the same element could only pre- sent itself in one form, endowed with one invariable set of properties, and that from the combination of the same elements in the same proportions, only one and the same substance could possibly result. But at this period facts became known which rendered this opinion untenable. At first these facts were few, and were regarded as exceptions to an essentially valid law, but their number rapidly increased, so that what had previously been considered as an inyvari- able law was now shown to have owed its invariability to limited knowledge, and it became obviously insufficient to explain the chemical differences of bodies. Vinegar and sugar are, even from a purely chemical point of view, widely different substances, but they are composed of precisely the same elements, viz. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, combined in exactly the same proportions. An extin- guished spirit-lamp, the wick of which is still red, emits an intoler- ably pungent smell ; the very volatile liquid which is here produced and which emits this suffocating odour, has the somewhat uncouth name, aldehyde. Acetic ether, which has a delicious and refreshing smell, possesses entirely different chemical properties. Again, butyric acid, which is contained in rancid butter, and which has a most dis- gusting odour, is a body differig widely from aldehyde and acetic ether. Nevertheless, these three substances, which differ so mark- edly, both as regards chemical and physical properties, consist of the very same elements, viz. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen united in precisely the same proportions. In the case also of some elementary bodies such a variation of properties has been observed, that it would be almost impossible a priori to imagine that it is one and the same substance which appears in such various forms. ‘The elementary body, phosphorus, which has been known for nearly 200 years as a soft, yellow sub- stance, fusing easily, exceedingly inflammable, and undergoing rapid change when exposed to the air, appears also in the form of a red, brittle material, capable of enduring a high degree of heat without inflaming or undergoing any alteration, even when simultaneously exposed to the air. Again, the element oxygen, contained in large quantities in the air, which has no smell, acts upon certain sub- stances only at a high temperature, and may remain for a long time in contact with moist silver without producing any change in the 28 The Past and Present of Chemistry. [Jan., metal ; this very element, when in the condition in which it is called ozone, possesses properties as utterly different as we should expect to find only in a totally distinct substance. It is now a powerfully pungent gas, violently attacking at the common temperature the very same substances upon which ordinary oxygen has no action, and causing moist silver rapidly to become black with rust; in both these cases we perceive the existence of what appear to be different substances of undoubtedly similar composition. Do not such facts appear to contradict the thesis advanced above as the acquisition of modern chemistry? They certainly do contradict the earlier and narrower conception of it; but they only serve to confirm the wider and more modern view, and to maintain it as the fundamental doctrine of chemistry. A few words of expla- nation will serve to render this clear. Science can no longer dis- pense with the hypothesis, that bodies consist of very small ultimate particles, which cannot be further divided without the production of something totally different from the matter subjected to this divi- sion. These homogeneous particles, of which a substance is built up, are called the physical atoms or molecules of that substance. A piece of copper is composed of copper molecules, the smallest per- ceptible quantity of oxygen or alcohol, of oxygen or alcohol molecules. A distinction is made between the molecules of bodies, ze. the smallest particles which can be conceived as capable of independent existence, and atoms, i.e. the smallest particles which can enter into a chemical compound or contribute to the formation of a molecule. The molecules are composed of atoms. The mole- cules of compound bodies are composed of dissimilar atoms, atoms of different elements, whilst we assume that the molecules of un- decomposable bodies—of elements—-are built up entirely of the same kind of atoms. We have no knowledge of the absolute number of atoms which unite to form the molecules of different substances, whether a copper molecule, for instance, consists of 2 or 10 or 100 atoms of copper. But we do know or at least we can form very probable conjectures concerning the proportion in which the atoms unite to form a molecule; for instance, in what proportion the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms are combined in a molecule of alcohol, or what is the proportion between the number of oxygen atoms contained on the one hand im a molecule of alcohol, and on the other in a molecule of common oxygen. It will now be apparent how the different conditions of the same elementary substance may depend upon differences in its composition. The same elementary atoms may obviously, by com- bining in different numbers to form molecules, give rise to dis- similar molecules. We know with almost absolute certainty that a greater number of oxygen atoms is contained in a molecule of ozone than in a molecule of ordinary oxygen. We can assume with great 3 1868. ] The Past and Present of Chemistry. 29 probability that the number of oxygen atoms in a molecule of ozone stands to the number in a molecule of ordinary oxygen in the pro- portion of three to two. ‘Thus, ozone and ordinary oxygen consist of molecules, the composition of which differs, not in respect of the quality but of the number of atoms which they contain. Imagine the oxygen atoms as so many soldiers belonging to one army, although this comparison be a rough one, it is not so inappropriate as might be imagined; for in fact, in chemical action, these atoms do fight against the alliance between other kinds of atoms, and must vanquish their opposition before they can take up and main- tain new positions. A certain weight of oxygen consists of an unspecified number of these atoms or soldiers ; but in equal weights of ordinary and of ozonized oxygen, the same number is arranged in a different manner. A given weight of common oxygen contains a certain number of these atoms or warriors, which are marshalled in a certain number of battalions or molecules ; an equal weight of ozone contains the same number of exactly similar atoms or warriors, which are, however, placed in a smaller number of molecules or bat- talions. A molecule of ozone is numerically a stronger battalion than a molecule of oxygen. By the help of this crude simile, it is easy to understand how the same element can pass from one of these con- ditions into the other, and how, according to the different mar- shalling of the said atoms, the same element may have different chemical effects upon other bodies—may attack the molecules or battalions of which they consist in a different manner. The explanation just offered of the possibility of similar atoms being arranged in different kinds of molecules, is manifestly ap- plicable also to dissimilar atoms. Imagine different kinds of ele- mentary atoms—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen atoms for instance, to be represented by different kinds of soldiers, as infantry, cavalry, riflemen. Equal weights of acetic acid and sugar contain the same quantities of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, i.e. the same number of atoms of the three elements, or of warriors of the three different arms. But the arrangement of these warriors in military order—in battalions or regiments—is dissimilar in the two bodies. A molecule of sugar contains a greater number (at least thrice, perhaps six times as great) of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen as a molecule of acetic acid. ~Although the composition of acetic acid is identical with that of sugar, both as regards quantity and quality of the contained elements, yet the molecules of the two substances are of dissimilar formation, z.e. they contain the same elementary atoms in different numbers though in the same propor- tions, and we know with still greater certainty that in aldehyde, only half as many atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are united to form a molecule, as in acetic ether or butyric acid, which in all other respects have exactly the same composition, containing the same elements in the same proportions. 30 The Past and Present of Chemistry. [Jan., But what is the cause of the difference between the two last- named substances—butyric acid and acetic ether, the molecules of which consist of equal numbers of the same kinds of atoms? Obviously the atoms contained in a molecule may differ, not only in number and quality, but also in the mode in which they are grouped together. To employ the simile once more, the battalions are divided into companies, and it is evident that this mode of division may differ, whilst the number and kind of elementary atoms remain the same. ‘Two battalions contaming equal numbers of warriors of three kinds and in like proportions may have very different internal formations. The soldiers of each class may, for instance, be massed in separate Companies, or they may be mingled indiscriminately throughout the whole battalion; again, the number of companies and the mode in which the different classes of warriors are arranged may differ widely in the two battalions. These differences of mter- nal arrangement may greatly affect their respective aggressive movements and powers of resistance, and when the battalion is vanquished and dispersed, its previous formation will affect the com- binations which may be formed from its fragments. Thus, even in modern chemistry, the fundamental idea that the varieties of matter depend upon differences of chemical composition, is still maintained, although not precisely in the same sense in which it was understood forty years ago; its scope is wider, and it has received new developments in special directions. Pure chemistry— as distinguished from its technical applications—is at present occu- pied with the working out of this idea in the most varied directions. The different bodies found in nature are being interrogated with the view of ascertaining if any description of atom can be found which has not hitherto been met with, and to render the list of elementary substances more complete, new and more searching methods of investigation are being devised, in order to discover any kind of matter which has hitherto remained hidden or unnoticed. Many laws relating to the method of arrangement of the elementary atoms in molecules have been already discovered, and the existence of others foreshadowed. Certain peculiarities of the different kinds of elementary atoms are becoming more and more apparent—for instance, that some will enter in couples only into the composition of a molecule, and that elementary atoms present different numbers of sides, so to speak, for the attachment of other atoms. How the elementary atoms are grouped into the proximate constituents of various complex substances, and how certain chemical properties, such as those of acids, depend upon a special arrangement of atoms ; these are examples of the problems which are now being assiduously investigated. Also the dependence of many of the physical pro- perties of substances on their chemical composition, in the widest sense of the term, has been proved, and has been the subject of continual investigation, resulting in ever-extending knowledge. The Quarterly Journal of Scjeneeiaaae ; ENGiZe MAGNETIC |RONSTONE a \\ THIS, LINE CLUE SAN op \ \ —— = ROSEDALE BED PYRE \E = SS \ FIG.4 Plattorm “BED OF CLAY LOCALLY -| “CALLED BLUE HUNCER ed aa Trak Sep rae FIG. 8. Re y Marton J ieee eS cae ae Guisborough pee \ 4 ya se 1s bor-Ous Dore OWE Irie) Tee Seti non a CI MEN ie Ere me re CG, _—_—_ Le JB. Jordar ded MBN Horehuourt Tle BRITISH IRON FORMATIONS. 1868. ] The Iron Ores of Great Britain. 31 limits of this article prohibit the further pursuit of the ideas which guide modern chemists in their investigations, but we have followed these latest developments sufficiently to show that, notwithstanding their widely-different aspects, one and the same leading idea under- lies the chemistry both of the past and of the present. VY. THE IRON ORES OF GREAT BRITAIN. By Rozsert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records. In the year 1866 more than ten million tons of Iron ores were submitted to the action of fire in 613 blast furnaces, and from them we obtained about four millions and a half tons of Pig Iron. The great importance of these minerals, regarding them merely as sources from which we draw the material for the manufacture of our almost infinite variety of machines and tools, our rails, our armour-plates, and nearly every description of implement and cutting imstru- ment, necessarily renders any examination of the phenomena con- nected with their occurrence in Nature of considerable interest. We find Iron disseminated through every rock, and in various conditions of aggregation in almost every geological formation, playing often a very important part in giving character to the mass. Indeed, the fact that this metal is found in each of the three Kingdoms of Nature indicates some especial function, which is not yet clearly appreciated, of equal importance in the organic and the morganic worlds. It is, however, only with the occurrence of Iron in rock-masses that this paper will deal. It is intended especially to examine the peculiar conditions under which some of the varieties of Iron ores occur, and to discuss the circumstances which probably attended the formation of many of our ferruginous deposits, whether occuring as nodular concretions, intercalated with our coal-beds, as crystalline mineral forming lodes in the older rocks, or as sedimentary beds, spread over wide areas of very different geological ages. The following list gives the varieties of commercial Iron ores produced and used in this country, showing the average percentage yield of Iron of each variety, and the proportions in which they are employed in the Iron manufactures of these Islands :— Per cent. Proportions of Iron. in which used. Red Hematite ae sr 65°13 15 per cent. Magnetic Oxide... ac 56°10 2 aH Brown Hematite .. zs 41°40 Ler ee Ditto Ditto (Oolitic) .. 35°60 206 es Spathose Ores Ee oe 40°95 2 ae Black Band .. AP ne 37° 8 49 Argillaceous Ores .. a eA, 2 Mean average of all, if used ay in equal quantities fe 47°30 100 32 The Iron Ores of Great Britain. [Jan., In attempting any classification of Iron ores which shall be regulated by the conditions under which they are found, we are at once met with the difficulty of finding many similar varieties of ores occurring in lodes or veins, and also amongst those which are evidently sedimentary deposits. It will not, therefore, be attempted. There can be no doubt that the most ancient of the Iron formations are those Oxides of Iron which occur as lodes or veins in the slate and granite rocks. Of this kind we have some examples in Corn- wall, Devonshire, Wales, and Scotland. Generally speaking, how- ever, these veins are not sufficiently extensive to be worked. The Tron Mine at Restormel, near Lostwithiel, in Cornwall, which has been wrought for many years, and which still produces considerable quantities of ore, and those near St. Austell, in the same county, are amongst the most remarkable. At Hennock, on Dartmoor, there occurs an immense vein of Micaceous Iron ore, but this of late years has not been employed. All these are evidently the result of the ageregation of ferruginous particles, often under the influence of erystallogenic force, mechanically separated from water holding iron in solution, which has flowed through the rock fissures probably within a limited period after the formation of those fissures. The Tron lodes differ in no respect from those of the other metals, except in the nature of their contents, and they have been formed under analogous conditions, all of them indicating the influences of an elevated temperature, of an electrical disposing power, and those mechanical agencies which are still obscure, but which are bemg gradually developed under the general appellation of Osmose forces. Magnetic Iron Ores.—Magnetic Oxide of Iron or Magnetite is a compound ore of the Sesquioxide of Iron and the Protoxide of Iron. Amongst other adventitious matters, this ore usually contains manganese and sometimes tin. In Western England several lodes of magnetite are known, one near Penryn and another not far from St. Austell, in Cornwall, has been worked, but not extensively. Near the Haytor rocks, on Dartmoor, a much more extensive deposit of this ore is found; but it is difficult im this case to determine satisfactorily, whether this is a set of veins or of beds interstratified with slate and sheeted masses of greenstone porphyry. At Brent, which is only a few miles distant from the Dartmoor deposit, we find magnetic ore covering, like a shell, an immense boss of trappean rock. In nearly all cases, magnetite is associated with, or is found in proximity to, some igneous rock, and to the action of this on either Oxide or Carbonate of Iron is no doubt due the magnetic character which distinguishes this ore. If the Spathic Carbonate is exposed to a regulated heat, it is converted into a Magnetic Oxide of Iron, and manufactories have been established for its production, to be used as @ paint for work which is much exposed to the action of the weather. 1868. | The Iron Ores of Great Britain. 33 A curious mass of Magnetic Iron ore occurred at Rosedale, in Yorkshire. The first discovery of this deposit of Iron-stone was at a quarry on the south-west side of the valley of Rosedale, about a mile south from Rosedale Abbey. When this quarry was opened out, it was found apparently to consist of a confused mass of iron- stone boulders, of an ellipsoidal structure, often three or four feet in diameter. ‘The interior of these boulders was generally blue, and comprised a solid dark oolitic iron ore, with, in many cases, sandy and solid crusts around it; and in receding from the centre the iron ore became paler, alternating with dark-brown purplish layers. Those variations did not occur where the iron-stone was covered by other strata, and the magnetic property proved to be most decided where the mass was the thickest. These circumstances appear to indicate that this mass was at one time in the state of a Carbonate of the Protoxide of Iron, not very unlike that which occurs in the Cleveland Hills, but that it had been exposed to influences —not necessarily calorific—by which the chemical change into Magnetite had been effected. This ore especially resembles the hydrated Magnetie Oxide of Iron, which can be obtained as a precipitate from an aqueous solution. Figures 1 and 2 in the Plate will ex- plain more fully than any words the peculiar conditions of this remarkable and valuable Iron ore formation. The first section is by the late Mr. Nicholas Wood, the second by Mr. Bewick. It should be noted that the latter observer, writing of this deposit, says, ** The Iron ore of Rosedale, instead of being a large mineral field, as was first asserted, and still believed to be so by many, is nothing more than a volcanic dyke ; and the iron-stone opened out in this locality is not, as it is reputed to be, the main seam now being worked in Cleveland and Grosmont.” The Magnetic Oxide of Iron has been discovered in Banffshire, Aberdeenshire, the Shetland Islands, and the Hebrides. It cecurs also in Antrim, in Wicklow, and especially in the Mourne Mountains. fied Hematite—The deposits of this valuable ore—an an- hydrous Sesquioxide of Iron,—which are found in Furness near Ulverstone, and near Whitehaven, are deserving of the closest attention. At Whitehaven, this ore is found in the carboniferous limestone and millstone grit (locally called “ Whirlstone”) near the outcrop or surface edges of the slaty rocks upon which these formations rest. Fig. 8 shows the mode of occurrence. At Todholes, where this ore was worked as a quarry, the bed had a thickness of twenty feet, and at the Park Mines a thickness of seventy feet of solid Heematite occurred, The Ulverstone ore differs in physical condition from those of Whitehaven. Much of it is equally compact with the Cumberland ore, and this is known as“ blast ” ore; but the major portion occurs as a less coherent aggregate of exceedingly fine filmy scales of micas YOR, Y, Dd 34 The Iron Ores of Great Britain. [Jan., ceous iron. In the Whitehaven district the ore is found filling cavernous spaces, which had evidently been formed in the limestone previously to the deposit of the Iron; these caverns being probably due to the action of water charged with carbonic acid, which readily dissolved a certain proportion of the limestone. In the Low Furness district, at Rickett, Hills, and Mousell, the Hematite is found in lake-hke deposits, which have been well described as “dish-shaped.” These dishes of ore run from fifty to sixty yards in width, and are usually from eighteen to twenty feet deep. At Roanhead the ore is found in two basins, which are slightly connected with each other, but they have nothing of the character of a mineral lode. These basins are covered generally with sea-sand, which is often overlaid with a tenaceous clay. Nothing like a mineral lode occurs either at Whitehaven or at Ulverstone. At Stainton, a chasm worked open to day was long looked upon as a vein of ore, but the full exploration of it proved the contrary. Fig. 4 is a section of this chasm, which was worked altogether to the depth of sixty yards. The stone arch shown was built to support the walls of the fissure, it being thought that the ore would be found to a considerable depth below. Within a short distance a bed of clay, locally called “ blue hunger,” came in, below which there was not a trace of Iron ore. Brown Hematite-—The Forest of Dean may be regarded as the chief locality for this variety of Iron ore, about 150,000 tons being raised annually. The Forest of Dean ores are commercially classified into Brush Ore, containing 90 per cent. of Sesquioxide of Tron; Snuth Mine giving 89 per cent., and Clod or Grey Vein about 50 per cent. These iron ores occur under much the same circumstances as the Red Hematites of Whitehaven. The iron- stone formation is immediately overlaid by the ‘‘ Whitehead Lime- stone,” a regularly stratified rock, the beds of which are often highly crystalline. This limestone is locally called “ crease,” and is traversed by innumerable small joints, which appear to have arisen from a shrinking, probably during the consolidation of the mass. The worked-out spaces in the “ Mine Measures,” that is,—the iron- stone beds which have an average thickness of twenty-five yards,— are so extensive that they have been compared to the crypt of a cathedral. These prove the deposit to have taken place in caverns which had been previously formed by the removal of the limestone. There are many curious phenomena connected with the Iron ore formations of the Forest of Dean, which demand a careful examin- ation. It is not, however, possible in this place to give the required consideration to those, since the space which can be allowed to this article is fully occupied, with the general review of our iron-stone deposits, and remarks on the conditions under which they appear to have been formed. Some valuable deposits have been recently worked in Gla- 1868. | The Iron Ores of Great Britain, 35 morganshire. The Iron ore deposits at Llantrissant, which have only of late years attracted marked attention, appear to have been worked at least two centuries since. ‘The name of the principal mine is Mwyndy, and this is derived from the estate in which the mineral is found. The word signifies Ore, therefore Mwyndy House is “ Ore House,” and around it in all directions we now find Iron slag and remains of the charcoal with which it was once smelted. ~ This Iron ore, which is now worked by two companies only, “ The Mwyndy Iron Ore Company,” and “ The Bute Hematite Company,” partakes in its general character of the ordinary conditions of the Brown Hematites. Its situation is similar to that of the White- haven Red Hematite, and it does not appear in this respect to differ from the ferruginous deposits of the Forest of Dean. It occurs at, or rather immediately beyond, the southern outcrop of the Coal Measures of South Wales. Between the coal seams immediately south of the village of Llantrissant and these Iron ore deposits, the Permian rocks occur, these being represented more especially by large masses of Conglomerate. It will be seen by the section given (Fig. 5), that we have conglomerate and shale rocks resting on the limestone formation, which here forms the boundary of the South Wales coal basin. Under the conglomerate and coal measure shale, in which some thin bands of coal occur, the Iron ore is deposited on the upturned edges of the limestone, and in the fissures formed in that rock. It has been thought hitherto that the ore would: be found only at the line of inclination of the limestone, but a recent discovery has shown that it suddenly descends into the limestone itself. This vertical mass of ore (Fig. 6) may be found to terminate abruptly, as shown in the Ulverstone section, or it may lead to a limestone cavern which has been filled in with this peroxide of iron. In the immediate neighbourhood of this deposit a small band of argillaceous nodular iron has been discovered. At Frampton Cotterel, in the Bristol Coal-field we find the Brown Hematite occurring in the Pennant Grit, or sandstone bed of the coal-measures. ‘This iron ore deposit has been formed in a great fault, evidently under similar conditions to those which have regulated the deposits already named, in the limestone. Numerous deposits of Brown Iron ore exist in Cornwall and Devonshire. Near St. Austell in the former county, and near Brix- ham and Newton Abbot in the latter, these ores are worked with success. The Brown Hematites of North Wales and other dis- tricts have not as yet attracted much attention. A very remarkable ealciferous Brown Hematite occurs at Froghall, near Cheadle, in North Staffordshire, which is largely used in the iron works of South Staffordshire. This ore, which occurs in the lower coal measures, may probably be regarded as an altered highly ferru- ginous limestone. p 2 36 The Tron Ores of Great Britain, [Jan., The Brown Hematites of the Oolites must be considered as Hydrous Sesquioxides of Iron; they are in nearly all respects peculiarly distinguished from those ores of which notice has been already taken. ‘The Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire Iron ore deposits especially represent this class; they are continued, with various shades of difference, through the adjoming counties. The first impression on examining the various beds of Iron ore, which we can now trace from near the Humber to within a few miles of Oxford, will be, that they are the result of deposit from water, as peroxide of Iron, in the same way as we see ferruginous springs depositing—as the water is exposed to the air—the Iron which they hold in solution. This hypothesis supposes those beds to be of recent formation. After, however, a careful examin- ation of all the evidences afforded by the fossil remains which exist in those beds, and in other beds above and below the ferruginous ores, no other conclusion can be arrived at, than that they are of very different ages, the result of a recurrence of the same conditions, but all of a marine origin. Spathose Iron Ores, Sparry Carbonate of Iron.—These ores of Iron have been long selected for the production of the celebrated “steel irons” of Siegen, Styria, and Carinthia, consequently of late years they have been sought after in this country. Mr. Charles Attwood, to whom we are especially indebted for a knowledge of the Spathose Iron ores of Weardale, notices the same conditions as those found in other districts. They have cer- tainly been all at first deposited as carbonates more or less pure, and have passed into the state of oxides and hydrates, by the joint effects of atmospheric and of aqueous action. Examples of every stage ot the transition present themselves in all directions, and there are also met with, from time to time, abundant proofs that whilst the car- bonates deposited are more or less rapidly passing into the hydrated condition, a fresh deposit of carbonates is continually going on in the cavernous interstices, and on the roofs and sides of ancient workings. Upon one occasion Mr. Attwood found protruding for six inches from a block of pure and large grained Sparry carbonate of iron, a rod of malleable tron, of about a quarter of an inch in diameter, of which the other end was firmly embedded to about the same depth in the block, which had just before been broken from a mass of it, incrusting the walls and roof of an ancient drift, but which block must have been formed within one or two centuries. Mr. W. W. Smyth remarks, ‘When we look to the successive introduction of the various minerals which have filled these in- teresting veins, it is evident that the carbonate of Jron has been one of the latest comers. Many of the specimens exhibit it, in- vesting, as a crystalline incrustation, the previously formed crystals of fluor spar and galena; and the striking manner in which it is 1868. | The Iron Ores of Great Britain. 37 found to coat only those surfaces which face in a peculiar direction, is well worthy of attention in the study of these obscure phenomena.” Besides the Spathose ores of Weardale, we have the same ores occurring in great abundance on Exmoor, and they are worked extensively on the Brendon Hills, near Watchet, over a length of nine miles, to Eisen Hill. At Perranzabule, on the north coast of Cornwall, a still more remarkable deposit of these ores exists, but at the present time they are but slightly worked. In the northern corner of Perran Bay a lode appears in the cliff, with a width of nearly 100 feet, and it has been traced for some miles inland and worked at several pots. Beyond this brief notice, space cannot be given to the further consideration of these most interesting Iron ores. The Argillaceous Iron Ores of the Lias.—The Cleveland Iron ore is the finest example we have of this class of ore. The immense extent of this deposit, the value of the Iron works which have arisen amidst the Cleveland Hills, places this district amongst the first of our Iron-producing districts. This remarkable deposit may be traced by its outcrop for miles along the escarpments of the Cleveland Hills. Above the flat land which extends from Redcar to Middlesborough there crops out a solid stratum, often fifteen feet in thickness, of this Lron-stone. It is a deposit of a green or grey colour, having generally an oolitic structure, and containing numerous well-known fossils of the Marlstone, especially Belemnites and Pecten Aiquivalis. The plan and section, Figs. 7 and 8, will show the mode of occurrence of this ore. This vast ferruginous deposit is composed, to a great extent, of Carbonate of Protoxide of Iron. We know that such a deposit could not be formed, unlcss it was precipitated from water charged with Carbonic acid in excess. We have no evidence that such conditions ever prevailed, to the required extent, over this district, when those Iron-stone beds were being formed. Mr. Sorby has drawn attention to the fact that if the Iron-stone be examined it will be seen that it contains, more or less, entire portions of shells. All the indications appear to show that the Cleveland Iron ore was deposited probably as a limestone, containing a large amount of the oxides of Iron and organic matter. By their mutual reaction these would give rise to the bicarbonate of Iron, which in solution, per- colating through the limestone, would remove a large part of the carbonate of lime and leave in its place carbonate of Iron. It is our object in writing this paper, to draw more especial attention than has hitherto been done to the Heematites, and the Argillaceous Carbonates of the coal-measures, as related to each other, in their mode of formation. It will be evident to everyone who carefully studies the conditions of the clay band Iron-stones spread out in beds amongst the seams 38 The Tron Ores of Great Britain. | Jan., of coal and coally shale, that they have been associated in some way with the formation of the coal itself. As the coal deposits have been produced by a series of chemical changes in vegetable matter, spread over an immensity of time, so have the Iron-ore deposits, as we find them, been the result of sundry changes carried out upon the older rocks, those especially which belong to the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone period. The enormous deposits of Sandstones and Shales formed in our coal basins prove the gigantic nature of the denudations which have taken place, and which have pro- duced the sedimentary beds, as they are placed before us, striking records of the world’s mutations. From all that remains of those older rocks we know how highly ferruginous they were. The waters of the coal period swept around Old Red Sandstone rocks, and the plants from which our fossil fuel is derived grew upon the soil produced by the disintegration of these formations. Let us study for awhile the phenomena which, in all probability, took place. As we now find at the mouths of great rivers,—especially within the tropics,—vast masses of vegetable matter, undergoing a series of changes, in the process of decay, so must we suppose the condition of a swamp, of an estuary, a lake, or inland sea, to have been, when the vegetable matter of an ancient world was rotting, in its progress towards coal. The result of the change was the formation of immense quantities of carbonic acid, and this would be largely retained by the water holding vegetable extractive in solution. This water would rapidly dissolve any limestone with which it came in contact, and would change the peroxide of Iron in the rocks into a protoxide; which would be eventually dissolved, either as a carbonate of the protoxide of Iron, or in water holding an excess of carbonic acid, as a protoxide merely. LHxperiment shows this satisfactorily. Place recently precipitated peroxide of Tron in a shallow vessel with a large quantity of dead leaves and water ; expose this to the ordinary atmospheric changes; it will be found eventually, that the peroxide will be changed into a pro- toxide and dissolved. Under some conditions,—especially if the arrangement is made part of a voltaic circuit—crystals of carbonate of Iron will be the result ; and under others an accretion of amor- phous carbonate will form around small fragments of vegetable matter, producing indeed, in miniature, the clay-band Iron-stones of the coal measures. Now, if the water flows away from the influence of this mass of vegetable matter in its state of change, and if it be exposed in a thin sheet, to the action of the atmosphere, the Iron in solution will be rapidly oxidized and it will fall to the bottom of the vessel as peroxide of Iron. These results appear to teach us that the present conditions of 1868. } On Medical Science. 39 our coal measure Ironstone formations were the direct result of the process of coal formation, the water in which the coal was formed removing from the surrounding rocks, by virtue of the dissolving power of carbonic acid, the Iron which they contained; this, if retained within the coal basin, gradually produced the argillaceous carbonates of Iron as we find them, but if the ferruginous waters passed away from the influence of the dissolved vegetable matter, then oxidation ensued, and hence the deposits of Hematite in ponds and fissures as we see them near Ulverstone. The same carbonized water had previously been active in dissolving the limestones formed around the coal basins, and into the cavernous spaces thus formed,— and these are common in all our carboniferous limestone districts —the peroxide of Iron was deposited, as at Whitehaven, in the Forest of Dean, and in Glamorganshire. Further study is required before it can be certainly determined whether or not the chemical changes indicated, are those only which have been active in producing our Iron ores as we now find them. It is, however, believed that the hypothesis put forward will serve to explain most of the conditions which are presented to the careful observer. They are, at least, honest attempts to read the pheno- mena which are presented to us in the varied conditions under which we find the most useful of the metals, Iron, occurring in the inorganic world. VI. ON MEDICAL SCIENCE: ITS RECENT PROGRESS AND PRESENT CONDITION. Tue season which has passed away, although not especially fertile in the fruits of the earth, has not been deficient in those of the mind. The intellectual harvest, gathered at the autumnal meetings of learned and scientific societies, at statistical congresses, and other assemblages of men earnestly engaged in the pursuit of common objects, has been plentiful and of perhaps more than average quality. We have already registered many of these products, but there is one class of them, which, from its purely technical nature and the unfitness of many of its details for public discussion, is rarely noticed, except in Journals strictly professional; and yet it relates to matters in which we are all deeply interested. If there is any subject which “comes home to our business and bosoms,” it is that of Medicine. Next in importance to the supply of our daily wants of food and clothing, is the care of our health, and the im- provement of the means of its conservation is a topic to which none of us can be indifferent; an occasional survey, therefore, of the 40 On Medical Science : [ Jan., condition of Medical Science, free from objectionable details, may fitly find a place in a Journal designed for general circulation.* We have before us the papers read at the Dublin meeting of the British Medical Association, the communications to various provincial meetings of the same body, ‘contributions to the Journals, and last, but by no means least in value, the addresses delivered at the opening of the winter session at the different medical schools, metropolitan and provincial. The conclusion to be drawn from these various sources of information as to the recent progress and present condition of Medical Science is a most encouraging one. In no former period of equal length have such advances been made as in the last half-century in the detection of diseased action or morbid change, and if equal progress has not been made in the Art of Medicine, in the application of Science to the prevention of death or the relief of suffering, still even in that respect the advances have been immense. ‘The practitioner now undertakes with con- fidence the treatment of diseases which his predecessors regarded as incurable, and the modes of treatment have, in many instances, been simplified and made less painful. A recapitulation of some of the additions thus made to the ‘ means of combating disease ought to be specially interesting to the readers of a Journal like ours, for it has been strictly and exclusively by the means of research furnished by experimental science, that our knowledge of disease has been extended, and if wise empiricism, or happy imagining (the inspiration of genius), has, rather than scientific research, furnished the improved methods of treatment, Science has provided the means of utilizing the thoughts thus suggested. But leaving these generalizations, let us proceed to a few details, and first of the improved methods of research. Of these the foremost has been the extension of the power of vision by the microscope. ‘The additions to our stores of knowledge, both of healthy structure and of morbid changes, thus acquired, would fill volumes ; and we have not space for the enumeration of even a few of them. Next, in point of value, should be placed the discovery which to some extent does for the sense of hearmg what the microscope * We think it right to say that, in making such a survey, we take as our guide and as a sketch-map of the country over which we intend to travel, an address recently delivered before the North Wales branch of the British Medical Associ- ation, by its president, Mr. Thomas Eyton Jones, of Wrexham. In choosing such a guide, we are not alone influenced by the intrinsic merits of the address, as a lucid aud comprehensive abstract of the recent progress of medicine, but we have pleasure in showing that not only in onr great cities, the centres of mental activity, is inedical science studied with earnestness, but that the men living in remote pro- vincial towns, and practising among widely scattered populations, are able to keep pace with, and to rival their more favourably situated brethren. 1868. | Its Recent Progress and Present Condition. 4] does for the sight. We know not who first applied his ear to the walls of the chest, to endeavour to learn, from the sounds thence emitted, the variations in the action and conditions of the organs therein contained; but he who first thought of interposing between the ear and the naked body a tube of some unyielding material, and thus made mediate auscultation an universally appli- cable mode of research, deserved to be ranked among the greatest benefactors to mankind. And an equal rank should be given to the inventor of percussion as a mode of examination, the man who first showed that by close attention to the varied quality of the sounds produced by a smart blow on the walls of the chest, most precious knowledge might be obtained of the condition of the contained viscera. The sense of touch also has not been without its cultivators. The tactus eruditus has long been one of the most highly valued accomplishments of the surgeon, but improved methods of palpa- tion have made it almost equally useful to the physician; and most valuable additions have recently been made to the information which the touch gives as to the pulse. The knowledge gained by gentle pressure with the tips of the fingers on a superficial artery, of the frequency, force, and other qualities of the action of the organs of the circulation, is necessarily uncertain, because it is subjective knowledge, and because therefore the accuracy of the observations must depend on the carefulness and experience of the observer, and the delicacy of his sense of touch. A beautifully imagined instru- ment now registers for us the pulsations, and describes on paper the height, form, and other qualities of each arterial wave. We must also regard as helps to the sense of touch the improved modes of applying the thermometer to the surface and the cavities of the body. Most precious knowledge is thus acquired as to the progress of febrile and inflammatory diseases, and our powers both of prognosis and of diagnosis have been immensely increased. To all these modes of rendering medicine more and more one of the exact sciences, must be added the improved modes of research furnished by chemistry. Our knowledge of the composition of organic bodies, and of the chemical changes constituting assimilation and degeneration, and of the processes of growth, secretion, and excretion, has only within the last quarter of a century acquired anything like the character of certainty. The physiological chemist has not only entered so far into the arcana of Nature as to be able to ascertain, to a great extent, how she does her work, but has even succeeded in imitating her operations. Not content with analysis, he has with considerable success attempted synthesis also. “ Already he has been able to produce a large number of organic compounds from carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, and even from the pure elements themselves. In fact, of the three great classes of alimentary substances, the production of the oleaginous is quite 42 On Medical Science: [ Jan., within his reach; that of the saccharine is almost within it; but the albuminous is still beyond.”* The application of such researches as these to the Science of Medicine is too obvious to need pointing out. They furnish the only safe basis on which the knowledge of diseased actions and of morbid poisons can be founded. To the latter class of bodies, owing to the unusual prevalence of infectious diseases, special attention has recently been paid, and we seem to be on the eve of brilliant discoveries in reference to some of them. The question is still unsolved whether the poison, or contagiwm, of the so-called Zymoses, consists of living germs, 7.e. entire, although undeveloped, organisms, or of living portions of organic matters, 7.e. germinal particles or cells, or of dead matter, peculiarly compounded, and undergoing some special process of decomposition. For a further extension of our power of research into the chemical constitution of organic bodies, we are indebted to a new application of the Science of Optics. Spectrum analysis now not only tells us of what elements the planets and the photosphere of the sun are composed, but whether certain red spots which may be the subject of medico-legal inquiry, are or are not stains of blood. For this great discovery we have to thank Mr. Sorby, of Sheffield. Dr. Bird Herapath, of Bristol, was the first to employ it in the inquiry into a case of alleged murder. It is impossible in imagina- tion to limit the extent to which micro-spectroscopy may aid us in the analysis of organic bodies. One of the latest applications of physical science to the purposes of medicine is a further extension of the powers of sight. Endo- scopy, in its various forms, by most ingenious combinations of lenses, mirrors, tubes, and, in some instances, increased means of illumina- tion, enables us now to explore all the canals opening on the surface of the body, and even to inspect some of its cavities. The revelations thus made are wonderful, and have far exceeded the expectations of those who first suggested such means of research. It might have been expected that, looking through the window of the Cornea, we might ascertain the exact condition of the internal structures of the eyeball. But who would have imagined that from the morbid changes observed in them we might be able to pronounce with certainty on the existence and nature of disease existing, not only in the brain, but in so remote an organ as the kidney? An amusing instance of the enthusiasm with which this line of inquiry is now pursued was given at the international medical congress which recently sat in Paris. A zealous worker in the field of endoscopy foretold the time when, by means of the lime-light, the whole body * Dr. Letheby’s Introductory Lecture at the London Hospital._— British Medical Journal, Oct. 5, 1867. 1868.] Tis Recent Progress and Present Condition. 43 would be rendered diaphanous, and morbid changes be detected in its innermost recesses. But our space will not permit us to linger in this tempting field, and we pass on to notice a very few of the latest improvements in the Art of Medicine. If asked to indicate the one quality which characterizes the present race of practitioners as compared with the majority of their predecessors, we should say that it is conscientious- ness, shown by increased reverence for the human body, and a greater wish to diminish pain or to avoid its infliction. Surgery has become eminently conservative. The man is not now most admired by his brethren who performs in the most dashing style the capital operations of surgery. It is almost universally felt that such operations, being more or less serious mutilations, are, in the same ratio, confessions of the imperfection of the art. He is not now liable to be sneered at, as he was within our recollection, who professes greater pride in the preservation of a finger than in the amputation of an entire limb. Modern surgery thinks it no conde- scension to labour in the removal, not of disabling deformities only, but of disfigurements and blemishes, and by various plastic opera- tions to endeayour to restore to “the human form divine” its pristine beauty, lost by accident or disease. Many of these triumphs of conservative surgery would, because of their tedious and therefore additionally painful nature, have been impracticable but for the grandest discovery ever made in relation to the art of medicine, that, viz. of a safe and easy method of producing temporary uncon- sciousness of pain. If there be one invention of human genius worthy to be called an anticipation of the millennium, it is that of anesthetics. To say nothing of the preservation of hfe, the amount of agony from which mankind has thus been saved is incalculable. This topic, the avoidance of suffering in surgical operations, is one of such surpassing interest to humanity that we are tempted to enlarge upon it a little. Nearly a quarter of a century has elapsed since the introduction into practice of the use of anesthetics, and of the present generation few are conscious, from their own ex- perience or observation, of the magnitude of the boon; and this may be said even of the large majority of surgeons now in practice. We will, therefore, extract from a work not likely to be read except by professional persons, and written by one who has done more than any other man living to bring about this blessed change, Sir James Simpson, a description by a master in the art of com- position, the late Professor George Wilson, of Edinburgh, of the horrors of a surgical operation under the old mode of treatment. “Several years ago,” Professor Wilson writes in a letter to Sir James Simpson, “I was required to prepare, on very short warning, for the loss of a limb by amputation . . . I at once agreed to submit to the operation, but asked a week to prepare for it; 44 On Medical Science : |Jan., not with the slightest expectation that the disease would take a favourable turn in the interval, or that the anticipated horrors of the operation would become less appalling by reflection upon them, but simply because it was so probable that the operation would be followed by a fatal issue, that I wished to prepare for death and what lies beyond it whilst my faculties were clear and my emotions comparatively undisturbed. ; “The week, so slow and yet so swift in its passage, at length came to an end, and the morning of the operation arrived. “Before the days of anzsthetics, a patient preparing for an operation was like a condemned criminal preparing for execution. He counted the days till the appointed day came. He counted the hours of that day until the appomted hour came. He listened for the echo, in the street, of the surgeon’s carriage. He watched for his pull at the door-bell; for his foot on the stairs; for his step in the room ; for the production of his dreaded instruments; for his few grave words, and his last preparations before beginning ; and then he surrendered his liberty, and, revolting at the necessity, sub- mitted to be held or bound, and helplessly gave himself up to the cruel knife. The excitement, disquiet, and exhaustion thus occa- sioned could not but greatly aggravate the evil effects of the operation upon a frame predisposed to magnify, not to repel, its severity. ‘To make a patient incognisant of the surgeon’s proceed- ings, and unable to recall the details of an operation, is assuredly to save him from much present and much future self-torture, and to eive him a much greater chance of recovery. “7? “The operation was a more tedious one than some involving much greater mutilation. It necessitated cruel cutting through inflamed and morbidly sensitive parts, and could not be despatched by a few swift strokes of the knife. ye ; “Of the agony it occasioned I will say little. Suffering so great as I underwent cannot be expressed in words, and thus fortunately cannot be recalled. The particular pangs are now forgotten; but the black whirlwind of emotion, the horror of great darkness, and the sense of desertion by God and man, bordering closely upon despair, which swept through my mind and overwhelmed my heart, I can never forget, however gladly I would do so. ; “During the operation, in spite of the pain it occasioned, my senses were preternaturally acute. . . . I watched all that the surgeons did with a fascinated intensity. I still recall with un- welcome vividness the spreading out of the imstruments; the twisting of the tourniquet; the first incision; the fingering of the sawed bone; the sponge pressed on the flap ; the tying of the blood-vessels ; the stitching of the skin; and the bloody dismem- -bered limb lying on the floor. | “These are not pleasant remembrances. For a long time they 1868. | Its Recent Progress and Present Condition. 45 haunted me, and even now they are easily resuscitated; and though they cannot bring back the suffermg attending the events which gave them a place in my memory, they can occasion a suffering of their own, and be the cause of a disquiet which favours neither mental nor bodily health. From memories of this kind those sub- jects of operations who receive chloroform are of course free; and could I even now, by some Lethean draught, erase the remem- brances I speak of, I would drink it; for they are easily brought back, and are never welcome.” “ After perusing,” continues Sir James Simpson, “such a touch- ing and terrible account of what surgical patients were sometimes called upon to suffer, before the introduction of modern anesthetics, it is delightful to reflect that all these forms of human agony are essentially ended and abrogated. We now know also and acknow- ledge that these tortures, so long endured as dire necessities, were of no advantage, but the very reverse, to the patient himself... . While anesthetics save the patient from the agonies produced by the cutting of his living flesh, they at the same time preserve his strength and enhance his chances of recovery. But they are not a boon merely to the patient: they are a blessing also to the surgeon himself, as they enable him to accomplish his knife-work far more calmly and deliberately.”* There is one use of anesthesia in which, although it applies only to one sex, we must all rejoice. The pain, often amounting to agony, which, in obeying the first command, “increase and multiply,” hy a mysterious arrangement of Providence, woman alone endures, may, by the use of chloroform or similar agents be, with perfect safety to mother and child, rendered comparatively insignificant. And by the avoidance of the nervous exhaustion caused by long-continued suffering, life is often saved which, under different circumstances, would have been sacrificed. Great, however, as have been the blessings conferred by general anesthetics, their use has. its drawbacks. A few persons have succumbed to their depressing effects on the vital energies. The discovery, therefore, of some means which, without producing general unconsciousness, would render the part to be operated upon insensible, had become a desideratum. ‘The want has been supplied in more than one way. The local application, as propcs-d by Dr. Arnott, of ice or of freezing mixtures, by which the part was temporarily frozen, was a great advance; but the perfection of local insensibility seems to be attained by Dr. Richardson’s beautiful invention of ether-spray. * Anzsthetics do more for the surgeon even than this: they save him from possible physical suffering. The writer of this article, when many years since a dresser at a London hospital, had one of his fiugers severely bitten by a poor little boy, who was undergoing a painful operation, : 46 On Medical Science : [Jan., The same end—the prevention of suffering—-has also been attained in another way, to which some allusion has already been made, viz. the simplification of the modes of dressing the wounds caused by surgical operations. The improvement in this respect has been gradual. The cumbrous dressings and often torturing applications of our remote forefathers, the boiling pitch into which the amputated limb was plunged, or the heated iron by which the surface of the recent wound was seared, had long been banished from use; but the dressings were still too complicated, and the mode of closing the larger blood-vessels by ligature imevitably pre- vented the early healing of the wound, by leaving between the two surfaces foreign bodies, the ligature threads and particles of © dead and putrid matter, the extremities of the blood-vessels, detached by the pressure of the ligatures. The very recent discovery of acupressure—a discovery for which we are indebted to the illus- trious discoverer of chloroform—has to a very great extent removed both these obstacles to the speedy healing of surgical wounds. By needles of suitable size and length passed either through the external skin over the vessels to be closed, and again brought out through the skin, or applied in other ways which need not here be described, pressure is made on the arteries; the lips of the wound are then brought together by metallic sutures, an immense recent improvement, and further closure is effected by a few strips of isinglass plaster ; the limb is then placed m a suitable position, with due provision for its immobility, and, with the exception of the with- drawal of the needles after the lapse of a few hours, or at the most a day or two, and after a longer mterval the removal of the wire- sutures, the treatment is complete. Nature does all the rest. There is, say those who have extensively tested this mode of dressing, no sloughing, no suppuration, no absorption of pus, and consequent surgical fever; there are no painful dressings repeated daily for, perhaps, weeks. ‘To use the words of a speaker at the late annual meeting of the British Medical Association in Dublin, “ 1f surgeons are strangely apathetic as to the desirability of attaining such results, patients are not equally so. I was lately told by a medical friend of the case of a gentleman who had a tumour, some time ago, removed in Edinburgh, and who, after being operated upon, was weeks in getting well. After returning home, he happened to get hold of a book on acupressure, by Dr. Pirrie, and after reading it, angrily argued with his ordinary attendant, my informant: Why was I tortured for six weeks to please old surgical prejudices, when I might have been cured in a day or two?” The illustrations we have so far given of the recent improve- ments in the art of medicine have been drawn from one branch of it, that, viz. which deals with external diseases and injuries. But in the treatment of the ailments more especially coming under 1868. | Its Recent Progress and Present Condition. 47 the care of the physician, results equally great in the aggregate, although, perhaps, not individually so splendid, have been produced. The most valuable, perhaps, of these has been increased confidence in the efficacy of drugs. The remark was long since made, by whom first we know not, that the mind of every practitioner who thinks for himself, and is not content to be guided merely by routine, passes through three stages. In the first stage he has unbounded confidence in medicines. In the second, disappointed by the non-realization of the brilliant dreams of his youth, he doubts their efficacy altogether. In the third stage, that of mental maturity, he believes that, judiciously administered in accordance with the teachings of enlightened empiricism, they can do a great deal. The professional mind, as a whole, has within the last half- century gone through a similar series of changes. But a few years since it appeared to be sinking into a hopeless condition of scepticism as to the utility of strictly medicinal treatment. A brighter age has happily succeeded. A discriminating confidence in the powers of remedies of proved efficacy has taken the place both of doubt and of blind faith in all drugs; and here again the duty of relieving pain, and of avoiding unnecessary suffering, has been recognized. It has come almost to be a fundamental principle that in nearly all diseases, acute or chronic, of which pain is a prominent symptom, to relieve the pain is to cure the disease, and that therefore, wherever narcotics do no harm in other ways, they ought to be administered. Modes of giving them otherwise than by the mouth have in consequence been devised, and one of those is so ingenious and so elegant, if the expression is admissible, as to be worthy of description. By means of a little syringe, having a nozzle drawn out into a minute pointed tube, perforated like the fang of a rattlesnake a little way below its extremity, a few drops of concentrated solution of morphia are injected under the skin, so as to come directly into contact with the extremities of the nerves of the painful or inflamed part. To quote a portion of one of the many recent professional utterances now lying before us, “ We see neuralgia of long standing cured by one injection of morphia ; we see the same treatment visibly restormg to health congested vessels of the conjunctiva; reducing unnatural heat, not of the whole body, but of a suffering portion of it; lessening the swelling of an inflamed joint; arresting vomiting, depending on a lacerated brain, or upon peritonitis, or suppressed menstruation.” * The hypo-dermic administration of medicine has not been limited to morphia. Other vegetable alkaloids have been given in the same way. The most promising results thus obtained have been when * Mr. T. P. Teale, jun., Opening Address at the Leeds School of Medicine. — British Medical Journal, Oct. 5. 48 On Medical Science : [Jan., two powerful remedies, which in their operation on the bram and nervous system are antagonistic to each other, such as morphia and atropia, the active principle of belladonna, are injected stmul- taneously. The headache and phantasms of atropia have been found to be controlled by morphia, as well as the partial deafness and the visual defects of the former alkaloid, Conversely the drowsiness and stupor caused by morphia disappear under the use of atropia. In other respects the two remedies thus administered have been found to be mutually antidotal.* Who knows how many lives of persons poisoned by opium, and too far narcotized to be capable of swallowing, may be saved by the subcutaneous administration of atropia ? To these triumphs in the cause of humanity something must still be added. It must often occur to the earnest-minded practi- tioner that in the exercise of his calling he is treading in the steps of his Divine Master, whose chief work on earth was to heal the mental and bodily diseases of those who came to Him. But the physician now, if it may be said without irreverence, goes beyond his Master, although he is only following out the natural developments of his Master’s teaching, To use the words of an eloquent and popular writer :—‘ No man who loves his kind can in these days be content with waiting as a servant upon human misery, when it is possible in so many cases to anticipate and avert it. Prevention is better than cure, and it is now clear to all that a large part of human suffering is preventable by improved social arrangements. . . . When the sick man has been visited, and everything done which skill and assiduity can do to cure him, modern charity will go on to consider the causes of his malady, what noxious influence besetting his life, what contempt of the laws of health in his diet or habits, may have caused it, and then to inquire whether others incur the same dan- gers, and may be warned in time. . . . Christ commanded his first followers to heal the sick and give alms, but He commands the Christians of this age, if we may use the expression, to investi- gate the causes of all physical evil, to master the science of health, to consider the question of education with a view to health, the question of labour with a view to health, the question of trade with a view to heaith, and, while all these investigations are made, with free expense of energy and time and means, to work out the re-arrangement of human life in accordance with the results they give.’’T In justice to the faculty of medicine be it said, that some of its members were among the first to recognize these great truths. _ * ‘Biennial Retrospect of Medicine and Surgery fer 1865-6,—-New Sydenham Society, p. 460. + ‘Ecce Homo,’ 4th edition, pp, 196, 202. 1868.] Its Recent Progress and Present Condition. 49 Happily they do not now stand alone. The exertions of a small band of zealous men, continued through many weary years, have at length succeeded in placing Preventive Medicine in something like its proper position in the estimation of the profession and of the general public. It is now seen to be as much the duty of our rulers to care for the Public Health, as to make provision for the peace and the material prosperity of the community. Within the last few years several Acts of Parliament bearing upon Public Health, each on the whole an improvement on its predecessor, have been passed, and the last of them, the ‘Sanitary Act of 1866,’ requires only, to make it almost perfect, that some of its enactments, now permissive, should be made compulsory. In other countries also the subject is attracting attention. We have lately seen an assemblage of diplomatists met, not to divide conquered provinces or to obviate threatened war, but to prevent, if possible, another invasion of Europe by the pestilence which had already three times ravaged many of its cities and towns. These are encouraging facts, but to make our condition perfectly satisfactory much has yet to be done. We want a Government Department of Public Health, presided over by a single responsible head. We want travelling inspectors, constantly at work, to anti- cipate local outbreaks of preventable disease, and not to be sent down only when such outbreaks have occurred. We want medical officers of health in every registration district, and we want a higher status and more power for the medical officers in the three great public services, the Army and Navy and that of the Poor Law. Recent events have shown the miserable consequences of the dis- regard of the advice of military and naval surgeons, and the country would have been spared the shame and the sorrow of the recent revelations of the condition of the workhouse infirmaries, metropo- litan and provincial, had the medical officers been placed in a more independent position, and had the Poor Law Board trusted rather to their reports than to those of inspectors too often incapable or careless. Thanks to the non-official inspections organized by the proprietors of the ‘Lancet,’ and more recently by the British Medical Association, a better state of things has already been inaugurated in the metropolis, and improvements will, it is to be hoped, follow in the provinces. Before concluding, we wish to direct the attention of our medical readers especially to one mode of preventing disease, to which some of them, it is to be feared, are not yet sufficiently awake. Too many of the buildings designed for the reception and treatment of poor persons suffering from various ailments or accidents, by their very construction, generate maladies far more dangerous than those they are designed to cure. We believe that there is not a public hospital in the kingdom, built before the Crimean War, which is VOL, V. E 50 Faraday. [Jan., not unfit for its purpose—which does not kill many of those it ought to cure. Surgical fever, or Pyzmia, is the bane of general hospitals ; puerperal fever, of obstetric institutions. Small are the chances, more especially at certain seasons of the year, of the man whose leg has been smashed by a railway accident or similar casualty, and who undergoes amputation in an old-fashioned hospital. Far better would it. be for him to be treated in a hovel on a bleak hill- side, or under a tent. In like manner, the poor women who in their hour of sorrow have to depend on public charity, have far better chances if attended im their own comfortless homes, than in many a luxuriously furnished maternity hospital of the old con- struction. The conviction of these truths has recently led to the proposal to abolish hospitals altogether, and to substitute for them clusters of cottages which shall accommodate one, or at most two, patients in each room. . Happily we need not make a change so sweeping and likely to be attended with so many inconveniences. Hospitals built on the pavilion system, carried out in its integrity, may have as pure an atmosphere as a detached cottage, and the medical officers of the older hospitals, who do not with all possible urgency strive to impress upon those in authority the duty of rebuilding their hospitals on the improved plan, will assuredly incur a grave responsibility. The example has been set in the Herbert Hospital, in the new St. Thomas’s, and in the new im- firmaries at Leeds, and some other places, and it is to be hoped that it will be universally followed. VII. FARADAY. On the 25th day of August, 1867, a spirit passed away from amongst us, leaving a gap amidst the noble few, who have, by the powers of their intellectual industries, placed themselves in the position of being the rulers,—the instructors,— of mankind. All that remained of Faraday was laid in the earth at Highgate, on the 30th of the same month, without display, without parade, and the busy world, involved in the circles of its joys and cares, appeared to be little conscious of the extinction of a light, by the aid of which it had been advanced into some of the recesses of Nature, and gleaned a few of those truths which alone are capable of giving man power over matter. With a strange inconsistency the world applauds with enthu- siasm the doings of the warrior, the influences of whose labours are often the chaining of truth, the reinvigoration of vice, and the per- petuation of ignorance amongst men. The appreciation of his ereatness is shown by recording in enduring bronze, above his ashes, 1868. | Faraday. 51 the deeds by which he has been distinguished, the triumphs which he has won. Whereas the man who has devoted all the powers of his mind with unwearying industry to seeking out “the know- ledge of causes, and secret motions of things, and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire ;”* the man who really advances the human race by dispelling ignorance, by dethroning superstition, by throwing light into dark places, and by training all in the right use of that intellect with which they have been gifted, and by the strength of which alone they can fulfil the first command of the Creator and subdue the earth—he passes away in silence, and is consigned to “the lap of earth,” with the mournful tribute of the tears of a few; but with slight indications of sorrow from the many. “The storied urn or animated bust,’ however, which rises in honour of him who has trodden “the paths of glory ” are but short lived in comparison with the monument which is reared for him who has linked his name with the discovery of some Eternal Truth. Mr. Davies Gilbert, to whom we are indebted for the discovery of the Carver’s Son, at Penzance, who “was said to be fond of making chemical experiments,” who raised himself to the temporal rank of Sir Humphry Davy, Bart., and to the intellectual position of the leader of Science, once said, paraphrasing a remark made respecting Bergman and Scheele, “The greatest discovery Davy ever made was the discovery of Faraday.” This, be it remembered, was not spoken by Davies Gilbert in depreciation of the master, but it was a forcible way of putting his high appreciation of the merits of the man. In recording our sense of the loss which the world has sustained, we have no intention of writing a memoir of Michael Faraday, even in brief: That he was born on the 20th September in 1791, the son of a blacksmith at Newington, in Surrey, and that he died,— having achieved for himself a world-wide reputation,—in the Royal Palace of Hampton Court in 1867, at the age of seventy-six, 1s the sum of our notice of the ordinary life of Faraday. But we have something more to say respecting the higher life, the intellectual labours of this great man. Faraday’s childhood was one of promise, and all the learning which a common day-school could give him was turned to early account. At thirteen he became the apprentice of a bookbinder, and the books of Science which he bound, he so far made his own as to be enabled by their guidanc> to construct electrical machines and to try chemical experiments. In 1812, through the attention of Mr. Dance, Michael Faraday was taken to hear some of Davy’s lectures in the Royal Institution. “I took,” Faraday writes to Dr. Paris, “notes, and afterwards wrote them out more fairly in a quarto volume. My desire to escape from trade, which I thought vicious and selfish, and to enter into the service of * Bacon: ‘New Atlantis.’ E 2 52 Faraday’. [ Jan., Science, which I imagined made its pursuers amiable and liberal, induced me at last to take the bold and simple step of writing to Sir H. Davy, expressing my wishes, and a hope that, if an oppor- tunity came in his way, he would favour my views; at the same time [ sent the notes I had taken at his lectures.” Davy was kind and generous, he saw Faraday and procured for him the situation of assistant in the Laboratory of the Royal Institution, then just vacant; but, writes Faraday, “he smiled at my notion of the superior moral feelings of philosophic men, and said he would leave me to the experience of a few years to set me right on that matter.” It has been most unjustly stated that Davy soon grew jealous of his assistant, and that during a visit to Paris, in October, 1813— Faraday having been appointed assistant only in March of the same year—he was annoyed at the attention which the French chemists paid to the young man; and that in 1824 Davy showed much unwillingness to Faraday’s being elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society. The first statement is so absurd that it carries its own refutation; of the second, it can only be said that Davy never exhibited any unwillingness to the election of Faraday to the honours belonging to F.R.S.; but we have reason to know that Davy was slightly annoyed that the certificate proposing Faraday for election should have originated with Richard Phillips, and that he should not have been consulted before that gentleman was allowed to take the matter in hand. It is not possible to trace out here the progress of Faraday as an experimentalist, or as a discoverer. His early devotion to Chemical Science was richly rewarded. Passing over several smaller matters, we may mention the discovery of Benzole in 1825, to which “we virtually owe our supply of aniline with all its magnificent progeny of colours.” Such is the judgment of Hofmann, who demands, “Who, then, discovered benzole >—England may well be proud of the answer, Michael Faraday.” He was ever a searcher after Truth, regardless of any money value belonging to a discovery; but he, doubtless, felt “that the search after the True for its own sake leads on to the discovery of its natural corollaries, the Useful and the Beautiful. For these, indeed, lie folded up in Truth, to be in due time evolved therefrom; even as the great tree unfolds itself from the little seed.’’* Other fine chemical investigations were carried out, and other discoveries made, by Faraday about the same time. In 1821 was published his paper on the condensation of the gases, in which he proclaimed them to be simply the vapours of volatile liquids. The important position assumed by the Science of Electricity, at this period, naturally won the attention of Faraday. In the same year, the ‘Quarterly Journal of Science’ contains a paper * Hofmann. 1868. | Faraday. 53 “On some new Electro-Magnetical Motions, and on the Theory of Magnetism,” in which was announced the brilliant discovery of the rotation of a wire under electrical excitation round a magnetic pole. This paper is in every way remarkable; but it is especially so in being the precursor of a series of Memoirs which certainly stand as the finest exemplification of the value of inductive science which the world has received since it had birth from the mind of Bacon. It is impossible to give even a sketch of the remarkable series of experiments which stand recorded in the “ Experimental Researches in Electricity,” or to record the chain of discoveries which, link being added to link, led us from the most simple phenomena of electricity up to the very threshold of what we may, without presumption, be- lieve man is permitted to know of its connection with animal life. Without these “Experimental Researches,” we should not now be employing Electro-Metallurgy as a practical art. The Electric- Light,—especially as evolved from magnetic arrangements,—would never have been brought to that degree of certainty and steadiness, as well as brilliancy, which has recommended its adoption in the light-house economy of England and of France ; and, beyond all, the electric current, with even the extraordinary mechanical powers of Wheatstone to promote its application to the purposes of telegraphy, would never have been brought under control; and neither the wires which now girdle the world, nor the cables which, lying hidden in the ocean, bind Europe and America together, would have had existence. But none of these applications were made by the discoverer of most of the truths upon which they depend. The mind of Faraday was of that order which could not bend itself to the labour of making science a stepping-stone to commercial enterprise. The feelings shadowed out in his letter to Davy, which has been quoted, followed him to the end. If ever any man pursued Truth for its own exceeding great reward, with an entire abandonment of all selfish feeling, that man was Faraday. Not that he disregarded the value of science in its practical applications—he rejoiced to see those discoveries which appeared abstract brought to the test of usefulness—but he worked earnestly in the elucidation of the great mysteries of Nature, feeling certain that no truth could be born into the world which would not sooner or later become of value to mankind as an ameliorating or a refining agency. Faraday was an Inductive Philosopher—nothing can be more beautifully precise than the method of his Experimental Researches. Step by step he advanced, making sure of each fact by testing it under all conditions, before he allowed it to support him in his attempt to reach another. Nothing can show this more satis- factorily than his paper on “ Definite Electro-chemical Action,” in which he arrives at his remarkable conclusions “On the absolute 54 Faraday. [Jan., quantity of Electricity associated with the particles or atoms of Matter.” To this series of his Researches we are indebted for the enunciation of the startling truth that “The Chemical Action of a grain of water upon four grains of Zinc can evolve Electricity equal in quantity to that of a powerful thunderstorm,” and that this enormous quantity of the Electrical Element is exactly that which is required to maintain the atoms of Oxygen and Hydrogen in the condition of a grain of water. Faraday was not a Deductive Philosopher. As long as he solicited nature with his wands,—his experimental and ever beauti- fully contrived apparatus,—he was the Arch-evocator who proudly compelled an answer to his evocations, but, when he laid aside his wands and endeavoured to think out truths, he was still as noble as Prospero, but as powerless as the Duke of Milan, when he “ his magic did abjure,” breaking his staff to “ bury it certain fathoms in the earth.” No other evidence of this is required than Faraday’s “ Specula- tions touching Electrical Conduction and the Nature of Matter,”* and his clever papers “ On Magnetic Hypothesis,’} and “ On*some points of Magnetic Philosophy.”{ In these, and in other essays which might be named, Faraday displays his remarkable genius, in picking up the threads of an argument and weaving them together into a symmetrical cord, but when he casts that from his hand as a lasso to entangle a distant and flying truth, he shows that he is not practised in the art. His early education (and “the child is ever father of the man”) unfitted him for large generalization. In this he stood on a lower pedestal than Davy, and why? The circum- stances of the place of birth had much to do with this. Faraday was born and educated at Newington, and apprenticed im Soho. Davy was born on the beautiful heights of Ludgvan, looking down upon a bay, unrivalled in the world; and he was educated at Pen- zance, Where nature has been lavish of her charms. Faraday learnt to love nature in the mechanical aspects which she assumes m the fuligious metropolis, ‘“* But ’midst the crowd, the hum, the shock of men,” Davy’s boyish delight was “lo sit on rocks, to muse o’er flood and fell, To slowly trace the forest’s shady scene ; ” and thus, in the day-spring of life, “to hold Converse with Nature’s charms and view her stores unroll’d.” * «Philosophical Magazine.’ 1844, vol. xxiv. + ‘ Experimental Researches,’ vol. iii. t ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ Feb., 1859. 1868. | Faraday. 55 This gave to one mind that Poetry, without which there can be no Deductive Philosophy, which was denied to the other. Faraday’s powers as a lecturer were surpassingly great. The secret of his power was earnestness, an intense desire to be the Minister of Truth, and a determination to make every one familiar with her mysteries, so far as he was permitted to be their interpreter. He spared no labour to ensure a correct understanding of each fact. He never supposed anything to be known. When the writer of these remarks was preparing to deliver his first lecture in the Theatre of the Royal Institution, “ Do not,” said Faraday to him, “suppose that your audience will know anything of the subject you are about to bring before them,” and taking a stone from the table, “was I about to tell them that this stone when set free from my hand will fall to the ground, I should let it fall.” This was a brief lesson, but one of incalculable value. Faraday was great as an Experimental Philosopher, he was even greater in all the relations of life. He might have been proud of the position which he occupied as an investigator of Nature ; but, to the end of his days he was all humility as a man. We may be allowed to apply to Michael Faraday those lines addressed by Dr. Johnson to the Electrician, Grey :— “ Long hast thou borne the burden of the day Thy task is ended, rever’d Faraday ! No more shall Art thy dextrous hand require, To break the sleep of elemental fire ! To rouse the power that actuates Nature’s frame The momentanous shock, the Electric flame. ** Now, hoary sage! pursue thy happy flight, With swifter motion, haste to purer light, Where Bacon waits with Newton and with Boyle, ‘To hail thy genius and applaud thy toil ; Where intuition breathes through time and space, And mocks experiment’s successive race ; Sees tardy science toil at Nature’s laws, And wonders how the effect obscures the cause. “ Yet not to deep research or happy guess, Is show’d the life of hope, the death of peace ; Unbless’d the man whom philosophic rage Shall tempt to lose the Christian in the sage : - Not Art, but Goodness, poured the sacred ray That cheer’d the parting hours of Farapay.” Coo) [Jan., CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE. 1. AGRICULTURE. Tur country has now for a month or two been free from the Cattle Plague ; and we may hope, that if the requisite precautions be taken at the ports of debarkation for foreign cattle, we may remain free from it for the future. In Cheshire, Norfolk, and Berwickshire—three widely separated counties—cases have been reported, and districts have been declared by the local authority to be infected; but in every instance, a further investigation, by the Veterinary professors sent down by the Government, has shown that the disease has not been Rinderpest, but some malady which has generally arisen from maltreatment. The provision of a metropolitan market exclu- sively for imported cattle near the point of landing, which is now contemplated, with extensive lairage there for young and breeding . stock imported to be fed in England, will, we hope, reduce the risk of any reintroduction of the infection to a minimum. Mean- while, however, we may place on record, that the history of the last great attack of the disease, which occurred at Lodge Farm, near Barking, in August last, proves that strict isolation and the abundant use of hot lime on roads and of carbolic acid in and about the cowsheds, enable us to insulate infected places, so that the mis- chief shall not spread. On a farm where 237 cows had been fed im six or seven separate sheds, two of these sheds, containing 111 cows, were kept free of it in this way, notwithstanding that the disease was raging on all sides of them. The close of the Paris Exhibition enables many of our agricul- tural readers to look back upon the unequalled ilustration it has afforded of the implements and farm economy of many nations. There was certainly something in the dairy and general homesteads, of which specimens were given from Holland, to instruct the Eng- lish agricultural spectator ; but it was to the British section of this department chiefly that not only we, but the agricultural machine- makers of all other countries, looked for guidance. Now that the display is over, exhibitors are discussing both the relative and the actual value of the awards of medals and of merit which have been made by the examining juries. One thing seems certain: they bear no relation whatever to either the relative or the actual pro- fessional status of the several exhibiting countries. We are accus- tomed here to consider that the productiveness and enterprise of our 1868. | Agriculture. 57 agriculture is in direct proportion to the quantity of live stock main- tained upon a given area of land. Guided by,the application of such a test as this, the relative standing of English and French agriculture may be read with greater accuracy in the agricultural exhibition of them out of doors, than in the awards of an international jury examining the agricultural contents of the Exhibition building and its annexes. There are more cattle and sheep seen on the return - journey of the English tourist within eight miles of the landing at Newhaven than are visible all the way from Paris to Dieppe. Among the topics which receive attention in the current number of the ‘English Agricultural Society’s Journal,’ is the agricultural value of town sewage. It appears that nitrogen equal to 200 ozs. of ammonia passes annually from every average individual of a general population, and this being mixed with the usual annual water-supply to our towns of 40, 60, or 80 tons per head, gives only 93, 64, or 4? grains to every gallon of the resultant sewage. If the average be taken at 7 grains to every gallon, which is equal to one in every 10,000 parts of the drainage water, then that is worth about as much as half-a-ton of Peruvian guano for every 1,000 tons, or between 14d. and 13d. per ton. Nothing like this valuation has, however, ever yet been realized in agricultural experience. The large quantity of water with which the guano in sewage is diluted, spoils its fitness for our more valuable crops. It has hitherto indeed been applied almost exclusively to grass, which is not worth more than 6s. or 8s. a ton in country districts; rising, however, to 15s. or even 20s. a ton near towns, where it can be used in cow feeding. The calculation from experience near Edinburgh and at Rugby does not result in one-half the estimated return indicated by the chemistry of the subject. During the past year, however, on Lodge Farm, near Barking, a better result has been obtained from its use In growing Italian rye-grass on thin and gravelly soil. From 300,000 tons of North London sewage passed over 55 acres of Italian rye-grass, 2,400 tons of grass have been obtained. And as much of this land had been sown down only this spring, and a good deal of what was sown last year had been much injured by last January's frosts, all of it ought not in fairness to be taken into the account. Off 134 acres, the extent which was in good bearing order, 800 tons of grass was cut between April and November this year; and, as a good deal of the sewage had been wasted (in the carriers cut through gravel) before it could reach the plant, it is believed that one ton of grass has been produced over and above the natural and unassisted growth of the land for every 100 tons of sewage . that was applied. If further experience shall justify this conclusion, then we shall at length have realized in agriculture something like the chemist’s valuation of this manure; and a profit will be avail-' able for towns from ther drainage waters, which recent legislation “ 58 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., very properly requires them to keep out of the rivers. It is also reported from Lodge Farm that the sewage has been successfully and profitably used in the growth of mangold wurzel, cabbages, Lucerne, potatoes, and celery ; and that, where applied in dry weather, it has largely increased the yield of wheat. In all these cases, how- ever, the experiments were on a small scale, and require confirmation. The area in grass, on the other hand, is quite enough to enable a trustworthy inference to be drawn. It is in some degree connected with this subject (for the large addition to our supplies of succulent grass which is certain to be the first result of sewage utilization, will be somewhat difficult to turn to account), that the question of artificial haymaking and harvesting has occupied a good deal of attention during the past season. Mr. Gibbs, of Gillwell Park, Sewardstone, has patented an apparatus by which air heated in a furnace (and the ordinary agri- cultural locomotive engine may be used not only for the heat but the power required) is driven by a fan through sheaves of corn, which, wetted purposely for the experiment, were dried at the rate of 250 an hour. And this speed would, no doubt, be much greater if only the last portions of natural moisture had to be driven off, which hinder the completion of harvest work in a difficult season. Even, how- ever, if the reported speed of four sheaves per minute should not be exceeded, that would be equal to the clearance of an ordinary crop at the rate of four or five acres a day; and this would often be of great service to the farmer in a wet harvest. As regards the grass and other green crops of the farmer, it is an improvement of them, as the food of cattle, to get rid of a large proportion of the water which they naturally contain. And this is especially the case when they are used as winter food. It is some- what interesting, therefore, to find that an attempt to produce a dry, or nearly dry cake from pulped, dried, and pressed mangold-wurzel roots, has been made, and that it has been found extremely nu- tritive in an experiment reported by Mr. Hugh Smith, of Great Hadham, Herts. Five sheep put up on May 26, to feed on oilcake and pasture, made 262 lbs. of increased live weight during twenty weeks, having consumed 72 cwt. of oilcake ; and other five sheep fed on similar pasture, along with mangold cake, prepared from 3 tons 3 cwt. of raw mangold root, made 266 lbs., almost exactly the same increase, in the same time. The oilcake cost 4d. 9s., and if the 3 tons 3 cwt. of mangold wurzel can be credited with haying done as much as that value of oileake did, certainly the roots were doubled in efficiency and value to the farmer by being dried. It can hardly be contended that this is so; but we may safely gather from the experiment that if a certain advantage is obtained im the “warm summer months by removing a large proportion of the cold water which is given to our fattening stock in mangold wurzel and ‘1868. | Agriculture. ; 59 other roots, a much greater advantage would undoubtedly be ob- tained in the winter season when so large a bulk of cold and watery food as is often given must not only waste but injure the digestive powers of the animal. A recently published report of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert affords a good illustration of the fact that living things have to obey the laws of their nature, and cannot be manipulated by treat- ment according to the arbitrary will of their cultivator. The experience of many years at Rothamstead has taught that special manurings have hardly any appreciable effect on the composition of the ash of wheat, which maintains its uniformity, whatever variation may have been artificially presented in the mineral food with which the crop has been fed. This fact tallies perfectly with the whole course of agricultural experience in teaching that the farmer cannot with impunity set himself to be the master of his circumstances. If he be wise he will only endeavour to be their intelligent servant, trying to turn them to account, but avoiding the costly and waste- ful process of opposing them. A living thmg must be preserved in health if it 1s to yield abundant produce, and with that view it must be treated according to its nature; and so, whether it be plant or animal that is cultivated, the maximum of produce will be obtained not necessarily by presenting it with abundance of the ingredients or elements of which that produce consists, but by taking care simply to provide the conditions of healthy growth, leaving the produce to develop as it may. Dr. Voelcker’s researches into the composition of town milk have lately been published in the columns of the ‘ British Medical Jour- nal, which has startled its readers with proof of the scandalous adulterations generally practised by the milk-dealers. Of only one out of ten samples analyzed from as many different shops, could it be said that the milk was pure; though sold at 4d. and 5d. a quart it was really in general worth only from 1d. up to 3d. for that quantity. In one case examination proved that artificial colouring had been added, that one-fourth of the cream had been removed, and one-sixth of water added! In another, the “ new country milk” was skim-milk, with one-third water added! In a third, one-fourth of the cream had been taken, and 33 per cent. of water added! Genuine country-milk contains 4 per cent. of fatty matter, 3 per cent. of casein, and nearly 5 per cent. of milk-sugar ; but of these three ingredients the figures were 3, 2?, 4—1°6, 2°8, and 4:1—1-62, 2°68, and 4:09 respectively—in some of the ex- amples investigated by Dr. Voelcker. And in the second of these instances the price charged was 5d. a quart, and the profit per annum must have been 200/. a year on every ten gallons sold per diem. It is plain that all classes dealing with the shops from which these samples were obtained are being victimized, and the 60 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., robbery falls heavily upon the poor. If the results thus obtained represent the average truth, then one milk dealer out of every ten is an honest man! We hear with pleasure that a company is being started in Switzerland for the preservation of milk in the form of cakes, and we are told on good authority that such cakes, dissolved in England, produce beautiful rich milk. During the recent autumnal meetings of local agricultural societies, the subject of agricultural education, including that of the future tenant-farmer as well as that of the future agricultural labourer, has occupied attention. Members of both Houses of Par- liament, and landlords as well as tenant-farmers, have concurred in urging the importance of instructing boys in the principles of the art by which they are to be maintained in after-life ; and whether it were Mr. Read, M.P., addressing agricultural labourers at North Walsham, or Colonel Kingscote, M.P., addressing a farmer’s club in Gloucestershire, or Earl Spencer and Earl Leicester speaking at an agricultural meeting in Norfolk, the advantages of technical edu- cation were not only admitted by them but insisted on. It is in accordance with this opinion that the educational efforts of the Eng- lish agricultural body are for the future to be confined to the pro- motion of the strictly professional branches of an agricultural education. A preliminary statement issued by the Board of Trade, antici- ” pating a fuller report which has yet to appear, announces that there were in England and Wales in corn crops of all kinds this year, 7,941,578 acres, against 7,921,244 acres returned in 1866; and in Scotland, 1,367,012 acres, against 1,566,540 acres last year. The land under wheat is returned for England and Wales at 3,255,917 acres, against 3,275,293 acres in 1866 ; and for Scotland, as 115,118 acres, against 110,101. ‘The number of cattle in Eng- land and Wales is 4,017,799, an increase of about 159,000 within the year; and in Scotland, 979,170, an increase of 40,000. Sheep are returned for England and Wales at 22,097,286, an increase of nearly 6,000,000 over the previous return ; but this is owing to the return for 1866 having been required before lambing time, for the purpose of the Cattle Plague inquiry. There were 6,893,600 sheep in Scotland at the date of the iquiry this year. Among the noteworthy agricultural incidents of the past quarter we may record here the prices reached at a public sale of shorthorn cattle, chiefly yearlings, imported from the United States. Animals of the pure “Duchess” family of shorthorns had been purchased in England ten or fifteen years ago by American breeders, and now their surplus stock are being returned to us, and eight sold by Mr. Strafford at Windsor the other day, averaged 408/. 3s. 9d. a-piece ; a young heifer reaching the extraordinary price of 700 guineas! 1868.) ( 61 ) 2. ARCH/ZOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. THE most important event of the past quarter in Pre-historic Arche- ology is no doubt the opening of the Blackmore Museum, at Salis- bury. The value of this museum lies in the fact of its being a special collection of antiquities—characterizing a particular period — with illustrative modern examples. Mr. William Blackmore stated, at its opening, that the nucleus of this museum is the renowned “Squier and Davis” American collection, which was purchased by him in the year 1864. To this has been added a valuable collection of stone implements from the various caves and drift-deposits of England and the Continent, with a most interesting illustrative series of the modern stone implements at present used by various - savage races. Mr. Blackmore has munificently given this remark- able collection to his native town; he has also built a museum for its reception, and has provided for its future maintenance. Its management has been undertaken from year to year by the com- mittee of the Salisbury and South Wilts Museum, with the consent of the Blackmore Museum Trustees, in whom the property is vested. The trustees are three in number, namely, Mr. Blackmore, Dr. Blackmore (brother of the founder, and well known for his re- searches on the drift deposits and the flint implements contained in them), and Mr. EK. 'T. Stephens: the last two being also the honorary curators. Henceforth those who wish to learn the evidence which is known respecting the antiquity of man and collateral questions connected with it will find this museum a most valuable, and indeed indispensable, aid. It was opened in the beginning of Sep- tember with great éclat, the proceedings, which occupied two days, including the reading of papers, a conversazione, and the formal presentation at its opening by Mr. Blackmore. No account of the proceedings of the “ Congres Paléoethnolo- gique” seems to have been published ; but Mr. Boyd Dawkins has printed in the ‘ Intellectual Observer’ for October a paper read by him, entitled ‘‘Man and the Pleistocene Mammals of Great Britain.” It consists chiefly of an historical account of the various discoveries of flint implements in Great Britain, and especially of his own find- ings at Wookey Hole. He makes, however, one statement, which it may be useful to reproduce, as showing that these indications of man’s coexistence with extinct animals are not so wonderfully abun- dant as we seem, almost unconsciously, to have been brought to believe :—“ Out of the thirty caverns explored in Great Britain, the contents of which I have classified, fowr only have yielded human remains ; while out of forty river-deposits containing mam- malia, only three have furnished any trace of man. Had man been very abundant in those days, we might certainly have hoped to have 62 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., found his implements more widely spread, and especially as they were fashioned out of a material that is almost indestructible.” In the same and the succeeding number of the ‘ Intellectual Observer, Mr. Jewitt gives the first two portions of a most interest- ing description of the Grave-mounds of Derbyshire and their con- tents. He divides them into three divisions, according to their age, namely, the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon, by far the greatest number belonging to the first-named period, and the smallest number to the second. In these two instalments he de- scribes the barrows of the Celtic period, the various modes of inter- ment, and the objects of flint, bone, stone, and pottery found in the graves. The barrows contain interments by nhumation and cre- mation. In the former case, “the body is mostly found in a con- tracted position on its side,” but occasionally it is found lying at full length. In the latter case, “the remains of the burnt bones, &c., - have been collected together, and placed either in asmall heap or in a cinerary urn.” Referring to the immense amount of heat which must have been used in burning the bodies, Mr. Jewitt asks, “ Is it too much to suppose that the discovery of lead may be traced to the funeral pyre of our early forefathers?” The cinerary urns are either inverted over a flat stone, or are upright and the mouth covered by one. When the bones are placed in a heap they are often surrounded by stones. Frequently the interments have been made in cists, and a barrow may contain one or more of these chambers ; but sometimes the barrows are formed almost wholly of earth. The flint implements are varied in form, and frequently of exquisite workmanship ; the stone implements consist of adzes (celts) and hammer heads, as well as whetstones and other miscellaneous objects. Besides these, are beads, rings, studs, necklaces, &e., of jet; celts, daggers, awls, pins, &., of bronze; and a variety of articles in bone, including modelling tools, personal ornaments, lance and spear- heads, whistles (?), hammers, &c. Not a single article of gold has been found in any Celtic barrow opened in Derbyshire, but a few have been turned up by the plough. The pottery consists of cine- rary urns, food vessels, drinking cups, and the so-called incense cups. Mr. Jewitt considers that this pottery has been baked by the action of fire, and with regard to the “Incense Cups,” he thinks it probable that they were used to receive the ashes of infants sacri- ficed at the graves of adults—their mothers, for instance. The report of the Nottingham Meeting of the British Associa- . tion, which was published as usual twelve months after date, contains the ‘‘ Second Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, in Devonshire.” The facts made known up to the present time may be briefly summed up as follows:—The present floor of the cave was strewn with immense boulders, which had fallen from the roof, between and beneath which was a deposit of black mould or 1868. | Archeology and Ethnology. 63 mud, from three to twelve inches thick; beneath this was a stalag- mitic floor, graduating downwards into a firm stony breccia, and beneath this again a thick accumulation of “ cave-earth,” of unknown depth, including a large number of angular fragments of limestone, but without any indication of stratification. In the black mould have been found objects of human workmanship in slate, stone, bone, and bronze ; a few flint flakes, two fragments of plates of smelted copper, and numerous pieces of pottery. With them were asso- ciated bones of various existing animals, such as pig, deer, sheep, badger, fox, numerous rodents, &c.; pieces of charred wood, and shells of several kinds of snails. Few remains have been discovered in the stalagmitic floor; they consist of terrestrial and marine shells of existing species, and bones of various recent and extinct animals. In the caye-earth a large number of bones of extinct animals have been found, including Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Felis spelwa, Ursus speleus, and Hywna spelea; with these were discovered nearly one hundred flint implements, excluding doubtful specimens and mere chips. This cave-earth has been worked to the depth of four feet, and the Committee have kept a record of what was discovered in each level of one foot deep. The flint implements and bones were most numerous in the first foot below the stalagmite, and the implements of most elaborate workmanship were found in the lowest levels, of three and four feet deep; those from the four-foot level being “the most elaborately finished tools of the cavern series.” Speaking generally as to the relative abundance of implements in the levels, the Committee state that “up to this time each level has been rather less productive than those above it.” The ex- plorations of the Committee have been scrupulously made in those portions of the cavern which have not been disturbed by earlier investigators, whose statements they have been able to confirm in every particular, except the asserted occurrence of Machairodus and Hippopotamus, and human bones, which they have not yet met with. We look forward to reading the conclusions at which the Committee have arrived in a future report. In a pamphlet, entitled ‘ A Descriptive List of Flint Implements found at St. Mary Bourne, with Illustrations of the Principal Types,’ Mr. Joseph Stephens records (at p. 23) his discovery of a spot which had evidently been the scene of flint working during a long period, occupying a small space in an open field, known as Breach- field, on a hill near the village of St. Mary Bourne. In a few visits he succeeded in finding “more than 100 cores, about 200 arrow- head and spear-head flakes, a score of axes, besides a quantity of so-named scrapers, sling-stones, awls, drills, wedges, hammers, crushers, and a heap of pot-boilers.” He states that all the imple- ments are of the “ surface-type,” and mostly of very rude workman- 64 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., ship ; that they possess a “strong family likeness,” as if they were the work of a particular tribe or family ; and that they are diffused through the soil, fresh specimens appearing after heavy rains. An important work, entitled “ L’uomo fossile dell’ Italia Cen- trale,” by Signor Igino Cocchi, has been published in the third volume of the ‘Memoirs of the Italian Society of Natural Science.’ The author describes the Post-pliocene and Recent deposits of Cen- tral Italy, and the Pliocene strata of the Val d’Arno and Val di Chiana, with the fossil mammals, mollusks, and plants, obtained from the latter. The Recent deposits he divides into Modern, con- sisting of various alluvial formations, and an Ancient alluvium, yielding obsidian implements. The Post-pliocene deposits are di- vided into Upper and Lower, the former comprising the Loess as its upper member, without any fossils or human remains, but probably belonging to the Reindeer-period ; and as its lower member, various deposits known as the Diluvium of Central Italy, &., con- taining remains of Bos primigenius and_its variety B. trochoceros, &c., together with stone knives. The Lower Post-plocene strata are subdivided into an upper portion, consisting of ferruginous con- glomerate, &c., without human remains, but otherwise contaimmg similar fossils to the underlying deposit. The lower portion con- sists of lacustrine clays of great thickness, with layers of peat towards its superior margin; it contains bones of Hlephas primi- genius, Cervus ewryceros, Bison priscus, and a species (probably new) of Hquus; it has also yielded stone implements, and a human cranium, the latter from the plain of the Aretino. It is satisfactory to learn that at last a fossil human cranium has been discovered associated with remains of extinct animals in a true stratified de- posit, and whether this deposit be termed Lower Post-pliocene, or anything else, there seems little room for doubt that the cranium was imbedded contemporaneously with the remains of Hlephas pri- migenius, &c., and that Man lived in Italy contemporaneously with those animals. M. Pierre Béron has devoted a portion of the third volume of his ‘Physique céleste’ to a discussion, entitled “La Terre et Homme avant et aprés le Déluge.” So many wonderfully far- fetched ideas are crowded into 150 pages, that they would render the ancient cosmogonies commonplace by comparison. To Anthro- pologists this book will be a curious study, and will show them how very wild the imagination of a clever man can run ; beyond this we cannot see that it has any scientific value. Mr. Rose’s extensive collection of implements and weapons illus- trative of the Stone Age in Denmark has been exhibited in the museum of the Anthropological Society during the past month. It is perhaps more remarkable for the number of specimens it contains than for the variety of types illustrated, although in the latter respect also it has a certain value. 1868. | (2,683) 3. ASTRONOMY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society.) WE regret to have to record the death of three distinguished as- tronomers—Sir James South, Lord Wrottesley, and Lord Rosse. Sir James South was one of the founders of the Royal Astro- nomical Society, and for some time its President. We are indebted to him for a valuable catalogue of double stars, which he compiled in conjunction with Sir John Herschel. Of late, his great age and increasing infirmity have prevented him from taking any important part in furthering the progress of Astronomy ; but he has continued to take great interest in the science. Lord Wrottesley was also one of the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society. He received the Society's Gold Medal for his ‘ Catalogue of Stars.’ He was President of the Royal Society from 1854 to 1857. William Parsons, Earl of Rosse, was born in 1800. He took first-class mathematical honours at Oxford in 1822. In 1843 he presided over the meeting of the British Association. From 1849 to 1854 he was President of the Royal Society. He is chiefly celebrated for the ingenuity and mechanical ability displayed in the construction of the great Parsonstown reflecting telescope, In 1831, Lord Rosse had erected a telescope, one yard in diameter, and nine yards in focal length, smaller, but probably more efficient than Sir W. Herschel’s great reflector. Not only was the construc- tion of this instrument superintended by Lord Rosse, but he had worked upon the speculum with his own hands. Encouraged by the success of this instrument, he commenced the construction of a more gigantic telescope. The new instrument was fifty-two feet in focal length, and seven feet im diameter, with a six-feet speculum. It was first applied to the survey of the heavens in 1845. We could not spare one-tenth part of the space which would be required even to summarize the work of the great reflector. It must therefore suffice for us to say, with the late Professor Nichol, that “it has converted what was twilight into daylight and has penetrated into regions of space formerly enveloped in utter dark- ness.” It has also brought within our ken a new and wider circle of twilight, and has enlarged correspondingly our estimate of the unknown—-of the boundary of darkness lymg beyond the penum- bral band that encloses our “ cirele of light.” We were not favoured, as had been hoped and expected, with a display of the November shooting-stars. We hear of countless meteors having been seen in Paris, but the account is not confirmed by trustworthy authorities. In England there was certainly no display, though several shooting-stars were seen. We do not hear VOL. V. F 66 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., that a shower was seen in Canada or the United States, where it was supposed there was a more favourable prospect of a noteworthy display being observed. It is just possible that we may still hear of the shower having been seen in the eastern parts of Asia. But we must remember that the presence of the full moon was sufficient in any case to have prevented a large number of shooting-stars from being seen. or it was noticeable in the display of November 14, 1866, that most of the shooting-stars were not brighter than stars of the third magnitude, and as fixed stars of this magnitude can scarcely be seen on a hazy moonlit night, such as that of November 13-14, it seems probable that all the smaller shooting-stars would escape notice altogether. It is to be considered also that Jupiter has now been for several months in a position which brings his attraction to bear very efficiently on that part of the shooting-star system tra- versed by the earth in November. And as his influence acts now to sway the system outwards, it is far from being unlikely that the earth may have passed inside the ring of meteors, instead of through it as she did last year. The opinion we have seen expressed, that the absence of a great display ought to throw doubts on the general conclusions of astro- nomers respecting the November shooting-star system, is wholly erroneous. Even if it were absolutely certain that there had been no shower of falling-stars, all that could be learned from this would be what astronomers have long since inferred, that the band of small bodies forming the system is not continuous. A careful examination of the observations made upon Jupiter on August 21, when he was (apparently) without satellites, reveals some noteworthy results. The best observers differ as to the relative dimensions of the shadows of the third and fourth satellites. But it is remarkable that those who used refractors considered that the shadow of the fourth looked larger than that of the third satellite, or, where no comparison is directly instituted between the shadows, that the shadow of the fourth satellite seemed noticeably larger than the satellite itself. On the other hand, the best observers with reflectors, considered that the shadow of the third satellite was larger than that of the fourth. As it is readily demonstrable that the real shadow of the fourth was much smaller than that of the third, and the penumbra much larger, it seems to result that reflectors are less efficient than refractors in exhibiting faint shadows and half-lights. Even refractors, however, did not exhibit the distinction of tint between the penumbra and the true shadow. The dimness of the fourth satellite was a very noteworthy feature. It looked as dark, says Mr. Dawes, as its shadow, but smaller. One observer suggested even that the fourth satellite suffered eclipse by the third, during a part of the transit, but this certainly did not happen. At the time mentioned by this observer, 1868. | Astronomy. 67 the fourth satellite hid a small part of the third satellite’s shadow ‘on the disc,—but, of course, an eclipse of one satellite by another would be indicated by the coalescing of the two shadows, which did not and could not happen on August 21st last, since the apparent paths of the shadows across the disc were separated by a considerable interval. Lastly, a strange dark space divided by a narrow channel of light occupied one-half of the third satellite’s disc, and this space resembled one seen in 1860 by the same observer—Mr. Dawes— but was on the opposite side of the disc. This observation seems conclusively to overthrow Sir W. Herschel’s theory, that the satellites turn always the same face towards the planet, as our moon towards the earth. A strange amount of doubt still clings to the supposed discovery of volcanic action within the lunar crater Linné. At a late meeting of the Astronomical Society Captam Noble expressed the opinion that the changes supposed to have taken place in Linné are due entirely to variations in the state of the earth’s atmosphere, and of the moon’s illumination and libration. Mr. Buckingham, on the contrary, judged from his observations that real changes had taken place. On August 6, he detected a convexity in the white cloud, which after it entered the terminator appeared as an egg-shaped convex disc. On October 19, he saw parts of the whole ring and fragments of a broken ring with his 20-inch refractor. On Novem- ber 5, he could still see the summit of the small crater, which seemed larger than before. He considers that the crater is considerably larger than at the beginning of the year, and nearer the centre of the cloudy spot. Mr. De la Rue controverted the opinion expressed by Mr. Proctor, that photographs of the Moon afford evidence of change (the photographs referred to beg those by Messrs. De la Rue and Buckingham). ' At the same meeting the discussion of the circumstances attending the eclipse of the Moon on September 13, elicited from Mr. Buckingham the interesting statement that a portion of the unobscured part of the Moon was absent from the photographs. Mr. De la Rue, who has before observed this peculiarity, expressed its nature by saying that more of the Moon is eclipsed chemically than optically. It is perhaps hardly necessary that we should make even a passing reference to the so-called Newton and Pascal controversy. Never before, we imagine, has so barefaced an attempt been made to impose upon the scientific world. The chief care of the author of this contemptible affair appears to have been devoted to the con- centration of every possible absurdity and blunder within the range allotted to the correspondence he has been at the pains to invent. French scientific men, generally, have acted in this matter in a r 2 68 Chronicles of Science. [ Jan., manner very creditable to themselves. It is painful to have to note as an exception one eminent mathematician, who having assumed a false position, seems to be ashamed to withdraw from it. An annular eclipse of the sun will take place on February 23rd. It will be invisible at Greenwich, but the northern line of simple contact will pass very close to England, so that in the northern parts of France the eclipse will be visible as a partial one. Venus will be well situated for observation during the ensuing months, as an evening star. She will attain her greatest easterly elongation on May 6th. We have to announce the discovery of two more Asteroids, both detected by Professor Watson, of Ann Arbor (U.8.)—one on the 24th of August, the other on the 6th of September, 1867. The twenty-five inch object-glass, which has been for some time in the hands of Mr. Cooke, the eminent optician, is at length com- pleted. This is the largest refractor that has ever been constructed, and we may look for important discoveries through its application to the observation of celestial objects. For it has been shown satisfactorily that the object-glass is optically excellent. On Novem- ber 5th, 1867, the telescope was directed to the star y Andromede, and the small companion was seen distinctly divided, with the spurious discs of the three stars of this triple system perfectly round. “'T'o those who know what a telescope is,’ says the Pre- sident of the Astronomical Society, “and how the difficulties of making it are enormously increased with extension of aperture, this statement is enough.” He added that in his opinion there were several opticians in London who could make a glass of the same dimensions and optical accuracy, and that therefore it was quite unnecessary to seek out of England—as is frequently done— for any optical instrument whatever. Mr. Dawes has at length completed the list of double-star observations, which has been one of the results of his long and most valuable labours with the telescope. PROCEEDINGS oF THE RoyAL ASTRONOMICAL Society. Dr. Edmund Weise supplies an important and valuable paper on the total eclipse of August 17th, 1868. He has computed the position of the central line of the eclipse and of the limits of the totality, by Hansen’s formule. He finds that the shadow touches the earth near Gondar, in Abyssinia, crosses the Straits of Bab-el- Mandeb, including Perim, Mokha, and Aden ; leaves Arabia by the Cape Ras-Furtak, and enters the peninsula of India between Goa and Rajahpoor. We have already described the path of the shadow across India. The maximum duration of totality occurs in the 1868. | Astronomy. 69 Gulf of Siam, when it reaches on the central line no less than 6’ 50", the altitude of the sun being 873°. On its further progress, the shadow runs through Borneo, Celebes, the Islands Bouru, Am- boyna, Ceram, and the Arrou Archipelago; covers completely the southern part of New Guinea, and moves then towards the New Hebrides, where the totality begins at sunset. What renders this eclipse so important an object of attention to astronomers, is the fact that the totality lasts almost as long as is possible under any circumstances. For at the commencement the Moon will have just passed a perigee of uncommon proximity, and she reaches during the eclipse the ascending node of her orbit. Thus the eclipsed sun rises nearly to the zenith of those countries where the eclipse takes place at noon; and therefore the aug- mentation of the moon’s diameter (due to her altitude) is a maximum, and the rate at which the shadow sweeps over the surface of the earth is a minimum. ‘The result of the coincidence of all these favourable circumstances will be an eclipse without rival in the records of past eclipses. ‘There are to be found only two which may be compared in size with that of August 17, 1868, and none in which the totality lasts so long. ‘The first is the eclipse of Thales (May 28, 585 3.c.), said to have been the first predicted, and to have concluded a fierce engagment between the Medes and Lydians. The second was visible on June 17, 1435, in Scotland, and the time of its occurrence was long remembered by the people of that country as “the black hour.” But besides its enormous size, the eclipse deserves special atten- tion in another respect. In researches on the nature of the red protuberances and other phenomena visible during total solar eclipses, it would certainly be of the highest importance to learn something about the nature of changes to which these appearances may be subject. On a single place upon the shadow’s path, the time of visibility is too short to permit of the hope of perceiving processes of physical change in these objects; but it is far from being improbable that observations, obtained at several places along the line of totality, might afford the information we seek on this point. In the present instance the shadow touches a series of accessible regions, as we haye seen. It is also very probable that favourable weather will prevail at the time of observation. It would certainly be well that efforts should speedily be made to take advantage of so favourable an occasion for extending our knowledge of solar physics. Centuries will pass before we have such another opportunity. Turning to Major Tennant’s remarks on the subject of the same eclipse, we find that much has been done in the way of pre- paration. The Council of the Astronomical Society has decided that there should be provided for photography a silvered-glass reflector, 70 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., equatorially mounted and driven by clockwork. The Astronomer Royal also offered to lend Major Tennant two telescopes from the Royal Observatory. As respects Photography, the conditions as to time rendered it unadvisable to attempt to use a speculum of more than 9} inches diameter. The picture will be taken at the side of the tube, the telescope being a Newtonian one. Provision has been made to obtain a field of more than one degree in diameter, so that, if possible, some traces of the structure of the corona may be obtained in the photograph. The important difference between the position of an equatorial used in such low latitudes as the central parts of India and one used in our latitudes, have rendered new designs necessary for almost every part of the mounting. Hence many unavoidable delays have taken place with respect to this part of the arrangements. Measures have also been taken to apply tests for the polarization of light from the coloured protuberances and the corona, the follow- ing three methods being applicable :— 1st. The extinction of the polarized portion of the light by means of a Nicol’s prism, reducing the intensity of the image to a minimum. 2nd. Savart’s test, where parallel fringes are formed by the interference of the polarized rays, the central one being either dark or light, as its plane is in or perpendicular to the plane of polarization. 3rd. By a double-image prism and analyzing plate, giving images of complementary colours with polarized light. The first two of these tests can be instantaneously interchanged, and there is no difficulty in using all these tests successively in two minutes, For spectrum observations, the Astronomer Royal has lent Major Tennant one of the old collimators of the Transit-Circle at Green- wich Observatory. An equatorial mounting is bemg constructed for this, to follow any object steadily, but without clockwork. The spectroscope will allow of the spectrum being compared with a scale of equal parts, by means of which its peculiarities can be referred to the limes of the solar spectrum. All the estimates for the expenses of the proposed operations have been duly sanctioned. Mr. Proctor gives the elements of his new determination of the Rotation-period of the planet Mars. A comparison of pictures taken by Mr. Browning in February of the present year with Hooke’s observations in March, 1666—giving a period of nearly two hundred and one years—have enabled Mr. Proctor slightly to correct his former estimate—in obtaining which one or two small errors had crept in. He now gives for Mars’ sidereal day the 1868. | Astronomy. 71 period 24h. 37m. 23°73s., in place of the period 24h. 37m. 27°745s., first obtained. Mr. Cayley gives an expression for the angular distance of two planets, the sun being the centre of reference. Those who are inter- ested in questions of this sort, will be able to judge of the nature of the paper from the statement that,—v and v ' being the longi- tudes of the two planets in their orbits, $ and 4’ the longitudes of their nodes, and ¢ and ¢' their inclinations, then Mr. Cayley finds an expression for the required angular distance, in terms of cos (v—v'), sin (v—v'), cos (v+u'), and sin (vt v’), the coeffi- cients involving the quantities , 6', ¢, and 9’. Mr. Gill supplies a note on the Trapezium of Orion. He was able, with a good achromatic only 33 inches in aperture, to detect the exceedingly minute star 7 of the Trapezium. He also sus- pected the presence of a more minute star similar in R, A. to 9, and having the same declination as 3. It may be noticed in passing, that 6 of the Trapezium has been seen, with an achromatic only 3} inches in aperture, by Cooke. It appears that, after all, the variable T Coron, whose sudden appearance so startled the astronomical world in May, 1866, may have been visible before evening set in, in England, on May 12th. For Mr. Walter, surgeon of H.M.’s 4th Regiment, in North India, saw the star shining at least as brightly as Alphecca at eight o’clock on the evening of that day, an hour corresponding to about half- past two in the afternoon at Greenwich. It seems possible therefore that Mr. Stone was mistaken in rejecting the evidence given by Mr. Barker, of Canada ; evidence, however, which we are bound to say bore a very questionable appearance. Mr. Weston supplies a paper on the appearance of Jupiter’s satellites and their shadows when transiting Jupiter’s disc, on the evening of August 21st, 1867. He records the apparition of false satellites adjacent to the true ones, and distinct from the shadows. Such appearances, which have been observed by others, must, we think, be referred to optical delusion, since Mr. Dawes and other observers of the first class have failed to notice them. Mr. Weston, using a 9-inch Newtonian reflector, noticed that the shadow of the third satellite seemed larger than that of the fourth, an appearance which—as we have already said—seems to have been presented in almost every case, to observers who used reflecting telescopes. Mr. Leeson Prince, in a paper on the same phenomenon, calls attention to the fact that the remarkable darkness sometimes ob- served in the fourth satellite when transiting Jupiter’s disc, was observed and recorded nearly a century-and-a-half ago by Mr. J. Pound. This well-known astronomer took the satellite for its shadow, so dark was the former; and was surprised—soon after seeing the dark spot which he thus mistook—to see another and 72 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., darker shadow pass on to the planet’s disc. The first, when in the middle of the disc, was almost as dark as the second when near the edge of the limb, but somewhat less in size, “From which it is very plain,” he adds, “that the first of these spots was the fourth satellite itself, and the second its shadow. We have seen the first and second satellites appearing, not as dark spots, but as bright ones (somewhat differing from the light of Jupiter), for some little time after they have entered the disc; but as they approach the middle we lose sight of them; and we have frequently observed that the same satellites appeared brighter at some times than at others; and that when one of them hath shined with its utmost splendour, the light of another hath been considerably diminished. From whence it is very probable, at least, not only that the satel- lites revolve upon their proper axis, but also that some parts of their surfaces do very faintly—if at ali—refiect the solar rays to us,” an interesting passage, considering the date of the observation. 4. BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. AmericA.—Vibrios in Hot-water. Dr. Jeffries Wyman has been making some experiments on the appearance in hot-water of living organisms, which have some interest as touching upon spontaneous generation and some problems of Cryptogamic Botany. He con- cludes— 1. In thermal waters, plants belonging to the lower kinds of alge live in water, the temperature of which, in some instances, rises as high as 208° F. 2. Solutions of organic matter boiled for twenty-five minutes, and exposed only to air which had passed through iron tubes heated to redness, became the seat of infusorial life. 3. Similar solutions contained in flasks hermetically sealed, and then immersed in boiling water for periods varying from a few minutes to four hours, also became the seat of infusorial life. -The infusoria were chiefly Vibrios, Bacteriums, and Monads. 4. No ciliated infusoria, unless Monads are such, appeared in the experiments referred to in the above conclusions. 5. No infusoria of any kind appeared if the boiling was pro- longed beyond a period of five hours. 6. Infusoria having the faculty of locomotion, lost this when exposed in water to a temperature of from 120° to 134° F. 7. If Vibrios, Bacteriums, and Monads are added to a clear and limpid organic solution, this becomes turbid from their multiplica- tion in from one to two days. If, however, they have been previ- 1868. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 73 ously boiled, the solution does not become turbid until from one to two days later. The experiments of Dr. Child, of Oxford, and of other recent observers, are referred to by Dr. Wyman. Encianp.—A new Arctic Conifer. In the ‘ Journal of Botany,’ Mr. Andrew Murray describes the most northerly tree that has been met with on the north-west coast of America. It was found in the voyage of H.MS. ‘Herald,’ forming forests on the banks of the rivers Noatak and Buckland, on the American side of Behring’s Straits. This latitude is nearly seven degrees farther north than the limits of the woods on the eastern side of the American conti- nent. This tree was described originally by Dr. Seeman as a variety of Abies alba, but Mr. Murray thinks that certain differences in the bract of the scale warrant a separation, and calls the new species Abies arctica. The desolate country where this tree is found is thus described by Dr. Seeman :—* There is nothing to relieve the monotony of the steppes. A few stunted Coniferous and Willow trees afford little variety, and even these, on passing the boundary _of the frigid zone, are either transformed into dwarf bushes or dis- appear altogether. About Norton Sound groves of White Spruce trees and Salia speciosa are frequent ; northwards they become less abundant, till in latitude 66° 44' north, on the banks of the Noatak, Pinus alba disappears.” An Edible Fungus from Tahiti.—Mr. Brander, of Tahiti, gives an account of a fungus which is largely exported to Sydney. It is found principally in the Society and Leeward Islands, on decayed trees. The Tahitians call it “Teria iore” (¢.e. “ rat’s ear”), from a fanciful resemblance of shape. The fungus first began to be col- lected in 1863, and fetches in China, where it is much esteemed and made into soups, from eighteen to twenty cents a pound. Excellent articles (chiefly technical) occur in the same number of the ‘Journal of Botany, on the Plants cultivated or naturalized in the valley of Caracas, and on the staple products of Jamaica. Weeds and their Characteristics——Dr. Henry Trimen has made some very sensible remarks on the use of the term “ weed,” in reply to some observations on the same point by Dr.Seeman. Dr.Seeman says that a weed signifies a naturalized herb, which has a soft and membranaceous look, grows fast, propagates its kind with great rapidity, and spreads to the prejudice of endemic or cultivated plants, in places in some way or other disturbed by the agency of man. Dr. Trimen urges that the popular idea of a weed 1s any plant, irrespective of origin or appearance, occurring in culti- vated ground, in addition to, and therefore more or less interfering with and injurious to the crop intended to be grown. ‘This is the idea of a weed in the mind of horticulturists and farmers, and as it is sufficiently definite Dr. Trimen objects to the restricted sense 74 Chronicles of Scrence. | Jan., civen by Dr. Seeman. The essential thing about a weed is, that it is out of place. A sunflower in a field of turnips is as much a weed as Brassica napus in a flower-garden, but reverse their situations, and the term is inapplicable to either. So when waste land, such as a heath, is enclosed and brought under cultivation, the species composing its original flora become weeds in the new fields. With regard to the term “weedy” Dr. Trimen thinks that it means something more than “soft and membranaceous,” many weeds being quite the reverse of this. From the situation of many “ weeds” in rich and manured soil, and amongst other and taller plants, they acquire a luxuriant and rapid growth and a straggling habit. It is these characters which are especially implied in the term according to the old proverb, “ Ill weeds grow apace.” Htymologically no doubt, as Dr. Trimen and others before him have remarked, “weed” is connected with the Anglo-Saxon “wedd,” which means clothing or covering either of earth or man. Hence our expression “ widow’s weeds.” Fungi and Gregarines in the Hair.—A somewhat acrimonious correspondence on the chignon parasite has been going on in the ‘ Jourual of Botany’ between Dr. Beigel and Dr. Tilbury Fox. After the occurrence of small organic growths on prepared hair had attracted public attention, Dr. Beigel appears to have obtained specimens of the parasite, and sent them to the distinguished Ger- man algologists, Rabenhorst and Kiichenmeister. These gentlemen named the little plant—which is the simplest possible aggregation of highly refracting minute cells—Plewrococcus Beigelii—and Dr. Beigel related what they had done in the ‘Journal of Botany.’ Dr. Tilbury Fox, who is known as an observer and writer of great ability on skin diseases, published his opmion that the specific or even generic distinction of the parasite could not be maintained, and that like other fungoid growths, it was a function of the nidus rather than of the spore from which it sprang. The consequence has been a reiteration of the distinctiveness of his Plewrococeus by Dr. Beigel. The term Gregarine was unfortunately made use of by Lindemann, originally, in speaking of this growth; it is really, as admitted both by Drs. Fox and Beigel, most inappropriate— Gregarine being indubitably animals, and of endo-parasitic habit. Mr. John Bishop has described another case of Fungoid disease affecting the hair, to the Edinburgh Botanical Society. This occurred in the hair of the beard which, under its influence, broke off short, curling up and assuming a dried-up appearance as though singed. It appeared to be almost impossible to extirpate the fungus. Examination with the microscope showed a cellular fungus-growth within the hair—causing the destruction of the part by disrupting ‘it from within. Sporules and mycelium branching among the broken fibres of the hair are occasionally to be seen. 1868.] | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 75 Gases in Plants.—Messrs. Faivre and Dupré have experimented on this subject and submitted their results to the Edinburgh Bo- tanical Society. They examined more especially the mulberry and the vine, and have arrived at the following conclusions:—1. The presence of gases in the interior of the root, stem, and branches in the mulberry and vine is a normal and constant fact. 2. The com- position of these gases changes with the epochs of vegetation. 3. During the period of inactivity, carbonic acid is in very small pro- portion, and is scarcely appreciable. Oxygen is present to the same extent as in atmospheric air. During the phase of activity the con- trary takes place, and the changes are more marked in proportion as the vegetation is more energetic; with the progress of vegetation, the proportion of oxygen diminishes. 4. In the roots during the epoch of vegetation, the quantity of oxygen is not so great, while that of carbonic acid is greater than in the branches examined under the same circumstances. 5. In the branches, as well as in the roots, there is an inverse relation between the oxygen and the carbonic acid; by adding to the normal oxygen that disengaged under the form of carbonic acid, we obtain a number which is scarcely above the proportion of oxygen in the air. 6. In the mulberry and vine, injections do not penetrate the pith or the bark, whether in the branches or roots. The ligneous layers are alone permeable to mercury. The more the formation of the vessels increases, the easier and more complete are the injections. ‘The injections are fuller in the roots than in the branches; they are also more in the branches than in the young herbaceous shoots. In the old stems of . the mulberry, the central layers cease to be permeable. 7. Micro- scopic examination proves that the injection specially penetrates the pitted and reticulated vessels, and also the spiral vessels in the young herbaceous shoots. 8. The pitted vessels show distinctly the mer- cury in the areolz, as if in so many little pouches formed by thin portions of the wall; the same observations have been made in re- gard to the reticulated vessels. France.—Absorption by the Roots of Plants—It is still a vexed question as to how far the roots, of plants absorb certain elements of their food, such as carbonic acid. M. Corenwinder has applied himself to the solution of this problem, believing that very rash state- ments as to the functions of the roots have been lately made by M. Boussingault and others. He states it as his conviction that plants have not the power of absorbing carbonic acid from the soil by their roots, or that at least the quantity which permeates the tissues from this source represents but a very small proportion of the total amount of carbon their tissues contain. Boussingault stated that in the air contained in an ordinary soil he found no less than ten per cent. of carbonic acid. M. Corenwinder asks what is the source of this large quantity of gas, and replies that it atises from the mass of decom- 76 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., posing organic matter, leaves, &c., which in the processes of agricul- ture and by the influence of the earth-worm, &c., become embedded in the soil. M. Corenwinder, however, does not say what becomes of this carbonic acid. Liebig and other chemists answer the question better in showing that the carbonic acid is taken up by water which percolates through the soil, and that it is then used in eroding rocks and dissolving up otherwise insoluble mineral matters. Aériferous Vesicles of the Utricularie.—S. B. Schnetzler pub- lishes an account in the ‘Annals of Natural History, of these curious appendages to the leaves. The genus Utricularia consists of aquatic plants which are found in the stagnant waters of ditches, marshes, &e. The leaves are submerged and divided into fine lacinz furnished with the remarkable utricles. De Candolle states that when the plant is young these vesicles are filled with a mucilage which is heavier than water, and the plant held down by this ballast remains at the bottom. Towards the period of flowering, the leaves secrete a gas which makes its way into the utricles and drives out the mucilage by raising an operculum or lid with which the utricles are furnished. The plant thus becomes furnished with a multitude of air-bladders, and rises slowly and at last floats at the surface. After flowering in the air, the mucilage is again secreted and the plant sinks again to ripen its seeds below water. M. Schnetzler has carefully inves- tigated the morphology and history of these organs, and concludes that they play the part at once of organs of respiration and of a hydrostatic apparatus. The organs do not appear at a given mo- ment and for a particular purpose, but as a natural consequence of the anatomical structure of the plant and the action of the sur- rounding medium. After some philosophical generalizations the author observes, “The totality of the forms in which life manifests itself upon the earth, during a given epoch, appears to us like a magnificent mosaic, of which the different pieces brought together mutually determine their nature.” The Fall of Leaves—Dr. Maxwell Masters has recently dis- cussed this subject in a very seasonable article in the ‘ Popular Science Review.’ It appears from the researches of M. Trécul (published in the ‘Comptes Rendus’) and others, that in many plants a phenomenon occurs just before the fall of the leaf, which is not unlike the process which accompanies the shedding of horns in animals. It consists in the obstruction of the proper vessels at the base of the petiole or leaf-stalk. This obstruction is caused by the multiplication of cells, which first occurs in the parietes of the vessels. The cells increase and multiply, till at last the vessels are completely choked up in the neighbourhood of the insertion of the leaf, and thus a differentiated plane is formed, across which the leaf- stalk breaks, and the leaf accordingly falls. Movements of the Sensitive Plant—M. Bert and M. de Blon- 1868. | Chemistry. oy deau have published accounts of some investigations into this highly interesting matter in the ‘ Comptes Rendus.’ It is to be regretted that more critical examinations of the phenomena of movement in the higher plants have not been made. M. Bert shows that the natural and regular movement of the leaves, which takes place in the Sensitive plant, is produced by a different cause from that to - which the sudden contraction is due when the plant is touched by the fingers. M. Blondeau’s observations are exceedingly curious, and are well worth further examination. He submitted three plants to the influence of an electric current from a Ruhmkorff’s coil. The first he acted on for five minutes; when left to itself, the plant seemed prostrated, but after a quarter-of-an-hour, the leaves opened, and it seemed to recover itself. The second specimen was acted on for ten minutes. The specimen was prostrate for an hour, after which it slowly recovered. The third specimen was galvanized for twenty-five minutes, but it never recovered, and in twenty-four hours it had the appearance of a plant struck by lightning. A fourth plant was etherized and then exposed to the current. Strange to say, the latter had not any effect, the leaves remained straight and open ; thus proving, says M. Blondeau, that the mode of the con- traction of the leaves of the Sensitive plant is in some way allied to the muscular contraction of animals. 5. CHEMISTRY. (Including the Proceedings of the Chemical Society.) Among the papers calling for special mention this quarter are those by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, “On the Production of Formic Aldehyde.” The method by which the author has succeeded in forming this hitherto unknown body was shown at a meeting of the Chemical Society, and will be described in our Report of the Proceedings. Other papers of great scientific value have been communicated by the same author to the Royal Society, “On the Homologues of Prussic Acid.”* These also were briefly referred to at the meeting of the Chemical Society. Dr. E. Schunck has also contributed to the Royal Society a valuable series of papers “ On the Chemistry of Urine.” These, as well as the paper by Dr. Hofmann, do not admit of abridgment, and we must refer our readers interested in the subjects to the Proceedings of the Royal Society.t The past quarter has not been marked by any specially inter- esting discovery, and but few facts call for notice. M. EK. Duclauxt * ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xvi., p. 144. 7 Vol. xvi., p. 73. I ‘Comptes Rendus,’ t. lxv., p. 1099. 78 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., has noticed the formation of what he believes to be a Hydrate of Sulphide of Carbon. If a little water is placed on a glass plate, and a watch-glass full of the bisulphide is set in the midst and then blown upon, the water soon congeals, and the watch-glass is filled with snow-white flakes of the supposed hydrate. A lighted coal brought to the snowy mass sets fire to the bisulphide, which burns away, leaving the water with which it had united. The author has several times determined the amount of the water, and finds it to be constant, and just the quantity required by the formula 2 C §,, H, O. The formation of this substance, we may add, is easily shown in another way. Ifa stream of the bisulphide is made to trickle down a piece of loose twine, the twine quickly becomes covered with a thick crust resembling hoar-frost. ‘The substance, whatever it may be, rapidly evaporates, leaving the twine perfectly dry. A new process for the production of sulphuric acid has been patented in France, and probably in England, by MM. Tardani and De Susini. Its great recommendation is that it dispenses with the large leaden chambers necessary to the English process. We must refer our readers to the source indicated below* for full particulars, and need only say that the Sulphur or Pyrites is burned in com- pressed air, and the sulphurous acid is first washed to free it from arsenic and other contaminations, and is then brought in contact with the nitric vapours in a small leaden chamber of peculiar construction. ‘The reactions are precisely the same as in the old mode: the apparatus, however, it is said, occupies forty times less space, and an acid is obtained free from the ordinary impurities. A new process for the manufacture of Soda has also been patented in France by M. Kessler. As in Leblanc’s process, the imventor starts with common salt. This is intimately mixed with sesquioxide of chromium, either alone or with peroxide of man- ganese, and then roasted in a current of steam. The result is the evolution of hydrochloric acid, and the formation of chromate of soda. When the evolution of hydrochloric acid has ceased, the charge is drawn from the furnace, mixed with a proportion of charcoal or coal, and then reburnt. In this way the chromate of soda is converted into carbonate with the reproduction of sesquioxide of chromium. The soda is separated by lixiviation, and the sesqui- oxide is reserved for a future operation. Two other technical processes deserve a short notice. One is for the extraction of indigo from rags dyed with that substance. The rags are first saturated with a weak solution of caustic soda, then placed in a boiler with a double bottom, and exposed for some hours to steam at 45lbs. pressure. The indigo in the rags is * «Bulletin de la Société Chimique de Paris,’ Oct., 1867, p. 295. 1868. | Chemistry. 79 reduced, and may be washed out. It may afterwards be pre- cipitated from the soda solution, and recovered in a state equal to the best commercial sort. Another inventor proposes to shorten the time of dyeing Turkey-red, by a previous oxidation of the oil used. This M. Bernard effects by heating the oil to 95° C. with a solution of chlorate of potash, and adding very gradually oxalic acid. The mixture is afterwards boiled for some hours. The oxidized oil, it is said, may be employed alone or in the form of an emulsion. In connection with technical chemistry, we may mention the publication of a valuable paper “On the Cumberland Hematite Ores,” by Dr. E. J. Tosh.* A very delicate test for hyposulphite of soda has been published by Mr. Carey Lea.t A very dilute, but rather strongly acid, solution of sesquichloride of Ruthenium is first rendered alkaline by ammonia, and then boiled with the suspected solution. If hyposulphite be present, the liquid assumes a red colour, which varies in intensity according to the amount of hyposulphite. A solution containing one four-thousandth gives a clear rose-red; one containing a twelve-thousandth, a well-marked pink colour. A strong solution gives a colour so intense as to appear almost black. Such a test will be highly appreciated by photographers; but, unfortunately, ruthenium is yet a very rare metal. PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL SocrIETY. The first meeting of the present season was held on November 7. After the adoption ‘of an address of condolence to Mrs. Faraday, Mr. W. H. Perkin read a paper “On the Action of Acetic An- hydride upon the Hydrides of Salicyl, Ethly-Salicyl, &c.” A paper by Messrs. Chapman and Smith, ‘On Nitrous and Nitric Ethers,” was next read. It gave an account of the methods adopted by the authors for preparing the nitrates and nitrites of methyl, ethyl, and amyl, and described the reactions and decompositions which these bodies undergo when treated in a digestion apparatus with metals, acids, and other re-agents. The most interesting part of the com- munications was the description of an easy mode of preparing nitrate ~of amyl in large quantities. ‘Three measures of a mixture of one part of nitric and two sulphuric acid are placed in a beaker set in a freezing mixture, and to these is added very slowly one measure of amylic alcohol. The addition is best made with the aid of a dropping funnel, the stem of which, reaching nearly to the bottom of the mixture of acids, serves as a ‘stirrer. ‘The nitrate of amyl is * “Chemical News,’ Oct. 18-25, 1867. + ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ Sept. 1867; and ‘ Chemical News,’ Oct, 25. 80 Chronicles of Science. [ Jan., produced without apparent action, and forms an oily layer on the surface of the acids. This is separated, washed with warm water, and rectified over chloride of calcium. The nitrate of amyl thus obtained is a colourless liquid, which boils at 147°-148° C., and at 7° or 8°C. has the same density as water. The inhalation of its vapour produces severe headache and other distressing symptoms. Mr. Robert Warington then gave a short account of a long series of experiments, undertaken to determine the part taken by Oxide of Iron and Alumina in the Absorptive Action of Soils. The results may be summed up in a few words. Ferric oxide and alumina were found to withdraw nearly all the phosphoric acid from a carbonic aqueous solution of tricalcic phosphate. Hence the author believes that all the phosphoric acid applied to land in the shape of manure must ultimately become converted into phosphates of these bases; and, if sufficient iron is present, by preference into phosphate of iron. The absorptive action of the soil is thus seen to be dependent upon chemical affinity, and not upon physical attrac- tion. As regards potassium and corresponding ammonium salts, it was found that the absorption was much greater in the cases of the phosphates, sulphates, and carbonates than with the chlorides and nitrates. A discussion followed, in which Professor Way and Drs. Voelcker and Gilbert joined. The accuracy of Mr. Warington’s results was not contested; but it seemed to be a general opinion that laboratory experiments of the kind described threw but little light on what happens in soils as they exist. Dr. Voelcker re- marked that there was a remarkable tendency in nature for the soil to take care of itself; and if there should happen to be a deficiency of any one ingredient, it was quickly remedied by prior selection from a mixture of materials presented in the shape of manure. Dr. Gilbert agreed in believing that soils have almost an instinct to guide them as to what they should do. ‘The next communication was “ An Analysis of the Water of the Holy Well, a Medicinal Spring at Humphrey Head, North Lanca- shire,” by Mr. T. E. Thorpe. The water in question contains 508°5 grains of salts in a gallon, of which 331:75 grains is chloride of sodium, 88°49 grains calcium sulphate, 9°17 potassium sulphate, 24°39 grains sodium sulphate, and 43°48 grains magnesium chloride. The other ingredients need not be quoted. An abstract of a paper by Dr. Wanklyn and Mr. A. Gamgee was next read. It was “On the Action of Permanganate of Potash on Urea, Ammonia, and Acetamide in strongly Alkaline Solutions.” From the results obtained by the authors, it would seem that when artificial urea is heated in a pressure tube with a liboral amount of potash and permanganate, little or no oxidation takes place, and 1868. | Chemistry. 81 nearly all the nitrogen is liberated in the form of gas. Ammonia under the same circumstances is completely changed to nitrate, and acetamide to nitrate or nitrite. The last paper of the evening was also by Professor Wanklyn, and entitled “A Verification of Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith’s Water Analysis on a Series of Artificial Waters.” A short account of the method of analysis pursued by these gentlemen will be found at page 532 of our last volume. The verification consisted in sub- mitting pure water containing known amounts of albumen and urea to the treatment there described. In the case of albumen, mere traces of ammonia were obtained on the distillation with carbonate of soda, and only an amount corresponding to two-thirds of the nitrogen in the final distillation with caustic potash and perman- ganate. In the case of pure urea, little or no ammonia was procured on distillation with carbonate of soda, and the addition of alkaline permanganate did not induce the evolution of more than one-fourth the nitrogen in the form of ammonia. The author stated, however, that when urea is present with albumenoid matter, as in a natural water, the surrounding impurities start the reaction, and much of the ammonia (-37 out of -46) can be obtained by long boiling with carbonate of soda. At the meeting held on November 21st, Mr. E. T. Chapman made a verbal communication “On the Relation between the Results of Water Analysis and the Sanitary Value of Water.” He said that a drinking water should contain no ammonia. Lime- salts he did not consider injurious; and water with nitrates in solu- tion, but otherwise pure, he believed to be harmless. But when these ingredients were found in a water together, such water favoured the development of the lower forms of animal and vegetable life, and if kept in a cistern quickly acquired purgative properties. He had verified the latter statement by experiments on pigeons, and con- firmed the results by experiments on the human system. He argued the necessity of observing the relations between the several ingredients in a water before pronouncing an opinion upon its sanitary value. He also recommended the extended use of Clark’s softening process as a means of removing the most objectionable forms of organic matter in waters containing carbonate of lime ; fully six-sevenths of the nitrogenous matter would be carried down with the precipitated carbonate of lime. In the course of the discussion Mr. Dugald Campbell stated that water containing much nitrate and carbonate of lime was astringent rather than purgative; and Dr. Stevenson said he had examined water of which cholera patients had partaken, and found no organic matter. Mr. Spiller mentioned that water softened by Dr. Clark’s process did not permit the growth of vegetable organisms; and VOL. V. @ 82 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., Mr. Abel explained that this resulted from the entire absence of free carbonic acid. Dr. Gladstone afterwards read a paper “On the Pyropho- sphoric Amides.” At the meeting of December 5th, Mr. W. H. Perkin read a paper “On the Artificial Production of Coumarine,” which was a detailed account of the researches briefly referred to at page 400 of our last volume. It was there stated that by the action of acetic anhydride on the hydride of sodium salicyl, the author had obtained a product completely identical with the natural coumarine extracted from the Tonquin bean. A most remarkable fact established by the extended researches of the author is, that by acting on the hydride of sodium salicyl with homologous anhydrides, such as butyric and valerie, other coumarines are obtained, which differ in composition exactly as the anhydrides, but agree in possessing in a greater or less degree the same odour, and behave, chemically, precisely the same as the natural coumarine. For the theoretical considerations we must refer our readers to the chemical journals. Professor Church then made a preliminary communication on a Singular Colouring Matter obtained from some Feathers of a Bird of the Touraco family. This bird has crimson feathers in its wings, and it has been observed by ornithologists that rain washes the red colour out. This statement has been confirmed by the experiments of Mr. Church, which show that the colouring matter of the bar- bioles is really soluble in water, and particularly in water rendered slightly alkaline. An acid precipitates the colouring matter from the alkaline solution, and when separated it is found to be insoluble in alcohol and ether, and to resist the action of acids, short of com- pletely destructive agents. On incinerating some of this colouring matter, Mr. Church made the still more extraordinary discovery that it contains a large proportion of copper. The absorption spectrum of the coloured solution differs but little from that of arterial blood. Mr. Church is continuing his investigations, and will give a further account of the substance at a future meeting. A short paper, by Mr. J. Willams, on the Preparation of Arti- ficial Urea, was then read. The author finds that cyanate of lead digested at a gentle heat with sulphate of ammonia is the most convenient means to employ. The urea or cyanate of ammonia is of course easily separated from the sulphate of lead. Dr. A. W. Hofmann, whose appearance was welcomed with acclamations, then showed some Lecture Experiments to the meet- ing. The first illustrated the formation of methylic aldehyde.* This body has only been recently obtained. Former attempts to procure it from methylic alcohol have only resulted in complete * See ‘ Chemical News,’ Dec. 6, 1867, p. 285. ——————— rl 1868. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 83 oxidation, and the production of formic and acetic acids. Dr. Hof- mann showed, however, that by suspending a heated platinum spiral over warmed methylic alcohol and sending a current of air through the bottle, a limited oxidation of the vapour of the wood-spirit took place with the production of a body, the chemical behaviour of which left little doubt of its being true methylic aldehyde. The next experiment illustrated the fact discovered by Cloez, that ammonia is transformed into prussic acid by the action of chloroform. The speaker showed that when chloroform is heated with alcoholic ammonia and caustic potash, chloride and cyanide of potassium are produced. It was also shown that all the primary monamines lend themselves to a similar reaction. The experiment was made with aniline, by means of which a body isomeric with benzonitrile is produced. It possesses an intensely disagreeable odour, which is common, it seems, to all bodies of its class.* It would not be right to conclude the Proceedings of the Che- mical Society for the past year without noticing the decease of Mr. R. Warington, F.BR.S., F.C.S. He was one of the founders, and we believe it may be said with truth, the projector of the Chemical Society ; and in the early days of the Society one of its most active members. Mr. Warington was well known as one of the most able practical chemists of the day. He died on November 12th, 1867, aged sixty. 6. ENGINEERING—CIVIL AND MECHANICAL. Tue depression in all matters of private enterprise, to which we have on former occasions referred, still continues, and the Engineering profession will for many a long year remember the financial crisis of 1866-67. The price of all railway stocks con- tinues to be quoted at a very considerable discount, but we think we see at last a slight glimmer on the horizon, the forerunner of more prosperous days. New railway companies in this country would scarcely meet with a shadow of support, and, consequently, the Bills before Parliament include but very few relating to such works. Two Metropolitan Extensions in London and a revival of the attempt to construct tramways, to be worked by animal power, through the principal thoroughfares north and south of the Thames, constitute, we believe, the most important part of that class of Bill. But although few new works of any importance have actually been commenced during the past quarter, several have been successfully completed, others are still in active progress, and many new projects have been determined on. * «Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xvi., p. 144. a 2 84. Chronicles of Science. [Jan., Amongst the most important events connected with railway construction we may mention that the last connecting link of the extensive system of high-level lines at Battersea, which has been in course of construction since 1864, to improve the access to the Victoria Station, London, was opened for traffic in October last. The works on the Metropolitan Extension Railway are making good progress. The East London Railway from Liverpool Street, in- cluding the junction on the south side of the Thames, will be seven and a half miles long, and is to cost 1,866,0002. In Scotland, the Denburn Junction Railway, connecting the Caledonian line with the Great North of Scotland system at Aberdeen, has been opened for public traffic. This line is only a mile and a half in length, but by its means there is now an un- broken communication between the extreme north and south of the kingdom. In October last the Mont Cenis Tunnel was advanced 131°85 metres, or upwards of 140 yards; and up to the 31st of that month 7,664 metres had been excavated, leaving 4,555 metres to be done to complete the work. The progress during the first ten months of the present year was 1,329 metres against 1,094 metres excavated during the whole of 1866. If the rate attained during October can be kept up, this tunnel would be completed in 1870. The Italian Government has been pushing forward the con- struction of a line to unite Marseilles, Genoa, and Leghorn, vid the littoral of the Mediterranean, and it was expected that a section, from Genoa to Chiavari, would be opened for traffic in the course of last November. The works of the Foggia line and the port of Brindisi have been recently inspected by the Italian Minister of Public Works ; a considerable portion of the Foggia line, it is said, might be opened in December, but obstacles are feared. The Baden Government has recently brought out a loan of 12,000,000 thalers, or nearly 2,000,0002. for railway purposes. Great activity continues to be displayed in connection with the development of railways in Russia. Three important sections have been opened of late, vz. from Odessa to Tiraspol, from Warsaw to Tiraspol, and from Balta to Obriopol. The concession has been eranted of a line from Poti to Tiflis, while surveys have been commenced for another line from Rostow, on the Don, to the Black Sea. And a line is to be constructed, at the cost of the State, from Koursk to Karkhow and the Sea of Azoff. An extension of privileges has recently been granted by the Government of New Granada to the New York Panama Railroad Company. This company, it is said, will now extend the road two or three miles out into the Bay of Panama, so that the largest ships and steamers may load and discharge alongside the track. There has been a good deal of talk of late about public works 1868. | Enginecring—Civil and Mechanical. 85 in Turkey. The concession of a railway from Belgrade to Con- stantinople has been under consideration, as well as the construction of roads in Roumelia and Anatolia. A Franco-Belgian Company is said to be assured of a contract for docks at Constantinople, and the concession of the Roumelian Railways has been given to M. Van der Elss, of Brussels, who is to construct 450 kilometres of it before issuing any shares as bonds. In India the past quarter has been conspicuous rather for the destruction than the construction of railway works. The great viaduct on the Bhore Ghaut suddenly collapsed, owing to imperfect construction, and many other bridges on the Great Indian Peninsula, and the Bombay, Baroda, and Central Indian Railways have been destroyed by the unusually high floods of the past season. Through communication between Calcutta and Bombay, vid Jubbulpore and Nagpore, has been so far completed that it can now be effected in 116 hours. The only break of railway is between Jubbulpore and Nagpore, which, however, may be travelled by dak gharry in 36 hours. It was expected that the north-west line of the Madras Railway would be opened as far as Gooty, some time last month. The works in connection with the construction of a tunnel under the River Indus, at Attock, have been ordered to be continued ; but it has not yet been determined to continue the railway com- munication trom Lahore to Peshawur. The Ceylon Railway was opened for goods traffic on 16th September last. In Telegraphy we note the successful laying of the new cable between Placentia, Newfoundland, and North Sydney, Cape Breton ; thus completing a new route from Nova Scotia to the Atlantic Cables, by which the Newfoundland land-lines are avoided. The Florida and Cuba Cable is at last at work, and it is now proposed to carry a line from the northern frontier of Florida to the port of Cherrara, situated at some leagues to the west of Havannah; various branch- lines are also contemplated. Mr.{W. 'T. Henley, of North Wool- wich, has successfully laid the Submarine Telegraph Company’s cable from the South Foreland to La Paune, a small fishing-village in Belgium, close to the French frontier. The cable is a very heavy one, containing four conducting wires. All the principal police stations, and the principal station of the Fire Brigade in Watling Street, London, have at last been connected with the Chief Office in Whitehall by means of the telegraph. The new Waterworks at Port Glasgow were opened with some ceremony on 15th October last. They consist of a large reservoir near the farm-stead of Leperstone, and a large filter and tank at the farm at Parkhill. The works are capable of supplying 12,000 people with 30 gallons of water a head per day. The waterworks for the town of Jedburgh are now in an advanced state; the reservoir at Blackburn is completed with the exception of the 86 Chronicles of Sctence. [Jan., roofing, and the pipe track is finished. The tunnel through the Old Red Sandstone seam above Allar’s Mill was completed early in November, and the distributing reservoir at the top of Castlegate is being proceeded with. The only drawback now is the Castle Hill tunnel, which has all along been a source of great anxiety to the contractors. A company is to be shortly started for giving an improved water supply to Lisbon. It is proposed to brmg to Lisbon the waters of the river Alviella by a canal 65 miles long. By this means it is calculated that a supply of 75 gallons a head per day will be assured to the population, which at presents amounts to 220,000 souls. It is stated that contracts have already been let for the materials for the new bridge over the Niagara river. Its dimensions will be as follows:—height of towers 105 feet, width of span 1,250 feet, height above the water 175 feet, width of roadway 10 feet. A lattice-girder bridge has recently been erected across the Whitadder, about four miles from Berwick, the wooden one having been con- demned ; the estimated cost was upwards of 3,530/. A new iron bridge is also to be erected over the Clyde in room of the Hutcheson- town stone bridge. The Shipbuilding Trade on the Clyde has recovered in a wonderful degree, during the past quarter, from its recent de- ression. Several merchant vessels have been launched. Messrs. Hsbatt Napier and Co. have commenced the construction of two iron-plated ships for the British Government; they have also in course of construction one iron ram, with a cupola for carrymg two heavy guns, and a monitor for the Danish Government. A gunboat for the British Government has also been commenced at the yard of Messrs. Randolph, Elder, and Co. Messrs. Palmer and Co., of Jarrow, have undertaken the construction of an armour-plated monitor for the English Government; this vessel will be fitted with engines of 250 horse-power, which will also be supphed by the same firm. The great event of the quarter with reference to dock con- struction has certainly been the opening of one of the Barrow-in- Furness Docks on 19th September. ‘The site of the town of Barrow is separated by a channel from a small island, called Old Barrow Island, which forms the extreme point of the coast against the Walney channel, at its narrowest part, opposite the church on the Isle of Walney. This channel affords a dock accommodation of 105 acres in area, and it has been made use of for the construction of the new docks made by the Furness Railway Company. The first of these, called Devonshire Dock, with an area of thirty acres, and a stone quay of 2,500 feet in length, is the only one yet com- pleted ; while the second basin, Buccleuch Dock, has only been finished as far as the stone quay on one side is concerned. These 1868. ] Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 87 docks comprise 14 miles in length of stone quays, and wharves of an area of 100 acres in extent. On 3rd October a new dock was opened at Belfast, which consists of a large basin 700 feet long by 700 feet wide, called the Abercorn Basin, in which is a new graving dock 450 feet long by 80 feet wide at the coping, and 50 feet wide at the bottom. A new slip has been constructed at Messrs. Inglis’ ship-building yard, which is the largest slip on the Clyde. It is 850 feet in length, and capable of accommodating ships up to 2,000 tons measurement, and draw- ing up to 16 feet forward. It is worked by at wenty-horse power engine and a hydraulic ram. The British Fishery Company are engaged in the construction of a new harbour on a large scale in the Bay of Wick. This work has now been going on for some years, but owing to the great depth of water in which the breakwater is founded (about 30 feet at low water), and the interruption to the work in consequence of the heavy seas raised by easterly winds, the progress is slow, being only about 200 feet per annum. It is proposed to spend a sum of 15,0002. on improvements of the river Ribble, so as to render it navigable for vessels of a large size, and in the construction of wet docks. A commencement has at last been made with the long contemplated docks at Lynn. The chief portion of the land required for the works has been pur- chased or arranged for, and the excavation of the diversion of the Fisher Fleet is well advanced. Works undertaken at Harwich, with a view to the improvement and protection of the harbour, have been attended with the best results. Already about four acres of the “beach end” have been washed away, and vessels of light draught can now enter the harbour at high water by the old lead- ing marks. At Brindisi it has at length been determined to form a dry dock 120 metres in length; the works are to be thrown open to competition, and offers are to be made under the obligation of con- structing the basin sufficiently large to receive vessels of 2,000 tons. Important works are being executed at Barcelona, the most considerable port of Spain on the Mediterranean. The depth of water is being increased to 33 feet, and the port will be protected by two jetties, to the east and west, so that it will comprise alto- gether a space of 286 acres, into which ships of the heaviest burden and war frigates will be enabled to enter. The cost of these works is estimated at 450,0007. The Northern Lights Commission have determined to erect a new lighthouse on Dune Point, in the Island of Islay, and another at Scurdy Ness, at the south side of the entrance to the harbour of Montrose. 88 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., Preparations are beiug made for the erection of a complete system of lights and beacons along the Chinese coast; in all, fifteen points have been chosen. American Tube Wells are beginning to attract attention in this country. They are constructed by driving an iron tube, perforated at its lower end, down to where water may be found beneath the surface of the ground. Trials on this plan have been made recently in Manchester and Glasgow; in the former case water was reached in five minutes from the commencement of operations, and in twenty-two minutes a depth of 10 feet had been reached. Several of these Tube Wells have been sent out with the Abyssinian expedition. Mr. Charles Randolph, of the firm of Randolph and Elder, of Glasgow, has recently patented a new hydraulic propeller for ves- sels. This appartus consists of a fan, or centrifugal pump, placed in a casing connected with a couple of channels or ducts, leading the one to the head, and the other to the stern of the vessel. The fan-shaft is placed horizontally, and the fan is driven by a simply- arranged engine without reversing gear ; the reversal of the action of the fan being accomplished by moving its shaft in the direction of its axis, which brings it alternately to one side or the other of a diaphragm, in a casing communicating with the bow and stern passages on either side of the diaphragm respectively. An ingenious water-jet pump has recently been designed by Mr. E. Reynolds, one of which is now employed at Messrs. Vickers’ works, at Sheffield, for raising water from the race in which the fly- wheel of the engine driving the tyre mill runs. The wheel-race from which the water is raised is 14 feet deep, and the pump is worked by water supplied under a head of 240 feet. Sir John Brown, of the Atlas Works, Sheffield, signalized his new knighthood by rolling an armour plate 15 inches thick, 20 feet long, and 4 feet wide, which weighs no less than 21 tons. Mr. Krupp is about to construct at his Works at Essen, a single-acting steam-hammer, far exceeding in size any now in exist- ence. It will have a head weighing 120 tons. | 7. GEOGRAPHY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.) Tue last six months have not been very fruitful in Geographical discovery. More has been done in investigating the works of ancient geographers than in adding to their knowledge. In Africa Mr. Gerhard Rolphs and M. Miani are crossing the continent in different directions, but with what success tidings have 1868. | Geography. 89 not yet reached us. In Palestine the exploration under Lieutenant Warren, R.E., is continuing with increased success. Of late the principal attention has been directed to Jerusalem, where the improved feeling manifested by the authorities and people, now they discover that no irreverence is intended, and see that the Arabs under British superintendence conduct themselves with regularity and steadiness, has given facility for investigating many localities hitherto inaccessible to Europeans. A portion of the site of the temple and a few other spots have yielded curious results to the burrowings of the workmen, whilst the Lieutenant and his assist- ant, Sergeant Birtles, have penetrated beneath the earth up and down and along passages of all sizes, from halls of 200 feet in height, to drains through which a moderate sized man could just crawl. The expedition was nearly coming to an untimely end for want of funds, but of course this only had to be known and under- stood, when sufficient to keep them at work for some little time longer was immediately forthcoming. It is hoped that before long a tolerably complete plan of the ancient city will be possible, when the interminable disputes of architects and historians who have never been on the spot, and of travellers who know nothing of history and architecture, will be forcibly stopped, and conjecture will give place to certainty. In the meantime we would urge upon all interested in such subjects, the propriety of assisting im a work where every shilling expended shows some definite result. Abyssinia swallows up all the interest that can be afforded for geographical purposes at the present time. Mr. Robert Lowe com- plained in his lecture on education at Edinburgh, that more edu- cated men could tell him where Halicarnassus was than where Gondar is. There is not much fear that this ignorance will last long. No doubt educated men, Members of Parliament, and many of her Majesty's Ministers, too, know much more about the geo- graphy of Asia Minor than they do of Abyssinia, but they only share in the knowledge and ignorance of the world in general, and of geographers in particular. People naturally know more of places where great events have taken place or great men have lived, than of those localities where hereafter something is to happen. The new maps of the country over which our armies are travelling con- tain, no doubt, the best information to be obtained (and we would especially point to Mr. Wyld’s lately published map), but in these there are immense tracts of land with scarcely a name, perhaps a river put in tentatively, and a camel route crossing an otherwise unmarked district of hundreds of miles. Promises have been given that scientific men shall accompany the expedition, and all the knowledge at the command of the Royal Geographical Society has been employed by the Government. Several books of course have been published on a subject so generally interesting. Besides Sir 90 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., Samuel Baker’s book on the ‘ Nile Tributaries,’ which was not in- tended to contribute much that could be useful for the present expedition, a fair account has been given by Mr. Dufton, an observy- ant traveller, and a collection has been put together by Mr. Hotten. The expedition will be accompanied by Dr. Krapf, the missionary, as interpreter, a gentleman well acquainted with both the Amharic and Tigree languages; by Mr. W. Blanford, as geologist; by Dr. Doitch, of the British Museum, as antiquarian and archeologist ; and it was said, but it has been since contradicted, by Mr. Clemerts Markham, as geographer. By making these appointments, the Government have entitled themselves to the thanks of scientific men. It remains to be seen whether a more popular Parliament will support this step in the right direction. The volcanic disturbances at Santorin have already excited con- siderable attention. Since our last Chronicle, Canea in Crete, Ice- land, and Vesuvius, have been visited by perturbations ; Candia, by an earthquake; Iceland and Vesuvius, by eruptions. In the former of these two the outbreak has been in a part of the island far from human habitation, and the extent of the outpouring is as yet un- known, and the site of the disturbance is probably almost macces- sible. In Vesuvius a new crater has been opened, and several streams of lava are issuing from this new mouth. As we stated at first, a good deal has been done in the way of studying the antiquities of geography. Colonel Henry Yule has published for the Hakluyt Society the accounts of many travellers of the middle ages in Central Asia, and has summed up in an in- troductory essay the information to be gained therefrom. His work is entitled ‘Cathay, and the Way thither.’ A book called ‘ Heroes of Discovery, by 8. Mossman, gives lives of Magellan, Cook, Park, Franklin, and Livingstone. These are interesting and inciting to young people to follow in the footsteps of the “ Heroes.” M. Léonce Angrand has been studying the monuments of Peru with a view to discovering the condition of civilization of the ancient inhabitants, and has lately published the result of his researches. Reimer, of Berlin, has issued a map of great philological and ethnological value, by Herr Kiepart, showing the nationalities of the various Austrian States. Messrs. Macmillan also have published an atlas, in the form of a book, a useful and portable work for reference. Guide books to Lough Corrib, by Sir W. Wilde, and a ‘ Murray’ for Yorkshire have also appeared. PROCEEDINGS OF THE Royat GEOGRAPHICAL SocIETY. The President, Sir Roderick Murchison, in his annual address at the commencement of the session of 1867-68, confined his attention almost entirely to three points:—first, the fate of Dr. 1868. | Geography. 91 Livingstone, and the boat expedition sent in search of him ; secondly, the geography of Abyssinia; thirdly, the exploration of Central Greenland by Mr. E. Whymper. Mr. Young, in command of the expedition sent by the Government on the track of Livingstone, had met with every facility from the authorities at the Cape, had engaged a negro crew, entered the Congoni mouth of the Zambesi, and was progressing towards the accomplishment of his errand with all due speed. Still, no news could be expected from him until February or March in next year. In the meantime it is impossible to tell whither Livingstone may have betaken himself. With regard to the geography of Abyssinia, the value of this Society was likely to be now felt. Mr. Clements Markham, the honorary secretary, has pre- pared an account of the discoveries of the early Portuguese travellers, and the Society has been the centre around which all the geogra- phical knowledge, now so important to the Government embarking in an expedition of which they are unable to realize the difficulties, has been collected, the whole nation in this way participating in the benefit accruing to scientific research, for which they are so unwill- ing to pay. Already the Topographical Department, under Sir H. James, have been busy in systematizing the information afforded by former travellers, whilst private geographers, Mr. Wyld, Mr. Keith Johnston, and Mr. Peterman have been engaged on maps that will elucidate the passage of the English army. Sir Samuel Baker has contributed somewhat to our knowledge of the water system of this country, and has especially shown that the fertili- zation of Egypt by the waters of the Nile is attributable to the soil carried down the Abyssinian tributaries, rather than to the more regular sources of the constant flow which traverse larger portions of the continent. It is expected that some new papers will be read on yarious explorations of Central America, and it is to be hoped that before long an account will be given by Mr. Whymper, of Greenland, whence he has just returned, having accomplished an inland journey not quite so extensive as he had intended, but which will considerably increase our knowledge of the animal and vege- table life of the interior of that country. The first paper read this session was by Mr. Clements Markham, “On the Portuguese Expeditions to Abyssinia, from the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Centuries.” All that was known of Abyssinia down to the time of Bruce was the result of the discoveries of the Portuguese, who had performed wonders in discovery for such a small nation. King John II. despatched two of his subjects, one of whom penetrated to the court of the Negus or Emperor Alexander, in 1450, where he was detained by this predecessor of Theodorus, and never again allowed to quit the country ;—rather a bad omen for Colonel Cameron and Mr. Rassam. This Portuguese was alive in 1520, when a second embassy arrived, who were detained six years, 92 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., after which some members were dismissed. In answer to a request sent to Lisbon, a small Portuguese force was sent in 1541, to assist the Abyssinians against the Moors. They lost their leader and were defeated in the service, and after that were treated with great ingra- titude by those whom they went to assist. They left behind them a fortified convent of Jesuits, who remained until they were expelled from the country in 1633, having made scarcely any converts from the primitive form of Christianity held by the natives. At the next meeting of the Society, letters were read from Dr. Kirk and the Vice-consul at Zanzibar, giving some information about the existence of Dr. Livingstone. It seems that a native had arrived at the coast from Bagamoyo, who reported that when with a party who had travelled the regular route to Wemba and Ma- ranga, he had seen a white man, who arrived at the village the caravans were passing through, with a party of thirteen blacks, which is the number of the young negroes Dr. Livingstone is known to have had with him. The white man was not a trader, for he refused ivory offered to him. On being shown a number of photo- graphs, the native recognized one of Dr. Livingstone as that of the white man he had met, though he passed over another better like- ness of the same person without remark. Dr. Kirk hoped shortly to see the head man of the caravan and the others who accompanied him, and thus obtain some further information—but this is sufficient to put an end for ever to the account of the man Moosa, whose lies it is extraordinary should ever have taken possession of men of un- derstanding and knowledge of the subject. An artificial excitement on this one topic of the exploration of Central African lakes, engen- dered within the walls of the Royal Geographical Society, is the only explanation of the phenomenon that clever, cautious, and well- informed persons should be taken in by the mendacious accounts of men proved to be utterly unworthy of credit, and when once com- mitted to an opinion, these men haye maintained with sophistical arguments the opinion they had uttered, at the peril of their repu- tation for common sense. A paper by Mr. Collinson, on a hitherto unexplored part of Nicaragua demonstrates the possibility of a railroad over that por- tion of Central America. The whole ground had been traversed, — the gradients are moderate, the climate comparatively good, and the distance not great. 1868. | ( 93 ) 8. GEOLOGY AND PALAZONTOLOGY. (Including the Proceedings of the Geological Society.) Tue last volume (xxii.) of the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Turin contains an important contribution to Fossil Botany, entitled “ Matériaux pour servir 4 la Paléontologie du Terrain Tertiaire du Piémont. Premiere Partie: Végétaux.” By M. Eugene Sismonda. The descriptions, and especially the nume- rous figures, of these Tertiary plants must possess the highest interest for botanists generally, and must be of great utility to those who make fossil floras their especial study. M. Sismonda has been able to distinguish in the plant-bearing deposits of Pied- mont five different floras: namely, (1) Eocene, (2) Lower Miocene, (3) Middle Miocene, (4) Upper Miocene, and (5) Pliocene. The Eocene flora is chiefly characterized in Italy by Fucoids, the species bemg but three in number: Chondrites Targionii, C. furcatus, and C. arbuscula. This poverty is not surprising when it is considered that the animal-remains of the same period are not at all abundant. The Lower Miocene deposits are very rich in plant-remains, and some of them include considerable beds of lig- nite. They belong to two classes: namely, (1) the lacustrine and lignitiferous beds ; and (2) the litoral marine deposits, almost barren of lignite. The distribution of these two classes enables one to trace the Italian shore of the sea of the Older Miocene Period. Some discussion has arisen regarding the division of the Tertiary epoch to which these beds properly belong; but, as with all such discussions, no satisfactory termination seems possible; M. Sismonda has therefore done wisely, we think, in considering the two terms (Upper Nummulitic and Lower Miocene) as synonymous. The Middle Miocene deposits are the most rich in plant-remains of any in Italy ; but they contain no beds of lignite. Their most cele- brated locality is the Superga, near Turin, where no less than fifty species have been discovered. The deposit at Sarzanello appears to be slightly younger than that of the Superga. The Upper Miocene deposits are likewise rich in species, sixty-six being described by the authors. The Pliocene flora is very poor. The interest of a critical comparison between the plants of these Miocene deposits and those of the same age found on the other side of the Alps would be very great, and would go far towards either proving or disproving the theory of the recent elevation of that range of mountains. A new series of the ‘Boston Journal of Natural History’ has recently been commenced under the title of “ Memoirs read before the Boston Society of Natural History,’ and in the first volume is an elaborate paper by Dr. A. 8. Packard, jun., on the Glacial 94 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., Phenomena of Labrador and Maine. On the Laurentian and Huronian rocks of the Labrador Peninsula few superficial deposits occur, the region having evidently been exposed to the most intense denuding action of glaciers, prolonged over a period much longer than even in Canada. The whole of the Plateau has been moulded by ice to a height of at least 2,500 feet above the level of the sea ; but owing to the extensive weathering of the rocks, glacial grooves and scratches occur very rarely below a height of from 500 to 800 feet from the sea-level, up to which point the action of the waves and of shore-ice has obliterated all traces of striae, and also of loose drift. It is also important to notice that the present contour of the coast, from the sea-level to a height of 500 feet, also extends to at least 300 feet below the surface of the water. The whole surface of the country is strewn thickly with boulders, especially above the height already mentioned. About 400 feet above the present coast-line are some fine examples of raised beaches and rock-shelves, representing ancient coast-lines ; and there are others, apparently of the same origin, at great heights in the interior of the southern part of the Peninsula. Some beaches were also ob- served by the author, apparently very recently raised above the sea-level, so as to be just beyond the reach of the waves ; and he therefore infers that the land is slowly gaining on the sea. At the mouths of certain rivers, and situated just above high-water mark, there occur deposits of clay, known as Leda-clays, containing marine and estuarine fossils. The author draws some interesting conclusions from these phenomena, and supplements his paper by an account of the recent invertebrate fauna of the region. In the same volume is a very able paper, entitled “ An Inquiry into the Zoological Relations of the first-discovered traces of Fossil Neuropterous Insects in North America; with remarks on the dif- ference of structure in the Wings of living Neuroptera ;” its title is a sufficient index of its scope and character. Dr. J. S. Newberry has examined the fossil plants from the Chinese coal-bearing rocks, discovered by Mr. Pumpelly, and has determined them to be of Mesozoic age. ‘The collection includes Cycads of the genera Podozamites and Pterozamites, closely allied to known European and American species, if not identical with them. There are also representatives of the genera Sphenopteris and Hymenophyllites, and a species of Pecopteris, which is doubt- fully referred to the well-known P. Whitbiensis. The precise age of the beds cannot be determined with certainty ; but they are either Jurassic or Triassic. The thirteenth volume of the ‘Proceedings of the Somersetshire Archeological Society’ contains a valuable paper “ On the Middle and Upper Lias of the South-west of England,” by Mr, Charles 1868. | Geology and Palzontology. ; 95 Moore, which includes figures and descriptions of a large number of new species. Another important descriptive paper, “ Monographie paléonto- logique et géologique de l’étage Portlandien des Environs de Bou- logne-sur-Mer,” by MM. de Loriol and Pellat, is contained in the nineteenth volume of the ‘ Mémoires de la Sociét3 physique d’His- toire naturelle de Genéve.’ It is necessary to call attention to such memoirs, but abstracts of their contents can scarcely be given in our Chronicles. Mr. W. H. Baily, acting paleontologist to the Geological Survey of Ireland, has commenced the publication of a work entitled ‘ Figures of Characteristic British Fossils with Descriptive Remarks.’ The first part contains 10 plates and descriptive letter-press, em- bracing the characteristic fossils of the strata from the Cambrian to the Caradoc inclusive. This work will, no doubt, be of very great assistance to amateur geologists and to students. The Council of the Geological Society indeed recognized this fact, by awarding to the author the Wollaston Donation-fund at their last anniversary to assist him in publishing it. The author’s reputation as a prac- tical paleontologist and draughtsman is sufficient guarantee that the fossils will be judiciously selected and correctly figured. M. Barrande has issued another volume of his great work on the Silurian fossils of Bohemia, which is devoted to the description and illustration of the Pteropoda, including no less than 68 distinct species, and 7 genera out of the 9 known to occur in Paleozoic rocks. The species of Pteropoda are known to have been very numerous in the Silurian seas; they are almost absent from Me- sozoic deposits, but re-appear in the Tertiary ; and in the existing fauna there are certain forms which have a striking analogy with those from Paleozoic deposits. M. Barrande asks the question whether this intermittence be real or apparent, that is to say, is it due to the Mesozoic Pteropods having been unprovided with a shell? If this be the case, another question suggests itself to him, namely, why is it that this order is the only one which, during its long “struggle for existence,” successively carried, resigned, and resumed its testaceous covering ? Such questions as these are much more easily asked than answered ; but they nevertheless possess an interest which is almost a charm for those who are endeavouring to discover something of the real philosophy of paleontology. The fourth edition of Sir R. I. Murchison’s ‘Siluria’ has been published during the past quarter; but we must reserve our re- marks on this important work until our next number. The ‘Geological Magazine’ for September opens with a most interesting notice by Principal Dawson, “On some Remains of Palzozoic Insects recently discovered in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.” These insects have been discovered in Carboniferous 96 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., and Devonian deposits; in the former have been found represen- tatives of the orders Newroptera, Orthoptera, and Coleoptera, in England, Westphalia, and the Western States of America; and last year Mr. Barnes, of Halifax, found a wing of a Neuropterous insect belonging to the Ephemerina on a piece of shale, partly co- vered by a frond of Alethopteris lonchitida. The Devonian insects consist of four species, all of which appear to be Neuroptera, al- though two of them cannot be referred to any existing family of the order. This paper is followed by one “On the Remains of Insects from the Coal-measures of Durham,” by Mr. Kirkby, who describes portions of the wings of two Orthopterous species. Both authors draw attention to the fact that here again we have evidence of the Paleozoic Insects being synthetic types; in other words, the ancient genera possess combined certain characters which in recent Insects are found in distinct groups, either genera, families, or even orders. The other papers in this number are, “ Railway Geology, No. 1,” by Mr. D. Mackintosh, and “The Moulded Limestones of Furness,” by Miss E. Hodgson, the latter being a description of the weathering of limestone by chemical atmospheric influences. The October number commences with a paper “On the Che- mistry of the Primeval Earth,” by Mr. D. Forbes, in which the author expresses his dissent from some of the views advocated by Dr. Sterry Hunt in his lecture at the Royal Institution mentioned in our last Chronicle, especially Dr. Hunt’s conclusion that the earth is “a globe solid to the core, which had solidified from the centre outwards to the exterior.”* Mr. Forbes also combats Dr. Hunt’s opinion “that granite is in every case a rock of sedimentary origin,” and follows him closely in his argument on this head also. We cannot do justice to this subject in a Chronicle, and we there- fore refer those interested in it to the reports of Dr. Hunt’s lecture, and to this very able reply by Mr. Forbes. Professor J. Morris contributes an important paper, “On the Fer:uginous Sands of Buckinghamshire, with remarks on the distribution of the equiva- lent strata,” which is chiefly descriptive; the author, however, ex- presses his opinion that the Purbeck and Portland strata probably never extended far beyond their present limits, which is a point of some interest. The other original articles in this number are (1) “On the Gorge of the Avon at Clifton,” by Mr. Jukes, in which it is shown that the same explanation, so ably given by the author, which accounts for the gorges of the rivers in the south of Ireland, is equally applicable to the Avon; (2) “On Subaérial Denudation, and on Clifis and Escarpments of the Chalk and Lower Tertiary * This opinion was held by the late Mr. Hamilton, although he supported it by a different argument from that advanced by Dr. Sterry Hunt. See ‘ President’s Address to the Geological Society,’ 1866; and ‘Quart. Journ. Science,’ No. xi., p. 420. 1868. } Geology and Palzontology. 97 Beds” (continued in the next number), by Mr. Whitaker ; and (38) “Qn some new Terebratulidz from Upware,” by Mr. J. F. Walker. The first paper in the November number is by Mr. Ruskin ; it is a continuation of the one in the August number, “On Brecciated Formations.” Like all, or nearly all, Mr. Ruskin’s geological papers, it is a burlesque of a scientific essay. For instance, “1 suspect that many so-called ‘conglomerates’ are not conglomerates at all, but concretionary formations.” Mr. Ruskin gives an example, namely, “yed, rounded, flint ‘ pebbles,’ much divided by interior cracks, en- closed by a finely crystallized quartz,” and he regards the “ pebbles” as “secretions—the spots on a colossal bloodstone.” Mr. Guppy has a paper on West Indian Geology, to the conclusions in which we should think other investigators will not subscribe. Dr. Von Koenen gives a valuable paper on the Belgian Tertiaries, in which he men- tions that M. Cornet has discovered his error respecting the “ Cal- eaire Grossier” of Mons, and is about to rectify it. Mr. Whitaker concludes his paper mentioned above, and Mr. Belt commences one “On the Lingula-flags or Ffestiniog Group.” These three numbers of the ‘Geological Magazine’ will thus be seen to contain many papers of great value, and we congratulate the editors on their success in sustaining its high character. PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SocIETY. Several able communications on interesting subjects are con- tained in the November number of the Society’s Journal, and demand some notice from us. Capt. Spratt’s paper “On the Bone- caves of Malta” places before us.in a very clear manner the points of agreement and of difference observed to exist between some of the Maltese caverns. He describes three, namely, those of -Maghlak or Crendi, of Zebbug, and of Melliha. The first and last of these were found to contain remains of Hippopotamus (H. Pentlandi), with no traces of Elephant-remains. The Zebbug cavern, on the contrary, yielded abundant remains of the pigmy elephant of Malta, associated with some of a larger species, but without any indication of Hippopotamus. Notwithstanding this very pronounced distine- tion, there is one point of agreement noticed as existing between the Maghlak or Crendi and the Zebbug caverns. In the former, the stalagmite containing the Hippopotamus-remains was overlain by a layer without fossils, and this again by one containing bones and teeth of a large Dormouse (Myowus Melitensis), bones of Birds, and land-shells of existing species. In the latter, the sandy clay containing the Hlephant-remains also yielded bones and jaws of Myoxus Melitensis, bones of two large species of Swan, &¢. We thus obtain an indication of the relative ages of the Hippopotamus and the Elephant, the former being apparently the most ancient. VOL. V, H 98 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., Capt. Spratt discusses at some length the conditions under which an amphibious animal like the Hippopotamus could have lived on the island of Malta, believing that it was at that time at a much higher elevation, and was joined to Sicily and the Italian peninsula, but separated from Africa by a very narrow strait. An uplift of 250 fathoms would produce this result. The admixture of frag- ments of remains of Elephant and of marine animals with entire shells of terrestrial mollusks im the red earth, occurrmg in the fissures and hollows in various parts of Malta, the author attempts to explain by means of a “ wave of translation.” Geologists of the present day are very sceptical about such abnormal occurrences ; but very recently, for a few days, it seemed as if the fate of the Island of Tortola had proved them to be terrible realities, whose rarity was mercifully proportioned to their destructive power. A useful paper, by Mr. Tate, “On the Fossiliferous Develop- ment of the Zone of Ammonites angulatus in Great Britain,” contains an account of the conditions under which this zone occurs in Lincolnshire, Warwickshire, Gloucestershire, Glamorganshire, Dorsetshire, and in Ireland, and a complete list of the fossils (corals excepted) which have been found in it. Mr. Tate also swells the list of Mr. Tawney’s opponents, and discusses the relations and age of the Sutton Stone, taking exception also to Mr. Tawney’s determinations of some of the fossils. His conclusions are, that the Sutton Stone is a part of the Lower Lias, and that its fossils belong to the Hettangian fauna. He also states that he regards the Sutton Stone and the Southerdown beds to be, jointly, the equi- valents of the beds intermediate between the White Lias and the zone of Ammonites Bucklandt. Another paper by Mr. Tate, “On the Lower Lias of the North- east of Ireland,” and one by Mr. Burton, “On the Rhetie Beds near Gainsborough,” will be read with interest by those interested in the geology of the districts described in them. Dr. Duncan and Mr. Thomson have a paper on a new genus of corals (Cyclophyllum), which possesses a remarkably complex struc- ture, and presents many points of interest in a classificatory point of view. Dr. Dawson’s note on the discovery of a new Pulmonate Mol- lusk [Zonites (Conulus) priscus| in the coal-formation of Nova Scotia, presents a most interesting confirmation of his former dis- covery of land-shells in those Paleozoic strata. As the Pupa formerly described did not differ in any essential respect from the modern representatives of that genus, so in this case we have a shell which can be referred to a subgenus of Zonites (Conulus), which includes several recent species, Zonites itself being a sub- division of the group of genera commonly termed Helix. A paper on the Chemical Geology of the Malvern Hills, by 1868. | Geology and Palzontology. 99 the Rev. Mr. Timins, contains the results of nearly one hundred analyses of the rocks occurring in that range. They comprise the following varieties: (1) Lava and Volcanic Ash overflowing, or interstratified with, the Black Shale; (2) Eruptive rocks of the Hollybush Sandstone; (3) Shales; (4) Bedded Traps, Lavas, and Felstones of the Herefordshire Beacon ; (5) Felstones north of the Herefordshire Beacon; (6) Quartzo-felspathie veins; (7) Trisili- cated Felspathic veins ; (8) Felspathico-hornblendic rocks ; and (9) Intrusive Traps. Some of the author’s conclusions are of general interest, especially : that the relative proportions of the several bases often characterize particular localities; that the chemical composi- tion of the eruptive rocks does not vary according to their age; that the atomic proportion of the silica to the bases appears to be highest in the largest masses of trap (but this law, though very general, is not invariable) ; that in the same masses of trap there is an appreciable increase in the silica towards their centres; that the primary source of all the trap-rocks in the Malvern Hills was nearly a bisilicate. There are many other important inferences which we have no space to mention, and, indeed, this paper requires a most careful study to be properly understood or appreciated. Mr. Townsend M. Hall’s paper on the Relative Distribution of Fossils throughout the North Devon series, contains a valuable table showing the range of the species in the fossiliferous groups, both geologically and geographically. In a paper on the sources of the materials composing the White Clays of the Lower Tertiaries, Mr. George Maw advocates their derivation from the chalk, by the gradual solution of the calcareous matter, the aluminous and siliceous portions being left, and forming the white clays in question. It has been generally considered that these clays have, in many instances at least, been derived from the decomposed felspar of granite; but Mr. Maw points out that Kaolin, which is the result of the decomposition of felspar, is per- fectly implastic,—a character entirely opposed to that of the white Tertiary clays. An important chemical fact bearimg upon this matter is, that the clays in question contain the alumina in a larger proportion to the silica than felspar would afford. Many other facts are urged by Mr. Maw in support of his theory, and he gives numerous analyses of clays, chalk, and chalk-marl, made chiefly by Dr. Voelcker, Prof. Way, and Mr. C. D. Blake, which support his statements respecting their chemical composition. The last paper in this number which we have space to notice is one “On the Structure of the Postglacial Deposits of the South- east of England,” by Mr. 8. V. Wood, jun., in which the author gives an epitome of the results arrived at by him after a survey of the region mentioned, which results, and the maps and sections on which they are founded, are given fully in a manuscript memoir H 2 100 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., deposited by him in the Geological Society’s Library. The princi- pal view advocated is, that the “ entire valley-system of the East of England originated in centres of arc-like or curvilinear disturb- ance, which immediately preceded the elevation of the bed of the sea from which was deposited the wide-spread deposit of Boulder-clay forming the latest of the Glacial beds of the South of England.” We are glad to see that Mr. Wood now recognizes the ambiguity of the terms Upper Drift, Middle Drift, &c., which we pointed out in noticing a former paper of his, and has substituted for them the terms Upper Glacial clay, Middle Glacial beds, &e. Many other points of interest are also discussed, especially the relations of the Thames valley-gravel, the Brick-earth deposits, &., for which we must refer our readers to the paper itself. On December 1st the Society published a bulky Supplement number, the description of which we must reserve for our next Chronicle. 9. MINERALOGY, MINING, AND METALLURGY. MINERALOGY. Amone British mineralogists no one has latterly been more active, whether in laboratory work or in literary work, than Mr. David Forbes, F.R.S. Without referrmg to his writings on Chemical Geology, which, however, are full of interest to the mineralogist, it will be sufficient in this place to call attention to his purely mineralogical work. In introducing the first part of his “ Re- searches on British Mimeralogy,”* Mr. Forbes takes occasion to contrast the present backward state of the science in this country with the honourable position which it occupied in the early part of this century. The chemist now-a-days is attracted by the organic branch of his science rather than by mineral chemistry, while the geologist is usually allured by paleontological research ; and hence but few labourers enter the field of Mineralogy. To correct this state of things, and to develop a wholesome taste for the study, Forbes protests against the too-prevalent notion that Mineralogy is occupied exclusively with the dry enumeration of species, and with the description of their physical characters and chemical com- position. Taking a higher stand-point, he maintains that minerals should properly be studied with reference to their mode of occur- rence, origin, paragenesis, and especially the relations of their associated rocks. When thus prosecuted, the study cannot fail to prove a valuable aid both to the geologist in his examination of rock-masses in the field, and to the miner in his investigation of the * ©Philosophical Magazine,’ Noy., 1867, p. 529. 1868.] Mineralogy, Mining, and Metallurgy. 101 Jaws of mineral deposits. As an illustration of these advanced views, our author refers to his own researches which, although con- fessedly imperfect, tend to the remarkable conclusion that, in eruptive rocks, most minerals present themselves under similar conditions, accompanied by the same associated minerals, and in rocks of corresponding geological age. Hence he believes that certain minerals may serve to identify contemporaneous outbursts of eruptive rocks, in the same way that fossils serve to determine the age of sedimentary deposits. When, as often happens, the same mineral occurs in rocks of different age, he finds that in each situation it is marked by distinctive characters of its own, either physical or chemical. Thus, mica is distributed through rocks varying widely both in character and age; but while in granite it usually occurs as muscovite or potash-mica, in limestone and serpentine it appears as phlogopite or magnesia-mica, in zircon- syenite as astrophyllite or titaniferous mica, and in volcanic rocks as biotite. Generalizations of this kind are sufficient to show that the field of labour which Mineralogy affords is after all not so unattractive as many are inclined to think. As an earnest that the author himself is willing to bear a fair share of the work, he gives us a paper devoted chiefly to a notice of British Gold. Although public attention has from time to time been directed to the occurrence of gold in this country, and considerable excite- ment has been aroused by the recent workings in North Wales,* no analysis of British Gold has hitherto been recorded. Mr. Forbes has therefore visited the Welsh mines, and has analyzed specimens from the celebrated Clogau lode with the following results :— Ife II. Gold. ne ud : ; 90°16 89°83 Silver . - 5 : . 9°26 9:24 Tron and Copper . . : trace. trace. Quartz . . : ; 0°32 0-74 Loss, : - - ° 0-26 0°19 100-00 100°00 The metal from this mine is therefore an alloy of gold and silver, closely agreeing with the formula—Au, Ag. After fully describing the character of the lode in which it occurs, Mr. Forbes discusses the probable age of the gold. He has already classified all known auriferous veins in two great groups—the older or granitic, which were formed at some time between the Silurian and the Carbon- iferous period, and the newer or dioritic, probably of Cretaceous age: it is to the former of these classes that the author is inclined to refer the gold-veins of North Wales. * See a paper in this Journal on “ British Gold with especial reference to the Gold Mines of Merionethshire, by Robert Hunt, F.R.S.,” vol. ii, p. 635. 102 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., Mr. Forbes has also analyzed some Welsh stream-gold from the river Mawddach, about eight miles above Dolgelly. The metal yielded 84:89 per cent. of gold, and 13:99 of silver. In the “Rowley Rag,” a well-known basaltic rock from the South Staffordshire coal-field, the same chemist has detected minute grains of a black mineral, which, on analysis, proved to be T%tano- Ferrite, or titanate of iron, having the followmg composition :— Titanic acid . ; F x 34°28 Oxide of iron . : : 5 : 65:72 100:00 Mr. Forbes brings his paper to a conclusion by noticing a newly- discovered silver ore from the Foxdale mines in the Isle of Man. This ore, which contains 13 per cent. of silver, occurs in sufficient quantity to form an object of considerable commercial importance. The mineral is an argentiferous fahlerz, such as the Germans would call Weissgiltigerz, but which the author describes under the rarely used name of Polytelite. Among the recent reports on the advancement of French litera- ture and science, published under the direction of the Minister of Public Instruction, it comes within our province to notice only the “Report on the Progress of Mineralogy,’ drawn up by M. Delafosse.* By giving a réswmé of nearly all the mineralogical work which has been conducted in France within the last quarter of a century, the reporter shows that his countrymen, led by such men as Dufrénoy and Descloiseaux, have played a part in the advancement of our science by no means discreditable to the fatherland of Haity and De I’Isle. Those who love to speculate on the ultimate constitution of matter, and to study the recondite laws of crystallogeny, will find much to interest them in an essay on the “ Molecular Constitution and Growth of Crystals,” recently published by Dr. Adolph Knop, of the Polytechnic School of Carlsruhe.} It is well known that certain varieties of sandstone enjoy to a limited extent the curious property of flexibility. Such flexible sandstone—known to the mineralogist as Itacolumite—is usually found in association with the diamond, and, so far as our knowledge at present extends, appears to be restricted to the mining districts of Brazil and the Ural Mountains, to the neighbourhood of Delhi in India, and to the gold-bearing States of Georgia and North Carolina. As itacolumite always contains more or less disseminated tale or mica, its flexibility has usually been referred to the presence of these elastic scales. This opinion has, however, been lately * «Rapport sur les progres de la Minéralogie.’ Paris, 1867. 4to. pp. 97. + ‘Molekularconstitution uud Wachsthum der Krystalle.’ Leipzig, 1867. 8yo. pp. 96. 48 woodcuts. 1868.] Mineralogy, Mining, and Metallurgy. 103 opposed by Dr. Wetherill, whose observations show that while the micaceous or talcose mineral determines the cleavage of the rock, it bears no relation whatever to its flexibility. “This flexibility,” says the doctor, “is due to small and innumerable ball-and-socket joints.” The grains of silica composing the sandstone, instead of cohering into one uniform mass, are arranged in definite groups separated from one another by intervening cavities; and when the projections of one cluster engage in the corresponding cavities of a neighbouring group, there is produced an articulated structure, permitting motion within certain limits. By experiment the author has found that grains of sand, if saturated with petroleum, will cohere into groups separated by such intervening cavities; and hence, applying this fact, he conceives that the very gradual re- moval of the hydrocarbon might be attended with the separation of erystallized carbon in the form of diamond. As the jointed struc- ture is quite characteristic of flexible sandstone, the author proposes to introduce the term Articulite—apparently a needless multiplica- tion of synonymes since the mineral is already well-known as Itacolumite.* Rarely does the mineralogist meet with a crystal presenting that perfect symmetry of form which the laws of crystallography demand. As a rule crystals are more or less distorted, the appear- ances presented by such irregularities being in many cases extremely deceptive. Some curious examples of such monstrosities have lately been described by Dr. Scharff, in a paper “On Deformed Crystals of Rock Salt.”+ Instead of the six faces of the cube being all equally developed, certain faces were drawn out in some crystals and depressed in others, thus giving rise on the one hand to pris- matic forms and on the other to tabular crystals. Moreover, the angles of the cube occasionally deviated from right angles—an irregularity giving a rhombohedral aspect to the crystal. In all cases, however, the true form was easily discoverable by the cubic cleavage. In a specimen of Wolfram from Auvergne, Dr. Phipson has detected the presence of Columbite. When the mineral is attacked by aqua regia the wolfram is dissolved, leaving an insoluble residue, which consists of angular fragments of a black non-magnetic sub- stance having the composition of Columbite.t Some curious numerical relations between the atomic constitution of a mineral and the symmetry of its crystalline form have recently * “Experiments on Itacolumite (Articulite), with the Explanation of its Flexibility and its Relation to the Formation of the Diamond.”—‘Silliman’s American Journal,’ xliv., No. 130, p. 61. t ‘Ueber missbildete Steinsalz-Krystalle.’ Leonhard und Geinitz’s Jahrbuch. 1867. Heft vi., p. 670. { “Sur la présence du Columbite dans le Wolfram.”—‘ Comptcs Rendus,’ 1867, No. 10, p. 419. 104 Chronicles of Science. [ Jan., been worked out by the American mineralogist, Professor Dana.* Hitherto we have been unable to explain why a given substance should crystallize in a certain definite system in preference to any other; wliy, for example, a piece of tin-stone should invariably crystallize in forms belonging to the tetragonal system rather than in those of the other crystallographic groups. Dana shows that this symmetry of form is immediately connected with the chemical constitution of the mineral. Taking, as an example, this tetragonal or pyramidal system, we may remind the reader that the solids belonging to this order are bounded by 4, 8, or 16 sides; and hence the symmetry of the forms is characterized by the number 4, or a multiple of 4. Now it is found that in most minerals belong- ing to this system the number of atoms of the electro-negative or non-metallic element is in like manner 4, or a multiple or submul- tiple of that number. Hence a piece of tin-stone crystallizes in tetragonal forms, in virtue of its constitution as a binoxide, Sn O, ; the number of atoms of the electro-negative oxygen being 2, a submultiple of 4. So again, zircon, wulfenite, scheelite, and schee- litine, are all tetragonal species, each containing 4 atoms of oxygen, their formule being respectively—Zr O, 81 O,; Pb O, MO,; Ca O, WO,; and PbO, WO,: or, combining the oxygen of the acid with that of the base, according to the fashion of modern chemists, their composition may be expressed by the following formule, which more clearly show the 4 atoms of the element in question—Zr SO,, Pb MO,, Ca WO,, and Pb WO,,. Turning to the hexagonal or rhombohedral system, we find the relations to be equally curious. The symmetry of this system is related to the number 6; its prisms, pyramids, and other forms, being bounded by 3, 6, 12, or 24 sides. Here the number of atoms of the electro-negative element is consequently 3, or a multiple of 3. Thus, the sapphire and the ruby—varieties of crystallized alumina —assume hexagonal forms, since alumina is a sesquioxide containing 3 atoms of oxygen, Al, O,. In like manner specular iron-ore is hexagonal, being a sesquioxide of iron, Fe, O,. The same is the case with the large class of rhombohedral carbonates, including those of lime, magnesia, and the protoxides of iron, manganese, and zine; forming the species known respectively as calcite, magnesite, chalybite, diallogite, and calamine (Ca CO,, Mg CO,, Fe CO,, Mn CO,, Zn CO,.) While the professor thus establishes his position with regard to the tetragonal and hexagonal systems, he is by no means so happy in his attempts to deal with the other orders. In the cubic system the number of atoms of the electro-negative element appears to be * “On a Connection between Crystalline Form and Chemical Composition, with sss sek a therefrom.’’— Silliman’s Journal,’ xliy., No. 130, p. 89; ‘Phil. Mag.,’ p. 178. 1868. | Mineralogy, Mining, and Metallurgy. «105 far from constant, while in the oblique systems the results are so discordant as to show at once that their symmetry is dependent on something more than the mere chemical constitution of the species. For other illustrations of Dana’s curious theory, and for the manner in which he overcomes difficulties and reconciles discrepancies, the reader must refer to the original memoir already quoted. In a subsequent paper* Professor Dana follows up his subject, and discusses the chemical composition of the mineral silicates, reducing this complex class of bodies to two well-defined groups— the unisilicates and the bisilicates. Yet a third paper by this indefatigable author claims the atten- tion of the mineralogist.t The present state of mineralogical nomenclature undoubtedly calls for reform, and Dana does not hesitate to take the first step towards effecting so desirable an object. Advocating the uniform adoption of the termination 7ée, he proposes to change the existing names of minerals in all cases where it can be done without great inconvenience. Such a change has indeed been contemplated by other mineralogists, who have ventured to write galena galenite, and fluor fluorite. Tracing the origin of this ending zfe to the Greek and Roman naturalists, our author shows by examples from Pliny that every variety of name now applied to minerals was then in vogue, with the single exception of that introduced in honour of individuals—a class of names which, originating with Werner, has latterly grown to vast proportions. Dana further shows that it 1s chiefly the French mineralogists who have to answer for that want of systematic termination which disfigures our present nomenclature. Unfor- tunately, the Abbé Haiiy was extremely careless in this respect— “ giving names to minerals as a gardener might to his varieties of pinks and roses.” To show his utter disregard of uniformity, attention may be called to the following examples of his word- coining :—amphibole, analeime, cymophane, diallage, dipyre, epidote, harmotome, idocrase, mesotype, pleonaste, sphene, &c. Introduced under the prestige of so eminent an authority as Haiiy, such names were at once accepted in spite of their incongruous terminations ; and many subsequent mineralogisis in France, following the example of ther great master, have indulged in equal laxity of expression. But while the French mineralogists have thus trou- bled the science with their neglect of systematic nomenclature, it is pleasing to observe the persistence with which the Germans have adhered to the use of the termination 7. Even amid the multitude of minerals named by the veteran species-maker Breithaupt, this canon is but rarely departed from; the most notable departures being in the case of the mineral gemini, Castor and Pollux, and of * «Silliman’s American Journal,’ xliv., No, 131, p. 252. } Tbid., p. 145. 106 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., the felspars—orthoclase, oligoclase, &c. In advocating a uniformity of termination, the professor would not seek to alter such long- established names as quartz, garnet, diamond, and the like. After all, the names requiring amendment are comparatively few in number, and all of modern introduction, none of them dating beyond the last sixty years. If any alteration is really contem- plated, the sooner it is accomplished the better: “ Mineralogy,” says the professor, “is far from being so stiffened with age as not to admit of progress in the direction contemplated.” Another point insisted upon by Dr. Dana is the necessity for a distinction between the names of simple minerals and those of rocks or mineral-ageregates, a distinction which could easily be marked by terminating the latter in yte, as already done in the case of trachyte. Having devoted so much space to an analysis of these important papers, our remaining notices—relating chiefly to so-called new species,—must necessarily be brief. Among the rubbish-heaps of an old silver-lead mine worked by the Romans near Paillieres, in the Dept. du Gard, there has been detected a new mineral, to be called Pastréite, in compliment to the President Pastré, of Marseilles: it occurs ag an amorphous yellow substance, and is apparently an impure hydrous sulphate of iron containing arsenic and lead.* Stetefeldtite is the name by which Mr. Riotte, a German mining engineer in Nevada, proposes to distinguish a new silver-bearing substance found in that state. It appears to be a sulphide of silver and copper, with an antimoniate of copper and iron.t Herr Igelstrom describes two minerals from the iron-mine of Langban, in Werm- land, Sweden: one under the name of Pyroawrite—in allusion to its behaviour before the blowpipe ; and the other, as Lamprophane.} A new mineral-resin, remarkable for its occurrence in hexagonal crystals, has received the name of Valdite, after Herr Vala.$ Under the name of Cyrtolite, Mr. W. T. Knowles notices an American mineral, which is apparently a hydrated silicate of zinc with the protoxides of iron and of the cerium metals.||_ An American iron ore, mistaken for red hematite, has been referred by Professor Brush to the rare species called Turgite by Hermann, and Hydro- hematite by Breithaupt.. Mr. J. P. Cooke has lately examined several chloritic minerals from the chrome-iron mine of Texas, Pa. ; but his observations simply confirm those already published by Descloiseaux.* * Several analyses of potash-micas have been made by Professor * Verhand d. naturhist. Vereins d. preuss. Rheinlande. xxiii., p. 17. + Berg-und Hiittenmin. Zeitung. 1867, No. 30, p. 255. t Leonhard’s Jahrbuch. Heft V., p. 607. § Jahrb. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt. 1867, No. 2, p. 195. || Silliman’s Journal,’ xliv., p. 224. 4 Ibid., p. 219. ** Thid., p. 201. 1868. ] Mineralogy, Mining, and Metallurgy. 107 Rammelsberg, and communicated to the German Geological Society.* A specimen of sand from the island of Santiago, in the Cape Verd group, has been examined by M. Silva, and found to consist of titaniferous iron ; as it occurs in considerable quantity it promises to become of commercial importance.t Some new analyses of Norwegian iron ores have been published by Mr. David Forbes.t Von Haidinger has laid before the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna, two reports on an extraordinary shower of meteoric stones which fell on the 9th June, 1866, in the neighbourhood of Knyahinya, in the north-east of Hungary.§ The ‘South Durham and Cleveland Mercury’ speaks of a newly discovered deposit of gypsum, which within the last few months has been very successfully worked by Messrs. Jackson, Brayshay, and Jopling, of Lackenby. A small pebble picked up some time ago by a little girl at Hopetown, in Cape Colony, and used for a while as a child’s plaything, has turned out to be a diamond of the value of 5000. Several others have since been found, and the ‘Society of Arts Journal,’ quoting a Cape paper, says that people are now pro- specting in all directions for diamonds in the neighbourhood of Colesberg. Garnets have also been found in the Colony in con- siderable numbers. Amber—or at least a resinous substance reputed to be such— must be added to the long list of mineral products already furnished by Australia. It occurs in a large deposit, described as “a mine of amber,” at Grass Gulley, near Rokewood, and is said to correspond in all respects with the European mineral. |j Minina AND METALLURGY. Of practical Metallic Mining we have only to chronicle a con- tinuation of that depression to which we referred in our last number. The consequence of this is the extension of that distress which naturally arises from the want of labour. Happily, the benevolent have taken the serious question in hand, and it is to be hoped that the severities of winter will be ameliorated by their efforts. The most striking feature in Metalliferous mining has been the anxiety to supplement the labour of the Miner by machinery. At the late meeting of the Royal- Cornwall Polytechnic Society, a large number of Boring Machines were exhibited and described, and we now find that some of these are about to be introduced into the * Zeitschrift, xix. Heft IL., p. 400. + ‘Comptes Rendus.’ 1867, No. 5, p. 207. } ‘Chemical News,’ Nov. 23, 1867, p. 259. § Sitzungsber. d. k. ak. d. Wiss., Bd. LIV., p. 200 and p. £75. || ‘Journ. Soe. Arts,’ Sep, 20, Oct. 4, 1867. 108 mines around Camborne. Chronicles of Science. (Jan, We shall therefore shortly learn if they fulfil the conditions required for driving levels, or for sinking shafts. The Reports of the Colliery Inspectors have been published. These tell a melancholy tale of the loss of life in Mining for coal, the numbers being largely increased during last year by the terrific casualties at the Oaks Colliery, in South Yorkshire, and at Talk o’ th’ Hill, in North Staffordshire. The returns of deaths are as follows :— 1. Separate Tons of Coal ite AY No. of | Male P i : ¢ Inspection Districts. Collizries. aineiay ok: Fiero Lives Lost. ee ess as 1. Northumberland . North Durham 160 25,647 91 99 | 108,725 Cumberland 2. South Durham . . 155 35,720 84 115 | 129,826 3. North and East Lan- mans = 265 25,440 58 69 98,173 4. West Lancashire . A - ear Pi 180 | 30,000 | 105 | 150 | 55,666 5. Yorkshire 434 35,500 61 425 22,285 6. Derbyshire . Nottinghamshire . . Toes 196 27,100 55 58 | 131,034 Warwickshire . 7. North ag Cheshire . 220 20,210 47 181 30,387 Shropshire . . 8. South Staffordshire soe lal it | 544 | 27,000 96 109 | 94,495 9. Monmouthshire : Gloucester . 228 26,000 75 81 74,074 Somerset, &c. 10. South Wales 338 29,200 113 120 78,137 11. East Seotland . 254 21,200 29 32 | 190,625 12. West Scotland . 218 20,046 43 45 | 131,880 Total . - «| -3,192 323,063 857 1,484 And averages . a ie a ne 67,877 Tons Total of Lives lost from different causes. 1865. 1866. Explosions of Fire vane : 168 651 Falls in Mine 5 381 361 Tn Shafts. Sher SEG: 162 Miscellaneous undengt ound rag ES) 203 On Surface . =e ree 107 984 1,484 Increase of deaths in 1866 500 On the 9th of November a terrible explosion occurred at the Ferndale Colliery, in the Rhondda Vach, Glamorganshire, by which 1868. ] Mining, Mineralogy, and Metallurgy. 109 nearly two hundred lives were sacrificed. This accident, in all pro- bability, arose from some act of gross carelessness on the part of some of the coal hewers, as Safety Lamps were found with their caps off, and it is said keys for opening them have been discovered hidden in the dresses of some of the dead men. It has been repeatedly stated that colliery explosions have been connected with a sudden depression of the atmospheric column, and this, there can be no doubt, has often been the case. Although it has been so reported with regard to the Ferndale expiosion, it is curious to find that really a very high barometer prevailed both before and at the time of the explosion. At Clifton the mercury stood at 30°60 inches; at Bristol at 30°69; and over every part of the British Isles the barometer exhibited that high reading which marks the passage of the great November atmospheric wave. In connection with mines and quarries, a very important de- cision has been given by Vice-Chancellor Malins. In a codicil to Lord William Powlett’s (the Duke of Cleveland) will it was said, “JT bequeath all shares, debentures, or securities, in railways and mines, of which I shall die possessed, to my wife, Lady William Powlett, absolutely.” Upon this the question arose whether the bequest included shares in the Welsh Slate Company. It was contended on the part of Lady Wm. Powlett that the quarry had been worked for the last eight years underground, and had there- fore become a mine; while the opposing party showed that the property was rated as a quarry up to 1866, whereas if it had been considered a mine it would have been exempt from rating. The Vice-Chancellor said that the only thing to distinguish a mine from a quarry was the mode of working. This one was worked as a mine; and therefore it would go to the plaintiff. In Metallurgy there is really nothing of interest to commu- nicate. Every branch of the metal trade suffers severely; and there is but little prospect of any speedy amendment. Yet our spirited Iron-masters, not discouraged, are building blast-furnaces of gigantic proportions, and fitting them with all the appliances of science. The Rosedale and Ferry Hill Company have just com- pleted two blast-furnaces of the height of 105 feet by 28 feet, blown by four powerful blast-engines, and fed by two hydraulic lifts con- structed by Sir Wm. Armstrong. Puddling by Machinery still engages attention. Mr. Thomas Roper, of Ulverstone, has specified a process of manufacturing Iron and Steel, in which a modification of the processes of Nasmyth and Bessemer are involved. High-pressure steam is blown through the iron, in a puddling furnace, to remove the sulphur as sulphuretted hydrogen, and then air to decarbonize the iron. The puddling furnace employed is of a complicated structure, but its principal features, as we understand them, are a circular bed, which holds 110 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., the iron to be operated on, and a hollow vertical shaft, capable of being raised or lowered, which is fitted with two or more horizontal arms. ‘This represents the “rabble.” These arms dip into the melted metal—the shaft revolves, and, either steam or air being forced down it, passes from the arms through the iron, and, by the combined operation of the steam, air, and motion, puddling is rapidly effected. We shall wait for further experiments before we enlarge on this arrangement. We regret to have to chronicle the death of Dr. E. H. Birken- head, F.G.8., lecturer on Science at the Free Library School of Science, and Royal Infirmary School of Medicine, Liverpool, and Master of the Wigan Mining School. He was the ablest of all the Science teachers certificated by the Science and Art Department. His loss is deeply felt in Liverpool and Wigan, and in both towns successful efforts are being made to raise a fund for his widow. 10. PHYSICS. Licut.—Some valuable experiments on solar radiation have been made by M. Soret on the Glacier des Bossons and the summit of Mont Blane. He finds that the increase of the radiation with the altitude is less rapid than the diminution of the barometric pressure, or than the diminution of the atmospheric thickness. This result is contrary to what can be deduced from the observations made by Professor Forbes in 1832 on the Faulhorn and the Brientz.* The atmospheric pressure being the same, the radiation observed at an elevated altitude is more powerful than at a lower elevation. The ratio of the intensity of the solar radiation on Mont Blane and Geneva is as about 6 to 5. Father Secchi has examined the flame of the Bessemer con- verter, and has observed several points of resemblance between its spectrum and that of certain yellow and red stars. It is well known that the Bessemer flame in the spectroscope when the iron is com- pletely decarbonized, presents a series of very fine and numerous lines, which remind one of « Orionis and « Herculis, only reversed. This results undoubtedly from the great number of metals burning in the flame, and the spectrum presents several lines well known and determined. ‘This flame seems to be the only one comparable with that of the coloured stars, and there is nothing improbable in this when we consider how largely iron predominates in aerolites. The same artificial spectrum—that of the flame of the Besse- mer converter —has likewise been examined by Professor Lielegg. This flame is supposed to be carbonic acid gas in an incandescent * «Phil. Trans,,’ 1842, part ii., p. 225. 1868. | Physics. 111 state, and the spectrum of this gas being yet unknown, the observ ations of M. Lielege have served to fill up a gap in the series of spectra produced by the gases in ignition. ‘The apparition and the disappearance of some of the luminous fixed lines is closely connected with the metallurgical operation. At the moment the decarbonization of the iron is nearly terminated, the spectral lines undergo essential modifications. The apparition of a group of lines and of an isolated line in the violet-blue portion of the spec- trum marks a particular reaction, during which the soft iron is being formed, and these lines disappear sooner than all the others ; their appearance and disappearance serve therefore to indicate the termination of the process. The same indefatigable observer has also ascertained that the spectrum of the colour of sea water is deprived of its red portion at small depths, and successively of the yellow and green, for the greater depths, until it appears of a violet-blue. In trying to ascertain whether the same was the case in glaciers, he has made some interesting experiments in an artificial grotto in the Grinden- wald glacier. This cavern is 100 métres deep, transparent in its walls, through which the solar light penetrated. The light was of a fine blue tint, the red being extremely weak, so that in the grotto human countenances assumed a cadaverous aspect. On looking towards the entry, at a certain distance in the cavern, it appeared to be lit up with a red light, doubtless the effect of contrast. The thickness of the superposed mass was not enough to show a greater effect than the almost complete absence of the red, and a great diminution of the yellow. The ice was said to be 15 metres thick, but was probably less; it was perfectly compact and limpid, but with a few air-bubbles. M. Felix Lucas concludes from theoretical considerations that. the luminous distance at which the electric spark is visible is greater than that of a permanent light, the apparent intensity of which would be 250,000 times that of the spark. The light actually employed to illuminate modern lighthouses gives a brilliancy equal to 125 carcel lamps. An electric spark possessing the illuminating power of the 200th part only of a carcel burner is superior as to its power of projecting light. Hence we can conceive the immense effect of a warning light composed of intermittent flashes of the electric spark proceeding from a strong Leyden battery. M. Lucas states that, in an experiment made in a laboratory two apparatuses were established, one voltaic battery equal to 125 carcel lamps, and another spark-battery equivalent to only the 1-2000th part of a carcel lamp. The photometer (such as is employed in the light- ae administration) showed a marked superiority in favour of the spark. 112 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., Photographers will read with interest the announcement by M. Prat of the discovery of a compound of silver more sensitive to light than the chloride. This chemist has been for some time past investigating the chemical constitution of fluorine compounds and the isolation of fluorine. M. Prat starts from the fact that the fluorides are really oxyfluorides; that the fluoride of calcium, for example, is formed of two equivalents of calcrum, one of oxygen, one of fluorine; and that, in consequence, the true equivalent of fluorine is 29°5, and not 19. In order to obtain fluorine, it is only necessary to treat the fluoride of calcium with chlorate of potassium, or, what is better, perchlorate of potassium, for it is only with this last salt that the reaction takes place. Oxygen is disengaged, and a gas is produced, which silver absorbs, giving rise to a fluoride of silver, insoluble in water, soluble in ammonia, from which it is precipitated by nitric acid, and which is altered by the action of light more rapidly than the chloride of silver; the formula of the real chloride is Ag Fl, whilst that of _ the soluble fluoride of chemists is Ag Fl, Ag O. Several new instruments, suitable for the observation of different organs of the eye, have been described by M. Robert Houdin. They serve also for the examination of entoptic images, or the shadows thrown on the retina by intra-ocular bodies. Seven instruments of this class have been invented by M. Houdin; these are: 1, the Iridoscope, for the manifestation of entoptic images; 2, the Diopscope, by the aid of which the inversion of the images on the retina are determined; 8, the Pupilloscope, demonstrating in a magnified form the dilations and contractions of the pupil; 4, the Pupillometer, which gives the diameter of the pupil to within a quarter of a millimetre; 5, the Diopsimeter, for measuring the extent of the field of vision; 6, an Optometer, for the use of any persons who wish to determine the distance of distinct vision ; 7, the Retinoscope, an instrument with which one can see the vesicular group in his own eye. In all stereoscopes there is an optical arrangement by which the right eye sees an image of one picture and the left eye that of another. ‘These images ought to be apparently in the same place, and at the distance of most distinct vision. In ordinary stereoscopes these images are vertical; the observer has to place his eyes near two apertures, and he sees the united images, as it were, behind the optical apparatus. Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S., has recently had made by Messrs. Elliott, Brothers, a real-image stereoscope, in which the observer stands at a short distance from the apparatus, and looks with both eyes at a large lens, the image appearing as a real object close to the lens. The stereoscope consists of a board about two fect long, on which is placed :—1, a vertical frame, to 1868. | Physics. 113 hold the pair of pictures, which may be an ordinary stereoscopic slide turned upside-down; 2, a sliding piece near the middle of the board, containing two lenses of six feet focus, placed side by side, with their centres about one inch and a quarter apart; 3, a frame, containing a large lens of about eight inches focal length, and three inches diameter. The observer stands with his eyes about two feet from the large lens. With his right eye he sees the real image of the left-hand picture formed by the left-hand lens in the air close to the large lens, and with the left eye he sees the real image of the other picture formed by the other lens in the same place. The united images look like a real object in the air, close to the larger lens. This image may be magnified or diminished at pleasure, by sliding the piece containing the two lenses nearer to or farther from the picture. Heat.—Herr CO. Sching has investigated the subject of fusible silicates, and the temperature required for forming and melting the same. He finds by application of a thermo-electric pyrometer that silicates are formed and melted at the same temperature, and that the formation of the silicates depends more on time than on tem- perature, z.e. it depends, in fact, on the conducting power of heat which the materials composing the silicates possess. He also finds the temperature required for melting metals and metallurgical pro- ducts to be lower than usually stated, 1,431—1,445°, for melting the same. Sching now finds that a temperature of a glass furnace in operation is only 1,100—1,250° C.; that crystal glass is worked at 833°, and becomes completely liquid at 929°. A Bohemian green glass tube softens at 769°, and becomes liquid at 1,052°. Pure limestone loses its carbonic acid by heating for several hours at a temperature of 617—675°. An increase of the temperature will shorten the time. Mr. C. Tomlinson, F.R.S., in a communication to the ‘ Chemical News,’ has stated his opinion that the Camphor Storm-Glass is use- less as a meteorological instrument. The frequent reference made to it by the late Admiral Fitzroy gave an almost official sanction to its use, and induced some instrument makers to manufacture it largely, and even to attach it to the ordmary barometer and ther- mometer. This led Mr. Tomlinson to examine the storm-glass with some care. One was made on a large scale in a quart bottle, placed on the window ledge, and a journal of its behaviour kept during some months. The conclusion arrived at was that the storm-glass is not acted on by light, or atmospheric electricity, or wind, or rain, &c., but solely by variations in temperature ; that it is, in fact, a rude kind of thermoscope, vastly inferior to an ordinary thermometer, and has no meteorological value whatever. VOL, V. I 114 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., The subject of the transparency of red- or white-hot metals was referred to in our last Chronicles. It is generally believed amongst scientific men that the supposed phenomenon is merely an optical delusion. A correspondent of the ‘Chemical News’ has, however, adduced an observation on the opposite side. He says a few weeks ago he went over some steel works in the North of England, and there the manager spoke of it as a well-known fact that steel at a white heat was transparent. In proof of this he showed that when the molten metal was being poured out, the edge of the crucible appeared to be distinctly visible through the molten metal. This could only be seen directly the crucible was taken out of the furnace before it had cooled in the least. Mr. A. E. Fletcher, Government Inspector of Alkali Works for the Western District, has constructed a most useful instrument for measuring the velocity of a current of air. He uses it for measuring the speed of air in flues and chimneys. The construction of the apparatus is based on the fact that a current of air, passing across the open end of a straight tube, causes a partial vacuum init. An application of this principle is seen in a small toy in common use, in which a liquid is made to ascend seyeral inches ina vertical tube, by blowing through another tube across its open end ; it rises by virtue of the partial vacuum caused by the current of air which crosses it. If then a straight tube is inserted through a hole in the brickwork of a chimney or flue, so that the current of air in the flue passes across its open end, a ‘partial vacuum will be formed in it, greater or less in proportion to the velocity of the current. A tube in such a position will, however, communicate a suction arising from that of the chimney itself, besides that suction produced by the current of air passing across its open end, and for the present purpose these two must be distinguished. To effect this, two tubes should be inserted in the chimney, one of them having a straight, and the other a bent end, the bend to be turned so as to meet the current of air; both tubes are open. In each of these tubes will be experienced the partial vacuum due to the suction of the chimney itself. In the straight tube, however, this will be increased by the suction caused by the passage of the current of air across its open end, while in the case of the bent tube this will be diminished by the pressure caused by the current of air blowing into it. The difference therefore between the suction in the two tubes will be due to the action of the current of air in the chimney, and it remains only to measure this difference in order to measure the velocity of the current itself. After many trials, Mr. Fletcher adopted the following plan for measuring this suction. The tubes were con- nected with a U-Tube, and means were adopted for accurately seeing and measuring its slightest indications. In the first place, the limits were increased until they were no longer small tubes of - 1868. | Physics. 115 about 0°4 inch internal diameter, but cylinders of 4 inches diameter ; these were connected at the bottom by a small tube. Thus the power, exerted by the pressure communicated through the connecting tubes, operating on the extended surface of the liquid in the cylin- ders, was increased a hundred-fold over that operating in the smaller U-Tube; but the friction could only have been increased ten-fold, giving therefore a ten-fold increase of delicacy. In order to observe accurately the rise and fall of the liquid in the cylinders, floats were introduced, on each of which was engraved a very fine horizontal line; and to measure accurately the comparative elevation or depression of these two lines, a finely divided scale and vernier were added, working with a delicate screw adjustment. With this it is possible to measure an elevation or depression of rsoth inch, which is sufficiently accurate for the purpose in view. On trying now to apply the instrument so constructed, and attempting to measure very minute variations of pressure, failure still seemed imminent; for although the motion of the water in the increased limbs of the U-tube could be measured to zessth inch, the water refused to move except under pressures exceeding that which would be indicated by so small a column: in other words, the water seemed to stick in the cylinders. After substituting ether for water the action of the manometer was quite satisfactory ; the lines on the floats always returned exactly to their original position after any disturbance, and its indications could be relied on to reooth inch. By the aid of this ether manometer the speed of any current of air in flues or chimneys can be measured by simply boring a hole one inch in diameter through the brickwork, and inserting two tubes, one with a bent, the other with a plain end as Brea described, and making the nécessary observation of the floats; and in this operation neither soot, heat, nor corrosive vapours can prove any hindrance. So sensitive is the apparatus, that on a windy day the effect of each successive gust of wind is observable, as it causes variations in the draught of the chimney. The instrument may be used as a wind gauge, by fixing through the roof of an observatory a small vertical pipe presenting a plain open end to the wind. The lower end of this pipe brought down into the observatory and connected with the ether manometer, would communicate the varying pressures due to the varying speed of the wind. Execrriciry.—M. Rondel has examined a phenomenon which has been noticed more than once by workers with induction coils. Tf while the current of a pile passes through the primary wire of a coil, one of the extremities of the secondary wire is brought near one of the extremities of the iron core, sparks can be drawn of EZ 116 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., remarkable intensity and brilliancy; if at the same time, the other end of the secondary wire is put in communication with one of the poles of the pile, a great increase takes place in the brilliancy of the spark. Then, on touching with the hand the iron core, and placing the free end of the wire in contact with the skin, a redness takes place, and a smart stinging sensation is felt. This last expe- riment was made upon a coil, the core of which, completely isolated in a tube of varnished glass, was eight millimetres in diameter. M. Rondel made the same experiment with another bobbin, the soft iron of which was twelve centimetres long, five centimetres wide, and eight millimetres thick. The sparks were produced with detonations. A single Bunsen element of small size was sufficient to produce these phenomena. A note on the Polarization of Electrodes—a subject of consi- derable interest to telegraphists and electricians—has been presented by M. Gaugain to the Academy of Sciences. Several savants have sought to determine the part which each of the electrodes takes in the polarization, and have arrived at different results: M. Poggen- dorff found that the two electrodes contributed equally to the production of the electromotive force developed; MM. Lenz and Sarvelgen found, on the contrary, that the part of the cathode is greater than that of the anode. M. Gaugain has tried, in his turn, to resolve the question by making use, as he did on former occasions, of the method of opposition. The following are the results thus obtained by a series of experiments carried on with a mixture of nine parts by volume, of distilled water, and one part of sulphuric acid :— Polarization of the anode .. Bo S13 ate es oa AOS: 4 of the cathode oo ae ae 56 so LOU Total polarization ie ac ve 350 It appears to be of little consequence, if more or less sulphuric acid be added to the electrolyzed water, provided that this propor- tion does not fall below a certain limit; but when it becomes extremely small, the polarization of the cathode increases, without the polarization of the anode being sensibly modified. The following are the results obtained by electrolyzing pure water :— Polarization of the anode cts oe ie bs Js “193 9 of the cathode ei te “% ae vs ©6243 Total polarization ac oF os 436 M. Matteucci recently * called the attention of the Academy to an experiment which he made in 1838, and upon which he * «Comptes Rendus’, Jan. 14, 1867. 1868. | Physics. 117 depended to prove that the polarization proceeded from the gases adherent to the electrodes. In fact, polarized metals should be con- sidered as fugitive combinations formed by the metals and gases, and the author is of opinion that in polarization couples as well as in Grove’s gas pile the electro-motive force is the affinity exerted on one of the elements of the water by a gas associated in a particular manner with a metal. Dr. Henry Morton, of the University of Penna, Philadelphia, has lately described an important adjunct to the induction coil. He prepares the arrangement in the following manner :—Take eight plates of glass, about 11 inches by 14 inches, and attach to both sides of each plate, sheets of tinfoil, 7 inches by 10 inches in size, with rounded corners. Set these plates upright in a box (provided with grooves for the purpose) about 14 inches apart; then rolling up some balls of paper large enough to fit between the plates, and wrapping a strip of tinfoil around each ball, thrust them between the plates, and, lastly, make an outside pole to the terminal sheets of foil, by means of wires enclosed in glass tubes passed through the side or top of the box. It is evident that we have here a com- pact form of Leyden battery, arranged for “cascade.” With the ordinary electrical machine such an arrangement would be worthless, from its want of insulation. With the induction coil, however, which developes an entire charge in an instant, it becomes of great value in a certain class of experiments, because it gives us at once the concentrated charge peculiar to the Leyden battery, combined with a spark length, which it would otherwise have lost. (This property of long spark in the “cascade” arrangement of jars is well known.) If such an apparatus as here described be connected with the secondary poles of an induction coil, and other wires are then led off (with a break in the circuit, however, of + to ? inches) to some piece of apparatus for the illustration of electric discharge in vacuo, such as Gassiot’s cascade (especially with a canary goblet), the aurora tube, an electric egg of canary glass, &. (but not a Giessler tube), the brightness of the illumination and volume of the discharge will be immensely increased. Thus a goblet invisible at 30 feet, when the unaided coil is used, becomes brilliant at 50 feet with this attachment. The author has used two coils with the above apparatus, both made by Mr. E. 8. Ritchie, of Boston, one yielding a spark of 8 inches, the other, which gives, in its present mounting, sparks of 16 inches, to provide against accident ; such a length being abundantly sufficient for use. Geissler tubes, unless of very large area, are not benefited in appearance by this arrange- ment, because the unaided coil can supply all the electricity they are capable of transmitting, and this excessive charge only tends to develop inductive resistances in the glass tubes themselves, which resistances this momentary current is the least fitted to overcome. 118 Chronicles of Scrence. [Jan., The author mentions another ‘little practical detail in this con- nection. It is generally assumed that the induction-coil is unfit for the exhibition of those experiments of attraction and repulsion which especially characterize statical electricity. A great number, however, may be very satisfactorily exhibited by charging Leyden jars, and using them as the sources of electricity. Thus:—Con- nect a chime of bells with the knob of a large jar; connect the outer coating with the earth and with the negative pole of the coil; then bring the positive pole within striking distance of the knob, and charge by a few sparks. The electrical flyer, orrery, sports- men, and birds may be successfully operated in this way, even in summer weather. The coil should not be of less than six inches spark length. M. J. E. Balsamo has presented a memoir to the Academy of Sciences on a new Voltaic Pile. It is formed of two plates of iron, one plunged in dilute sulphuric acid, the other in a solution of chloride of sodium, separated from the acidulated water by a porous diaphragm. The iron of the acidulated water acts as zinc, and that of the saline solution acts as copper. The current, constant and of considerable intensity, proceeds from the property possessed by iron of polarizing itself differently in certain solutions, between which osmogenic action takes place. M. Balsamo has also tried another experiment of considerable theoretical interest. He plunges at the same time in oxalic acid two small magnetized bars of the same surface and of the same weight, one having its nerth pole in the liquid and its south pole out of it. The second bar is in the con- trary position. The first acted as zinc, the latter as copper, and a current of electricity was the consequence. M. Becquerel, sen., has continued his electro-capillary researches to which we drew attention in our last Chronicles. He shows defi- nitely that—1. ‘The alteration is exerted on the sides of the capil- lary spaces between two liquids. 2. The electricity is disengaged at the contact of these liquids in the capillary spaces. He has modified his method of experimenting. Instead of forming the fis- sures in the tubes, he fastens at their extremity a strong stopper very tightly fixed, made with filtering paper soaked in water; a platinum wire traverses the stopper and connects the two liquids together. M, Bouchotte has examined the electrolytic power of the cur- rents of the magneto-electric machine made by the Alliance Com- pany. When the current sent by the commutator is always in the same direction, the electro-motive power is that of 144 Daniel elements with sulphate of copper; but when the current is alter- nate, as in the production of the electric ight, the electro motive power is nz. 1868. ] E15 10. ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY. PuystoLoey. Work and Food.—A new phase of this question has been brought about by the very valuable experiments of Dr. Parkes (of the Military Hospital and Medical School at Netley) on the Elimination of Nitrogen during rest, an account of which he has communicated to the Royal Society. We have in a previous Chronicle noticed the views and experiments of Fick, Wislicenus, Frankland, and the first series of Dr. Parkes’ researches.* Dr. Parkes has found that during a period of work a man excretes less nitrogen than during a period of rest—whether he feeds on nitrogenous food or carbonaceous only. He also finds that after nitrogenous food has been cut off from the system and again supplied, there is a retention of that nitrogen showing that it is needed to fill up some waste; also, that during the first rest after exercise, where nitrogenous food had not been cut off, there was an increase in the elimination of nitrogen. The ex- periments on which these statements are founded may be thoroughly trusted, and lead to important considerations, Dr. Parkes having experimented on two soldiers, and having every means of analysis at hand. It will be seen that they place the question in quite a new aspect, and no theory of the relation of food, muscle, and work can be now tenable which does not account for them. Dr. Parkes’ view is, that when a voluntary muscle is brought into action by the in- fluence of the will, it appropriates nitrogenous matter and grows; the stimulus onthe act of union gives rise to changes in the non- nitrogenous substances surrounding the ultimate elements of the muscular substance, which cause the conversion of heat into motion. The contraction continues until the effete products of these changes arrest it (as they have been shown to do by Ranke and others), a state of rest ensues, during which time the effete products are re- moved, the muscle loses nitrogen, and can again be called into action by its stimulus. Dr. Parkes does not believe in the efficiency of carbonaceous foods when alone, which recent experiments might seem to indicate. Fick and Wislicenus, he says, drew upon the store of nitrogenous matter in their system when they cut it off in their food, and he maintains that carbon foods can only be efficient in the pre- sence of nitrogenous matter also. When a muscle loses nitrogen, fat is probably formed, and thus a muscle, disintegrating during the period of rest, may form a store of fat in its texture, which may become efficient at the next addition of nitrogenous matter as a source of force. The argument as to the oxidation of nitrogenous matter beg insuflicient to account for work is true enough, but * See also Dr. Hinton’s paper in the July number. 120 Chronicles of Science. | Jan., oxidation is not the only chemical change taking place in the blood, as Berthelot has shown; the appropriation of albumen-nitrogen, and its change into muscle-nitrogen, may, and probably does initiate the other chemical changes in which carbonaceous foods become effi- cient as sources of force. Dr. Parkes’ view is very satisfactory, as striking the mean between the old and new views; it harmonizes with the teaching of experience, and restores to the rules of diet their old significance. One thing is to be regretted in all experiments upon this subject made with human beings: in them the evolution of cerebral force is as variable as that of muscular force, and cannot be regulated or taken into account. It must—equally with muscle- work—modify the elimination of nitrogenous matter and carbonic acid, and yet there appears to be no means of guarding against it as a source of error. The brain may be more active during the period of muscular rest than during muscular exertion. Animal Mechanics—The Rev. Samuel Haughton, of Trinity College, Dublin, has offered some experimental proofs of two ele- mentary principles in animal mechanics :—first, that the force of a muscle is proportional to the area of its cross-section ; and, second, that the force of a muscle is proportional to the cross-section of the tendon that conveys its influence to a distant pomt. Dr. Haughton concludes that the contractile force of muscle is ordinarily 109-4 Ibs. to the square inch of cross-section. He compares his results with those of Donders, of Utrecht, made on the Biceps and Brachizuss, whilst he has observed most of the large muscles of the leg and arm. A most ingenious and noteworthy method of estimating the cross-section of the muscle in square inches was made use of. A piece of card was cut exactly of the shape and size of the area of the divided muscle, and this was then carefully weighed in a balance against square inches and fractions of square inches of the same sort of cardboard ; thus by means of weighing, the most complicated cal- culations of area were avoided. Blood.—Preyer believes that cruorine (hemoglobin) is an acid. When frozen in vacuo with a solution of carbonate of soda, the carbonic acid is given off and a cruorate of soda formed, retaining the peculiar absorption spectrum of cruorine. Alkaline sulphides have been shown by Nawrocki and Preyer to first reduce cruorine, and then give a new pair of absorption bands indicating a distinct and stable combination. German observers, and Dr. Arthur Gamgee in Britain, seem very hard at work with the spectroscope, examin- ing various reactions of blood colouring matter. The first number of the new volume of the ‘ Journal of Anatomy and Physiology’ contains a very excellent summary of, and reference to, these researches. Dr. Thudichum’s observations with the spectroscope on the fluids of cholera patients (published with illustrations in the Privy Council Report) are interesting in this connection. 1868.]_ . Zoology. 121 Salamander Poison. —Dr. Zalesky has found an alkaloidal active principle in the poisonous secretion of the spotted salaman- der. He calls it Salamandrine, and remarks that it has much the same effect on animals as strychnia; but the spasms produced by the former are clonic, whereas by the latter they are tonic. The action of Antiseptic Agents—Some time since we drew attention to experiments on this subject made by Mr. Chapman, of Oxford. Dr. Binz, of Bonn, has been investigating the effects of antiseptics on animalcules found in vegetable infusions, and has ob- tained some satisfactory results. The antiseptic was allowed to come into contact with the animalculze (Colpoda), while in the field of the microscope. Binz distinguishes two destructive actions, an osmotic one, causing the creature to burst, as with chloride and hy- posulphite of sodium, chlorate of potassium and alum; and a directly poisonous action observed with nitric, sulphuric, tannic, and acetic acids, creosote, permanganate, corrosive sublimate, iodine, bromine, chlorine, and quinia. Acetic was the powerful acid poison. Quinia had a very powerful effect, but salicine was not found to exert any influence, nor nitrate of strychnia, in the course of two hours. Digestion by the Pancreas.— Dr. Kine, of Berlin, Virchow’s assistant, in his physiological laboratory, has obtaied some inte- resting results in this matter. He took the pancreas of a large dog, and having washed it, immediately placed it with a quantity of fibrin in hot water to digest. The whole of the fibrin was in six hours dissolved into a pepton, which was further almost entirely converted into tyrosin and leucin. It was found that alkaline pancreatic infusion will not only digest proteids, but will digest them at a rate and to an extent compared with which gastric diges- tion seems a slow and feeble process. It takes the collected ferment of a whole stomach days to digest half the amount of fibrin which the pancreas will digest in as many hours. The pepton produced, differs in no essential respect from gastric pepton. The interesting thing is the enormous production of tyrosin and leucin, at the ex- pense of the pepton. For, if the process was delayed, Kithne found that a much larger proportion of pepton was produced. In the body the pepton diffuses away as fast as made, and hence no excess of tyrosin or leucin can be formed. It would be a satisfactory thing if Kihne could try his experiment again, making use of a dialytic medium. An ordinary dead animal membrane could not be used as it would itself be digested. MorpHouoey. The fibres in the muscular wall of the stomach are stated by Dr. J. B. Pettigrew to resemble in man and other mammalia that which he hag already described in the heart and bladder. The 122 ; Chronicles of Science. [Jan., most external and internal fibres are more or less longitudinal, and the deeper or more central fibres become more and more oblique as the centre of the parietes is reached. The longitudinal intersect the very oblique at nearly right angles; the slightly oblique and oblique at more acute angles. Dr. Pettigrew considers that there are indications of seven layers of fibres, three external, three in- ternal, and one intermediate ; but he uses the term layer in a more restricted sense than in his former papers on the heart and bladder, and now admits that there is a mutual interchange of fibres between the different layers. Minute Structure of the Liver.—New views with regard to this matter have lately come before the world, and seem to be very generally accepted by the leading histologists. Hering, Eberth, and other foreign observers, have renounced Dr. Beale’s view, as also that which attributes to the bile-ducts the formation of distinct capillaries within the lobules, having a membrana propria like the blood capillaries, and in contact only externally with the liver-cells. Professor Turner supports the new view, which is, that the bile passes to the periphery of the lobule in channels, which lie between and have their walls formed by the liver-cells, and which commu- nicate with the interlobular branches of the hepatic duct. Prepa- rations of rabbit’s liver, in which the bile-ducts have been injected immediately after the death of the animal, are the data which have lead to this new conception. Professor Hering has also studied the lives of many other mammals and reptiles. The Gall-Bladder.—The gall-bag is a most strangely variable organ. Dr. Macalister states that it is constantly present in bimana, quadrumana, cheiroptera, insectivora, carnivora, marsupialia, mono- tremata; absent from cetacea; variable in edentata, pachydermata, rodentia, and ruminantia. As a rule it is present in birds and rep- tiles, and almost universally in fish. An explanation of its varia- bility (varying sometimes even in the same species) is that it is required in those animals whose intervals of feeding are protracted, and is of little use in those in which the bile flows continuously from the liver, to aid in the almost constant process of digestion. The Axolotl and its Gill-tufts—It has been long thought that the Mexican perennibranchiate Salamander might prove to be merely a larval form, and develop into a true Salamandroid. More- over, the presence or absence of gills or their apertures in the adult state has been found to be merely a question of degree, and not of much taxonomical value. Van der Hoeven pointed out that the giant proteid of Japan could not be separated from the American Menopoma, though in the first the gill apertures are lost in adult life, and in the second they are persistent. From the experiments of M. Auguste Duméril on the Axolotls now alive and breeding in the ménagerie at Paris, it appears that in this creature the per- 1868. | Zoology. 123 sistence of the gills is purely accidental: they are of no functional importance, and may be cut off without injuring the animal. When cut, they grow again, and may be again cut. Persistence in cutting the gills causes the Axolotl at length to undergo certain changes in colour and appearance, and to approach more closely to the fully- developed Salamandroid. It is a remarkable thing that even whilst these gills, evidently the mere relics of larval structure, are attached to the Axolotl, it becomes sexually mature, and breeds (as it has done at Paris). M. Duméril appears to show that sometimes an Axolotl may lose its gills at an early period of life—in other cases, perhaps not at all—and there is great variability in the time when the supply of blood to these parts is cut off, and an absorptive process commenced. Perhaps the diminution of accessible nutriment might have some effect in causing an earlier absorption of the appendages. The most important of M. Duméril’s observations—zoologically— is the discovery that the Axolotl does spontaneously lose its gill- tufts and tail crest, and becomes a true Salamandroid—approaching certain North American forms. In fact, M. Duméril says the Axolotls are only the tadpoles of the Amblystomi, and, most strange to say, have the power of sexual reproduction as tadpoles. Does not this open up a case for the students of natural selection? The tadpole of a northerly Batrachian, when placed in a tropical clime, tends to retain its tadpole form, and to acquire sexual maturity in that con- dition (or vice versi). But there are almost the same remarkable facts with regard to our own common newt. Amphioxus and Nerve Termination—M. P. Bert has some remarks on this lowest of vertebrates in the ‘Comptes Rendus.’ It has been taken this year for the first time on the oceanic shores of France, though many specimens have been observed on the Eng- lish south coast. M. Bert corrects some of the errors made by M. de Quatrefages. He denies the existence of the lateral canal open- ing at the side of the mouth, and describes the position of the abdominal pore and its relation to the body cavity. Like all other fish, Amphioxus has the generative glands early developed, and it has been strangely asserted by Agassiz that it is an immature form. M. Bert has seen it spontaneously discharge the spermatic fluid, which proves the assertion to be baseless. He also speaks of the termination of the nerves in corpuscular bodies. This gives us an opportunity to refer to a paper on the same termination of nerves in various animals published n M. Robin’s Journal. In these, also, corpuscular terminations are described closely connected with muscle fibres. M. Bert very properly maintains that in Amphioxus there is a retiform or endless disposition of the finer nerve twigs as well as these corpuscles. No doubt the reconciliation between the views of Dr. Beale and of his opponents (who are now becoming very few in number) will be found in admitting fully both methods of ter- 124 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., mination. It seems not at all improbable that the corpuscular bodies in connection with nerve-ending and muscle fibre may be connected with sensation—that form of it, which is called the muscular sense, just as other corpuscular bodies (tactile, &c.) are connected with the more obvious perception of heat, cold, and other vibrations. “Plaques motrices” will have to be abandoned as such, and re- garded merely as corpuscles of muscular sense. Development of Cuttle Fish—The distinguished Russian ob- server Mecznikow has been studying the development of Sepiola—a little Cephalopod common at Naples. He is led to deny some state- ments of Kolliker, and shows that the development proceeds from two layers. The skin and sense organs are developed as in Verte- brata, and what is most remarkable, a relationship between the Ver- tebrate’s notochord and the so-called “cuttle-bone” is maintained. M. Mecznikow rejects all analogy between the foot of ordinary mollusks and the siphon, as advocated by Huxley. He is equally adverse to the hypothesis of Hackel (a natural philosopher of the Darwinian school) that the Pteropoda are the immediate ancestors of the Cephalopoda. Insect Architectwre—A curious example of the weaving powers of insects is recorded by Mr. Tomes, of Christ Church, Oxford, in a recent number of the ‘Microscopical Journal.’ Mr. Tomes found in ponds on Hampstead Heath small cases made of green conferva and an animal basis ; the fibres of conferva were very regularly and neatly interwoven, forming a tube open at each end. In this an insect-larva was found, which is minutely described and figured with its case in a coloured plate. Mr. Tomes considers that the larva belongs to the Trichopterous genus Hydroptila. He describes the habits of the animal and its method of building the case it in- habits. The perfect insect is not known to Mr. Tomes. Structure and Differences of Egg-shells—Dr. Blasius undertook the microscopic examination of birds’-eggs, in order to ascertain whether they presented any characters which would serve to sepa- rate the larger groups of birds. An account of his researches, which have been most extensive and detailed, appears in ‘ Kdlliker’s Zeitschrift,’ 3rd part. It appears that the microscopic differences are not constant or reliable, and that oology must stand just where it did as regards systematic ornithology, even after such careful observations as those of Dr. Blasius. 1868. } ( 125.) THE PUBLIC HEALTH. Ir any one wishes for a demonstration of the need of change in the Municipal Management of London, he should visit the Metro- polis just after a snow storm. Such a storm visited London on the night of the 8th of December, 1867. The next morning, although hundreds of poor men were begging in the streets, being thrown out of work by the snow, there was no effort made to clear the streets and pavements of that snow; and the consequence was that, snow being trampled by the feet of men and horses into ice, numerous accidents to men and horses occurred. That the streets are allowed to remain in this disgraceful state does not arise from want of legal power to put them in a safe condition, but from an entire neglect of duty. Thus the police have the power to fine every person forty shillings who does not cleanse the footway in front of his house before a given time after a fall of snow; but they seldom or ever exercise this power. The greatest sinners in this respect are the government offices and the authorities who preside over our public parks. The footway around these parks is never swept. ‘The vestries try to clean the streets, but their surveyors never have organizing skill enough to get the poor unemployed men together to do this necessary work. If the snow cannot be got away, an immense saving of horse flesh and horse pain would be effected by throwing gravel or sand down the principal thoroughfares. But the vestries will not see what they have to do with protecting stran- gers’ horses passing through their thoroughfares. The loss by the payment for gravel and labour would appear against them in the rate book, and as the saving of life would not appear, they will have nothing to do with it. We should not have referred so much in detail to this London grievance if it were not that it illustrates a ae London is badly managed because it is split up into forty estries, no two of which will act in concert, and none of them will do anything for the public good. Above all things we want in London public-spirited men, men who will sacrifice their own pri- vate interests and that of their parishes for the public good. It is too much to expect that the forty or fifty little parliaments by which the Metropolis is governed, with their two or three thousand mem- bers should ever produce a majority of public-spirited men. The present system is the worst possible that could be devised for secu- ring the public good. What we really want is that the Metropolis should be governed as a whole, and that it should not be split up into forty or fifty parishes, each having its own narrow-minded 126 The Public Health. [Jan., parliament, bent on opposing every advantage to its neighbours, on the ground that it would injure itself. It is to break up this system that Mr. J. 8. Mill brought forward a measure for the Reform of the Municipal Government of the Metropolis. It is not necessary that we should here enter into any details of this measure. We must regard it as a means to an end. The concentration of authority which he proposes in this bill, and the administrative power which it gives to bodies having larger powers and wider administrative districts than at present exist in London, would un- doubtedly be the means of effecting an immense amount of benefit. This excellent measure has been opposed by nearly every vestry in London. The great excuse for opposition has been that it would increase the expense of the Local Government of the Metropolis. This is regarded as a sufficient ground for opposition to any mea- sure. The cry of expense is raised against any measure, whatever may be its promise of prospective gain. The fact is, that when a thoroughly careful examination is made of Mr. Mill’s bill, it will be found that a great economy will be ultimately effected. Instead of the multitude of officers with small salaries, which are now the burdens of London parishes, a few effective officers with larger salaries will be appointed. or instance, instead of a large number of medical officers of health, half of whom are confessedly paid for doing nothing, there would be five or six men appointed, who would attend to their duties, and not be allowed to hold sinecures, as is at present the case. In the interests of public health we advo- cate this measure. As an instance of how the present vestries treat their medical officers, we may give a report of what occurred in the Vestry of St. James’s, Westminster, on the 5th of December last, when the medical officer of health, calling attention to the deaths . from typhoid fever among the wealthy inhabitants of that parish, said, “Several cases have come under my notice where life has been lost amongst this class. No one should take a house without a certificate of the drains being properly laid; and bricklayers and builders, neglecting their duties in this respect, should be liable to prosecution and fine.” The very idea of a man being prosecuted for killing his neighbours in this way was ridiculed ; and the report in the ‘Marylebone Mercury’ of the 7th of December, says “The reading of this passage was received with cries of ‘Oh, and laugh- ter.” There can be no question that in order that the duties of the medical officer of health should be carried out efficiently, his appointment should be independent of such bodies as the present vestries of London. No effectual sanitary measures can be carried out in many districts of London till the medical officer of health is made independent of the influence which the vestry is now capable of exercising over him. : The question of the position and duties of the Medical Officer of 1868. | The Public Health. 127 Health is every day assuming more importance. This subject has attracted the attention of Dr. Letheby, the able and energetic Officer of Health to the City of London, and in a paper contributed by him to the ‘ Medical Press and Circular,’ he has given his views. He insists on the necessity of every district in the country being under the supervision of such an Officer. He points out the danger of conferring this office on medical men engaged in private practice, leading, as it often does, to a confliction of interests most unfayvour- able to the public health. He advocates a wide extension of the duties of the Officer of Health. To him should be referred the Certificates of Death, and he should be entitled to call for the in- vestigation of the Coroner’s Court in cases of suspicion and doubt. He should be also appointed assessor in the Coroner’s Court, and to him might be committed the necessary inquiries into the cause of death. These inquiries in the Coroner’s Court are often of the most slovenly kind, arising from the want of requisite skill on the part of the medical witnesses, now almost entirely depended on by the Coroner in his inquiries. Dr. Letheby’s paper is well worth the consideration of all sanitary reformers. At the meeting of the British Medical Association, held at Dublin, Dr. Rumsey read a paper on ‘State Medicine in Great Britain and Ireland, which, on account of the reputation of the author as one of the ablest writers on State Medicine in this country, demands attention. This paper has now been published separately.* It embraces an account of our registration system, our medico-legal institutions, and our Sanitary laws. Under these heads, Dr. Rumsey points out various defects, and suggests improvements. It is espe- cially to the Sanitary parts of Dr. Rumsey’s paper that we would call attention. No one can have watched the efforts that have been made by the English legislature in the interests of public health without feeling that they have proceeded on no principle, have effected but little good, and that our Sanitary laws are at the present moment a worthless piece of patchwork. For want of anything like power to deal with sanitary evils, nuisances of the most inju- rious and gigantic kind exist in all our large towns, whilst in our country districts, where typhus, typhoid, and scrofula carry off their tens of thousands annually, not even a show of legislature is even made to ward off those evils. With regard to the appointment of Medical Officers of Health alone, Dr. Rumsey points out the utter destitution of anything like principle in their appointment. There are no fixed districts, no duties laid down, no qualifications required. Even in London, where the Metropolitan Act requires that Medical Officers of Health should be appointed: there is no law pointing out their numbers, their salary, or their duties. The consequence * Ridgway, Piccadilly, 1868. 128 The Public Health. [ Jan., is, that in half the parishes of London the post is a sinecure, and in the other half the Officers of Health are insulted and persecuted, if they dare to perform duties which they themselves think are connected with their office. Several of these gentlemen have con- scientiously thrown up their offices rather than be paid for not doing what they felt they ought to do. Dr. Rumsey advocates the division of the Country into Regis- tration Districts upon the plan of Dr. Farr, and to each of these districts appointing a specially educated State Physician. He points out the utter impossibility of educating every medical man in the kingdom in such a way as to perform the duties of a State Physician. He would give the appointment of this officer to local bodies. He thinks that nothing is so likely “to damp or even extinguish local research and local action,” so much as continual Government interference. ‘“'The public medical officer,” he says, “of each extensive district closely observing, verifying, collecting, and revising his facts, making his examinations and reports, direct- ing his subalterns, inspecting public institutions, and advising the magistrates and the executive bodies within his sphere, would give a true value and force to local action which it has never yet attained: would elicit facts, and establish conclusions from local physical conditions and phenomena which might remain for ever unnoticed under mere central action.” If anything were wanted to show how imperfectly the best appointed Central Boards may act, it would be seen in the almost entire failure of the Poor Law Board to fulfil them. Here we have a great department of Government appointed on purpose to overlook the actions of Boards of Guardians and superintend the Workhouse officers, and yet under their very noses in London, a system of abominations was practised in Workhouses, that have led to a complete revision of the whole system. It now appears that the same cruel treatment of the poor, the sick, and the aged, has been going on in our Country Workhouses. It seems to be of no use to appoint new Inspectors. These gentlemen, as soon as Government pay crosses their palms, assume a new position. They turn round upon their old philanthropic brethren, and sub- mitting to the power of red tape, call dirt and neglect, economy, and disease and death, the necessary lot of the poor. The English pub- lic, those at least who have heart enough to care for the sorrows and sufferings of the less opulent amongst us, are deeply indebted to the members of the medical profession, and the editors of medical journals, who have been istituting inquiries into the working of some of our Country Workhouses. The result of their inquiries has been to expose in the country a worse system of neglect than existed even in London. We need not go into the details of the result of these inquiries. They have been given in the 1868. | The Public Health. 129 Daily Newspapers. We wish, however, to suggest two practical measures. ‘The first is the improvement of the class of persons from whom the masters and matrons of workhouses are selected. It is quite impossible that the class of people who are now generally selected should ever superintend efficiently the large establishments over which they preside. As a rule, they are ignorant and con- ceited, and often avaricious and dissolute. They in fact spring from the very class whom they have now to rule, and the men win their positions not by any special adaptation for their office, but frequently by failure in business, by success as soldiers or policemen, and their wives are appointed matrons without any reference to their qualifications at all. It is the constant practice to contrast our jails, where we keep our criminals, with our workhouses, where we keep our honest poor. The jail is a perfect institute as compared with a workhouse. In the one all is order, cleanliness, and care for the welfare of the inmates. In the other the rule is the opposite of all this. Now how do they manage in jails about masters? Why by appointing a gentleman, a man of education, and a man who knows what he has to do in ordering and directing those who are classed under his control. We wonder what would happen to some of our country jails if the master of the country workhouse were appointed to its control. Yet the management of a workhouse requires more know- ledge of human nature, a greater power of adaptation of circum- stances to changing conditions, than any demanded of the master of a jail. -So much is this the case, that we question whether it would not be a wiser plan to appoint at once as master in our workhouses a medical man, who should combine the qualities of master and medical superintendent. Such appointments are always made in Lunatic Asylums, which perhaps in their requirements more nearly resemble workhouses than prisons. A second suggestion, that we would make as an improvement in our present workhouse system, is the introduction of the Coroner’s Court to inquire into the causes of death. The revelations which first excited public attention with regard to the workhouses of London, were the inquiries before the Coroner, in the cases of the deaths of Daly and Gibson. It is very clear that some of the ini- quities at Farnham would have been prevented had the Coroner’s Court been summoned. At that place a girl was actually scalded to death by carelessness, and no Coroner summoned to inquire. In the workhouse the Master has power, under present circumstances, to send for the Coroner or not. The medical officer is under his control, and for him to refuse a certificate is to bring upon himself punishment or dismissal. One of the most humiliating positions for the medical profession, is the absolute power which Boards of Guardians and, Masters of Workhouses have over them. The law VOL. V. K 130 The Public Health. [Jan., ought not to leave to accident the discovery of the crimes of public servants. In prisons, a Coroner’s Jury is summoned on the death of every prisioner, and neither Masters of Prisons nor Country Magistrates can prevent this public inquiry. In county lunatic asylums notice of the death of every patient is obliged to be sent to the Coroner. Can it be doubted that the presence of the Coroner and his jury in these places is the cause of preventing much abuse? If it could be doubted, the comparison of the abuses in our work- houses with our prisons would set the matter at rest. The practical difficulty of holdmg so many inquests as would be required in workhouses has been suggested, but this is really imaginary. It is usual in workhouses for the dead to be buried in one or two days in the week, and it would be very practicable for the Coroner’s Jury to meet the day before the burying-day and in- quire into all causes of death. In most cases the inquiry would be formal, but it would give an opportunity for any person aggrieved to come into court and complain. The jury would not always be the same men, and many of them would take care to look round the building, and being ratepayers, would see if they were having their money’s worth for their money. They would have an oppor- tunity of looking at the bread and tasting the soup and seeing the actual condition of the paupers themselves. ‘This would be a very much more effectual way of inquiring than the farcical tribunals conducted by a Poor Law Inspector. At the inquiry conducted by Mr. Farnall into the death of Gibson at St. Giles’s Workhouse, he directed a loaf of bread to be brought and shown a medical witness, and then asked him if he did not think it very good. ‘The loaf might or might not have been brought from the workhouse stock, but this is a specimen of the way in which Government inquiries are conducted. But even were it not thought desirable to hold an inquest on every person that dies throughout the United Kingdom, there is no doubt that an advantage would arise from the Coroner having sent up to him a fully filled-up information in the case of every death in a workhouse. He could then examine the details and decide for himself as to whether an inquest should be held or not. Whilst on the subject of Prison and Workhouse management we may refer to the very unsatisfactory state of the Dietaries in Trish prisons. This subject was brought before Parliamement during its last summer Session by Mr. John A. Blake, Member for Waterford. The subject was also brought before the Health De- partment of the Social Science Congress at Belfast* by Dr. Lan- kester. The complaint of Mr. Blake was that the diet was scanty * See abstract of a paper “On Prison and Workhouse Dietaries,” by Dr. Lan- kester, in ‘ British Medical Journal,’ Noy. 2, 1867. 1868. ] The Public Health. 131 and innutritious, and Dr. Lankester pointed out its deficiencies, as also that the food was administered to the prisoners only twice a day. The great argument employed in favour of the exceedingly low dietaries of the Irish prisons is, that if it were better the people would commit crimes in order to be taken into prison to get a better diet than they could get out. Now the Irish prison dietaries cost many of them as little as twopence-halfpenny a day for each prisoner and seldom reach the cost of fourpence. If this diet, as is stated, is not lower than the diet the people of Ireland get out of jail, it reveals a feature in Ireland that is much worse than a defi- cient prison dietary, and that is a really starving people. If such dietaries as those of the Ivish prisons are fixed at the present low nutritive value lest people should be tempted to commit crime to partake of them, the Irish destitution must be worse than any thing England has ever yet contemplated. The apologists for the low diet at the Belfast meeting stated that the majority of prisoners were only confined for short periods, and that low diet for a short time did no harm. We would call the attention of philanthropists to this dangerous doctrine. If men have been living upon so low a diet that a little better diet in a prison may tempt them to com- mit crime in order to get it, what must be the effect of a low diet on such systems but that of lowering them still further, and render- ing them unfit for the performance of the work by which they get their daily bread? An inducement to the commission of petty theft is that feebleness of body which makes work impossible, and the object of punishment for such crimes should be the rendering a man more able to work than he had been. Besides, these miserably low diets depress the powers of the nervous system, and make men much more liable to become the prey of despair, and toa tendency to commit crime. To withhold from men the means of vicious indul- gence in eating and drinking in prison is undoubtedly the duty of _ a Government, but to give men a diet that is insufficient to support the health of the body is to inflict a punishment that defeats its own objects, and frequently leads to the remote consequences of disease and death, which the spirit of our criminal law condemns as unjust. Quite independent of the low dietaries of the Irish prisons is the question of the times at which the food is served, the way it is cooked, and its quality. From the last report of the Inspector of Prisons, there is reason to believe that at least occasionally the food is not so good as it ought to be, and that it is not cooked so well, nor served so hot as it ought to be; whilst universally the practice is to give but two meals a day. Now it ought to be known every- where that food served hot goes further than food served cold; and that the same quantity of food given three or four times a day goes further than when given twice a day. It is often death to old K 2 132 : The Public Health. [Jan., persons, in prisons and workhouses, to go from four or five p.m. one day, to eight or nine a.m. the next day, without food. We have received accounts of sanitary proceedings from various parts of the country. A copy of the ‘Scotsman’ has been forwarded to us, containing a letter, printed in prominent type, concerning the sanitary improvements about to be made in that city. It is the old story—large sums of money have been voted for the amelioration of the condition of the lowest classes, by improving the closes and alleys; and that money is now said to be expended in work, no doubt in itself useful, but of a far less pressing nature. In Worcester a great battle is bemg fought on the question of appointing a medical officer of health. Although Worcester has been recently drained, and has got a good water supply from the Severn, its annual mortality is large. During the last three years it has been as high as twenty-seven in the thousand, and this has alarmed some of the more thoughtful and prudent of the inhabitants. In the end of the year 1866 the Sanitary Committee of Worcester appointed a sub-committee to report on the condition of the town. They report that many parts of the town, in addition to obvious abominations—such as general want of cleanliness—present nuisances, “such as overflowing privies and cesspools; imperfect drains, or an entire absence of them; houses dilapidated and rooms injurious to health for want of proper whitewashing and ventilation ; which may be taken as a sample of what is always, to a greater or less extent, prevalent in the midst of the population.” The same report says that, “Many dwellings are greatly overcrowded ; ” that “typhoid fever is endemic in Worcester, and it is clearly traceable to foul drains and privies, and the use of polluted well- water.” Amongst the evils in this fine cathedral city—although amply supplied with water from the Severn—is the use of wells for the supply of water. There are certain people in Worcester, as in London and other places, who believe that the water from wells, surrounded by drains and cesspools, and supplied by water from the leakage of these places, is better than any other water: the consequence is, they pay for their temerity with their lives. All this comes out in the report of the Sanitary Sub-Committee referred to, and they very properly recommend the appointment of a medical officer of health, whose duty it shall be to watch the health of the town, and immediately carry into effect the various sanitary laws which have for their object the saving of the lives and healths of the community. But somehow or other, the Town Council do not see their way to put down disease and death by spendmg money. They seem to think that doctors, and under- takers, and grave-diggers have a right to live, as well as other people. ‘To diminish the death-rate of Worcester from twenty-seven to seventeen in the thousand (a thing easy to be done), would be to 1868. | The Public Health. 133 save the lives of 400 people in the year, and 8,000 illnesses into the bargain. ‘To be sure, that would be an enormous gain to Worcester, equal, at least, to a sum of 10,0002. per annum, when properly calculated ; but then it would not appear in the rate-books. Town councils and vestries are everywhere alike, utterly regardless of the health and lives of their fellow-creatures, but particularly anxious to keep down the rates. We are glad to report that the New Drainage at Hastings and St. Leonards has just been completed. The works have been executed by Mr. Bazalgette. The sewage is now taken out to such a distance into the sea as to render it impossible that it should ever return to the shore, and the sea will be now uncontaminated with the sewage of the town. It is to be hoped that the local authorities will take care that every house in the town is supplied with drains and a water-closet, so that all those diseases which are dependent on the retention of sewage-matters near houses may be for ever abolished. A report comes to us from Sandown, in the Isle of Wight, of a very extraordinary character. Sandown is one of those watering- places on our coast which are very likely to become unhealthy through the grasping economy of the tradespeople, who prey upon their visitors who come for health. Fortunately, however, for San- down, a portion of its land became possessed by a leading barrister on the Northern Circuit, distinguished for his attamments in natural science and his practical knowledge of sanitary measures. Princi- pally through his agency, Sandown has been thoroughly drained and supplied with an abundance of pure water. The consequence has been, that ordinary epidemics are unknown in Sandown, and the bills of the mortality in the last five years show a death-rate of only eleven in the thousand. We would call general attention to this remarkable case, as it clearly shows what may be done by ordinary sanitary activity. This is, probably, the lowest death-rate on record. Every local body in the kingdom would do well to study Sandown. It is not a rich place. It is not a place of palaces alone. It has poor and rich, and closely resembles other towns in the character of its population, but it has this peculiarity, its drainage and water supply are perfect. As an instance of how an otherwise healthy village in the country may be made to rival the largest towns in its filth, disease, and death, we may mention the village of Child’s Hill, in the parish of Hendon, in Middlesex. The village has no system of drainage; to many of the houses there are privies with open cess- pools, which overflow into the neighbouring ditches, which ulti- mately empty themselves into the Brent. The population is about 1,000. During the summer of 1860, dropping cases of typhoid fever occurred in this village, and in 1867 this disease became an epidemic, 134 The Public Health. [Jan., so that during the months of July and August last, the mortality of the district was equal to seventy in the 1,000 per annum. We are glad to hear that the village has now constituted itself a sewage district under the Sanitary Act of 1866, and that a vestry for the district has been appointed, and that a perfect system of drainage will be completed before the next summer. Would that parishes would be wise in time, and act before so much life and health has been destroyed. There must be many thousand villages in England suffering in the same way as Child’s Hill. It cannot be too widely known that typhoid fever is the child of deficient drainage, and that it cannot arise or be propagated where this agent does not exist. 1868. ] ( 135 ) Quarterly List of Publications receited for Webielv, if Miscellanies: being a Collection of Memoirs and Essays on Scientific and Literary Subjects, published at various times. By Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S. 2 vols. 8vo. James Parker & Co. . Siluria. A History of the Oldest Rocks in the British Isles and other Countries; with Sketches of the Origin and Distribution of Native Gold, the General Succession of Geological Forma- tions, and Changes of the Earth’s Surface. By Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. Fourth Edition. 600 pp. 8vo. 42 Plates and 206 Woodcuts. John Murray. . The States of the River Plate. By Wilfred Latham. Second Edition. With a Map. Longmans & Co. . Practice with Science. A Series of Agricultural Papers. Vol. I. 400 pp.. 8yvo. Longmans & Co. . Handbook of the History of Philosophy. By Dr. Albert Schwegler. Translated and annotated by James Hutchinson Stirling, LL.D. 420 pp. Post 8vo. Edinburgh : Edmonstone & Douglas. . The Darwinian Theory of the Transmutation of Species Examined by a Graduate of the University of Cambridge. 400 pp. 8vo. Nisbet & Co. . Germinal Matter and the Contact Theory: an Essay on the Morbid Poisons, their Nature, Sources, Effects, Migrations, and the Means of limiting their Noxious Agency. By James Morris, M.D. (London), Fellow of University College. Second Edition. 120 pp. Crown 8vo. John Churchill & Sons. . Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Melbourne Observatory, under the Direction of Robert L. J. Ellery, Government Astronomer to the Colony of Victoria, Australia. Melbourne: Blundell & Ford. . Report of the Secretary of War, with Accompanying Papers. Washington, U.S.A. Schriften der kéniglichen physikalisch-cekonomischen Gesell- schaft zu Kénigsberg (for 7 years). 4to. With numerous Illustrations on Stone, Copper, and Wood. Kénigsberg: Graefe & Unzer, 136 List of Publications received for Review. [Jan., 11. The Botany of Worcestershire, by Edwin Lees, F.LS., F.G.S. 290 pp. S8vo. With Map. The Worcestershire Naturalist’s Field Club. 12. Outlines of Physiology, Human and Comparative. By John Marshall, F.R.C.S. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. 1,300 pp. With 122 Woodcuts. Longmans & Co. PAMPHLETS, PERIODICALS, &o. On the Recent Zoology and Paleontology of Victoria. By Frederick M‘Coy, Professor of Natural Science in the Univer- sity of Melbourne. 24 pp. 8vo. Observations and Experiments on Living Organisms in Heated Water. By Jeffries Wyman, M.D., Harvard College. 20 pp. 8yo. Practical Hints to the Medical Student. By William Allen Miller, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 32 pp. 8vo. Longmans & Co. New Facts and Old Records: a Plea for Genesis. By 8S. R. Pattison, F.G.S. 30 pp. 8vo. Jackson, Walford, & Hodder. An Investigation of the Distance of the Sun, and of the Elements which depend upon it, from the Observation of Mars, made during the Opposition of 1862; and from other Sources. By Simon Newcomb, U.S. Navy. 380 pp. 4to. On State Medicine in Great Britain and Ireland. By Henry W. Rumsey, M.D., F.R.C.S. 58 p.p. 8vo. From the Author. On the Middle and Upper Lias of the South-West of England. By Charles Moore, F.G.S. 7 Plates. 130 pp. 8vo. From the Author. Sun-Views of the Earth, or The Seasons Illustrated. By Richard A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. 18 Coloured Plates. Ato. Longmans & Co. Note on the Surface Geology of London; with Lists of Wells and Borings, showing the Thickness of the Superficial Deposits. By Wm. Whittaker, B.A., F.G.S. 22 pp. 8vo. On the Physiological Action of the Calabar Bean. By Thos. R. Frazer, M.D. ; Rain: How, When, Where, Why, it is Measured? G. J. Symons. The Liverpool Medical and Surgical Reports. Edited by F. T. Roberts, M.B., D.Sc., and Reginald Harrison, F.R.C.S. London: Churchill & Sons. Liverpool : Holden. Lichenes Spitzbergenses. Determinavit Th. M. Fries.. Stockholm: Norstedt & Séhne. 1868. | List of Publications received for Review. 137 Spitzbergen’s Insect Fauna. By Carl H. Boheman. Received from Dr. A. Malmgren, Helsinfors. The New Science of Astronomy, as set forth in Chap. xii. of “The Analogies of Being.” To which is appended the Sec- tional Analysis of the Sixteen Chapters composing that Work. By Joseph Wood. 70 pp. 8vo. Farrah, 282, Strand. The Auriferous and other Metalliferous Districts of Northern Queensland. W. B. Clarke, M.A, F.GS. (V.P. Royal Society of New South Wales). Prison and Workhouse Dietaries. By Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.RS. On the Distribution of Temperature in the Lower Region of the Earth’s Atmosphere. By Henry Hennessy, F.R.S. Dublin: Gill. The Distribution of Plants in Canada in some of its Relations to Physical and past Geological Conditions. By A. T. Drum- mond, B.A., LL.B. 16 pp. 8vo. From the Author. On the Supply of Dwellings in Large Towns for Artizans and Labourers. Jos. Boult, F.R.I.B.A. Supply of Meat from South America. By A. Prange. Second Report of the Queckett Microscopical Club. Smithsonian Reports and Transactions: Geological Researches in China, Mongolia, and Japan. By Raphael Pumpelly. Freshwater Glacial Drift of the North-Western States. By Charles Whittlesey. From the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A. The American Naturalist. The American Journal of Mining. The Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, and Proceedings of the Montreal Natural History Society. Le Mouvement Médical. The Geological Magazine. The Westminster Review. Report of the Liverpool Free Public Library. Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. 5 », Royal Society. 33 »» Royal Astronomical Society. 3 » Chemical Society of London. = » » Royal Geographical Society. . ;; Zoological Society of London. NOTICE TO AUTHORS. a *.* Authors of OrtgmaL Papers wishing Reprints for private circulation may have them on application to the Printers of the Journal, Messrs. W. Crowrs & Sons, 14, Coarmna Cross, 8.W., at a fixed charge of 380s. per sheet per 100 copies, including a CotovrED Wrapper and Tirtz Paasz, but such Reprints will not be delivered to Contributors till Onn Mont after publication of the Number containing their Paper, and the Reprints must be ordered before the expiration of that period. M M&N HANHART LITH EK oe Mrs thek, ) mts | YUaAPLEPLy Ou rreriy Journal! ¢ THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. APRIL, 1868. I. HOW SCIENCE TEACHING IS FOSTERED BY THE STATE. Ir is rather more than three years since there appeared in these pages an article upon that department of our executive which supports, or at least professes to support Science tuition in this country.* We there briefly reviewed the history of the movement, pointed out the defects in its management, and expressed an opinion as to its future, which it will now be found was not arrived at without proper consideration. As a Committee of the House of Commons is about to be nominated to inquire into the whole system of scientific and industrial training for the artizan classes in England, and as the subject has of late absorbed a large share of public attention, it may be in- structive for us to return for a moment to the earlier phases of the movement, and compare them with its present aspect. As we stated in our former article, the scheme of Science teach- ing was originally set on foot by the Conservatives, Lord Salisbury being President of the Committee of Council on Education. The Government enlisted the services of men of Science as teachers, by offering them small annual payments upon their obtaining certifi- cates of competency at South Kensington (varying from 10/. to 200. according to the grade of the certificate for each subject in which they gave instruction); and it further sought and readily obtained the honorary aid of persons throughout the country, who from disinterested motives were willing to act as members of com- mittees to see the Government grants fairly applied. There were other inducements, such as prize-fees, held out to teachers to raise up intelligent men of Science from amongst the arti- zans of the country ; and as to the latter, that is to say the students, they received handsomely bound books called Queen’s Prizes, and were invited to compete for gold, silver, and bronze national medals. * «The Science and Art Department,” ‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’ No. V. (vol. ii.), July, 1865, VOL. V. M 140 How Science Teaching | April, Those liberal measures had the effect of calling into existence a large number of Science schools and classes, which were well at- tended by intelligent artizans, and were, as a rule, ably presided over by teachers of no mean scientific attamments. A change of Government, however, initiated a new, if not a wiser policy, and when Mr. Lowe took the direction of affairs he extended the system of “payments on results,” with which he was, and still appears to be, so well pleased, to the Science teachers of the country ; and whilst he effected a considerable reduction in the payments made to those gentlemen who were already engaged in the work, he, or the department under him, made great efforts to establish new classes, and to swell the list of pupils and teachers which is published in each new ‘ Directory.’ It is not very difficult to anticipate what would be the result of such a change. ‘Teachers who had been receiving 1002. or 150/. from the State, soon found their incomes dwindling away to one-half or a fourth of that sum, and when the Government issued a “recommendation,” as they did soon afterwards, that the fees of students should be increased to meet the deficit, accompanied by the gentle hint that State aid was liable to be withdrawn altogether, the School Committees had no alternative but to follow their in- structions, and to drive away a considerable number of those persons, both pupils and teachers, who had been attracted by the bounty of the State. Between the years 1860 and 1864, with a rapidly- increasing list of teachers, entailing an amount of work which ren- dered tt necessary to double the sum expended in the management at South Kensington, there was hardly any increase in the estimates for the payment of teachers, so that practically the Government was “robbing Peter to pay Paul;” and it was at this stage of the movement that the article appeared in which we pointed out the injustice and impolicy of such a proceeding, and predicted that it would have a most injurious effect upon the scientific education of the people. Our remarks concluded with an explanation of the reason why the Science teachers had not protested against the breach of faith on the part of the State, and it simply amounted to this: they had been decoyed into a profession, for which they were willing to make great sacrifices; they were comparatively few in numbers; and any resistance to the heads of the department would only have made its initiators marked men, and might have sub- jected them to great annoyance. They suffered as long as they could, and many of them were compelled for a time to live upon a pittance which we should con- sider it an insult to offer to a skilled labourer. One gentleman (one of the best teachers in the three kingdoms), who was at first in receipt of a fair income from the State and from his pupils, many of whom were distinguished by the possession of valuable medals, 1868. ] as fostered by the State. 141 retired from the profession and now occupies a humble, but at least an honourable appointment in connection with one of the learned societies. Another (a Doctor of Science of London University), recently deceased, who was the ablest teacher the department could boast, and whose certificates were high and numerous, received about 1002. for teaching one large class at the commencement of his career, and by extraordinary industry raised his income to twice or three times that amount; whilst at his death he was giving instruc- tion in three different towns, and as far as our memory serves, his whole remuneration from the State amounted to about 30/. or 407. He, too, was seeking gradually to free himself from the connection with South Kensington by practising as an analytical chemist, and, had he survived, would not long have remained a servant of the State. These are by no means isolated examples, not only of what has happened, but, as we shall see presently, of what is still taking place amongst our best teachers and institutions. Then as to the Committees. Finding the support of the State gradually withdrawn, and the number of students rapidly diminish- ing in consequence of increased fees, perceiving in fact that their vessels would be allowed to run ashore wherever it pleased the tide to drift them, the gentlemen who had acted as pilots either de- serted them or became indifferent to their fate. The teachers were allowed to take matters under their own management ; secretaries played into their hands; examination papers were opened before the authorized hour, and copies of them sent to the teachers who were waiting outside to put down the answers; these were sent back and surreptitiously delivered to the students, who came off with flying colours and carried away prizes and medals in triumph. Of course this oozed out at length, and then “ My Lords” issued an indignant circular, informing committees of those practices, stating that they had cancelled the papers of such and such classes, and rendered the regulations still more stringent and distasteful to gentlemen of honour, who were giving their valuable time gratui- tously to the service of the State. ‘Teachers and students were alike disgusted. How did they know for what length of time these practices had been carried on, and how many medals they had lost mm consequence? And how did they know whether these transac- tions might not still be taking place to their prejudice ? But it may be objected on the part of those who uphold the present system that the number of schools has largely increased during the last few years notwithstanding all these defects ; and we may be told that whilst in 1865, the year following the appearance of our article already referred to, the ‘ Directory’ only noted the existence of 121 Science schools in the three kingdoms, that of 1867 gives us a list of 213 such institutions. Whether this is a fair test of the success of the system, or mM 2 142 How Science Teaching [ April, whether it is not rather the result of factitions means which have been employed to create a false appearance, we shall now proceed to consider, first from the printed statistics of the department, and secondly from those sources that have been laid open to us by the managers of the various institutions which have been affected by the system. The following schools were in existence in 1865 with the number of students placed opposite their names; those schools are now entirely closed, at least their names do not appear in the ‘ Directory’ of 1867 :— Name of Town. Tnstitution. Number of Pupils. 1x64, 1865. Ancoats .... +. Educational Institute viel eee oe — 82 Brentford ne ee) New Britishtsehool oa. ssh ice —_ 40 Christchurch .. .. Working Men’s Institute... .. .. — 25 Dudley V. .. «- Mlechanics! Ineiitute’..5=-. 5. 2. 52 30 Dueckenfield |. ... | Millage Wiibrary =) 3. Whe) ce — 16 Idpdigow hog. “sal set qLeehysiistloolles 65 ag. foe —_ 11 Glossop... .. .. Working Men’sInstitute.. .. .. — 16 Gulworthy .... Duke of Bedford’sSchool.. .. .. 20 12 Kidderminster .. Mechanics’ Institute .. 20. oe 14 10 Loughborough .. Town Hall sowbinae Waar ean M88 24 23 . London .. .. .. Farringdon Street British School .. 200 50 ss eee pbadwelliSailors:mstiiitemes. ieee 32 19 Macclesfield .. .. Mechanics’ Institute .. ao Be 44 26 VICE SULCTO ect tices tae 5 cise (role pnees avete 15 14 Netherton bab as 36 walbroiniet) Wate se 24 21 Neweastle-on-Tyne .. - Meal ten bkeehy ute 42 31 - Tron and Alkali Works School sie — 15 Rawienstalli vei -nn eeLollyMiounin css) teels cet e calen ae 17 20 Redditch...) i. Miterarymstituter 90 . ; 4°15 “71 —_— _— 10 15 —_— 81 | None 81 Ransome’s Patent. . 6°53 _ 95 | None.) None.' None.) None. 63 31 94 Drawn by G.Zaddach 4 5 ; Se wi IHL : ; oR] NE eee MAP NORTH WEST COAST : : ‘eta . OF ah TD ort tae SAMLAND. ae berg os cas _ss ‘ A f Kowdeuboekff < Be Mee STE ‘ 4 ——= | 2 Warrier f Crosshahren Bg Wor Dirschheim / j; W735: lage Us. erslachen Briisterort’ "y Ba Lb Wee . ea me Rasenort 4 E iB eal Raaseyicac;, Mccsea — : Fig Il. level Eastern boundary o (the synctinad Lig Ml. Sections of the coast near ee a Hubrackien : ! ("| I Boundary between the tw ! : 26 oi ii cash Hered dees tte pana peal Le “a | Ee (08 = Claoanaon Gand TNT JS Gr: Hubricken 6 Firaatepeller H Hi | iit @ MA i F ANANSI E2AOAA SAV 2 Aes . % C / i i. Q& Nedems ho with Ht Wid : HM | nh S oa Il ul nN S MEN Hanhart lith 1868. ] Amber ; its Origin and History. 167 of manufacturing artificial stone may, with certain modifications, be found capable of being adapted. It is now used extensively in England and all over the Continent, as well as in America, where amongst other buildings it has been extensively used in the deco- rative portions of Cranston’s Hotel in New York. It is being employed in the construction of a glass roof over the beautiful Indian Court at the new India Offices in London, and a great quantity of ornamental work has been sent out by the Patent Concrete Stone Company for public buildings under construction in Calcutta. They have received orders also from China; and large quantities of the silicate of soda and chloride of calcium have from time to time been shipped for different parts of India, with the view of manufacturing artificial stone on the spot where it was required to be employed. IV. AMBER; ITS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, AS ILLUS- TRATED BY THE GEOLOGY OF SAMLAND. By Dr. G. Zappacu, Professor in the University of Kénigsberg, and Director of the University Museum. Tse Natural History of Amber still presents its many problems, although for the last century numerous investigators have en- deavoured to solve them. One of the few places at which some of these questions may be elucidated is Samland, which has for ages been celebrated for its richness in Amber, and which even now possesses in deep-seated deposits an inexhaustible store of this valuable fossil. I therefore undertook, some years ago, the geo- logical examination of this district in the employment of the ‘ Physikalisch-dkonomische Gesellschaft’ of Konigsberg, and I have lately published the results of my survey in a detailed essay, accom- panied by several maps, in the ‘ Schriften’ of that body. A short summary of these results will, I hope, be of some interest to the readers of this Journal. By the name Samland is distinguished that part of the Province of Prussia which is bounded on the west by the Baltic; on the north by the same sea, the Kurische Nehrung, and the Kurische Haff; on the east, by an arm of the Pregel (the Deime); and on the south, by the Pregel itself and the Frische Haff. The north- west part of this region, which constitutes the promontory of Briisterort, is hilly, from 100 to 150 feet in height on the average, but reaching in many places to the height of 2U0 feet, and in some even to 300 feet. On the other hand it becomes flat towards the north-east and east, and gradually sinks down towards the south- eastern angle, where, upon a peninsula lying between the sea and 168 Amber ; as Origin and History. [ April, the Frische Haff, are situated the seaport and the fortress of Pillau. This surface-contour of the country corresponds also with the form of the coast, the eastern portion of the north coast and the southern portion of the west coast being for the most part flat, and exhibiting only Quaternary formations: ‘Diluvium, and Alluvium. The coast of the elevated north-western portion of the country, on the con- trary, forms steep cliffs both on the north and on the west, and exhibits a section from 100 to 190 feet in height. In this manner an excellent insight ito the geological structure is afforded, show- ing that in many places, under a proportionally slight thickness of Diluvium, Tertiary beds are conspicuous at a height of from 80 to 125 feet above the sea-level. They are not continuous, but are interrupted at several places, the gaps being filled up with newer formations, such as marl and sand. Sometimes also dislocations are seen in the older deposits, while the Tertiary beds are broken through and displaced by the pressure of the overlymg masses. Fig. I. in the accompanying quarto plate shows the north-western part of the coast of Samland on a scale of 1: 100,000. Below it is drawn a view of the profile of the same part of the coast, where the vertical scale is 86 times that of the horizontal. The notches reaching from the surface to the sea-level signify ravines, which at various places intersect the coast, and down which streams flowed to the sea. The heights are given in Prussian duodecimal feet. The places where the Tertiary formation is preserved are shaded both upon the map and section: the white portions are therefore those where only Postpliocene or Diluvial masses exist. Of the formations which belong to the recent period, there occurs on this coast only blown sand, or Dunes, and these in so slight a degree as to require no attention. Where the Tertiary formation crops out it always comprises two different deposits ; the underlying consisting of thick beds of Glauconitic Sand, which sometimes attains a height of 65 feet above the sea-level (Figs. [I., I1I., A), and upon which are the beds of the Brown-coal formation, from 60 to 100 feet thick (B). The Glauconitic Sand is not everywhere similarly composed. It is necessary to distinguish a northern deposit, which occurs on the whole of the north coast, and on the northern part of the west coast, as far as the village of Kreislacken ; and a southern deposit, which extends from Kreislacken to the village of Kraxtepellen, so far as the formations can generally be followed on the coast. The northern deposit (Fig. IIL., 1, 2,3, A) is very simply con- stituted. The upper part, from 40 to 60 feet thick, presents a bright-green sand (c), which is composed of rather large quartz- grains and bright-green knob-like granules of Glauconite. In the north-western corner of Samland, namely, near the villages of Grosskuhren, Klemkuhren, and Rosenort, the lower beds of this 1868. ] Amber ; its Origin and History. 169 “Green Sand” are cemented by hydrated oxide of iron into a coarse sandstone, which is important on account of its containing remains of numerous animals, which have not been preserved in the loose sand. Under the “Green Sand” lies a deposit, consisting of finer quartz-grains and a larger quantity of Glauconite, besides containing clay and Mica, which increase in quantity the deeper the deposit is penetrated. The Glauconite gives it, in the dry~state, a greyish- green colour, which becomes nearly black when the rock is moist. Generally, also, the following beds can be distinguished in this deposit. The uppermost, from 5 to 8 feet thick, is called a “Quick- sand” (Fig. III. b), because it contains a large quantity of water, which has been arrested in its descent by the underlying clayey stratum; next follows the so-called “Blue Earth,” or “Amber- earth,’ which is from 3 to 4 feet thick, and more firm, dry, fine-grained, and argillaceous than the “Quicksand.” The still more deeply seated deposit is called the “ Wilde Erde,” because it contains no Amber. It has been explored only here and there to the depth of from 10 to 18 feet; and generally there has been no inducement to penetrate farther. It is also unknown how deep this formation continues and what underlies it. The Amber occupies only a narrow zone in the whole formation ; in this indeed, it occurs abundantly, but 1s not equally distributed. For each square foot of the surface of the bed, that is, one cubic foot of sand, from 31b. to 1 lb. of Amber may be reckoned as about the average. ‘The pieces are of various sizes, those weighing as much as half-a-pound being seldom found ; and larger lumps of one or more pounds weight are extremely rare. Their surfaces are dull and worn, and their edges and angles are also somewhat rounded, but not to a sufficient extent to obliterate the various forms which they originally received as the liquid resin of a tree, such as pins, drops, and plates, which were formed between the bark and the wood, or between the yearly rings of growth of the stem. Fre- quently, also, fine impressions of the parts of the plants which produced them can be distinguished on their surfaces. It follows, therefore, that the pieces of Amber were for some time, but not for very long, rolled about by the water previous to their deposition. With the Amber also occurs fossil wood, but generally only in small pieces, which were probably half-decayed when they were deposited. The complete stem ofa tree has never yet been found in the Amber-earth, and solid pieces of a foot or more in length are very rare. Such pieces of wood as still have Amber attached to them are of especial interest; and there are even some so completely penetrated with Amber-resin that they appear to consist not so much of wood-fibres as of Amber-filaments. In the “ Amber-earth” and in the lower part of the “Quicksand,” there also occur pieces of compact clay and marl, which contain numerous fossils, the same 170 Amber ; its Origin and History. [ April, as those which are found in the overlying ferruginous sandstone. Mr. C. Mayer, of Zurich, determined thirty-five species of these fossils in the year 1860.* Among them the most abundant are an oyster (Ostrea ventilabrum, Goldt.), a small cockle (Cardiwm vulgatis- simum, Mayer), Pectunculus polyodontus, Phil., Natica Nyste, D’Orb., Morchia Nysti, Gal, besides two species of Spatangus (8S. Sambiensis, Beyr., and S. bigibbus, Beyr.), a small Hchinus and a Scutella (S. Germanica, Beyr.); as well as a Crab related to the living Carcinus moenas; finally, there. occurred in the greatest abundance species of Hschara and Cellepora. The conclusion which Mr. Mayer has drawn from his examination is that the “Glauconitic Sand” of Samland is of the same age as the Glauconitic Sand of Egeln near Magdeburg, and of Lethen in Belgium, and therefore belongs to the Eocene or Lower Oligocene division of the Tertiary formation. From the circumstances previously mentioned it follows that the Amber in the “ Amber-earth” by no means lies in its original bed, that is, not in the soil of the old forest in which the Amber- pines grew; but that the whole deposit of the “ Glauconitic Sand,” so far as we have hitherto considered it, is a marine formation ; and that the Amber was washed into it by the sea in which the crabs, sea-urchins, and oysters lived. From the habits of these animals, and from the form of the pieces of Amber, it may be inferred that the deposition of the latter occurred not very far from the shore ; and from the condition of the Amber, that its deposition took place in a proportionately short time, and that considerable stores of it must have been collected in neighbouring localities. In the beds above and below the “ Amber-earth” only a few isolated pieces of Amber occur. The southern deposit of the “ Glauconitic Sand,” which com- mences near the village of Kreislacken on the west coast (Fig. IIL, 4,5,6A), behaves somewhat differently. Here the distance between the base of the “ Amber-earth” and the upper margin of the “ Green Sand” is less than anywhere else, namely, scarcely 30 feet, notwith- standing that the “Amber-earth” is 8 feet thick. Towards the south, however, the latter not only descends lower, but also increases in thickness, so that in a distance of half a German mile, near the village of Kraxtepellen, the thickness of the formation has increased to more than 50 feet, and that of the “ Amber-earth ” to more than 20 feet. This is caused by the coming in here of five different beds above one another from south to north. The Amber-earth is here composed of two different layers (Fig. III., 6, a', a®), each of which is covered with a bed of quicksand, and the lower of which is dis- * «Die Faunula des marinen Sandsteines in Kleinkuhren .bei Kénigsberg.’ Vierteljahresschrift der naturforchenden Gesellschaft in Zurich. Jahrg. 1861, p. 109. 1868. ] Amber ; tts Origin and History. 171 tinguished by its very coarse quartz grains. Above them lies a bed of “ Green Sand ” (c), then follows a bed composed of a very fine micaceous sand, from 10 to 25 feet thick, containing quite as small granules of glauconite, and much clay, being near the latter rich in sulphate of iron. This bed bears amongst the Amber-diggers the name of the “ White Wall” (d), because when it is dry it soon becomes covered with a sheet of sulphate of iron. Upon it, finally, there reposes (still in the southern part) a bed of coarse quartz sand, 3 feet thick, which is particularly rich in large granules of Glauconite (e). Of all these beds only the upper “ Amber-earth” and the “Green Sand” can be compared with the corresponding beds of the northern deposit, the remainder being peculiar to this southern formation. The latter is also further distinguished by containing no fossils with the exception of shark’s teeth, which occur everywhere in the “Amber-earth,” and by the greater abundance of pieces of Amber in the beds overlying the Amber-earth, namely, in the so-called “ White Wall,” than in the “Green Sand” of the northern deposit. We have evidently here, therefore, the northern margin of a deposit, which filled up a basin of its own,—immediately connected, it is true, with the great sea-~bed in which the northern deposit was accumulated,—but which was formed by the action of particular currents. All this is clearly and sufficiently explained if we assume that these southern deposits have been formed at the mouth of a stream. ‘The following observations will confirm this hypothesis. In order to advance the solution of the various disputed ques- tions relating to the birth-place of Amber, I directed my attention particularly to those minerals which are found in the beds of the “Glauconitic Sand” in the form of pebbles; and it has been my good fortune to obtain such a series of these pebbles as throws: con- siderable light on the problems in question. In the “‘ Amber-earth” of the northern deposit are found somewhat abundantly pieces of a compact stone, from the size of a hazel-nut to that of a walnut, which is evidently the parent-rock of the “Green Sand,” as it is composed of exactly similar granules of Quartz and Glauconite bound together by a marly cement. These fragments, however, vary amongst themselves, in the quartz grains being sometimes larger and at others smaller, and the cementing marl being sometimes more and sometimes less abundant. With them also are associated small portions of marl which contain only granules of Glauconit:. In the “ Amber-earth ” of the southern deposit, however, occur fragments of that Cretaceous rock which is so abundant as pebbles in the Diluvial deposits of Northern Germany, and which is known sometimes as hard chalk, or as chalk-marl, or again as earthy (“todter”) limestone. It is characterized by its richness in such fossils as Belemnitella mucronata (Schl.) d’Orb., Ostrea vesicularis, VOL. V. fe) 172 Amber ; ats Origin and History. [ April, Lam., and Terebratula carnea, von Buch.; and it is composed of very small granules of Quartz, minute flakes of Mica, and little grains of Glauconite, cemented together by a matrix of marl. It has therefore exactly the same constituents as the above-mentioned pebbles, and corresponds to them so precisely that both of them are evidently only variations of one and the same rock. ‘This marly sandstone, however, is still found upon the neighbouring Island of Bornholm,* and belongs to the Greensand of the Cretaceous forma- tion, which also includes in its lower beds coarser glauconitic sand and glauconitic marl. It is therefore proved that the Tertiary “Glauconitic Sand” of Samland has been formed out of the Green- sand of the Cretaceous formation, the younger beds of which con- stitute a part of the Danish Island. The marly sandstone is evidently the parent-rock of the deposit which I have already distin- guished by the name of the “ White Wall,” and which is particularly characteristic of the southern deposit of the Samland formation. We can determine, however, still more exactly the route over which the materials of the northern deposit were brought there, because in the “ Amber-earth” small pebbles of Silurian limestone occur in some abundance. ‘This fact is itself sufficient to prove that the “Green Sand” came from a region where the Cretaceous formation reposed on old Silurian rocks. Moreover, two large stones, which were once found in the “Green Sand” near Warnicken, con- tained fossils, namely, Beyrichia Buchiana, Jones, Chonetes stria~ tella, Dalm., and Ethynchonella nucula, Murch., and resembled partly rocks of the Island of Gothland and partly those of the Island of Oesel, so that it is in the highest degree probable that they were derived from the land which connected these two islands during the Tertiary period. And as the Silurian pebbles and the “Green Sand” came together to Samland, so it follows that, at that period, the Greensand of the Cretaceous formation extended from Bornholm towards the north, through Gothland to Oesel, and occupied a great part of the area which is now filled by the southern half of the Baltic Sea. ‘The Cretaceous rocks then formed, evidently, a.broad coast-land round the old continent of Northern Europe, which consisted of the crystalline rocks of Scandinavia and Fin- land, and of Silurian and Devonian strata. They also extended from Scandinavia over the area which is now occupied by the northern part of the Baltic and its bays, as also so far as Courland and Esthonia far away towards the east. The northern and north- eastern part of that coast-land which lay north of the existing Samland must have been formed out of the oldest beds of the Cretaceous formation,—the loose Greensand and glauconitic Mar! ; * For a recent account of the Geology of this Island see K, y. Seebach’s ‘Beitrage zur Geologie der Insel Bornholm.’ Zeitschr. deutsch. Geol. Gesell. yol. xvii., p. 338.—T rans. 1868.] Amber; its Origin and History. 178 because upon the Danish Islands the deposits of that formation still form zones which follow one another in the order of their age from the north-east to the south-west. Add to all this that Cretaceous beds now crop out in the East of Prussia on the banks of the Niemen near Grodno, and that in the south Cretaceous beds to the thickness of 800 feet were bored through, in sinking a well near Thorn on the Vistula, and scarcely a doubt can then remain that the Tertiary deposits were accumulated in a sea-bed, which was formed by a great depression of the strata belonging to the Cretaceous formation. The discovery of the parentage of the “ Glauconitic Sand ” also furnishes us with that of the Amber of Samland. The trees which yielded the Amber-resin must have grown upon the Greensand beds of the Cretaceous formation. Even as in North America at the present day the Taaodium distichwm especially delights in the low and frequently inundated marsh-lands lying along the lower portion of the Mississippi, so during the Tertiary period may tho Amber-trees haye flourished best on the boggy coast which then surrounded the great continent of Northern Europe. We can still more exactly draw the boundaries which then existed between sea and land, and with the assistance of a few hypotheses we can picture to ourselves the conditions under which the Amber was deposited. We know not, indeed, how far in Prussia the beds of the “ Glauconitic Sand” extend, as they are exposed only on the coast of Samland; but as we know that the beds of the Brown-coal formation were deposited immediately upon them, we can conclude, from the expansion which these beds possess in Prussia, what were the general boundaries of the old Tertiary sea, namely, that the whole of West Prussia, a neighbouring portion of Pomerania, and the western half of East Prussia, extending to about the thirty-ninth degree of longitude (from Ferro), formed the bed of a bay connected in the south-west with the great Tertiary sea, which covered the larger part of Northern Germany. ‘The northern boundary of this bay left Samland at some distance, and was continued westward with some irregularity to Riickshéft, which lies at the foot of the peninsula of Hela, and where thick Brown-coal beds crop out on the coast of the Baltic. The bay was, as we have seen, a basin in the Cretaceous formation, and was bordered by widely expanded flat coasts, which mark the last upheaval of the district. Number- less rivulets with small discharge emptied themselves into the bay, and carried solid matter into it; but a larger stream from the north-west, which flowed through the southern portion of the Cretaceous land, algo discharged itself here. _ We have no knowledge of the oldest deposits which were formed in the bay; we can only conclude from the corresponding form- 0 2 174 Amber ; tts Origin and History. [ April, ations in Belgium, where the Tertiary strata likewise repose on the Cretaceous beds, that the “ Glauconitic Sand,” which contains the Amber, may have been preceded by other deposits. In the mean- time the coasts continued covered with luxuriant plant-growths— with that flora, in fact, the most delicate structures of which are still preserved to us in the clear Amber. If we consider that the temperature was then much higher than it is now, that the land descended from the highest North towards the South, and was there washed by a Middle-Kuropean sea, the temperature of which was, perhaps, elevated by a warm current, we shall then find it explained how this flora contains certain northern forms associated with plants of a temperate climate, and with others whose nearest allies now live in much more southern regions. Thus, Camphor-trees (Cinnamomum polymorphum, Heer) occur with Willows, Birches, Beeches, and numerous Oaks; amongst the Conifers the most abundant tree was a Thuja, very similar to the Thuja occidentalis now living in America, next to which abounded Widdringtonia, Pines, and Firs in great variety, and amongst them the Amber- pine. Many thousands of the last might already have perished, and while the wood decayed, the resin, with which the stem and branches were stored, might have accumulated in large quantities in bogs and lakes in the soil of the forest. In order to explain, however, that this accumulation of Amber could be suddenly broken up, floated away, and scattered, I assume that the coast of the district was at that time on the point of sinking. ‘This supposition will appear less arbitrary when we see, as we shall presently, that alternate upheavals and depressions of the country may be positively proved to have occurred in the immediately succeeding period. If at that time the coast sank but slowly, nevertheless in the lapse of a few centuries, or even in a shorter time, a great portion of the flat coast-terraces might have been covered by the sea. The forest-earth was washed up by the waves, and the Amber carried into the sea. The greater portion being probably still attached to the wood, it could float about in the water for some time before it sank. The forest of the inundated coast was also destroyed; but the stems of the trees which floated out into the open sea were scattered about, only those pieces of wood which lay in the earth with the Amber sinking with it to the bottom. Thus perished the greater portion of the Amber forests ; but it is not necessary to assume that they were all destroyed, as it is much more probable that in the higher districts of the country there still remained many forests which also were rich in Amber- trees. The deposition of the “Green Sand” lasted for a long time afterwards, and pieces of Amber still continued to be washed into the sea; but it was only in the neighbourhood of the streams that 1868. ] Amber ; tts Origin and History. 175 it was now deposited in greater quantity, probably because they flowed through either uninjured forests, or soil rich in Amber, in - the higher parts of the country. What finally put an end to the deposition of the “Green Sand” it is difficult even to conjecture. Probably the land was so deeply depressed that the lowest beds of the Cretaceous formation,—the looser Greensand and sandstone,— were covered by the sea, and consequently protected from the action of rain. Immediately upon the “ Glauconitic Sand” lie the beds of the true Browncoal-formation. They very clearly form three deposits or stages (Fig. III., B1, B2, B%), of which the two lower are certainly the most closely connected. The lower stage (distin- guished by 1 in Fig. III.) is principally formed of “ Quartz-sand,” which generally contains no admixture. It is everywhere much more coarse-grained than the other varieties of sand belonging to the Browncoal-formation, but it 1s nevertheless found composed of particularly large grains in certain layers in the southern portion of Samland. At some places it alone (Fig. III., 1, B 1) constitutes the lower stage of the formation, which is everywhere of the same thickness, namely, from 24 to 25 feet; at other places the lower stage includes also a bed of clay (Fig. III., 2,3, B1). In order, however, to be able to explain the expansion of this clay, we must glance at the stratification of certain older beds which we have not yet discussed. The beds of which we have hitherto spoken,—both the “ Glau- conitic Sand” and the “Quartz-sand,’—do not lie horizontally ; but in proceeding from east to west along the north coast, they may easily be observed to sink gradually from the village of Sassau, then to proceed horizontally near Georgswalde, and to rise again from Warnicken towards Grosskuhren. They form therefore a trough- shaped synclinal, which is, however, very flat, as it possesses only a depth of from 40 to 50 feet in a length of nearly two miles. This trough is also seen again on tlie west coast ; and numerous observa- tions and measurements prove that it stretches from north-east to south-west through the western part of Samland, and in this direction becomes considerably widened and deepened. While its north-western margin is turned from the village of Grosskuhren on the north coast towards the west-south-west as far as the estate called Gross: Dirschkeim, the eastern border appears to be extended from the village of Sassau in a southerly direction; but the site of the latter is not known exactly, as it passes through the midst of the country. The deepest pot of the trough is near the village of Rothenen on the west coast, for while its base is 42 feet above the sea-level near Georgswalde, at the former locality it lies 10 feet below it. According to this the “ Amber-earth ” would occur near Rothenen at a depth of from 60 to 80 feet below the sea, but 176 Amber ; its Origin and History. [ April, hitherto it has been proved here quite as little as at other localities on the north coast, where it exists at a considerable depth. The trough has evidently been formed by the upheaval of its two sides, and it can easily be shown when this commenced, and that it continued slowly. ‘This is taught us by the clay-bed (Fig. III., 2, 3.—2), already mentioned as occurring in the “ Quartz- sand” of the lower deposit, and as possessing a thickness of from 8 to 10 feet. It has exactly the same extension as the trough; it does not, however, belong to its infilling, but lies under it, forming a part of its base. Together with the “Quartzsand” it possesses the same thickness as the latter assumes, where it alone forms the lower division of the formation. It therefore follows that the up- heaval of the sides began at a time when from 15 to 17 feet of “Quartzsand” had been deposited, and that while it continued, “Quartzsand” was thenceforward deposited only in the upheayed area; the resulting trough, however, was immediately covered with the mud, which is now hardened into a clay-bed. Where the clay is mixed with sand, it is not the “ Quartzsand,” but the fine Mica- ceous sand, which, as we shall see, forms the principal constituent of the infilling of the trough. This clay-bed, which I shall call the lower, because two others follow above it, belongs therefore, accord- ing to its situation, to the lower stage of the formation ; according to its origin, however, it belongs to the middle stage, and thus it connects in the most intimate manner the two divisions, one with the other. The materials which fill the trough (Figs. II., III., B 2) are of three kinds; namely—Clay, Sand, and Browncoal; but the first and the last occur only here and there, and the Sand (Fig. I1I.—+) must be considered the most important deposit in this series. It is composed of fine quartz-grains with an admixture of numerous small flakes of Mica and small bright-green granules of Glauconite. At the same time it contains many pieces of coal, partly as powder or small particles, and partly as large tree-stems. The first form the layers and nests, which give to a section of the sand a brownish striped appearance. I have, therefore, called this deposit the “Striped Sand,” and it is absolutely peculiar to the Prussian Browncoal-formation as a glauconitic Micaceous sand. It is, how- ever, on that account particularly remarkable, because it contains Amber, which occurs, not indeed so abundantly, nor yet in one precise layer, as in the Amber-earth, but still im tolerable richness as nests in the brown stripes, and with small pieces of coal. As this Amber comes from a much dryer stratum than the blue “ Amber-earth,” it may be distinguished both by its external appearance and its greater solidity ; and it is on that account more highly valued than that from the latter deposit, which, if it dries in the open air, becomes eracked and shivered. 1868.] Amber; its Origin and History. 177 Under the “Striped Sand” lies, here and there, a clay-bed (Fig. IIL, 2, 63), which I call the Middle; it contains the remains of an extinct Flora, changed into coal,—some large portions of stems, flattened branches and stalks in greater abundance, and many leaves. As at other places, here also it may be observed that the last belong in great part to deciduous plants, while the wood is almost entirely that of conifers. This Browncoal-flora differs from the older Amber-flora; either the latter had perished as a shore-flora, and we have in the former the plant-growths of more northern and more elevated districts, or—what is more probable—the climate and flora of northern Europe had already altered. This flora, indeed, contained many species of plants which at the present day are quite foreign to the region; but it was, nevertheless, very similar to the existing Flora. Poplars, Alders (Alnus), Buckthorn (Rhamius), Ash (Fraxinus), and, among the Conifers, Tawodiwm dubiwm and Sequoia Langsdorfii formed the principal components of the forests of that period; with them, however, occurred also a Gardenia with pea-like fruit, a Fig, and species of the genera Sapindus, Diospyros, and Banksia. The clay in which these plant-remains lie sometimes passes immediately into Brown-coal (Fig. IIL., 6.5); generally, however, the latter occurs higher, above the “Striped Sand,” and forms the uppermost member of the whole series (Fig. III., 2. 5.9). It is very remarkable that exactly in the same area which the southern deposit of the ‘“ Glauconitic Sand” occupies, the lower division of the Browncoal-formation appears to be differently com- posed. Instead of the simple clay-bed which lies above or in the “ Quartzsand” on the north shore, we find here three deposits of clay and argillaceous sand (Fig. III., 4 and 6—2’, 2”, 2"), so that the “ Quartzsand” forms only thin layers between them. No one can doubt that these clayey deposits owe their origin to the same source as the older argillaceous sand which we have previously dis- tinguished by the name of the “ White Wall.” More than this, we can even determine exactly the area over which the current of the river made itself perceptible in the Tertiary sea. For on the por- tion of the coast belonging to the village of Gross Hubnicken occurs a district, 2,700 paces broad, which contains generally the same beds as the districts lying to the north and the south, with this difference, that the argillaceous portions are absent (Fig. III, 5). Instead of the three clayey beds of the lower stage we find striped sand deposited in the “(Quartzsand” of this area (Fig. IIL., 4); and we cannot explain this otherwise than by the supposition that the current was here so strong that it carried on the argillaceous ingre- dients, and sorted out, as it were, the striped sand. At the same time this furnishes us with the proof that all the clayey beds of the lower stage belong to the “Striped Sand,” and that, therefore, not 178 Amber ; as Origin and History. ; [ April, only it, but all the infilling of the trough, with the Amber which it contains, was also brought there by the same river which during an earlier period had floated similar materials from the land into the sea. Thus the deposit of the “Glauconitic Sand,” which appears to be connected with the Green Sand, is bound up in a wonderful manner with the overlying Browncoal-formation. The deposits of the middle division of the Browncoal-formation have no important relations, for altogether they attain a thickness of only 22 feet, and even thus are unrepresented in one-half of the trough. The beds of the third division of the formation (Figs. IL, III:, B?) are thicker and more wide-spread; they extend over the whole area of the Lower Stage, and repose partly upon the “ Quartzsand” of that division, and partly upon the beds of the second stage. The succession of its various strata is also nearly the same as in the Middle Stage. At the base lies a clay- bed (Fig. III.—*), which passes upward into a clayey “ Micaceous Sand” (7). Both contain plant-remains: pieces of wood and leaves of Conifers. As the clay and coal diminish in quantity, the “ Mica- ceous Sand” becomes brighter, and at last white. It does not, however, contain Glauconite, and is thus distinguished from the “Striped Sand.” Its upper layer is in great part composed of a Quartzsand, the grains being more equal and smaller than in the “Quartzsand” of the Lower Stage; but it can nevertheless only be looked upon as an alteration of the same. It is coloured grey or black by a great quantity of coal-dust, and is therefore appro- priately called “Coal-sand” (Fig. III.—s). In it or im the uppermost layer of the “ Micaceous Sand” sometimes occur, finally, true beds of Brown-coal (Fig. I1I.—»), from 6 to 8 feet thick, which are sometimes sandy, but at others consist of bituminized wood, and then contain a great quantity of gigantic trunks of trees. These upper Browncoals are those which are found also in other remote districts of the Province of Prussia covered by newer forma- tions, for instance, near Braunsberg on the Passarje, near Schwetz on the Vistula, near Riickshoft on the Baltic, &c. From what has now been stated it will be easy to carry on the history of Samland through the Tertiary period. When in the place of the “ Glauconitic Sand,” the deposition of the “Quartz- sand” commenced, the relations of sea and land were not changed. As the “Quartzsand ” in the southern districts is much coarser than in the northern, and as it forms in the latter area numerous intercalated beds between other strata, which do not occur in the former, we can infer that it was carried into the Bay from the great sea in the south-west. After the deposition of this Sand, and of the clayey ingredients which the river washed into the Bay, had continued undisturbed for some time, began the gradual —-:1868.] Amber ; tts Origin and History. 179 upheaval of the country lying east and north-west of the Bay. And the Bay itself, which had been so extended by an earlier depression, was now confined to the small flat trough whose most northerly portion we have now learnt to know. As it arose, however, it was filled up with the mud which the river carried into it, for the barriers which had formerly stopped its deposits were now destroyed by the upheaval of the coast. With the sand, which it derived from a variety of the Cretaceous Sandstone, poor in Glauconite, it took up also, out of the lakes and marshes through which it flowed, the Amber which was deposited there, and carried it into the trough, as well as numerous fragments of such plants as a river would bear away from an old forest. That the wood occupies as Browncoal chiefly the uppermost place in the series of deposits can perhaps be explained only by supposing that it floated about on the surface of the water until the trough under it was filled up, and it was pressed downward into the Sand. About this time the coarse Quartzsand on both margins of the trough lay dry; but, as it 1s covered by the beds of the uppermost division of the Browncoal-formation, it is clear that a depression again followed the upheaval of the country, during which the deposits of the argillaceous ‘“ Micaceous Sand,” of the “ Coal-sand,” and of the Browncoal, were accumulated. The “ Micaceous Sand” of the upper division contains, however, no Glauconite, and as we are unacquainted with its origin, the influence of the river on these beds is also unknown, and the mode of their formation cannot be pursued any farther with certainty. No doubt the forests of an extensive shore-line again perished, and furnished the wood to the Browncoal-beds. Finally, the Prussian Bay of the North- German Tertiary sea was filled up, and while numerous deposits were formed in other parts of this sea, Prussia was laid dry by an upheaval of the rocks, and thus ended for a time the history of the country, but only to commence again after many centuries, when a harsher period of destruction succeeded to the clemency of the Tertiary Epoch. This new period in the history of Samland began with the depression of the continent of Northern Europe. This region, which had endured since the oldest period of the earth’s formation, was depressed first of all in the north-east, then in the south; and the Polar sea was enlarged as gradually, the valleys and deeper portions of the land being overflowed towards the south. The climate and all the conditions of the country were thus com- pletely changed. ‘The mountains projecting out of the sea were covered with glaciers, which extended down to the water. Icebergs and ice-flakes laden with the débris of rocks and with blocks of stone were detached from these glaciers and drifted towards the 180 Amber ; its Origin and History. [ April, south ; here they stranded upon the overflowed land, which was formed of Silurian and Cretaceous strata. ‘The latter, with its many soft and marly beds, offered the least resistance to the water and the ice, and was therefore the most deeply eroded and destroyed. The clayey material, being more easily suspended in the water, was carried away by the sea and deposited as mud. The harder portions were mixed with the crushed components of the northern rocks, and were also widely distributed as sand by the water and the ice. Without doubt there remained also at this period considerable deposits of Amber upon the Greensand beds of the Cretaceous formation, where the remains of the old forest soils existed, or the marshes and lakes which long ago had dried up or been filled with earth. With the soil, these also were now broken up, and with them the Amber was scattered in every direction. It can thus be explained why Amber-nests are found in the Diluvial deposits over all the German Plain, and why Amber also occurs in many other countries in Northern Europe, for instance, in Sweden, on the coast of the North Sea, &c. After the partial destruction of the Cretaceous beds, however, the Tertiary formation of Samland was laid bare to the fury of the waves and the pressure of the icebergs ; it was destroyed in many places, and at last overflowed and covered with mud and sand. The high coast of Samland presents an excellent opportunity for observing the nature and mode of the erosion of the Tertiary rocks by the Diluvial sea; and even the small coast-section (Fig. II.) enables us to perceive how here and there the upper beds only have been denuded, while at other places all the strata have been eroded down to the present sea-level, and even deeper. The narrow limits which have been assigned to this article, render it impossible for me to discuss very closely these relations, and I must therefore confine myself to the following remarks. Of the deposits which were thrown down by the Diluvial sea, two divisions, having clear boundary lines, are usually distinguished, namely, the Older Diluvium and the Newer. The Older Diluvium (Figs. IIT., IV., « to 3) is deposited on the Tertiary strata to the thickness of from 10 to 40 feet; but where the latter have been denuded down to the sea-level, it may be seen reaching a height of 150 feet. Marl (which was deposited by the sea as mud), sand, large pebbles, and boulders are the principal components of the Older Diluvium. The sand, which has numerous varieties, distin- guishable partly by colour and partly by the size of the grains, is characterized throughout Samland by always being rich in Glau- conite, which was no doubt derived from the Greensand beds of the Cretaceous formation. The Newer Diluvium (Figs. III., IV., «) consists of yellow sand and yellow loam ; it is but slightly developed 1868. | Amber ; its Origin and History. 181 in north-western Samland, and forms a covering of from 5 to 20 feet in thickness, spread regularly over all older deposits. The destruction of the Tertiary strata had commenced before they were overflowed, no doubt by means of the masses of ice which were driven against the deeper beds. On thawing, the ice deposited the débris and stones with which it was laden. This explains the great gravel-bed which often lies imbedded in marl, near the remains of the Tertiary strata (as in Fig. IV., near A and E «). Often, however, surrounded by Diluvial masses, occur large blocks derived from the uppermost beds of the Browncoal-formation ; they fell down by the destruction of the middle beds, and remain lying in the mud. Thus were large blocks of the older rocks washed away. In Fig. II. we see such removals, both in the east near Neukuhren and Wangen, as also westward near Georgswalde and Warnicken, —isolated remnants of the older beds being still seen projecting from their foundations. In Fig. LV., also, is exhibited on a larger scale the last-named coast district, where near A is seen one such remnant, and near EK the step-like fractured margin of the Tertiary beds. ‘These denudations, however, were also sometimes accom- panied by dislocations, which were caused by the pressure of the masses of mud and sand which were thrown on the older beds. One such dislocation is shown in Fig. II. in the district of Rauschen ; and near Rosenort on the west coast we have the remarkable case of the older Glauconitic beds being upheaved, and not only covered. by Diluvial masses, but having also the same beneath them,—where they appear to have been thrust by lateral pressure. In the deeper erosions occur marl and sand, not in a regular succession of beds, but thrust without order into each other, or heaped up against one another. Such a mode of arrangement cannot be explained in deposits from water; but they may never- theless have arisen in two ways. At one time the ice-islands of the diluvial sea abundantly destroyed again the deposits which they had themselves formed, and the gaps which thus arose were filled up with other material. Still more generally it happened that the half-floating mud was forced upwards, by the weight of the sand which was heaped up on it, to such points where this pressure was accidentally slighter; by these means the mud penetrated into the overlying sand, as may be seen in Fig. IV. near B; or the sand beds were heaved up and thus fractured, as the sand beds D have been heaved up through the marl. All these changes took place slowly and in shghtly agitated water. ‘The proof of that is found in the circumstance that the broken and transported masses of the older beds are often found very near the places where they were detached ; and great deposits of Tertiary sand are found with the ordinary Diluvial sand in the Diluvium, having been derived from the denuded portions of the Browncoal-formation, 182 Amber ; its Origin and History. [ April, After the deposition of the Older Diluvium the land was raised up above the water, and lay dry for a long time. At that time, probably, numerous hills were formed as Dunes, for they can be proved in some cases; and thus by means of wind and water the land probably obtained its present features ; but it was once more overflowed. The depression this time seems to have progressed faster and to a greater depth than before, so that the ice-islands drifting towards the south but slightly eroded the surface; and, on their melting, only the blocks which they had transported were deposited; and these are imbedded abundantly in the associated sand and loam. After this the land once again emerged out of the water; and thus it is that through alternate upheavals and depressions it has gradually risen to the height which it now possesses ; but the waves of the sea still continue the work of destruction which they com- menced thousands of years ago, and yearly lessen the area of the country. If, however, other countries can only complain of the damage which the sea has inflicted on their coasts, it here amply repairs the loss it has caused. When lashed by storms, it tears up the Amber out of the deep-lying beds of Amber-earth ; by the help of sea-weeds torn up at the same time from the bed of the sea the Amber is heaved upwards, and carried on the surface of the water ; and when the storm abates and the sea becomes calm, it carries the Amber, together with pieces of older Browncoal and fresh marine plants, on to the beach, where a hundred hands are waiting to intercept it with nets. That is the “Amber-drawing,” a trying occupation, which demands a strong and hardy frame, for the cold winter storms yield the richest booty. But many pieces of Amber, nevertheless, do not reach the shore, for the largest and heaviest pieces have already sunk to the bottom, and lie between the large boulders which cover the sea-bed. Therefore, in calm weather and with clear water, the inhabitants of the coast go in boats, and turn- ing the stones with hooks fastened on long poles, endeavour to dis- cover the Amber in the interspaces, and to draw it up with small nets. This is called “Striking for Amber.”* For a long time people were contented with what Amber they could recover by these means from the sea; and these modes of acquisition still furnish the greatest quantity of the Amber which is obtained from Samland for commerce. For the last ten years, however, on all points of the coast where the Amber-earth does not lie too deep beneath the sea-level, endeavours have been made to lay it bare and to obtain the Amber immediately from it. The circumstance that it is over- lain by a bed of very loose sand, which contains a large quantity of water, has hitherto impeded the attempts to open out the Amber- earth by subterranean mining-works. And to make this possible, * « Bernstein stechen.” 1868.] Amber; its Origin and History. 183 and therefore to render accessible the stores of Amber which lie hidden in the interior of the country, will be the next progress in the acquisition of these, in so many respects, remarkable fossils. For the benefit of such students as desire to inform themselves more fully concerning the natural history of Amber, we append a list of the principal books and papers which have at various times been published on the subject ; and we also venture to illustrate the paper of our contributor with a plate, which will convey some idea of the organic remains usually found im this fossil resin. For the accuracy of the list of works, therefore, as well as for the second plate, the Editors of this Journal are responsible. ‘The specimens figured in that plate belong to the National Collection in the British Museum ; and for the facts relating to the Insects embodied in the annexed explanation of it, we are indebted to the kind and able assistance of Mr. Frederick Smith, of the Entomological De- partment of that Museum.—Eprrtors. EXPLANATION OF THE QUARTO PLATE. Fig. I. shows the north-western part of the coast of Samland. Fig. IL. is a section of the same line of coast. In both figures the tinted portions distinguish those places where the Tertiary beds crop out above the sea-level. The white portions are those where Quaternary or Postpliocene deposits only are visible. The principal divisions of the Tertiary rocks are distinguished by different lines. A signifies the deposit of the ‘ Glauconitie Sand”; B1 the Lower Stage, B2 the Middle Stage, and B 8 the Upper Stage, of the Browncoal-formation. The boundaries of the Synclinal 'Trougu, which the Sccond Stage fills up, are shown by dotted lines. Fig. III. exhibits vertical sections on a larger scale through three points on the north coast and three on the west. Here A distinguishes the deposit of the “Glauconitic Sand”; a, the “ Amber-earth”; b, the associated ‘ Quicksand ’; c, the “Green Sand’; d, the so-called ‘‘ White Wall”; e, the “Green Wall.” B -is the true Brown-coal formation ; also 1, the “ Quartz-sand’; 2, the intercalated clay- beds, which are represented on tlie west coast by three members, 2’, 2”, 2'”; 3, the Middle Clay-bed ; 4, the ‘‘ Striped Sand”; 5, the Lower Brown-coal ; 6, the Upper Clay-bed ; 7, “ Micaceous Sand”; 8, “Coal Sand”; and 9, the Upper Brown-coal. C, Diluvial deposits: —«, coarse sand, gravel, and large boulders ; 2, Marl; y, ordi- nary sand; 3, redeposited Tertiary sand ;—all these (« to 3) belong to the Older Diluvium; ; is the Younger Diluvium. Fig. IV. shows on a much larger scale than Fig. II. a small part of the coast near Warnicken, where the Tertiary beds are in great part denuded and replaced by Dilevium, exhibiting also the position of the Diluvial masses, The letters and numbers upon it have the same signification as in Fig. HI, EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE OF ORGANIC REMAINS FOUND IN AMBER. Fig. 1—A Dipterous Insect belonging to the European genus Leptis. Three times the Natural Size. Fig. 2—A_ Dipterous Insect belonging to the European genus Echinomyia. Enlarged one-half. 184 Amber ; tts Origin and History. [April, Fig. 3—A species of the Blind Travelling Ants (Formicide) of Africa, being either Anomma rubella or a closely-allied species. Twice the Natural Size. Fic. 4.—A species of the spined Formicid» belonging to the South American and African genus Polyrhachis. Twice the Natural Size. : ; Fig. 5.—A Dipterous Insect belonging to.a new genus of Muscide, allied to the European genus Tachinus. Twice the Natural Size. Fig. 6.—A Clicking Beetle belonging to the European genus Cardiophorus. Twice the Natural Size. Fig. 7.—A species of Heteromerous Beetle belonging to the family Cistelide, and allied to the genus Statira, in which, as in the fossil, the eyes coalesce. Three times the Natural Size. Fig. 8—A species of the tropical family of Beetles, termed Eumolpidz, and probably belonging to the genus Calasposoma. Twice the Natural Size. Fig. 9.—A species of Termes (White Ants). Twice the Natural Size. Fie. 10.—Front view of a Spider belonging to the family Attide. Magnified four diameters. Fig. 11—An oblique Dicotyledonous Leaf. Natural Size. In the above Explanation, the term “ European genus ” is not used as signifying that the genus is now confined to Europe, but only to show that it is still repre- sented on the Continent. LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS ON AMBER AND THE ORGANIC REMAINS PRESERVED IN IT. Aycxn, J.C. Fragmente zur Naturgeschichte des Bernsteins. Danzig, 1835. Brrenpt, G. K. Die Insekten im Bernstein. Danzig, 1829. —_— Die im Bernstein befindlichen organischen Reste der Vorwelt, gesammelt, und in Verbindung mit Mehreren bearbeitet und herausgegeben :— Band 1. Abth. 1: Der Bernstein und die in ihm befindlichen Pflanzenreste der Vorwelt, bearbeitet von H.R. Goeppert und G, C. Berendt, Berlin, 1845. Band 1. Abth. 2: Die im Bernstein befindlichen Crustaceen, Myriapoden, Arachniden, und Apteren der Vorwelt, bearbeitet yon C. L. Koch und G. C. Berendt. Berlin, 1854. Band 2. Abth. 1: Die im Bernstein befindlichen Hemipteren und Orthop- teren der Vorwelt bearbeitet yon E. F. Germar und G. C. Berendt. Berlin, 1856. Band 2. Abth. 2. Die im Bernstein befindlichen Neuropteren der Vorwelt, bearbeitet von F. J. Pictet-Baraban und H. Hagen. Berlin, 1856. Berrxetry, M. J. On three species of Mould detected by Thomas in the Amber of East Prussia. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd Series, vol. ii, 1848, p. 380. Bock, F.8., Versuch einer kurzen Naturgeschichte des Preussischen Bernsteins, und einer neuen wahrscheinlichen Erklirung seines Ursprungs. Konigsberg, 1767. Beschreibung zweyer vom Bernstein durchdrungenen Holzstiicke, nebst einigen Anmerkungen iiber den Ursprung des Bernsteins in Preussen. Halle. Die Naturforscher, vol. xvi., 1781, p. 57. Bout, E. Geognosie der Deutsche Ostsee-lander. 1846. ———— Ueber Bernstein bei Brandenburg. 1853. DuissurG, H. von. Zur Bernsteinfauna. Schriften der physikalisch-dkonomische Gesellschaft zu Konigsberg, vol. iii., p. 29. Foruercitt. Essay upon the Origin of Amber. Phil. Trans., vol. xliii., 1745, p. 21. Germak, E. F. Insecten in Bernstein eingeschlossen. Mag. fiir Entom., Band ii. Heft 1, 1823, p. 11. GorrrerT, H.R. Ueber die Abstammung des Bernsteins. Poge. Ann., vol. XXXvIil., 1836, p, 624; also L’Institut, March 15, 1837. Bibl. Univ. de Geneve, vol. viii., p. 202, Neues Jahrbuch, 1838, p. 111. On Amber and the Organic Remains found in it. Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. ii., 1846, p. 102. Quarterly Journal of Science N°18 ; : oe peti —— teen a OR r cee * - & po nee = ce So er | De Wilde ith ad nat Ae Wi ex N. Hanhart imp ORGANIC REMAINS IN AMBER 1868.] Amber ; its Origin and History. 185 Gorrrert, H. R. Ueber die Bernsteinflora. Monatsberichte der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1853, p. 450; also 3lste Jahres- bericht d. Schles. Gesellsch., 1853, p. 64; and Edin. New Phil. Journ., 1853, p. 365; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. x., part 2: Miscellaneous, p. 1. —_——_——_——._ Ueber G. C. Berendt’s im Bernstein befindlichen organischen Reste der Vorwelt. 32 Jahresbericht d. Schles. Gesell., 1854, pwol: —_—— See also Berendt. Gumprecut. Ueber einige geoguostiche Verhiltnisse des Grossherzogthums Posen. Karsten’s Archiv, vol. xix., 1845, p. 627. Hagen, H. Beschreibung der Friichte und des fossiles Holzes, welche sich in den Bernstein-grabereien in Preussen finden. Gilbert's Annalen, vol. xix., 1805, p. 181. See also Berendt. Hermann, D. De Rana et Lacerta Succino insistis. Cracow, 1580; Riga, 1600. Horr, F. W. Observations on succinic Insects. Trans. Entom. Soc., vol. i, part 3, 1836, p. 133; vol. ii., part 1, 1837, p. 46. Joun. Naturgeschichte des Succins. Cologne, 1816. Kawatt. Der Bernsteinsee in Kurland. Rigaer Correspondenz-blatt, vol. vi. p- 69. Lorzw, H. Ueber den Bernstein und die Bernstein-fauna. Berlin, 1850. Maccutiocn, J. On Animals preserved in Amber, with observations on the nature and origin of that substance. Quart. Journ. Science, Literature, and Art, vol. xvi., 1824, p. 41. MERcELTIN, von. Ueber fossiles Holz und Bernstein in Braunkohle aus Gischiginsk in Kamschatka. Bull, Acad. Petersburg, vol. xi., p. 81. Miqven, F.M. W. See Venema. % OvcHaKkorr. Notice sur un Termes fossile. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscow, 1838, vol. i., p. 37; also Annales des Sciences Nat., 2me Série, vol. xiii., p. 204 ; Neues Jahrbuch, 1839, p. 122; Archiv fiir Mineralogie, vol. ii., p. 289. Picrer, F. J. General Considerations on the Organic Remains, and in par- ticular on the Insects which have been found in Amber. Edin. New. Phil. Journ., vol. xli., 1846, p 391; also Nouv. Mem. de la Soc. Helvétique des Sciences Nat., vol. vi, 1847, p. 5. See also Berendt. Rose. In ‘Reise nach dem Ural,’ vol. i., p. 486. Roy, Van. Ansichten, &c., Danzig, 1840. Runes. Ueber das Vorkommen und die Gewinnung des Bernsteins im Samlande. Journ, f. prakt. Chemie, vol. cii., p. 120. Scuweiccnr. Beobachtungen auf Naturhistorischen Reisen. Berlin, 1819. Anhang, p- 105. Senvet, N. Historia Succinorum corpora aliena inyolventium, et nature opore pictorum et ccelatorum ex regiis Augustorum cimeliis Dresdz conditis aeri insculptorum conscripta, ete. Leipsig, 1742. Sreinpeck, A. Ueber die Bernstein Gewinnung bei Brandenburg an der Havel. Brandenburg, 1841; also N. Notiz. de Froriep., vol. xiv., 1840, p. 257 ; also Neues Jahrbuch, 1844, p. 121. Tuepestus, D. G. In ‘ Baltische Studien,’ vol. iii., 1835, p. 28. Tuomas, K. On the Amber-beds of East Prussia. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd Series, vol. ii., 1848, p. 369, translated from ‘Die Bernsteinformation d. Sam- landes.’ Ostpreuss. Prov. Blatt., April, 1847. Venema, G. A. and F. A. W. Miquen. De Barnstein in de provincie Groningen. Verhandelungen uitgegeven door de Commissie belast met het vervaardigen erner geologische beschrijving en Kaart van Nederland. 'Tweede Deel, 1854. Watcn and Knorr. Lapides diluvii Testes. WINKLER’s Waarenlexicon, Article ‘ Bernstein.’ Zavvacu, G. Ueber die Bernstein und Braunkohlenlager des Samlandes. Schriften d. physik.-dkonom, Gesellsch. Kénigsberg, 1860, vol. i., p. 1. See also numerous Articles in Gilbert’s ‘Annalen,’ e.g., vol. xix., p. 181, A. 354; vol. xlv., p. 435; vol. xviii., pp. 234, 237, 311; vol. lxiii., p. 387; vol. Ixx., pp. 297, 303, 305; vol. Ixxiv., p. 107, A. 110; lxxiii., p, 336; Ixv., p. 20. G 21860 ) | April, Vv. SIR JOHN HERSCHEL AND MODERN ASTRONOMY. Astronomy is remarkable, as the solitary example of a science, for which exactness has been secured by the elucidation of the laws reculating a power which is associated with every form of matter. The laws ruling the influences of that power or principle, as exerted through space, have been developed with a clearness which removes every shadow of doubt. When Newton determined by the most careful examination of facts, and by the penetrating power of his mental analysis, that every body circulating in space, was compelled to move in obedience to the force of Gravitation, acting according to the law of the inverse square, he furnished the key by which all astronomical problems connected with “the stars in their courses” could be solved.—The stone flung into the air by the playing child—the ball projected at high velocity from a piece of artillery—the planet rolling with majestic regularity across the celestial vault—the twin and triple stars circulating mysteriously about each other in the remoteness of the heayens—the yet inscrutable nebule—and the space-exploring comets,—are, each and all, equally bound to move in obedience to a force, of which we know only the daw of action. But the knowledge of this law has placed a wand in the grasp of the astronomer, by which he feels out worlds, ere yet they are visible to human sense. Every reflecting mind will naturally inquire, What is this all- pervading power which we call Graviratton, binding the Moon to the Earth, the Planets to the Sun, and the Solar System itselt, to some immeasurably-distant star; which, though it be the centre of motion to our small group of planets, may be itself but’the satellite of some yet grander luminary—distributing its energies from depths of space to which no telescope has ever penetrated? And such a mind—while impressed with the immensity of power displayed— will ever feel its littleness when compelled to own, that of the cause of that power it is deeply ignorant. “The law of Gravitation,” says Sir John Herschel, “ the most universal truth at which human reason has yet arrived— expresses not merely the general fact of the mutual attraction of all matter; not merely the vague statement that its influence decreases as the distance increases, but the exact. numerical rate at which that decrease takes place; so that when its amount is known at any one distance, it may be calculated exactly for any other.”* * «A Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy.’ 1868. | Sir John Herschel and Modern Astronomy. 187 Yet, the author of that paragraph was heard by the writer of this article to declare, on this point, the weakness of his knowledge —and, at the same time, with something like prophetic inspiration, to express a feeling, amounting to conviction, that Gravitation was the effect of vastly superior causes, ascending in grandeur of action, one above the other, until we reach the Great First Cause of All. May it not be, that while we are groping our way amongst the interstices of matter, and learning a little of “ molecular forces,”—to which we have given many names—we are slowly obtaining dim glimpses of modified forms of this force, at once so powerful and universal in heavenly space, and so subtle when confined in the labyrinths of earthly matter? However this may be, all “celestial weighings and measurings” (as Sir John Herschel phrased it, in one of those popular articles which he can write so well) are carried out entirely by our knowledge of the law of Gravitation, and thus is Astronomy made an exact science. As we improve our instruments we shall see yet deeper into the heavens, and by long-continued and well-directed observations, we shall make new discoveries among the stars, and learn yet more of the arcana of space. But these discoveries, though they will enlarge our knowledge, will not disturb that which we know; and of no other science than Astronomy can this be said. ‘If we intended a review of modern Astronomy, it would be necessary to notice the labours of many men who have, in this country, in Europe, and in America, by their powers of observa- tion, their unwearying industry, and their skilful analysis, largely increased the sum of human knowledge. Between the time when William Herschel discovered Uranus, and Adams pointed to the spot where a planet must exist, and where Neptune was found, many eminent men have yoked their names with astronomical researches of the highest value. Of none of these is it our pur- pose to speak; our only intention is to set forth, in brief, the labours of one man who has proved that he combines in his own person the assiduous astronomical observer, the acute mathema- tician, the deep-thinking philosopher, and the graceful poet,—that man being Su John Herschel. It is not to many men that in- tellectual powers of so high an order have been given—it is not in many men that we find such perfect balancing of those varied powers—it is in few*men that we discover such profound humility, and such a deep sense of reverence for the Creator of those works, the study of which has been a life-labour of love. When we have examples before us of superior intellects wandering away into error, deluded by the meteor-gleam of their own great, but irregularly-trained, and therefore, now uncontrolled, powers, it is of the utmost importance that the example of the brighter star, moving in brilliancy around the Centre of all good, should be con- VOL. V. , P 188 Sir John Herschel and Modern Astronomy. [| April, trasted with their meteor-flights—“a moment bright, then gone for ever.” Sir John Frederick William Herschel, Bart., was born in 1790 at Slough, near Windsor. He is the only son of Sir Frederick William Herschel, whose name is for ever associated with astro- nomical discovery. From the father the son derived his passion for the study of the stars,—and it may be incidentally noted here that in this family we have the rare example of the father, the son, and the grandson (Alexander Herschel) pursuing with great success the study of the exactest of the sciences. There is a pleasure and a purpose in tracing the progress of an individual mind, especially when that mind has made itself a place in the history of science. We have not the information necessary for treating inductively our examination of the development of the mental powers of the young John Herschel. We have heard numerous anecdotes of an absent, a retiring, a star-gazing boy, but, although there may be traces of truth in some of these, we believe they generally resolve themselves into the every-day expression of those who do not understand the condition of a meditative youth, loving solitude, because in solitude alone could he hold communion with nature’s works and view her charms unrolled. John Herschel was a student of St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he achieved the honourable position of Senior Wrangler, and became Smith’s Prizeman in 1813. He appears from this time to have devoted himself seriously to those pursuits with which his father’s name was already associated. In 1816 we find him giving a large amount of time to observa- tions on the multiple stars; these observations were continued, sometimes alone, and sometimes in conjunction with Sir James South, until, as the result of ten thousand observations, we find in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions for 1825’ “a series of micrometric measures of 380 double stars, executed in conjunction with Sir J. South in 1821-2-5.” Previously to this we have the subject of this notice producing, with Dr. Peacock, the well-known Dean of Ely, a reconstruction of Lacroix’s treatise ‘On the Differential Calculus, and he was at the same time a zealous student of chemistry and of the physical sciences. The ‘ Philosophical Transactions for 1826’ contain an important paper, entitled “An account of a Series of Observations made in the Summer of 1825, for the purpose of determining the difference of the Meridians of the Royal Observatories of Green- wich and Paris.” or several years, especially in 1825, 6, and 7, Mr. Herschel was occupied at Slough with the 20-feet reflector making observations on the multiple stars. The labour of these investigations may be judged of by the titles of the several series which were published in the ‘Memoirs of the Astronomical Society,’ and which we copy so far as to show the work performed :— 1868. } Sir John Herschel and Modern Astronomy. 189 Series 1, including 881 new double stars. ee i 295 more new double stars. vn CWS n 384 more new double stars. 4, re 1,236 double stars, the greater part not previously described. These observations were continued with the most untiring industry, and in 1832, Mr. Herschel published, as a fifth series, a catalogue of 2,007 double stars, of which 1,304 were new, and a sixth series was produced in the following year. In the ‘ Philo- sophical Transactions for 1833’ there is a valuable communication, “Observations of Nebule and Clusters of Stars,” with a 20-foot reflector. In this memoir we have a most careful examination of all the conditions observed in star-clusters and nebulous masses. Some two thousand of these mysterious classes of bodies were examined, and their physical construction, as far as possible, is described. The result of all this labour may be examined with much advantage in the ‘Outlines of Astronomy.’ In the para- graphs of that work which are devoted to this subject, the specula- tions of Sir William Herschel are cautiously reviewed. The “nebular hypothesis,” as it has been termed, supposes the existence of an elementary form of luminous siderial matter, and its gradual subsidence and condensation by the effect of its own gravity, into more or less regular spherical or spheroidal forms. “ Assuming that in the progress of this subsidence local centres of condensation, subordinate to the general tendency would not be wanting, he (Sir W. Herschel) conceived that in this way solid nuclei might arise, whose local gravitation still further condensing, and so absorbing the nebulous matter, each in its immediate neighbourhood, might ultimately become stars, and the whole nebulz finally take on the state of a cluster of stars.” Sir John Herschel’s leaning towards this view will be evident from the following remarks :—“ Among the multitude of nebulz revealed by Sir W. Herschel’s telescopes, every stage of this process might be considered as displayed to our eyes, and in every modification of form to which the general principle might be conceived to apply. The more or less advanced state of a nebula, towards its segregation into discrete stars, and of those stars themselves towards a denser state of segregation round a central nucleus, would thus be, in some sort, an indication of age. Neither is there any variety of aspect which nebule offer which stands at all in contradiction to this view.”* Another contribution to astronomical science was his ‘ Observ- ations on the Satellites of Uranus,’ published by the Astronomical Society; and this was followed by two series of micrometrical measurements of double stars, made at Slough with a seven-foot Equatorial. * “Outlines of Astronomy,’ pp. 598, 599. p2 190 Sir John Herschel and Modern Astronomy. _ |Apvil, Whilst this indefatigable astronomer was thus busy with the most distant stars, and examining with philosophic acumen those conditions of matter which appear to indicate something which may well be taken for world-formation, he found time not merely to study several branches of physical science, but to write treatises, which are, even now, referred to as authorities upon every point of importance treated in them. ‘The treatises on Sound, and on Light, published in the ‘ Encyclopzedia Metropolitana,’ are striking examples of that exactness which should ever belong to inductive science—of clear deductions, ever displaying the powers of the most philosophic mind, and a perspicuity of style which other writers on science would have been wise .to imitate. ‘These labours may not be regarded as belonging to astronomical science; but the theory by which the phenomena of light is explained, based as it is, by analogy, on the laws of sound, is intimately connected with the perfect understanding of the instruments employed in celestial surveys. Incidentally, too, we must notice in passing the ‘ Preli- minary Discourse on the Study of. Natural Philosophy, which formed a volume of ‘ Lardner’s Encyclopedia, as a work singularly fitted to prepare the student for his labours. We cannot refrain from making one quotation from this charming little volume, to the study of which we have returned with advantage again and again. Discussing the question of the benefits to be derived from the pur- suits of science which Sir John Herschel contends has peculiar tendencies to improve and purify the mind, he concludes :—“ There is something in the contemplation of general laws which powerfully persuades us to merge individual feeling, and to commit ourselves unreservedly to their disposal; while the observation of the calm, energetic regularity of Nature, the immense scale of her operations, aud the certainty with which her ends are attained, tends irre- sistibly to tranquillize and reassure the mind and render it less accessible to repining, selfish, and turbulent emotions. And this it does, not by debasing our nature into weak compliances and abject submission to circumstances, but by fillmg us, as from an inward spring, with a sense of nobleness and power which enables us to rise superior to them, by showing us our strength and innate dignity, and by calling upon us for the exercise of those powers and faculties by which we are susceptible of the comprehension of so much greatness, and which form, as it were, a lmk between our- selves and the best and noblest benefactors of our species, with whom we hold communion in thoughts, and participate in disco- veries which have raised them above their fellow mortals and brought them nearer to their Creator.’”* An article from the same pen on Physical Astronomy appeared * * Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy,’ pp. 16, 17. 1868. | Sir John Herschel and Modern Astronomy. 191 in 1823 in the ‘Encyclopedia Metropolitana. In 1832, ‘A Treatise on Astronomy’ was published as one of the volumes of the ‘ Cabinet Cyclopzedia,’ which was subsequently enlarged into the ‘Outlines of Astronomy, of which work the eighth edition was published in 1867. ‘The extensive popularity of this treatise will be judged of from the fact of its having been translated into Russian, Chinese, and Arabic. In 1831 this eminent astronomer was created a Knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order (K.H.), and he became a baronet in 1838. In the interval Sir John Herschel visited the Cape of Good Hope for the purpose of carrying out a similar system of celestial observations to those pursued at home. It has been often stated that this expedition was undertaken at the cost of the Government: this was not the case. A passage in a king’s ship was offered to Sir John Herschel, but he declined to avail himself even of this, and the whole cost of the voyage and the expenses consequent on the removal of all his instruments were defrayed by himself. Four years were spent at Feldhuysen near the Cape of Good Hope. His labours in the Southern Hemisphere were published under the title of ‘ Results of Observations made during the years 1834-8, at the Cape of Good Hope, completing the Telescopic Survey of the visible Heavens, com- menced at Slough in 1825. This work was published at the expense of His Grace the Duke of Northumberland. The great object of Sir John Herschel was to discover whether the distribution of the stars in the Southern Hemisphere corresponded with the results of Sir William Herschel’s similar labours, prosecuted mainly on the opposite side of the Galactic circle. In order that the observations made at the Cape might admit of comparison with those made at Slough, they were made with a telescope of the same optical power and according to the same method. These observations embraced a region of the celestial sphere, extending from the south pole of the Milky Way to a distance of 150° measured upon a great circle passing through it. The whole number of stars counted in the telescope amounted to 68,948, which were included within 2,299 fields of view. It appeared from these observations that the Southern Hemisphere ig somewhat richer in stars than the Northern, and this is thought to indicate that the solar system is not situate exactly in the plane of the Galactic circle, but is displaced a little towards the North. M. Struve * remarks that the apparent position of the Milky Way presents an interesting accordance with this conclusion, for it has been found that its mean course does not coincide exactly with the great circle of a sphere, but with a parallel distant about 92° from the Galactic North Pole. By a computation, based on the star gauges in both hemispheres relative to the Milky Way, Sir John * « Ktudes d’Astronomie Stellaire.’ 192 Sir John Herschel and Modern Astronomy. — |April, Herschel found the stars visible in a reflecting telescope of eighteen inches aperture to amount to 5,331,572. He concludes, however, that the number really visible in the telescope is much greater than this, as in many parts of the Milky Way the stars appear so crowded as to defy counting. Not only were all the observations, during his sojourn at the Cape, made by Sir John Herschel himself, but all the reductions of every sort which are found in the published volume were executed by himself. While at the Cape, Sir John Herschel observed, with his usual care, all the phases of Halley’s comet, and noticed,— what had indeed been previously observed with regard to comets,—an enlargement of volume taking place simultaneously with the recess of the comet from the sun. Durimg the interval between the 25th January, 1836, and the 1st of the following February, the volume of the comet was found by him to have increased im the proportion of 1 to 41:605. Sir John Herschel argues, that as the comet approaches the perihelion, the action of the solar heat will be constantly transforming the nebulous matter of which it is com- posed into the condition of a transparent invisible gas; and as this process necessarily commences at the exterior of the nebulosity, where the solar rays impinge, the immediate consequence will be a diminution of the volume of the comet. After the passage of the perihelion, the radiation of heat from the surface of the more con- densed portion of the comet will not be sufficiently compensated by the solar heat, and the diminution of temperature hence arising, will occasion a precipitation on the surface of the nebulous matter suspended in a gaseous state in the atmosphere of the comet. This precipitation of nebulous matter will continue to go on, under the influence of the cooling process occasioned by the increasing distance of the comet from the sun, and the manifest result will be the rapid enlargement of the visible dimensions of the comet. According to the laws of equilibrium the lighter particles of the precipitated vapour will arrange themselves so as to form the superior stratum of the enveloping nebulosity of the comet. It is evident also that as this bounding stratum continues to diminish in density, it will attain a higher and higher elevation, while at the same time its increased tenuity will cause it to assume a more and more filmy aspect. * It has been argued, from the slight retardation observed in Encke’s comet, and from other phenomena connected with comets, that evidence has been obtained of the existence of an all-pervading “ether.” While on the subject of comets, it will be advantageous —especially as showing the kind of reasoning which Sir John Hershel brings to bear on hypotheses of this class—to quote a * ‘Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, vol. vi., p. 99. 1868. | Sir John Herschel and Modern Astronomy. 193 few sentences from one of his popular Essays; he is writing of Donati’s comet :—“It was not till the 14th August, or seventy- three days after its first discovery, that it began to throw out a tail, and to become a conspicuous object. Very soon after this, its first appearance, a slight but perceptible curvature was perceived in the tail, which on the 16th September had become unmistakable, and continued to increase in amount as the latter extended in appa- rent dimensions, till it assumed at length that superb aigrette-lke form, like a tall plume wafted by the breeze, which has never pro- bably formed so conspicuous a feature in any previous comet. To a certain extent, it 1s a common enough feature in the tails of comets, and is usually regarded as conveying the idea of their moving in a resisting medium, in a space, that is to say, not quite empty, as smoke is left behind a moving torch. But this is a very gross and inadequate conception of the peculiarity in question. The resistance of the ‘ether,’ such as the phenomena of Encke’s comet, already noticed, may be supposed to indicate, is far too infinitesi- mally small to be competent to produce any perceptible deviation from straightness. Nor is it at all necessary to resort to any such explanation of the fact. Such an appearance would naturally arise from a combination of the motion the matter of the tail had (in participation with that of the nucleus) with the impulse given it by the sun, each particle of it describing—from the moment of quitting the head, an orbit quite different from that of the latter, being under the influence of a repulsive force directed from the sun —a curve of the form, called by geometers an hyperbola, nearly approaching to a straight line, and having its convexity turned towards the sun.” From time to time we hear of evidences of this repulsive force, existing as a power belonging to masses of matter. This must not be confounded with the repellant power manifested by an electrically excited body, or by that seen in the repulsion of the similar poles of magnetic bodies. With humility we venture to inquire, is not this repulsive force of the sun as pure an hypothesis as the resisting ether of stellar space ? In the ‘Geological Transactions for 1832’ there appeared a paper by Sir John Herschel “ On Astronomical Causes which may influence Geological Phenomena.” The subject of this memoir is an example of much originality of thought. With regard to the operation of astronomical causes upon climate, especially as elucidating former varieties of climate in geological history, Sir John Herschel refers to the influences of the sun and moon. The moon’s mean distance is now on the decrease ; also, the eccentricity of the lunar orbit is subject to fluctuations ; both these causes would produce differences in the 194 Str John Herschel and Modern Astronomy. (April, tides. If the mean distance of the moon were diminished by only one-tenth of its actual amount, the mean rise and fall of the tides would be increased by a full third of their present quantity, which would, of course, produce a great increase in their erosive action on the continents, as well as in the transporting powers of the waters of the ocean over the materials of the land. He shows, too, how the secular variation of the eccentricity of earth’s orbit may have produced both-warmer and colder periods than the present. This idea, after lying dormant for thirty years, has recently been revived and extended by Mr. Croll, in several papers written on this subject, which is now materially affecting the reasoning of geologists re-- garding the history of ancient formations and the measure of geological time. Tt is not possible within the limits placed at our disposal to mention several papers of great value which have from time to time appeared in the ‘ Memoirs of the Astronomical Society,’ ‘'The Trans- actions of the Royal Society,’ and in journals devoted to scientific literature. Amongst the more remarkable of those contributions, to our knowledge may be mentioned a paper investigating orbits of double stars ; and another, “ Determination of the most probable Orbit of a Binary Star,” which were published by the Astronomical Society. “A notice of an error of two days, left uncorrected in the Gregorian reformation of the calendar,” appeared in the ‘ Athenzeum.’ A paper “On a new Projection of the Sphere” was read by Sir John Herschel before the Royal. Geographical Society in 1859. The principle of this projection was included in some of Gauss’s general formule, but this was unknown to Herschel, and it had never before been reduced to a chart. - The article “ Telescope” in the ‘Encyclopedia Britannica’ was from Sir John Herschel’s pen. (This is the only place in which will be found an account of the method of polishing specula, adopted by Sir William Herschel.) A Catalogue of Nebule and Stars, 5,078 in number, in order of right ascension, brought up to 1860, with precession for 1880, and descriptions, was prepared for the Royal Society in 1863. ‘The Quarterly Journal of Science’ in 1864 has a paper “On the Solar Spots” from the pen of this astronomer, in which he considers the speculation on the gradual variation of density in the solar atmo- sphere “an aggregation of the luminous matter in masses of some considerable size, and some certain degree of consistency, suspended or floating at a level determined by their specific gravity mm a non- luminous fluid—be it gas, vapour, liquid, or that mtermediate state of gradual transition from liquid to vapour which the experiments of Caignard de la Tour have placed visibly before us.” To this article we refer our readers for an examination of this original idea. Sir John Herschel in 1839 received from Oxford an honorary D.C.L.; in 1842, he was elected Lord Rector of Mareschal College, 1868. | Sir John Herschel and Modern Astronomy. 195 Aberdeen ; in 1845, Sir John was President of the British Associ- ation; in 1848, he became again President of the Astronomical Society, having filled that honourable office in the years 1828 and 29, 1840 and 41. In December, 1850, he was appointed Master of the Mint, which office he resigned in 1855. The influence of the Herschels on modern astronomy has been considerable. Added to great mechanical skill, remarkable powers of observation, and unwearying industry, we find in them high philosophic powers. As they pursued their inductive researches, they were ever producing, as efforts of pure deduction, thoughts which advanced the science to which they were devoted. ‘This has been most especially the case with Sir John Herschel. If any one doubts this, let him read his ‘ Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy’ or his ‘ Essays, * containing his admirable addresses to the Astronomical Society. While devoting the powers of his mind so zealously to astro- nomy, it must not be forgotten that Sir John Herschel found time for the most careful examination of several other branches of science. The chemical action of the sun’s rays on both imorganic and organic matter forms the subjects of two memoirs printed in the ‘ Transactions’ of the Royal Society, which are full of the most suggestive experiments and thoughts. By those researches he greatly advanced the art of photography, and led onward by his investigations to the production of those exquisitely sensitive tablets, by means of which the luminous elevations which appear on the edge of the solar disc during a total eclipse have been faithfully copied and preserved, and the moon has been mapped by a most unerring pencil, the rays reflected from her own mountains and valleys. Nor must it be forgotten that in 1819 Mr. Herschel communicated three papers to the ‘ Edinburgh Philosophical Jour- nal’ on the Hyposulphites. He then explained the peculiar action of the hyposulphites on chloride of silver, which placed, after long years, in the hands of the photographer the only agent, hyposul- phite of soda, which can be employed efficiently to give permanence to his pictures. Without this agent the photographs of the solar clouds and the lunar mountains would be as transient as the rays by which they were at first delineated. Sir John Herschel has ever maintained the serene dignity of a true philosopher ; and his utterances of truths, which have inspired him with their divinity, have ever been received with delight by those who have listened to his subdued but impressive eloquence. How soul-elevating are the concluding passages of his address to the members of the British Association in 1845, with which we must close our notice of his labours :— * «Essays from the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews, with Addresses and other Pieces.’ Longmans & Co. 1857. 196 Siluria. [| April, “ That astronomers should congregate to talk of stars and planets, chemists, of atoms; geologists, of strata, is natural enough; but what is there of equal mutual interest, equally connected with and equally pervading all they are engaged upon, which causes their hearts to burn within them for mutual communication and un- bosoming ? Surely, were each of us to give utterance to all he feels, we would hear the chemist, the astronomer, the physiologist, the electrician, the botanist, the geologist, all with one accord, and each in the language of his own science, declaring not only the wonderful works of God disclosed by it, but the delight which their disclosure affords bim, and the privilege he feels it to be to have aided in it. This is indeed a magnificent induction, a consilience there is no refuting. It leads us to look onward, through the long vista of time, with chastened but confident assurance that science has still other and nobler work to do than any she has yet attempted; work which, before she is prepared to attempt, the minds of men must be prepared to receive the attempt—prepared, I mean, by an entire conviction of the wisdom of her views, the purity of her objects, and the faithfulness of her disciples.” VI. SILURIA.* Grotocy still advances with the rapidity which always character- ized the science ; and it needs considerable industry to keep oneself au courant with its progress. Sir Roderick Murchison, however, even in his old age, not only accomplishes this task, but still assists in no small degree to smooth the path and to hasten the march. More than this, he is ever foremost in the recognition of the im- provements which the allied sciences constantly enable the geologist to make; and if he does not always join the ranks of the newer school of geologists in more doubtful and theoretical questions, who shall say that his opposition does not benefit the science by pre- serving his younger brethren from rushing into those speculative excesses which have too often proved so detrimental to the attain- ment of a true philosophy. The most noticeable change in the present edition of ‘ Siluria’ is the immense importance acquired of late years by the old gneissic rocks, described in the previous edition as the “ Fundamental Gueiss” of Sutherland and Ross, which was there treated of as the , * ‘Siluria: A History of the Oldest Rocks in the British Isles and other Countries ; with Sketches of the Origin and Distribution of native Gold, the general Succession of Geological Formations, and Changes of the Earth’s Surface” By Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F-R.S., &e. ‘Fourth Edition (including the Silurian System). London: John Murray, 1867. 1868] Siluria. 197 oldest of the British stratified deposits; the reality of this, the latest of Sir Roderick’s discoveries, being then still sub judice. In this edition we find a record of the correlation of this Fundamental Gneiss with the Hozoon containmg Laurentian rocks of Canada, dis- covered by Sir William Logan, and about which, as the sepulchre of the most ancient of all known fossils, we have lately heard so much. It speaks well for the breadth and catholicity of Sir Roderick’s mind that he should have been able at once to acknowledge the reality of this discovery, and to grasp its important bearing on the geology of our own islands. He was also the first to recognize the high probability of his “ Fundamental Gneiss” being of the same age as the Laurentian rocks, and to abandon the name he had himself given to the Scotch series, adopting that applied by Sir William Logan to the far more extensive development of them in Canada. Were anything still wanting to show the nature of our author’s exalted opinion of Sir William Logan’s discovery, it would be found in the graceful dedication of this edition to the eminent Canadian geologist. Another most important alteration has been made by the author with reference to the reptiliferous sandstones of Elgin and Ross- shire. The strata conformably overlie and apparently pass into deposits undoubtedly belonging to the Old Red Sandstone ; but they long ago yielded remains of reptiles allied to those found in Triassic rocks of other localities. Sir Roderick Murchison, reasoning upon the stratigraphical evidence, had hitherto classified these upper sandstones with the Old Red deposits, while paleontologists con- sidered that if reptiles of Triassic affinities existed in the Devonian or Old Red period “ ’twas passing strange.” Fortunately, however, a specimen from the undoubted Triassic deposits of Warwickshire has lately been identified by Professor Huxley with the Hyperoda- pedon,—a reptile which had previously been obtained from the sandstones of Elgin,—and thus this vexed question has been decided in favour of Paleontology, and Sir Roderick Murchison has yielded to the stubborn fact, and excluded the portion of his former editions which treated of these strata as belonging to the Old Red Sand- stone. Our knowledge of the geology of other portions of Great Britain is also more complete than at the date of the publication of the last edition; and Sir Roderick has taken especial care to bring his work up to the present state of the science, so far, at least, as he can admit the views of other investigators. He has personally been concerned with Professor Harkness in the deter- mination of the Permian age of large tracts in Westmoreland, which had previously been mapped as Triassic; and Mr. Geikie has shown that the red sandstones overlying the Ayrshire coal-measures 198 Siluria. [April, are of the same age. These facts have an important bearing on the question of our future coal-supply, and are, therefore, more especially worthy of record. More than twenty years ago Sir Roderick Murchison made a great stride in advance of other geologists by showing that in certain cases the mineral riches of distant lands may be predicted by means of geological data. In the year 1844, having recently returned from the auriferous Ural Mountains, he examined a col- lection of rocks from Australia, and from their similarity with those occurring in the Russian range he expressed his surprise that “no gold had yet been detected” in the Australian “ Cordillera.” The fact that gold had been detected (the discovery being then unknown in Europe), is the strongest possible proof of Sir Roderick’s induc- tion being, in a scientific sense, a real discovery ; while the memoirs which he published on the subject in the years 1844-6 testify that his comparison of the two regions was not a ere haphazard surmise, but the result of a scientific comparison of the rocks, and the earnest belief of a geologist in the method and principles of his science. The principles as to the distribution of gold in the earth’s crust, upon which Sir Roderick then relied, have since undergone some alteration, but only to show that gold is somewhat more widely distributed than was at that time supposed. In place of the Lower Silurian deposits being the only matrix in which gold is found an situ, which was Sir Roderick’s original induction, we now know that they are but the chief depositories of the precious metal. No one, however, acknowledges this extension of our knowledge of the possible sources of gold more freely than the author of ‘ Siluria ; and as the subject is one of great economic importance, we quote, 7 eatenso, his most recent conclusions (p. 472) :— 1. That looking to the world at large, the auriferous vemstones in the Lower Silurian rocks contain the greatest quantity of gold. 2. That where certain igneous eruptions penetrated the Secondary deposits, the latter have been rendered auriferous for a limited distance only beyond the junction of the two rocks. 3. That the general axiom before insisted upon remains, that all Secondary and Tertiary deposits (except the auriferous detritus in the latter) not so specially affected never contain gold. 4, That as no unaltered purely aqueous sediment ever contains gold, the argument in favour of the igneous origin of that metal is prodigiously strengthened; or, in other words, that the granites and diorites have been the chief gold-producers, and that the auriferous quartz-bands in the Paleozoic rocks are also the result of heat and chemical agency. Some other additions to our knowledge of the geological struc- ture of the British Isles have a purely scientific value. Such, for instance, are the determination of the Lower Llandeilo age of the 1868.] Siluria. 199 oldest rocks in the Lake-district of Cumberland by Professor Hark- ness, and the reference of the Devonian, or Old Red, rocks of the south-west of Ireland to the upper member of that formation. In some respects the author of ‘ Siluria’ holds aloof from pro- posed alterations in the interpretation of the relations of Paleozoic rocks of Britam. He does not accept Mr. Jukes’s views on the Devonian rocks—a course in which he is supported by most of his contemporaries ; nor does he yield to Mr. Salter’s attempt to sepa- rate the Lingula flags from the Silurian System. We also perceive, with some surprise, that he does not completely agree with Dr. Holl’s interpretation of the structure of the Malvern Hills, on the ground that the crystalline rocks have a strike parallel with that of the flanking Silurian rocks, Dr. Holl’s statement being, that the former strike obliquely across the range. ‘This, however, is a question of fact which will be easily decided by future observers. In the last chapter of his work Sir Roderick Murchison gives a general view of ancient life from its earliest traces, and attempts to sketch the progress of creation from the commencement of geo- logical time. He describes, first, a long period, characterized only by Invertebrata, and ending with the first appearance of Fishes in the uppermost Silurian deposits; this period of Fishes was followed by the appearance of Reptiles, and afterwards of Mammals, in sub- sequent formations. Progression has long been a favourite hobby with our author, and if by it he simply means that Invertebrates appeared before Fishes, Fishes before Reptiles, and so on, who will quarrel with him. It is, then, simply a statement of a broad fact, and means very little. We suspect, however, that Sir Roderick has not sufficiently con- sidered the fact that Fishes, Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals are merely classes of animals, whereas the great group of Inverte- brata comprises about a dozen such subdivisions. No naturalist is yet in a position to show even the probability of all the classes of animals having appeared in the order of their organization, begin- ning with the most simple and ending with the most complex. And if the theory of progression is really the explanation of the order of creation, it should hold good for each and every of the orders, families, &c., into which classes are subdivided by naturalists. The author then describes the former changes of the earth’s surface, and illustrates their magnitude by striking examples of fractures, dislocations, and reversals of strata, coming to the conclusion that such great movements are inexplicable by reference to modern causes, so far at least as regards their intensity. At the same time he admits that “the former physical agencies were of the same nature as those which now prevail.” Although we cannot bring ourselves to agree with Sir Roderick’s views on this subject, we freely acknowledge the desirability of so eminent a member of the 200 Siluria. | April, “old school” recording his best arguments in favour of its prin- ciples; and we feel sure that, whatever can be said—for it has been stated by him at least as well as, probably much better than, it could be done by anyone else. One consideration we will venture to suggest to the readers of this review, and of his book :—If modern causes have operated for a certain definite time on the crust of the earth, their effect may be conventionally represented by a certain symbol; if for twice that period, then by a symbol of twice the value; and so on. Now the Silurian deposits are very many times more ancient than (say) the Hocene ; and if the intensity of modern causes acting since the Eocene period has been sufficient to metamorphose Eocene strata into gneiss, to upheave them, and even to overturn them, how very much greater must be the effect of the same causes, continuously acting for such an immense period upon the Silurian deposits, which are so many times older than the Eocene. These general considerations, however, form merely the author’s peroration, and in no way affect the general value of the book, which is a perfect storehouse of facts carefully observed, and gar- nered for the use of the present and future generations of geologists. 1868. ] (201. ») CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE. 1. AGRICULTURE. Tue need of extending the benefits of education to the children of agricultural labourers—the importance of defined relations between landlord and tenant—the necessity of continued legislation about the home and foreign cattle traftic—the limits put by the nature of the living things which the farmer cultivates to the enterprise of the agriculturist—the theory of land drainage—the relative values of our leading breeds of cattle—the cultivation of the sugar beet— the extension of the co-operative system—the improvement of the Irish butter manufacture —the activity of Farmers’ Clubs and Chambers of Agriculture:—these are some of the subjects which have occupied the attention of agriculturists and agricultural readers during the past quarter. If we take the last subject first, it is that we may point out with what promptitude, activity, and force all these topics are now brought under the notice of the farmer as soon as their importance is established or even suggested. With all that lack of union and organization which distinguishes agriculturists, when on any political question their voice or influence is desired, there is yet no occupation or profession in the country like theirs for such a frank and constant discussion by its members of the principles and methods of their business, as one witnesses at the meetings of Farmers’ Clubs all over the country. Of this a few examples will suffice. The paper lately read by Mr. Bone, of Ringwood, before a Hampshire Agricultural Society, may be named as one. He discussed what he called the staple improvemenis of land: meaning thereby the permanent improvements of which the soil itself, apart from the mere current management of it, is capable. Among them is the improved texture which is conferred by the application of marls to sands, the processes of burning and draining clays, and the use of lime and chalk on both sands and clays. A very able and exhaustive treatise on what may be considered rather the landlord’s than the tenant’s interest in the soil was thus laid before a meeting of farmers, who were told a great deal of useful information for which they have to thank the geologist and chemist. Several of the tenant-farmers present related facts within their own experience, which not only proved the value of the processes Mr. Bone had recommended, but illustrated the cost of them, and therefore the need of a certain tenancy for a term of years, which alone would justify a tenant in incurring the expenditure involved. The relations of landlord and tenant, on which so much of the fer- tility of the soil is thus shown to depend, are the subject of constant 202 Chronicles of Science. [ April, discussion before similar societies in all parts of the country. At the Hexham Farmers’ Club—which has just lost its founder by the death of Mr. John Grey, who perhaps more than any other man in the country was trusted by all parties as the best exponent of these relations—the subject has been lately re-discussed under the guidance of Mr. C. G. Grey, who has succeeded his father in the management of the large estates of the Greenwich Hospital in the North of England. An elaborate lease was laid before the club for its approval, in which the style of cultivation was lmited rather than defined; and among other particulars, a list of un- exhausted manures was specified, for which at certain rates the tenant was to receive repayment on giving up the land. For lime applied during the last year of the lease, the outgoing tenant was to receive the full price paid at the kiln—for bonedust one-half the bill—for guano one-third. The faults appear to us twofold:— There is too much detailed instruction as to what, under penalty, the tenant shall and shall not do; and there is not a sufficiently detailed account of the repayments which are due to him provided he maintains good and energetic management till the close of the term. Many, at least, of those improvements to which Mr. Bone referred appear to dave no place in Mr. Grey’s schedule of repayments. We may, however, find some explanation of this in another Farmers’ Club discussion. At Maidstone, some weeks ago, a very interesting paper was read by Mr. Robertson, “On The Agri- cultural Differences between the North and South of England,” in which it was pointed out that in the former it was the almost invariable practice of the landlord himself to undertake the expendi- ture involved in permanent improvements of the land. Thus the late Duke of Northumberland laid out more than half-a-million of pounds during his lifetime in the improvement of his Northumber- land estate; and of this 200,000/. was spent on drainage, 5 per cent. being charged upon the tenant for the outlay. Other differences in management are of course explained on the ground of climate ; and here we come upon those limits to agricultural enterprise resident in the very nature of the plants and animals which are its object, which some reckless innovators disregard,—to their loss. ‘The cultivation of mangold-wurzel in the South is one of those specialities of management which are explained in this way ; and the superiority of the turnip crop in the North is another ; and both of these differences were commented on by Mr. Robertson, who urged on the attention of the Kentish farmers the compensating opportunities and possibilities which a southern climate places within his reach. The farmers’ clubs of Ireland are in no respect behind those of England. At Athy, Ballymahon, and other places, many very excellent agricultural essays are read every year, on subjects whose discussion cannot fail to be of service to the Irish farmer. 1868. ] Agriculture. 203 Mr. W. Davison lately read a paper on the “ Waste Lands of Ireland ” at the former club, wherein land-drainage, for which Government aid is offered, was described and recommended, along with the sub- sequent cultivation of rape and other green crops; and the granting of long leases, for the encouragement of tenants with capital, was urged upon the landlord. As to the ultimate advantage of the process to all concerned, he quoted an instance where land, the property of Mr. La Touche, worth 5s. an acre, had been let, after 1,8002. had been spent on 140 acres of it, at 22s. an acre to a tenant, who was shortly afterwards offered 400. for his interest in it. It is the relation of landlord and tenant, after all, which is at the bottom of all agricultural energy and enterprise. The Morayshire Farmers’ Club, which has heretofore taken the lead in introducing many agricultural improvements, was lately addressed by Mr. Geddes, of Orbliston, on the vexatious cropping clauses in leases, which often hinder the full use by the tenant of both his capital and his intelligence. He stated it as matter, not merely of opinion but of fact, which had arisen within his own experience, that land, however well cleaned and manured, tires of the same con- tinued round of crops which the lease prescribes; that those who have most liberty of action in regard to the cultivation of the land, obtain the most produce and maintain the highest fertility, and are thus most serviceable to the country, the landowner, and themselves. He pointed out the Lothians as an example of the profits arising to everybody from liberal cropping clauses in agricultural leases. Elsewhere there is as good a climate and soil, originally as fertile, and where freedom and scope in the management of the land is given to the intelligence and enterprise of the tenantry, a larger capital will be attracted to the work of cultivation of it, larger produce will be obtained from it, and larger rents will be given for it. At Cirencester, the other day, a very interesting lecture was given by Professor Wrightson, of the Royal Agricultural College there, before the Chamber of Agriculture, on the use to be made of books by practical farmers. He declared, from personal experience, that much time is lost in agricultural education from the student resident on a farm receiving no such preliminary instruction as books would give him, but being suffered to wander from field to field to gather such information as unassisted observation might give him. At the Central London Farmers’ Club, steam cultiva- tion, the risks of the foreign cattle trade, the policy or impolicy of a compulsory system for the education of country children, the ad- vantages of the American cheese factory over ordinary English dairy management, the influences of railways upon agriculture, and the undeveloped power of British agriculture are among the subjects named for discussion during the year. The Chambers of Agricul- ture are engaged with the impolicy of the turnpike system and the VOL. V. Q 204 Chronicles of Scrence. [April, impending legislation on that, on the foreign cattle traffic, and on rural education. It is plain, we think, that the agricultural world is in this country alive to the many interests involved in its failure or prosperity. Among the more important agricultural events of the past quarter must be named the proposal to re-establish the beet-root sugar manufacture among us. ‘Twenty years ago this was at- tempted in Ireland, but failed, in some measure, perhaps, owing to the insufficient sweetness of the Irish-grown beet-root; but mainly, it is asserted, because of a faulty and imperfect manu- facturing process. Mr. Duncan, a sugar-refiner, dealing with no less than 300 tons of sugar weekly, is about to start the beet-root sugar manu- facture in this country, and has advertised his willingness to con- tract for the purchase of 6,000 tons of beet-root next autumn, at 1&s. a ton. His principal condition is that no farmyard manure shall have been put this year upon the land where they are grown. Over-luxuriance of growth is fatal to the development of much sugar in the juice. Purchasing these in October, he would grind them to a pulp, and thereafter press the juice out; boil it with lime, thus coagulating all albuminous matters; throw down the lime in solution, by passing carbonic acid through the liquid; and reduce the residual liquor by evaporation, till 50 per cent. of it was sugar, when it would be conveyed to the sugar refinery for further manufacture. The main difficulty in the way of the profitable growth of the sugar beet in this country is the small weight of root which must not be exceeded. Fifteen tons per acre are a full crop under ordinary circumstances, for the plants should not be more than two and a half pounds in weight, or the percentage of sugar will suffer. An attempt to re-introduce the crop will, however, be made this ~ year ; and we understand that contracts have been already made with Suffolk farmers for a quantity of roots sufficient to justify Mr. Duncan in the erection of his manufactory. Agriculture, in so far as it, too, is a trade, has shared in the recent excitement on the subject of co-operation. An association exists which professes to supply its members with agricultural im- plements and manures at manufacturers’ and importers’ prices. And eyen in the direct work of farm management, it has been attempted to make the workmen and the master fellow-labourers, both of them directly interested in the profits of the year. Myr. Lawson, of Blennerhasset, near Carlisle, has tried the principle of co-operation in this latter particular; but it appears that hitherto there have been no profits to divide. And it seems plain that these depend much more directly upon the skill and energy of the master than upon the mere co-operation of his men; which, after 1868. ] Agriculture. 205 all, is better secured by adopting the principle of piece-work pay- ment, so that industry at once meets with its reward, than by offering as its stimulant a share in doubtful profits twelve months hence. The association for supplying cheap implements stands, perhaps, upon a sounder basis, for no doubt the charges made by agents and allowed by manufacturers are an excessive fine on cus- tomers; but we suspect that the competition of individual dealers is likely in the long run to make them the cheapest and most effi- cient agency for distributing these as well as all other kinds of goods to purchasers. A paper by Mr. Maw on “ Potatoe Culture,” in a recent number of the ‘English Agricultural Society’s Journal,’ deserves mention here as an example of an elaborate experimental agricultural research. Mr. Maw’s experience proves that, the cultivation and manuring being alike, the weight of the crop is proportioned very accurately to the weight of the sets. Full-sized potatoes, from 4 to 8 oz. in weight, planted 10 inches or a foot apart, m rows 2 feet or 26 inches from each other, yield the maximum return. And where the sets were made to average 6, 4, and 2 ounces in place of 8, the crop per acre was found to drop from 26 tons per acre to 15, 14, and 11 tons respectively. Although the plots on which the experiments were tried were small, and the crops re- corded almost incredibly large, yet the trials themselves were so numerous and the results so uniform, that the rule seems sufficiently established ; and we may consider it as certain that the crop will generally vary as the weight of the sets; and as these are best planted at a certain distance apart, the larger sets are to be preferred. The theory of land drainage has been under discussion recently owing to the assertion that the opening of a shaft to the surface of the land from the upper end of an ordinary drain, giving a direct connection with the air, facilitates the escape of water. This is of course an assertion which can be properly tested only by experi- ment; but it appears to us obvious that the broad surface and the whole substance of the soil are already entirely under the influence of atmospheric pressure, and that the operating cause in land drainage is plainly the mere weight of water which the land contains pressing downwards everywhere—into any channels, therefore, which may be provided for its escape. The provision of one opening more through which air can find a direct passage, if it will, from the sunlight to the underground channel, seems to us incapable of any power or influence at all on the process of land dramage which may be going on through that channel. The agricultural statistics of the past year have just been published. They are interesting on a comparison with previous publications of the kind, as showing the unexpected changes which have gradually and unnoticed taken place in English and Irish Q 2 206 Chronicles of Science. [April, agriculture during recent years. Thus it appears, that during the past ten years the growth of wheat in Ireland has dropped from 544,348 acres to 280,549 acres, and in Scotland from 243,240 acres to 110,609 acres. No such comparison is possible in the case of England, for we have not a ten years’ record in her case; but it is plain that such a record is very desirable, as pointing out how agricultural practice is drifting from the old lines without anybody otherwise having the chance of knowing it: so that national risks are gradually being incurred of which no suspicion had otherwise existed. Mr. Caird read a most elaborate and instructive paper the other day on this subject before the Statistical Society, pointing out the many ways in which the annual publication of our agri- cultural produce must tend to regulate trade, and correct the evils inflicted by misjudgment here upon agricultural as well as other national interests. We place the leading facts of 1866 and 1867 on record here for annual reference hereafter. PopuLaTion, AREA, ABSTRACT OF ACREAGE UNDER Crops, &c., AND NUMBER OF Live Srock mw Eacu Division oF THE UNITED Kine@pom. Z Total for ® | England. | Wales. | Scotland. Great Treland. a Britain. Total Population A . e « /|1866/20,276,494 | 1,187,103 | 3,136,057 24,599,654 5,571,971 | | Total Area (in Statute Acres) . . | .. (32,590,397 | 4,734,486 |19,639,377 56,964,260 |20,322,641 Abstract of Acreage :— Under all kinds of Crops, renee 1866 22,236,737 | 2,284,674 | 4,158,360 28,679,771 |15,550,231* Fallow, and Grass a kue 1867/22,932,356 | 2,519,170 | 4,379,552 29,831,078 15,542,208* 1866] 7,365,170 521,074 | 1,366,540 | 9,252,784 | 2,174,033 Under Corn Crops . . es er 521,404 | 1,364,029 | 9,284,780 | 2,115,137 1866) 2,759,912 139,265 663,257 | 3,562,434 | 1,481,605 » Green Crops . : siege a 138,387 | 668,042 | 3,498,163 | 1,432,252 1866 60,979 109,878 94,080 964,937 25,419 » Bare Fallow . 1867| 753,210 | 86,257! 83,091 | 922,558 | 26,191 » Grass:—Clover, &., under § 1866) 2,296,087 256,722 | 1,141,415 | 3,694,224 | 1,601,423 Rotation ant ntn lee \1867| 2,478,117 300,756 | 1,211,101 | 3,989,974 | 1,658,451 Permanent Pasture, not broken § 1866) 8,998,027 | 1,257,721 893,066 |11,148,814 |10,004,244 up in Rotation* . : € |1867| 9,545,675 | 1,472,359 | 1,053,285 12,071,319 |10,057,072 Abstract of Live Stock returned :— 1866) 3,307,034 541,401 937,401 | 4,785,836 | 3,74 Total Number of-Cattle . . § , : ,185, 746,157 1867) 3,469,026 544,538 979,470 | 4,993,034 | 3,702,378 . of Sheep ited 1 /1866)15,124,541 | 1,668,663 | 5,255,077 |22,048,281 | 4,274,282 1867|19,798,337 | 2,227,161 6,893,603 (28,919,101 | 4,826,015 gs of Pigs . : Wee 2,066,299 191,604 219,716 | 2,477,619 | 1,497,274 1867| 2,548,755 229,917 188,307 | 2,966,979 | 1,233,893 Number of Persons from whom Returns were obtained :— Occupiers of Land owning Live | Stock, and Occupiers of Land \ sor 338,588 52,072 78,792 469,452 OILY. Bee leer heicoes ts aeich ee ie About Owners of Live Stock only ; 1867| 7,457 572 4,629 12,658 600,000 a * Exclusive of heath or mountain-land. 1868.] 3 ae cea, 2. ARCHAZOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. M. Pavt Gervais has recently published an important work, en- titled “Recherches sur lAncienneté de ’Homme et la Période Quaternaire,” illustrated by nineteen quarto plates of figures of implements, ornaments, human bones and skulls, and mammalian remains, from various caves and stratified deposits of the Quaternary period. The scope of this work is very comprehensive, as the author treats the subject from several points of view. After certain preliminary observations, designed to show that the Quaternary period is really entitled to a separation from the Tertiary, M. Gervais enumerates the various kinds of proof which are com- monly invoked in favour of the pre-historic existence of man in Europe, and then proceeds to subdivide the Quaternary period into four epochs, as follows :—(1.) The epoch of Hlephas meridionalis, which can no longer be contested, since M. VAbbé Bourgeois has discovered worked flints at Saint Prest, but which is difficult to separate palzeontologically from the succeeding epoch. (2.) The epoch of Hlephas primigenius, characterized by that species, and by Ursus speleus, Hyena spelxa, Felis spelea, &c. (3.) The epoch of the Reindeer, characterized by the fractured remains of that animal. During this period, the animals which were especially characteristic of the preceding epoch appear to have become extinct, and in certain places their bones are found associated with the fragmentary remains of the Reindeer, as well as with the worked horns of that animal. (4.) The epoch of the pile-dwellings, of which the fauna appears to be the same as that of the present day, except that wild oxen and deer, though still existing, then roamed oyer districts where they are now unknown. This period is posterior to the extinction of the great mammals, and to the retreat of the Reindeer into more northern regions. Our space will not allow us to discuss the author’s valuable descriptions of the numerous caverns in France which he has explored, and several of which contain human skulls, nor his original observations on the species of mammalia contained in them; we must pass at once to a consideration of the manner in which the ancient people to whom these skulls belong have been so far modified as to have yielded the French population of the present day. M. Gervais states that the original inhabitants were Celtic ; that after the Glacial period, during the long interval which pre- ceded the invasion of Gaul by the Romans, the country was peopled successively by races from the East, chiefly from Asia, of which the tribes appear to have possessed distinguishing characteristics, similar to those spoken of by the ancient historians as characterizing the populations of the several provinces of France at the time of the 208 Chronicles of Science. | April, Roman conquest. From the fusion of these several tribes with the original Celtic inhabitants arose the numerous varieties of people which existed at the latter period. And where the influence of the Roman invasion was least felt the aboriginal races have been pre- served in the purest condition,—for instance, the Basques. M. Gervais’s book contains the discussion of too many large subjects to be thoroughly reviewed in a Chronicle; we therefore refer our readers to the work itself—a most complete exposition of the subject in all its bearings, as connected with the history of France and of the French people. In the numbers of the ‘ Intellectual Observer’ for December and January, Mr. Llewellyn Jewitt continues his description of the Grave-mounds of Derbyshire, and their contents. As we stated in our last Chronicle, the greater number belong to the Celtic period, the smallest number to the Romano-British period, and an inter- mediate number to the Anglo-Saxon. The mounds of the Celtic . period were described in the papers which we then noticed; in those now before us, the author describes the few Romano-British tumuli, and those of the Anglo-Saxon period. Mr. Jewitt states in explanation of the fact that so few Roman monuments occur im Derbyshire, that the Romans did not make regular settlements in that county, that they “seldom raised tumuli over their dead, or, in this country, placed any ostentatious monuments over their remains.” The interments which have been discovered include ex- amples of burial both by inhumation and by cremation. The articles found in the graves, of course, are not numerous; but they include pottery and glass, coins, fibulz, armille, and other orna- ments (of bronze and iron), knives, spear-heads, combs, &c. The Anglo-Saxon period is remarkably well represented, the graves being generally rectangular cists, or pits cut in the ground, to the depth of from two or three to seven or eight feet. Mr. Jewitt gives an interesting account of the burial by mhumation ; but it seems that cremation was the dominant practice. With the urns “but few articles, either of personal ornament or otherwise, are found;” but where the body had been placed entire in the graye the objects are numerous, and frequently elaborate, including “swords, knives, seaxes, spear-heads, umbones of shields, buckles, helmets, querns, drinking-cups, enamels, gold, silver, and bronze articles, baskets, buckets, draughtsmen, combs, beads and necklaces, rings, earrings, caskets, armlets, fibula, articles for the chatelaine, pottery,” &c., examples of which are described by the author. “ Pfahlbauten in Meklenburg ” is the title under which several reports by Dr. G. C. F. Lisch are bemg published in a collected form. These reports were originally published in the ‘ Jahrbuch’ of the Society of History and Antiquities of Meklenburg, and two instalments of the collection have now been republished—namely, 1868. ] Archeology and Ethnology. 209 one in 1865 and one in 1867. They contain, chiefly, descriptions of the “ Pfahlbau ” of Wismar, and of the bones and the objects of human workmanship which have been found in it. As some dis- cussion arose in Germany concerning the authentic nature of this pile-dwelling, these collected reports by Dr. Lisch will, no doubt, be welcomed by students of Pre-historic Archeology. M. Husson has published a collection of his pamphlets on the Antiquity of Man under the title, ‘‘ Origine de ’Espece Humaine dans les Environs de Toul par rapport au Diluvium Alpin.” Most of these papers have appeared previously in the ‘ Comptes Rendus,’ and the chief conclusion which the author endeavours to establish is, that man did not exist during the epoch of the Alpine Diluvium. The antiquities found in the tumulus known as the Butte- Ronde have been splendidly illustrated in a memoir by the Due de Luynes, entitled, “ Notice sur des fouilles exécutées 4 Butte-Ronde pres Dampierre (Seine-et-Oise).” They consist of Roman coins, bronze ornaments, iron tools, numerous ornamented jars, and other objects in pottery, and a few broken glass vases, with flint and stone implements, and some bones of an herbivorous animal, at least one of which had been submitted to the action of fire. The second volume of M. Dupont’s collected papers on the Belgian caverns, published under the title ‘Notices préliminaires sur les fouilles exécutées dans les cayernes de la Belgique,’ has recently appeared. It contains three- pamphlets, two of which are descriptions of addition caverns, and the third, to which we shall confine our attention, is on the “ Ethnography of the People of the Reindeer-age in the valley of the Lesse.” M. Dupont infers from the pyramidal architecture of the skulls, and the lozenge-like form of the face, that the reindeer-folk belonged to the Turanian branch of the Uralo-Altaic family. They rarely attaied the middle height, and generally speaking it may be said that individuals of small stature are abundant, while those above the middle height are ex- ceptional. The characters of the pelvis and of the bones of the extremities are indicative of great muscular power and of consider- able agility. The mortality of the infants and youths appears to have been very great; while the preponderance of the remains of females seems to show that large numbers of the men died from injuries which prevented their regaining their own homes. Several of the bones which have been obtained also exhibit evidences of disease. Amongst other noticeable points we may mention that M. Dupont credits these people with having been endowed with considerable curiosity and a love of investigation, as they made col- lections of fossil shells, pyrites, fluorspar, &c.; and with a love of ° decoration, as witnessed by the numbers of ornaments which have been found in the caves. Possibly to the latter cause should also be assigned the collection of shells, &c., most of which have been 210 Chronicles of Science. [ April, perforated by them. M. Dupont speculates on their carelessness, their industry, their superstition, and their respect for the dead, all of which he ingeniously infers from circumstances connected with either the position or the material of the objects obtained from the varlous caves. In the recently published volume of the ‘Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire for 1866-67, Mr. Henry Eeroyd Smyth gives his annual paper on the “ Archeology of the Mersey District,” this one being for 1866. It is perhaps rather more interesting than usual on account of its contaming a record of the discovery of an early stone Celt im Parliament Fields, Liverpool; and an “omnium gatherum” thrown up on the sea- beach near Wirral, including objects of Primeval, Romano-British, Saxon, Early English, and Later English dates. ‘The author pre- faces his list of these remains by supporting in the main Dr. Hume’s views on the latest submergence of the country near Liverpool against the opposition of Mr. Joseph Boult, although at the same time he differs from the former gentleman in some matters of detail. Professor Schaaffhausen, of Bonn, delivered an address last Sep- tember before the forty-first ‘ Versammlung deutscher Naturfor- scher und Aerzte’ of Frankfort-on-the-Main, entitled “ Ueber die anthropologischen Fragen der Gegenwart,” which is published in their last ‘Tageblatt. This review of Anthropology, which is really an eloquent advocacy of it, is chiefly remarkable from being - based on a view of the subject which is mainly conspicuous in Germany by its absence. It is directly opposed to the blasphemies of Buchner, and we strongly commend it to the notice of the An- thropological Society of London. The new scientific magazine, entitled ‘The American Naturalist,’ —to which we have occasion to refer at length in our Zoological Chronicle—for January, contains an interesting “ Account of some Kjoekken-moeddings, or shell-heaps, in Mame and Massachusetts,” by the eminent naturalist, Dr. Jeffries Wyman. In it the author describes several such accumulations which he visited last year ; but they have yielded nothing which indicates so high an antiquity as the similar accumulations of the Old World, although certain circumstances indicate the lapse of a considerable period of time, e.g., the friable condition of the shells in the lower layers, the occurrence of a layer of earth between the two principal strata of which they consist, and that of the remains of animals not now known in the district. We may cite, in illustration of the last- named condition, the elk, which at present is not known to exist east of the Alleghany Mountains; the wild turkey, now virtually extinct in New England; and the great auk, which has receded almost, if not quite, to the arctic regions. All of these animals, however, have disappeared during the historic period of the con- 1868. | Archzology and Ethnology. 211 tinent. At Coluit Point, a metatarsal bone from the great toe of a human foot was discovered, otherwise these shell-heaps have been entirely unproductive of human bones. Remains of numerous animals, however, have been found in abundance associated with pottery, rude in its manufacture and its ornamentation ; and imple- ments of stone and bone, the latter bemg by far the more abundant, except in one locality. The ‘Anthropological Review’ for January contains, besides several articles of interest, a report of Sir John Lubbock’s paper on “The Early Condition of Man,” which was read before the British Association at Dundee. In this paper the author examines the late Dr. Whately’s theory that “man was from the commencement pretty much what he is at present ; if possible, even more ignorant of the arts and sciences than he is now, but with mental qualities not much inferior to our own.” Savages are considered by the supporters of this theory to be the degenerate descendants of far superior ancestors. Sir John Lubbock advocates the opposite view, that ‘man was at first a mere savage, and that our history has on the whole been a steady progress towards civilization, though at times, and at some times for centuries, the race has been stationary, or even has retrograded.” M. F. Garrigou has published, in the last volume of the ‘ Bul- letin de la Société d'Histoire Naturelle de Toulouse,’ a paper en- titled, “ Age de Renne dans la Grotte de la Vache, pres de Tarascon (Ariége),” which has also been republished in the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles. The author finds evidence, over an area having at most a radius of 3 kilometres, of the existence of man at four successive periods—namely, (1) the age of the Ursus speleus and Elephas primigenius ; (2) the age of the Reindeer; (5) the Polished Stone period ; and (4) the age of Bronze and Iron. In the ‘ Reliquary’ for January is an account of the discovery of Pre-historic remains in the gravel-beds at Malton, Yorkshire, by Mr. Charles Monkman. This discovery has excited considerable discussion, and therefore, as this note is illustrated by views of the implement, and a rough section of the beds from which it is said to have been obtained, it will no doubt be welcome to those interested in the subject. The weapon is a polished greenstone axe, appa- rently belonging to the Neolithic or Polished Stone period, but it is said to have been found in the lower beds of the Malton gravel, and immediately beneath a thin bed of clay, said to have been in an undisturbed condition. The question is, How did a polished stone axe get into a position in which one would have expected to find only chipped flint implements? Unfortunately, the facts relating to the position of the axe depend entirely upon the testimony of a workman, who would be very likely to read the section of a gravel- pit altogether differently from an expert scientific investigator. ( 2209 | April, 3. ASTRONOMY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society.) Tue news which has been received from America since our last Chronicle was in type suffices to show that—as we ventured to surmise—astronomers had not been mistaken in anticipating a fine display of the November shooting-stars in longitudes west of the British Isles. Considering how recently we have obtained any exact knowledge respecting the position of the meteor-rig in space and the motions of its members, the agreement between the predic- tions of astronomers and what actually took place is remarkably close. We mentioned half-past seven on the morning of Novem- ber 14th as the probable epoch of maximum display: it will be seen from what follows that the earth passed through the richest portion of the meteor-belt about two hours later. Professor Daniel Kirkwood, LL.D., assisted by Professor Wylie and several students, kept watch for meteors from 9h. 15m. p.m. to 5h. 15m. a.m., November 13th and 14th, at the Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. Although the sky was obscured by so dense a haze that only stars of the first magnitude were visible, they obtained the following results :— November 13 from 9h. 15m. to 12h. Om. .. 1 meteor os 14; 50 10h.) Om-. 5... Bho lbm. 53 “7osmeteors a oe ei) Oleoms ae 4D om. oa Olas Ahetonrs = sohet5m. 7.) 9s) 0 ” ” The maximum occurred at about 3h. 45m. Cincinnati time, corresponding to 9h. 53m, Greenwich time. At this time the rate was 12 per minute. Captain Stuart obtained a better view of the meteors at Nassau, Bahamas. ‘There is a slight misprint in the tabulated results, and hence some difficulty in determining whether the maximum display took place at 4h. 15m. or at 4h. 20m. This is not very important, however. At the maximum the rate was 21 per minute, though 3-fifths of the sky only were clear. The corresponding Greenwich time is 9h. 25m. or 9h. 80m. Other observers who had a more extensive view of the heavens counted nearly half as many again as Captain Stuart. Lastly, Commander W. Chimmo, H.M.S. ‘Gannet,’ records the fall of an immense number of sparks near his ship, followed shortly by the explosion of a brilliant meteor near the East, emitting sparks like those of a rocket. He called the attention of the First- Lieutenant and Master, “who were on the bridge at the time, to the meteoric shower then in view, falling rapidly and perpendicularly ; every now and then a brilliant meteor bursting and lighting up the 1868. ] Astronomy. 213 whole heavens.” The hour of observation was from 5h. 20m. to 6h. 15m. a.m., local time, or 9h. 25m. to 10h. 20m. Greenwich time. A little consideration will show that the radiant point in Leo was near the zenith during the whole of this interval, so that all the shooting-stars would seem to be falling perpendicularly. Commander Chimmo adds that at Trinidad, from 2 a.m. to daylight, 1,600 meteors were counted, only 693 of which fell before 5h. 30m. a.m. Some were reddish, others green, and one of a bright fiery purple, lasting many seconds. Considering that during the whole time of the display the full moon obliterated all save the largest meteors, we are forced to conclude that the earth passed through a very rich stratum of meteors at about half-past nine on the morning of November 14th, 1867. Also it is very noteworthy that the accounts above referred to, are such as to leave no doubt that the real beginning and end of the shower were witnessed by the observers. ‘This was not the case in England, in November, 1866. ‘The shower in 1867 did not last more than five hours, whereas in 1866 it lasted at least six hours (counting from the earliest reported observation, made at Kishnagur, near Calcutta). The shower was heavy for but one hour. As the earth was traversing the thickness of the meteor-bed at the rate of 18,000 miles per hour, it follows that the total thickness was 90,000 miles, as against upwards of 108,000 miles in 1866; and that a stratum of about 20,000 miles in thickness was richly strewn with meteors. If we remember that the part traversed in 1866 was removed more than 500 millions of miles in November, 1867, and that there is every reason for supposing the meteor-band to be continuous, though varying in density (the variation being probably uniform, not abrupt), we shall be able to form a conception of the extent and importance of the November meteor-system. Astronomers continue to be divided in opinion respecting the reputed change in the lunar crater Linné. Many hold that the apparent alterations are merely optical. On the other hand, Mr. Buckingham reports that the small crater which he was the first to notice, and which appeared as a small hill on the western border in December, 1866, and as a crater in January, 1867, has in every succeeding month approached nearer to the centre of Linné, in- creasing also in magnitude. As it is well known that the central cone of Vesuvius frequently shifts its position, Mr. Buckingham’s observation seems to confirm the views of those who consider that Linné during the past seventeen months has been in a state of active eruption. Mr. Buckingham states that the change of place is at least a second and a half, corresponding to a distance of about a mile and a half. M. Hoek remarks in the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten’ that 214 Chronicles of Science. [ April, Comet ITI., 1867, in all probability belongs to the same system as Comets III. and V., 1859. The three planes in which these comets move intersect in the same line. M. Hoek had already suspected that the two comets of 1859 had a common origin, on account of the close resemblance between their elements, and the brief interval between their apparition. The Gold Medal of the Astronomical Society has been presented to M. Leyerrier for his elaborate investigation of the motions of Venus, Mercury, the Earth, and Mars. Mr. Huggins has confirmed the discovery lately effected by the observers at Paris that bright lmes appear in the spectra of three small stars. The 95th asteroid was discovered by M. Luther at Bilk-Dussel- dorf on November 23, 1867. It is of the 10th magnitude, or rather less. PROCEEDINGS OF THE Roya ASTRONOMICAL SocrEery. When astronomers first directed their attention to the deter- mination of stellar distances, it was natural to expect that the brightest stars would exhibit more evidently than the rest that annual parallactic displacement on which the determination depends. This, however, was not found to be the case. Sirius, for instance, which shines four times as brightly as any other star visible in our la- ‘titudes, was found to exhibit a very minute parallax. Mr. Cleveland Abbe, of the Poulkova Observatory, has lately applied a careful and laborious process of calculation to a fine series of meridional observ- ations of Sirius, made with the transit circle of the Cape of Good Hope Observatory. He deduces a parallax lying between 037 and 0”:17—that is, it appears that the distance of Sirius lies between 563,000 and 1,224,000 times the diameter of the earth’s orbit. It will be remembered that Henderson, who observed Sirius at the Cape, but with an inferior instrument, deduced a parallax of 023. The Astronomer Royal calls attention to the fact that the dark shadow in the great eclipse of August 17-18, 1868, coincides through a large portion of its length with the course of our mail-steamers between Aden and Bombay. A mail-steamer is to leave Aden on August 16, and will be due at Bombay on August 23, and a mail- steamer is to leave Bombay on August 11, and will be due at Aden on August 22. Both these steamers will pass through the dark shadow. Although a ship’s motion renders it impossible to make many of the more important observations, yet several observations can be readily made on board ship. The red prominences could certainly be detected with a good opera-glass. The polarization of the corona could be readily examined by a polarizing test which acts by extinction, as the Nicol’s prism. Perhaps even, with a 1868.] Astronomy. 215 hand-spectroscope and narrow chink, lines in the spectrum of the corona might be seen. Marine and meteorological phenomena never yet observed might also be noticed. Mr. Stoney, F.R.S., supplies a paper on the subject of the same eclipse. Viewing the corona which is seen during a total eclipse as caused by the sun’s enormous outer atmosphere projecting beyond the disc of the moon, he considers that the examination of this ‘phenomenon through a spectroscope adapted to an equatorial tele- scope would be likely to yield results of extreme interest and im- portance. He points out that the shell of excessively faint cloud which seems to lie at a distance of 8” or 10" from the edge of the sun’s disc should be observed both from a central station and from stations close to the northern and southern limits of totality, so that we may be enabled to determine whether it is continuous all round the disc. It is desirable also that the flame-like protuber- ances should be examined, in order to determine whether their spectra resemble the solar spectrum, or on the other hand consist (some of them, at least) of bright lines. We should thus learn whether these objects resemble mists or true vapours. Mr. Stone apples a careful investigation to Professor New- combe’s determination of the solar parallax. Professor Newcombe deduces the solar parallax from the parallactic inequality in the earth’s motion, a method already applied by Leverrier, and described by us in a recent chronicle. But the value deduced by Professor Newcombe differs considerably from Leverrier’s. In place of a parallax of 891, Newcombe obtains the value 8"81. It will be remembered that the estimate of the moon’s mass is a very im- portant element in the inquiry. Newcombe makes the moon’s mass srs Of the earth’s ; Leverrier’s labours corrected by Stone gave the fraction sxx. After a careful revision of the processes applied by Leverrier and Newcombe, Mr. Stone arrives at the conclusion that Newcombe should have obtained the value 8-87 for the solar parallax, if his own estimate of the moon’s mass were adopted, and the value 889 if Leverrier’s estimate were taken. In a later paper Mr. Stone determines the moon’s mass in- dependently, retaining all terms of the third order in the Lunar Theory. He obtains the following relation :— Moon’s mass Earth’s mass —«- 81°38 This result depends on the adopted values of Luni-Solar Precession (50"°378), and Nutation (9'"223). Mr. Stone deals also at length with Bessel’s Mean Refractions. From the existence of several small but systematic discordances, he had been led to form the opinion that the refraction-corrections used at Greenwich for zenith distances less than 85° are too great, 216 Chronicles of Science. [April,. He finds that the refraction of Bessel’s ‘ Fundamenta’ require to be diminished in the proportion of 0:99797 to 1, to be correct for Greenwich. He has examined also the Melbourne observations for 1863, 1864, and 1865, to test the accuracy of the proposed diminution of the Greenwich tabular refractions. A somewhat remarkable result has attended the inquiry. He finds evidence of a difference in mean refraction towards the south and north at Melbourne. He ascribes this to the position of Melbourne. ‘The refractions towards the south are greater, because the ocean les to the south, so that there is more moisture in the air-masses which lie in that direction. The refractions toward the north are less, because the effective strata of air have been to a considerable extent deprived of moisture. Mr. Penrose has attempted to facilitate the prediction of occul- tations and eclipses by the application of geometrical constructions. Such methods are not, perhaps, likely to supersede the more rigorous processes adopted by the compilers of our ephemerides, but they are valuable in many respects. We believe that there is room for a great extension of geometrical processes to the illustra- tion of many astronomical phenomena which at present are either dealt with by abstruse processes intelligible only to the advanced mathematician, or so roughly and imperfectly illustrated that the amateur astronomer is more likely to adopt incorrect impressions than to acquire any real information. Mr. Browning has ascertained that the colours of stars are not nearly so intense in telescopes of large aperture as in small instru- ments. The following summary of the results of the examination of three long periods for the determination of Mars’ Rotation-period may prove interesting. Each period begins from Hooke’s observation of Mars, on March 12, 1666, 12h. 20m. (astronomical time and new style), and the periods extend severally,—(i) to April 24, 1856, 10h. 50m., (ii) to November 26, 1864, 11h. 46m., and (ii) to February 23, 1867, 6h. 15m. :— P Cor, fi Cor. fi C ted No. of |Resulting Rotati Int. Int. in Seca. Gaaes ieties Hosea Int. fs Eeoadeks Bataiions Period in Saad ¥ (i) | 5999524200 — 0° —12° | 5999521246 67682 88642°737 (ii) | 6270650760 —248° 0° | 6270589696 70740 88642°734 (iii) | 6341394300 —273° +3° | 6341326590 71538 88642°734 Mr. Proctor mentions that nothing is doubtful in this table except the correction for Geocentric longitude (which, however, may be depended on as being within 1° of the truth) and the correction for phase. The last correction depends only on the accuracy of the drawings of Mars by Hooke—at one end of the intervals, and by 1868. ] Astronomy. 217 Dawes and Browning at the other. Hooke took two closely according views separated by an interval of 10 minutes; Dawes’ accuracy of delineation is beyond question ; and though Browning has had less practice in observations of this sort, yet he has already acquired a high reputation for accuracy and care, and further his drawing gives results closely according with those deduced from Dawes’ views. Hence we can scarcely doubt that the mean of the above rotation-periods, or 24h. 37m. 22°735s. is very near the true rotation-period of Mars. We notice, however, that an error of 1° im any of the corrections corresponds to an error of about #6 x stoths (or very nearly zioth) of a second, or ‘0036s. ; so that Mr. Proctor’s result cannot be held to be trustworthy beyond the second place of decimals,—perhaps even not beyond the first. We may assume that Mars’ rotation- period lies certainly between 24h. 37m. 22°75s. and 24h. 37m. 22-71s., and a corresponding error therefore exists in Kaiser’s estimate—24h. 37m. 22°6s., and Madler’s—24h. 37m. 23°7s. Mr. Harrison supplies an interesting paper on the moon’s insolation. Assuming that the moon’s substance has a capacity for heat, the mean maximum state of insolation of any hemisphere would evidently be attained when the largest surface has been continuously exposed to the sun’s heat for the longest duration of time. Accordingly, the visible hemisphere would be heated to its greatest possible extent during the third, or last quarter, when the half-moon then illuminated has been subjected to the solar radiation for a mean period of 265°5 hours, and the remaining half, now in shade, has very recently received the sun’s rays for a period of equal duration. Now, the heat thus assumed to be acquired by the moon, and radiated to the earth, is dark heat; and it has been shown by Professor Tyndall that the aqueous vapour in our atmosphere has a power of absorbing dark heat. Accordingly, instead of heating the earth, this heat would be em- ployed in heating the air above the clouds, and causing increased evaporation from their surface. Clouds would thus be raised to a higher elevation, and, under favourable circumstances, would even be dispersed. ‘Thus, there would be a diminished check upon the radiation of terrestrial heat, and a sensible fall in the temperature of the air near the ground would necessarily follow ; and results of a precisely opposite character would occur at the period of minimum heat in the moon’s visible hemisphere. The daily mean temperatures at the Oxford, Berlin, and Greenwich Observatories, when arranged in tables according to the age of the moon, show that the temperature of the air near the ground is sensibly affected. The maximum mean temperature occurs on the average on the sixth and seventh day of the lunation, and the minimum soon after fuil moon—results which confirm Mr. Harrison’s views in a remarkable manner. 218 Chronicles of Science. _ [April, With reference to these speculations we must note that inquiries specially directed to the subject are required before an opinion can be formed. It must be remembered that the moon rises to the meridian at a different part of the day in each lunation ; and meteo- rologists are familiar with the fact that the hygrometrical state of the air varies at different hours of the day. ‘There is the epoch at which—on the average—clouds are most numerous; the epochs at which the absolute quantity of vapour in the air reaches its maxi- mum and minimum; and the epochs (not necessarily the same as the preceding) at which the humidity of the air is least or greatest. Now we clearly cannot neglect the consideration that the moon’s influence—which certainly exists—may vary in different parts of each lunation, not for the reasons assigned by Mr. Harrison, but because it is exerted at more or less favourable hours of the day. And, although we have not space here to explain the considerations on which our opinion is founded, there are reasons for anticipating that the first and third quarters, when the moon reaches the meri- dian in the evening and morning, should be marked by a greater apparent influence—one way or the other—than the second quarter when the moon reaches the meridian near midnight, a period of the day far less critical (as respects hygrometrical conditions) than the two former. We may be permitted to question the justice of Mr. Harrison’s conclusions, when we find that a marked rise in the tem- perature occurs in the middle of that quarter which should exhibit (and does exhibit on the average) the lowest temperature. It is true Mr. Harrison finds a reason for this, in the supposition that fresh cloud may have been found to arise a day or two before the third quarter, to supply the increased demand for vapour at that period. But when opposite effects can thus be assigned to the operation of the dark heat assumed to be emitted from the moon, a little uncertainty is thrown over the whole subject. As respect the heating of the moon’s surface 1t may be remarked that although, undoubtedly, an enormous quantity of heat is poured. upon a lunar hemisphere in the course of the long lunar day, yet we have no means of knowing how this heat is disposed of. Nearly all of it may be at once radiated into space, or a large portion may be consumed in effecting changes—as of solids into liquids or of liquids into vapours—imperceptible to us, and followed by a return to the original state during the long lunar night. It seems hardly conceivable that the heat emitted during the latter process of change should become in any way sensible to us. Far more probably the heat we actually receive from the moon is reflected towards us precisely as the moon's light is. Messrs. De la Rue, Stewart, and Loewy communicate the results of Observations made on Sun-spots, in Kew and in Dessau, during the year 1867. Hofrath Schwabe reports that the uniform 1868. ] Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 219 brightness of the sun’s surface observable in the beginning of the year and the almost total absence of facule, both which phenomena were lately submitted to the attention of astronomers, have dis- appeared, and since October the luminosity has again diminished near the edge of the sun’s disc. Mr. Browning has invented an ingenious contrivance for re- ducing the angular velocity of meteors, so as to facilitate the observ- ation of their spectra. The contrivance consists of “a direct-vision prism, having in front of it a deep concave cylindrical lens, and in front of that a double concave lens of the usual kind.” With this apparatus he has found it easy to obtain the spectra of balls shot from a Roman candle, placed but a few yards from the instrument. The angular velocity of the projected balls (estimated from the instrument) is, of course, very great under such circumstances, yet the characteristic lines of baryta, strontia, &c., can be readily dis- tinguished in their spectra. 4, BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. Enauanp.—A new British Morel—tIn the ‘ Journal of Botany’ we read of a new British fungus. It was first found in a hedgerow, near Kingskerwell, South Devon, by Miss Lott, of Barton Hall, at the end of last April. The first specimens were sent to Mr. W. G. Smith for identification, and it bas since been found else- where. It is a very large form, and when well grown is one of the finest fungi of our fl-ra; the spores are oval, yellow, and depressed, having a length of -0007 inch. The substance of the flesh is not so firm as that of our common Morel (Morchella esculenta, Pers.), aud is not so readily dried ; it becomes moist, and is apt to decompose. It is, however, excellent for the table, and with a little pains may be readily dried for winter use. Different kinds of India-rubber.—In the same journal is a most interesting article, by Mr. James Collins, on india-rubber. It ap- pears that india-rubber first became known when Columbus dis- covered America, and was described by the earlier travellers as a great curiosity. The natives used it to make balls, with which they played a sort of game like tennis. The ordinary pr.stice of coagulating the milky juice of the cow-tree on bottle-mouatds held over a fire is well known: it appears that this is the method prac- tised on the Amazons; but that in other districts and countries sheets are prepared, or the juice is dried in the sun. Some persons have supposed that the black colour of parts of india-rubber is due to the smoke of the fire over which it is dried. This is quite a mistake ; freshly prepared india-rubber is, as the Indians make it, VOL. V. R 220 Chronicles of Science. [ April, of a pale yellow colour; it becomes black by exposure to the air. Inferior kinds of india-rubber are blacker than others, and contain a sticky, resinous fluid, which can be squeezed out. Other sorts are white and hard when dry, resembling gutta-percha in that they become elastic when heated gently. The first person to advocate the use of india-rubber for erasing pencil-marks (whence has arisen its name) was the great Dr. Priestley, and at the end of the last century you might buy a square inch of india-rubber for 3s.! The vast variety of uses to which india-rubber has now been put has caused it to be searched for and discovered in every quarter of the globe ; and though the principal supply is still from America, it has been found in use among the natives of Asia, Africa, and even Australia, and is now imported thence. Of the American india- rubber, the original and best is procured from Hevea Guayanensis (St- phonia elastica), and other species of the same Euphorbiaceous genus: it is known as Para-rubber. Pernambuco rubber is the product of Hancorma, an Apocynaceous genus, and is an excellent sort. Cowma, another Apocynaceous plant, yields a hard, white, gutta-percha-like substance, which is sometimes sold as “ rubber milk.” The Castzlloa elastica, belonging to the same natural order as the nettle, is the plant which yields the somewhat inferior “rubber” of Central America. Guatemala rubber is the worst kind, and is quite black and resinous. The juice of the Castilloa is not coagulated by heat, but by the juice of a vine-like plant, which grows in the same forests, and is called “ Achuca.” Species of Micrandra and Stpho- campylos (Kuphorbiaceze) yield small quantities of “rubber,” of good elasticity. The Asiatic “rubber” has a different appearance to the American, and is much inferior, on account of its frequent impurities. From Penang, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, and Borneo a “rubber” is imported, the produce of Urceola elastica (Apo- cynacez), discovered in 1798, but its value till lately was only 2d. a pound, whilst Para fetched half-a-crown ; its value is now about half that of the Para. From Assam the rubber brought is the produce of the Ficus elastica, which we so often see now as a drawing-room plant. In Java, species of Ficus (Urticacese) and Vahea gummifera (Apocynacex) yield a good “rubber.” The African india-rubber is brought from Mauritius and from the West Coast ; that from Mauritius is probably imported from Madagascar, where Vahea and Ficus grow; that from the West Coast is im- ported in casks, in the form of balls, slabs, and “tongues.” It has a very foul smell, and is only valued at 11d.a pound—the cheapest of any. By some this is believed to be produced by Sycomorus Guineensis (Urticacez), whilst others believe that it exudes from some Apocynaceous plant, at present not known. Fragments of rubber have been received from Australia, but it is not known what plant produced them. 1868. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 221 The Dragon-tree of Teneriffe.—It appears that this celebrated botanical curiosity has recently been removed from its time-honoured situation ; in fact, has been blown down by a storm. No care appears to have been taken by the Spaniards to avoid such a mishap, which was, to say the least, not unlikely to happen, when we re- member that the tree’s age is by many competent persons estimated at more than six thousand years. When Baron Humboldt visited the tree in 1799, he calculated its circumference at about forty-five feet near the root, whilst M. Fenzi, of Florence, who has been there since, gives a circumference of no less than seventy-eight English feet. Last year it was in good health and condition, the crown covered with innumerable panicles of scarlet fruit, and alto- gether as vigorous as ever. The great trunk is hollow, and it is maintained by some authorities that the tree as it at present stands, or till lately stood, is to be regarded not as a single tree, but as an agglomeration of individuals, which have grown up in the humus provided by the decay of the old tree. The name of dragon-tree, or dragon’s-blood tree, is derived from the resin which exudes from the trunk, and is known as dragon’s-blood, though the dragon’s- blood of commerce is obtained chiefly from the Calamus Draco, an Kast Indian palm. France.—Action of the Induction-current upon Plants.— M. Blondeau has pursued his investigation of the effect of the induction-current upon the vegetable organism (see our last Chro- nicle), by examining its action upon fruit and seed. Acting upon fruits the current hastens their maturity. Apples, pears, and peaches, which had been subjected to the action of the current, arrived at complete maturity when the other fruits of the same plant, which had not been operated upon, were still far from being ripe. The most curious results were obtained by electrifying seeds before placing them in the ground; seeds were rendered conductive by soaking them for some time in water, and then submitted for a few minutes to the action of the current. Peas, French beans, and wheat were experimented on. The electrified seeds always germinated sooner than those which had not been acted on by the current ; the development of the plant was more rapid, and the stalks and leaves greener and more vigorous. Some of the electri- fied French beans presented a very curious peculiarity ; they germi- nated downwards, the gemmule and cotyledons remaining in the ground, and the root risimg into the air. The author remarks upon this peculiarity, which he compares to the effect of the current upon the poles of a magnet, and indicates that the embryo may hence be assimilated to a little magnet, having its neutral line and its two poles each charged with a peculiar fluid, tending to cause its organs to grow towards the centre of the earth or towards the sky. (!) R 2 222 Chronicles of Science. {April, Green Rotten Wood.— Mr. Berkeley says in his ‘ Outlines of Fungology, that “when wood is impregnated with the spawn of Pesiza xrugniosa, it assumes a beautiful green tint. This’is applied to various ornamental uses by the turners of Tunbridge Wells. Few people who admire it when manufactured are probably aware to what it owes its attraction.” A writer in the ‘Student’ quotes this in reference to a colourmg matter which has recently been obtained from rotten wood by two French chemists, and which evidently is what Mr. Berkeley alludes to, although they appear to be quite ignorant of its origin. M. Fordos found it to be soluble in sulphuric and nitric acids, and to be precipitated without alter- ation by water, and called it Xylochloric acid. M. Rommier, on the other hand, finds that, like indigo, it dissolves in alcohol (85° strength) in presence of potash and glucose, and the solution, which is at first brown, becomes green on contact with the air, and soon deposits the colouring matter in a gelatinous form. Silk and wool are easily dyed with it by adding acetic acid to an aqueous or ammoniacal solution of the colouring matter, steeping the thread in it and heating the solution to 80° C. M. Rommier calls this colouring matter Xylindeine. It is not stated whether an exami- nation has been made with the spectroscope. It would certainly be very desirable to ascertain whether there are definite absorption bands or not. Has it any relation to the colouring matter, Phy- cocyan of Cohn, of which we have spoken here before ? Ivary. — Artificial Hybrids among Cotton-plants.—M. J. E. Bal- samo found from experiments tried in the province of Terra d’Otranto in the South of Italy, during the American war, that the Siamese type of American cotton-plants, viz. the Louisiana and New Orleans, flourished well in that district, whilst the more valuable Sea Island or long-staple cotton was rendered valueless by the autumn rains. The cotton-trees which have been cultivated from time immemorial in the southernmost part of Italy are the Gossypiwm herbacewm and G. hirsutum, and these M. Balsamo thought might be advan- tageously supplanted by the American cotton- tree (Gossypium barbadense), if only the long-staple form could be made to ripen at a more convenient period. Accordingly he endeavoured to obtain hybrids between Gossypium hirsutum and G. barbadense, and has succeeded so far as to present specimens of the hybrids to the French Academy. Lach species of cotton-tree has five petals and a great number of monadelphous stamens, all bearing anthers, and surrounding the pistil at different heights. They seem to be so many radii implanted obliquely upon the central cylinder or bundle formed by the styles. There are as many styles as stigmata, and they may easily be separated with the point of a penknife. They may be recognized by the naked eye in the form of three, four, or five delicate nervures, united together on the inside. The number of cells in each capsule invariably corresponds to that of the styles ; 1868. ] Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 228 it is therefore of importance to select the capsules which have the greatest number of cells, in order to obtain a greater number of tufts of cotton. The oblique position and nearly radiating arrange- ment of the stamens renders artificial fecundation difficult, in con- sequence of the difficulty of cutting them all down to the bottom of the calyx, and removing them without the falling of a little seminal dust upon the stigmata. Nevertheless M. Balsamo succeeded in avoiding the contact of the anthers, and in transporting the pollen to the pistil of the flowers from which he had removed all the stamina. The cotton-flowers open about noon and close up again after fecundation, the stamina acquire a more vertical position, and the pistil lowers its stigmata towards the stamina which are beneath it; the corolla changes from yellow to rosy red, and on the following day it falls withered. If it happens to rain on the day of the flowering of the cotton-tree, the water which remains in the flower alters and blackens the pollen; in that case natural fecundation itself may fail, and the withered flower does not fall or falls very late. Besides his experiments on artificial hybridization of cotton- trees, M. Balsamo has investigated the action of light on the germination of the seeds. He found by using a glass jar full of vegetable mould, that seeds exposed to the action of sunlight were greatly retarded in, if not entirely prevented from, germination. Seeds to which only yellow light had access were not affected. Grrmany.—The Origin of Bacteria.—A German lady, Frau Liiders, of Kiel, has been investigating this matter with the micro- scope, and has published her conclusions in Schultze’s ‘Archiv.’ Her paper is one of very great interest, and her researches have been ably and carefully conducted. She believes that she has proved—what many fungologists were prepared for—that Vibriones (leaving aside the question of there being more than one species) are produced from the spores and germinal filaments of various moulds or fungi—amongst which are enumerated Mucor, Peni- cillium, Botrytis, Torula, Manilia, Aspergillum, Leptosporium, Ar- throbotrys, Acremonium, and Verticillium. It is impossible here to give an account of the precautions adopted in growing these fungi, but they appear to have been satisfactory. Professor Hensen, of Kiel, strongly supports all Frau Liiders says. She is also induced to believe that the blood of living animals contains V7- briones, either in the catenated form, or in that of the constituent eranules ; but during life, and until putrescence commences, these are always quiescent, and show no signs of active existence. In support of this, the following experiment by Professor Hensen is quoted. The extremity of a glass tube bent im the form of a W, with the ends drawn out and quite closed, and which had been exposed for half-an-hour to 200° C., was thrust into the heart of a recently killed guinea-pig, and then broken off. After the blood had sucked into the tube from the other end, which 294 ~ Chronicles of Science. [April, ‘was melted off in order to remove any fluid that might adhere from the lips, the ends of the tube were sealed, and it was kept at a temperature of from 13° to 15° C. From one of the several tubes thus prepared, the point was removed after two days, and a drop of blood expelled on the next day, which, when examined with the microscope, showed large quantities of fungus-granules, chains and rods; mobile rods were rare. Milk, eggs, the mouth, and many organic fluids contain vibriones in this condition. Though Pro- fessor Hallier, the greatest authority on microscopic fungi, does not accept Frau Liiders’ results as to the connection of “moulds” and “ vibriones,” yet her researches on the blood have great importance in connection with his own. Professor Hallier has recently an- nounced that he has been able to isolate and identify from the blood of typhus-fever patients a distinct form of fungus; also in vaccine matter and in other cases. Dr. Salisbury, of New York, has also recently made known the observation of distinct fungi in the fluids of persons suffering from other contagious diseases. Are we not advancing to a great fact as to the nature of such diseases ? Fermentation and vaccination may come to mean much the same thing. Frau Liiders has also successfully shown that “ yeast” may be grown from many “moulds,” as first demonstrated by Hallier. 5. CHEMISTRY. (Including the Proceedings of the Chemical Society.) Awone the papers calling for prominent notice in this Chronicle, the first place is due to the Researches on Vanadium, an account of which was given by Dr. Roscoe in his Bakerian lecture before the Royal Society. The metal to which the name Vanadium has been given was first discovered by Del Rioin 1801. That chemist was, however, persuaded that the substance he had in hand was Chromium, and the new metal was again overlooked, until redis- covered by Sefstrém in 1850. Having hitherto been found in very small quantities, few chemists have had the opportunity of studying the metal and its compounds, and our knowledge of them is consequently limited. Almost all we know of them is, in fact, derived from the writings of Berzelius, whose conclusions have seldom been open to dispute. The remarkable exception, how- ever, which vanadium compounds offer to the law of isomorphism, if the views of Berzelius are accepted as correct, has greatly puzzled chemists, who were more ready to admit an exception to a law, than to suppose an error in an analysis by the “solemn Swede.” But it follows from the researches of .Dr. Roscoe that what Ber- zelius took for the metal vanadium is really the monoxide, and that _ 1868] Chemistry. 225 the true formula of vanadic acid is V, O;(O=16). If this be correct, it follows that the vanadates form no exception to the law of isomorphism, and vanadium must be classed with phosphorus and arsenic. The atomic weight of the metal is necessarily cor- rected. Berzelius assigned to it the number 68°5 (O=8); but these researches prove that the true atomic weight is 51:21 (O=16). For a full account of Dr. Roscoe’s investigations we must refer the reader to the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ No. 97, and shall here give only a short account of the oxygen compounds. The most interesting of these is the monoxide (Berzelius’s metal), which Dr. Roscoe regards as a basic radical, and appropriately names it Vanadyl. It forms with chlorine a trichloride V O Cl;, which Ber- zelius considered the terchloride of the metal. The monoxide is obtained when the vapour of vanadyl trichloride mixed with hy- drogen is passed through a combustion-tube containing red-hot carbon. It isa grey powder possessing a metallic lustre. It may be prepared in solution by the action of nascent hydrogen on a solution of vanadic acid. After passing through all shades of blue and green, the solution acquires a permanent lavender tint, and then contains vanadium in the state of monoxide. The solution absorbs oxygen with great avidity. It bleaches indigo and other vegetable colouring matters as rapidly as chlorine, and far more powerfully than any other known reducing agent. Vanadium ses- quioxide, V, O, (Berzelius’s suboxide), is a black powder obtained by reducing vanadic acid in hydrogen at a red heat. This oxide has also a strong affinity for oxygen. When warmed in the air it glows and is reconverted into vanadic acid. At the ordinary tem- perature it absorbs oxygen slowly, and is changed into the dioxide, Y O,, forming blue shining crystals. Dr. Roscoe goes on to describe the constitution of the vanadates, and the compounds of vanadium with chlorine and nitrogen. We have no space for an account of these, and need only add, that these researches are in the highest degree creditable to their author. In a practical point of view, recent researches offer to us but little of interest. We notice, however, a note by Mr. R. Warington, “On the Detection of Gaseous Impurities in Oil of Vitriol,’* which may be useful to our readers. These gaseous impurities are usually sulphurous acid and lower oxides of nitrogen. ‘To detect the former, the author employs a strip of paper imbued with starch, and rendered blue at the time of using by immersion in a weak aqueous solution of iodine. In making the experiment, about two pounds of oil of vitriol are placed in a bottle, which it about half fills, and the bottle is violently shaken. The gases in the liquid are thus washed out by the atmospheric air, and if sulphurous acid * “Chemical News,’ vol. xvii., p. 75. 226 ~ Chronieles of Science. [ April, be present, the strip of blue paper will be bleached when introduced into the air space of the bottle. The reaction in this case the _ author shows to be five times more delicate than the opposite one, when iodic acid and starch are used on the paper. To detect nitric oxides, Mr. Warington employs paper imbued with iodide of potas- sium and starch, which will be made blue by either of the oxides. Since, however, sulphurous acid destroys the blue iodide of starch, the presence of an excess of this gas will prevent the detection of the nitric oxides. But as these latter are without effect on the test paper employed for sulphurous acid, it is possible to obtain the reactions of both gases from the same oil of vitriol, if the sulphurous acid is not in excess. Another paper of great practical value is that by Mr. W. Valentin, “On the Estimation of Sulphur in Coal Gas.”* On few matters have greater discrepancies appeared in the reports of different experimenters than on this important question of the amount of sulphur in coal gas. Allowing that the quantity is very variable, these discrepancies admit of easy explanation. Still a process for its accurate determination is a great desideratum, and Mr. Valentin supplies one which has obvious recommendations. The gas, mixed with a proper proportion of atmospheric air, is passed through a porcelain tube, heated to redness by means of a combustion furnace. Within the porcelain tube is placed another tube made of fine platinum gauze, and filled with spongy platinum, and then a short platinum tube about four inches long, containing a few grammes of pure soda-lime. As the mixture of gas and air passes through the heated spongy platinum the sulphur compounds are completely oxidized, and the sulphuric acid (or the greater part of it) is fixed by the soda-lime as sulphate of sodium and calcium. The little that escapes may be fixed by causing the products of com- bustion to pass through a flask containing a solution of pure caustic soda. For the complete details respecting the operation, we must refer our readers to the place indicated below, with the remark that a process for estimating sulphur in gas is quite secondary in import- ance to one for removing sulphur before the gas reaches the consumer. Another paper worthy of notice, is one by Mr. J. Hargreaves, “On the Manufacture of Steel from Cast Iron by the use of Nitrates and other Oxidizing Agents.’t The subject of this paper, however, belongs properly to our Metallurgical Chronicle. In organic chemistry a vast number of papers have been published which only ;ossess interest for the advanced chemist. We may notice, however, the reported conversion by Siersch of methylic into ethylic alcohol{ as a novelty of general interest. The researches of Dr. Thudichum on the “ Colouring Matters * ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xvii., p. + Ibid., vol. xvii, p. 20. p. 89. t~ ‘Ann. der Chem. und Pharm.,’ Jan., 1868. 1868.] Chemistry. 297 of the Bile and Urine”* also deserve a notice for the vast amount of labour which seems to have been bestowed upon them. Among new chemical literature, we notice with pleasure the first publication of the Berlin Chemical Society.t This society was founded by Dr. Hofmann, upon the pattern of the London Chemical Society, and this record of the earliest communications made to it gives the promise of a great success. This paper cannot be concluded without a brief reference to the losses chemistry has sustained within the last three months. It may seem an anachronism to place first on the list the name of Dr. John Davy, F.R.S., for he gave up the active pursuit of the science very many years ago. Still his connection with his more eminent brother at the Royal Institution, and the great promise of success contained in his early writings on chemistry, make this perhaps the most fitting place for a short record of his life. Dr. Davy was born at Penzance, on the 24th of May, 1790, and was the .youngest of five children, of whom Sir Humphry was the eldest. In the autumn of 1808, the subject of our notice came to London, and began the study of chemistry in the laboratory of the Royal Institution. The pupil was in a very short time advanced to the position of assistant to Sir Humphry, then in the zenith of his fame and happiness. Within the period 1808-1811, the elder Davy, it will be remembered, made some of his most brilliant discoveries; and the younger brother was associated in all the laborious researches which led to them. Among these was that elaborate investigation which confirmed the views of Scheele as to the simple nature of chlorine. The name oxymuriatic acid, which until then was applied to that body, expressed the belief that it was a compound gas containing oxygen. The experiments of Sir Humphry Davy proved beyond a doubt that no oxygen could be separated from the so-called oxymuriatic acid; but they did not suffice to convince all the chemists of that day. Among those who remained unconvinced was Dr. Murray, the Lecturer on Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh ; and it was in reply to the objections of this gentleman that Dr. (then Mr.) John Davy published his first scientific paper. It will be found in ‘Nicholson’s Journal,’ vol. xxvii. (1811), and may be read with pleasure at this day for its lucid style and clear reasoning. This paper won the approval of Sir Humphry so much that he flatteringly told his brother he had never written anything half so good at the same age. The controversy went on for a couple of years, and. led eventually to the discovery of Phosgene Gas, or chloro-carbonic acid, by Dr. Davy. In trying to repeat an experiment indicated by Dr. Murray, he exposed to sun- * “Proceedings of Royal Society,’ No. 97, p. 215 p. 215. + ‘Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin,’ N. 1, 2, 3. 228 Chronicles of Science. [April, light a mixture of equal volumes of chlorine and carbonic oxide, and found condensation to one volume take place. This mduced him to make a complete examination of the new compound, an account of which is published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1812. It was followed in a short time by two other , papers, one “On the Compounds of Chlorine with the Metals,” and another “On Certain Compounds of Fluoric Acid.” These papers exhibit great diligence in research, and are marked by great accuracy in the analyses. Here, we regret to say, Dr. Davy’s career as a chemist may be said to have almost closed. He resolved upon the study of medi- cine, and proceeded to Edinburgh for the purpose. After taking his degree, he returned to London in 1814, and held for a short time the lectureship on chemistry at Windmill Street School of Medicine, vacated by Mr. Brande, who had been appointed Sir Humphry’s successor at the Royal Institution. He delivered only one course of lectures, and we do not find any record of original research during this time. Early in 1815, Dr. Davy entered the medical service of the army, and served as hospital assistant in the Waterloo campaign. He was afterwards sent to Ceylon, and served with Sir R. Brownrigge during the rebellion. The ‘ History of Ceylon,’ which he published in 1819, is still referred to as authoritative. Dr. Davy left Ceylon in 1820, and in the years which followed was employed in various parts of the world as staff army surgeon. He was doing duty in this capacity at Malta, when he was summoned to attend his brother in his last illness, which ended at Geneva. Wherever he was, Dr. Davy was never idle. While a student at Edinburgh, he had commenced researches on the blood, which he continued at every possible opportunity. While at Malta, he was also engaged in some anatomical investigations, and made some experiments with the torpedo, in which he obtained some new results, showing the identity of the effects of its electrical organ with other forms of electricity. Nor was chemistry altogether neglected. At this time he examined the compounds of ammonia and carbonic acid, and made experiments on the oxidation of phos- phorus. The results obtained were published in Jameson’s ‘ Kdin- burgh Philosophical Journal, which also contains a short paper, written about the same time, on silicated fluoric acid. From 1835 to 1839 Dr. Davy was principal medical officer at Fort Pitt, Chatham, and then found time to write the ‘ Life of Sir Humphry,’ published in two volumes. This work was called mto existence by the appearance of another biography of the great chemist, “not gentlemanly done,” as Sir Walter Scott said. The work referred to is now forgotten, and it is well to say that a very full biography of Sir Humphry Davy is to be found in the smaller 1868.] ~ Chemistry. 229 compass of a single, the first, volume of the eight volume edition of his works by Dr. Davy. In 1839 Dr. Davy again left England to undertake the hope- less task of reforming the Turkish hospital system. A tour of inspecting service in the West Indies during the years 1845-8 terminated his active professional career, and he retired to what to most men would have been well-earned leisure at Ambleside. But leisure with Dr. Davy only meant time to occupy himself with his favourite pursuits; and up to the period of his last illness he continued an active investigator of facts, and a writer of papers and of books. A mere catalogue of the subjects of his investigations, and the titles of his papers and books, would occupy too consider- able a space. We may mention three, however,—a second series of “Anatomical and Physiological Researches ;” another entitled “Army Diseases, with Contributions to Pathology,” embodying the results of his experience as an army physician; and the “ Frag- mentary Remains of Sir Humphry Davy,” from which, as having been published in his later years, and including many of his earlier papers, an adequate knowledge may be gained of the various fields of labour upon which he entered. One of his latest publications was a successful vindication in the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ of Sir Humphry Davy’s reputation from certain assertions made by Mr. Babbage. In this task he was assisted by the late Sir James South. His very latest paper, “Qn the Temperature of the Common Fowl,” was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh a few weeks after his death. The subject of animal temperature occupied him more or less the greater part of his life. Wherever he happened to be, he was busy with his thermometer, which found its way into the mouths of all sorts of animals, including the tiger, the leopard, the Indian elephant, the shark, and the adder. Dr. Davy was seized with his last illness on January 15th, and died on the 24th, at the advanced age of 78. His first paper was published in 1811, his last this year. Thus his activity as an ex- perimenter and author is seen to have lasted over fifty years. We have before expressed our regret that he did not confine himself to the study of chemistry. Anatomists and physiologists will probably regret that his attention was not concentrated on their sciences. He was, indeed, calculated to shine in any pursuit that requires patient and laborious investigations, for therein lay his strength. For mere hypothesis he had small respect, but spoke in praise of theories which in his first paper he defined as “ generalizations upon observed facts.” He made it his business, however, to observe the facts, and we may rest assured that he who generalizes upon the observations of John Davy has a safe foundation. Such as he are the men who really advance science. 230 Chronicles of Science. [April, Mr. Wm. Herapath, F.C.S., died at Bristol on the 13th of February, in his 73rd year. Although a sound general chemist, he was best known as a toxicologist, having been brought into notoriety by the celebrated Burdock case, some thirty years ago. He was one of the founders of the Chemical Society, and Lecturer on Chemistry at the Bristol Medical School. PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL Society. The first meeting we have to notice was held on December 19. On that evening Mr. A. Tribe read a paper “On the Freezing of Water and Bismuth.” Bismuth, it has been said, is a body which, like water, expands near the point of solidification. The author’s experiments prove that although the metal does increase in bulk at the moment of solidification, there is no evidence to show that any expansion takes place before the solidification. At the meeting on January 16, a paper by Mr. Pedler “On Tsomeric Forms of Valeric Acid” was read, in which the author showed that the acid prepared from inactive amylic alcohol—z.e., the alcohol which does not affect the plane of polarization, is also inactive towards a polarized ray, while that prepared from the active alcohol rotates the ray 43° to the nght. After this, Dr. Debus made a verbal communication “On Thio- formic Acid,” an acid produced when formiate of lead is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen. The views expressed were of a hypo- thetical nature; but the speaker promised some investigations on the subject. Dr. Frankland then delivered a lecture “On Water Analysis.” In this lecture, the author first gave a critical review of the methods commonly employed for the determination—1, Of the total solids ; 2, the organic and volatile matters; 3, the amount of oxygen re- quired to oxidize the organic matter; 4, the nitrites and nitrates ; and 5, the ammonia. 1. To estimate the total solid constituents, it is usual to evapo- rate a measured quantity of the water with the addition of a known amount of carbonate of soda, and to dry the residue at from 120° to 130° C., until the weight is constant.* In this process the lecturer pointed out two sources of error. In the first place, if salts of ammonia are present, they are changed into carbonate, which is volatilized; and, in the second place, urea will also be decomposed, and some of its products dissipated. An experiment * Dr. Frankland was in error in ascribing the first employment of carbonate of soda to Messrs. Hofmann and Blyth. The method was adopted by those gentlemen in the examination of the London waters (1856); but was first employed by Mr. Edwin Schweitzer. 1868. ] Chemistry. 231 showed that as much as 44 per cent. of the urea might be lost in this way. These two sources of error may be avoided by leaving out the carbonate of soda, evaporating at a low temperature, and drying at 100° C. A little water will be left behind in this way, but it will be chemically combined, and may be fairly con- sidered part of the solid constituents. The differences of weight in residues dried at these different temperatures was shown by a few examples. Thus, a residue which dried at 100°, weighed 27-02, when heated to 120°—130°, weighed 26°54. Another, dried at 100°, weighed 26°70, and at 120°—130°, 26:20. Before, however, a residue is ignited to determine the organic matter, the water must be expelled by carrying the heat to the higher temperature. 2. To determine the organic and volatile matters, the residue is heated to dull redness. By this the carbonates of lime and magnesia are causticized, and must be recarbonated by means of carbonic acid water; the addition of which, and the redrying must be repeated until the weight of the residue ceases to increase. In this process there are also two sources of error. The organic matter may not be entirely destroyed. When, for example, urea is evapo- rated with sodie carbonate, the loss on ignition represents but a small part of the urea in the original residue. Sometimes also after recarbonating an ignited residue it weighs more than before ignition. In any case a loss on ignition may represent organic matter, or it may represent mineral nitrites and nitrates, while the organic matter may remain. 3. To ascertain the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter, a solution of permanganate of potash is employed. This process Dr. Frankland said is utterly untrustworthy, many organic substances refusing to be completely oxidized by this means. In the cases of urea and hippuric acid, for example, the oxygen consumed represented only one-fiftieth of that required by theory. 4. To determine nitrous and nitric acids, Dr. Pugh’s method has been generally followed, but Messrs. Chapman and Schenck have shown that many organic substances affect the result. 5. To estimate ammonia the water is usually distilled with baryta or carbonate of soda, and the ammonia determined in the distillate either by neutralization or Nessler’s test. When, how- ever, urea is present, ammonia may be liberated, which will be estimated as free. After this criticism of the usual processes, Dr. Frankland made some suggestions for their improvement. To determine the amount of solid ingredients, he recommended that half a litre, or a litre, of the water should be evaporated as rapidly as possible, and the residue dried at 100°. Our space will not allow us to describe the particular manner by which Dr. Frankland determines the amount of organic carbon and nitrogen from which he deduces the amount of organic contamination. We may say 232 Chronicles of Science. [April, briefly, however, that the determination is effected by a combustion of the fixed residue after the expulsion of the carbonic, nitrous, and nitric acids, by the addition of sulphurous acid. For a full deserip- tion, we must refer our readers to an excellent report in the ‘Chemical News’ for February 14, and the ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society’ for March. For an account of Mr. Crum’s process for the determination of nitric acid, which is adopted by Dr. Frankland, we must refer our readers to the same places, or to the original paper, “On the Analysis of Bodies containing Nitric Acid” in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ vol. xxx., 1847. Lastly, for the determination of the ammonia, Dr. Frankland employs Nessler’s test with the original water, decolorized, if neces- sary, by the addition of a little chloride of calcium, carbonate of soda, and a few drops of potash. The lecture was followed by a very long discussion, which turned mainly upon the value of the process of Messrs. Wanklyn, Chapman and Smith for estimating albumenoid nitrogen in waters. (See ‘Q. J.8.,’ vol. iv., p. 532.) We believe we state fairly the general opinion, when we say that the value of the process is con- sidered doubtful, scarcely two experimenters obtaining concordant results with it. The discussion occupied the greater part of two evening meetings. At the meeting on February 6, Dr. Russell gave a lecture “On Gas Analysis,” in which he described a greatly improved and simplified form of the apparatus he devised some years ago. A description and drawing of the original apparatus is given in the ‘Chemical News,’ vol. ix., p. 282; and an account of the improve- ments now made are contained in the same journal, vol. xvii, p. 95. Mr. W. H. Perkin, F'.R.S., afterwards read a paper “On some New Benzylic Derivatives of the Salicyl Series.” At the same meeting the Secretary read a short note from Pro- fessor Kolbe, announcing the discovery by Dr. E. Drechsel of a means of reducing carbonic to oxalic acid. A mixture of pure sodium and dry sand is placed in a flask, and heated to the boiling point of mercury. A current of carbonic acid is then passed. After some time the metallic appearance of the sodium is lost, and the metal becomes almost black. The heat is then moderated to avoid reduction of the carbon, and the mass is allowed to slowly cool. When the mass is afterwards extracted with water, the solu- tion is found to contain oxalate of sodium. Potassium amalgam it has been found will effect the same reduction. Dr. Frankland described this discovery as one of the greatest triumphs of modern synthetical chemistry. On February 20, Mr. David Forbes, F.G.S., delivered a lecture “On Chemical Geology,” which attracted a large audience. An adequate report of this highly interesting discourse, and the dis- 1868. | Chemistry. 233 cussion which followed its delivery, could hardly be given in the small space we can devote to the matter; and we shall only say that Mr. Forbes considers that a combination of the Plutonic and Neptunian theories will best account for the results developed by modern research. He showed that silica occurred in nature as an igneous product in recent lavas ; that it occurred also as an aqueous product in different forms deposited from solution ; and also as a gasolytic product in tubes from the decomposition of fluoride of silicon. As regards the origin of granites, while he is satisfied that many of the so-called granites and gneisses are really sedi- mentary products of the breaking-up of true igneous rocks by aqueous agency, and subsequently reconsolidation, he also believes that true igneous and eruptive granites do exist, and he replied at some length to the arguments of those who dispute altogether the igneous origin of these rocks. Assuming that the whole of the constituents of this earth were once in a state of vapour, he con- siders that these vapours obeyed the law of gravity and arranged themselves in zones according to their densities. He thus con- cludes that the central nucleus of the earth must contain an accumulation of the denser metals and their compounds, an hypo- thesis which is supported by the fact, that while the mean density of the earth is about 5:4, the density of the exterior crust is only 2:75. At the moment of solidification the earth must have formed a true sphere; but the outer crust becoming subject to volcanic and other forces, the surface would be soon broken up into mountains and valleys, and subsequent aqueous action would produce other changes in the first-formed rocks. Metamorphic action, promoted by heat, pressure, chemical action, aqueous or gasolytic agency, or altogether combined, would continue to go on, and produce that state of our earth which offers itself for the study of the modern geologist. ‘The discourse, of which the foregomg is the merest outline, was followed by a discussion, in which Sir R. Murchison and Professors M‘Donald and Morris took part. For an excellent report of this we may refer the reader interested in the matter to the ‘Chemical News’ for February 28. The last meeting of the Society which we can notice was held on March 5. On that evening Professor Wanklyn gave the sub- stance of a paper ‘‘ On the Action of Oxidizing Agents on Organic Compounds in the presence of an excess of Alkali—Part 1. Am- monia evolved by Alkaline Permanganate, acting on Organic Nitro- compounds.” The paper related to the author’s process, before referred to, for determining the amount of nitrogenized organic matters in waters ; and he gave a list, first, of the substances which he found to yield all, or very nearly all, their nitrogen in the form of ammonia, when distilled with permanganate of potash in the presence of free alkali. Among these were amylamine, diamylamine, asparagine, hippuric 234 Chronicles of Science. [ April, acid, piperine, and narcotine. Next followed a list of substances which yielded about half of their nitrogen under the same circum- stances, among which we have morphia, codeia, papaverine, sulphate of quinine, and nicotine. Kreatine is an example of a substance which gives up one-third of its nitrogen as ammonia, while theine only yields one-fourth. Gelatine, casein, and dry albumen give up smaller, and apparently uncertain proportions; while picric acid and true nitro-compounds give up none. Mr. E. T. Chapman then read a note ‘‘ On the Decomposition of Nitrates by Sulphurous Acid; and another “On the Detection and Estimation of Nitrates in Potable Waters.” The estimation the author makes by converting the nitric acid into ammonia, by the action of aluminium and an alkali. The limits of error by the process he believes to be within five per cent. Mr. Perkin, F.R.S., afterwards read a paper “On the Hydride of Aceto-salicyl,” which was followed by two by Dr. Stenhouse, F.R.S., “On Chloranil,” and “On the Action of Nitric Acid on Picramic Acid.” Lastly, Mr. Chapman gave a short account of the “‘ Action of Zine Ethyl on Nitrous and Nitric Ethers,’ which is, it seems, sometimes attended with very violent explosions. The Secretary also read papers by Mr. Hunter, “On the Absorp- tion of Vapours by Cocoa-nut Charcoal,” and by Mr. F. A. Claudet “On the Crystalline Form of Arsenious Acid.” The author had obtained from the Pyrites Mine of San Domingos, Portugal, a quantity of fine crystals, similar in form to those first described by Wohler, as obtained by sublimation under peculiar circumstances. The crystals belong apparently to the same system as those of gypsum. This form cannot be reproduced by either solution or sublimation, in either case only the ordinary octohedral crystals being obtained. There are reasons for believing that active spon- taneous combustion is going on in a part of the mine mentioned, and the arsenious acid was probably sublimed in an atmosphere of sulphurous acid. 6. ENGINEERING—CIVIL AND MECHANICAL. Waist the fear engendered by the late collapse of several rail- way and other companies still exercises its influence on capitalists, causing the suspension or abeyance of numerous promising under- takings in Civil Engineering, the combinations of mechanics, under the influence of Trade Societies, is rapidly having the effect, not only of disturbing the relations between employers and employed, but of diverting trade from its former centres, and in too many instances of driving it out of the country. Of this latter result, numerous examples might be instanced; but perhaps the most 1868. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 235 remarkable of all that have come to our knowledge is the fact of a Preston mill owner having recently obtained spinning machinery from Belgium. Shipbuilding, Docks, Piers, &c—Iron shipbuilding is begin- ning to show symptoms of recovery from its recent depression at most parts except London, where the suicidal combinations of workmen effectually prevent builders from taking orders. On the Clyde and Tyne a fair amount of business has been done during the past year. On the Mersey most of the shipbuilders are tolerably busy, and at Messrs. Laird’s yard two or three ironclads are under construction. A new paddle steamship, for the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, was launched at the end of November last from the yard of Messrs. Walpole, Webb, and Bewley, of Dublin. This is worthy of note, since it is the first vessel of that class hitherto constructed at Dublin. M. Giquel, a Frenchman, is stated to have arrived at Tientsin with one hundred French engineers and work- men, where he is about to build sixteen steamers, of 300 tons each, for the Imperial Customs. A new iron steam ferry-bridge has re- cently been constructed for the Govan Ferry, which carries two loaded waggons or three loaded carts, together with sixty or eighty passengers; with these it crosses the Clyde in 1} minute. This vessel is constructed in six water-tight compartments. The ma- chinery for propulsion consists of a pair of 20 horse-power diagonal steam-engines, geared to the driving wheel, round the circumference of which is wound the driving chain, whose ends are secured on each side of the Clyde. During 1867 about 350,000 cubic yards of earthwork and 24,000 cubic yards of masonry and brickwork were executed at the Hull Western Dock; and it is the opinion of Mr. Hawkshaw that, if due diligence be shown, the dock may be completed this year. The Hull Graving Dock is to be increased by 88 feet, which will give it a total length of 300 feet; the depth is also to be in- creased to the extent of 4 feet 6 inches. From the report of the engineer to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, it appears that the amount required to complete works in progress and contem- plated is upwards of 700,0002. A new pier has recently been ordered to be erected in Woolwich Arsenal, to facilitate the shipment of heavy ordnance, which will be fitted with cranes capable of hoisting 30 tons weight. The pier with its T head will extend 300 feet towards the bed of the Thames; it will be 25 feet broad, and the head of the pier will be 100 feet long. A new wrought-iron pier is in course of con- struction at Clevedon, in Somerset ; the length of the approaches is 180 feet, and of the pier itself 800 feet, having a head 42 feet in length, making a total length of over 1,000 feet. The pier is composed of eight 100-feet spans, consisting of two continuous VOL. V. 8 236 Chronicles of Science. [ April, wrought-iron girders, 3 feet 6 inches deep, which serve partly to form the parapet. The pier head measures 42 feet by 50 feet, and is supported on eighteen piles, standing 65 feet in height above the ground. A new pier is about to be carried out at Saltburn- by-the-Sea, and a contract for the ironwork has been taken by Messrs. Cochrane, Groves, and Co., of the Ormesby Ironworks. Some time ago a premium was offered for the best design for the protection of the headland at Hartlepool, and we now learn that the plans and estimates of Mr. Thomas Fenwick, C.E., of Leeds, have been selected. A swing bridge has recently been erected over the river Hull, near its junction with the river Humber. The bridge consists of two parts, namely, a movable part on the eastern, or citadel, side, which, when open, gives a clear waterway of 100 feet ; and a fixed part on the western side, having a clear space of 40 feet. The London and North-Western Railway Company have been making good progress with their great bridge over the Mersey at Runcorn; the sixth and last great girder is placed, and traffic is expected to be commenced over the bridge in June next. The scheme for bridging the Forth at Alloa was fairly set afloat on 3rd January last; the structure will be similar to that across the Tay at Perth, having spans of 64 feet in width. In the centre the bridge will swing from both sides and open a space of 200 feet for vessels to pass through. A bridge has been thrown across the Boug, on the Balta and Olviopol Railway, which is 800 feet in length, and con- tains 1,640 tons of iron in its structure. The Perkiomen Railway Bridge, to be constructed across the Schuylkill, will consist of three spans of 170 feet, and one span of 125 feet, and having a total length of 635 feet. It is to be built on the plan known in America as the “isometrical truss.” LInghthouses—A novel sort of lighthouse has recently been erected at Lowestoft. In consequence of the tendency of the fore- shore to move steadily in a fixed direction, the design has been so arranged that the structure may be easily removed; and for this purpose the superstructure has been made independent of the bearing-piles and foundation-frame. The height from the level of high-water spring-tides to the centre of the lantern is 40 feet, and the illuminating apparatus is a second-order dioptric light by Messrs. Chance, Brothers, of Birmingham. The new lighthouse at Cochin, on the Madras coast, was inaugurated on the 15th January last. ‘Two lighthouses have been erected by the Abyssinian Expe- dition at Assaike and Adjnee Island in Annesley Bay. Railways.—The construction of the Sloane Square station of the Metropolitan District Railway involved, amongst other works, the destruction of a length of the Ranelagh sewer. The cast-iron tube, which has replaced the old brickwork, is supported on two 1868. | Engineering—Oivil and Mechanical. 237 wrought-iron main girders, and on two smaller girders of cast-iron, which span the staircase constructed at the back of one of the retaining-walls of the station. The widening of the Metropolitan Railway between King’s Cross and Farringdon Street stations was officially inspected, upon completion, on 15th January last. The widening commences in King’s Cross station, and for some distance it runs parallel with the old line; then dipping, it crosses beneath the Metropolitan, and rising on the other side, again runs parallel with it. The covered way on the East London Railway 1s com- pleted to within 200 yards of the Thames Tunnel, and the works to connect the covered way with the Tunnel are in progress. The embankment is nearly completed to the junction with the Brighton Railway, and from this point to the north bank of the Thames the line may be ready for traffic before the end of the summer. It is expected that the Sutherland Railway, extending from Bonar - Bridge to Golspie, will be opened for traffic about the end of March. ‘The Swansea section of the Llanelly Railway was opened for passenger traffic throughout on January Ist. By the opening of this section the narrow gauge has been completed from Swansea to Carmarthen, and, by means of the Central Wales line, the London and North Western system will now have direct access to the ports of Swansea and Llanelly. On Saturday, December 7th, an im- portant step in the construction of the railway viaduct across the Solway Firth was accomplished by the meeting of the two portions which have been worked from the English and Scotch shores. The portion of the viaduct now completed, which was commenced about two years ago, is about a mile in length, consists of 183 piers, and has a height of about forty feet above low water. The three large bridges on the Callander and Oban Railway, and which span the Teith three times between Callander village and Loch Lubnaig, are now finished. The middle one, which is at the Pass of Leny, is 140 feet span, and the others are within a few feet of the same length. The progress of the Mont Cenis tunnel in December last was 73°25 metres in length; 35°40 metres having been pierced on the Italian side, and 37°85 metres on the French side. Up to 31st December last 7,846°65 metres had been excavated, leaving 4,373°35 métres still to be done. The Summit Railway over Mont Cenis still hangs fire, and has not yet been brought into use, although it was officially opened some months since. It is now, however, given out that it will commence regular work on 1st May. Meanwhile, the railway over the Brenner seems to be acquiring popularity as a means of transit from Western Europe to Italy. On the Ligurian line of railway the Porto Vado tunnel, 1,200 métres in length, is nearly finished, as is also the section of railway between Vado and Sportono. s 2 238 Chronicles of Science. | April, The second section of a line of railway from Moscow to the south has been opened for traffic. The first section from Moscow to Serpoukhoff, 593 miles, was opened for traffic in 1866, and the section now opened extends from Serpoukhoff to Toula, 59% miles ; traffic is thus now conducted over a distance of 1174 miles. The third section, between Toula and Orel, and the fourth, from Orel to Koursk, will be opened to the public next summer. The Ryason- Morschausk line, a portion of the Moscow- Volga line, has also been recently opened; it is 150 miles long, and has only taken a year and three months to construct. The Koslow-Woronesh Railway, a link in the long line to be laid down between Moscow and the Sea of Asof, is probably by this time completed. The Moscow- Odessa line is progressing so fast that it will most likely be com- pleted this year; and the works between. Poti and Tiflis, a line which, after its extension to the Caspian harbour of Baku, will monopolize a considerable portion of the Persian trade, liave just been begun. The Ciudad Real and Badajoz Railway Company completed its branch line to the Belmez coal-basin in January last. This result is expected to have an important influence upon the original under- takings, as it will not only lead to the development of a coal traffic, but will also assist m the reduction of working expenses. The railway tunnel at Constantia, in Algeria, is finished. It is nearly 3,000 feet long. The first half of the experimental elevated railroad in Greenwich street, New York, is fast approaching completion. The Pacific Railroad is now stated to have been carried 520 miles beyond Omaha; more than 4,000 men are employed on the earthworks and the construction of rolling stock. An unbroken railway com- munication is now open from the Atlantic seaboard to the Rocky Mountains, a distance of more than 2,000 miles. An additional railway section hag just been opened for traffic in Chili. The doubling of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway between Egutpoara and Nassick was expected to be finished by the end of last year. Plans and sections of the Neemuch and Delhi extension of the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway, from Saugor to Nusseerabad, have been completed, as has also the survey to Jeypore, a section of which is about to be started, and another party is work- ing towards Agra. The extension of the same line to the river Saburmuttee, at Ahmedabad, a distance of 24 miles, will shortly be commenced. The railway bridge over this river, which was designed by Mr. A. W. Forde, formerly Chief Engineer of the Bombay and Baroda Railway, has been let to that gentleman for 44 lacs of rupees. The opening of the Chittravutty Bridge on 8th January last, together with the completion of the Madras and Bombay Railway to Tadpatri, will have the effect of opening up the 1868. ] Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 239 important district of Bellary. This bridge is 2,800 feet long, or a little over half-a-mile; the end girders are supported on masonry piers, and in the centre on wrought-iron screw piles. Liver Improvements and Canals.—In order to avoid any disas- trous flooding of the River Irwell, Mr. Hawksley, C.E., recommends the construction, at a cost of 120,000/., of a tunnel, 2 miles long and 10 yards in diameter, for the purpose of carrying off the superfluous water. The works for improving the Godavery have made such pro- gress that it is anticipated the river will be open for navigation as far as the second barrier, 225 miles from the sea, before the next monsoon. Works have been commenced for the construction of a new canal from the Sutlej; it will leave the left bank of the river near Roopur, and, passing southwards, will irrigate the arid parts of Puttiala, Ferozepore, and Sirsa. The Grand Canal, in China, which has been gradually drying up since 1857, has now become utterly impassable, vessels drawing a few inches only being unable to find water to float them. A project for a canal for the irrigation of Lombardy by water, from the Lago Maggiore, has recently been brought forward. Mechanical.—A series of experiments have recently been carried out in London on a new form of furnace invented by Mr. T. J. Leigh. This furnace is applicable for puddling, steel-melting, or other pur- poses for which an intense heat is required, and it is adapted for burning slack coal as fuel, which is instantaneously converted into gas as it is fed in, and a perfect combustion and very intense heat are obtained. Crop ends of steel rails placed in the furnace are reduced to a perfect fluid state in 25 minutes, and wrought-iron is also readily melted. The Russian Government are making great efforts to develop the mechanical industry of that empire. The construction of a bridge proposed to be thrown across the Boug, on the Warsaw and Terespol Railway, has been let to a Russian house. The Russian Government also intends to order a quantity of plant —including locomotives and tenders—from four works on its terri- tories ; and it is further rumoured that the Government is disposed, where necessary, to stimulate Russian mechanical industry by direct pecuniary advances. We have already alluded to a consignment of spinning machinery from Belgium having recently been received at a cotton mill in Preston. As another instance of the successful competition of foreign manufacturers with our own, it may be stated that Alexander, of Barcelona, is now making marine engines of several hundred horse-power for a Liverpool firm. a [April, 7. GEOGRAPHY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.) Wuust attention is most earnestly directed to Africa, the Nile is not the source of this engrossing speculation. Dr. Livingstone is, as far as we know, progressing in a northerly direction for Nyassa, and solving the problems left by his predecessors in the neigh- bourhood of the great lakes. ‘The information received that, some year or more back, he was alive and well, will be found in the latter part of this Chronicle, amid the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society. The main object of consideration at present is the small strip of land on the western shore of the southern part of the Red Sea, which forms the eastern slope of the highlands of Abyssinia. Here a small British force are doing work at the expense of the nation, which it usually falls to the share of the unpaid contributors to the Royal Geographical Society to perform. New passes have been discovered, and the whole of the water system of the district carefully surveyed. In the meantime the present state of our knowledge and our ignorance is accurately laid down in a cheap Blue Book, in which is collected almost every- thing known about this country previous to the landing of the expedition. The most valuable addition to our knowledge since that period is the report of Mr. Clements Markham, an abstract of which will be found at the end of this article. The captives, from time to time, send letters, in which they approve of what is being done for their release. In the mean- while the doubt still remains whether any Europeans are detained in the Somali country. An opportunity has offered of obtaining information on this point, but we do not know that the Govern- ment have availed themselves of the assemblage at Berbera, at the annual fair, of all the principal people from the whole of this eastern peninsula of Africa. It has been suggested that rewards for information, and greater ransoms for living men, would soon bring every European detained up the country to some point on the coast easily accessible from Aden. The result of the appeal in aid of the Palestine Exploration Fund was the collection of a large sum, which will enable the work to be carried on for some considerable time, and it is to be hoped that many discoveries will be made, for undoubtedly much remains to be laid bare. Many ancient buildings must be simply covered with the accumulated rubbish of ages; and whatever may have been the will of conquerors for the destruction of the city, a great deal must be only hidden, to be brought to light, it is to be hoped, by the engineers now at work. At all events, the various levels of 1868. | Geography. 241 different parts of the town are being discovered by shafts let down to the rocky foundations. A great deal of careful investigation of the country through Nepaul and along the whole length of Thibet to Lhasa has been made by a pundit at the instance of Captain Montgomerie, R.E., who was prohibited by his official position from making the attempt bim- self. The country described, of which we shall probably soon get very full information, runs along the valley of the Brahmaputra almost from its source. The pundit had to travel in various dis- guises, but succeeded in carrying philosophical instruments with him, and in making a large number of accurate observations, thus settling both positions and elevations of many places. The road between Gartokh and Lhasa, a distance of 800 miles, is one of the most important features of the country. It passes the head waters of the Indus, the Sutlej, and the Brahmaputra, and continues to keep very closely to the line of the latter river. The Government couriers traverse it in twenty-two or twenty-three days, only dis- mounting to change horses and to pass rivers, never resting or changing their clothes, which are sealed on, and arriving at their journey’s end haggard and worn, and eaten into sores by lice. The description of Lhasa, 11,400 feet above the sea, differs little from that of Huc and Gabet. The Grand Lama, whom the pundit saw, lives at a fort a mile from the town. He isa boy of thirteen, sur- rounded by priests, who show him every respect. He exhibited some considerable intelligence, but the government is entirely in the hands of the prime minister. Tea is imported in large quantities from the north-east, and musk is the principal article of commerce which finds its way into the Indian market. The whole Chinese empire seems to be in a state of dissolution. Province after province has revolted. Rumours, with what founda- tion it is impossible to say, speak of defections on the western boundary. Russia, probably, will in time take advantage of this, and increase her already overgrown dominion. A survey has been made to discover the best route to the south-western part of China from Rangoon. In this survey the country of the Karens, an independent tribe, has been traversed. The people are peaceable, but they appear to dread their neighbours, for they invariably flee as soon as strangers visit their villages. Paths are rare, and there is but little to mark that the country is inhabited, though it is extremely fertile. The custom seems to be to clear a piece of land, crop it until it is exhausted, and then abandon it for a new clearmg. The most valuable product is the iron-tree, frequently rising 80 ft. straight upwithout a branch. In New Zealand, the district of the Lower Waikato, to tle south of Auckland, has been surveyed. It is a fertile countiy, 242 Chronicles of Science. [ April, suited for pasturage and roots, but not well adapted to corn, being covered with brush. The soil is of a loamy nature, but deposits of limestone and of a so-called “brown coal” are found. The lime- stone is fit for building, and for some finer work, and the coal has been used on the river steamers. The amount of the latter is considerable, and promises to be easily worked, without sinking shafts or difficulty from water. In Australia, the exploration of the Gulf of Carpentaria has been continued by the expedition sent out by the Government of South Australia. Several hitherto unknown rivers, and a bay of 20 miles width by 10 broad, have been discovered on the north-western promontory of the Gulf. A large quantity of gold has been found on the Mary River, about 100 miles to the north of Brisbane, which, of course, has had a great effect upon the labour market. In Europe, the greatest geographical event has been the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, with its attendant disturbances of landslips and earthquakes. In the midst of Naples itself, a portion of a cliff which overhung a main street slipped forward, burying houses and, it is said, even carriages in its fall. That the continued earthquakes have had something to do with this disaster there cannot be any doubt: how much is a question that cannot be solved at present. The eruption itself has now gone on for some considerable period. Part of the older crater has been broken away; a new cone has arisen; several streams of lava have poured down the sides, threat- ening in turn Resina, Torre del Greco, the Hermitage, and the Observatory. As yet, no great damage has been done to the culti- vated lands ; but the people of the neighbourhood have been pre- pared to flee at the first appearance of danger. The form of the mountain is considerably changed, and it has been covered at various times with sublimates of different salts, which are washed away by the rain, a new deposit soon taking the place of the old one. The mountain in the meanwhile has been a magnificent sight, especially by night. The streams of lava glow with various degrees of brightness, whilst that which appears a pillar of cloud by day is a fountain of fire at night. Continuous discharges of various characters accompany the earthquakes, which are so violent, that the instruments at the Observatory have to be detached from the walls, and laid on the ground. Professor Phillips, of Oxford, has gone to the spot to settle some points with regard to the depo- sition of lava. The Gulf Stream is said to have become much more rapid since the disturbances in the West Indies. Changes in this current cannot but affect our climate. ‘The subject of this stream has been carefully handled by J. G. Kohl, in his ‘ Geschichte des Golf- stroms und seiner Erforschung. Amongst the new works on Geography, either published or promised shortly, are ‘ Vambery’s ———— eer 1868. | Geography. ; 243 Sketches of Central Asia, Major’s ‘Life of Prince Henry of Portugal,’ Chapman’s ‘Interior of South Africa,’ Hochstetter’s ‘New Zealand, Maurer’s ‘ Die Nicobaren.’ PROCEEDINGS OF THE RoyaAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. At the first meeting of the Society this year a report was read from Mr. C. D. Young, who was present, and afterwards explained some points at further length, giving an account of the expedition sent to Southern Africa for the purpose of ascertaining the truth or the falsehood of the reported death of Dr. Livingstone. Mr. Young and his party landed at the mouth of the Zambesi, and pursued the course of that river past Senna to the Shire, which stream again was followed first to the Lake Panalombe and then to the Nyassa. The southern portions of this great lake were explored, and everywhere the same story was recounted by men hostile to one another, and willing enough to throw the blame of a white man’s death upon their enemies. About a year previously a white man, recognized by several to be like a photograph of Livingstone, passed through the country on both sides of the Nyassa, travelling slowly towards the north-west side of the lake. The Makololo, the Ajawas, Mananjas, the Machinkas, some Arabs settled on the lake, all gave the same account. Mr. Young might have gone much farther, and explored a larger surface of the lake, had not his boatmen, Makololo, been afraid of the Mizitu, who had invaded the whole district of the Shire. Several articles given or bartered by Livingstone were produced; and there is no doubt that he is the white man who passed along the shores of the lake a year ago. At the next meeting, Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N., read a paper on a subject towards which he has directed public attention before, and lately more particularly in a letter to the ‘ Times,’ wiz. “The Exploration of the North Polar Regions.” Captain Osborn’s argument is, that no better training exists for scientific purposes during peace than the dangers and trials of arctic navigation. A few years hence a party to observe the transit of Venus in ant- arctic regions will be required, and officers who have already served in similar regions will be the best adapted for making use of this rare opportunity of settling many moot questions in astronomical science. M. Lambart in France, and Dr. Petermann in Germany, are inciting their fellow-countrymen to send expeditions to attempt to reach the North Pole; the former by Behring Straits, the latter by Spitzbergen. Englishmen have ever been the foremost in dis- covery in these regions, and it would seem hard indeed if some continental and unmaritime nation were to snatch the crowning discovery from the chief navigators in the world. There seemed 244 Chronicles of Science. | April, to be some difference of opinion in the Society as to whether the route by Smith’s Sound is really the most practical, a difficulty fatal to any strong pressure upon the Government to send forth an expedition at the expense of the nation. So long as scientific men are divided as to the expediency of an expedition, or as to the best route to be observed, so long will mere politicians be able to with- stand their importunities. The reasons for the preference of Smith’s Sound seem to be, that it is possible to travel far northwards along the coast, leaving depots where necessary, until the open water believed to exist around the pole itself may be reached ; whilst by both the other routes the journey will be by sea until the pack 1s met with which encloses the open water; this must be passed on foot, the explorers carrying boats with them until they come to a second sea, which must be traversed again in the small vessels which have been carried across the pack. Some authorities think the pack might be passed by well-built steam vessels, but anyhow whalers have penetrated nearer to the pole already by Smith’s Sound than by any other route. The most important papers read this Session were communica- tions from Mr. Clements Markham, describmg the physical geo- graphy of that portion of Abyssinia which has been visited by our troops. The country explored stretches along the coast from Zoulla to Howakel Bay, and includes the intervening peninsula; it then runs inland by the Tekonda Pass to Senafé, around which place a variety of expeditions have enabled Mr. Markham to form a good idea of the general character of the highland. A large river system, unknown to the maps, called Ragolay, runs from above Senafé to- wards the peninsula mentioned before, where, at some distance from the sea, the river is swallowed up in a salt plain, which is covered with incrustations caused by evaporation. This river appears to receive the drainage of all the eastern slope of the highlands; a cir- cumstance that forms a fair argument for supposing that the floods, during the rainy season in the Senafé Pass, are not usually so great as they have been reported to be. The country adjoining the coast is a sandy plain, intersected by the dry beds of torrents. The tide rises usually about 4ft. 6in., a slight imerease of which lays a con- siderable portion of the shelving plain under water. The mountains rise rather suddenly at a distance varying from 10 to 16 miles’ distance from the coast. The passes are hemmed in by enormous boulders, or by perpendicular sides, first of gneiss, and farther inland of dark schistose metamorphic rocks, and these again are succeeded by sandstone. The rise extends for 46 miles, until at Senafé— 7,464 feet above the sea level—the tableland is reached: but few natural passes in the world are easier than those that have by this time been traversed by our troops. ‘The vegetation -grows richer and more varied as an advance is made inland. ‘Tropical trees and 1868. | Geology and Palzxontology. 245 plants are abundant in the valleys, whilst on the sides of Mount Sowayra (‘“Sowera” of Keith Johnston and of Wyld) sub-tropical, and then temperate, even English, vegetation is to be found; the latter ranges from 9,000 feet to 6,000 feet above the sea-level. Se- nafé is the boundary between the Mahometan and Christian in- habitants. The country seems fairly fertile, and a variety of animals afford employment for the naturalist. The whole of Mr. Markham’s communication, of which the above is but a slight sketch, is most interesting and well deserving of attention, at a time when our thoughts must be directed to the advance of our troops in a country otherwise so little known to us. 8. GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY. (Including the Proceedings of the Greological Society.) THE second volume of the geological portion of the results of the Novara expedition has just been published. It contains essays of more or less interest on widely separated portions of the globe, some containing much new and important matter, while others chiefly confirm the observations of former explorers. In the latter category we must place the opening essay “On the Geology of Gibraltar,” for although it contains much additional information on the Pliocene beds of St. Roque, and a copious list of its fossils (chiefly Foraminifera), the general facts of the case were known previously ; and the same may be said of the Jurassic limestone forming the Rock of Gibraltar, and the caves with their bone-breccia. In the next memoir, “On the Gneiss of Rio de Janeiro,” Dr. Hoch- stetter distinguishes two varieties of that rock, and a surface-forma- tion—the result of its decomposition—analogous to the Laterite of India. The essay “On the Geology of the Cape of Good Hope,” which follows next, contains a clear and concise description of the facts, but Dr. Hochstetter’s interpretation of them does not differ materially from Mr. Bain’s. The description of the peculiar sur- face-configuration of the country will be read with interest now that so large a share of the attention of geologists is occupied by such phenomena. The geological description of the Island St. Paul, in the Indian Ocean, is remarkably interesting. This island is of volcanic origin; it has a form roughly resembling one-half of a pentagon which has been bisected by a line drawn from the apex to the centre of the base, and out of the middle of which bas been scooped a semicircular portion which shows the position and extent of one- half of the crater. We thus have a volcanic atoll of a peculiar 246 Chronicles of Science. [ April, shape, with this remarkable feature in addition, that the opening, which in coral islands is almost invariably on the windward side, is here on the leeward. ‘Taking all these facts into account, Dr. — Hochstetter arrives at the conclusion that one-half of the island is still beneath the sea, having been detached from the upheaved portion by a great dislocation. As soundings prove the existence of a considerable submarine plateau in the required position, which, if upheaved, would complete the pentagon, it seems tolerably clear that this explanation is the correct one. An interesting description of the geology of the Nicobar Islands follows, Dr. Hochstetter assigning their Tertiary deposits to the same period as those of Java (the Upper Miocene), with which he believes them to have been more or less connected ; later forma- tions, consisting of coral-banks raised to a greater or less height above the sea, connect that period with the present. An excellent memoir on Jaya is closely connected with the last; it contains descriptions of the chief physical features of the island, and espe- cially of its wonderful volcanoes. The stratified deposits are classi- fied under the heads Eocene and Miocene. ‘To the former belong a lower coal-bearmg group and an upper nummulite-limestone ; to the latter are referred a lower fossiliferous group, and an upper tufaceous group, with younger coral-banks, which may be of even more recent date. A description of the Stewart Atoll im the Pacific Ocean ends the geological part of this volume, and then follow two paleontological memoirs, one “On the Fossil Corals of Java,” by Dr. Reuss, and the other “On the Fossil Foraminifera of Car Nicobar,” by Dr. Schwager. Dr. Hermann von Meyer has published an important memoir “On Mastodon” in the ‘ Palaeontographica’ for last year, and a sum- mary of it in the ‘Neues Jahrbuch’ for December. He accepts Dr. Falconer’s subdivision of the genus, but at present discusses only two of the subgenera, namely, T’r2lophodon and Tetralophodon. Each of these he still further subdivides into two groups, one haying the valleys open, and the other having them closed by the adjoin- ing hill. In Trilophodon, Mastodon Ohioticus, M. Turicensis, and M. virgatidens (Meyer) belong to the former group ; and M. angus- tidens, M. Pentelicit, M. Humboldti, and M. Pandionis to the latter. In T'etralophodon Mastodon latidens has the valleys open, and M. Arvernensis, M. longirostris, M. Andiwm, and M. Peri- mensis have them closed. The subgenus Pentalophodon he does not discuss. We may here mention that the late Dr. Falconer’s collected Memoirs have been published, edited by Dr. Murchison, in two very thick octavo volumes. Of these, the first contains a reprint of the ‘Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis, the plates also being in octavo, and interleaved with the descriptions ; and the second volume contains 1868.] Geology and Paleontology. 247 his miscellaneous papers, including those on Mastodon and Elephas. Unfortunately, these volumes are a mere fragment, many of Dr. Falconer’s determinations and discoveries, though current amongst geologists, having never been published in detail by their author. Among the reports on the Progress of Literature and Science in France is an important one by M. Daubrée on Experimental Geology, in which the author records the success which has attended those who have endeavoured to solve geological problems by imitating nature. M. Renevier has published, in the ninth volume of the ‘ Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles,’ the conclusion of his essay on the Cheville fauna. He comes to the conclusion that the Cheville beds contain three divisions, the upper being equivalent to our Lower Chalk, the middle to the “ Upper Gault ” of the Alps and Jura, corresponding, in the author's opinion, to our Upper Green- sand, and the lower to the Middle and Lower Gault of Switzerland, or the Gault proper of English geologists. It is satisfactory to find that M. Renevier’s elaborate investigation has led him to endorse our English classification, and to state his conviction that the “zone of Pecten asper,” or “ Lower Cenomanian” of French geologists, the Upper Greensand of England, and the Upper Gault of Switzerland, are but three faczes of the same formation, having : position intermediate between the Gault proper and the Lower halk. Professor Karl F. Peters has published an interesting memoir in the twenty-seventh volume of the ‘ Denkschriften’ of the Vienna Academy, entitled “Grundlinien zur Geographie und Geologie der Dobrudscha.” This district, which includes the lower basin of the Danube, is in many respects very remarkable. It contains repre- sentatives of the Bojic and Hercynian Gueiss, the Trias, the Lias, the Middle and Upper Jura, and the Cretaceous formation, with Miocene freshwater deposits, Steppe-limestone, and Loess. All these are described by the author, as well as many fossils from the Mus- chelkalk and the Middle Jura. “Aus dem Orient. Geologische Beobachtungen am Nil, auf der Sinai-Halbinsel und in Syrien,” by Dr. O. Fraas, is a very important book on a region but too little known to geologists. The author describes the crystalline rocks of the Sinai district and between the Red Sea and the Nile; the Cretaceous rocks of Palestine; the Kocene and Miocene formations of Egypt; the younger marine deposits, and the fluviatile formations of the Nile. There are many tempting subjects in this book, had we but space to recount them ; amongst them we must mention the author’s theory of ancient glaciers on Mount Sinai; the peculiar features of the “ Wadis,” and his theory of their formation; the description of the works on the Suez Canal, &c. There is one paleontological fact of great interest 248 Chronicles of Science. [ April, and importance, namely, the discovery of three species of Nummu- lite in the Cretaceous rocks of Palestine ; one of these is a variety of a species known to occur in the Eocene rocks of Europe, and cited also from Asia Minor and Kurdistan; one is an American species, said to occur in the Cretaceous beds of that continent; and the third, occurring in the Hippurite-limestone of Wadi Jés, is a new species. Two works of great importance in Alpine geology have appeared within the last few months; but they are so extensive that no adequate idea of their contents can be given in this Chronicle. The larger work, by M. Favre, is entitled ‘ Recherches géologiques dans les parties de la Savoie voisines du Mont Blanc.’ It consists of three octavo volumes of text, and a folio atlas of 32 plates, and is an exhaustive geological account of the Mont Blanc district. The smaller work plays the same part for the Swiss Jura, though not so completely. Its title is ‘Essai géologique sur le Jura Suisse,’ by Dr. J. B. Greppin. The ‘Geological Magazine’ for the past three months has con- tained many articles of interest, including the continuation and conclusion of Mr. Belt’s memoir “On the Lingula-flags,” which the author treats as Upper Cambrian, and which he divides into six stages. Dr. Sterry Hunt has replied to Mr. David Forbes’s criticisms on his Lecture at the Royal Institution, and the latter author has printed a rejoinder to the former's reply. One fortunate circumstance in this controversy is that students of chemical geo- logy may, by reading these articles, become acquainted with many facts which they might otherwise lose sight of. Mr. Carruthers has a useful article “On British Graptolites,” with an analytic key to the genera, which will be of great service to those endeavouring to master the subject. Mr. Maw has very cleverly found—or, rather Mr. Kippist has—a closer parallel to the much-discussed flower-like forms considered by Heer to be referable to Porana, and the first-named paleontologist has published hig conclusions in a note, entitled “On a flower-like Form from the Leaf-bed of the Lower Bagshot Beds, Studland Bay, Dorsetshire.” Finally, Mr. Ruskin has given another of his papers “On Brecciated Con- cretions.” PRocEEDINGS OF THE RoyaL GEOLOGICAL Socrety. The Supplement-number to the volume of the Society’s Journal for last year contains but two papers, both of great length and of considerable importance to British geology. The first paper is by - Mr. Charles Moore, “ On Abnormal Conditions of Secondary De- posits when connected with the Somersetshire and South Wales Coal Basins; and on the Age of the Sutton and Southerndown 1868. | Geology and Palzontology. 249 Series.” The author considers that the Mendip Hills were up- heaved during the period of the Upper Trias by the intrusion of the basaltic dyke which runs along the ridge, and that they formed an island-barrier to the sea on its southern flank, where shore- deposits were formed during the succeeding periods; the Car- boniferous Limestone forming then the bed of the ocean. Hence arose the accumulations of Liassic date which the author has found in veins in the Carboniferous Limestone of the neighbourhood, and from which he has obtained a most remarkable series of fossils com- parable in many respects with those of the Halstatt beds. The Rheetic and Liassic beds within and those without the Somerset- shire coal-basin present a striking contrast in their development ; for while the latter attain a thickness of 3,820 feet, the former reach only to 169 feet. In one-of the veins (the Charterhouse lead-mine) Mr. Moore discovered a Helix, a Vertigo, and a Proser- pina, being the first traces of land-shells hitherto discovered in strata intermediate in age between the Tertiary and the Carboniferous periods. Mr. Moore also discusses the age of the Sutton Stone with considerable ability, coming to the conclusion that it is truly Liassic, and he seems to place it on the horizon of the Ammonites-Buck- landi beds of other localities. Many other questions are discussed in this valuable paper, which is rich in detailed sections, lists of fossils, and descriptions of new species, many of them being ex- tremely remarkable. The remaining paper is by Mr. Etheridge, “On the Physical Structure of North Devon, and on the Paleontological Value of the Devonian Fossils.” It is so very elaborate, that we cannot possibly give an abstract of it. The chief aim of the paper is to show that (in opposition to Mr. Jukes’s view) in West Somerset and North Devon the Devonian rocks form a regular unbroken ascending succession from north to south; that there is no fault of sufficient magnitude to invert the order of succession, or to cause the repetition of any considerable portion of the rocks. The paper is partly geological and partly paleeontological, the former portion consisting of descriptions of sections, and deductions drawn from a consideration of them ; the latter of tables of fossils illustrating the subject from every point of view, analyses of these tables, and con- clusions drawn therefrom. The author proves—-f lists of fossils can prove it—that the marine Devonian series constitutes an important and definite system distinct from the Carboniferous. We must refer our readers to the paper itself for further information, merely remarking that the tables of fossils are a perfect marvel of method and industry. 1 Only three papers in the February number of the ‘ Quarterly - Journal’ demand our attention. The first, by Dr. Duncan, brings to a conclusion that author’s researches on the Fossil Corals of the 250 Chronicles of Science. | April, West Indies. In those islands Cretaceous, Hocene, and Miocene forms occur (the two former exclusively in Jamaica); but while the Cretaceous corals are singularly like those known from the lower chalk of Gosau, &c., and the Eocene present close affinities with the species of the London Clay and the Paris Basin, the Miocene fauna is very extensive, and its affinities are extremely diverse, but leaning especially to the existing Coral-fauma of the Pacifie Ocean. Dr. Duncan shows also that recent extensions of our knowledge of the Miocene fossil corals lend strength to the hypothesis he had previously put forth with respect to the former existence of a belt of scattered islands across the Atlantic. Mr. Medlicott’s paper “On the Alps and the Himalayas” con- tains a comparison of the two ranges, chiefly in reference to their relations with the flanking Tertiary deposits. The clays, sands, and conglomerates of the Sivaliks resemble the equivalent portions of the Molasse, and are arranged in a similar order, the coarser deposits prevailing towards the top. In the Himalayas, as in the Alps, the younger Tertiary deposits dip towards the mountain-range which they fringe, and the plane of contact dips in the same direc- tion, thus producing actual, though not parallel, superposition of the older rocks. In the Alps this abnormality has been explained by reference to prodigious faulting, and the same explanation, if true in one case, the author thinks should hold good in the other ; but he brings forward evidence to show that in the Himalayas the present contact of the Sivalik formation with the mountains is the original one, modified only by pressure without relative vertical displacement. This pressure the author considers was produced by the sinking of the mountain-mass, which caused at the same time those cortortions in the fringing Tertiary deposits which have hitherto been so difficult of explanation in the case of the Alps. He therefore submits that his explanation is the true one for both regions. "The last paper we shall notice is one by Mr. W. R. Swan, “On the Geology of the Princes Islands in the Sea of Marmora.” The author describes most of these islands as consisting in great part of - Devonian strata, differmg somewhat in age from those of the Bosphorus, which belong to the Lower division of the formation. He therefore refers most of the stratified deposits to a Middle Devonian series, while others appear to him to belong to the Upper division. The rocks which form the remaining portions of the islands are—(1) Trachytic, of younger age than the Devonian strata, and (2) Trappean, more recent than the Trachytic. The quartz- rocks, of which some of the islands are largely, and others entirely composed, are altered sandstones of Devonian age. The Council of the Society have awarded the Wollaston Gold Medal to Professor Carl Friedrich Naumann, of Leipsig, in recogni- 1868. ] Metallurgy and Mining. 251 nition of his labours extending over nearly half-a-century in the departments of Geology, Mineralogy, and Crystallography; and especially for the admirable series of Geological Surveys of Saxony and adjoining countries, executed by himself and his coadjutors between the years 1836 and 1848; and for the great standard work on Geology (Lehrbuch der Geognosie), which, with the ex- cellent courses of lectures delivered by him at Freiberg and Leipsig, has exercised a powerful influence on the education of the newer generation of continental geologists. The balance of the proceeds of the Wollaston Donation-fund they have awarded to Mons. J. Bosquet, of Maestricht, in aid of the valuable researches on the Tertiary and Cretaceous Mollusca, Entomostraca, and other fossils of Holland and Belgium, on which he has been so long and successfully engaged. We cannot conclude this Chronicle without bearing testimony to the great loss recently sustained by Natural Science in the death of Professor G. C. B. Daubeny, who was equally eminent as a geologist, a chemist, and a botanist, and who was also favourably known as a contributor to this Journal. 9. METALLURGY AND MINING. METALLURGY. Proressor P. Tunner, of Vienna, has written very favourably * of a modification of the blast-furnace introduced by Mr. Fr. Liir- mann, manager to the Georg-Marien Mining and Iron Company at Osnabriick, Prussia. From the recommendation of so eminent an authority as Professor Tunner, and from the fact that in many of the more important ironworks in Germany M. Liirmann’s principle has been adopted, we feel compelled to notice it. In this invention, the walls of the hearth are carried to the bottom on all sides, so that there is no opening in the front—no tymp and no dam. In the blast-furnace, as usually constructed, there is an opening in front—the short fore-hearth—about four feet long and three feet wide, which is closed in front by a wall called the dam. In Liirmann’s furnace the scoria is discharged through a scoria-outlet about six inches below the twyers, which is dovetailed into a cast-iron plate fastened in the wall, and provided with canals for the circulation of cold water. The professed advantages of the invention are said to be as follows :— The slag discharges itself through the scoria-outlet, at about * “ Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fiir Berg und Hiittenwesen,” 9th Dec., 1867. VOR V. T 252 Chronicles of Science. [| April, the same level, and thus vacillations of the slag in the hearth are prevented. As there is no fore-hearth, there are no repairs of it, equal to a saving of at least twenty days in each year; and as there are no interruptions, the furnace does not cool. The doing away with the dam and the fore-hearth allows of the removal of the tamping-hole from the former into the wall of the hearth, by which its opening is rendered easy, it being close to the greatest heat. It is stated that the pressure of the blast can be increased without risk; that the number of charges can be greater, and a larger produce ensured. Beyond this, that the- number of hands may be lessened, as the operations are few and easy. The smelters who, at Georg-Marien Hiitte, when working with the old arrangement, were almost stripped, are now always in full working-dress. We are not aware that any experiments have as yet been made with Mr. Liirmann’s arrangement in this country. A Mr. Plimsoll, who is, we are informed, a coal-dealer, and, if we mistake not, an unsuccessful aspirant after parliamentary honours, has published four letters “On Iron Manufacture” in ‘The Times.’ Mr. Plimsoll has visited some of the blast-fur- naces of this country and many of those on the Continent, and he comes to the conclusion that the ironmasters of France and Belgium are far in advance of ours. It fortunately happens that Mr. Plimsoll, in his letters, furnishes sufficient examples of his own want of knowledge of the subject about which he has pre- sumed to write, to carry conviction to all who are acquainted with it, of the total unfitness of such a man to offer an opinion on any branch of iron manufacture. Mr. Plimsoll’s letters have received a reply in the ‘ Pall Mall Gazette’ from Mr. J. Lowthian Bell, the ironmaster of the Cla- rence Works, Cleveland, which fully and satisfactorily shows how little reliance can be placed upon any of the statements made by the ‘ Times’ writer. An economical application which we have lately seen requires some notice. It does not strictly come under the head of metal- lurgy; but as it results in the production of intense heat at low cost, we know of no more fitting section of the Chronicles for it. At the works of Messrs. Miller and Company, of Glasgow, the “ dead oils” from the gas works—which are a waste material for which the gas manufacturer is glad to get a penny a gallon—are burnt under two steam boilers with great advantage and economy. In the morning the fire is lighted with coke or coal, and the fire- bricks heated. Then the dead ozl, which flows down a long-necked funnel, is forced, by a small jet of steam, into the furnace. It ignites at once, producing an intense heat, which is maintained all day with- 1868. | Metallurgy and Mining. 253 out the addition of any other fuel. We were informed that some experiments were about to be made with those dead oils in the locomotives for the coal trains of the Caledonian Railway. It is well known that lead, with a specific gravity of 11-5, will float on molten iron, the specific gravity of which is 7... There has ever been some difficulty in explaining this phenomenon. Pro- fessor Karmarsch, of Hanover, has lately, with the assistance of an ironmaster, been examining the subject. It appears that the moment the lead melts it forms a spheroid, which is hollow, and hence specifically lighter than the iron. The Professor supposes the formation of some vapour of lead, which becomes enclosed in the shell formed. Is it not probable that this is only another condition of the well-known spheroidal state of matter? Certain ores of iron contain sometimes considerable quantities of lead. When these are smelted, it is not unusual to find the lead “sweated out” at the bottom of the pig of iron, where we should expect to find it, according to its specific gravity. A paper was read before the Liverpool Polytechnic Society, at the end of the year, “On the Manufacture of Steel from Cast-iron ” by the use of nitrates and other oxidizing salts, by Mr. J. Har- greaves. The object of the invention is to effect the acieration of cast-iron by a direct process, and thus dispense with the many permutations which it is at present made to undergo before the condition of steel is attamed. ‘This is effected by the agency of oxidizing salts and oxides cf iron and manganese. The oxidizing salts which are most suitable for the purpose are the nitrates, and especially the nitrate of soda, on account of its low cost, higher per- centage of oxygen, and the highly electro-positive character of its base, which renders it a most effective agent in removing the metalloids—silicium, sulphur, and phosphorus—and the semi-metal arsenic from iron, by forming with them compounds of sodium, thus enabling inferior qualities of cast-iron to be used in the manu- facture of steel, and also to improve the qualities of malleable iron by depriving it of those objectionable substances. The above seems to be but a modification of Headon’s process, which process was mentioned in a former number of the Journal. There have been several patents taken out of late for improve- ments in the casting of Bessemer steel. Mr. James Astbury, of Smethwick Foundry, has patented a scheme for preventing the irregular cooling and chilling of the metal when poured into the iron moulds from the Bessemer ladle, which often produce cavities, of a honeycombed appearance, in the middle of the casting. For this purpose the moulds are made of plumbago, and previous to casting they are heated in a furnace sufficiently to prevent the metal from solidifying, and then when full are gradually cooled from the lower part, and as contraction takes place, the fluid metal 2 254 Chronicles of Science. | April, from the upper part descends, thereby preventing the formation of cavities in the casting. Messrs. Waddington and Longbottom, of Barrow-in-Furness, have introduced improvements in the moulds for casting Bessemer steel, by dividing them into two parts horizontally, so that when the lower part becomes worn away by the splashing of the metal, it may be replaced by another, the upper part serving for several lower ones. The two parts are fastened together by bolts, which pass through lugs on the outside of the mould. Miniae. Technical education is at the present time so much the subject of discussion, that it is of interest to receive the Report of the Miners’ Association of Cornwall and Devonshire. This Association has for nearly ten years carried out, amongst the miners of Western England, a system of instruction in such branches of science as appear to be directly applicable to Mining and Metallurgy. One feature is peculiarly its own: instead of establishing a school in some centre to which those who desire instruction may come, a system of classes in the very midst of a group of mines has been adopted. The teacher visits these classes in regular order, and delivers his lectures, gives his demonstrations, and carries out his examinations. From the report we learn that many young miners who have availed themselves of the instruction given in the classes have secured positions of responsibility both at home and abroad, which they could not have taken but for their advanced knowledge. Out of twenty-nine persons who passed the Government examin- ations in 1867 m Mineralogy, as many as twenty received their instructions from the lecturer of this Association, and of these four- teen have passed sufficiently high to be entitled to a prize. One of them, Francis Oats, a working miner in Botallack Mine, succeeded in obtaining the Gold Medal in Mineralogy from the Department of Science and Art. A plan of employing the more advanced pupils to teach the elementary branches in the schools has been carried out, with apparent advantage to all concerned, and by this arrange- ment the lecturer is enabled to cover more ground. In the report before us, the papers read at the annual meeting of the Association are printed. They are peculiarly fitted to the requirements of the miner. There are eight papers on different descriptions of Rock-boring Machines, which are illustrated ; two on . Hydraulic Machinery applied to mines, fully illustrated, and several other papers of local and general interest on mines and mining. Altogether, the experiment which has been carried on, with very limited means, by the Miners’ Association of Cornwall and Devonshire is most encouraging. ‘The report shows especially that 1868. | Metallurgy and Mining. 255 a system of well devised and properly applied technical instruction has the merit of eliminating from amongst the intelligent working men the best of the class, who are fitted by the instruction they receive to become the agents to whom will be committed in future the development of the British and Colonial mines. We have been speaking of Boring Machines—a word on Coal- cutting Machines. ‘The Lancashire Coal Association offered some time since three prizes of 5002., 2007., and 100. for coal-cutting machines worked with compressed air. The conditions attached to the offer appear to have prevented inventors from entering their machines fur competition. Three machines only have been entered at the present time. These are by Mr. Fidler, of Wigan; Mr. Sturgeon, of Leeds, and Messrs. Farrar & Booth, of Barnsley. We shall watch with interest the reports of the trials, and duly inform our readers thereof. In the Eastern hemisphere the discovery of coal progresses, although much of it is far more recent than the true old coal of these islands. At Formosa, coal is found in depressions of the Red Sandstone ; it burns freely, giving out much heat, and leaving fifty per cent. of ash. The coal of Labuan, Borneo, has been long known, but Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood calls attention to it in a paper read before the Geological Society. Several seams crop out conspicuously near the coast, the lowest seam being 11 feet 4 inches in thickness. The quality of this coal is thus given :—“ It is heavy, close-grained, fast-burning, giving out considerable heat.” This is also a recent coal—Damara resin and leaves of recent date being found associated with it. The coal of Japan is described as a bright, clean coal, resembling that obtained in the neighbourhood of Sydney. All these and several other small deposits of coal in the Kast are destined eve long to become of importance. So important do the coal beds of India appear to our Govern- ment, that the India Board has just appomted Mr. Mark Fryar, who was formerly the teacher in the Mining School of Glasgow, as a surveyor, under Dr. Oldham. His duties are to carefully examine the conditions and the extent of the coal deposits, and to inspect the workings, with an especial view to their improvement and extension. Mr. Bauerman, formerly of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, with Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, who has been for the last two years teacher to the Miners’ Association of Cornwall and Devon, have started for Egypt. Those gentlemen are engaged by the Viceroy to make a mineral survey of several districts which are reported as producing minerals of commercial value. Deerig’s Rock-boring machine has been at work for several weeks in one of the levels of Tincroft mine, near Camborne, in Cornwall. The agent, Captain Teague, has expressed himself most favourably as to the results obtained by this machine; and so 256 Chronicles of Science. [ April, favourably does the engineer, Mr. Matthew Loam, think of it, that he is ‘about to introduce this boring machine into West Seton, a neighbouring mine, of which Mr. Loam is the engineer. It will be in the memory of our readers that some interesting and important experiments have been carried out in some of the collieries of Durham, and in the gas works at Barnsley, on safety- lamps. It had been found that, with improved ventilation, many of the lamps called safe were not so, owing to the rapidity with which the current of air, mixed with carburetted hydrogen, was driven through the wire gauze. ‘The result of the experiments, most of which have been reported in the ‘Transactions of the Institute of Mining Engineers,’ has been to prove that, with but slight modifications, several forms of the safety-lamp can be ren- dered actual lamps of safety. 10. MINERALOGY. EVEN in a science that makes such tardy advance as Mineralogy, it is highly desirable that its literature should from time to time be collected, classified, and epitomized, so that the student may possess periodical records of its progress, arranged in a form convenient for reference. In 1843 Von Haidinger of Vienna undertook this task, and prepared a report on mineralogical progress during that year. Haidinger’s example was followed by Dr. Kenngott, who issued similar works, reviewing the science from the year 1844 to the close of 1861. At length, however, the perseverance even of a German gave way, and since 1861 nothing of the kind has appeared. The much-felt want of a continuation of Kenngott’s “ Forschungen ” in- duced the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna to offer a prize of 1,000 Austrian florins, placed at its disposal by the Archduke Stephen, for a record of mineralogical research, extending from the beginning of 1862 to the close of 1865. We now learn from the German journals that the labour of collecting and arranging this four years’ literature has been accomplished, and that the prize has been awarded to some diligent compiler whose work bears the motto, “Nunquam otiosus.” On the publication of this work, the mineralogist may congratulate himself upon having a complete series of reference-books, extending over nearly a quarter of a cen- tury. Let us hope that the good work of continuing this record may never again be allowed to lapse. Under the name of Woodwardite, Professor Church some time ago described a new mineral, which occurs as a beautiful blue incrust- ation coating a Cornish killas or clay-slate. M. Pisani, the French chemist, has lately examined this mineral, and does {not scruple to demolish the species at once. Woodwardite, says M. Pisani, so 1868. | Mineralogy. 257 far from being entitled to a specific distinction, is simply a mixture of the basic sulphate of copper called Langite, with a hydrous alumina such as Gibbsite. By way of confirming this assertion, he points to another Cornish mineral, which in its general characters —colour excepted—bears a close resemblance to Woodwardite, but which on analysis proved to be a mixture of Langite with Allo- phane or some such silicate of alumina. It would seem then that this Langite has the sociable habit of mingling itself with other minerals, thus giving rise to a number of indefinite mixtures, which, however deceptive in appearance, must by no means be regarded as distinct species.* For the last twelve years large quantities of Cryolite have been worked in Greenland, partly for use in the manufacture of aluminium, and partly for the production of a pure soda-ash ; but although extensively employed in commerce, the mineral has never been found in a crystallized form. Recently, however, small crystals have been discovered, and some of these specimens we have had an opportunity of examining. They are coated with a thin film of hydrous peroxide of iron, but on the removal of this incrustation the vitreous lustre and transparency of the crystals are at once evident. At a cursory glance they appear related to the cubic system, but on careful measurement Dr. Websky finds that they must be referred to the doubly-oblique system.t It is pleasing to note that this determination verifies a conjecture thrown out some years ago by Descloiseaux, who was led to his conclusion by study- ing the optical characters of the massive mineral. In a recent memoir Dr. Dana discusses at length the chemical composition of the felspars, in order to explain the close relation which exists between the different members of this natural group— a relation extending not only to crystalline form and chemical composition, but also to the colour, hardness, optical characters, and other physical properties of the minerals. Among these felspars the species Jeucite oceupies an anomalous position ; for, although clearly related to the family in most of its features, it yet crystal- lizes in cubic instead of oblique forms. To reconcile this anomaly Dana ingeniously shows that the cubic and oblique crystals are in truth intimately connected ; that “ the monoclinic crystals of ortho- clase and the triclinic of anorthite, &c., are in fact nothing but dis- torted, or, rather, clinohedrized dodecahedrons, variously modified by cubic, octohedral, trapezohedral, and other planes.”t Every right-minded student cherishes so profound a respect for * “Sur la Woodwardite du Cornouailles,’ ‘Comptes Rendus,’ Ixy., No. 27, p. 1142. + “Ueber die Krystallform des Kryolith’s,” ‘ Leonhard’s Jahrbuch,’ 1867. Heft, vii., p. 810. { “Crystallogenie and Crystallographic Contributions :” ‘Siliman’s Journal,’ vol. xliv., No. 132, p. 398. 258 Chronicles of Science. [April, the name of Dana that we are loth to notice an alleged charge of plagiarism recently brought against him in connection with his views on the relation between crystalline form and chemical compo- sition.* Professor Hinrichs, of lowa, alleges that some of the ideas expressed in the papers on this subject had their source in a memoir of his own recently written on “ Atom Mechanics.” It is needless to say that Dr. Dana refutes this charge triumphantly, and shows it to be utterly groundless. By the way, the “ Atom Mechanics” just noticed contains some curious arguments which will at least amuse the reader if they fail to convince him. The professor believes in the chemical unity of matter, and recognizes the existence of only one true element, one all-pervading form of primitive matter, or Urstoff, which forms the basis of everything material, and which he introduces to us under the name of Pantogen. The “ Atom Mechanics” may, however, be commended to the reader, if only for its curiosities of style and elegance of illustration. For example, wishing to express the impossibility of basing a minera- logical classification upon crystalline form, the professor tells us that “One might quite as well classify asses according to the lengths of their caudal appendages expressed in centimetres, as minerals by their systems of crystallization !” Availing himself of some specimens of ruby, or red corundum, exhibited in the Colonial Department of the Paris Exhibition, M. Jannettaz has studied the nature of the colourmg matter of this gem. He found that on exposure to heat the red colour rapidly gave place to a bright green, but that on cooling, the mineral resumed its original tint. Previous experiments on the spinel- ruby had shown that this gem when heated exhibits precisely the same behaviour. Analyses of between 30 and 40 different coals from various localities in Prussia, together with a comparison of their respective calorific powers, have been published by M. Mene,t who obtained his specimens from the Paris Exhibition. The analyst throws his results into a tabular form, and, trusting to their intrinsic value, leaves them without comment. In the clefts of some of the Lower Silurian sandstones of Bohemia, a couple of new minerals have lately been discovered, and described by Von Zepharovich.§ Both of these are hydrous phosphates of alumina, closely related to the well-known species Wavellite. One of them is to be called Barrandite, in compliment to the zealous geologist of Bohemia, Joachim Barrande; and the * See ‘Quart. Journ. of Science,’ Jan. 1868, p. 103. + ‘ Observations minéralogiques sur quelques minéraux de I’Inde, et en parti- culier sur la nature de leur coloration.” Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France. XXIV. No. 5, p. 682. t ‘Comptes Rendus,’ LXV. No. 20, p. 807. § Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad, Wiss, Bd. LYL, p. 19. 1868. | Mineralogy. 259 other Sphzxrite, in allusion, we presume, to the nodular forms in which it occurs. Some peculiar blowpipe re-actions have been detected by Captain W. A. Ross, R.A.* Having fused a borax bead in the usual way, he charges it with the substance under examination, and then blows the bead into a small bubble or vesicle of extreme thinness. After standing for some hours, this vesicle exhibits under the microscope a peculiar crystalline structure, often of great beauty, and as this structure apparently varies with the nature of the dissolved sub- stance, it promises to become of value in blowpipe analysis. “Every metal, with its salts, appears like a kind of mineralogical kaleido- scope throwing its crystallizations apparently at random into the most elegant shapes, each of which must be made to yield its atom of information as to the source of all.” Professor G. Rose has also studied some curious phenomena exhibited by certain blowpipe beads. He finds that the opacity which they frequently assume on cooling, results from the separation of microscopic crystals. His researches on the reactions of titanic acid appear to have some bearing on the natural formation of anatase.t The Russian chemist Hermann proposes the name of Rew- danskite for a new nickel-ore from Rewdansk in the Urals. It occurs as an earthy greenish mineral, consisting of hydrous silicate of nickel, in which much of the nickel-oxide is replaced by magnesia and protoxide of iron. t In the deposits of sulphate of lime largely worked in Hants Co., Nova Scotia, no fewer than three new borates have been dis- covered within the last few years,—thanks to the zeal of the local professor, Dr. How. These minerals have been described under the names of cryptomorphite, natroborocalcite, and silicoborocalcite. The chemical relations, as well as the differences between these three species, may be best seen by placing their formule side by side.§ Cryptomorphite......... Na02BO0°,6HO + 3 (CaO02BO,,HO) + BO?,3HO. Natroborocalcite ...... Na02B02,10HO + 2 (CaOBO,,HO) + BO?,3HO. Siliccborocalcite ...... 2CaOSiO? + 2 (Ca02BO0,,HO) + BO?,3HO. Splendid samples of brown pyromorphite, or phosphate of lead, from the mines of Nassau, have lately been met with in commerce. Dr. Fuchs has analyzed some of this “ Braunbleierz,” and finds it to be a remarkably pure chloro-phosphate, exactly agreeing in com- position with the formula already established. The same chemist has examined the Swedish mineral T'abergite. || In a paper “ On the Constitution of the Aluminous Augites and Hornblendes,” Professor Rammelsberg discusses the chemical com- * «Chemical News,’ Dec. 20, 1867; and Feb. 7, 21, and 28, i868. + ‘Akad. z. Berlin,’ 1867, p. 129. t ‘Journ. f. prakt. Chemie,’ Bd. cxx., p. 405. § ‘Phil. Mag,’ Jan. 1868, p,32. || ‘ Leonhard’s Jahrb.’ 1867, Heft vii., p. 822. 260 Chronicles of Science. [April, position of an important class of minerals; and in another paper offers some remarks “On the Scheelite of the Reisengebirge” in Silesia, a new locality, which yields this rare mineral in crystals of surpassing beauty.* Professor vom Rath’s “ Mineralogical Contributions” to ‘ Poggen- dorff’ relate to the antimonio-sulphide of lead, called Meneghinite, from the silver-lead mine of Bottino in Tuscany ; and to some new and rare forms of calcareous spar.} The zeolitie mineral called Lerderite, found in the trap rocks of Nova Scotia, has been shown by Professor Marsh to be identical in composition with Gmelinite.{ Mr. EK. W. Roots announces a new locality for the Canadian mineral, Wilsonite;§ and Von Hanthken describes the occurrence of Meerschawm in the Lyubicer mountains, in Bosnia, where it is found in large fragments associated with serpentine, embedded in a conglomerate.|| 11. PHYSICS. Licut anp Heat,—The action of light on chloride of silver has been studied by M. Morren. He arranged an experiment in the following way. Two bulbs, one containing nitrate of silver, the other, chloride of potassium, in equal equivalents, were placed in a tube sealed at one end. The tube was then filled with water saturated with chlorine gas, and sealed before the blowpipe. By agitation, the bulbs were broken, and chloride of silver was thus formed in an excess of chlorine water. Exposed to the rays of the sun for several days, the chloride of silver remained white as long as the liquid retained the yellow colour given to it by the chlorine. When the colour disappeared, owing to the action of chlorine on the water, under the influence of light, the chloride of silver slowly assumed a red-brown tint. The tube being then placed in obscu- rity (or in the diffused light of the laboratory), the brown colour gradually disappeared, and the chloride of silver reassumed, in all its intensity, its original white aspect. Replaced in the sun’s rays, the coloration returned, disappearing as before when screened from the light. Mr. J. Browning, F.R.A.S., has published a paper in the ‘Chemical News,’ “On the Influence of Aperture in Diminishing the Intensity of the Colour of Stars.” Mr. Browning, during the late lunar eclipse, had failed to detect either the coppery or the * « Zeitsch. d. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell.’ Bd. xix., Heft 3, pp. 493, 496. + ‘Pogg. Ann.,’ 1867, No. 11, p. 372. } ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ 1867, No. 132, p. 362. § Ibid., Jan. 1868, p. 47. || Verhand. d. geol. Reichsanst, 1867, No. 10, p. 227. 1868. | Physics. 261 blue tints generally seen during the occurrence of this phenomenon, while other observers had noticed these tints distinctly. The paper alluded to is an explanation of the discrepancy. Mr. A. Brothers had previously, at a meeting of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, read a paper, in the course of which he com- pared the statements of different observers. He had himself dis- tinctly seen colour, with a refractor of five inches aperture. The moon’s surface presented, owing to the presence of this colour, an appearance of great beauty, which seemed to increase as the pen- umbral shadow stole over it. The colour of the eclipsed limb was of a coppery hue, much brighter towards the part most deeply within the shadow. The part of the moon not eclipsed was of a beautiful bluish-grey colour. Mr. Browning’s evidence, published in the ‘ Astronomical Register,’ was—“ I looked most carefully for colour, both with the 104-inch silvered-glass reflector, furnished with an achromatic eye-piece of very low power, and also with a five-feet refractor; with neither could I detect a trace.” Mr. Slack observing in the same locality, with a silvered-glass reflector, writes in the ‘ Intellectual Observer ’—*“ After twelve the eclipsed limb grew noticeably redder, the red coppery tint chiefly affected the lower parts of the obscured limb, but was visible further in, gradually blending with the inky tints presented by the umbra at its advancing edge.” Lastly, Mr. Weston, who was observing at Lansdown, near Bath, saw colour. He recorded the following in the ‘Monthly Notices’ :—“ The prevailing colours were red-bluish and grey, and grey: the redness increased towards the darkened edge of the moon.” Mr. Brothers thinks that the appearance of colour cannot be caused by the telescope or by peculiarities in the eyes of the observers, proved by the fact that the same colours are seen, whether refractors or reflectors, either of metal or silvered glass, be used; and as the majority of observers of the phenomenon see colour, he thinks the eyes of those who remark its absence are perhaps afflicted with colour blindness. Mr. Browning, in the paper first alluded to, says that his having used a telescope of larger diameter than that possessed by the telescopes employed by most of the other observers had been suggested as a probable explanation by Mr. Slack, as well as by Mr. Huggins. The result of inquiries he has instituted completely confirms the idea. He finds that while most observers who used telescopes of only three or four inches aperture speak of the colour as being less than usual yet very noticeable, observers who used telescopes of seven or eight inches aperture saw very little colour. Three other observers using telescopes with large apertures failed to detect any colour. Experimenting in connection with this subject, he has noticed that the chocolate colour of the so-called 262 Chronicles of Science. | April, belts of Jupiter is much more perceptible with 6-inch apertures than with apertures of 12 inches: also a small star in the cluster in Perseus appears of an indigo-blue with 83 inches, Prussian-blue with 104 inches, and royal-blue with 12} inches of aperture. From this it follows that colours estimated by comparison with Admiral Smyth’s chromatic scale, in which each colour is repre- sented of four degrees of intensity, can possess no relative value unless taken with the same aperture. The spectroscope has received from Professor Osborn, of La- fayette College, U.S., improvements which have rendered it ap- plicable to a variety of practical purposes, particularly in metallurgy. By means of the instrument thus modified it is possible to detect in a room many hundreds of yards from a furnace, the sodium in the coal, or decomposed fire-brick, also any lime, potash, &c., pro- ceeding from the furnace-mouth. Professor Osborn is hopeful of peru uses being found for the form of spectroscope he has evised. Dr. Emerson Reynolds, at a meeting of the Dublin Chemical and Philosophical Club, read a paper “On the Action of Ozone on Sensitive Photographic Plates.” He had found in experimenting upon this subject that the latent or undeveloped image submitted to the action of ozone was completely obliterated: a second image might be taken on the plate. Dr. Reynolds remarked that, this fact was at variance with what might be called the mechanical theory of photographic images, and proved conclusively that the production of an image was due to a chemical change in the sen- sitive fim. He thought that the disputes with regard to the time dry plates might remain sensitive, arose m some degree from the variable amounts of ozone present in the atmosphere. The ozone used in the experiments was in some cases obtained by passing atmospheric air over phosphorus, in others by the aid of electricity. A new photometer has been devised by Mr. C. H. Bennington, M.A., and described by him in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine.’ In a paper “On Phosphorescent Light,” Dr. Kindt mentions that a piece of chlorophane, which heated im a tube gives a green light visible in daylight, viewed through a spectrum apparatus in the dark shows homogeneous green only. Phosphorite of Estremadura shows green, yellow, and red. A green fluorspar, from the Breisgau, shows two dark lines in the green, one of which is near the orange red. The dark lines are as powerful as in solutions of didymium. Two other bright green fluorspars give rise to the same bands. Mr. William Huggins, F.R.S., has described to the Royal 1868.] Physics. ‘ 263 Society a Hand Spectrum-Telescope devised by him in the summer of 1866, for the purpose of observing the spectra of meteors and their trains. The apparatus consists essentially of a direct-vision prism placed in front of a small achromatic telescope. A paper “On the Action of Sunlight on Glass” has been pub- lished by Mr. Thomas Gaffield in ‘Silliman’s American Journal.’ Mr. Gaffield found the greatest change in the colour of glass to take place in the summer, the least in winter, and that in spring and autumn about equal, and midway between these extremes. Crystal or lead glass and a piece of optical glass, containing probably little, if any, manganese, suffered no change by two years’ exposure. Coloured glasses after two or three years’ exposure showed no perceptible change in any instance, excepting a slight one in a single purple specimen. Experiments made with artificial heat of various degrees of intensity showed the colour of glass to be unacted upon by heat; the same or similar specimens, almost without exception, undergoing change by a few months’ exposure to sunlight. Specimens exposed in hot water for a month indoors and out of sunlight experienced no change in tint; similar ones exposed during the same length of time in a dish with two or three inches of water out of doors, suffered a decided change, though only about half as much as when exposed directly, without the aqueous medium. Mr. Gaffield arrives at the conclusion that air moisture and artificial heat effect no change in the colour; the change appears to be due to the actinic rays of the sun alone. Heat.—Dr. J. P. Joule, F.R.S8., has described a thermometer unaffected by radiation. It consists of a copper tube about one foot long, having another tube open at both ends in the centre, and the annular space filled with water. In the inner tube there is a spiral of fine wire, suspended by a filament of silk, and having a mirror attached to it. ‘The lower end of the tube is closed by a lid, capable of removal at pleasure, and when this lid is removed, if the air in the tube have a different temperature from that of the outside atmosphere, a current of air and a consequent turning of the spiral will be the result. In Dr. Joule’s apparatus, one degree Fahrenheit produces an entire twist of the filament. He finds the temperature in the tube to be generally warmer than in the outside atmosphere of a room, owing to the conversion of light and other radiations into heat on coming in contact with the copper tube. This result is also manifested in the open air on a still day; when there is wind the effect is masked. Dr. Joule feels confident that this difficulty may be overcome by increasing the length of the tube. In a memoir on Dissociation, by M. Debray, presented to the Academy of Sciences, he has stated that a hydrated salt has for each 264 Chronicles of Science. [ April, temperature a tension of dissociation which is measured by the elastic force of the aqueous vapour which it emits at this tempera- ture. Applying this to the explanation of the phenomena of hydration and efflorescence, he states further that a salt becomes hydrated when the tension of the aqueous vapour contained in the atmosphere is greater than that which the salt emits at the same temperature. LEfflorescence results when the tension of the water- vapour of the salt is greater than that of the aqueous vapour existing in the atmosphere. Hydrous salts which do not effloresce owe, then, this property to the inferior tension of aqueous vapour emitted by them at common temperatures to that ordinarily possessed by the aqueous vapour in the atmosphere. These identical salts effloresce when placed in an atmosphere where the elastic force of the aqueous vapour contained in the air is below that which they emit. Professor Knoblauch has made an investigation on the inter- ference-colours of radiant heat. Some of his results are embodied in the following :—When two groups of rays meet under certain conditions, radiant heat differs in its properties after the meeting ; for instance, as regards its property of traversing diathermanous bodies, it manifests an interference-colour. If this is produced in doubly refracting crystals, under the influence of a polarizing agent, placed for instance between two Nicol’s prisms, and the plate of crystal fixed while one prism is rotated, the colour passes through white to the complementary. On rotating the plate of crystal in its plane, when the principal sections of the Nicol’s prisms are parallel, only one thermal colour occurs; when they are at right angles, the complementary colour; while wheu they form an angle of 45°, both thermal colours appear. Experiments have been made in Germany which tend to show that molten lead dropped upon liquid iron remains floating on the surface of the latter. Since the specific gravity of lead is more than one-half greater than that of cast-iron, the fact seemed anoma- lous. Professor Karmarsch, of Hanover, has explained the matter very satisfactorily. Some samples of these drops of lead lying embedded in the surface of a cast-iron block were sent to the Pro- fessor by an ironmaster. Professor Karmarsch found, upon close examination, that these drops of lead were not solid globules, but hollow, formed apparently as bubbles. According to this explana- tion, the lead is kept resting on the surface of the iron by its own vapour. In large quantities the result is known to be different, lead being occasionally tapped from the bottom of blast furnaces employed in smelting certain classes of ores. The value of petroleum as fuel for steamship boilers has been for a considerable time under investigation by the United States 1868. | Physics. 265 Naval Department. The Secretary has finally reported against petroleum ; the only advantage thus far shown is a not very im- portant reduction in bulk and weight of fuel carried. Execrricity.—H. Poggendorff has published an account of a new electrical phenomenon observed by him. This physicist was experimenting with exhausted tubes contaiming a certain quantity of mercury, having either at one end or both, platinum wires, when he encountered the phenomenon. More precisely the circumstances under which his first observation was made were the following :— A tube of the kind described above, containing only one wire, coated towards both extremities with a broad band of tinfoil, was placed as an exhausted double jar across the electrodes of a Holtz’s machine. While the tube lay in this position on the electrodes, there appeared to be a certain motion in the mercury. As this motion could have no definite character, the current in such a jar being an alternating one, another tube was made provided with platinum wires at both ends, and the current passed through the length of the tube, the tube being placed as far as possible horizontally. In this case a more decided motion of the mercury was observed, but still scarcely as decisive as could be desired. A third, fourth, and fifth tube showed the phenomenon in about the same degree. A sixth tube, however, removed all doubt. ‘This had not only been carefully exhausted, but the mercury in it had been kept briskly boiling for some time; the mercury was kept out of contact with the platinum wires by the tube being bent at right angles at about an inch from each end. The tube thus prepared was hung by wire hooks to the electrodes of the machine, in such a manner that the body of it was perfectly horizontal, the mercury serving as a level. Ags soon ag the adjustment was properly made, the machine was set in action. When the current passed through the tube, the mercury rapidly travelled from the negative to the positive pole. However the current was sent, the result was always the same. In experiment- ing, the mercury was generally made to occupy a thread of about 4 inches in length; the horizontal part of the tube was about a foot in length, so that the thread had to move over a space of 8 inches. Two or three seconds was the time generally occupied by the mercury in travelling from one end to the other. The thread changes shape as soon as it commences to move, becoming considerably longer ; the elongation amounted in these experiments to an inch. ‘The quantity of mercury set in motion was one ounce; very small quantities of the metal will not move, probably a result of adhesion. H. Poggendorff also believes himself entitled to state generally that the electro-negative metals, platinum, gold, palladium, silver, &c., render the following insulators positive by friction, while the 266 Chronicles of Science. [ April, electro-positive metals, zinc, cadmium, iron, &c., induce in these in- sulators the negative condition—ebonite, gutta-percha, caoutchoue, waxed cloth, white wax, resin, shellac, sealg-wax, sulphur, amber, copal, silk, pyroxyline, collodion, and gun-cotton. There are a few exceptions in the behaviour of the metals. A good example of the general law laid down is furnished by ebonite. Gently rubbed with platinum it becomes positive, zinc or iron mducing the nega- tive condition. M. H. de Saussure has published a paper in the ‘ Bibliotheque Universelle,’ “ On the Humming Sound produced on Mountains by Electricity.” In June, 1865, M. de Saussure and a friend climbed the peak of Piz Surley. When the summit had been reached, sleet fell abundantly ; preparatory to taking their repast, they laid the alpenstocks against a little cairn of dry stones. Almost at the same moment, M. de Saussure felt acute pain in one shoulder, speedily in the other also, and in the back. The pain resembled the pricking of pins. Soon the alpenstocks resting agamst the rock commenced to sing loudly, the sound resembling that emitted by a kettle of water about to boil. Strong currents of electricity flowed from all the salient parts of the body, and the hair stood out. M. de Saussure remarks that in every instance where the phenomenon has been observed, the mountain peak has been enve- loped in a shower of frozen sleet. A new voltaic battery has been devised by Dr. Hugo Miller and Dr. Warren De la Rue. The negative element is chloride of silver fused around a silver wire, which serves as conductor; this wire is bent over and connected by means of a small caoutchoue collar to a rod of zine, which need not be amalgamated. The exciting liquid is salt water. In course of time the liquid becomes saturated with chloride of zinc; when metallic zine begins to deposit on the negative plate the battery must be renewed with fresh solution. The tension of a battery of ten cells (the couples being very small, about three inches in height) is sufficiently great to decompose water enough to yield a cubic inch of the mixed gases in about twenty minutes. Dr. De la Rue has constructed a battery of two hundred cells. M. Bourgoin continues his investigation regarding the electro- lysis of organic acids. The current acts on acetate of potassium as on a mineral substance. In a moderately alkaline solution the oxygen reacts on the elements of the anhydrous acid, giving rise to carbonic acid and hydride of ethylen. A certain quantity of acid is totally consumed under the influence of oxygen furnished either by the salt or by the alkaline water. The portions of liquid at the two poles suffer unequal losses; almost the whole is lost at the 1868. ] Zoology. 267 positive pole. When the current is made to act on free acetic acid it concentrates the acid at the positive pole. He has also examined the action of the current on neutral tartrate of potash, on a mix- ture of tartrate and alkali, also on free tartaric acid. With the neutral tartrate, as soon as the current passes, the solution becomes alkaline at the negative pole; the principal result is the formation of a white precipitate at the positive pole. Analysis has shown this substance to be cream of tartar. The gas evolved at the positive pole was found to be composed of carbonic acid, oxygen, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen. When the current acts on a mixture of neutral tartrate and alkali the results are different. The gas evolved at the positive pole is then composed of carbonic acid, car- bonic oxide, oxygen, and hydride of ethylen: acetylen has also been detected in it. ‘he decomposition of free tartaric acid yielded the same products as the neutral tartrate, but in different proportions. Acetic acid was formed at the positive pole, and after an experiment had been in progress five days, a considerable quantity was isolated as acetate of baryta. 12. ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. (Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London.) Morpuouoey. The Size of the Brain in Different Races of Men.—Dr. J. Barnard Davis has communicated a paper on this subject to the Royal Society. There has always been considerable difficulty in getting at a knowledge of the variation of the brain in various races, because it has been thought necessary to examine and weigh the brain itself, and this has not been done in the case of many exotic races. The method of gauging the skull cavity has been said to be of no real value, and hence has not been extensively applied. Dr. Davis shows that this is a mistake, and possibly the method of gauging is more reliable than that of weighing, for thereby the error likely to arise from the shrinking of the brain during fatal disease and from post-mortem changes is avoided. Dry Calais sand is used for gauging the brain-case, and an allowance of 15 per cent. is deducted for other structures present in addition to the brain. This amount has been very carefully estimated from a large series of observations. The sand is then weighed and reduced to its equivalent in cerebral matter of 1,040 specific gravity. Pro- fessors Tiedemann and Morton, who have made similar observations to those of Dr. Davis, omitted to make this allowance, and also (a much more important omission) did not discriminate male and female skulls. ‘This led to serious error, since the female brain is VOL. Y. U 268 Chronicles of Science. [ April, on the average 10 per cent. less in weight than the male. As the result of his investigations Dr. Davis gives a long list which is very interesting. He gives as an average 474 oz. for the English brain, 454 oz. for the French; Italians, Lapps, Swedes, and Dutch nearly the same as English. As to the Germans, he has not got a satisfactory result. Hindoos have 44% oz. of brain, the aboriginal Khonds of India only 87% oz., whilst Chinese and Siamese have 47 oz. Of African races, the more northern negroes have from 44 to 46 oz. of brain, whilst in the south we find the greatest contrast of capacity known, for whilst the Bushmen range from 31 to 39 oz. only, the Kafir has on an average over 48 oz., a greater weight of brain than has the average Englishman. ‘he bold and enterprising Malays present a high brain-weight (over 47 o0z.), as also do the supposed aboriginal inhabitants of the Western Pacific. Dr. Davis does not state what collection of skulls it is which he has used in making these calculations. From some of his remarks, it is evident that the collection is not a very large one, and thus the value of the results is diminished. Several hundred cases ought to be collated in each race to give a satisfactory result. Fur-seals and Hair-seals—Dr. J. i. Gray has been recently writing on these animals, which are not only matters of curiosity to the world at large, on account of their strange forms, and of interest to zoologists especially, but also have a very considerable commercial importance in respect of their skins and their fat. The Eared-seals (Otartad#) inhabit the colder parts of the southern hemisphere; they are also called “ Fur-seals ” by the sealers, because they have a soft under-fur between the roots of the longer and more rigid hairs. Some are called “ Hair-seals” because they have only rigid hairs, and are not worth making into “ seal-skins.” These are only hunted for their fat, the skins if used bemg only applied to common purposes, such as covering boxes, &c., as with the skins of the ordinary EHarless-seals. Though zoologists have had great difficulty about distinguishing the various species of Hared-seals, it is not so with the practical dealer in skins; he knows the difference between the various kinds of skin at a glance, just as the dealers in whalebone were in advance of scientific men in distinguishing the species of whale by their baleen. With regard to the Sea-bear which was lately exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London, Dr. Gray decides that it is the Otaria jubata. ‘There has been great difference of opinion on this point, but Dr. Gray has exa- mined the skull of the animal. He is anxious to see the account of the anatomy of this specimen, which Dr. Murie is to publish. The French sailor, Leconte, who brought this Sea-bear to England from Cape Horn, has been sent by the Zoological Society to the Falk- land Islands, for the purpose of procuring some other seals of the southern hemisphere. 1868. ] Zoology. 269 The Sea-horse and its Young.—We in England have lately had the opportunity and pleasure of seeing those extraordinary little. fish the Hippocampt alive, and supported by their strange pre- hensile tails clasping rocks or corals, in the aquaria of the Zoological Gardens in London. In the ‘American Naturalist,’ we read an account of the habits and young of the American Sea-horse, written by the Rev. Samuel Lockwood. He had long wished to ascertain in what condition the young first appeared, and had repeatedly failed, owing to the death of the males which he obtained. In these fish, and also in the Pipe-fish and Pegasus, the female lays her eggs into a cavity of considerable size, which is placed along the tail of the male, and there the eggs remain until they are hatched, when the father squeezes them out of his pocket. Mr. Lockwood believes that the walls of this pocket in some way or other furnish nourishment to the ova, since they increase so largely while within it. After many failures he obtained a Hippocampus which did not prematurely turn out his young, but squeezed them out duly—active, transparent little creatures—to the number of several hundreds. Immediately on coming into the water the young fish began to use its prehensile tail, and curious mishaps were noticed—two or three often intertwining their little hair-like caudal appendages, and pulling in opposite directions. Mr. Lock- wood did not succeed in rearing his young troop of Sea-horses, nor did he examine them with the microscope, which he should have done. A Fish living inside a Gigantie Sea-Anemone. — Whilst searching about for animals on the shores of the China Sea, Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood saw an enormous blue sea-anemone, two feet in diameter, and a little fish swimming near it. On raking out the inside of the anemone with a stick, six other little fishes swam out of it, and these he caught with a hand-net. Several times he saw these anemones and their fish, but unfortunately the specimens of the fish he brought were destroyed. In the ‘ Voyage of the Astrolobe,’ a fish is mentioned as living inside a Holothuria, and several of these were seen by Dr. Collingwood about Labuan. But the fish which goes inside the sea-anemone is distinct from this species. Mr. Low, of Labuan, kept one alive for some months in a tub without the anemone, which seems to show that its habit of taking shelter within the capacious stomach of that benevolent creature is not a necessity of its existence. Fishes which inhabit the body cavities of large meduse are well known even on our own coasts. The writer saw such a medusa and fish recently in the Channel Islands. The Silkworm Delusion.—In an interesting new magazine, by name ‘The Student,’ Mr. Shirley Hibberd gives an account of an attempt at silk cultivation in Britam. He describes how an estate of a thousand acres was bought, and carefully planted with the u 2 270 Chronicles of Science. [April, Ailantus glandulosus, the tree on which the Bombyx cynthia worm feeds. This species is the only one with which there is any chance in Great Britain, and accordingly it was the one chosen for culti- vation. After the trees had grown up, the eggs were obtained and hatched, and the process of feeding and growing went on finely. At length the cocoons were obtained ; and now came the question, What is the value of the cocoons when you have got them? To this the answer is indeed very disappointing. They are the least in value of any silkworm’s cocoon, and are in fact almost rubbish. They do not give a continuous thread of one or two thousand yards, as does the Bombyx mori; no, nor even of one or two yards: like cotton, they have to be carded. And this being done, it was found after a year or two that the estate yielded about ten shillings per acre; by great good fortune, the next year it yielded eight, while potato-fields yielded twenty pounds; and then, much to the relief of the unhappy silkworm-cultivator, a good sharp frost killed off his Azlanti and Bombyces, one and all, in the same night. Silk- worms are all very well as toys or entomological specimens, but in Britain they are commercially a failure. Polymorphism among Corals——The name “ polymorphism” among animals has been applied to the phenomenon which consists in the co-existence of two, three, or more forms of a species, each serving some appropriate function for the benefit of the species collectively. In males and females, we have the ordinary case of “dimorphism ;” in the males, females, and neuters of bees we have a case of polymorphism, which might be designated trimorphism. Among the great ants of South America, Mr. H. W. Bates has described a case in which, besides males and females, there are three forms of workers. In the Ccelenterata, polymorphism is well known by striking examples among the Hydrozoa,—the various individual polyps which make up a_polypary having often different forms in different regions, and fulfilling various functions—e.g., mouths, swimming bells, grasping appendages, and reproductive bodies, attached or becoming separated, as free jelly fish ; all acting as members of one household. Professor Kélliker has lately made the discovery of true polymorphism among various genera of Anthozoa also. This polymorphism consists in the exist- ence, besides the large individuals capable of taking nourishment and furnished with generative organs, of other smaller, asexual individuals, which appear essentially to preside over the introduc- tion of sea-water into the organisms, and then over its expulsion, and which are, perhaps, at the same time, the seat of an excre- mentitial secretion. Like the others, these asexual individuals possess a body-cavity divided into chambers by eight septa, and a pyriform stomach with two orifices. On the other hand, they are entirely destitute of tentacles; and instead of the eight ordinary 1868. | Zoology. 271 mesenteric filaments, there are only two, supported upon two con- secutive septa. The cavity of the body of these individuals is always in communication with that of the sexual individuals ; but the mode in which it is effected varies in the genera. Among the coral forms which exhibit this interesting polymorphism are the sea-pens, Virgularia and Pennatula. With the exception of Sar- cophyton, Professor Koélliker has not observed this dimorphism in any of the Aleyonide or Gorgonide. . Do Molluscs bore by Acids?—There are some naturalists, de- voted conchologists, who lose their temper whenever this question is asked, considering that it has been completely settled that acids have nothing to do with the holes made in limestones by any animals whatever, because a Pholas has been found to have bored into a piece of gneiss. Ten years ago M. Troschel, an eminent observer, detected a considerable quantity of free sulphuric acid in the saliva of a Gasteropod — Dolium galea. MM. de Luca and Panceri have lately resumed the investigation of this subject, and have found between three and three-and-a-half per cent. of free sulphuric anhydride in the saliva of this animal; they did not find any hydrochloric acid. They have detected sulphuric acid also in four species of Tvitoniwm, in a Cassis, a Cassidaria, two Murices, and an Aplysia. The part played by these acids and the carbonic acid which they also obtained in large quantities is still obscure ; but there can be no doubt whatever that were one of these mol- luses to eject its fluid on a piece of carbonate of lime (either the shell of its prey or the rock on which it lives), that carbonate of lime would be dissolved, destroyed, and eroded. The detection of an acid, and the ascertaining of its chemical nature, is interesting in connection with the discovery by Mr. Ray Lankester of an acid excretion from the body of a species of Leucodore, and of Sabella which bore cavities in limestone rocks. The Nature of Monads.—It appears from the researches of the last five years, that many forms of minute life, which at one time were regarded as forming families or groups by themselves, are really the common modification or stage of existence through which many and widely differing organisms pass. At the same time it appears probable that this common stage of existence is represented in a few cases by adult forms. The cases to which we allude are, firstly, Monas forms; secondly, Amaba forms ; and thirdly, Acineta forms. There is little doubt that Amoeba is an adult and distinct form, as also is Acineta; at the same time, Cienkowski has shown that certain minute vegeto-animal organisms pass through first a Monas stage, then become small actively creeping Amcebx, and finally, becoming encysted in cellulose and tinted with chlorophyll, break up into spores, which again become Monas forms; whilst De Barry has described a Monad and Ameeba stage in the Myxomy- 272 Chronicles of Science. | April, cetes, Stein and others have shown that a large number of Infu- soria, when first they emerge from the parent Infusor—by the breaking-up of whose nucleus or ovary they have been formed— assume the Acineta form, exhibiting those peculiar sucker-like pseudopodia which are characteristic of the remarkable Aczneta. Now it is freely admitted that there are Amcbx and Acinet# which are not mere transient stages of an existence; but is it so with Monas? Professor H. James Clark, of Philadelphia, has recently done much to solve this question. He has used very high powers of the microscope, and has studied the Monas forms of ponds and streams. He describes and figures, in a very careful and satis- factory manner, a mouth, nucleus, and contractile vesicle in what he calls the Monas termo of Ehrenberg ; and he describes, in addi- tion, a series of forms exhibiting two, six, or more monads, united by stalks, and lymg within cup-like sheaths. These forms he maintains lead ultimately to the ciliated Sponges. Just as we may regard the ordinary “ sponge particles” as Amcebe, and the sponge therefore as an aggregation of Amcebz with a horny and siliceous skeleton, so in the case of Leucosilenia and others, Professor James Clark thinks we must consider the sponge-particle as a flagellate Monad—a more or less complete gradation leading from the simple Monas, through the compound forms with their cups and stalks, up to the ciliated Sponge. A New Group of Protozoa.—Professor Cienkowski has discovered a new organism, which like some others of simplest structure, holds a doubtful place between plants and animals. These creatures, to which he gives the name Labyrinthulea, were found encrusting the weed-grown posts in the harbour of Odessa. They are of micro- scopic dimensions and form a network of thin, reticulate, colourless filaments, on which fusiform bodies circulate very slowly in various directions. In various parts are embedded globular masses, from and into which the filaments appear to arise and to be inserted. The reticular arrangement is sometimes supplanted by an arborescent form. The network as well as the arborescent ramifications spring from a central mass, which is sometimes as big as a pin’s-head. The substance of the filaments is solid and non-contractile, hence they are not like the pseudopodia of Rhizopods. The fusiform corpuscles are nucleated and nucleolated, and appear to consist of a protoplasmic substance. The cause of their movement is very obscure. The relation of these organisms to other groups of Protozoa or Protophyta is very difficult to pronounce upon, since they seem to present but very little definite relationship with any one more than another. The corpuscles multiply by division, and occasionally the whole Labyrinthula becomes encysted, but there is nothing known of the reproductive process which will help to determine their affinities. They must be considered as a new group of Protozoa. 1868. | Zoology. 273 New Manual of Physiology—A new text-book of Physiology, in two thick octavo volumes, has been written by Mr. John Marshall, F.R.S., Professor of Surgery in University College, London. The merit of the book lies chiefly in this, that a certain amount of Comparative Anatomy is introduced, together with the Human Anatomy and Physiology. A really good and original work on general physiology for the use of students is sadly wanted. It is reported that Dr. Michael Foster, of University College, is pre- paring a treatise on Development (in the whole animal kingdom), which is just the book that is wanted. There is nothing at present in English on the development of the lower animals. Hunterian Lectwres.—Professor Huxley is giving his lectures as Hunterian Professor this year on the Invertebrata. The lectures are very largely attended, and are of great interest. Professor Huxley does not believe that a sharp line can be drawn between plants and animals, but would regard man and the magnolia-tree as extreme terms of one long series, diverging on the one hand to the vegetable, on the other to the animal kingdom. In the first lecture the various groups of the Protozoa were discussed, and the general classification of Invertebrata. Two series were pointed out leading upwards from the Protozoa—one passing through infusoria, worms, and annelids to the articulate animals, the other through the sponges, corals, and polyps to the Mollusca. The gradation which thus existed was, Professor Huxley considered, an undeniable fact ; it was another question as to whether that gradation indicated genetic relationship, and one which could not yet be discussed. ZooLtocicaL Soctety oF Lonpon. At the commencement of the present session in November, Dr. Sclater, the secretary of the Society, read an account of several recent additions in the Society’s menagerie; amongst these were a penguin (Spheniscus demersus), from South Africa, two great ant- eaters (Myrmecophaga jubata), one from Brazil, presented by Dr. A. Palin, and the other from New Granada, presented by Mr. P. Brandon, and a young walrus (Trichecus rosmarus). The walrus has since then died, and investigations of its anatomy and of the cause of death have been carried on by Dr. Murie, the prosector. Dr. Murie reports that the animal’s death resulted from ulceration of the stomach, due to the presence of very numerous entozoa, which were new, and named by Dr. Baird Ascaris bicolor. Amongst communications made to the Society relative to the mammalia are the following :—Mr. W. H. Flower, “ On the Osteology of the Sperm Whale,” in which he showed that there was no sufli- cient evidence of the existence of more than one species of sperm whale, for which he was of opinion that Linnzus’s name, Physeter macrocephalus, ought to be retained ; Dr. Blyth, “On Asiatic Species 274 Chronicles of Science. [ April, of Deer;” Dr. J. E. Gray, “On the Cats (Helidx) in the British Museum,” and “On the Pigs (Swidx) in the British Museum ;” Captain Dow, on a young living specimen of the new Tapir, from Central America (Lapirus Bairdi), which he has obtained for the Society's menagerie, and is shortly about to forward to Europe. Dr. Sclater drew the attention of the Society to the fact that the Eland was becoming recognized as a meat- giving animal, specimens having been exhibited by Lord Hill at the late Smithfield Club Cattle Show, which he believed were the first that had appeared in the European markets. Mr. Gerard Kvrefft, who is curator of the Australian Museum at Sydney, has discovered, amongst the very fine collections of fossil bones in that imstitution, a specimen of the humerus of a gigantic fossil Hchidna; of this he sent a notice to the Society, not giving the new fossil species a name, since he was not sure if the species were known in Europe or not. With regard to Birds, besides very many papers describing new species from various exotic localities, we have to record a note by Dr. Peters, of Berlin, “On the Homology of the Quadrate Bone in the Class Aves,” in which he controverts the view recently main- tained by Professor Huxley as to its supposed correspondence with the dncus in the mammalia. Dr, Hector announced to the Society the discovery of an egg of the Great Moa (Dinornis gigantea), containing au embryo, found in the province of Otago, New Zealand, at a depth of about two feet below the surface. Professor Owen has also communicated two memoirs on the same great birds, being the eleventh and twelfth of his series of papers on this subject. These papers contained descriptions of the integument of the sole of the foot and of the tendons of a toe of Dinornis robustus, and a description of some bones of D. maaximus. Professor Alfred Newton, of Cambridge, exhibited to the Society the humerus of a large species of extinct Pelican, which he has discovered in the Cambridgeshire fens. Several other new birds, reptiles, amphibia, and fishes have been described to the Society. The work done in Invertebrata has also been of considerable importance. Dr. Baird, of the British Museum, has laid before the Society a monograph of the group Gephyrea, those very strange worms which in external appearance seem to connect the Annelids with the Echinoderms, but are really true worms. Dr. Bowerbank read a paper “On the European Glass-rope”—the Hyalonema Lusitanicum of Bocage— which he maintained from examination of its minute structure was not even specifically distinct from the Japanese species, although Dr. Gray had placed the Lusitanian form in a new genus. Dr. Gray, at the following meeting, maintained that he was right, in spite of what Dr. Bowerbank alleged. According to Professor Max Schultze, however, both these gentlemen hold erroneous views as to the coral or sponge nature of Hyalonema. 1868. ] ( 275 ) EHE PUBLIC HEALTH: SincE our last report the Registrar-General has published his yearly summary of the weekly returns of Births and Deaths, and causes of death in London during the year 1867. The whole is contained in a pamphlet of twenty-seven pages, which mainly consists of tables summarizing the information contained in the weekly returns issued from Somerset House. From these dry figures, however, much useful information may be extracted for the use of those who are interested in the Public Health. Nor are we quite confined to the consideration of the Metropolis in the present annual survey. A new feature has been recently added to the weekly returns in the form of a return of the weekly mortality of thirteen of the largest cities and towns of the United Kingdom. The result of these returns is also given in the present summary, and we are thus enabled to compare the mortality of London with other towns in the kingdom. It would be, however, wrong in any estimate of sanitary conditions and requirements to regard London as one city. The Metropolis, in fact, is a congeries of cities and towns, which have become agglomerated by the growth of each. London and Westminster were once separated by a district as free from houses as London is now separate from Harrow, but the interspace has grown up, and thus Hampstead and Islington, Hackney, Bow, Greenwich, Woolwich, Dulwich, Clapham, Wandsworth, Kensing- ton, and Paddington form now but parts of the great Metropolis, which takes its name from the central city, whose sleeping popula- tion does not at present exceed 115,000 persons. Nevertheless, the occupations, wealth, soil, elevation of these several united towns and cities vary so much as to render a close scrutiny necessary, in order to ascertain what are the physical and social conditions that are influencing the health of the Metropolis. In 1867 the population of the Metropolis was estimated to be 8,082,372. The ascertained population in 1861 was 2.803,989. This vast aggregate of human beings live in a district of 122 square miles, which is intersected by the river Thames. On the north side of the river le 51 square miles, and this is occupied by three-fourths of the population; on the south side there are 71 square miles, with the remaining fourth of the population. This vast mass of people live in 340,917 houses, in which must be enumerated 46 workhouses, 12 prisons, 4 military and naval asylums, 31 civil hospitals, 8 military and naval hospitals, and 19 lunatic asylums. The Metropolis is, in fact, a kingdom in itself, 276 The Public Health. | April, representing and repeating the whole empire. In this population of above three millions there died in 1867, 70,588 persons; during the same period there were born 112,264: thus giving to London an increase in her population by birth alone 41,676 persons. It is, however, to the death that we must turn our attention. The death of London in the last year contrasts favourably with that of the four preceding years. The proportion of deaths to 1,000 living persons being a little less than twenty-three. In 1862 it was twenty-three-and-a-half in the thousand, in 1863 it was twenty-four-and-a-half, in 1864 it was twenty-six- and-a-half, in 1865 it was twenty-four-and-a-half, and in 1866 it was twenty-six-and-a-half. In 1864 the large mortality was pro- duced by the cold of that year, and in 1866 by cholera. The mortality of the present year, like all years succeeding visitations of great epidemics, has undoubtedly been reduced by the weaker members of the population having fallen victims to the epidemic cholera of the previous year, but also and chiefly to greater sanitary activity. In order to estimate the saving of lite between 1867 and 1864 or 1866, we must multiply each thousand of the population by three, which gives us 9,000. Some estimate may be formed of the saving to the community thus occasioned, when we recollect that not only has much valuable and wealth-producing life been saved, but that the expense of funerals and the loss of time and expense occasioned by at least 120,000 illnesses—calculating that where one person dies from an unsanitary cause, twenty are attacked with illness and get well—have been avoided. The death-rate of London contrasts favourably with the death- rate of the twelve large towns quoted in the Registrar-General’s weekly reports. Thus for the year 1867 we find the following death-rates :— 1. Manchester .. .. 81°40 in the 1,000 living. 2. Newcastle-on-Tyne .. 30°79 a o. Liyerpool.. 2 sau.) 20 Or ¥; Glasgow <<. 7 2 eae we 7 o. Salford Sp Seen ap ee OU “A 6. Kdinbureh-.. ee een el i 7. Dublin ao Ee eee 0G 8. leeds\,.0) “so. eee i 9. Ao > a ee ees 3: 10. Sheffield’ (2. Cee ba 11. Birmingham’: 2, Ge 22°20 - 12. Bristol sa cet epee OO " 13. London 22°98 At the end of 1866, London did not stand so well in the list, and this was clearly due to the outbreak of cholera, Great com- 1868. | The Public Health. 277 parative credit must be given to London for this pre-eminence in health. In connection with this high sanitary position, it should be recollected that London has had now for above ten years a body of Medical Officers of Health, and none of the other towns on the list have had the advantage of such an officer for that period. We believe, however, with the exception of Manchester, that they all have a Medical Officer of Health. It is asignificant fact, that Manchester in 1867 presents the highest mortality. We have, however, to announce that Manchester has at last appointed a Medical Officer of Health, and we hope soon to have to record the advantages conferred on the city by his agency. In order, however, that it may be seen what is the real difference between the mortality of London and Manchester as indicated in the above table, we would remind our readers that if the death-rate of Manchester had been in 1867 as low as that of London, that 3.258 lives would have been saved! Manchester has a school of politicians of its own, addicted according to some writers to a mercenary consideration of profit and loss. Will not some of their statisticians calculate for them the loss upon these three thousand two hundred and fifty-eight lives ? Manchester has Christian Churches and Philanthropic Societies, and a Ladies’ Sanitary Association. Cannot some of the ministers and secretaries of these associations cast up, for the benefit of Manchester people, the amount of agony that might have been saved, wretchedness and want and disease short of death that might have been prevented, had the causes that slew this mass of human beings been withdrawn in time ? It will be seen that Newcastle-upon-Tyne stands second on the list. The mortality of this town stands much higher than formerly, and its present high rate demands attention. It should be recol- lected in these towns that a few years ago a death-rate of 30 in the 1,000 was considered so exceptional, that the Government has power to interfere when the mortality of a town has continued above that rate more than a year. Liverpool has gone through a fiery trial, and after long taking the lead as the most deadly city in the empire, may be congratu- lated in standing third on the list. It is to be hoped that even the present rate of mortality will be diminished before long. We need not comment further on this lst except to point out the low mortality of Hull, Sheffield, Birmingham, and Bristol as compared with the other large towns of the United Kingdom. Hull more especially is to be commended: it hes low, below the sea-level (as the recent flood showed), and is surrounded by a swampy country. It should, however, be remembered that a death-rate of 24 in the 1,000 is unnecessarily high, and that where it exists at that point, it can most assuredly be reduced by sanitary measures to a lower figure. 278 The Public Health. | April, Although London presented the low rate of 23 in the 1,000, it must not be supposed that this is not subject to lower and higher rates in its various districts. As a rule we find that the closer and thicker the population, the greater the mortality. We are not able to say how this influences the relative mortality of Manchester and Birmingham, but it is remarkable in the registration divisions into which London is grouped. The Registrar-General recognizes five divisions:—1. ‘I'he Central, which includes St. Giles, Strand, Holborn, Clerkenwell, St. Luke, East and West London, and the City: in this group the mortality was 24 in the 1,000. 2. The Eastern district comprises Shoreditch, Bethnal Green, Whitechapel, St. George’s-in-the-Kast, Stepney, Mile End Old Town, and Poplar: the death-rate in this district was also 24 in 1,000. 38. The Northern division, including Marylebone, Hampstead with its Heath, Pancras, Islington, and Hackney, all with great unbuilt-on spaces; here the death-rate was only 23 in the 1,000. 4. The Western district, including Kensington, Chelsea, St. George’s, Hanover Square, Westminster, St. Martin-in-the-Fields, and St. James, Westminster: in this group there is less free space, but it includes the wealth of London, and its mortality was 22 in the 1,000. 5. The Southern group; this includes all the south side of the water; it comprises the teeming populations of Lambeth, Southwark, Deptford, and Greenwich, but also the almost country districts of Wandsworth, Clapham, Dulwich, and Blackheath: here the death-rate is 21 in the 1,000. This last division has an area almost six times as great as the Eastern and Central divisions together, and a population not equal to these two divisions com- bined. It is a fact worthy of notice that the south side of the Thames from 1845 to 1864 has exhibited a higher rate of mor- tality than it does the present year. There is no doubt that this is due, first, to a supply of purer water, by the water companies having obtained supplies of purer water; and, secondly, that the new system of metropolitan drainage is beginning to tell favourably upon the health of the south side of London. An interesting feature in the weekly bills of mortality of a large population is the fluctuation which it presents. Thus, taking the London returns, we find that the highest number of deaths regis- tered in any week in the year 1867 was 1,891, occurring in the week ending the 12th of January. The lowest number of deaths in any week in the same year was in the week ending June 22nd, when only 1,052 deaths were registered. The study of these figures in connection with atmospheric vicissitudes, of which copious details are given in the Registrar-General’s Reports, would appear to throw some light on the causation of disease; but, with the ex- ception of temperature, we are not able to connect the fluctuation of the death-rate decidedly with any other meteoric condition. The 1868. | The Public Health. 279 relation of temperature to the great death-rate of the second week in January, 1867, is very obvious. It not only occurred in London, but in all the other twelve populations. In London the death-rate went up from 27 in the 1,000 to 33, in Salford from 29 to 39, in Sheffield from 22 to 32,in Dublin from 25 to 31. Now during the first week in January the mean temperature at Greenwich was 25°, and the lowest temperature was 6°. It was in the second week this wave of cold told upon the communities of the United King- dom, and although the temperature during the next three weeks was not so low, it was still low, and the populations all had high death-rates during the remainder of January. The first quarter of the year consequently presented a higher death-rate. The next highest death-rates we meet with are in the third quarter, and these manifestly arise from a high temperature. The mean tem- peratures of the first four weeks in August were above 60°, and we find during and after this increase of heat the death-rates increasing. Although sanitary arrangements can do nothing to prevent the fall and the rise of the thermometer, they can point out what ought to be done to mitigate the effects of cold and heat on the human body. Warm clothing and fires indoors are the great means of preventing the disastrous effects of cold in winter, whilst fresh air and pure water are needed to neutralize the effects of over- crowding and profuse perspiration in the summer. Of the 69,000 deaths m London, 15,000, or nearly a fifth of the whole, were due to zymotic diseases. This is probably about the proportion that these diseases would bear to the whole death of each of the large populations whose death-rate has been given. Zymotic diseases are especially regarded as preventible diseases. They all depend on a contagious poison conveyed from one body to another, and it is quite possible by proper means to prevent their spreading. Amongst these diseases we mention first small-pox, because its very existence amongst us is a disgrace. We know how to prevent it, yet from ignorance, carelessness, and grosser oversight, 1,332 people died of this disgusting disease in London alone. We have no means of ascertaining the extent to which this disease prevailed in other populations of England in 1867; but in the Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the Registrar-General we find that in England and Wales alone there died of small-pox— 1662 ). ea eek eye egs 1863) 5... > eee 5964 feet) 2, 4) eh ee GSe i865"... 4 TY Sree 21,687 These figures are truly alarming, and if the mere statement of facts in this way could produce any impression, it ought at once to 280 The Public Health. | April, induce action of a much more efficient kind than the passing of the Vaccination Act of last year. We fear that no mere legislation will effect much for staying this plague. There must be a deep sense of responsibility with regard to the existence of this disease impressed upon the community, so that every parent and neighbour may recognize it as a duty to see that the only means of preventing its occurrence, early vaccination, is had recourse to. Sir James Simpson, in a recent communication to one of the Medical Journals, proposes to “stamp out” small-pox in the same manner as the cattle plague has been stamped out. Of course he excepts the process of immediately killing the animal attacked. What he really means is this, if a case of small-pox is at once taken in hand, placed in strict quarantine, and only those allowed to approach the individual attacked who have already had the disease, or been vaccinated, and every article of clothing in contact with the diseased body destroyed, you may defy the extension of the disease. This is true of all other infectious diseases. Ifa child attacked with scarlet fever is at once placed in a room by itself, and only those allowed to enter who have had the disease, and every precaution taken to destroy poison in the excretions, and in the clothes worn and used by the patient, then the disease will not spread. It isa well-known fact that when a case of typhus fever 1s taken into a hospital, and every precaution taken to prevent the spread of the poison, it seldom or never spreads. It is the utterly careless and abandoned way in which these pestilential diseases are treated in the homes of the poor that causes their spread and the desclation that follows. When these diseases occur, whether it be in London or other towns, no serious efforts are made to “stamp them out;” a laissez-faire system is adopted, which at the end of the year is summed up in such forms as follow: “ Whooping-cough carried off many children all over London; and diarrhoea, which was the most fatal of the Zymotic class, caused 2,294 deaths. Cholera, chiefly cholera infantum, was fatal in 241 cases; typhus and typhoid fever, &c., in 2,174 against 3,232, and 2,681 in the two previous years.” The London people have, no doubt, occasion to be thankful that those two last diseases had diminished in severity. But why should there be 2,000, or 200, or any typhus and typhoid at all? These fevers are bred of causes which are well known. Typhus is the offspring of overcrowding, and typhoid of bad drainage. In some districts of London, as Mayfair, in St. George’s, Hanover Square, Eltham, and Lee not a single case occurred in the whole year. In Dulwich, the Golden Square district of St. James, Westminster, and St. Olave’s, Southwark, only one fatal case occurred in the year. These instances taken at random from the Registrar-General’s re- turns, show that these diseases may be kept at bay, and are kept at bay, and very diligent inquiries ought immediately to be set on foot, 1868.] The Public Health. 281 where deaths from these diseases occur in large numbers. Pad- dington, Westminster, Marylebone, Pancras, Shoreditch, Hackney, Mile End, Whitechapel, on the north of the Thames, and Walworth, Lambeth, Battersea, and Camberwell, are the great seats of these diseases on the south side of the Thames. Of all forms of zymotic disease, typhus and typhoid are the most easily arrested, and the most worth arresting, and for the same cause. They chiefly attack and carry off the adult. The adult can more easily be taught the value of and danger to his own life, than the child who is at the mercy of others; whilst the sad fact that it is the fathers and mothers of families who are carried off by these diseases, ought to quicken the apprehension of all rate-payers as to the great economy in saving this valuable life to the community. Of the remaining 55,000, some are not, but some are clearly under the control of sanitary agencies. Thus, for instance, there were 8,817 deaths from consumption. This is essentially a disease of underfeeding, overcrowding, and deficient muscular activity. It is found present in the cottages of the agricultural poor, where the wages are insufficient to support the rapid growth of girls and boys approaching adult years; it is found in the workshops of tailors and milliners, who are herded together in close rooms all day, and who sleep in overcrowded bedrooms at night; it is found especially amongst those who sit all day at their occupations, and have little or no leisure for bodily exercise. Returns for the Metropolis, of which no account is taken in the Registrar-General’s summary, clearly show that where the population is dense and where the occupations are sedentary, there the deaths from con- sumption are at a maximum; and that where the population is less dense, and open-air occupations are the rule, the mortality from this disease is at a minimum. This shows the importance of securing a sufficient amount of healthy space for those who work at sedentary occupations, as well as the necessity of providing in all densely populated districts open spaces for their exercise and recreation. Whilst on this subject, we would refer to an Act passed during the last Session of Parliament, entitled “ An Act for regulating the Hours of Labour for Children, Young Persons, and Women em- ployed in Workshops.” This Act is supplementary of the Factory Extension Act, by which all establishments employing more than fifty persons in a manufacturing process are subject to the inspec- tions and other requirements of the Factory Act. It is intended especially to apply to all shops where children, young persons, and women are employed. The following are the principal requirements of this Act :— 1. No child under the age of eight years shall be employed in any handicraft. 282 The Public Health. [ April, 2. No child shall be employed on any one day in any handi- craft for a period of more than six-and-a-half hours, and such employment shall take place between the hours of six in the morn- ing and eight at night. 3. No young person or woman shall be employed in any handi- craft during any period of twenty-four hours for more than twelve hours, with intervening periods for taking meals and rest amounting in the whole to not less than one hour and a half, and such em- ployment shall take place only between the hours of five in the morning and nine at night. 4, No child, young person, or woman shall be employed in any handicraft on Sunday or after two o'clock on Saturday afternoon, except in cases where not more than five persons are employed in the same establishment, and where such employment consists in making articles to be sold by retail on the premises, or in preparing articles of a like nature to those sold by retail on the premises. All persons employing women or children in contravention of this Act are liable to fines set forth in the Act. All inspectors and officers of health suspecting the Act to be infringed can have power granted them to enter premises by the order of a justice. Further provisions are made in this Act for the education of children employed in factories. This Act, like all other sanitary Acts, is only permissive. Should it please a vestry to shut its eyes to the evils of overworking children and women, they may allow the Act to remain a dead letter. There is, however, one vestry in London that has moved in this matter, and that of a parish which has perhaps more over- worked women in it than any parish in London, and that is the parish of Saint James, Westminster. This parish which, in a population of 36,000, numbers 1,500 sempstresses, presents a legitimate field for the operation of this Act. The vestry have ordered that the Act be circulated through the parish, and that all complaints of the infringements of its regulations shall be registered at the vestry-hall for the purposes of inquiry, and prosecution if necessary. The same has been done in some country-towns in Scotland. Lrreps.—We have to submit to our readers this time a special report on the sanitary condition of Leeds. Coincident with the generally improved state of the public health, Leeds, as contrasted with the past, presents a favourable aspect. The mortality during the present year, up to March 7th, has been at the rate of 24 per 1,000 per annum, against 32, 36, and 29 in the corresponding periods of 1865-1867. The sanitary condition, however, can be more correctly gauged by reference to that truest of all tests, the comparative number of deaths from Zymotic diseases. 1868] The Publie Health. 283 The following table shows the relative proportion of deaths from this class during the corresponding periods of 1866, 1867, and 1868 :— Deaths from principal Zymotics during corresponding Periods of 1866, 1867, and 1868. From January 1st to March 7th. 1866. 1867. 1868. Small pore ese sereeten sek eee lec PLD 12 6 Measles rom See) Nicer Se mae ai AM 12 1 CAAA eos itssia) ieome tach Neaoensh tS 19 22 Whooping Cough aor Mss ome ee ce 42 26 LOUD Pen Bee eats cre oc 33 17 18 Dharehesays Vik eek esy Cus ek 33 6 21 Typhus, Typhia, and Typhinia 154 60 50 Dyphtheria O° 6by Bd) ee 5 8 1 otalee at sneer oot 176 145 Such results as the above are satisfactory and encouraging to those who are endeavouring to elevate the healthiness of the towns but unfortunately this improvement in the sanitary status produce, another effect, vz., that of creating in the minds of town councillors a desire to rest and be satisfied, deducing, as such gentlemen are apt to do, the inference that a low death-rate affords a ready subterfuge against charges of inert policy. In Leeds there are hundreds of cesspools immediately under, or adjoining dwelling- houses, which the Town Council, in their Improvement Act of 1866, obtained powers to abolish; yet that body now hesitate to enforce the law, forsooth, because such a course would probably incur the risk of loss of seat in the coveted council chamber. After perusing the above, our readers will not be surprised to hear that the powers delegated to the local authority by the Sanitary Act of 1866 are but feebly executed, and that the members of the Corporation require awakening to the necessity of adopting vigor- ous prophylactic measures in order to combat—if not stamp out— preventible diseases, like typhus, typhia, small-pox, scarlatina, &e. For want of a public abattoir in Leeds, there are upwards of a hundred private slaughter-houses, in the hands of private individuals, distributed in various parts of the town, where in many instances they are not only a source of prodigious nuisance, but afford also, in consequence of difficulty of supervision, facile opportunities for .unprincipled butchers to slaughter and dress diseased animals. The large profits to be derived from such a trade are, as can easily be imagined, an immense temptation to engage in the traffic; and should the colour or consistence of the meat be such as to prevent the vendor from disposing of it in the shape of ordinary joints, it undergoes what is termed in the tech- VOL. V. 3 284 The Public Health. [ April, nical phraseology of the craft “boning ”—to be then consigned to the meat-pie or sausage manufacturer. One more instance will suffice to show how far town councillors can be entrusted to carry out existing laws, or the demands of modern science. The Nuisances and Scavenging Committee themselves possess one of the most gigantic nuisances that can possibly be concerved— to wit, a depdt for town garbage, placed in one of the most densely populated neighbourhoods of the town, where this refuse in its passage through the various states of putrefaction is converted into a saleable manure for the farmers, who fetch it away at their convenience. Surely such facts prove how much the public mind in Leeds needs educating concerning the immense advantages which flow from obedience to sanitary laws; and moreover, such know- ledge, when generally diffused, would produce the utterance of unmistakable language, and teach our local rulers, that in order to retain their seats on the aldermanic bench, they must—regardless of sordid interests—busy themselves in promoting the social well- being of the poor and ignorant in their wretched homes. Scornanp.—Since the last reference was made in this Journal to the subject of Public Health in Scotland, much has been done, both in the cities and large towns, and among the smaller communities, towards bringing about an improvement in their sanitary condition. Town Councils, Police Commissions, Parochial Boards, and other corporate authorities have been organizing measures for improving the Public Health, and lowering the very high death-rate which has - too long prevailed. During the last few months the desire to put the “ house in order” has been very manifest throughout the greater part of Scotland, especially in small communities where there were no police acts to empower the authorities to deal with sanitary matters. Now the provisions of the General Police and Improve- ment (Scotland) Act, 1862, commonly known as Provost Lindsay's Act, and Public Health (Scotland) Act, 1867, are at their disposal, and certainly it is a healthy sign to note the energy that is being displayed in many places to have those provisions put in force, especially in respect of such matters as the drainage and water- supply. It may not be inappropriate to commence with sanitary affairs in Scotland as they present themselves to our notice in Glasgow. One might naturally expect that in Glasgow there would be such an amount of energy and public spirit among her merchants, manufacturers, clergy, and others, that such measures as are known to be conducive to the maintenance of a high standard of Public Health would not only be taken by the public authorities, but that they would soon be put in operation through the assistance and for 1868. | The Public Health. 285 the benefit of the people at large. A measure which, in the minds of some of its promoters, undoubtedly had this object in view, is the Improvement Act, which was passed by Parliament in the session of 1866. It may be remembered that this Act provides for the expenditure of 1,250,000/., in order that the unhealthy dens, wynds, courts, and lanes that have been allowed to grow up and accumulate in the lapse of centuries might be rooted out, and be supplanted by open squares and thoroughfares, and by dwelling-houses constructed according to the most approved plans for the sanitary well-being of the occupants ; and that, in short, the denizens in the heart of the city should no longer be secluded from the healthy influences of the sun’s rays and the pure air of heaven. The benefits expected to ensue from the operations of the Improvement Act are removed farther into the future than was wished by ardent sanitary reformers. So soon as the police assessment papers were issued for the first year under the Improvement Act, complaints both loud and general were raised against the Act, because it was found by the taxpayers that, to the already heavy load of taxation for general police and sanitary purposes, there was to be superadded no less than sixpence per pound on the rental for improvement purposes. That amount of assessment was the utmost limit allowed by the provisions of the Act. The people began to consider that they were to purchase the improvements at too great a cost, that they were “to pay too much for their whistle.” What made the load seem still heavier, was that the occupiers were compelled to pay the whole of the assessments, while the owners of household property were allowed to go “scot free.” The Lord Provost, who was the chief promoter of the improvement scheme, lost his place in the Town Council in conse- quence ; and very soon thereafter the rate for improvement purposes was reduced to fourpence per pound for the second year. Considering the great depression and dulness prevailing during the last year or. two in the engineering, shipbuilding, and other staple trades of Glasgow, the resolution come to by the Improvement Act Commis- sioners was certainly a wise one, as it is not desirable that the lawfully constituted local authorities should be guilty of such conduct as is prone to provoke opposition to their decisions from any large body of the ratepayers, many of whom have always ample demands made upon their hard earnings. The position which Glasgow occupies in respect of water-supply is one that may well be envied by London and many other large communities. In a city of upwards of half-a-million of people the supply of water is 26,400,000 gallons daily, and of this quantity about six-sevenths is obtained from Loch Katrine by an aqueduct whose total length is thirty-four miles. The aqueduct could convey as much as 50,000,000 gallons per day; and this, be it noted, is water of great purity (24 grains of soluble matter per gallon), with x 286 The Public Health. [ April, less than one-ninth of the foreign matter contained in the purest water supplied to London, that of Chelsea. If all other sanitary conditions in Glasgow were on a par with the water-supply, one might naturally conclude that the mortality among the people living on the banks of the Clyde, receiving a daily average supply of about fifty gallons of water per head, would not mount up to 28, 29, 30, and 31 per thousand as it frequently does;* indeed it is one of the rarest things imaginable for the Glasgow death-rate to fall below 28 per thousand. Unfortunately, however, the river on whose banks Glasgow is built is still a cloaca maxima, a great common-sewer, into which the refuse, filth, and abominations of the city are freely discharged, so as to make the harbour, durmg summer more especially, a seething cauldron from which putrid exhalations arise to poison the atmosphere, and slowly but surely to poison the people who are compelled to breathe it. Glasgow has shown a good example to London by its Loch Katrine water scheme, but it has yet to learn from the Metropolis how to improve its condition in respect of the great project of intercepting the sewage-matter and conveying it to such a distance as will prevent it exerting any detrimental influence on the health of the people, and possibly to such a part of the West of Scotland as will be directly benefited by its fertilizing power. However unfortunate the present state of things in Glasgow may be, still there is room for hope that it cannot exist much longer, and sanitary reformers even think that they already almost see the “beginning of the end.” In the course of last year the authorities embraced in the Town Council, the Police Board, and the Clyde Trustees, jointly agreed to remit the consideration of the whole question of the sewage to Mr. J. F. Bateman, the engineer- in-chief of the Loch Katrine Water-works; Mr. Bazalgette, the engineer of the Main Drainage and Thames Embankment schemes ; and Profesor Anderson, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. The gentlemen just named have been de- voting a good deal of attention to the subject; and in the month of February last the two eminent engineers spent some days in Glasgow in giving audience to persons who take an interest in this life-and-death question. That the subject has excited a vast amount of local interest (and deservedly so) may be inferred from the fact that during the past winter there has existed an organiza- tion called “'The Association for the Consideration of the Sewage Question.” It embraces in its membership Town Councillors, engineers, chemists, physicians, manufacturers, merchants, and others. Meetings have been held regularly every fortnight, at which papers, treating on almost every conceivable plan, have * Even in the mild weather of January last, the death-rate per thousand of the population was during five weeks, respectively, 27, 38, 32, 31, and 32. 1868. ] The Public Health. 287 been read and discussed with much energy and intelligence. Ab- stract reports of the papers and discussions have been published in the local papers, and, as a matter of course, the interest felt in the subject is very general among intelligent people. The wet systems and dry systems, water-closets and earth-closets, the separation of liquid from solid sewage, house from street sewage, and the refuse of chemical works from both, irrigation and discharging into the sea, have all had their advocates; and frequent references have been made to Croydon, London, Carlisle, Wolverhampton, Paris, Naples, the Craigentinny Meadows at Edinburgh, and other illustrations of more or less successful attempts to dispose of the sewage refuse of large communities. It is to be hoped that the proceedings of the Glasgow Sewage Association may soon be published, so that any valuable information contained in the papers and discussions may be placed at the disposal of other people who are interested in sanitary progress. It is likewise to be hoped that the eminent engineers already named may soon mature such a plan for Glasgow and the Clyde as will be a pattern to other large towns that have the same difficulty to overcome as still meets the sanitarian in the Scottish commercial metropolis. Apart from the two questions already referred to, a good deal of sanitary work is being accomplished in Glasgow by and through the Police Board, and especially by the Sanitary Department. Acting on the maxim that bad drainage and damp, dark, ill-venti- lated, and overcrowded dwellings are a fruitful source of typhus fever, the members of Dr. Gairdner’s Sanitary Staff are continually on the alert to check and remove the causes of this and other forms of epidemic disease. But with all their alertness, typhus is constantly asserting its presence in the midst of the community. During last year, no fewer than 3,143 cases of fever were reported to the Sani- tary Committee of the Police Board, as against 3,541 in 1866, 7,707 in 1865, and 4,294 in 1864. A large number of the fever cases are treated in the Fever Hospital, erected especially for the treatment of free patients a year or two ago. In it there are 120 beds, of which only 20 were reported to be unoccupied at the end of January last. ‘The numbers of cases of fever reported at some of the fortnightly meetings held in December, January, and February last, are 156, 144, 165, 176, 189. Small-pox also shows itself in Glasgow, for in December, 1867, there were as many as 3) cases reported, notwithstanding that Jenner lived, and that medical schools since his day have never ceased to indoctrinate their pupils in the sanitary truths which he taught and practised during his profes- sional career. At a recent meeting of the Glasgow Police Board, attention was called to the existence of a range of buildings close to the West-end Park, in a district otherwise entirely occupied by the wealthy mem- 288 The Public Health. [April, bers of the community. The buildings were spoken of as intended for dwelling-houses, one story in height, in a narrow lane closed up at each end, and to which access can only be had by means of a covered passage. We say “intended,” for at the time of the report they were not ready for occupation. Will it be believed that in enlightened Glasgow, with its boundless wealth, its hundreds ot churches and other institutions of a religious, moral, and philan- thropic character, that dwelling-houses placed back to back, without any provision for ventilation, could be erected in the year of grace 1868, and that under the eye of the police authorities? We may well ask, of what use is the Glasgow Police Act, passed in the year 1866? It will be seen from the foregoing remarks, that there is not much of a very favourable character to report regarding Glasgow from a Public Health point of view. Of the sanitary state and prospects of other towns in Scotland much might be said, were there sufficient space at our command. All that is possible under the circumstances is a very brief reference to a few points of the greatest interest. During a large part of the last twelvemonth, the city of Edin- burgh has undergone such a minute and systematic visitation and inspection as have revealed a social and sanitary condition so hideous that one is tempted to regard with great doubt many of the state- ments just recently made at a meeting where the formal reports of the visitation committees were submitted to discussion and for approval. The movement originated in April last, with Lord Provost Chambers, of the eminent publishing firm. In his remarks as chairman at the meeting referred to, he said :—‘ We have called attention to the gross condition of the lower classes of Edinburgh— the intemperance, the want of proper houses, the discomfort of their dwellings, the want of proper air, light, and water, the demoralizing influences which prevail throughout the city in many ways, and the appalling fact, more particularly, that one in every nine of the population is a pauper! That is a very distressing thing.” Dr. Alexander Wood directed attention to the total absence of water and water-closets in the houses of many of the poor, and mentioned that some of the new houses which had recently been erected for the poor had the same defects as the old houses, referring especially to some buildings in the classic Canongate, where there are 33 families living in 35 rooms—including 24 children under five years of age and 101 adults—with no sink, water, or water- closet. The rooms, it seems, in which whole families live, average about 10 feet square. Another speaker, Sir James Y. Simpson, made the astounding statement that in Edinburgh—the “modern Athens ”—there are 60,000 people—one in every three of the population—living in houses of one room only. That is some- 1868. | The Public Health. 289 thing like sacrificing one or two of the inhabitants by preventible disease daily. It is sincerely to be hoped that Sir James Simpson’s statistics are wrong, and that Edinburgh is better than it is painted. From one of the reports read at the meeting, the following data re- garding the mortality and density of the population are taken :— Districts. Deaths per 1000. Lower New Town rete de Ae Al Broughton oma coin aeeEL: Guise Aired oth of.venid Ta Saphenis Grissmarketyeck 2s. eb 52 Mraacethirge Orato 0s eG inlecreee Ae and in some tenements in the last-mentioned districts, the mortality amounts to 60 per 1,000 of the population. Districts. Population per acre. Lower New Town : New Town Nad ee 5 Sem gael wc (Te PET "aaa yg, GTassIGATKGh 2 es poke h en 1 ee OD Canongate Sebo s Fie oe Ue SG hens sites Fe stole and it is confidently affirmed that in some of the districts of Edin- burgh the density of the population is so great as to be unequalled in any town in Britam. Is it any wonder that Mr. Chambers should have determined to mark his magisterial reign by an Im- provement Act, to root-out the fever-haunted dens and other plague- spots that form such a hideously foul blot on the boasted piety and refinement of Edinburgh? The Act secured powers in the last session of Parliament for borrowing 350,000/., and for laying on as the maaimum annual assessment fourpence per pound for twenty years, the same to be paid in equal proportions by the owner and the occupier. The Act is now being put in force by the Improve- ment Commissioners, and a sum of 50,000/. is to be placed at their disposal this year. When the report referred to is published, it will doubtless excite much surprise beyond the limits of the city with which it deals. The thriving and important town of Dundee acquired an un- enviable notoriety during the cholera epidemic of 1866, owing to the ravages made amongst the people in the district of Lochee. Hitherto this district has been proverbial for its periodical visita- tions of epidemic disease, and it has practically been a separate district from Dundee in respect of drainage and drainage rates. Indeed it has hitherto had neither the one thing nor the other. While Dundee proper has been most completely and effectually drained, the effects of which were seen in its almost total exemption from cholera at the last visitation, and have for some years been 290 The Public Health. [ April, seen in the less virulent character of other epidemic diseases, its Lochee suburb has been growing more and more densely populated, and its want of drainage, its overcrowding, its nuisances, and its general insanitary state have at last led to a revolt, and action is now being taken by the Police Commission under the provisions of the Public Health Act (1867). In the face of that Act the nuisance-mongers sink into utter nothingness. It is probable that the same cholera epidemic produced a greater proportionate amount of misery in the town of Leven, Fifeshire, than in any other town in the kingdom. It was terribly fatal, so fatal, indeed, that the people fled in great numbers from the plague- stricken spot, and left it comparatively deserted. The town was all but without sewerage, and the well-water, on which the people almost entirely depended, was found to be strongly impregnated with putrefying animal matter, which had percolated through the soil from the numerous cesspools. Such direful results as attended the non-observance of the ordinary rules of health roused the people to a sense of their danger, and in March, 1867, they resolved on adopting Provost Lindsay’s Police and Improvement Act (1862). Commissioners were appointed, and the requisite measures taken to carry out the provisions of the Act. Already a bountiful supply of excellent water is introduced into the town, and now the commis- sloners are proceeding with the necessary drainage improvements. Leven is one of the most pleasantly-situated watermg places in the ancient kingdom of Fife, and it promises soon to be one of the tidiest towns in Scotland, to be no more, it is to be hoped, a hotbed of epidemic disease. It is a hopeful sign to notice the general anxiety prevailing throughout Scotland with regard to the adoption of measures to improve the Public Health. Where other statutory authority does not exist, the Acts of 1862 and 1867 are being called into requi- sition, and in various places a supply of water is brought in where it is wanted; drainage works are being constructed; nuisances removed, and sanitary inspectors and medical Officers of Health appointed. Stumbling-blocks, however, of various kinds are here and there showing themselves ; but the right will ultimately come to the surface. Upwards of eighty towns and populous places have already adopted, in whole or in part, the General Police and Improvement Act (1862). Amongst the other places in Scot- land in which there are signs of sanitary commotion, we may, in conclusion, mention the following :—Aberdeen, Montrose, Nairn, Hawick, Aberdour, Thornhill, Elgin, Pennicuik, Galashiels, Perth, Paisley, Greenock, Kirkcaldy, Dysart, and Vale of Leven. 1868. ] ( 291 ) Quarterly List of Publications receibed for IWebielv. 1. The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. 2 vols. 8vo. With Engravings. Murray. 2. Faraday as a Discoverer. By John Tyndall. With Portrait. 175 pp. Post 8vo. Longmans & Co. 3. A System of Medicine. Edited by J. Russell Reynolds, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College. Vol. II., containing Local Diseases. 1,000 pp. 8vo. Macmillan & Co. 4, Life of Sir John Richardson, C.B., LL.D., F.RS., Inspector of Naval Hospitals and Fleets. By the Rev. John MclIlraith, Minister of the English Reformed Church, Amsterdam. 290 pp. Feap. 8vo. Longmans. 5. British Social Wasps: an Introduction to their Anatomy and Physiology, Architecture and General Natural History. By Edward Latham Ormerod, M.D., Caius College, Cambridge, Physician to the Sussex County Hospital. 280 pp. Post 8vo. 14 Plates. Longmans. 6. The Mineralogist’s Directory: A Guide to the Principal Mineral Localities of Great Britain and Ireland. By Townshend M. Hall, F.G.S. 180 pp. Post 8vo. EE. Stanford. 7. Chemical Notes for the Lecture Room on Heat, Laws of Chemical Combination, and Chemistry of the Non-Metallic Elements. By Thomas Wood, Ph.D., F.C.S., Chemical Lecturer at the Brighton College. Second Edition. Post 8vo. 120 pp. Longmans & Co. 8. The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia. By Sven Nilsson. Third Edition. Edited by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. 16 Plates. 350 pp. 8vo. Longmans & Co. 9, The World as Dynamical and Immaterial; and, the Nature of Perception. By R. 8. Wyld, F.R.S.E. 235 pp. Post 8vo. Edinburgh : Oliver & Boyd. 292 List of Publications received for Review. | April, 10. A Manual of Inorganic Chemistry, arranged to facilitate the i 12. 13. 14, 15. 16, Experimental Demonstration of the Facts and Principles of the Science. By Charles W. Eliot and Frank H. Storer, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Second KEdition. 660 pp. Crown 8vo. With Engravings. Van Voorst. First Principles of Modern Chemistry. A Manual of Inorganic Chemistry, for Students and for Use in Schools and Science Classes. By W. J. Kay-Shuttleworth. 220 pp. Crown 8yo. Churchill & Sons. A Treatise on Frictional Electricity, in Theory and Practice. By Sir William Snow Harris, F.R.S. Edited, with a Memoir of the Author, by Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S. 119 Wood Engravings. 320 pp. 8vo. Virtue & Co, On the Pathology and Treatment of Albuminuria. By Wm. H. Dickinson, M.D., Cantab. Assistant-Physician to St. George’s Hospital and to the Hospital for Sick Children. 10 Plates. 290 pp. 8vo. Longmans & Co. Jerrold, Tennyson, and Macaulay; with other Critical Essays. By James Hutchison Stirling, LL.D. 245 pp. Post 8vo. Edmonston & Douglas. Principles of Geology. By Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Tenth Edition, Vol. IJ. 660 pp. 8vo. Murray. A Sketch of a Philosophy. Part II., Matter and Molecular Mor- phology. 75 Diagrams. 116 pp. 8vo. Williams & Norgate. PAMPHLETS, PERIODICALS, AND PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. Guinea Worm, or Dracunculus: its Symptoms and Progress, Causes, Pathological Anatomy, Results, and Radical Cure. By James Africanus B. Horton, M.D. Edin., Staff Assistant- Surgeon of H.M. Forces in West Africa. 50 pp. 8vo. John Churchill & Sons. On certain Moral Aspects of Money-Getting. By W. T. Gairdner, M.D. 47 pp. 8vo. Experimental Investigations connected with the Supply of Water to Calcutta. 38 pp. 8vo. By D. Waldie, F.G.S. On the Spectrum of the Bessemer Flame. By W. M. Watts, D.Sc. Plate. 4 pp. 8vo. 1868. | List of Publications received for Review. 293 The Present Position of Opinion respecting the Geology of Devonshire. By W. Pengelly, F.R.S. 387 pp. 8vo. The Antiquity of Man in the South-west of England. By the same Author. On the Distribution of the Devonian Brachiopoda of Devonshire and Cornwall. Same Author. The Raised Beaches in Barnstaple Bay. Same Author. On the Deposits occupying the Valley between the Braddons and Haldon Hills, Torquay. Same Author. On the Floatation of Clouds, and the Fall of Rain. Same Author. Notes on the Meteoric Shower of November, 1866, with Specu- lations suggested by it. Same Author. On a Thermometer unaffected by Radiation. By Dr. J. P. Joule, F.R.S. Hints to Certifying Surgeons under the Factory Acts. By George Greaves, M.R.C.S. Knight & Co. Harvesting in Wet Weather. By W. A. Gibbs. On an Improved Method of dividing Alcohol and other Thermo- meters. By William Ackland. 4 pp. 8vo. The Annual Meeting of the Miners’ Association of Cornwall and Devonshire. With Engravings. Proceedings of the Essex Institute. (Salem, Massachusetts.) Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow. The Medical Record. (New York.) The Mining Gazette. (Halifax, Nova Scotia.) Le Mouvement Médical. The American Naturalist. The Geological Magazine. The Westminster Review. Proceedings of the Royal Society. ‘5 », Royal Astronomical Society. és » Chemical Society of London. 6 5» Royal Geographical Society. ay » Zoological Society of London. NOTICE TO AUTHORS. * * Authors of OriamvaL Papers wishing Reprints for private circulation may have them on application to the Printers of the Journal, Messrs. W. Crowns & Sons, 14, Cuarte Cross, S.W., at a fixed charge of 30s. per sheet per 100 copies, including a CotoureD Wrapper and Tirtz Paas, but such Reprints will not be delivered to Contributors till ONE Monts after publication of the Number containing their Paper, and the Reprints must be ordered before the expiration of that period. Quarterly Ji Science N°19 N Hanhart HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA. (+o illustrate M? Phillips’ Article THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. JULY, 1868. I. DARWIN AND PANGENESIS. Ir is nearly ten years since the most important work on biological science which has ever been published, namely, the ‘ Origin of Species,’ issued from the press; and during the long interval, interrupted, we regret to say, by bodily illness, the well-known author of that work has been accumulating further evidence in favour of his theory, which he now gives to the world. So far, his detailed information relates almost entirely to animals and plants under domestication ;* and although the work in which it is con- tained forms a continuation of the argument in favour of the derivative origin of species, it does not conclude the consideration of the subject ; and we are promised, first, 2 work upon the varia- bility of organic beings in a state of nature; secondly, one upon the difficulties opposed to the theory of natural selection; and, finally, one in which it is apparently intended by the author to give a résumé of the whole subject, and wherein he will “try the principle of natural selection, by seeing how far it will give a fair explanation of the several classes of facts alluded to.” t We confess that these announcements have taken us a little by surprise; for seeing that the esteemed author of these works, extant and promised, is already about sixty years of age, and that ten years have elapsed between the appearance of his introductory treatise and the one now before us, which is by no means the most important of the series, he must have sufficient faith in his own theory of the “ survival of the fittest” to anticipate the extension of his brilliant career to at least the age of ninety. All we can say is, that we hope his expectations may be realized, and that the accu- mulation of knowledge and thought in the meantime may enable * «The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.’ By Charies Darwin, M.A., F.R.S., &. In two vols., with illustrations. Murray, 1868. 7 Ibid., vol. 1., p. 9: VOL. V. Y 296 Darwin and Pangenesis. [July, him to bequeath to mankind a biological theory which shall bear the test of future ages, and firmly secure the pedestal of fame upon which the reputation of its author is already elevated. It may be within the memory of some of our readers, that about six years after the appearance of the ‘Origin of Species’—when, therefore, sufficient time had elapsed to enable all classes of thinkers to express their views upon the Darwinian theory—we ventured to review the state of scientific opmion upon the subject, and to add such original thoughts as that review had suggested to us;* and as we find in the work before us many attempts to explain dif_i- culties which at that time appeared to us to militate against the unqualified acceptance of the Darwinian doctrine, we may be pardoned for once more touching upon them, with a view to con- sider whether thosé obstacles have been removed in the present work, or whether they still impart to the hypothesis an imper- fection which needs to be supplied before it can be converted into a well-acknowledged biological guide for all ages. It appeared to us at that time, as it has to many others, that the author claimed for what he terms “ natural selection,” powers to modify old species as well as render permanent the character of new ones,—thus implying intelligence and every other attri- bute requisite for that purpose; and we sought to show that the author himself had not formed a clear conception of what “natural selection” is able to accomplish. We quoted one of his remarks, that “it” (natural selection) “can modify the ege, seed, or young, as easily as the adult;” + but endeavoured to show, by col- lateral quotations, that the author rather considered the “ conditions of life” as the causes which induce variability, and that then “natural selection” accumulates those variations when they are profitable for the animal. Now, as by “natural selection” the author meant the part played by nature (the conditions of existence by which the living form is surrounded) analogous to man’s opera- tions in selecting and training animals under domestication ; so, just as we might say of any change in the nature of an animal, “fattening” or “crossing” has effected it, instead of “the breeder has effected it by fattening or crossing ;” we must not be too nice in our distinction of terms, and we must regard “ Nature,” the “ conditions of existence,” “ natural selection,” as in so far one and the same great power favouring the continued existence of certain types, and even in some degree modifying those types, just as the breeder modifies his domesticated animals. But even granting to the author the utmost licence in the use of terms, we could not then, and cannot now, help being drawn insensibly to the conclu- sion that the departure from any existing type results in the * «Darwin and his Teachings:” ‘ Quarterly Journal of Science,’ April, 1866. ¢ ‘Origin of Species,’ 3rd edition (1861), p. 144, par. 2. 1868. | _ Darwin and Pangenesis. 297 main from a change in the reproductive organs of the animal; and it appears to us that whilst in his earlier work the author laid too little stress upon this obscure phase of his subject, it has haunted him throughout the present work; and though he still attributes to the external conditions of existence the chief influence in modi- fying species (or even varieties), we find his expressions much more clear concerning the agency which immediately operates to bring about this modification, for he says:—“ The causes which induce variability act on the mature organism, on the embryo, and, as we have good reason to believe, on both sexual elements before impregnation has been effected.” * Now this is what may be called a much clearer declaration of principle than we have hitherto had from the author; and, leaving out of sight the question of the amount of variability which can by any means be brought about, we find that virtually, according to his views, the nature of the living form is decided at its very conception. For, whether the most widely diverging characters have been secured, as in the author’s favourite illustra- tion, the pigeon, or some “spontaneous” variation has sprung up, or some peculiarity has been lost sight of for one or more generations and has suddenly reappeared, in every case, and especially in the latter, the reproductive elements, or one of them, must, according to the author’s views, have been the acting or per- petuating agency. In order to account for this marvellous property of the germ, the author has supplied us with a provisional hypo- thesis, “pangenesis,” and has sought to explain. how the sexual elements operate upon the fabric of which they serve as the basis. But there still remains a wide subject untouched; and that is, whether and in what degree the reproductive organs are affected by certain psychical causes, with which neither “conditions of exist- ence” nor yet “natural selection” have any immediate relation. This phase of the question must, however, be left for a moment unconsidered ; and having referred to the crucial difficulty upon which we stumble when we regard the mode in which variation begins, we must next touch upon that other perplexing problem, hybridism, which is considered by the author’s opponents to denote its limits, and to stand as an insuperable obstacle in the way of the acceptance of his theory. In our former notice of the author's works referred to above, we ventured to express the view that the phenomenon of hybridism should be regarded in the light of an occasional check placed by Providence upon the too rapid tendency to vary, which might arise even under the author's slow process, and might cause a reversion to the original stock, or a confusion of forms, totally subversive of all order in animated * “Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii., p. 270. xy 2 298 Darwin and Pangenesis. [ July, nature; and although such a view may be seized upon by the opponents of the theory as an admission that there zs a limit to variation, and that therefore no new species can thus have been brought into existence (a corollary which by no means results from our proposition), yet we find that in the work before us the author quite concurs with our views, excepting that he seeks to explain how hybridism is affected by nature, whilst we contented our- selves with suggesting that Providence does bring about such results, without as yet seeing clearly by what means they are effected. He first compares the phenomena relating to this subject in domesticated animals with those in a state of nature :—“ On the principle which makes it necessary for man, whilst he is selecting and improving his domestic varieties, to keep them separate, it would clearly be advantageous to varieties in a state of nature, that is, to incipient species, if they could be kept from blending, either through sexual aversion or by becoming mutually sterile. Hence it at one time appeared to me probable, as it has to others, that this sterility might have been acquired through natural selection. On this pomt we must suppose that a shade of lessened fertility first spontaneously appeared, like any other modification, in certain individuals of a species when crossed with other individuals of the same species, and that successive degrees of infertility, from being advantageous, were slowly accumuiated.” * The words italicized by us show that the author had thus only removed the difficulty a little farther from view than before, but he has now come to the conclusion that “species have not been rendered mutually infertile through the accumulative action of natural selection ;” .. . “ that they have not been endowed through an act of creation with this quality ;” but that “it has arisen inci- dentally during their slow formation in connection with other and unknown changes in their organization.” | The word (again under- lined by us) would lead one to think that the difficulty remains to the author pretty much where it was; but the context shows that he attributes the changes in the reproductive system leading to hybridism to a correlative variation in the whole living form, that is, that when the whole fabric changes, that portion of it which perpetuates the animal changes also, and the ultimate agency is again “pangenesis ;” but then again he says, “ Pangenesis does not throw much light on hybridism.” t There is another view taken by the author, of the occurrence and effect of hybridism in nature, which deserves mention. He finds that when wild animals are at first domesticated, the sudden change in the surrounding conditions of their life renders them for a time infertile: “numerous facts,” he says, “have been given, * « Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii., p. 185. + Ibid., p. 188. t Ibid., p. 385. 1868. | Darwin and Pangenesis. 299 showing that when animals are first subjected to captivity, even in their native land, and although allowed much hberty, their repro- ductive functions are often greatly impaired or quite annulled ;” * but, on the other hand, crosses between varieties slightly modified render the offspring rather more fertile than otherwise. Now he believes that what occurs under domestication by a leap, is slowly proceeding in nature; for natura non facit saltwm, and that infer- tility has been gradually proceeding from changed conditions of existence, extending over long ages, but resulting at length in as marked a difference as when the conditions have been suddenly changed from freedom to captivity. 1 But here, again, whilst the author's results appear to be cor- rectly stated, the parallel by which he seeks to explain the cause is unfortunate and inapplicable; for in the case of domestication a male and female of the same variety (or one of them) are suddenly rendered quite infertile, their “fertility becomes at once quite annulled ;” whereas in nature the individuals of the same species remain quite fertile, inter se, whilst it is only when they come to be crossed with other species that the union is barren. But there is still another aspect of the question, im which a simple statement of facts alone gives to the theory of modification a large amount of weight. In seeking to show that the barrier of hybridism is not so for- midable as his antagonists would make it appear, the author says: “The sterility of distinct species when first united, and that of their hybrid offspring, graduates by an almost infinite number of steps, from zero, when the ovule is never impregnated and a seed capsule is never formed, up to complete fertility. We can only escape the conclusion that some species are fully fertile when crossed, by determining to designate as varieties all the forms which are quite fertile. This high degree of fertility is, however, rare. Nevertheless, plants which have been exposed to unnatural conditions sometimes become modified in so peculiar a manner that they are much more fertile when crossed by a distinct species than when fertilized by their own pollen. Success in effecting a first union between species and the fertility of their hybrids depends in an eminent degree on the conditions of life being favourable. The innate sterility of hybrids of the same parentage and raised from the same seed-capsule often differs much in degree.” In our notice of the author’s former work we charged him with making light of the difficulties of hybridism. ‘The fact is, he was already in possession of a mass of information which justified his giving less weight to that phase of the question than we were dis- posed to do, for, in common with many other critics, we had been * « Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii., p. 176 + Ibid., p. 179. 300 Darwin and Pangenesis. [July, taught to believe that “species” means two distinct types whose union is infertile. But whatever may be urged against the author’s speculations upon the causes of certain natural phenomena, no one who knows anything of his character as an observer and writer will receive his statements of facts otherwise than with the most implicit confidence. And now in regard to this apparently insurmountable difficulty of hybridism, the author tells us that, as a rule, “species,” that is, widely diverging types, are infertile with each other, but that there are not only cases where they are fertile, but as we descend in the scale of nature, the crossing of species under certain conditions actually increases fertility, and that the only escape from making this admission in many cases, is by reasoning in a circle and calling species varieties because they are fertile. Well, as we do believe the author’s statements of facts, and as we consider the terms “variety,” “species,” “genus,” &c., to have been introduced into natural history by man for the guidance of his own limited intellect, and to have no actual existence in nature, we are unable to find any rational objection to the broad principle laid down by the author and his predecessors holding similar views, that all new forms of life are and have been modified descendants of pre-existing ones. Nor have we ever been able to see any other rational mode of accounting for the progression of nature. It is, indeed, quite proper at all times that new philosophical theories should be received with “philosophical caution ;” it is perfectly just that persons who hold opinions which have been accepted as truths in the past, should require of those who desire to convert them to a new philosophical faith, a large amount of trustworthy evidence in its favour, and should insist upon the clearmg away of patent obstacles to its acceptance ; but, adopting one of the ordinary principles of juris- prudence, when such an amount of evidence has been advanced, and when obstacles which were previously deemed insurmountable have been shown not to be so, the onus of proof then falls upon those who have held the original faith, which may have been con- ceived in ignorance, and perpetuated by unreasoning philosophical conservatism. The facts contained in the work before us already show that great modifications in osteological and external structure, and great divergences in habit, may in a brief period be brought about by the changed conditions and artificial selection practised under domes- tication. These modifications are so great, that were it not for the fertility of the varieties when crossed, no naturalist would hesitate to class them as distinct species. It is also proved almost to a certainty that many domesticated “ breeds” which are fertile when intercrossed have descended from ancestors of different species. Again, a glance at the history of the past shows us that step by 1868. ] Darwin and Pangenesis. 301 step new and more completely organized forms have been super- seding old and (in one sense) less perfect ones. Where links have been missing one day, they have been discovered the next. Gaps which appeared insurmountable are constantly being bridged over by the discovery of organic remains, notwithstanding that a great portion of these are still concealed from human research. The growth of the individual is completely typical of what the advo- eates of descent by modification maintain to have been the history of animated nature. All these facts are strongly in favour of the theory of the forma- tion of new species by modified descent, and what evidence have the advocates of the opposite theory to advance in its favour? Indeed, it is difficult to find out what their theory really is, or rather what their theories are, for it would hardly be possible to find half-a-dozen anti-Darwinians who, if they think at all, think alike. Leaving out of the question the means by which the modifica- tions have been brought about, but not doubting for an instant that it has been by slow gradation and natural agencies, and without any derangement of the laws of nature as generally accepted by mankind, we conceive that at least sufficient valid evidence has now been laid before the scientific world to justify its acceptance, pure and simple, of the law of descent by modification, from the operation of which law there is no reason whatever to exclude Man ; and all unbiassed thinkers will now expect from the opponents of that theory that they will desist from attacking the new and rational doctrine with absurd theological denunciations, or with quibbles concerning the precise nature of the zoological term “ species,” but that they will put forward a clear defence of some definite doctrine of their own; will explain with ordinary clearness how they believe new types really have been introduced, and will support their defence by well-established scientific data. We all know how easy and convenient it is to dash off an article upon such a work as the one before us, in which the world is informed in two or three columns of pompous common-places, that the reviewer sees no new proof of the author’s theory, and that until such proofs are forthcoming, it must continue to be regarded as “ purely hypothetical ;” in other words, that persons who have no inclination to believe it, may reject it until the critic does see some convincing proof of its validity; and of course it is much easier, and, in a reviewing sense, pays much better to make such an announcement a week after the volumes have appeared (which have employed ten years of the author’s life), than if the criti- cism be reserved for even a fortnight’s perusal and consideration. It is equally facile, in these days of free-thought, for a person whose biological doctrines have been imbibed from the first chapter of Genesis, and some elementary work on Natural History, to 302 Darwin and Pangenesis. [ July, triumph over an unfortunate “ Darwinian” by daring him to admit that he believes a Christian and a bull to have had the same ancestry ! But with the exception of a few thinking observers—the measure of whose information is only exceeded by their caution, which pre- vents them from accepting the new theory—the large majority of its opponents are really such reasoners as we have described; and it appears to us that the acceptance of the theory will depend more upon the decline of superstition than upon the ascendancy of knowledge. To return, however, to our difficulties. Another feature in the theory of modification of species which presents evidence for as well as against the doctrine of “natural selection” is the inheritance of peculiarities. In his ‘Origin of Species’* the author said:—“'The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown: no one can say why a peculiarity in different individuals of the same species, or in individuals of different species, is sometimes inherited and some- times not so, why the child often reverts in certain characters to its grandfather or grandmother, or more remote ancestor.” But as we stated in our criticism already referred to, this very ignorance of the causes of inheritance presents a grave obstacle to acceptance of the doctrine of modification through the external conditions of life ; for what can that power have effected “where the deceased father is resembled by a posthumous child?” + Had such inherited pecu- liarities been mental only, they might have resulted from early training; but if we take a case which is not unusual, that the grandchild by a daughter of the grandfather resembles the latter both in features and character, then we have the mental and physical peculiarities of a male transmitted through two females, the mother and daughter. The mode in which we sought to explain such a wonderful. phenomenon, and one, as it appeared to us, then at variance with the author’s views, was that “from the very commencement of life up to the present hour there are evidences of an ¢mmediate designing power’—or, to use a term which is looked upon with disfavour by many Darwinians, an ordaining power—an occult influence in the production and modification of the sexual elements, and consequently of the beings springing from them, totally distinct from the “ conditions of existence,” “ natural selection,” or whatever the force may be called which influences the embryo and the born creature.{ ‘The justification we have for quoting these few expres- sions of our own, is that to a large extent the author seems to have * P. 13, 8th edition. + “ Darwin and his Teachings :” ‘Journal of Science,’ vol. iii., p. 174. ¢ Ibid., p. 174, 1868. | Darwin and Pangenesis. | 303 adopted the suggestions we then made; and he seeks now to show what that “occult influence” is which modifies the male and female elements of reproduction. Without losing his hold upon the “ conditions of existence” which, as we have shown, he considers to be one of the main causes of change in the organs of reproduc- tion, he finds in “ pangenesis” the solution of the problem and the immediate means by which the change is effected. And now for his provisional hypothesis of “ pangenesis.” To explain it in his own words, it “ imphes that the whole organization in the sense of every atom or unit reproduces itself. Hence ovules and pollen-grains—the fertilized seed or egg, as well as buds— include and consist of a multitude of germs thrown off from each separate atom of the organism.” In short, it is the application of the atomic theory to living forms ; is in perfect conformity with all the teachings of correlation between vital and physical forces, and as a provisional hypothesis, is well worthy of the consideration which the author and others have bestowed upon it.* The author believes (at least as far as we can judge from his remarks on such an obscure subject) that all changes in the various organisms which result from the contact of the spermatozoon and ovum, as well as those which are derived from gemmation or budding, have their origin in the nature of the cel/s which constitute the elements or materials in operation. The cells or units which constitute all living bodies, from the simplest to the most complex, are themselves organized, and consist of lesser cells or atoms having various natures, and according to the author they give off those constituent atoms as “ gemmules,” and the nature of those atoms or “gemmules” fixes the future character of the organism into which they enter. In this manner he seeks to account for the first variation in living types; for the transmission of inherited peculiarities from a grandfather, say, through a daughter to a grandchild ; for hybridism. Let us endeavour to explain briefly and as popularly as possible, how the author believes that pangenesis acts in these cases. It must be presumed, first, that the male and female elements each contain a due proportion of cells composed of “‘ gemmules.” If there is a preponderance of certain gemmules in the paternal element of reproduction over those of the female, then the offspring may either resemble the father in the next generation, or the effect, being one of quantity, may be latent in that generation and only appear in the succeeding one—the peculiarity being transmitted through the reproductive organs of the intermediate generation which showed no such peculiarity. If the preponderance (the * An able article on the subject, called “Cell Life,’ by Dr. Fick, of Zurich, will be found in this Journal, April, 1866. 304 Darwin and Pangenesis. [July, “ prepotency,” as he terms it) be with the mother or female parent, then her or, if a plant, its likeness will be transmitted. Now, if we once admit, what is of course quite a matter of speculation, namely, that the male and female elements are built up of atoms possessing different properties, bone-forming atoms, flesh-forming atoms, fat-forming atoms, to speak popularly, it is natural to suppose that these atoms when they are distributed through the organism may have an attraction for their kind, and this the author also assumes, and as a consequence that if there be a variation in the constitution of the reproductive elements, there will be a tendency to vary in the whole organism, and thus new varieties may arise. But, finally, if one or both of the sexual elements should be deficient in those gemmules, or in the kind of gemmules necessary for fertilization of some particular form, so that one or both, instead of being “ prepotent,” should be “impotent,” then hybridity is the result—that is, the male of one may be impotent with the female of another species, or vice versa; or they may be mutually infertile. Some of our readers will probably have felt a little difficulty in following us through this intricate “provisional hypothesis,” for it removes still farther from the reach of our senses the agencies by which vital changes are supposed by the author to be brought about in animated nature. That naturalists will have to devote their attention to this obscure question is, however, quite certain ; but the large majority of readers, even those tolerably well ac- quainted with biological phenomena, will only see in the “ provisional hypothesis” a means of solving a difficult problem by another still more difficult of solution. First, let us confine ourselves to the physical aspect of the question. Perhaps the simplest form of cell known to us is the Ameba. This consists of cell-contents probably enclosed in a highly elastic cell-wall. The cell-contents comprise a nucleus or germ, a nucleolus within the nucleus, and a number of granules floatmg in a semi-filuid substance often called “sarcode.” This simple cell is already believed to possess in its nucleus and nucleo- lus some kind of organs of reproduction; but according to the author, it must contain a vast number of gemmules of different natures, for it is from such cells as these, im all probability, that many higher organisms have been built up. It does not neces- sarily follow that such a cell should contain “ gemmules” of all kinds needful for the assimilation of the various organic and inorganic substances with which higher organisms that will proceed from it “by descent” are to be nourished; but what the cell must at some time or other have (according to the author’s views) is a tendency to vary, else we should come to a standstill at the very threshold of “nature’s progression,” and all the beautiful varieties 1868. | Darwin and Pangenesis. 305 of infusoria, even, would have remained still in the conception of the Maker. Now what perplexes us is, how in this humble form the sur- rounding conditions of external nature can operate to bring about a “tendency to vary.” To say that we are unable to understand this, and the less therefore we say about it the better—as the author occasionally does when he comes to a dead-lock in some mystery of nature—is taking refuge behind even less defensible breastworks than those of his opponents; for they have at least a Divine force and Will to appeal to on all such occasions. The author says, at the conclusion of his chapter on “ pangenesis:’—“ Finally, the power of propagation possessed by each separate cell, using the term in its largest sense, determines the reproduction, the varia- bility, the development, and renovation of each living organism.” (But, we would ask parenthetically, how does that cell itself begin to vary?) “No other attempt has been made, imperfect as this confessedly is, to connect. under one point of view these several grand classes of facts. We cannot fathom the marvellous com- plexity of an organic being; but, on the hypothesis here advanced, this complexity is much increased. Each living creature must be looked at as a microcosm—a little universe formed of a host of self-propagating organisms, inconceivably minute, and as numerous as the stars in the heaven.” In regard to the latter portion of this paragraph, we cordially award to the able author .the credit of having exhibited and illustrated the theory of cell-life, in a manner so novel and interesting as to take it out of the mere province of speculation, and to present it as one well deserving of the earnest consideration of biologists. The application of its principles to the phenomena of the hereditary transmission of peculiarities, whether they be normal or abnormal, such as the inheritance of peculiar features or of special diseases, opens out a wide field for research, and ere long the physical aspect of many of those phenomena may be made clear; but when he treats living “ gemmules” as he would atoms of inorganic matter which go to form crystals, and seeks to clear up the difficulties accompanying the first tendency to vary by resorting to this almost unconsidered theory to account for the defects in his own well-founded hypothesis, we have an exhibition of weakness rather than an addition of strength. Just let us examine one or two of his examples of the operation of pangenesis. The author finds that when animals are suddenly brought under domestication, they are for a time infertile, and, as it has already been shown, this infertility is compared with that which gradually supervenes as varieties become more divergent in Nature. Now, it 1s quite possible that in both these cases the number of 306 Darwin and Pangenesis. [July, the hypothetical “ gemmules” in the spermatozoon or ovule may be deficient or their nature defective; but has it yet been shown that in the instance first named there is any spermatozoon at all in existence? Would it not be more philosophical to ascertain first whether the material element is present or absent (we of course refer to the higher animals, in which the phenomenon of hybridism comes out most prominently) before we attempt to discuss the number or nature of its constituents, of which we at present know nothing ? Or in these same cases of hybridism induced by sudden captivity, or by divergence in nature, we would ask the author, Are the periodical movements and the affinities of the sexual elements already so well understood that it should be safe to pass them by and descend to the consideration of the probable effect of their hypo- thetical invisible constituents ? But, on the other hand, there can be no doubt that when the male and female elements are perfect and perform their proper functions, they do possess powers which exceed in strangeness any- thing that the most fertile imagination has yet invented. Just imagine a man with a finger wanting on one hand, and one or more of his children being born with the same defect! It is just within the range of possibility that the state of mind of the mother may by some mysterious influence have caused that defect to be repro- duced; but looking at all similar phenomena, it is far more probable that the defect has been communicated by the paternal male element to the ovum, and thus perpetuated in the embryo. Let us now, however, turn for a moment to the psychical phenomena which present themselves when we consider the tendency of living types to vary, and the occasional checks which are put. upon their divergence, and we shall find the cell-theory as little able to account for those as we should find a musical instrument capable of conveying an explanation of the passions which. its notes inspire in the human breast, and which nerve the arm of the warrior, exhausted by a weary march, or lull to rest the spirit of a fretful child. The author, as we have seen, admits that the reproductive elements constitute that portion of the organism in or through which the tendency to vary probably first manifests itself, but (if we understand him correctly) he attributes the change in those elements to altered physical conditions alone. Now, if we pass in review before our mind’s eye the various types of animals which must have succeeded each other through modified descent, we find that amongst the lower forms it is just possible to conceive that the tendency to variation in the reproductive elements might be the result of external physical influences alone; but this admission would ef itself be fatal to the application of the same theory to 1868. | Darwin and Pangenesis. 307 the higher animals, whose tendency to vary (we do not speak of any special organs) depends palpably to a large extent upon the action of mental influences. An Actinca may find itself surrounded by natural conditions over which it has no control, as changed food, deficiency or superabundance of light, or any other physical cause, and which may bring about a change in its reproductive elements, and thus give rise to a new variety. But would it be either natural or rational to apply this rule to the higher animals, espe- cially to Man? Is it not certain that there we have psychical forces inducing actions, and those actions bringing about new varieties, and in a manner independently of those material influences which operate lower down in the animal scale. A union may be brought about between two human beings solely from the attractions of the mind; and let us suppose some marked mental quality to be inherited. Now, we are apt to use the term “inherited” somewhat arbitrarily; for what appears to be thus communicated might, after all, be the result of mental training or example, which would have operated in a foster-child as well as in true offspring, and in that case the illustration would cease to hold good. But assuming that there is a “prepotency ” on the side of the father to transmit his likeness, and that therefore some slight cerebral characteristic descends to the son, upon whom training and example are brought to bear, so that the mental quality, whatever it may be, comes to be developed in a higher degree in the son than in the father. Here we have two distinct states of facts and two forces: the one physical, the other psychical; the one material, and explicable only upon a “ provisional hypothesis,” the other metaphysical, and yet as clear and patent as any such matters can be to the human mind. In the parents, love or respect operating, it is true, through the senses, but uninfluenced by the “sense” in a lower acceptation of the term, brings about a union which is to lead to a new varia- tion both in the physical and psychical nature of man. In the offspring, solicitude evinced in training or teaching, that is, mental intercommunication, and later on the wumnfettered will of the offspring, develop and perpetuate the mental quality, and almost certainly mould the brain and physical frame in conformity to the new condition: the immaterial, impalpable soul acts, invisibly to us, upon the brain, just as we develop the muscles through physical exercise; but prominent before all other phenomena we find the will, the soul, the active, guiding, moving force at work, and at work upon willing, passive materials. Now look at the materialistic hypothesis. We will admit that it is possible a “ prepotency” in the father may have given his likeness to the son: that the supposed order, number, nature, and 308 Darwin and Pangenesis. [ July, disposition of the supposed gemmules in the male organ may have been the first cause of this transmission. We admit that surround- ing physical conditions, such as like food, climate, and habits, may have had some share in moulding the physical frame as it became developed. We will even, for argument’s sake, admit the cellular hypothesis in its most materialistic form, and suppose that the little, hypothetical, invisible, vitalized atoms are themselves the seat of all those qualities which accumulate as they (the atoms) accu- mulate; and that they are the motive power instead of the mere instruments upon which the psychical forces act. But are not these very admissions,—does not this very process of reasoning, with all its hypotheses and its uncertainties, smk back into ridiculous improbability before the clear, unmistakable operation of the psychical forces upon the subservient vegetative system—a system complex, indeed, as the author declares it to be, but complex only in the same sense as a musical instrument is so whilst it stands silently and unconsciously awaiting the touch of the master-hand, impelled by the master-spirit ? Nor is the comparison between Nature and Art in this case so entirely figurative as it would appear at first sight. .The musical instrument has no power of growth, but the most we can say of nature, or “ Natural Selection,’ in moulding man, is that it is the unconscious agent, like the artizan who collects and selects the materials and builds them up, little dreaming of the heavenly music which will be extracted from them. Then comes the skilful tuner, Man, who, under the tuition of his Creator, brings the mental chords into harmony; and finally the freed Soul, acting independently, wakes the fabric into active life, as the inspired musician wakes the mute instrument into melodious strains; but, in every case, in nature as in art, who doubts that an intelligent designing Mind is in constant operation ? That the author doubts the constant interposition of a designing Mind in nature is clear from his concluding remarks; and in order to render him justice, we will extract those remarks in full, for it will be seen how thoroughly ungenerous, or how utterly ignorant are those who brand his theory as Atheistical, and him as an Atheist, whilst at the same time it will exhibit the feebleness of that reasoning which has led him and some few of his disciples to dis- believe in the immediate and constant interposition of Providence in the development of the universe. “Some authors have declared that Natural Selection explains nothing, unless the precise cause of each individual difference be made clear. Now, if it were explained to a savage utterly ignorant of the art of building, how the edifice had been raised stone upon stone, and why wedge-formed fragments were used for the arches, flat 1868. | Darwin and Pangenesis. . 309 stones for the roofs, &c.; and if the use of each part and of the whole building were pointed out, it would be unreasonable if he declared that nothing had been made clear to him, because the precise cause of the shape of each fragment could not be given. But this is a nearly parallel case with the objection that selection explains nothing because we know not the cause of each individual difference in the structure of each being. “The shape of the fragments of stone at the base of our precipice may be called accidental, but this is not strictly correct ; for the shape of each depends on a long sequence of events, all obeying natural laws; on the nature of the rock, on the lines of deposition or cleavage, on the form of the mountain, which depends on its upheaval and subsequent denudation, and lastly on the storm or earthquake which threw down the fragments. But in regard to the use to which the fragments may be put, their shape may be strictly said to be accidental. And here we are led to face a great difficulty, in alluding to which I am aware that I am travelling beyond my proper province. An omniscient Creator must have foreseen every consequence which results from the laws imposed by Him. But can it be reasonably maintained that the Creator intentionally ordered, if we use the words in an ordinary sense, that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes so that the builder might erect his edifice? If the various laws which have determined the shape of each fragment were not predetermined for the builder’s sake, can it with any greater probability be main- tained that He specially ordained for the sake of the breeder each of the innumerable variations in our domestic animals and plants ;— many of these variations being of no service to man, and not beneficial—far more often injurious—to the creatures themselves ? Did He ordain that the crop and tail-feathers of the pigeon should vary in order that the fancier might make his grotesque ponter and fantail breeds? Did He cause the frame and mental qualities of the dog to vary in order that a breed might be formed of indomitable ferocity, with jaws fitted to pin down the bull for man’s brutal sport? But if we give up the principle in one case,— if we do not admit that the variations of the primeval dog were intentionally guided, in order that the greyhound, for instance, that perfect image of symmetry and vigour, might be formed,—no shadow of reason can be assigned for the belief that variations alike in nature and the result of the same general laws, which have been the groundwork through natural selection of the formation of the most perfectly adapted animals in the world, man included, were intentionally and specially guided. However much we may wish it, we can hardly follow Professor Asa Gray in his belief that ‘ vari- ation has been led along certain beneficial lines,’ like a stream ‘along definite and useful lines of irrigation.’ If we assume that 310 Darwin and Pangenesis. [ July, each particular variation was from the beginning of all time pre- ordained, the plasticity of organization, which leads to many injuri- ous deviations of structure, as well as that redundant power of reproduction which inevitably leads to a struggle for existence, and as a consequence to the natural selection or survival of the fittest, must appear to us superfluous laws of nature. On the other hand, an omnipotent and omniscient Creator ordains everythmg and foresees everything. ‘Thus we are brought face to face with a difficulty as insoluble as is that of free-will and predestination.” * Here we have an illustrated confession of faith (if it can be so called), which is well deserving of consideration. Truly, those who say that “ natural selection ” explains nothing, because the author of the theory does not attempt to “ make clear the precise cause of each individual difference,” are unreasonable ; but were we to accept the simile of the temple built of stones which have fallen from the heights, “natural selection” would avail nothing for the author of the ‘ Origin of Species.’ If, conforming to his wish expressed here, but certainly not elsewhere in his works, we simply accept the law of selection as accounting for the uses to which the stones have been applied in the building of the temple, what have we gained in knowledge of the causes or forces which led to the shape of the stones? In other words, “ natural selection ” has been in operation for the purpose of preserving the fittest varieties, whether new “species” arose through modified descent or whether they were special creations. All the author shows by his simile is that an intelligent mind has selected and preserved the most fitting varieties or types, as the builder selected the stones best adapted for his purpose, a proposition which, we need hardly tell our readers, we are quite prepared to admit. But the author is not satisfied with attributing to physical causes the selection and re- tention of fitting types; he tries to find in those causes alone the springs of variation. : And, to pass on now to the remaining portion of the paragraphs which we have extracted: he believes furthermore that, popularly and generally speaking, all those variations have been accidental, and not pre-ordained ; although, in conclusion, he confesses that the omnipotence and omniscience of the Creator “ordains everything and foresees everything ;” and so the author does not exactly know what to believe. But his grounds for not believing that variations were pre-ordained and pre-designed, if we may use the term, are the strangest we have ever read. “ Do you imagine,” he says, “ that God made the wild dog plastic * ¢ Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii., pp. 430-2. + See ‘Animals and Plants under Domestication, chap. xxii. (especially the Summary on “ Causes of Variability,” and the whole chapter on “ Pangenesis”’). 1868. ] Darwin and Pangenesis, 311 and variable in its nature, that man might select and perpetuate a ferocious type to pander to his cruel taste of bull-fighting ?” “Certainly not,” is supposed to be our answer. “Then,” says the author triumphantly, “ you must at the same time admit that this plasticity and law of natural selection could not have been pre-ordained for the purpose of producing the most symmetrical and perfect of dogs, the greyhound; and now, if the law did net contemplate the formation of the ugly and useless, nor yet that of the symmetrical and vigorous, it could not have con- templated anything at all, and all the results found in nature are accidental, so to speak !” Does the author forget that Man has a free-will and the power to control nature as well as God? and that in his folly, fancy, or caprice, he often misapplies materials and misdirects natural forces for his own selfish ends? And are we on that account to close our eyes to every manifestation of design, arrangement, and co- ordination which presents itself in nature, and to say that the abuse shall explain the use, the exception shall constitute the rule? Shall we measure God’s wisdom by our folly? His knowledge by our ignorance ? But the author has sufficiently pointed out elsewhere in his work, that “nature” has modified living types with purposes widely different from those of man, namely, for the benefit of the creature itself. “ What does the breeder care,” he says,* “about any slight change in the molar teeth of his pigs, or for an additional molar tooth in the dog, or for any change in the intestinal canal, or other internal organ? ‘The breeder cares for the flesh of his cattle being well marbled with fat, and for an accumulation of fat within the abdomen of his sheep, and this he has effected.” “‘ Natural species, on the other hand, have been modified exclusively for their own good, to fit them for infinitely diversified conditions of life,” &c. What would the author say if we adopted his method of reasoning thus :—“ The plasticity of the ox was not designed with a view to its being fattened for man’s use: this application was an accidental one. In like manner, and with still greater force, it may be added that the refuse of oil seeds, known as cattle-cake, has been accidentally applied to the fattenmg of the ox, for the husk and exhausted tissue were designed for a different purpose.” And so the whole scheme of Providence would vanish, and natural forces, divinely and designedly guided, would give place to a beautiful, well-regulated, co-ordinated chapter of accidents! ! All he proves by his reasoning is that whilst our knowledge and power over nature are limited, those of God are unlimited ; that whilst God operates for the benefit of all his living creatures, * See ‘ Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ p, 412. { Ibid., p. 413. VOL. V. Z 312 Darwin and Pangenesis. [ July, we are too apt to apply our power and knowledge to selfish pur- poses ; and in all probability that, whilst our powers of modifying varieties so as to form new species are limited by restricted inform- ation and the brief duration of life, those of the Almighty know no such bounds. Nature is his handiwork; natural forces are his servants; and to Him there is no time, but an eternal “now” for the execution of his wise and infinitely varied schemes. The author’s illustration of the temple built by human hands out of the rough stones of nature, is susceptible of another appli- cation besides the one he has given to it. The explanation of the mode in which the stones have been selected is not to be found in the atoms of which they are constituted, nor on the physical forces which have given them their imperfect forms. They have to be made perfect for the end designed, by the intelligently guided hand of the artizan, and to be raised up into a useful and ornamental structure upon the pre-existing plan of the designing architect. But whilst we are unable to agree with the author im his views as to the first causes of variability, and the operation of that mysterious influence which binds us to nature, and both to God; and whilst we feel that it is for the interest of scientific truth, after which no man seeks more earnestly than the author himself, that we should exhibit the fallacy and unhesitatingly ex- press our disapproval of the line of argument which he adopts in these speculative matters, still we find in the mass of evidence already advanced by him, both designedly, with a view to establish his theory, and unconsciously in his descriptions of natural phe- nomena, such ample proofs of the production of new species by modified descent, that we are surprised any thinking person should still adhere to a doctrine which has only theological prejudices and long-established ignorance to support it. And as to the provisional hypothesis of “pangenesis,” it is theoretically and materially con- sistent with all else that has been recently ascertained in other departments of physical science. Those who have studied natural phenomena with the aid of the microscope must have been satisfied that what we have been in the habit of calling the lowest forms of life are not so in reality ; and coupling the appearances revealed by that instrument with the facts disclosed in the animated discussions which have from time to time taken place on the so-called “spon- taneous generation,” we see in “pangenesis” a probable solution of the difficulty. But on the other hand, whether these supposed vital atoms vary in their constitution, or whether, resembling each other, they have yet varied powers of assimilating inorganic substances, is a secret which neither the indefatigable and all-observant author, nor any one else, can at present decide ; and we must await the perfection of our instruments before we are able even to hazard an opinion in 1868. | Darwin and Pangenesis. 313 that respect. And furthermore, instead of enabling us to dispense with the theory of an immediate, constant, and designing Providence, this minute subdivision of vitality, so to speak, adds, in our humble opinion, to the necessity for a still more immediate and constant association between the invisible Spirit and his visible Universe. We can conceive of Man being entrusted with powers of selecting small differences, and by wise adaptation creating new types; we can conceive of “ Nature” influencing the plastic forms of the lower animals, and causing the fittest to survive; but when we descend to cells and gemmules, the very atoms which constitute the unconscious elements of reproduction, we can conceive of no force except the Prime Force which shall determine their nature and operations, and - decide what great results shall spring from such insignificant causes. Of the author’s rare merits as an observer; of his undeviating adherence to the truth so far as he can perceive it, and at whatever cost to his feelings; of his bold avowal of his tenets, without re- garding the spirit in which they are likely to be received by a half-educated and theologically-prejudiced public, it is unnecessary for us to speak ; his works answer for themselves. Darwin stands side by side with Galileo ; he is not only figura- tively, but actually, as great a philosopher. Happily in our day retractations can no longer be enforced; and no such mental or bodily sacrifices to the cause of truth are required now as formerly. There may be thousands who, reading by proxy or thinking by substitute, would like to see him incarcerated for blasphemy ; but there. are myriads of intelligent men, lay as well as clerical, who look forward anxiously to each new revelation of his mind and pen, and love and admire the bold pioneer of truth as though they were his intimate friends and associates. But though Darwin has once more told the world that Nature moves, as Galileo pro- claimed that the earth moves, yet he has only partially discovered the secret of its motien; and judging from the persistency with which he seeks in nature only the causes of nature’s change (a feeling resulting no doubt from too close observation of details), we believe it is left for some other eye to see the apple fall, and solve the great mystery of vital gravitation. Some day the mind will no doubt visit us which can grasp the whole range of vital phenomena, and at a glance comprehend the action of those mys- terious forces which cause physical atoms of like constitution to seek each other amid varying external conditions; the opening flower to follow the sun in its course; which produce the wonderful affinity between the unconscious elements of reproduction; which lead the bird to seek its mate; the weaker mind to lean upon the stronger; the soul to search for, to expand, and to change its own nature by association with its God. 7 2 ( 314 ) [July, II. GOLD IN CALIFORNIA. By J. Arraur Puruirs. THE principal gold-producing portion of California extends, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, from the Téjon Pass to the northern extremity of the state. The slates of which it is mostly composed have been shown by the officers of the Geological Survey to belong chiefly to the Jurassic period, although the occurrence of Triassic fossils in the auriferous rocks of certain sections of the belt renders it probable that some of the slates in the heart of the gold region belong to that age. These sedimentary rocks for the most part consist of various slates and schists, more or less metamorphosed, and sometimes con- taining nodules of feldspar ; sandstones are also frequently met with, and these are often transformed into quartzites. Black talcose schists with slates, exhibiting a well-defined cleavage, together with bands of more or less crystalline limestone, also occur. Lying between the band of metamorphic slates and the great granitic mass of which the Sierra Nevada principally consists, are found various crystalline rocks, such as syenites and porphyries. All of these rocks in the vicinity of the sedimentary deposits enclose numerous veins of quartz which contain, in addition to gold, iron pyrites, and other metallic sulphides. The quartz veins of the crystalline rocks are comprised within a narrow zone, extending from south to north, along the western flank of the Sierra, above the band of auriferous slates, and are found, in the vicinity of the line of junction, throughout nearly its whole extent. The veins of the metamorphosed slates occupy a lower position on the western slope of the range, and are exceedingly numerous and important. ‘They are not, however, by any means equally dis- tributed throughout the region of slates, but are, for the most part, concentrated in a belt having a width, from east to west, of about fifteen miles, and extending from south to north throughout the length of the formation. They in general follow the direction of the strata in which they are enclosed, but this parallelism is seldom absolute ; besides which they frequently throw off branches and offsets, cutting through the bedding of the slates at very consider- able angles. It is also to be remarked that wherever the slates have been tilted so that the bedding has become almost perpendicular, and where they have generally been subjected to the largest amount of metamorphic action, the veins are usually most productive. In fact, although there are exceptions to the rule, gold veins enclosed in stratified rocks are generally productive in proportion to the 1868. | Gold in California. 315 amount of metamorphic action to which the enclosing strata have been subjected. The matrix of the auriferous veins of California is invariably quartz, which is usually crystalline, and, in the majority of cases, is ribboned in such a way as to form a succession of layers parallel with the enclosing walls. In some cases these parellel bands are separated from each other by a layer of quartz, differing slightly, either in colour or structure, from that forming the seams them- selves; whilst in others they can only be distinguished by the difference of colour of two adjoming members of the series. In many instances, however, lamine of the enclosing slates divide the vein into distinct bands, and in such cases the thickness of the interposed fragments is often not greater than that of writing- aper. i on addition to ordinary quartz, amorphous silica, or semi-opal, and chalcedony are sometimes met with; and this opal, which is interfoliated between the layers of true quartz, occasionally con- tains iron pyrites and metallic gold. The walls are in most in- stances smooth, and often afford evidence of a considerable amount of mechanical action, whilst between them and the vein itself a thin stratum of clay or flucan is sometimes interposed. In some of the detrital deposits of the gold regions distinctly marked quartz veins are observed cutting through the gravels, and are evidently formed by the action of water holding silica in solution. In certain localities also bands of silicious slates are found to contain small quantities of gold. Analysis has shown that the quartz constituting the matrix of the auriferous veins of California almost invariably gives off, on bemg heated to redness, a certain amount of water which is not eliminated by a prolonged exposure to a temperature of 212° F., and that, im addition to alumina, oxide of iron, and other impuri- ties, it always contains minute quantities of potash. On being reduced to the state of thin sections, for the purpose of examination under the microscope, the quartz is found to contain numerous small cavities partially filled with a liquid in which yacuities or gas- bubbles are seen to move about with great facility. Boiling and hot springs are exceedingly numerous throughout California and the adjoining state of Nevada; and in Steamboat Valley, about seven miles from Virginia city, a large quartz vein appears to be now in process of formation by hydrothermal agencies. The hot springs of this locality are situated at a height of 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, on the eastern declivity of the Sierra, and the granitic rock here presents several straight and parallel fissures, either giving exit to heated water, or simply ejecting steam. The first group of openings comprises five longitudinal crevices extending in a straight line, and parallel to each other, for a dis- 316 Gold in California. | July, tance of over 3,000 feet. These fissures are separated from one another by intervals of from 40 to 60 feet, have each a width of about 12 inches, and are connected with each other by lesser open- ings, intersecting the first nearly at right angles to their direction. All these crevices are usually full of boiling water, which overflows and escapes in the form of a rivulet; at other times it does not flow over, although violent ebullition may be heard to be taking place at a short distance below the surface. All these fissures have become partially filled by a silicious deposit which is being constantly m- creased by the formation of new layers on the sides, whilst a longi- tudinal central crevice allows of the escape of boiling water and steam. On the most western of these lines of fracture are several centres of active eruption, from which boiling water is sometimes ejected, by the action of steam, to a height of from 8 to 10 feet. These waters are alkaline, and contain, in addition to carbonate of soda, the sulphate of that base, and chloride of sodium. . There is also a considerable escape of carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydro- gen; these products give rise to the deposition, near the surface, of sulphur and anhydrous oxide of iron. To the west of those above described, another fissure, having the same origin, is observed, but this is no longer traversed by currents of hot water, although at various poimts throughout its extent it still gives off steam and carbonic acid. At its northern extremity a central fissure remains open, but in other localities it is, for the most part, closed by an accumulation of silicious concretions. The total distance over which this deposit can be traced is con- siderably more than a mile. The deposits of Steamboat Springs are, to a certain extent, metalliferous, and, in addition to oxide of iron, they contain oxide of manganese, together with iron and copper pyrites. M. Laur, a French mining engineer, deputed by the Imperial Government to examine and report on the mineral re- sources of the Pacific coast, states that they also contain gold. Another remarkable example of the recent deposition of minerals is to be found in the vicinity of the celebrated Borax Lake, where solfatara action is still vigorous, and a large amount of sulphur has accumulated. This deposit is known as the “Sulphur Bank,” and covers an area of some six or seven acres in extent. It consists of a much decomposed volcanic rock, traversed by innumerable fissures, through which steam and various gases are continually issuing, and over and through which large quantities of sulphur have been de- posited, in such a way that at first sight the whole appears to consist of a mass of this substance. This sulphur is being constantly deposited, its deposition being attended by the evolution of aqueous vapour and carbonic and boracic acids, but it apparently takes place without the emission of sulphuretted hydrogen. ‘Lhe gaseous matters issuing from the crevices in the rock have usually a tem-— 1868. | Gold in California. 317 perature of about 95° F., and appears to have been the agency _ by which the various mineral substances formed in the cavities were brought to the surface. Sulphur is being constantly deposited on the surfaces of the various fissures, and is sometimes mixed with cinnabar, although more frequently with pulverulent silica, often blackened by the presence of a tarry hydro-carbon. With these traces of gold and silver are stated to sometimes occur. On the sides of the various fissures, gelatinous silica is found coating chalcedony, in various stages of induration, from a pasty condition, to that of the hardest opal: cinnabar is also found in thin bands, and occasionally even in veins of considerable thickness. Where the bituminous matter before referred to occurs in the largest quantities, the mass becomes black and friable, the cinnabar im such cases being replaced by metallic mercury. In another locality of the same character, about ten miles distant, a vein of compact silicious rock, about ten inches in thickness and evidently of very recent origin, yielded by assay silver to the value of nearly three pounds per ton, together with traces of gold. The above and other similar facts appear to lead to the conclusion that auriferous quartz veins are the result of aqueous agencies, and that their mineral and metallic constituents have, as well as their silicious matrix, been deposited from solution. The extraction of auriferous quartz from the veins in which it occurs is conducted in precisely the same way that the mining of tin and copper ores is carried on in this and other European coun- tries, and some of the workings have already reached considerable depths. Among the deepest mines in the state is Hayward’s, in Amador County. This has now reached a depth of more than 1,300 feet on the inclination of the vein, and is, at the present time, more profitable to the proprietors than at any former period. The amount of veinstone annually raised is usually about 90,000 tons, and the yield of gold, on an average, from fourteen to eighteen pennyweights per ton. It may be here remarked that the productiveness of the quartz veins of California has not been found, as was at one time prognosticated, to decrease in depth; but that, on the contrary, many mines which were, near the surface, comparatively unproduc- tive, have materially improved as lower levels are attained. It is also a fact worthy of notice, that all remuneratively auriferous gold veins contain notable quantities of iron pyrites and other metallic sulphides, and that the association of these minerals with gold is so constant, and so remarkable, as to be, in all probability, the result of oe chemical action regulating the distribution of the precious metal. The constant presence of iron pyrites in auriferous veins, and, whenever so occurring, its invariably enclosing a certain amount of gold, suggest the probability of this sulphide being, in some way, 318 Gold in Califorma. [July, necessarily connected with the solvent by which the precious metal was held in solution. In the present state of our knowledge of this subject, it would be impossible fo explain the exact process by which the solution of gold was effected. It has, however, been shown by Wurtz, that finely divided gold is soluble in sesquichloride of iron, and, more sparingly, in the sesquisulphate of that metal. It is also well known that iron pyrites, sometimes at least, result from the action of redrcing agents on the sulphates of that metal. If there- fore a sulphate of iron, in a solution containing gold, should become transformed by the action of a reducing agent mto pyrites, the gold, at the same time, being reduced to the metallic state, would proba- bly be found enclosed in the resulting crystals of that mineral. On being brought to the surface the auriferous rock is first passed through a Blake’s crusher, or is broken into fragments of a suitable weight, by the use of heavy hammers, and then reduced to the state of a very fine sand, under the pestles of a stamping mill. This machine differs from that employed in Cornwall for the treat- ment of tin ores, in so much as the heads and lifters, or “stems,” are both invariably of iron, and of a cylindrical form, whilst the cams are arranged around a heavy wrought-iron shaft im such a way as to cause them to be raised in regular succession, giving to each, at the same time, a rotary motion. The “ battery boxes,” or “cofers,” are also formed of a single iron casting, and movable “dies” are so placed along its bottom as to correspond with the “shoes” which form the wearing surfaces of the pestles. These shoes and dies possess the advantage of being readily changed when worn out, and the motion of rotation before referred to has the effect of keeping the faces constantly even. These machines, which in- stead of being driven by toothed gearing are worked by means of broad indiarubber belts, are fed by a shovel through a long slot at the back of each battery box. In some cases a little quicksilver is, at regular intervals, dropped into the battery, but in others no mercury is used under the pestles, and the pulverized rock is simply washed by a stream of water, which is admitted into the arrangement by ordinary gas-pipes, through fine gratings in front of each cofer, and over a series of blankets covering the inside surfaces of wooden troughs inclined at a slight angle with the horizon. These blankets are frequently removed for the purpose of being washed in large tanks, in which the auriferous matter accumulates, and from whence it is subsequently removed to be passed through an amalgamator. In order that there should be no interruption in the continuous action of the machinery, two of these blanket- troughs are laid down before each battery, so that when the blankets from one of them are being washed, the stream of water and sand issuing from the mill is conducted over the other. 1868. | Gold in California. 319 Beyond the blankets are troughs lined with amalgamated sheet- copper, to retain any light particles of gold that might otherwise escape; these again terminate in settling-pits, or tyes, in which a portion of the sand and the greater part of the auriferous pyrites are collected. The gold and other heavy materials collected in the vats in which the blanket-washing is carried on, are afterwards passed through the amalgamator. This machine consists of two wooden rollers, about eight inches in diameter and two feet in length, fur- nished, on their circumference, with knife-bladed pieces of iron arranged around them with their edges at right angles to the cylin- ders, and working in cisterns containing mercury. Above these rollers, which are set in motion by belts, both im the same direction, but contrary to the course of the water flowing through the appa- ratus, is a hopper for receiving the sand to be washed. Below the cylinder is a “riffle-board,” having an inclination of about seven degrees from the horizontal, and generally covered by plates of amal- gamated copper, which can be readily slipped out for the purpose of haying the gold amalgam which may have become attached to them scraped off. When copper plates are not employed for this purpose, the transverse grooves of the riffles are charged with mercury. To use this apparatus some of the sand, taken from the cisterns in which the blankets have been washed, is placed in the hopper, and a small stream of slightly warm water allowed to play on it, in such a way as to gradually wash it under the revolving spiked cylinders, and from thence over the amalgamated riffles. The riffle-board is usually nine feet in length, is divided by nbs into several channels, and has, at its lower extremity, a cistern for re- taining the pyrites, which, not combining with mercury, escapes amalgamation. The sulphides thus collected are sometimes ground with mercury in a small arrastre, or edge-mill, and, after extracting from them as much gold as can be thus obtained, they may, if they still retain a sufficient amount of the precious metal, be drawn off, and, after settling, be collected and sold for treatment by chlorination, or smelt- ing with lead ore. The quicksilver drawn off from the amalgamator is first strained, either through close canvas or buckskin, the solid amalgam is dis- tilled in a cast-iron retort, and the gold fused in blacklead crucibles, and then cast into ingots. The auriferous pyrites is concentrated by washing, and when the chlorination process is employed, it is subsequently roasted “dead” in a reverberatory furnace, and afterwards subjected, in a moist state, to the action of chlorine gas. Chloride of gold is sub- sequently washed out with hot water, the gold precipitated by sul- phate of iron, and then run into bars in the usual way. 320 Gold in California. [July, The present average cost of treating gold quartz in California is estimated to be about as follows— acid In Water Mills, water free, per ton of 2,000 lbs. .. .. 4 10 Be » water purchased te” os, ee ae Oe » steam ,, 5 befae| Although a very large amount of the gold annually collected in California was doubtless originally derived from the disintegration of auriferous veins, not more than one-third of the precious metal now annually brought into the market is procured from that source. The other two-thirds is derived from alluvial diggings, in which it is separated by washing from the clay, sand, and gravel with which it is associated. These gold-bearing drifts belong to at least two distinct geo- logical epochs, both comparatively modern, although the later period is distinctly separated from the former; its materials being chiefly derived from the recent disintegration and re-distribution of the materials of the older. The more ancient deposits are in all probability referable to a river-system different from that which now exists, flowing at a higher level, or over a less elevated continent and not unfrequently nearly at right angles to the main valleys of the present period. In many localities the older deposits, or “deep placers,” are covered by a thick capping of lava, and in some places this eruptive matter occurs in the form of basaltic columns, beneath which are found the layers of sand, gravel, and boulders with which gold is associated. In many localities, and particularly between the middle and south forks of the Yuba river, these auriferous gravels have, where exposed to denudation, a thickness of 120 feet; and of more than 250 feet where they have been protected by a volcanic capping. ‘These vast auriterous beds are composed of rounded masses of all the crystalline and metamorphic rocks which occur above them in the Sierra. As a general rule, the lower portions are composed of larger boulders than the upper, although large rounded water-worn masses of rock occasionally make their appearance among the middle and upper members of the series; water-worn gold is more or less disseminated throughout the whole mass of these deposits, although not with equal uniformity, but always in greater abundance in the immediate vicinity of the “bed-rock.” The materials of which these deep deposits are composed are frequently consolidated into a sort of hard concrete, by being firmly bound together by crystalline iron pyrites, and some- times this cementing material partially consists of carbonate of lime and amorphous silica. The wood which occurs in these deep gravel beds is either beautifully silicified or is replaced by iron pyrites. In such localities a piece of wood will frequently be met with, of which one end had been converted into lignite, whilst the other re- mained unaltered, but the whole having subsequently become silici- 1868. | Gold in California. 321 fied, now presents the appearance of a combination of alabaster and black marble, each portion distinctly retaining the structure of the original wood. The assay of specimens of the cementing pyrites shows that it invariably contains small, but very variable quantities of gold. In order to ascertain whether this exists in the form of water-worn grains, mechanically enclosed within the crystals of sulphide, or in the shape of crystals or spongy and filamentary particles, similar to those met with in the pyrites of auriferous veins, numerous fragments were attacked by nitric acid, and the residue subsequently subjected to microscopical examination. In this way granules of the precious metal were detected which had evidently been worn by the action of running water, whilst others appeared not to have been subjected to such attrition. With regard to similar deposits in Australia, Mr. Ulrich* remarks, “In the gold- drifts (Ballarat, Daylesford, Clunes leads, Loddon River, alluvium near Vaughan, &c.) pyrites is often found encrusting or entirely replacing roots and driftwood ; such specimens very quickly decom- pose on exposure to the atmosphere, and samples have, on assay by Messrs. Daintree, Latta, and Newbery, likewise yielded from a few pennyweights to several ounces of gold per ton. According to Mr. H. A. Thompson, a beautiful specimen of crystallized iron pyrites deposited on a piece of wood taken from the drift immediately below the basalt, at Ballarat, gave, by assay, 40 ounces of gold per ton, and in another case, where only the pyrites from the centre of an old tree-trunk was examined, the yield was over 30 dwts. of gold per ton. Some of the fine dust obtained by washing out the gold at the Royal Saxon claim, Ballarat, yielded, by assay, over 15 oz. of gold per ton. When placed under the microscope, this dust was seen to be composed of minute crystals of pyrites aggregated into round pellets, from 1-300th to 1-100th of an inch in diameter, the surface being roughened by the projecting angles of the crystals and un-water-worn.” The amount of skill and capital necessary for the successful prosecution of gold washing or placer mining is usually less than is requisite for carrying on quartz mining on a remunerative scale. Water is the great agent, by the aid of which placer mining is carried on; with a large supply the operations of the miner can be cheaply and rapidly conducted, but without it, or with only a limited supply, a claim that would otherwise have been highly remunerative, may either become valueless, or be only capable of affording very irregular returns. Placer mines are of two distinct kinds, shallow and deep ; shallow or surface diggings are generally found in the beds of ravines or * “Notes on the Physical Geography, Geology, and Mineralogy of Victoria.’ By Alfred R. C. Selwyn and George H. T. Ulrich, p. 56. Melbourne: 1866. 322 Gold in California. | July, gullies, on the bars and in the beds of modern rivers, and in shallow flats; in the latter, as before stated, the pay-dirt is often at great depths from the surface, and not unfrequently covered by thick beds of lava or volcanic ash. The appliances made use of in the shallow diggings are usually very simple, suchas the pan, rocker, long-tom, and sluice, whilst for the deeper deposits hydraulic mining is now generally resorted to. Among the most remarkable objects that first strike the atten- tion of the visitor to the mining regions of California, are the lofty aqueducts constructed of trestle work for conveying water across valleys and ravines. ‘These, and the various canals with which they are connected, are usually the property of companies who supply the miners, whose claims lie along their course, with the amount of water they may require, charging for it at rates varying from a shilling to five pence per miner’s inch. ‘The miner’s inch is usually reckoned as the amount of water which will flow through a hole of an inch square, under a mean head of six inches, during ten hours. In hydraulic mining the water from a canal is brought, by side flumes or aqueducts, to the head of the ground, with an elevation of from 120 to 150 feet, where it is conducted into a wooden box into which it constantly flows. This is provided with a valve, and from it the water is conveyed to the bottom of the claim by means of a strong sheet-iron pipe. At the lower extremity of this is a thick cast-iron chamber, in the sides of which are apertures, provided with slide-valves, to which flexible hose, terminating in bronze nozzles, can be attached by means of union joints. Jets of water are directed from these against the bank, by which means it becomes rapidly disintegrated and washed down through a sluice, in which are wooden or stone riffles charged with mercury, with which the gold becomes amalgamated and is thus retained. The illustration shows the method of conducting the operations of hydraulic mining. Some tail-sluices employed for this purpose are as much as from fifteen to twenty feet in width, and several hundred yards in length. The more ordinary width of a hydraulic sluice is, however, from four to eight feet. When it is desired to collect the gold, the sluice is cleaned up, the mercury strained, and the amalgam retorted. ‘To give an idea of the amount of work done in a hydraulic claim in the course of twenty-four hours, it may be mentioned that 350 miner’s inches of water, with a head of 160 feet, will remove and wash above 4,000 tons of gravel per diem, leaving a small profit on the working of stuff affording gold to the value of only three half-pence per ton. Some of the aqueducts are carried across valleys at a height of 125 feet, and the aggregate length of the different ditches belonging to the Eureka Company alone exceeds 200 miles. The largest yield of gold during any one year was in 1853, Quarterly Journal.of Science N° 1S) J Faxleben hth 1. PAPILIO Zacreus? PAPILIONIDA { 2.CYCLOSIA.Papitionaris, HETEROCERA. 4, ORINOMA Damaris SATYRIDE , ? A, PIERIS Crataci, PIERIDA. 9.PYRCUS Arsatte, HESPERIDA 1868.] On the Colowr-patterns of Butterflies, 323 when it amounted to 15,000,0002. sterling, since which period the production of California has steadily declined, and the present annual return of the precious metal does not much exceed 5,300,000U. The total value of the gold produced in the state, from the time of the discovery of that metal in 1848 to the close of 1866, is estimated at 167,260,0002. Ill. ON THE COLOUR-PATTERNS OF BUTTERFLIES. By Rev. H. H. Hicerns, M.A. Tue petals of flowers, the plumage of birds, the surfaces of shells, the hides of quadrupeds, the integuments of polyps, and the wings of insects, are some of the chief objects distinguished by a great variety of natural colour-patterns. All that I propose to attempt in the present instance is to offer a few remarks on the proximate origin and general configuration of the patches, bands, and spots of colour which adorn the wings of the Rhopalocera. . By the use of the term “proximate origin,” the inquiry is limited to the appliances immediately engaged in producing the results under consideration ; an inquiry which cannot conveniently be separated from the question, whether amidst the apparently capricious and endless varieties of colour-patterns on the wings of butterflies, may be recognized the elements of a prevailing arrange- ment. An example of the kind of agency contemplated may be found in the serrated edge of the leaf of a Potentilla, which, if is said, is the result of a certain configuration of organs discernible in the leaf-bud ; or, again, the spines on the shell of a Murex, which may be shown to be the result of tentacular appendages periodically developed in the mollusc. The physical conditions which have preceded so delicate a result as the shading of the colours on the wing of a butterfly, require a kind of investigation which must be attended with corresponding difficulties. But it will be admitted that in no case is a spot or a band added or obliterated except through the instrumentality of antecedents sufficient to produce the result in question. How far these antecedents are capable of being investigated has yet to be determined. The rudiments of wings, according to Burmeister, may be ob- served when the caterpillar has completed its third moulting and has attained its full size. “They at first present themselves as short viscous leaves, the substance of which greatly resembles that 324 On the Colour-patterns of Butterflies. [July, of the mucous tunic, and to which many delicate trachez pass which distribute themselves throughout them.” The wings in an imperfect condition, whilst still enclosed by the shell of the chrysalis, are closely folded together with many plica- tions. Can any clue to the subsequent arrangement of the colours be found in the manner in which the wings are folded in the pupa state? Ifa scrawl of any kind be made on paper with a pen, and if the paper be folded, the ink being inside and still wet, a sym- metrical pattern is produced, the sides of which, like the markings on the wings of a butterfly, exactly correspond. And it is manifest that under certain conditions of folding, colouring matter of any kind might, by a comparatively simple process of arrangement, produce patterns remarkable for symmetry and regularity. In the limited number of instances in which I have been able to examine the sufficiently advanced chrysalis of a butterfly, nothing of this kind has been indicated: the like spots on the right and left wings do not, in the pupa state, coincide; the folds do not bisect the markings; that which becomes a beautifully formed band, begins as a mere line, or a shapeless spot; and this stage of the metamor- phosis, if watched, conveys a decided impression that the resulting colour-pattern is not dependent on the folding of the wings in the immature condition. The perfect wing of a Lepidopterous insect consists of a delicate double membrane, traversed between the folds by nerves or veins ramifying from the base. ‘The wings are covered with minute scales of various shapes and colours, which, in combination, form a pattern much after the manner of the materials used by an artist in constructing a piece of mosaic work. Three elements then are essential to the wing, the double mem- brane, the veins, and the scales covering both. The simplest type of colour presents itself in the plain uniform tint, exhibited when the scales are all exactly alike. Examples of this are rare in nature. A variety of Preris rapz is almost wholly white ; Gonepteryx rhamnzi is almost wholly yellow. It seems probable, however, that the scales growing on the membrane upon or near the veins would be distinguished from the scales growing on other parts of the membrane by a freer develop- ment of pigmentary matter, and that im this manner would arise a kind of primary or fundamental pattern, namely, a pale ground with darker lmear markings following the course of the veins, e. g. Preris crategt. For the present we shall notice only the upper surface of the wings, in which the prevalence of the primary pattern is more clearly indicated. Most butterflies exhibit some traces of the black-veined white pattern ; and the pattern itself, with slight modifications, is found 1868. | On the Colour-patterns of Butterflies. 325 in species belonging to eight of the fourteen families into which the butterflies are divided.* (See Plate.) The fundamental character of this dark-veined pattern is con- firmed by the closeness of the gradations connecting it with others apparently altogether distinct. For example, Pieris brassic#, and some other insects of the same family, which are wholly white with the exception of a broad black tip at the apex of the fore-wing. Now several exotic species of Pzeris present the dark veins ex- panded at the outer margin of the fore-wing into a deeply scalloped black border ; others show the gradual fading of the lower portions of the border, together with attenuation of the venous markings in the dise of the wing, till the passage from the pattern of P. cratzegi to that of P. brassicx# is made by almost imperceptible steps. In the genus Hestia, the primary pattern is diversified by a great variety of black spots and blotches, which are all evidently de- pendent on the venation: the spots occupy a central position between the veins, or they are bisected by a false vein, or they are in pairs contiguous to a vein. In one fine species there is a broad, black band across the wing; but here (as in almost every other instance) the outlines of the black markings are strongly affected by the veins. We shall see, presently, that this is not the case with the brighter colours; but the black markings are very generally thrown nearer to or farther from the base by the passage of a vein, as geological strata are disturbed by the occurrence of a fault. Even where, as in Huplea Tretschkez, only a small spot or two of white is shown on the wings, it is pretty plain that the ground-colour of the wings is white, almost wholly obscured by a greater develop- ment of the dark scales belonging to the veins. The scalloped border has been referred to; and as the scalloped band, nearer to or farther from the margin of the wing, is one of the most prevalent kinds of markings, it may be well to see how readily it may arise from the primary pattern. Let it be supposed that at a given distance from the base a portion of the dark scales begin to diverge on each side from the veins. The dark lines thus formed will meet in the middle of the areas between the veins, pro- ducing a band of scallops having their concavities towards the base of the wing. If the divergence takes place towards the base, scallops are formed having their convexities in the same direction. If the latter mode of divergence be quickly followed by the former, a row of annular markings between the veins 1s the result. In this manner may be obtained the simplest and most elementary form of the annular or ocellate spot, which in the higher stages of development becomes distinguished for its variety and exquisite beauty. Of this, more hereafter. * Eyen in the less likely families, Nymphalide and Satyridz, it oceurs in Penthema Lisarda, Orinoma Damuris, and other species. 326 On the Colowr-patterns of Butterflies. [July, Before leaving the subject of the dark vein scales, it may be desirable again to refer to the folding of the wings in the pupa state ; for although the pattern is not supposed to be the result of the plications, yet the compressed condition of every part of the wing, whilst in the chrysalis, must be borne in mind. The divergence of a portion of the vein scales to form scallops is difficult to be con- ceived if we regard the process as wrought in the fully expanded wing; but the whole scallop is a microscopic speck, and the direc- tion of the divergence quite indistinguishable in the pupa state. Yet in this state, whilst the vessels are soft and permeable, the scheme of the future pattern is, no doubt, fully organized, so that the most minute extension this way or that from the incipient vem, of the dark pigment bearing germs of scales, when inflated, ex- panded, dried and hardened in the wing of the imago, becomes a band, or a scallop, or a ring, according to the original construction and direction. From the vein scales, then, are supposed to arise all the darker markings which limit and sometimes enclose the areas occupied by the paler ground-tint; frequently, in fact, extending over the greater portion of the surface of the wing. These darker markings are manifestly affected by the passage of the veins, and very com- monly, though not always, are distinguished by an outline more or less sharp and distinct. We come now to inquire into the modifications observable in the paler ground-colour, proper to the scales growing on the spaces between the veins, and often extending over the veins themselves. The first and most obvious modification is the deepening or inten- sifying of the colour in certaim parts of the wing: thus, yellow becomes bright orange; white becomes yellow or scarlet; a pale buff becomes bright testaceous, &c. The transition is generally gradual, the richer being shaded off at its edges into the paler colour. Indeed, so characteristic of the ground-pattern is this kind of shading, that I propose to call the area occupied by the brighter and more intense hue, the “blush.” A very satisfactory example of the blush is seen in Gonepteryx Cleopatra. Belonging essentially to the membranous portions of the wing, the blush should not in its contour be affected by the veins, and for the most part it seems to be remarkably independent of them. It occurs in all parts of the wing, at the tip or in the disc, at the margin or, less frequently, near the base, often at the anal angle of the hind wing ; but wherever it occurs, it seems to be neither limited nor extended by the veins. It is of course liable, like the ground-colour to which it belongs, to be parted into bands or spots by the dark vein scales; in fact, the whole area of the blush is seldom seen, and more frequently than otherwise the junction of the blush with the pale tint, or rather the space where the junction 1868. | On the Colour-patterns of Butterflies. 527 might have been, is occupied by expanded parts of the black venous attern. ; The blush is not always shaded at its junction with the paler tint, especially where it takes the form of a patch or a spot; as in the tip of the fore-wing of the male of Anthocharis Cardamines, the spot in the fore-wing of Gonepterye Rhamni, and that on the anal angle of the hind-wing of Papilio Machaon. In Vanessa Cardui the blush is suffused over the greater part of the fore and hind wings, the pale ground colour appearing in spots towards the tip of the fore-wing, on the under side of which the “blush” character of the rose-tint is more plainly exhibited. In Vanessa Atalanta a similar disposition of colours is ob- servable, but the black vein-scales cover a larger portion of the wings, the bright scarlet of the blush being shown in a band on the fore-wing and on the margin of the hind-wing.* The shading of the paler into the brighter hue is well seen in Vanessa Urtice. The testaceous colour of the Fritillavies I am inclined to regard as a blush, uniformly suffused over the whole area of the wings. The dependence of the black scales on the veins is seen throughout the tribe. In Papilio Hector the blush is exhibited in the crimson spots on the hind wings. In Thais Rumina the blush is broken up into spots, but it will be observed that the crimson spots have black edges, and are rarely bordered by the yellow ground-colour. We have now observed three important elements in the colour patterns of butterflies: the pale ground-colour ; the dark markings due to the vem scales; and the more or less richly-tinted blush; a fourth remains to be noticed. Hitherto, the scales themselves have presented no very marked distinctions; the black scales, colour excepted, are in appearance exactly similar to the adjacent white or red ones. Under a magni- fying power and by transmitted lght, all are found to contain appropriate colouring matter; thus, an orange band is made up of orange-coloured scales, and a black marking of dark and nearly opaque scales. But conspicuous on the wings of butterflies are certain other hues, and these the most splendid of any, which when examined by transmitted light are found to be produced by scales not of corre- sponding colours. Lycena Adonis, the most brillant of the British “ Blues,” has scales altogether colourless; the deep purple on the wings of Apatura Iris is produced by scales the colouring matter of * That the scarlet band is a blush, shown as it were through an opening in the black scales, appears from the under-side of the fore-wing. This is seen still more plainly in the allied species Pyrameis Gonerilla from New Zealand. VOL. V. Hine 328 On the Colour-patterns of Butterflies. [July which is brownish black. A similar hue on Thecla Quercus is formed by scales the colour of a dark cloud. The brightest scales on Lycena Phileas are of a watery burnt-sienna hue. Far more striking discrepancies between the transmitted and reflected hues of scales might be quoted from exotic butterflies: I have selected these because the insects are more familiarly known. Viewed as opaque objects, even under a moderately high magnifying power, at the proper angle the reflected hue comes out superbly, but when the light is sent through the scales, a pale, or dull dark tint is all that is observable. These scales therefore exhibit the phenomena of iridescence, and their hues are derived, not from the colouring matter present in them, but from striations upon their surfaces; not, however, from the strize which under a microscope may be seen on all Lepidop- terous scales, but from others far more minute, surpassing, probably, in delicacy and uniformity, anything elsewhere to be found in nature. The surfaces of iridescent bodies, such as mother-of-pearl and some of the ores of iron and copper are often very gorgeously tinted, but their hues are mixed and irregular, whereas nothing can exceed the purity of colour exhibited by patches of these iridescent scales, indicating a wondrous exactness in the intervals between the strie. For convenience, I shall call the feature produced in the colour- pattern by these iridescent scales, the “ gloss.” The gloss seems to have towards the dark vein scales the same kind of relation which the blush has towards the pale ground-colour, except that it seems to be rather charged upon, than shaded off into, the venous scales, being sometimes, as it were, sprinkled or dusted upon them, as in Papilio Paris and Teinopalpus imperialis. The gloss is rarely seen to form sharply-defined bands or patches, nor does it often come in contact with the ground-colour or the blush, being almost always surrounded by a black border : it frequently suffuses the whole wing,* and is often pierced by the black vein scales, which show themselves as spots in the midst of it. In rare instances, highly-coloured scales, belonging to the blush, exhibit iridescence ; when this occurs the result is exquisitely beau- tiful. Thus, in Papilio Vertumnus, a patch of carmine scales on the hind-wing is glossed so as to show an amethystine hue when seen obliquely; and in one rare species of Ornithoptera the yellow patch on the hind-wing has similar reflections. In these butter- flies the carmine and yellow hues are the results of corresponding pigment granules; the amethystine gloss arising from iridescent striz on the surfaces of the scales which contain the pigment grains. It is a source of much gratification im all branches of natural history, to observe the modifications of an organ through a series of * As in some Morphos and many of the Lycxnidz. 1868. | The Modern Aspects of Physical Science. 329 species, in one or other of which it may become so changed in appearance, that its identification is possible only by a close com- parison between the many links which connect its most abnormal forms with those in which it is ordinarily found. I have often felt the want of a rationale of this kind, in admiring the colour-patterns of butterflies, and have endeavoured to trace a kind of homology between their respective constituents. For a long time the case seemed hopeless; but opportunities having been afforded me of examining a moderately large number of Rhopalocera from most parts of the world where they abound, many apparent anomalies were found to be so only because inter- mediate forms had not previously been known to me. Thus, for instance, I have ventured to speak of the red spot at the anal angle of the hind-wing of our British Swallow-tailed Butterfly as a form of the “blush.” British butterflies alone considered, this must appear to be simply fanciful; but any one who will examine even a limited number of species of the large genus Papzlio will, I think, be satisfied that the red spot on the hind wing of P. Machaon is a modification of the richer tinting of the pale ground-colour, such as may be seen in its more ordinary form in P. Zagreus (Doubleday), and in a striking intermediate form in P. Iswara (White). I have only touched on the elementary portion of the subject; more minute details must be reserved for another occasion; but I venture to hope that the present very imperfect account of an attempt to classify the colour-patterns of butterflies may not be uninteresting to their admirers, and may lead to further investi- gations by more able observers. IV. THE MODERN ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE. Ir we examine with thoughtful deliberation the aspects of Physical Science as they are now presented to our mental vision, we arrive at the conclusion that much uncertainty surrounds them, and we feel that with the advance of knowledge we shall have to modify many a pet hypothesis and, possibly, to abandon some favourite theories which have held their position by the weight of the great names by which they have been supported. We have before us ten works, each one of them excellent in its class,* and in their entirety fairly representing the conditions of the * 1, ‘The Elements of Natural Philosophy; or, an Introduction to the Study of the Physical Sciences.’ By Charles Brooke, M.A., M.B., F.R.S. Churchill. 2. ‘Heat considered as a Mode of Motion. By Jobn Tyndall, F.R.S. Longmans. 3. ‘Faraday as a Discoverer.’ By John Tyndall. Longmans. 2a 2 330 The Modern Aspects of Physical Science. [July, Physical Science of the present day; and it is from a careful study of those, that we arrive at the conclusion that the present is a transition eriod. We have included in our list some recent works on Chemistry. hen the reader reflects on the phenomena connected with the so- called molecular forees—embracing especially those of capillary attraction, of exosmose and endosmose, of epipolic action or surface force, of all that belongs to the allotropic state, and of the facts connected with diffusion and transpiration—he will feel that Physics claims a large portion of the domain of Chemistry as its own. The influences of Light, Heat, and Electricity, in producing chemical changes, and again the development of those energies by chemical action, prove the close alliance of Physical and Chemical Science in all that relates to the properties of molecules and masses. It is on this account—although we may not, in this article, make any further reference to them—that we have included Watts’s admirable ‘Dictionary of Chemistry’ and Dr. Hofmann’s excellent little volume, as the exponents of the principles—it might be better to write—the philosophy—of this science. Our desire is to stimulate inquiry, to invite search, and to show that amongst the authorities in science there exist great differences of opinion upon some most important questions. Therefore we have selected those works which most fully and satisfactorily set forth the philosophy of modern Physical Science as the basis of our remarks. It is universally admitted that we live in a transition period. Old things are being roughly examined, and in many cases subverted, while the New is only, as yet, upon trial. As the political atmo- sphere exhibits unmistakable tendencies towards a storm, all the elements of which are surely gathering upon the horizon, so the philosophical atmosphere is disturbed by the conflict of opposing currents of thought, which threaten a cyclonic movement likely to earry destruction as it passes, through many a favoured field. Some of our social organizations, stamped with the approval of centuries, and which have hitherto been, throngh the sanctifying powers of age, regarded with feelings of superstitious reverence, are being rudely shaken. It is clear that many of them will perish in the storm; but it is not so clear that those systems which will occupy the ground they filled are destined to endure so long, or to serve 4. ‘The Reign of Law.’ By the Duke of Argyll. Strachan. 5. ‘A Treatise on Frictional Electricity.’ By the late Sir Wm. Snow Harris; edited by Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S. Virtue. : 6. ‘Researches on Solar Physics.’ By Warren De la Rue, F.R.S.; Balfour Stewart, F.R.S.; and Benjamin Loewy. Printed for private circulation. 7. ‘A Dictionary of Chemistry.’ By Henry Watts, F.R.S., &e. Longmans. 8. ‘Introduction to Modern Chemistry, &c.’ By A. W. Hofmann, LL.D., F.BS. Walton & Maberley. 9. ‘Reports of the British Association.’ 10, ‘Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.’ 1868. | The Modern Aspects of Physical Science. 331 so well the purposes for which they are designed—the happiness and peace of men—as those which we are now impulsively rejecting as of an ancient type. Thus it is, too, in the purer regions of thought. There is an ominous trembling amongst those trees of knowledge which were planted by our truth-seeking forefathers, and which have borne fruit to science. The rustling of the leaves is all that is heard at present; but this indicates too truly a passing undulation of great power, the precursor of a sweeping force, before which all the trees of knowledge must bend, and those which are not securely planted, and of vigorous growth, must fall to rise no more. Whether the tendencies of the present time are favourable to the production of Truths is a question to which it is not easy to give a satisfactory answer. That throbbing of the brain and pulsation of the heart which mark the movements of the men of to-day, and which manifest themselves in impulsive action and sensational thought, are, we fear, extending themselves with dangerous influences to the philosophers. In many an essay in which questions of pure science are discussed, in books professedly enunciating some high philosophy, and in lectures professing to teach the simple truths which experiments have brought to light, may be discovered the symptoms of that prevailing mental epidemic which is mainly dis- tinguished by a straining after effect, a desire to surprise, and a resolve to be, in one way or another, sensational. The worth of scientific knowledge is far too commonly esti- mated according as the men of to-day have fixed upon one or the other of two standards: the first being its money-worth— the commercial value of science in some practical application ; and the second, its sensational value—its worth as a surprise to the public mind, or its influence as a lecture experiment which shall, mm theatrical phrase, bring down the house. To borrow the thought—it is not our purpose to quote the exact words—of a living philosopher; man appeared to us a few years since as beginning to consider himself not merely as the denizen but as the interpreter of Nature, and inspired by the noble pro- spects opening to him, he exhibited a tendency to become a humble but diligent seeker of the means by which to unravel some of the lowest of her mysteries, and catch a dim, because a distant, glimpse of the designs of the Creator. “The cherub Contemplation” ap- peared to find a genial atmosphere amongst us. With a religious calmness, men asked for more light to guide them in their pursuit of truth. There were many who—regardless of external sym- pathy, carmg but little for applause, unrepressed by difficulty and undisturbed by the excitements of the world—pursued their tran- quil paths, earnestly seeking for some development of Nature’s mysteries, regarding the discovery of a truth its own exceeding 332 The Modern Aspects of Physical Science. [July, great reward. These men became each the centre of a circle, to the extremity of which they diffused the influences by which they were themselves inspired; and as the Magnet induces in every neighbouring particle of iron its own powers, so the master-minds induced in other minds that love of truth and that desire to know by which they were themselves so nobly stirred. It is certain that this period of the awakening of the popular mind, which, with human pride, was spoken of as the “ March of Intellect” age, was of but brief duration. Hither from a want of reality in the professors of this intellectual religion, or from ex- ternal influences which are so complicated that they almost escape detection, the desire to learn was repressed, and in its place ap- peared the animal craving to enjoy. “And thus it has happened that in so many cases the impulse of intellectual activity even when given has failed of propagation. The ball has not been caught up at the rebound, and urged for- ward by emulous hands. The march of progress, in place of quick- ening to a race, has halted in tardy and intermitted steps, and soon ceased altogether.” * It will appear to many that the talk which we have lately heard respecting Technical Education, and the establishment of Science schools, indicates a consciousness of the value of science. It indi- cates that science has made itself felt as a power in the land; that there is an awakening to the fact that labour may be saved, and the result of labour improved, or, in other words, that money may be made out of it, but hothing more. The teachers of science may become many, and through even imperfect instruments a consider- able amount of knowledge may be diffused among the people; but we fear that in all this there is but little prospect of producing cultivators of science. Whenever there has been an increase of schools, there has been a decay of the sciences or arts to which they have been dedicated. The Past tells us this; let us hope that the Future will not find in the Present another example of this. Having indicated the condition of the Sciences (as it appears to us) as an element of knowledge diffused amongst the so-called thinking classes of Europe, we must proceed to our examination of the actual state of scientific knowledge amongst us. It ever has been, and for a long period of time it must continue to be, that the popular notion of things runs in grooves which have been cut out by some original minds. In the history of the sciences this is seen to have been the case from the earliest recorded period unto the present day. We smile now at the phlogistic theory—a principle of levity is regarded as the unsatisfactory dream of men imperfectly instructed ; yet.a careful examination of the hypotheses of the present day will convince the examiner that, although they * Herschel, ‘‘ Whewell on the Inductive Sciences :” ‘ Quarterly Review,’ No. 139. 1868. | The Modern Aspects of Physical Science. 339 assist us to climb, they are but stepping-stones which will be kicked away as weadvance. A careful writer, whose work is now before us, says he cannot doubt that ere long all physical phenomena will be acknowledged to be the results or effects of various, but inter- changeable modifications of Energy ; that is, that Motion, Light, Heat, and Electricity (and, with many, Life) are but the develop- ments of Energy—manifestations of Force. “The term energy meaning simply the power of doing work ; force, meaning the power of producing energy.” Let us endeavour to give a faithful example as an illustration of the meaning of this; for the metaphysical refine- ment which involves this hypothesis’ hides it, as by a veil, from vulgar intelligences. A mass of gunpowder is a store of force, but the force is potential only ; it is placed in a cannon, with a shot— an inert mass—in front of it, in the tube. A spark is applied, it matters not how, and the force becoming actual, imparts energy to the shot, which flies through space and strikes an iron target. The primary Energy—shown in motion—is checked, and we find it is converted into Heat and Light at the moment the blow is given, and, there is but little doubt, also into Electricity. The force which was potential in the gunpowder, and which was developed, or made actual, by the explosion—producing Motion, Heat, Light, and Electricity—is not destroyed; it exists as an Eternal Energy, or, in the poetic phrase of a writer of note, the flash of the pistol fired by a murderer years long ago is being repeated in space, flashing from star to star; and the sigh of the drowning slave will undulate for ever, until, at the last day, it becomes the damning evidence against the slave-dealer. “The principle of the ‘ Conservation of Energy’ implies that when once actual energy has been developed in matter, it cannot be anni- hilated ; it can only be transferred in some form to other matter. So universal is the truth and practical application of this principle of conservation, that it may almost be taken as an axiom that it is no more the narrowly-bounded power of man to create or annihilate force or energy than it is to create matter itself: energy may be variously transmuted and directed, and matter may be variously combined and modified in form and physical properties, but that is all.” — Brooke. In passing, it is but justice to state that, although we differ widely from Mr. Brooke in many of his conclusions, and fail to see the cogency of several of his arguments, we know of no other work which more clearly places ‘The Elements of Natural Philosophy ’ before the student ; and therefore we recommend it to the attention of every one who is desirous of learning the present state of the Physical Sciences, and, indeed, of studying the main features of the philosophy of the inductive sciences,—except chemistry,—in their more important generalities. 334 The Modern Aspects of Physical Science. [July, We have spoken of the energy, or power of doing work, as developed by or from a force dormant in the gunpowder. Let us examine this a little further. This combustible substance is a com- pound of carbon, sulphur, and nitre; and it owes its power ( force) to the collision of the molecules of the carbon with those of the oxygen concentrated in the nitre. Without involving ourselves in the mysteries of combustion—for we must call them so—we admit that the molecules of carbon and those of oxygen being forced into union, Heat and Light are the result. Did these physical forces exist as positive entities in the carbon or in the nitre, or were they created from the molecules of matter by the act of union? The answer is before us:—‘ In long bygone ages the energies of solar light and heat were occupied in the development of woody tissue ;” and every molecule of wood is such by virtue of the energy which has been expended in producing it. A cube of wood represents an equivalent of solar force, which, as the energies in sunshine, did the work of producing it (7.¢. of establishing growth), and they were “used up” in doing the work. The solar energies were not de- stroyed, but from an active they changed into a passive state; and the wood is a reservoir of sleeping—dormant power. Thus pro- bably it is with the oxygen of the nitre; but we are not yet in a position to trace out satisfactorily the process of the absorption of solar energy by any inorganic mass. If the magic and the beauty of photographic phenomena had not led men away from the study of the science of the chemical energy of the sun (Actinism) to the production of heliographic pictures, we might possibly have advanced our knowledge in this direction. In the process of converting the wood into charcoal, there does not appear to be any appreciable loss of its solar energy ; therefore the grains of charcoal in the gunpowder are cells of sunshine, and by combustion this is suddenly developed. There is, of course, some solar energy—Heat and Light—lost in the flash of light seen at the mouth of the cannon, but much of it has given motion—energy— to the shot, and sent it forth to do its work of destruction, in which, by the sudden suspension of its motion, Heat and Light are again seen ready to do some work somewhere: but we can trace force and energy no further. To give one other example in illustration of the great prevailing doctrine of our modern philosophers—coal is but changed vegetable matter which grew under the influences of sunshine, myriads of ages ere yet man had being. This substance holds its equivalent of solar energy. It is placed under the boiler of a steam-engine, and com- bustion is established. The heat passes into the water and it becomes steam. This water-vapour, full of solar energy, produces, by ingenious mechanical contrivances, motion, which is applied in doing work of various kinds. If, however, it is employed in driving 1868. | The Modern Aspects of Physical Science. 335 round the armatures of electro-magnets, it is converted, according to the prevailing hypothesis, into magnetic, and this again into electric energy. “This being transmitted between carbon electrodes, an immense amount of light and heat is produced by molecular friction at the point of great resistance to the passage of the current; and these are produced at the expense of electric energy, as proved by the loss of current. Here, then, we have the final transmutation of electric into thermic and photic energy, the latter beg so intense as to have thrown a shadow across the brightest sunbeam, and to produce an amount of illumination unattainable by any other known means.” —Brooke. By the “undulatory theory” we believe we explain not only the phenomena of Light but those of Heat and Electricity. With some misgivings we venture to ask, Have we not been advanced to this by a system of reasoning from analogy, and are analogies always to be trusted? Sound, we know, is developed by the vibra- tion of material atoms ; where there is matter in a state of extreme attenuation, it is scarcely possible to convey through it any audible sound, and silence reigns supreme in even the imperfect vacuum which we can produce. Since, then, sound is proved to require a medium through which its waves may be propagated, what kind of medium can we imagine to be all diffusive and all penetrating, in which the waves of Light, Heat, and Electricity can be generated, and through which they can be propagated across the immensities of space and amidst the interstices of a material body? The wave motions of Light and Heat are supposed to take place in an infinitely elastic, imper- ceptible, imponderable medium, which pervades space and fills the interstices between the atoms of matter. This is the “ther” of modern philosophers. Some evidence of the existence of an atten- uated medium of some kind, in the stellar regions, is obtained by the observations of the periodic retardation of Encke’s comet. Although this has been the received idea since the general adoption of the wave theory, it is now giving place to the hypothesis of the vibra- tory disturbances of the material atoms themselves; the kind of vibration—motion—determining the kind of physical energy which becomes the object of sensuous perception. This hypothesis is very strongly put before us in “ Heat considered as a Mode of Motion;” and in the numerous essays which have within the last few years been given to the world by the philosophers of the meta- physical school, especially such as are tinctured with the German modes of thought. It is not our purpose to accept or reject either hypothesis—they have been, and they may continue to be, useful as hypotheses; but we would not have them advanced to the dig- nity of theories until all that now appears contradictory or inade- quate in them is removed, or by extension placed in a more satis- factory position. That all the physical energies become sensible 336 The Modern Aspects of Physical Science. [July, only when in motion, is an established fact. That Heat may re- quire one mode of motion, and Light another, can scarcely be denied. But we have still to inquire what is it that is moved, and where is the Mover. It is not enough to say it is the Ether that is put into undulation; we cannot rest satisfied with the idea, in many cases much too dogmatically put, that the vibration of material atoms produces, according to its degree, one or the other kind of physical energy. However positively these scientific dogmas may be as- serted, it should never be forgotten that they are but hypotheses, and that notwithstanding the appeal which is constantly made to mathematical analysis in support of them, the evidence is yet want- ing to establish their first principles. Faraday long since showed us that a dew-drop held within it a quantity of Electricity which would, if suddenly liberated, be sufficient to destroy the life of a small animal. He also proved that this great quantity of electri- city was necessary to the combination of the gases, oxygen and hydrogen, into that drop of water. Beyond this, we know that water is the fluid which we find it, by virtue of a given equivalent of heat, and by the simple process of chemical decomposition we may burn this water—strictly, its elements—and produce heat and light of the highest intensity. Are those phenomena explained in any way by the dynamical theory? We think not. At the same time that we are advancing to those metaphysical conclusions, we find ourselves in blind ignorance respecting the most simple conditions which rule the molecular condition of matter, whether inorganic or organic. We have firmly established the Law of Gravitation; but we know not what force it is that pushes or pulls mass towards mass. We speak of Cohesion, but we can only speculate on the power which compels molecule to cohere to mole- cule. We have supposed ourselves familiar with capillarity ; but since M. E. Becquerel has shown us that the surface-attraction which compels the rise of fluids within a tube is sufficient to separate metals from their combinations with acids, and deposit them in films upon the attracting surface,* we discover that we have to study the indications of some occult power. The Osmose forces, again, have been so fully investigated by Professor Graham, that we begin to see that they involve all the phenomena of condensation which are exhibited by porous bodies, and that solution, diffusion, transpira- tion, and probably chemical attraction are but modified manifest- ations of some undeveloped force capable of producing new forms of energy. , Residing upon the surface of material atoms there is a power equal, if not superior, to the known physical forces, probably * As long since as the Meeting of the British Association at Southampton, Professor Oersted called attention to phenomena of this class. 1868. | The Modern Aspects of Physical Science. 337 controlling, certainly modifying, their actual energies. This mole- cular power cannot be regarded as a mode of motion—it is a sta- tical, rather than a dynamical force, yet it is the cause of actual energy. The study of those powers which appear to act at insensible dis- tances only, is gradually leading us to a knowledge of new condi- tions, which, probably, determine those dissimilar states under which we find matter of the same kind presenting itself, such as carbon and the diamond, oxygen and ozone, yellow and red phosphorus, and other elements. ‘Che relations existing between those molecular forces and the physical forces—Heat, Light, and Electricity—are at present too obscure to admit of the formation of any hypothesis. At the same time there are facts which inform us of some evident relations; and the careful study of these promises to place the inquirer upon new lands in the unexplored sea over which Newton looked from the shore on which he laboured, rich with the fruits of the trees of knowledge. Everything, however, points to the establishment of the great fact that the sun is the reservoir of force ; and it is constantly dif- fusing to all the worlds revolving around it, those energies which, at the beginning, converted a chaotic mass into a globe beautiful in its order, organization, and life. Matter changing its form in the sun develops an accurately-determined quantity of power, which, passing without loss through space, falls upon another mass of matter, and transmutes its atoms into a thousand forms, some bril- liant as gems, others beautiful as flowers. ‘The fine old fable of the Memnonian Statue, bursting into music at the first touch of the morning sunbeam, was but the outshadowing of a philosophic truth. Piercing through the darkness of night, the sunbeam touches the dormant earth, and establishes a series of undulations, which move onward in harmony and awaken the brute atoms into the divinest music. Touched by influences which can only be derived from the solar energies falling on the surface of the earth, the inorganic atoms, buried deep within the rocky crust, glide into geometric forms of beauty, and the crystal foretells the coming organization. Such are the modern aspects of Physical Science ; such are the wondrous truths which experimental inquiry is opening up to us. With so much to know, and with the deep consciousness of the little that we really do know, let us not indulge in the bewitching, but often bewildering labour of creating hypotheses; but, above all things, let us be careful to avoid advancing our hypothetical deductions from our inductive investigations into the importance of theories until they have been subjected to the severest tests. When we have a theory which, like that of Gravitation, aids us in reaching far into space and feeling out a world which had never 338 On Musical Scales. [July, yet been detected by the eye of man, assisted even with his won- derful instrumental appliances—then may we accept it without a lingering doubt, and rely upon its power to advance us in the great task committed by his Creator to intellectual Man, of subduing the earth and holding dominion over it. Vv. ON MUSICAL SCALES. By Sir J. F. W. Herscuex, Barr., F.BS. Havine had my attention recently drawn to an ingenious attempt, by Mr. Jackson, to explain the relations between the Major and Minor scales in music, on the principle of the maximum of simplicity in the ratios of the vibrations of the several notes employed, I could not help being strongly impressed with the want of clearness intro- duced into the discussion of this subject by the employment of the fractions expressing the ratios of the vibrations, or of the lengths of the vibrating strings, and their multiplication or division one by another, to explain the relations of musical intervals. The elemen- tary fractions concerned, 4, 4, and +, are, it is true, of the simplest kind ; but their combinations, formed by multiplication and division, by whole numbers and by each other, present sufficient complexity to throw a kind of haziness over the perception of their magnitudes which distract attention. We have not quite so clear a perception of the magnitude of a fraction as of an nteger number ; and this indistinctness increases with the numerical increase of the numerator and denominator. ‘Thus, to say which of two proposed fractions is the greater, if their numerators and denominators exceed a few units, often requires some consideration, and reduction to a common denominator ; as for instance in the case of 7 and +2. The great majority too of those who study music do it as asubject sud generis, and not as a branch of mechanics. ‘Their thoughts are directed to musical intervals and not to the vibrations which give rise to the sounds, or to the lengths of the strings which vibrate; and accord- ingly they find it far easier to conceive the interval (say) from C to E as the sum of the intervals from C to D and from D to &, than as a ratio compounded of two ratios expressive of these in- tervals severally. The use of logarithms, by the intervention of which musical intervals are treated as magnitudes susceptible of addition and substraction, and, like feet and inches, measurable on a scale (that scale being the finger-board of an imaginary pianoforte capable of yielding every gradation of audible tone from the lowest to the highest ; the same interval corresponding to the same dis- 1868.] On Musical Scales. 339 tance of the finger in every part of the scale and in every octave, higher or lower)—gets over this difficulty, and is accordingly often resorted to in treatises on music. In this, however, as in most other things, the proper choice of a unit is a matter of much im- portance. Every subject of mensuration has its natural unit: in angular measure, the circumference of the circle; in geodesy, the earth’s polar axis; in time, the length of the day; and in music, the octave. The ordinary tabular logarithms, however, which give 0-30103, or (striking off the last two figures as unimportant, and multiplying by 1,000) 301 as the logarithm of 2, labour under two ereat disadvagtages, vz. Ist, that of assuming an awkward incom- mensurable or prime number as the measure and representative of this natural unit; and 2ndly, that, in different octaves, the same note (by name) will come to be represented by a totally different and unrecognizable set of figures. ‘Thus, for instance, taking the key- note Do as 0 and its octave do as 3801, Sol* will be expressed by 176; while so/ (the same note in the next higher octave) will be expressed by 477 (176+ 301), m the next by 778 (176 + 602), and so on—figures which no way recall or suggest one another, and serve only uselessly to burden the memory. The same objection applies to the division of the octave into 1,200 equal parts, which, on the system of what is called “mean temperament,” would assign 100 as the representative of a mean semitone; or into 600 (tempt- ingly near to 2x 301), which would give 100 for the expression of a mean tone. Both these disadvantages are avoided by altering all the logarithms proportionally, so as to make 1,000 the logarithm of 2; or, speaking practically and without reference to any theory or to any mathematical phraseology, to regard the octave as divided into 1,000 equal intervals, each singly denoting a difference of tone so small as to be undistinguishable by the nicest ear, as the thousandth part of an inch would be to any ordinary eyesight. On this con- vention the numbers of such minute equal intervals, contained respectively in a Fifth (Vth), a Fourth (I1Vth), a Major Third (11rd), a Minor Third (8rd) ; a Major and a Minor tone, a Limma, and a Comma, are 585, 415, 322, 263, 170, 152, 93, and 18. The two first together make up an exact octave (585 + 415 = 1000), and are therefore complementary to each other, while the last is the difference between a Major and a Minor tone, the smallest interval recognized as such in musical language, and one which it requires a nice ear to discriminate. The way in which * Tadhere throughout to the good old system of representing by Do, Re, Mi, Fa, &c., the seale of natural notes in any key whatever, taking Do for the key-note, whatever that may be, in opposition to the practice lately introduced (and soon, I hope, to be exploded) of taking Do to express one fixed tone C—the greatest retro- grade step, in my opinion, ever taken in teaching music, or any other branch of knowledge, 340 On Musical Scales. [July, these numbers stand connected with each other is as follows :— the Octave being 1,000, the Fifth, V. = 585, and the Third,* IIT. = 322; then, denoting the Major tone by T, the Minor by ¢, the Limma by 7, and the Comma by ¢, the [Vth will be expressed by 1,000—V., the Minor Third (263) by V.—III.; while T, ¢, JZ, and ¢ will be respectively expressed by T = 2V. — 1,000, =1,000+- IIL. —2V., 7=1,000 — V.—IIL, and e=4V.—III.—2,000; equa- tions which, musically interpreted, express that the Minor Third is obtained from the fundamental or key note, by tuning upwards a Fifth, and thence, downwards, a Major Third ; a Major tone, by tuning upwards two Fifths, and thence, downwardg, an octave ; and so of the rest. As regards the numerical values of notes in higher or lower octaves, they are formed by adding in the former case, or subtracting in the latter, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, &c., according to the number of octaves. Thus Sol being represented by 585, its representative numbers in the higher octaves will be 1,585, 2,585, &c., and in the lower by 585 — 1,000, 585 — 2000, &c., which, in order to preserve the same terminal figures 585, may be written (in analogy with what is usually done in ordinary logarithmic’calculation) 1,585, 2,585, &., the superscript negative sign applying only to the index figures 1, 2, &c., and the three terminal figures being regarded as always positive. To those who study music simply as music, without troubling themselves with ratios, logarithms, or vibrations, it will save some trouble and bewilderment to accept these numbers as they stand, and to regard the interval called the Octave as made up of the seven successive intervals, T, ¢, 7, T,¢, T, 7, constituting what is called the Diatonic Scale in its ordinary acceptation (though, as will be presently shown, the order Ty ¢, of the two first intervals may be reversed, so as to give the scale ¢, T, 7, T, ¢, T, 2, without mate- rially altering its character). It is thus that we accept the division of the year into twelve months of unequal lengths, and of these again into four weeks of seven days in each, with a greater or less number of supernumerary days. ‘There is this difference, however, viz.: that the latter division is purely arbitrary, whereas the former is founded in the nature of harmony; and it will therefore not be amiss, before proceeding farther, to explain the rationale on which the scale is thus, as it were, built up, and how its elements come to succeed each other in this manner. It is recognized, then, as a matter of experience, that the intervals designated as an Octave, a Fifth, and a Major Third (1,000, 585, 322), and also the com- * Whenever a “Third,” without any adjunct, is spoken of, a Major Third is hereafter understood. 1868. ] On Musical Scales. 341 plement of the two latter to the Octave (1,000—585 = 415 and 1,000 —322 = 678), and those formed by the addition to them of one or more octaves (as 1,000 + 585 = 1,585, and 2,000 + 322 = 2,322), are perfectly harmonious, and the only intervals in music which are so: for the Minor Third (263), though not unpleasing, or in any way discordant, leaves the ear in some degree unsatis- fied, giving that melancholy expression to the Minor key which conveys the impression of something wanting to perfect happiness. Assigning, then, to each note in the scale Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, do, constituting the Octave, a numerical value expressing its interval or distance from the fundamental note Do, we have the two extremes Do, do designated respectively by 0 and 1,000, and three of the intermediate ones (Mi =322; Fa=415; and Sol = 585) will claim admission as perfect harmonics with the fundamental note or its octave. On the same ground also might 678 claim a place in the scale; but as it differs only by 93, or less than the tenth part of the octave from Sol already fixed, its admission would go to break up the octave into too small subdivisions; so that although an excellent candidate for admission into a chromatic scale of twelve semitones, as an intermediate between Sol and La it cannot be received into the scale of the natural notes. Regarding it, then, as an open question how to break the intervals between 0 and 822 on the one hand, and between 585 and 1,000 on the other, by introducing three more natural notes Re, La, and Si; it is evi- dent that they ought to be determined (since they cannot harmonize with Do or do) by the condition of forming, each, if possible, per- fectly harmonious combinations with one or more of the other three already fixed. This condition is satisfied by assigning to Re the number 170, which thus forms a [Vth (585 —170 = 415) with Sol; by 737 assigned to La, which thus affords a [Vth (787 —322=415) with Mi, and a IlIrd (737 —415= 822) with Fa; and by 907 assigned to Sz, giving a Vth (907-822 = 585) with Mz, and a IIIvd (907 — 585 = 522) with Sol. Thus, then, the natural scale ig filled up. But here already occurs an alternative, and a choice of difficulties. As respects the positions of La and Si there can be no doubt. La besides standing in perfect harmony with Mi and Fa gives a minor Third (1,000 — 737 =263) with the upper octave Do, an interval though somewhat less than harmonious (as. already observed), yet indispensable in music, and without which a large region of human emotion would lack its musical expression; and La being thus fixed, S¢ can no otherwise be determined. As regards Re, however, it may equally well be determined by making it form a Vth with La (giving 737 —585=152 for its value) as a IVth with Sol, which, as we have seen, gives 170. This latter, however, makes the interval between 342 * On Musical Scales. [July, Re and La (737 —170) = 567, differing from a Vth by a comma, while the former, which makes this interval a good Vth, gives with Sol a IVth (585—172=433) equally erroneous. Again, 170 assumed for Re gives a good Minor Third (1,170 — 907 =263) with Si below it, but a defective one (415 —170=245=263 —18) with the Fa above it, while if 152 be used the result is simply reversed. Thus it appears that for Re two distinct values, 170 and 152, are equally eligible, thus originating two distinct diatonic scales. The former is that commonly received: the latter, by way of distinc- tion, we shall speak of as the Co-diatonie Scale, as if complementary or correlative to the other. If music were always played in one key, there would be no occasion for intermediate notes; but the change of key necessitates their introduction, and moreover introduces the further question of temperament, arising from the fact that no mere repetition, ascend- ing or descending, of perfect Fifths or Thirds will lead to an exact Octave or Octaves of the note we set out from. The nearest. approach in the case of Fifths is that of twelve Fifths (12 x 585= 7,020=7,000+-20), which exceed seven Octaves by 20, or rather more than a Comma.* The Thirds, whether major or minor, are still more rebellious, as appears from the equations 3 x 322 =966 =1000-—34, and 4 x 263 =1052=1000 +52. By combining Fifths and Thirds, however, a much nearer approach may be made. Thus 2x 585-+15 x 322 (2V+15III)=6,000, which shows that tuning upwards from Re (in the ordinary diatonic scale, where Re =170), fifteen perfect Thirds will lead up precisely to the sixth Octave above Do. Again, we have 322+8.x585 (III+8V)= 5,002 = 5,000 + 2, which shows that tuning upwards from Mi eight perfect Fifths brmgs us within the ninth part of a Comma to an Octave of Do—a difference perfectly inappretiable. The former of these coincidences is of no value in musical theory; the latter, how- ever, as will appear hereafter, affords the basis of a chromatic scale (¢.e. a scale in which the Octave is divided into twelve intervals, designated, whether equal or unequal, as “ semitones”) so very slightly tempered that, practically speaking, it may be regarded as perfect in every key but one. Dismissing, however, the subject of temperament, we shall now proceed to inquire (for the first time, I believe, on any distinct general principle) how the sharps and flats of the scale can be inserted on an instfument like the pianoforte admitting only of twelve keys on its finger-board within the compass of an Octave, so as to allow of transposition into all keys, both natural and sharp or flat, with the least possible deviation from a perfect scale in any one key, and with the greatest number of attainable perfect harmonics * This interval is sometimes called a Pythagorean comma. 1868. | On Musical Scales. 343 in the ensemble of all the twelve; bearing in mind, however, that the Fifth is a far more important harmonic than the Third.* With this object, setting out, we will suppose, with the key of C on the pianoforte as our fundamental scale, let us denote by C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C’, the respective numbers above assigned as express- ing the intervals from C of the natural notes so named, taking, in the first instance, 170 for the value of Re; or, lets C=0; D=170; B= 322; F=415; G=585; A=737; B=907; C=1000: and let «, B, y, 5, ¢ be taken to represent the numbers, at present un- known, to be assigned to the intermediate notes Cf=Dp, Df= Ep, Fg=Gp, GE=Ap, and AZ=Bp; so that CaDBEFyGShAcCBOC shall form the complete chromatic scale within the compass of an octave. Now, if we assume, for our fundamental or key note, each, in succession, of the twelve elements C,a,D, . . . . B, of the scale, the derivative scale will be formed by taking that note for our Do, the third from it in succession (counting the fundamental note as the first) for Ae, the fifth im order for M%, the sixth for Fa, the eighth for Sol, and so on: so that our aim must be to make as many of such derivative intervals (Mi—Do) as possible, perfect Thirds, as many from Do to Fa perfect Fourths, and from Do to Sol perfect Fifths as possible. These last conditions are identical ; a Fourth ascending being equivalent to a Fifth descending. And it is evident that by proceeding thus through the whole scale, we shall get as many Thirds and Fifths as it is possible to make by combining its notes two and two. Our object then is, in effect, to assign such numerical values to our unknown symbols, z, B, ¥, 5, e, as shall satisfy as many as possible of the following equations. Iie E-C = 322, F—a= 322, v pea G— B= 322, 5-H= 322, A—F= 322, €— y= 322, B—G= 322, 5—C (=1000-322) = 678, A—a = 678, e—D= 678, B-—B=678. And (IL) F— C=415, y—a=415, G-D=415, 8-6 = 415, A—E = 415, e -F= 415, B — y= 415, G—C (=1000 — 415)=585, 5 — a=585, A—D=585, «—8 = 585, B-—E=585. Of these 24 equations, eight, viz.: H—C = 322, A-F = 822, B-G = 322, F-C=415, Gd-D=415, A-E=415, G-C = 585, and B—EK = 585, are satisfied by the numerical values already assigned to these several letters; but the value of D so assigned (170) renders the equation A—D = 585 self-contradic- tory, and this equation must be left unsatisfied, giving, as we have already observed, an imperfect Fifth. * I believe this is the general opinion among musicians; and it is justified by the important part it plays as the dominant of the scale, and as giving fullness and roundness to the harmony of the common chord, VOL. V. 2.8 344 On Musical Seales. [July, The remaining 15 equations, when for C, D, HE, &., we substi- stute their assigned numerical values, divide themselves into two classes; those which give explicit values to the unknown quantities a, 8, y, &c., and those which give differential relations between them, thus :— (III.)\—Expuiicir VALUES. a=59; a=93; B=229; B=263; y=492; 5=644; 5=678; «= 848. DIFFERENTIAL RELATIONS. e-— y= 822. (1V.)—Exp.icir VALUES. y=492; «= 830. DIFFERENTIAL RELATIONS. y—a=415; 5-a=585; 5—B=415; e—B=585; of which the system (III.) contains those whose fulfilment secures perfect Thirds, and (1V.) those which secure perfect Fifths. And on them both we have to remark—Ist. That not more than five distinct Thirds, in addition to the three which the natural notes afford, can be secured by any choice of a, B, y, &c., by employing the equations (III.) 2ndly. That the same is true of Fifths as secured by the equations (IV.). And 38rdly. That these Thirds and Fifths are mutually exclusive, with the exception that the adoption of 492 as the value of y, secures at once both a Fifth and a Third. To show this, it suffices to compare the values assigned by each set of equations separately, which are— (V.), THOSE DEDUCED FRomM (III.), viz. :— a=59 or 93 5=644 or 678 ¥y = 492 7 = 492 y = 526 and or and or and e = 448 e= 814 e= 848 Anp (VI.), THOSE DERIVED FROM (IV.), BEING Srx Distinct Systems oF VALUES OBTAINED : Ist, by excluding y=492; viz. a=75, B=245, y=—490, 5=660, e=830 2nd, ” e— COU) ss Ciel 7y=492, 5=662, «=832 3rd, =f; y—a=415; a t= oO. B20: 7y=492, 5=660, «=830 4th, 3-885 he. G= 77 B= 24s, y= 402, SE Gab. cee 5th, 3 5—B=415; , a=77, B=245, y=492, 5=662, «=830 Gth, i e-B=585; - a=77, B=247, y=492, 8=662, «= 830 These, however, are not the only Fifths obtainable; for among the value of a, B, y, &c., given in (Y.), there are six pairs which satisfy one or other of the differential relations in (IV.), wz. (« = 59, 5 = 644), and (2 = 93, 5 = 678), either of which pairs satisfies 8 —a«a=585. And again, (@ = 229, 6= 644), and (8 = 263, 1868. ] On Musical Seales. 345 $=678) which satisfy 8— 8 = 415. And lastly, (@=229, «= 814) and (8 = 263, « = 848): so that either of the two systems— (VIL) a=59, B=229, y=492, 5=644, «=814 a=93, B=263, y=492, 5=678, e—848 will satisfy the differential relations 6 — 2 = 585, 6 — 8 = 415, and e — 8 = 585, and will thus give us three more implied Fifths, without sacrificing either of the five Thirds which they imply, or the independent Fifth secured by taking y = 492. On the other hand, any one of the systems of values in (VI.) will give us five Fifths, but their adoption necessarily sacrifices four out of the five Thirds given by (V.); that dependent on y = 492 being the only one retained. Here, however, our attention is natu- rally drawn to the singularly close coincidence of all the six values of a, 8, y, &c., in these systems (the direct consequence, be it ob- served, of that remarkable relation ITI. + 8 V.= 5000 + 2 we have already pointed out). And it will not fail to strike us that if we consent to overlook so very minute a deviation from absolute per- fection in the value of ¢ as a single unit (a thousandth part of an octave, or 1-18th part of a comma, an interval no human ear is nice enough to distinguish), and adopt the series of values, a=77, B=247, y=492, 3=662, «=831, we shall obtain sez Fifths, four of which are perfect, and two de- fective only by the infinitesimal error above mentioned. Thus, then, we have arrived at three scales, or chromatic sub- divisions of the octave, which alone can be considered as having any distinct claim to preference among the innumerable systems which might be proposed, wz. :— Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si do (A) 0, 93, 170, 263, 322, 415, 492, 585, 678, 737, 848, 907, 1000. B) 0, 59, 170, 229, 322, 415, 492, 585, 644, 737, 814, 907, 1000. (C) 0, 77, 170, 247, 322, 415, 492, 585, 662, 737, 831, 907, 1000. The first of these (A), when translated into the language of ratios and fractions, will be found to coincide with that given by Cavallo (Phil. Trans., vol. Ixxvui., p. 239) as the then received har- monic subdivision of the octave into twelve intervals. The second (B) is one proposed by Euler ; * while the third (C) coincides very nearly, so far as the accidental notes (the sharps or flats) are con- cerned, with either of the two tempered scales propounded by Dr. * T derive my knowledge of it from the Abbé Moigno’s Journal, ‘ Annuaire du Cosmos,’ 1859, part ii., p. 200. As there given, however, it is full of misprints. The fractions expressing the ratios of vibrations, evidently intended by Euler, are— NSS. OR OEE Sue Se PSB DS SR ARE. Be 2 > Oa) 6 Gas «ae 39 3S? 99 Tao 3 ‘Vas? Bb? 346 On Musical Scales. [July, Young in his ‘ Lectures on Natural Philosophy’ (Lect. 33), which, translated into our language, are respectively— Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si do 0, 75, 163, 245, 327, 415, 490, 583, 660, 745, 830, 908, 1000; And 0, 75, 164, 245, 322, 415, 490, 585, 660, 743, 830, 905, 1000; in the latter of which it will be seen that with the exception of the single interval of 583 instead of 585, between Mi and Sz, the semi- tones are all inserted by eight successive additions of 585 from Mz upwards: thus 823+ 583=905; 905+585 =1,490; 1,490 + 585=2,075; 2,075-+-585 =2,660; 2,6604-585=3,245 ; 3245+ 585 = 38,830; 3,830+585 = 4,415; 4,415+585 — 5,000: from which, rejecting the entire thousands so as to bring the notes all within the compass of one octave, we have a series of accidentals identical with the second of those set down in (VI1.). Let us now examine these three scales in succession, by forming out of them—Istly, all the Fifths; 2ndly, all the Major Thirds ; and 8rdly, all the Minor Thirds which can be made among them, and we shall find as follows: viz. Istly, for the scale (A)— Vths—585, 585, 567, 585, 585, 585, 601, 585, 585, 585, 567, 585; [lIrds—322, 322, 322, 322, 356, 322, 356, 322, 322, 356, 322, 356; 3rds—263, 229, 245, 229, 263, 263, 245, 263, 229, 263, 245, 263; showing nine good Fifths, eight Major, and six Minor Thirds. The erroneous Fifths are, two of them, deficient by a Comma, and one in excess by nearly a Comma (16). The erroneous Major Thirds are all in excess by 34, or nearly two Commas; and the erroneous Minor Thirds all deficient, three by a Comma and three by 34. The scale (B) similarly tried, gives— Vths—585, 585, 567, 585, 585, 585, 567, 585, 585, 585, 601, 585; IIIrds—322, 356, 322, 356, 322, 322, 322, 322, 356, 322, 356, 322; 3rds—229, 263, 245, 263, 263, 229, 245, 229, 263, 263, 245, 263; which singularly enough (as it seems at first sight) exhibits the same number of each harmonic as (A), and the same amount of deviation, and in the same direction for each. These two scales then are precisely on a par, nor does there seem any reason for pre- ferring one to the other. Both are rich in perfect Thirds both Major and Minor, which is a strong recommendation ; but, owing to the bad Fifths which they involve, three out of the eleven keys into which the fundamental scale may be transposed are spoiled by false dominants, and three others blemished by false sub-dominants, while the more erroneous Thirds cannot but prove objectionable wherever they may occur. Treating our scale (C) in the same manner, we get :— Vths—585, 585, 567, 585, 585, 585, 585, 585, 585, 585, 584, 584; IlIrds—322, 339, 321, 339, 339, 322, 340, 322, 339, 339, 339, 339 ; 3rds—246, 246, 245, 245, 263, 246, 246, 246, 246, 263, 245, 263; 1868. | On Musical Scales. 347 Of the Fifths one only errs by a Comma, all the rest may be regarded as perfect, and the defective one (as we have seen) is inevitable if we insist on starting from an untempered scale. The chief blemish of this scale is the paucity of its perfect Thirds of both kinds, but on the other hand none of them err in excess or defect beyond a Comma. The peculiarities of these several scales will, however, be placed in a clearer light by exhibiting the several scales of natural notes resulting from their transposition into all the keys. Taking then C for an original or’ fundamental key, the values of the natural notes in all the keys, starting from the scale (A), will stand thus:— | | | | 1 aes Dp. | Deeps |e re he he. a al) Beep Bt Do.. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 Re .. | 170 | 170 | 152 | 152 | 170 | 170 | 186 | 152 | 170 | 170 | 152 | 186 Mi .. | 322 | 822 | 322 | 322 | 356 | 322 | 356 | 322 | 322 | 356 | 322 | 356 Fa .. | 415 | 399 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 483 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 483 | 415 | 415 Sol .. | 585 | 585 | 567 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 601 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 567 | 585 VO tou) 100 | Tor | ae | Wil |) Foo | 77h | 737 | 738t ) tao | 13%) Wa Si .. | 907 | 907 | 923 | 907 | 941 | 907 | 923 | 907 | 907 | 941 | 889 | 941 do .. 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 From which it appears that—Istly, the transposition into Ab gives us back again the pure original scale of C unaltered; and, 2ndly, the transposition into either G or into Eb, gives again the diatonic scale, with the substitution of 152 instead of 170 for Re, constituting what we have above designated as the Co-diatonic scale. Operating a similar series of transpositions with (B) as a funda- mental scale, we find the following system— | | © TS HO RR RO SC Re .. | 170 | 170 | 152 | 186 | 170 | 170 | 152 | 152 | 170 | 170 | 186 | 152 # | 356 | 322 | 322 | 322 | 322 | 356 | 322 | 356 | 322 Fa .. | 415 | 433 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 399 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 433 | 415 | 415 Sol .. | 585 | 585 | 567 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 567 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 601 | 585 La .. | 737 | 755 | 737 | 771 | 737 | 755 | 737 | 737 | 771 | 755 | 771 | 737 Si .. | 907 | 941 | 889 | 941 | 907 | 907 | 923 | 907 | 941 | 907 | 923 | 907 do .. |1000 pon 1000 a 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 | Here we are again presented with a similar phenomenon. The exact original scale of C is reproduced in HJ, and the co-diatonic scale in the keys of G and B. Lastly, making the same series of transpositions in the case of our scale (C), we obtain— 348 On Musical Seales. [July, Coy | DR D. | ep. | |e. Gp. |G. | Ab. | Bp. | B. Do.. 0 0 0 0 0 oe" "0 0 0 0 0|-°0 Re .. | 170 | 170 | 152 | 168 | 170 | 170 | 170 | 152 | 169 | 170 | 169 | 170 M .. | 322 | 338 | 322 | 338 | 340 | 322 | 339 | 322 | 338 | 340 | 339 | 340 Fa .. | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 416 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 433 | 416 | 415 Sol... | 585 | 585 | 567 | 584 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 584 | 585 La .. | 737 | 754 | 737 | 753 | 755 | 755 | 755 | 737 | 753 | 755 | 754 | 755 Si .. | 907 | 923 | 907 | 923 | 925 | 907 | 923 | 907 | 923 | 925 | 906 | 924 do .. |1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 where the co-diatonic scale appears in G, as in the case of (B). And it is sufficient to run the eye along the several horizontal lines of the table to perceive the much greater uniformity and regularity prevailing in this system than in the other two, between which it offers a sort of mean. § 2. Let us now go through exactly the same set of operations, set- ting out from the co-diatonic scale in which Re = 152; and instead of the system of values of «, 8, &c. in (VII.), we shall find our- selves conducted to the following :— (VIIL.) a=59, B=229, y=474, 5=644, «=796; a=93, B=263, y=508, 5=678, e=830; while the systems of values in (VI.) remain unaltered. Here, then, the link of connection between the two sets which give a Fifth in the one and a Third in the other, is e = 830, instead of y = 492; and thus, proceeding as before, we are led to three scales, (a), (b), (c), each having its own especial claims to consideration. Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si do (a) 0, 93, 152, 263, 322, 415, 508, 585, 678, 737, 880, 907, 1000. (b) 0, 59, 152, 229, 322, 415, 474, 585, 644, 737, 796, 907, 1000. (c) 0, 75, 152, 245, 322, 415, 491, 585, 660, 737, 830, 907, 1000. Examining these by the criterion afforded by their Fifths and Major and Minor Thirds, as in the cases of the former scales, (A), (B), (C), we shall find that (a) affords, just as in the case of (A), nine per- fect Fifths, and three excessive or defective by a Comma; eight perfect Major Thirds, and four excessive by 34; and six perfect Minor Thirds, three deficient by a Comma, and three by 34, or nearly two Commas. The scale (b) similarly tried affords only eight perfect Fifths, three defective by a Comma, and one excessive by 34; eight per- fect Major Thirds, the other four all excessive by 34; and seven perfect Minor Thirds, the others defective—two by 18, two by 34, and one by 52. ‘This scale, then, is decidedly inferior, and may at once be rejected. 1868. | On Musical Scales, 349 Lastly, (¢) affords eleven Fifths (two defective by a single unit, and therefore to be received as perfect), and one defective by a Comma ; the Major and Minor Thirds also as in the case of ( C). Rejecting, then, (b), the transpositions of (a) and (c) will give the following systems :— eee ea ce ee hl DOW. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 es. || oa-| 170) V70"| P52) 186 170 170 | 1527) 1527) 170 | 170-186 Mi .. | 322 | 322 | 356 | 322 | 356 | 322 | 322 | 822 | 322 | 356 | 322 | 356 Fa .. | 415 | 415 | 433 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 399 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 433 | 415 Sol .. | 585 | 585 | 585 | 567 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 567 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 601 Mm tat | fat \eido,| Toes) TTL | 73%.) Tao | 737 | T3T | TTL | 755. | 77a Si .. | 907 | 907 | 941 | 889 | 941 | 907 | 907 | 923 | 907 | 941 | 907 | 923 do .. \1000 |1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 |1000 (c.) Cc. Dp. | De ||) Mies) VE. WP | Gp WAG.) (Ais |e cate lB | ore Do.. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Liew |) 152) 170) | 170) 170) 69! | V70) |) 169) |) 152) 170) |) 170) || 170) | 168 Mi .. | 322 | 340 | 339 | 340 | 338 | 322 | 339 | 322 | 340 | 338 | 322 | 338 Fa .. | 415 | 416 | 4383 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 416 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 Sol... | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 584 | 567 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 584 i aot || aot} too lusoo||| Foai|/ 7a || COL vor |loo| TO* | Too. | tee Si .. | 907 | 925 | 923 | 905 | 923 | 907 | 924 | 906 | 925 | 923 | 907 | 923 do .. |1000 |1000 1000 aad 1000 1000 1000 |1000 1000 |1000 |1000 |1000 Here we see reproduced in the scale (a) the peculiarity already noticed in (A), viz. that it gives to Ab the same identical scale with C and in Dh, (and with the exception of the single note La, also in Bg), the diatonic scale complementary to that we started from. Among the transpositions of (c), again, we find the key of F repro- ducing the complementary diatonic. Except these five scales, it does not appear possible to construct any others having the smallest pretension to be received, consist- ently with the condition of starting from one or the other of the two untempered diatonics,* unless, perhaps, we regard as entitled to enter into this competition that bugbear to the musical mind, the scale which arises from tuning up directly from Do eleven consecu- tive perfect Fifths ; the twelfth (which, with tempered Fifths, would lead to the seventh octave of the fundamental note), surpassing it * The minute temperament of a single unit in the two intermediate Fifths of the seales (C) and (c), it will be observed, does not affect any of the Natural notes of the fundamental scale. In those proposed by Dr. Young, on the other hand, the temperament is made to fall entirely on those notes, the accidentals being all free from it. 350 On Musical Scales. [July, by 20, or by what is called a “ Pythagorean Comma,” and so throw- ing “the wolf,’ as the phrase is, deliberately mto one key, whose dominant, deficient by that amount, shall render it altogether unfit for use. To find the values of the notes in this scale, we have only to form the eleven first multiples of 585, reject the thousands, and arrange the results in order of magnitude, which gives the scale— Do ‘Re Mi Fa Sol La Si do (d) 0, 95, 170, 265, 340, 435, 510, 585, 680, 755, 850, 925, 1000. This scale, tried by the same test of Fifths and Major and Minor Thirds, gives us eleven perfect Fifths, and one deficient by 20 ; four Major Thirds deficient only by 2, and which therefore may be re- ceived as good, and all the other eight excessive by a Comma; and four Minor Thirds excessive by 2, and therefore to be received as good, all the rest being deficient by a Comma. ‘This scale, then, so far from meriting the unreserved condemnation with which it has been received, stands in no very unfavourable comparison with (C) or (c) (though certainly inferior to both), in the original key, while in its transpositions (taking C as the original key) it exhibits some remarkable peculiarities which render it otherwise worthy of atten- tion, as the following table will show :— Gd. | ie: |p. iD: Bp. | EB | | Gb. |G | Ap. | a: | Bp ae Domes 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Rey -ce| LON) 270) L700) L70) | 270) 1500) 170) 704) L700) ON Loon eae Mi .. | 340 | 340 | 340 | 320 | 340 | 320 | 340 | 340 | 320 | 340 | 320 | 340 Fa .. | 435 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 | 415 Sol .. | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 565 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 | 585 La .. | 755 | 755 | 755 | 735 | 755 | 735 | 755 | 755 | 755 | 755 | 735 | 755 St .. | 925 | 905 | 925 | 905 | 925 | 905 | 925 | 925 | 905 | 925 | 905 | 925 do .. |1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 |1000 |1000 1000 |1000 1000 |1000 |1000 (e))|| PAD | Bp. |B | ee} Dy | Deh, Bel eee el ieee (f) Do) Bes) OMe) ES ISG peat eal AR BEE eGRe kage Dp. This table, as it stands, with the headings of the columns as on the upper horizontal line marked (d), exhibits the transpositions of the scale (d), starting with C as a fundamental note. It affords two very good scales, vz. a good, almost a perfect, diatonic scale in Eb, and an equally good co-diatonic in Bh; so that in those keys it will afford excellent harmony. What seems to condemn it is, that it throws “the wolf” into F, one of the most useful keys, and what may be called “the counter-wolf” (that which results from a faulty IVth—for every faulty Fifth im one key necessitates an equally faulty Fourth in the key a fourth below it) into the original key C itself. This unlucky defect, however, it is evident, will be evaded by starting, and beginning to tune our Fifths upwards, not from C but 1868. | On Musical Scales. oo from Eb or Bb, which will simply transfer the letters in the head- ing (d) into the order (e) in the upper of the two lines below the table in the former case, and into the order (f) in the latter case; and will give us for the values of the notes in the two scales as under— Do Re . Mi Fa Sol La Si do (ec) 0, 75, 170, 245, 320, 415, 490, 585, 660, 735, 830, 905, 1000; if) 0, 75, 150, 245, 320, 415, 490, 585, 660, 735, 830, 905, 1000; whose approximation to our scales (C) and (c) is very close. Exactly in the same manner, if we set out with either of the scales (A), (B), and, instead of commencing with C as a funda- mental note, commence with Ab, as Do, and tune upwards thence by the successive intervals of the other scale in their order, from the beginning to the end of the octave. we shall complete the scale— thus, commencing with 678, which corresponds to Ap in the scale (A), and adding to it in succession each of the numbers 59, 170, 229, 322, &., belonging to the scale (B), we produce the numbers 737; 848; 907; 1,000; 1,093; 1,170, 1,263; 1,322; 1,415; 1,492 ; 1,585; 1,678; and vice versa. This places in evidence the musical relation of those two scales, and shows that in fact each of them is only a transposition of the other. The scale of equal temperament results from tuning upwards from Do twelve successive Fifths, each defective by 22, or each = 5881; or, which comes to the same, dividing the octave into equal intervals of 832 each, thus giving the scale (to the nearest unit in each note)— Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si do (z) 0, 88, 167, 250, 333, 417, 500, 583, 667, 750, 833, 917, 1000. This scale, of course, reproduces itself in all its transpositions, and is therefore exceedingly well adapted to the purposes of the mere Pianiste as affording him an unbounded range of modulation, and (by the free use of the equivocal chord, or diminished Seventh, and other similar artifices of modulation) allowing him, within the compass of the same piece of music, to pass into any, or if he please, all the keys, without fear of encountering “the wolf,” or any other musical monster but those of his own making. Its chief defect is that it does not afford a single good Third, either Major or Minor; ail the former being two-thirds of a Comma in excess, and all the latter as much in defect of their legitimate values. This is little felt in modern pianoforte music, in which brilliancy and rapidity of passages and startling turns of modulation, by the intro- duction of all sorts of extraneous notes into the discords, stand in the place of delicate and sustained harmony ; to which, besides, the instrument itself is little adapted, owing to the rapid degradation in the intensity of sound in its notes when once struck. As an 352 On Musical Scales. [July, accompaniment, however, to instruments without a fixed scale, and more especially to vocal music in parts, where the performers, if they have any ear, will naturally endeavour to keep their Thirds perfect in those passages in which many of them follow in succes- sion, on which so much of the beauty of vocal music depends, the advantage of a scale abounding in perfect Thirds is evident; espe- cially if the composer, aware of the existence of faulty ones in the scale, should avoid their introduction, or avoid, at least, dwelling long on them. To show the composition of the several numbers which occur in the foregoing scales, or what musical intervals they represent, we subjoin the following table, in which it is to be remembered that the entire thousands (expressive of octaves), whether + or —, are re- jected ; or in other terms, that — V (a Fifth tuned downwards) is to be considered as equivalent to + IV = 415, a Fourth tuned up- wards ; and — III., a descending Third, to = 678, its complement to the octave, ascending ; and in which it must also be borne in mind that though these equations may be added to or substracted from one another or multiplied by any whole number, they must not be halved, quartered, or otherwise divided. Table of Musical Equivalents in the foregoing pages, the Octave being 1000. 1= — 2111+ 37V. | 247=+ IT.+ SV. | 644= + 21I1. 2=+ I+ 8vV./263=- I.+ V.| 660= =, AVE 16= -—21011.-— 4V.| 265= + 9V. | 662=+4 III.+ 4Y. i~@=— H+ 4V. | 320= = $V. | 6738i= — it 20 = +12V. | 322=+ OL 680 = + 8V. 34 = — 3 III. 338 = — Ti = 4 Vi || 730) = - 9V. 36 = — 211I.+ 8 V. | 340= + 4V.| 7237=+ MI. - Ve 52= -4II1.+ 4V. | 415= - V. | 758=— DL— 5V. 59=+201.- V.| 483=— I.+ 8V. | 755 = => (one 7) = — OnVen|saoo IDV.) 71 = — 20 =) ave W7=+ L+ 3V.) 474=+200.— 2V.| 796=+38111.— 2YV. 93 = — IIL —- V. | 490 = — 6Y. | 814 = - 2.10 = 2 95 = + 7V.|/492=+ IIL+ 2Vv.| 830= - 2V. 111 = - 2101.+ 3V./508=—-— TL- 2V.| 832=+ MTI.+ 6V. 150 = -— 10 V. | 510 = — 6V. | 850 = + 10V. 152=-+ IIIl.-— 2V./ 526= —-2111.+ 2V.| 889=+2II.-— $8V. 168=— I.— 6V. | 565= — Ven s900%— — TV. 17{0) = - 2 Y. | 06% = =) T= 3Ve 907 = =F iL -- eve 186 = — 2110.- 2V.|583=- Ill—- 7V.|923=— I.- 8V. 229=+2I10.+ #£«xV-./} 585 = ap. We |p SPs + SV. 245 = — 8V.|601='-21.— 38V.)/ 941 =—20I-- Vi 1868. ] ( 353 ) VI. ON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LUMINOUS INTENSITY OF LIGHT. By Witu1am Croorszs, F.RS., &. Tue measurement of the intensity of a ray of light is a problem the solution of which has been repeatedly attempted, but with less satisfactory results than the endeavours to measure the other radiant forces. The problem is susceptible of two divisions :—the absolute and the relative measurement of light. I. Given a luminous beam, we may require to express its inten- sity by some absolute term having reference to a standard obtained at some previous time, and capable of being reproduced with accu- racy at any time in any part of the globe. Possibly two such standards would be necessary, differing greatly in value, so that the space between them might be subdivided into a definite number of equal parts ; or the same result might perhaps be obtaimed by the well-known device of varying the apparent intensity of the standard light by increasing and diminishing its distance from the instrument. II. The standard of comparison, instead of bemg obtained once for all, like the zero and boiling-points of a thermometer, may be compared separately at each observation; and the problem then becomes somewhat simplified into the determination of the relative intensities of two sources of light. The absolute method is of course the most desirable; but as the preliminary researches and discoveries are yet to be made before a photometer, analogous to a thermometer in fixity of standard and facility of observation, could be devised, the realization of an abso- lute light-measuring method appears somewhat distant. The path to be pursued towards the attamment of this desirable object ap- pears to be indicated in the observations which from time to time have been made by Becquerel, Herschel, Hunt, and others on the chemical action of the solar rays, and the production thereby of a galvanic current, capable of measurement on a delicate galvano- meter, by appropriate arrangements of metallic plates and chemical baths connected with the ends of the galvanometer wires. Many so-called photometers have been devised, by which the chemical action of the rays at the most refrangible end of the spec- trum have been measured, and the chemical intensity of light tabulated by appropriate methods; and within the last few years Professors Bunsen and Roscoe have contrived a perfect chemical photometer, based upon the action of the chemical rays of light on a gaseous mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, causing them to com- bine with formation of hydrochloric acid. But the measurement of the chemical action of a beam of light, 304 On the Measurement of the _ (duly, is as distinct from photometry proper as is the thermometric¢ regis- tration of the heat rays constituting the other end of the spectrum. What we want is a method of measuring the intensity of those rays which are situated at the intermediate parts of the spectrum, and produce in the eye the sensation of light and colour; and, as pre- viously suggested, there is a reasonable presumption that further researches may place us in possession of a photometric method based upon the chemical action of the 7wminous rays of light. The rays which affect an ordinary photographic sensitive sur- face, are so constantly spoken of and thought about as the ultra-violet invisible rays, that it is apt to be forgotten that some of the highly luminous rays of light are capable of exerting chemical action. Fifteen years ago the writer was engaged in some investigations on the chemical action of light, and he succeeded in producing all the ordinary phenomena of photography, even to the production of good photographs in the camera, by purely luminous rays of light free from any admixture with the violet and invisible rays. When the solar spectrum, of sufficient purity to show the principal fixed lines, is projected for a few seconds on to a sensitive film of iodide of silver, and the latent image then developed, the action is seen to extend from about the fixed line G to a considerable distance into the ultra-violet invisible rays. When the same experiment was repeated with a sensitive surface of bromide of silver instead of iodide of silver, the result of the development of the latent image showed that in this case the action commenced at about the fixed line b, and extended, as in the case of the iodide of silver, far beyond the violet. A transparent cell, with parallel glass sides one inch across, was filled with a solution of twenty-five parts of sulphate of quinine to one hundred parts of dilute sulphuric acid ; this was placed across the path of the rays of light, and photographs of the spec- trum were again taken on iodide of silver and on bromide of silver, the arrangements in all cases being identical with those in the first cited experiments, with the exception of the interposition of the quinine screen. The action of the sulphate of quinine upon a ray of light is peculiar ; to the eye it scarcely appears to have any action at all, but it is absolutely opaque to the ultra-violet, so called chemi- cal, rays, and thus limits the photographic action on the bromide and iodide of silver to the purely luminous rays. On developing the latent images, it was now found that the action on iodide of silver was confined to a very narrow line of rays, close to the fixed line G, and in the case of bromide of silver to the space between b and G. Designating the spaces of action by colours instead of fixed lines, it was thus proved that, behind a screen of sulphate of quinine, iodide of silver was affected only by the luminous rays about the centre of the indigo portion of the spectrum, whilst bromide of silver was affected by the green, blue, and some of the indigo rays. 1868. | Luminous Intensity of Light. 355 It is very likely that a continuance of these experiments would lead to the construction of a photometer capable of measuring the luminous rays; for although bromide of silver behind quinine is not affected by the red or yellow rays, still it is by the green and blue ; and as the proportion of red, yellow, green, and blue rays is always invariable in white light (or the light would not be white but coloured), a method of measuring the intensity of one set of the components of white light would give all the information we want; just as, in an analysis of a definite chemical compound, the chemist is satisfied with an estimation of one or two constituents only, and calculates the others. Method based upon the foregoing considerations would supply us with what may be termed an absolute photometer, the indication of which would be always the same for the same amount of ilumi- nation, requiring no standard light for comparison; and pending the development of experiments which the writer is prosecuting in this direction, he has been led to devise a new and, as he believes, a valuable form of relative photometer. A relative photometer is one in which the observer has only to determine the relative illuminating powers of two sources of light, one of which is kept as uniform as possible, the other being the light whose intensity is to be determined. It is therefore evident that the great thing to be aimed at is an absolutely uniform source of light. In the ordinary process of photometry the standard used is a candle, defined by Act of Parhament as a “sperm candle of six to the pound, burning at the rate of 120 grains per hour.” This is the standard from which estimates of the value of illuminating gas are deduced, hence the terms “12-candle gas,’ “14-candle gas,” &c. In his work on Gas Manipulation, Mr. Sugg gives a very good account of the difficulties which stand in the way of obtaining uniform results with the Act of Parliament candle. A true sperm candle is made from a mixture of refined sperm with a small proportion of wax, to give it a certain toughness, the pure sperm itself being extremely brittle. The wick is of the best cotton, made up into three cords and plaited. The number of strands in each of the three cords composing the wick of a six-to-the-pound candle is seventeen, although Mr. Sugg says there does not appear to be any fixed rule, some candles having more and others less, according to the quality of the sperm. Sperm candles are made to burn at the rate of one inch per hour, and the cup should be clean, smooth, and dry. The wick should be curved slightly at the top, the red tip just showimg through the flame, and consuming away without requiring snuffing. To obtain these results, the tightness of the plaiting and size of the wick require careful attention; and as the quality of the sperm differs in richness or hardness, so must the plaiting and number of strands. A variety of modifying cir- 356 On the Measwrement of the [July, cumstances thus tend to affect the illuminating power of a standard sperm candle. These difficulties, however, are small, compared with those which have resulted from the substitution of paraffin, &c., for part of the sperm; and Mr. Sugg points out that candles can be made with such combinations of stearin, wax, or sperm, and paraffin, as to possess all the characteristics of sperm candles, and yet be superior to them in illuminating power ; while, on the other hand, candles made from the same materials otherwise combined are inferior. When, in addition to this, it is found that candles containing paraffin require wicks more tightly plaited and with fewer strands than those suitable for the true sperm candle, our readers will be enabled to judge of the almost unsurmountable diffi- culties which beset the present system of photometry. But assuming that the true parliamentary sperm candle is obtained, made from the proper materials and burning at the speci- fied rate, its illuminating power will be found to vary with the tem- perature of the place where it has been kept, the time which has elapsed since it was made, and the temperature of the room wherein the experiment is tried. The Rev. W. R. Bowditch, in his work on The Analysis, Puri- fication, &e., of Coal-gas, enters at some length into the question of test-candles, and emphatically condemns them as light-measurers ; one experiment quoted by this author showed that the same gas was reported to be 14°63 or 17°36 candle gas, according to the way the experiment was conducted. The present writer has taken some pains to devise a source of light which should be at the same time fairly uniform in its results, would not vary by keeping, and would be capable of accu- rate imitation at any time and in any part of the world by mere description. The absence of these conditions seems to be one of the greatest objections to the sperm candle. It would be impossible for an observer on the continent, ten or twenty years hence, from a written description of the sperm candle now employed, to make a standard which would bring his photometric results into relation with those obtained here. Without presuming to say positively that he has satisfactorily solved all difficulties, the writer believes that he has advanced some distance in the right direction, and pointed out the road for further improvement. Before deciding upon a standard light, experiments were made to ascertain whether the electric current could be made available. Through a coil of platinum wire, so as to render it brightly in- candescent, a powerful galvanic current was passed ; and its strength was kept as constant as possible by a thick wire galvanometer and rheostat. To prevent the cooling action of air-currents, the in- candescent coil was surrounded with glass; and it was hoped that by employing the same kind of battery and by varying the resist- 1868. ] Luminous Intensity of Light. 357 ance so as to keep the galvanometer needle at the same deflection, uniform results could be obtained. In practice, however, it was found that many things interfered with the uniformity of the results, and the light being much feebler than it was advisable to work with, this plan was deemed not sufficiently promising, and it was abandoned. The method ultimately decided upon is the following :— Alcohol of sp. gr. 0°805, and pure benzol boiling at 81 C., are mixed together in the proportion of 5 volumes of the former and 1 of the latter. This burning fluid can be accurately imitated from descrip- tion at any future time and in any country, and if a lamp could be devised equally simple and invariable, the ight which it would yield would, it is presumed, be invariable. ‘This difficulty the writer has attempted to overcome in the following manner. A glass lamp is taken of about two ounces capacity, the aperture in the neck being 0°25 inch diameter; another aperture at the side allows the liquid fuel to be introduced; and by a well-known laboratory device, the level of the fluid in the lamp can be kept uniform. ‘The wick-holder consists of’ a platinum tube 1°81 inches long and 0°125 inch internal diameter. The bottom of this is closed with a flat plug of platinum, apertures being left in the sides to allow free access of spirit. A small platinum cup 5 inches diameter and 1 inch deep is soldered round the outside of the tube 0-5 inch from the top, answering the threefold purpose of keeping the wick-holder at a proper height in the lamp, preventing evapo- ration of the liquid, and keeping out dust. The wick consists of 52 pieces of hard-drawn platinum wire, each 0-01 inch in diameter and 2 inches long, perfectly straight and tightly pushed down into the platinum holder until only 0:1 inch projects above the tube. The height of the burning fluid in the lamp must be sufficient to cover the bottom of the wick-holder: it answers best to keep it always at the uniform distance of 1°75 inches from the top of the platinum wick ; a slight variation of level, however, has not been found to influence the light to an extent appreciable by our present means of photometry. The lamp with reservoir of spirit thus arranged, with the platmum wires parallel and their projecting ends level, a light is applied, and the flame instantly appears, forming a perfectly- shaped cone 1°25 inches in height, the pomt of maximum brilliancy being 0°56 inch from the top of the wick. The extremity of the flame is perfectly sharp, without any tendency to smoke; without flicker or movement of any kind, it burns when protected from currents of air at a uniform rate of 136 grains of liquid per hour. The temperature should be about 60° F., although moderate varia- tions on either side exert no perceptible influence. There is no doubt that this flame is very much more uniform than that of the sperm candle sold for photometric purposes. Tested against a candle, considerable variations in relative illumi- 358 On the Measurement of the | July, nating power have been observed ; but on placing two of these lamps in opposition, no such variations have been detected. The same candle has been used, and the experiments have been repeated at wide intervals, using all usual precautions to ensure uniformity. The results are thus shown to be due to variations in the candle and not in the lamp. It is expected that whoever may be inclined to adopt the kind of lamp here suggested will find not only that its uniformity may be relied upon, but that, by following accurately the description and dimensions here laid down, each observer will possess a lamp of equivalent and convertible photometric value; so that 1esults may not only be strictly comparable between themselves, but, within slight limits of accuracy, comparable with those obtained by other experimentalists. The dimensions of wick, &c., here laid down are not intended to fix the standard. Persons engaged in photometry as an important branch of their regular occupation will be better able to fix these data than the writer, by whom photometry is only occasionally pursued as a means of scientific research. Already many improvements suggest themselves, and several causes of varia- tion in the light have been noticed. Future experiments may point out how these sources of error are to be overcome; but at present there is no necessity to refine our source of standard light to a greater degree of accuracy than the photometric instrument admits of. The instrument for measuring the relative intensities of the standard and other lights, next demands attention. The contri- vances in ordinary use are so well known that a short sketch of the principles on which they are based need only be given. Most of them depend on a well-known law in optics, namely, that the amount of light which falls upon a given surface varies inversely as the square of the distance between the source of light and the object illuminated. The simplest observation which can be taken is made by placing two sources of light (say a candle and gas-lamp) opposite a white screen a few feet off, and placing a stick in front of them, so that two shadows of the stick may fall on the screen. The strongest light will cast the strongest shadow; and by moving this light away from the stick, keeping the shadows side by side, a position will at last be found at which the two shadows appear of equal strength. By measuring the distance of each light from the screen, and squaring it, the product will give the relative intensities of the two sources of light. In practice, this plan is not sufficiently accurate to be used except for the roughest approximations; and from time to time several ingenious contrivances, all founded upon the same law, have been introduced by scientific men, by which a much greater accuracy is obtained ; thus, in Ritchie’s photometer the lights are reflected on to a piece of oiled paper in a box, and their distances are varied 1868. | Luminous Intensity of Light. 359 until the two halves of the paper are equally illuminated. In Bunsen’s photometer, which is the one now generally used, the lights shine on opposite sides of a dise of white paper, part of which has been smeared with melted spermaceti to make it more transparent. When illuminated by a front light the greased portion of the paper will look dark; but if the observer goes to the other side of the paper, the greased part looks the lighter. If therefore lights of unequal intensity are placed on opposite sides of a piece of paper so prepared, a difference will be observed ; but by moving one backwards or forwards, so as to equalize the intensity, the whole surface of the paper will appear uniformly illuminated on both sides. This photo- meter has been modified by many observers. By some the disc of paper is moved, the lights remaining stationary ; by others the whole is enclosed in a box, and various contrivances are adopted to increase the sensitiveness of the eye and to facilitate calculation: but in all these the sensitiveness is not materially augmented, as the eye cannot judge of very minute differences of illumination approxi- mating to equality. In 1833 Arago described a photometer in which the pheno- mena of polarized light were employed. This instrument is fully described, with drawings, in the tenth volume of the Guvres Com- pletes de Francois Arago; but the description, although voluminous, is far from clear. The principle of its construction is founded on “the law of the square of the cosines,” according to which polarized rays pags from the ordinary to the extraordimary image. - The knowledge of this law, he says, will not only prove theoretically important, but will further lead to the solution of a great number of very important astronomical questions. Suppose, for example, that it is wished to compare the luminous intensity of that portion of the moon directly illuminated by the solar rays with that of the part which receives only light reflected from the earth, called the partie cendrée. Were the law in question known, the way to proceed would be as follows:—after having polarized the moon's light, pass it through a doubly refracting crystal, so disposed that the rays, not being able to bifurcate, may entirely undergo ordinary refraction. A lens placed behind this crystal will there- fore show but one image of our satellite; but as the crystal in rotating on its axis passes from its original position, the second image will appear, and its intensity will go on augmenting. The movement of the crystal must be arrested at the moment when, in this growing extraordinary image, the segment corresponding to the part of the moon illuminated by the sun, exhibits the intensity of the ashy part shown by the ordinary image. From these data it is easy to perceive, he says, that the problem is capable of solution. In another part of the same volume, after speaking of the polariscope which goes by his name, Arago writes: —“I have now VOL. V. 2c 360 On the Measurement of the [July, arrived at the general principle upon which my photometric method is entirely founded. The quantity (I do not say the proportion)— the quantity of completely polarized light, which forms part of a beam partially polarized by reflection, and the quantity of light polarized rectangularly which is contained in the beam transmitted under the same angle, are exactly equal to each other. The reflected beam and the beam transmitted under the same angle by a sheet of parallel glass, have in general very dissimilar intensities; if however we examine with a doubly refracting crystal, first the re- flected and then the transmitted beam, the greatest difference of intensity between the ordinary and the extraordinary images will be the same in the two cases, because this difference is precisely equal to the quantity of polarized light which is mixed with the common light.” In Arago’s astronomy, the author again describes his photo- Fic. 1 meter in the following words: “I have con- oN) structed an apparatus by means of which, upon operating with the polarized image of a star, we can succeed in attenuating its intensity by D 0 degrees exactly calculable after a law which I have demonstrated.” It is difficult to obtain an exact idea of this instrument from the de- — scription given ; but from the drawings it would See appear to be exceedingly comaehiied and to be different in principle and construction from the one now about to be described. The pre- ee’ — sent photometer has this in common with that of Arago as well as with those described in 1853 by Bernard,* and in 1854 by Babinet,f gd that the phenomena of polarized lght are used for effecting the desired end. But it is —_=—==»——-1 believed that the present arrangement is quite new, and it certainly appears to answer the purpose in a way which leaves little to be de- sired. The instrument will be better under- x stood if the principles on which it is based are first described. Fig. 1 shows a plan of the arrangement of parts, not drawn to scale, and only to be re- garded as an outline sketch to assist in the comprehension of general principles. ‘Let D represent a source of light. This may be a white disc of porcelain or paper illuminated by any artificial or natural light. C represents * “Comptes Rendus.’ April 25, 1853. + ‘ Proceedings of the British Association,’ Liverpool Meeting, 1854. 1868. | Luminous Intensity of Light. 361 a similar white disc likewise illuminated. It is required to com- pare the photometric intensities of D and C. (It is necessary that neither D nor C should contain any polarized light, but that the light coming from them, represented on each disc by the two lines at right angles to each other, forming a cross, should be entirely unpolarized.) Let H represent a double refracting achromatic prism of Iceland spar; this will resolve the disc D into two discs d and d’, polarized in opposite directions ; the plane of d being, we will assume, vertical, and that of d' horizontal. The prism H will likewise give two images of the disc C; the image c being polar- ized horizontally, and ¢' vertically. The size of the discs D, C, and the separating power of the prism H are to be so arranged that the vertically polarized image d, and the horizontally polarized image ¢, exactly overlap each other, forming, as shown in the figure, one compound dise ¢ d, built up of half the light from D and half that from C. The measure of the amount of free polarization present in the dise ¢ d, will give the relative photometric intensities of D and C. The letter I represents a diaphragm with a circular hole in the centre, just large enough to allow the compound disc ¢ d to be seen, but cutting off from view the side discs c’, d’. In front of the aperture in I is placed a piece of selenite of appropriate thick- ness for it to give a strongly-contrasting red and green image under the influence of polarized light. K is a doubly refracting prism, similar in all respects to H, placed at such a distance from the aperture in I that the two discs into which I appears to be split up are separated from each other, as at g, 7. If the disc ¢c d contains no polarized light, the images g 7 will be white, consisting of oppositely polarized rays of white light; but if there is a trace of polarized light in ¢ d, the two discs g r will be coloured compli- mentarily ; the contrast between the green and red being stronger in proportion to the quantity of polarized light in ¢ d. The action of this arrangement will be readily evident. Let it be supposed in the first place that the two sources of light, D and C, are exactly equal. They will each be divided by H into two discs, d' d and ¢ c¢’, and the two polarized rays of which ¢ d is com- pounded will also be absolutely equal in intensity, and will neutralize each other and form common light, no trace of free polarization being present. In this case the two discs of light g 7 will be colourless. Let it now be supposed that one source of light (D for instance) is stronger than the other (C). It follows that the two images d’ d will be more luminous than the two images ¢ c’, and that the vertically polarized ray d will be stronger than the horizontally polarized ray c. The compound disc ¢ d will therefore shine with partially polarized light, the amount of polarization being in exact ratio with the photometric intensity of D over C. a ne ase the c 362 On the Measurement of the [July, image of the selenite plate in front of the aperture I will be divided by K into a red and a green disc. Fia. 2, Fig. 2. shows the instrument fitted up. A is the eye-piece shown in enlarged section at Fig. 8. G B is a brass tube, blacked inside, having a piece, shown separate at D C, slipping into the end B. The sloping sides, D B, B C, are covered with a white reflect- 1868. } Luminous Intensity of Light. 363 ing surface (white paper or finely-ground porcelain), so that when DC is pushed into the end B, one white surface D B may be illuminated (as in Fig. 2) by the candle, and the other surface B C by the lamp. If the eye-piece A is removed, the observer, looking down the tube G B, will see at the end a luminous white disc divided into two parts, one half being illuminated by the candle H, and the other half by the lamp F. By moving the candle E, for instance, along the scale, the illumination of the half D B can be varied at will, the illumination of the other half remaining stationary. The eye-piece A (shown enlarged at Fig. 3) will be understood by reference to Fig. 1, the same letters representing similar parts. At L is a lens to collect the rays from D BC (Fig. 2), and throw the image into the proper part of the tube. At M is another lens, so adjusted as to give a sharp image of the two discs into which I is divided by the prism K. ‘The part N is an adaptation of Arago’s polarimeter, which consists of a series of thin plates of glass capable of moving round the axis of the tube, and furnished with a pointer and graduated arc (shown at A, G, Fig. 2), By means of this pile it is possible to partially polarize the rays coming from the illuminated discs in one or the other direction, and thus bring to the neutral state the partially polarized beam ¢ d, (Fig. 1,) so as to get the images g r free from colour. It is so placed that when at the zero point it produces an equal effect on both discs. The action of the instrument is as follows. The standard lamp being placed on one of the supporting pillars which slide along the graduated stem (Fig. 2), it is adjusted to the proper height, and moved along the bar to a convenient distance, depending on the intensity of the light to be measured: the whole length being a little over four feet, each light can be placed at a distance of twenty-four inches from the disc. The flame is then sheltered from currents of air by black screens placed round, and the light to be compared is fixed in a similar way on the other side of the instrument. The whole should be placed in a dark room, or surrounded with non-reflecting screens; and the eye must also be protected from direct rays from the two lights. On looking Fia. 3. 364 On the Measwrement of the [ July, through the eye-piece two bright discs will be seen, probably of different colours. Supposing E represents the standard flame and F the light to be compared with it, the latter must now be slid along the scale until the two discs of light, seen through the eye- piece, are about equal in tint. It has been found most convenient not to attempt to get absolute equality in this manner, but to move the flame to the nearest inch on one side or the other of equality. The final adjustment is now effected at the eye-end, by turning the polarimeter one way or the other up to 45° until the images are seen without any trace of colour. This will be found more accurate than the plan of relying entirely on the alteration of the distance of the flame along the scale; and by a series of experimental adjust- ments, the value of every angle through which the bundle of plates is rotated can be ascertained once for all, when the future calculations will present no difficulty. Squaring the number of inches between the flames and the centre will give their approximate ratios; and the number of degrees the eye-piece rotates will give the number to be added or subtracted in order to obtain the necessary accuracy. The delicacy of the instrument is very great. With two lamps, each about twenty-four inches from the centre, it is easy to distin- cuish a movement of one of them to the extent of jth of an inch to or fro; and by using the polarimeter an accuracy consider- ably exceeding that can be attained. The employment of a photometer of this kind enables us to com- pare lights of different colours with one another, and leads to the solution of a problem which, from the nature of their construction, would be beyond the powers of the instruments in general use. So long as the observer, by the eye alone, has to compare the relative intensities of two surfaces respectively illuminated by the lights under trial, it is evident that unless they are of the same tint it is impossible to obtain that absolute equality of illumination in the instrument which is requisite for a comparison. By the unaided eye one cannot tell which is the brighter half of a paper dise illuminated on one side with a reddish and on the other with a yel- lowish light ; but by using the above-described photometer the pro- blem becomes practicable. For instance, on reference to Fig. 1, suppose the disc D were illuminated with light of a reddish colour and the disc C with greenish light, the polarized discs d' d would be reddish and the discs ¢ ¢’ greenish, the central disc ¢ d being of the tint formed by the union of the two shades. The analyzing prism K and the selenite disc T will detect free polarization in the disc ed if it be coloured as readily as if it were white; the only difference being that the two discs of light g 7 cannot be brought to a uniform white colour when the lights from D and C are equal in intensity, but will assume a tint similar to that of ed. When the contrasts of colour between D and C are very strong—when, 1868. Luminous Intensity of Light. 365 for instance, one is bright green and the other scarlet—there igs some difficulty in estimating the exact point of neutrality ; but this only diminishes the accuracy of the comparison, and does not render it impossible, as it would be according to other systems. No attempt has been made in these experiments to ascertain the exact value of the standard spirit-flame in terms of the parlia- mentary sperm candle. Difficulty was experienced in getting two lots of candles yielding light of equal intensities, and when their flames were compared between themselves and with the spirit-flame, variations of as much as 10 per cent. were sometimés observed in the light they gave. Two standard spirit-flames, on the other hand, seldom showed a variation of 1 per cent., and had they been more carefully made they would not have varied 0-1 per cent. This plan of photometry is capable of far more accuracy than the present instrument will give. It can scarcely be expected that the first instrument of the kind, roughly made by an amateur workman, should possess equal sensitiveness with one in which all the parts have been skilfully made with special adaptation to the end im view. ( +3866 ) [July, CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE. 1. AGRICULTURE. Bryonp the ordinary labours of the field preceding and succeeding seed time, which have this year been carried on under favourable circumstances,*the subjects principally occupying agricultural atten- tion during the past quarter have been rather of a social, or even political, than of a practical and scientific nature; and they are the less proper for discussion, or even enumeration here. We may, however, refer to the condition of the agricultural labourer as one of them. It has been properly enough characterized as extremely unsatisfactory in many parts of the country, where the ignorance of the class is very great and their wages very low. Schools are, however, bearing fruit everywhere, and the proportion of country workmen who can read and write a letter, is every year increasing ; and the wages received by them, though still various in different districts (indicating the strength of tie which still holds the labouring population to their parish), is less various than the mere money paid to them would lead one to suppose. There are many districts where the money wages are declared to be only 9s. or 10s., _ or even less, a week, in which a man is better off than he would be in a town with 20s. to 25s. weekly. The real payment for ser- vices includes in the former case, cottage and garden, 5/. or 61. for the harvest month, constant payment all the year, and the oppor- tunity both of earning triple wages at occasional piecework and of buying cheap flour and fuel. In an instance known to us near Rochford, Essex, where the offer of a 5/. prize at length brought forth a properly vouched year’s cash-account of the income and ex- penditure of an agricultural labourer who was receiving nominally 11s. a week, the actual receipts for the year exceeded 502. Those who compare the nominal wages of the labourer in town and country, are thus contrasting things of entirely different character, and are in danger of misleading themselves and others. Good service will, nevertheless, we readily admit, be done by any one who shall set himself to help good working-men to improve their circumstances, by sending them from over-populated districts to places where labourers are more wanted, and wages accordingly are higher; and this has been done of late by the Rey. Canon Girdlestone, at Hal- berton, in Devonshire, to an extent which has at length excited public attention. Returning now to our task as mere chroniclers of agricultural events, we have to mention Mr. Giilich’s mode of potato growing, 1868.] Agriculture. : 367 reported from Holstem, which has been designed with a view to escape the so-called potato disease. He grows his potato plants in hillocks, a yard apart every way, planting the tubers individually on earth over a spadeful of compost or manure in each spot, and taking care that each tuber is planted with the eye downwards. The shoots rise ina circle round the tuber, and in the course of their growth they are separated wider by additions of earth in the middle of this circle, and fall down into the intervening spaces whence the earth has been removed for this purpose. ‘There is thus ultimately a set of hillocks of which the tops are bare and the base surrounded with foliage ; and the idea is that the alleged freedom from disease which ensues must be owing to the blight fungus being washed downwards into the intervals between the plants, and away from the crop of young tubers which remain under the central hillock of bare earth. The spring time of the year always brings round discussions of the injury done to farmers by fraud in the seed and the manure trades. It isalleged that the phrase “ nett seed” is a common one among wholesale seedsmen, indicating that seed which is not “ nett,” and which therefore must be fraudulently mixed with dead and worthless additions, is also commonly delivered. There can be no doubt that the immense quantities of seed used in order to obtain an agricultural crop—often ten and twenty-fold the quantity which would, if all would grow, supply more than plants enough—can be explained only on the theory that a very large quantity of seed does not grow at all. Manures, in like manner, are the subject of fraudulent admixture; and sales by auction, professedly of damaged cargoes, often take-in the unwary who think to catch a bargain by cheap purchases of worthless stuff that is really dear at any price. Some service is done by repeatedly calling attention to the risks of this kind which the farmer runs; and we therefore mention the subject here. The theory of the under-drainage of land has recently received some discussion in the agricultural journals. The policy of leaving the upper ends of pipe-drains open to the air has been defended on the ground that it facilitates the passage of water through the pipe. The idea seems to us an entire mistake. The sole agency in the drainage of land is the weight of the water in the soil, which ensures its passage downwards and outwards, as soon as any channel of escape for it is opened. If the soil be air-tight, so that an air- passage is required to the underground pipe at the upper end of it, still more must it be water-tight, and then, of course, incapable of being drained at all. But no soil isim such a plight as this. It only needs that a channel be cut three or four feet deep in any soil, and any water that is in it will begin to ooze and trickle through it, and thus establish that movement of the rain-water from the surface 368 Chronicles of Science. [July, through the substance of the soil and subsoil which brings all the circumstances of increased fertility in its train. Among the events of the quarter having an indirect bearing on agricultural subjects, we may mention that the University of Edin- burgh has issued a programme of examinations in various branches of applied science, under which students may receive diplomas as Bachelor and Master of Agriculture. There can be no doubt that a successful passage, thus guaranteed, through well-conducted exami- nations on all the subjects with which a man must be familiar to mark him out as a thoroughly well-educated agriculturist, will ulti- mately materially affect the future professional career of imdividual agricultural students; and in this way it will benefit agriculture and agriculturists generally. Professor John Wilson, of the Edin- burgh University, has done good service to the cause of general agricultural progress by obtaining at the hands of so distinguished an educational body this recognition of agriculture as one of the professions for which a liberal education is desirable. We add that the subject of the beet-sugar manufacture and of the sugar-beet cultivation has continued to engage attention. Mr. Gibbs, of Gilwell Park, near Woodford, lately read a paper before the Society of Arts, advocating the use of his drying-engine for the reduction of crop-weight in the field, and the consequent reduc- tion of the expense of carriage, which more than anything else tends to discourage the establishment of local sugar factories. And Mr. Baruchson, of Liverpool, has published a most exhaustive treatise on the agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial aspects of the sub- ject, which ought to be read by every one who is disposed to intro- duce the cultivation of the sugar-beet upon his farm. 2. ARCH/ZOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. THE interest attaching to bone-caves yielding remains of man and works of art is still kept at a high pitch by new discoveries. During the past quarter a most interesting account of some explorations in Portuguese bone-caves* has reached us; and we thus obtain evidence that in the district of Cesareda man once existed in so uncivilized a condition that he lived in caves, ate human flesh, and possessed chipped flints for his only weapons. M. Delgado describes three caves in the Jurassic limestone of Cesareda, all of which he has thoroughly explored. In one (the Casa da Moura) he obtained * Da existencia do Homen no nosso solo em Tempos mui remotos provada pelo estudos das cavernas. Primeiro opusculo. Noticia acerca das Grutas da Cesareda. Por J. F. D. Delgado. 1868. | Archxology and Ethnology. 369 evidence of the existence of two deposits, a lower, resting on the stalagmite floor, composed of sand and angular fragments of the surrounding rock; and an upper, composed of a sandy loam. The lower one yielded many flint implements and fragments of charcoal, with bones of Felis, Canis, Cervus, Lupus, &c. In its deepest part the author found a human skull and lower jaw, but these he regards as having been buried at a subsequent period. The upper deposit contained a large number of fragmentary human bones, and numerous polished stone celts, flint flakes, bone instruments, &c., anda bronze arrow-head in its lowest part, which had probably been buried there. The fragmentary condition of the human bones, which had been cut and scraped, the long bones having also been split, appears to show that the author is right in regarding the cave as a burial- place of a tribe of cannibals. Bones of the wolf, fox, a dog, horse, deer, sheep, &c., coarse pottery marked with lines or rows of dots, shells pierced for ornaments, and other objects, were also found. The other caves yielded remains similar to those obtained from this upper deposit, one of them yielding in addition a portion of the lower jar of Ursus arctos. If the author’s determination of this relic be accurate, it is the most important animal remain which these caves have as yet yielded. While on the subject of bone-caves we should notice the publi- cation of the fifth part of the ‘Reliquiz Aquitanice.’ It contains the conclusion of Professor Rupert Jones’s geological sketch of the Vézere, figures and descriptions of a number of flint implements, and a most interesting essay by Mr. A. C. Anderson, “On the Re- semblance of many of the Dordogne Works of Art to the Imple- ments used by the North American Tribes, either now or at some former period.” .This resemblance is in many instances very striking, and suggests two questions for consideration, namely: (1), Are the uses for which the implements were made the same, or analogous, in both cases? and (2), Does the resemblance imply any affinity be- tween the tribes? The first question will probably receive an affirmative reply from almost any antiquary; but the answers to the second would probably show great diversity of opinion. We shall only quote a sentence from Mr. Anderson, as an indication of one class of opinions :—“I believe that, under similar circumstances and conditions of things, isolated branches of the human race will arrive, in simple matters of domestic or offensive art, at nearly similar conclusions, each independently of the other.” Dr. Geinitz has given a useful summary of the objects exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of last year in relation to the Antiquity of Man, in the second number of the ‘ Neues Jahrbuch’ for this year. The reported occurrence of traces of human work in Miocene de- posits is not regarded by him as having been yet proved to the satisfaction of critical antiquaries and naturalists. 370 Chronicles of Science. [July, This question of the Miocene age of the human species was discussed before the Académie des Sciences on April 20th, when MM. Garrigou and Filhol requested the opening of a sealed packet which had been deposited with the Academy by them on May 16, 1864. From this it appears that at that date their observations made in the deposits of Sansan led them to regard the Miocene age of man as extremely probable. The evidence on which they relied consisted of bones split longitudinally, as they are frequently found in caverns, having been thus broken by man for the purpose of extracting the marrow. The evidence is slender ; hence, in all pro- bability, their timidity in not publishing their views four years ago; but now that other evidence, more or less questionable, pointing in the same direction, has been discovered, they have naturally regarded their own observations as equally worthy of publicity. In the last volume of the ‘Proceedings’ of the Asiatic Society of Bengal we notice a paper on the Ethnology of India, by Dr. J. B. Davis, in which that author strives to show that philology is not so sure a guide in Ethnology as craniology ; consequently he is led to object to the Aryan hypothesis. “If Europeans and Hindoos be of the same family, why cannot the former migrate to and live in India? How is it that the people of India are celebrated for the smallness of their heads, while the inhabitants of Europe have large heads?” Again, he remarks that it is admitted that the Syro- Arabian division of mankind is physically identical with the Aryan section ; still the two cannot be allied, because the languages of the two families utterly sunder them.” In all probability, as Mr. Blanford remarked at the reading of the paper, a natural classifica- tion must be arrived at by the aid of a number of characters, as in Botany. Dr. Davis also objects to the hypothesis of the unity of the human race, regarding our species as, “in the main, an aggre- gate of families formed by the hand of the Creator, in every different locality in which it is found, and each constituted by that wise Provi- dence for the climate and productions with which it is surrounded.” We also notice a series of admirable notes on the occurrence of chipped flakes of agate, quartzite, flint, &., in India, followed by a table in which all the information on the subject is shown at once. The implements are divided into the three following classes :— A. Cores and flakes of agate, flint, &. B. Chipped axes, &c., chiefly of quartzite. C. Polished ‘celts’ of trap, chert, jade, &e. These objects are extensively distributed, not only in India itself, but also in some of the islands of the Indian Ocean. With respect to the antiquity of man in India, Mr. W. T. Blan- ford expresses his belief that there is evidence of the existence of man in India at a much earlier period than in Europe. Unfor- tunately the “evidence” consists of but one flake found im sitw in 1868. | Archzology and Ethnology. 372 the Godavery gravels by Mr. Wynne. Now the fauna of the Goda- very gravels consists of animals having European or African affini- ties, while the recent fauna has Malay relations; therefore they differ much more widely than the Pleistocene animals of Europe do from those now existing on the continent. If, therefore, we accept the flake found by Mr. Wynne as conclusive of the existence of man in India during the deposition of the Godavery gravels, this con- clusion as to the relative antiquity of the periods, though a little crude, is legitimate enough. We should mention that, in addition to Mr. Blanford, the fol- lowing gentlemen have contributed their notes to this highly in- teresting series, Mr. King, Mr. Wilson, and Mr. Ball. A second supplement to the ‘ Recueil d’Antiquités Suisses’ was published last year by the Baron de Bonstetten, and contains six- teen large folio plates of the objects recently discovered, with a few remarks in explanation of them. ‘The list embraces almost every description of object, from implements of the Stone age found in the lake-dwelling of Greng (lake of Morat) to mosaic pavements and various relics of still later date. In a letter to M. Lartét, published in the ‘ Bibliotheque Univer- selle’ for March, M. Favre has recorded the discovery of a human station of the Stone age, in which remains of the Reindeer have been found, in a small elevation (monticule) at Veirier, at the foot of Mont Saléve, not far from Geneva. Hitherto remains of the Rein- deer have been found in the terrace-alluvium in but five localities in Switzerland, namely, at three places on the Lake of Geneva, at Meilen on the borders of the Lake of Zurich, and at Windisch on the Reuss. With the Reindeer occur remains of the Horse, Ox, Cervus elaphus, Lepus variabilis, L. cwniculus, the Marmot, Meles taxus, the Ptarmigan, the Sheep or the Bouquetin, human bones (fragments of skull, &c.), small worked flints, and various other examples of human workmanship. These remains were found at a height of 42 métres above the present level of the river Arve, and it seems clear that since the glacial period the water of the river has reached to a height of 58 or 40 métres above its present level. M. Favre believes that the mound was inhabited by man when the water of the river was at a higher level than it now attains, though probably not when it was at its highest; and M. Lartét expresses his opinion, in a reply to M. Favre, that the Reindeer period is probably not of the same age, but somewhat more ancient, in southern Europe than in more northern latitudes, the animal having migrated northwards. The ‘Report of the Proceedings of the Geological and Poly- technic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire’ contains a very readable and interesting paper by the Rey. Canon Greenwell, “On the Inhabitants of Yorkshire in Pre-Roman Times,” which is chiefly occupied with a description of the manners and customs of “the 372 Chronicles of Science. [July, ancient Briton,” so far as they can be inferred from the implements, ornaments, tombs, monuments, &c., which the researches of archee- ologists have brought to light. The same volume contains a description of a Romano-British mosaic pavement, representing Romulus and Remus, discovered at Aldborough (Isurium of the Romans), by Mr. Henry Ecroyd Smith. The ‘ Reliquary’ for April contains a short note by Mr F. C. Lukis, reminding us that the now well-known Stone Celt and Flint Arrow-head were formerly regarded in the north with considerable superstition, the latter being known as the ElfShot, while the larger examples were designated Elfin Darts. As usually happens in such cases, the same objects which in one district are highly prized as preventive of evil, are in others shunned as producers of misfortune. Mr. Peacock gives an account, in the same number, of the opening of a Celtic grave-mound, at Cleatham, Lincolnshire; and the editor, Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, gives a description and figures of the urns. The excavation has been chiefly interesting as show- ing the manner in which these barrows were made. “ When a section of the hill was made, it became quite evident that the whole of this large hill had been carried where it was in baskets. Hach basket-load was distinctly visible.’ Mr. Peacock remarks that, although antiquaries have long known that this must have been the mode of accumulation, “ this is, perhaps, the first instance where ocular demonstration of the fact has been given.” Mr. T. M‘Kenny Hughes has commenced in the ‘Geological and Natural History Repertory and Journal of Pre-historic Archeology and Ethnology’ for May, a useful paper on flint implements, in which he endeavours to define the distinctions between the natural forms of flints and those which have been produced artificially. Pre- mising that the natural forms of flint are derived, Ist, from the original formation of flint in the chalk; 2nd, from fracture; and 3rd, from weathering; the author describes the nature of these natural appearances, and insists on the truth of Mr. Evans’s canon, that the only kind of evidence of the human origin of manufactured forms which can be admitted is that of design shown in various ways. This paper will be specially useful as containing a descriptive cata- logue of a collection of implements in the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, classified in series to illustrate the several categories to which various implements may be assigned. In the same number the editor, Mr. Mackie, describes and figures a very singular chipped flit in the shape of a flattened sphere, which was found at Willesden by Mr. Caspar Clarke. Unfortunately, the circumstances under which it occurred are not stated. Its use Mr. Mackie is uncertain about. From the drawings we should infer that it might have made a tolerable hammer. 1868. | Astronomy. 373 The ‘ Anthropological Review’ for April contains nothing that demands notice from us except a partial report of the proceedings of the Congress of Pre-historic Archzology which was held at Paris last year. Certain questions were proposed for open discussion; but of course we cannot give in this Chronicle even an outline of the facts and opinions advanced in illustration of them. With respect to caverns, however, we learn from the ‘Anthropological Review’ that it was agreed that they should be divided into three classes, namely, (1) those which contain the Quaternary fauna, now utterly extinct ; (2) those in which the Reindeer assumes a large development; and (3) the caverns which contain only the animals now found in the country, many of which had been no doubt domesticated. We also learn that it was generally admitted that cannibalism was practised in pre-historic times down to the period of polished stone. Other ques- tions related to the antiquity of man, the megalithic monuments and their builders, the Bronze age, the Iron age, and the anato- mical characters of Pre-historic man. On the last question, apart from minor differences of opinion, there was some amount of agree- ment that there were two races of Pre-historic men, one brachy- cephalic and the other dolicocephalic. M. Pruner-Bey, however, preferred describing the former as characterized by a lozenge-shaped face and the latter by an oval-shaped face. This year the Congress will be held at Norwich, commencing on August 20th, under the presidency of Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.B.S. 3. ASTRONOMY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society.) Tue re-discovery of Brorsen’s comet is the most interesting astro- nomical occurrence of the past quarter. This comet must not be confounded with another—also called Brorsen’s comet—which re- volves in a much more extended orbit. The comet just discovered belongs to that remarkable family of comets of which Biela’s, De Vico’s, and other objects are members. All the comets of this family—in other words, all the comets of short period—have the aphelia of their orbits pretty close to the orbit of Jupiter. It seems probable that the introduction of these comets within the solar system—or at least to their present position in that system—is due to the action of this great planet. This is certainly the case with Brorsen’s comet; since D’Arrest has shown that before 1842 it had been moving in an orbit of very different figure. In that year it passed very near to Jupiter, and was compelled by his 374 Chronicles. of Science. [July, attractive influence to travel in its present orbit. Discovered in 1846, the comet was missed at the perihelion passage of 1851, seen in 1857, again missed in 1862, and re-discovered, by three observers almost simultaneously, in April of the present year. It will travel across the southernmost parts of the constellations Ursa Major and Bootes, remaining throughout invisible to the naked eye. . Mr. Huggins has subjected Brorsen’s comet to spectroscopic analysis. The results are exceedingly interesting. It will be re- membered that two former comets, examined by Mr. Huggins, exhibited, so far as the light of their nuclei was concerned, spectra closely resembling those of the gaseous nebule. Their come appeared to shine by reflected light. The spectrum of the present comet is very different. It consists of three bright bands, somewhat resembling those seen by Donati in the spectrum of the comet which bears his name. The length of the bands shows that they are not due to the steller nucleus of the comet alone, but are produced by the light of the coma, or at least of its brighter portions. In one of the bands Mr. Huggins could occasionally detect two bright lines, shorter than the band, and therefore pre- sumably due to the nucleus alone. This view of their origin was confirmed by the circumstances that they were not visible when the middle of the comet was not upon the slit, whereas the nebulous band on which they were projected continued visible so long as any part of the comet except its extreme margin was upon the shit. A very faint continuous spectrum was also visible.. The brightest band was found to lie nearly in the same position as the brightest line of the nebule, which is coincident with the double line in the spectrum of nitrogen. It appears, then, that Brorsen’s comet resembles the two others (and probably Donati’s) in this respect, that the nucleus and part of the coma shine by their own light. But whereas only the bright- est part of the come of the two other comets shone by their own light, it appears that nearly the whole of the coma of Brorsen’s comet is self-luminous. We have to record a most interesting application of spectro- scopic analysis to a different subject of astronomical research. It is well known that what is called the proper motion of the stars, or their apparent change of place on the sidereal concave, is in reality only a portion of their true motion—the transverse portion. The other part—or the motion of a star directly towards or from the eye—produces no effects perceptible by the telescope. It would require thousands of years before any motion of this sort could produce an appreciable change in a star’s apparent brilliancy ; but by a subtle application of spectroscopic analysis, Mr. Huggins has led the way in a process of research which promises to afford us 1868. ] Astronomy. 375 information respecting this part of the stellar motions. The law on which the inquiry proceeds may be thus illustrated :—If we ima- gine a powerful swimmer to urge his way rapidly against a series of advancing waves, it is evident that they will pass him more rapidly —in other words, they will seem narrower—than if he were at rest ; on the contrary, if he urged his way in the same direction as the waves, they would appear broader than they really are. Since the light of the stars reaches us in a succession of minute waves, it is clear that if we are approaching a star or receding from it, whether through the earth’s motion or that of the star, the ight waves will appear modified in length—in other words, the light’s refran- gibility will be altered. Thus the lines in the star’s spectrum will be altered in position, and will no longer coimcide with the corre- sponding lines in the spectra of terrestrial substances. Our space will not permit us to enter into an account of the methods which have been devised to enable spectroscopic analysis to deal with this very delicate research. At present we must content ourselves with exhibiting the two principal results of Mr. Huggins’s labours. He has succeeded in showing that the nebule are not approaching the earth or receding from it at a rate which is appreciable by his in- struments; but he finds that the bright star Sirrus—the only fixed star which he has yet had time to examine satisfactorily—is approach- ing the solar system at the rate of nearly 294 miles per second. Mr. Huggins has re-examined the spectra of several nebule. He finds that when the intensity of the spectrum of nitrogen is diminished by removing the induction spark in nitrogen to a suffi- cient distance, the whole spectrum disappears except the double line, which agrees in position with the bright line in the nebula. “ It is obvious,” he adds, “that if the spectrum of hydrogen were greatly reduced in intensity, the strong line in the blue, which cor- responds to one of the lines of the nebular spectrum, would remain visible after the line in the red, and the lines more refrangible than F had become too feeble to affect the eye.” We shall see presently that this view has been confirmed by an experiment made by Father Secchi. There seems reason for supposing that the light of the gaseous nebule is emitted by nitrogen and hydrogen. Mr. Huggins has also been able to confirm the observations made by Mr. Lockyer on the spectra of the umbre and penumbre of solar spots, and to obtain some new results of interest. He found that most of the dark lines of the solar spectrum were wider in the spectrum of the umbre. The lines F and C due to hydrogen were not stronger, however. No new lines were detected, nor were any of the lines of the normal solar spectrum wanting in the spectrum of the umbra. We hear that Mr. Lockyer is about to renew his observations of VOL. V. 2D 376 Chronicles of Science. [July, the solar spots with a spectroscope specially prepared for the purpose by Mr. Browning. The last-named gentleman is also preparing a powerful spectro- scope for use with the great Parsonstown reflector. The Earl of Rosse, following worthily in the footsteps of his father, is about to apply the unrivalled light-gathering powers of this imstrument to the spectroscopic analysis of objects too faint to be reached by smaller telescopes. Clockwork is to be so applied to the great tele- scope, so that it will follow stars and nebulz as closely as a smaller equatorial would. Our readers will be glad to hear that the instruments supplied by the Royal Society to the expedition under Lieutenant John Herschel have already been applied to useful work—six nebule in the southern hemisphere have been examined with the spectroscope. The great nebula in Argo is found to exhibit a spectrum of bright lines, so that, like its rival in splendour the great Orion nebula, this object is gaseous. The great eclipse of August 17th will be well watched. Besides the expeditions sent out under Lieutenant Herschel and Major Tennant, there is to be one under the charge of Mr. Pogson, the Government astronomer at Madras; another has been sent out by France under M. Jansen; the Papal government sends out Father Secchi, and there is also to be a Prussian expedition. Mr. Huggins has sent out to Mr. Pogson a spectroscope and apparatus for observing polarization. The Minister of Public Instruction in France has lately submitted to the Council of State the draft of a decree for the complete re- organization of the Imperial Observatory at Paris. Itis stated that this establishment will be removed from its present site, which is very unfavourable for astronomical observation, owing to the vibra- tion of the building caused by passing vehicles. The air also in the neighbourhood of the Observatory is so heavily loaded with smoke and vapour as to interfere with many of the delicate observations which have to be made by astronomers of the present day. We learn that owing to these causes it is impossible to apply a higher power than 500 to the great equatorial. It is proposed to remove the Observatory to Fontenoy-aux-Roses, south-west of Paris. The planet Venus is now very favourably situated for observation. She has been seen several times in full day-light. Mr. Browning has observed several faint markings on the planet, resembling the grey plains on the moon. ‘These markings seem to be studded with white spots of various sizes.” Jt is a pity that modern astronomers do not make an effort to learn something respecting the axial position of Venus. Large achromatics do not seem well suited to this work, on account of the extreme brilliancy of Venus. 1868. | Astronomy. 377 Reflectors used with a solar eye-piece containing a simple surface- reflecting prism, seem to give the most satisfactory views. The ninety-eighth asteriod was discovered by Mr. Peters, at Clinton, on April 18th last; it is of the twelfth magnitude. The lunar crater Linné continues to be a subject of dispute in the astronomical world: the opinion is gaining ground that there has been no change in the crater, but that, owing to the peculiar character of the moon’s surface in this neighbourhood, very slight variations in the illumination serve to produce marked variations in the appearance of the crater. At a late meeting of the Astrono- mical Society, Captain Noble stated that a “few hours sufficed to change a distinct ring into a smudge.” Saturn is now an interesting object of observation, though his southern declination is unfavourable to distinctness. His rings are well open, the outer edge very nearly coincident (in appearance) -with the outline of the ball. It is to be hoped that something may be learned respecting the structure of the rmgs during the present and the next two oppositions, as some fourteen or fifteen years will elapse before the rings are again opened to their full extent. PROCEEDINGS OF THE Royau AstTronomiIcaAL Soctety. M. Hoek, director of the Observatory of Utrecht, remarks on the small distance which separates the intersection of the orbits of comets III. and V., 1857, from the point which he has assigned as the radiant point of cometary orbits. Comet III., 1867, unex- pectedly confirms his views, since, as we have mentioned in a former Chronicle, the circle which is the intersection of its orbit-plane with the celestial sphere passes through almost the same point of the sky. Thus, he adds, “the last ten years have furnished us with two Cometary systems, each composed of three members; first, that of the years 1860 and 1863, then that of the years 1857 and 1867. It appears that it would be to mistake the principles of the theory of probabilities, if we attributed all these coincidences to mere chance.” He supplies also an elaborate memoir on the phenomena which a very extended swarm of meteors, coming from space, would present after its entry into the solar system. He takes the case of a swarm of corpuscles coming from the stellar spaces, and sufficiently ex- tended to embrace the whole earth. It would be impossible in the space available to us to give even a sketch of the processes applied by M. Hoek, which occupy no less than eighteen pages of calculation. Some of the results at which he arrives agree closely with those lately published by M. Schiaparelli, in a memoir entitled “ Note e Riflessioni intorno alla Teoria Astronomica delle stelle cadenti.” M. Hoek finds that under certain circumstances, the ae attrac- 2D 378 Chronicles of Science. [July, tion may have the effect of shifting the radiant pot more than 17°. . In future therefore it will be necessary to note the hour and the minute of each observation made on a falling star. Sir John Herschel has been engaged, since he sent to the Astro- nomical Society his synoptic catalogue of stars observed by Sir William Herschel, in forming a general digest of all the recorded measures of all known double stars—a task which “he hopes to leave in such a state of forwardness as will ensure its completion by some other hand.” While engaged on this task, he has been led by the coincidence, or near coincidence, of the measures taken by Sir William with those of stars observed by others, to the identification, more or less probable, of a considerable number of these stars with those subsequently measured. He supplies a list of the objects in question, judging “that information of this kind cannot but prove interesting to observers engaged in the measurement of double stars.” In the progress of the work he has been led to the detection of a somewhat formidable list of errata in the printed catalogue. We should recommend those who possess or make use of the catalogue to pay attention to these errata, some of which are important, and, if uncorrected, likely to cause the observer considerable waste of time. Mr. Key supplies an interesting paper on the planetary nebula 45 H Geminorum. This nebula was discovered by Sir W. Herschel in 1787, and is described by him as “a star of the ninth magnitude, with a pretty bright nebulosity equally dispersed all round.” The younger Herschel describes it as “a star of the eighth magnitude, exactly in the centre of an exactly round bright hemisphere 25” in diameter.” Lord Rosse gives an account of the same object in the ‘Philosophical Transactions, 1850. He saw it as a nebulous star with a black patch close to it on the preceding side, a less luminous space somewhat unequal in breadth surrounding the nucleus, and a lumi- nous ring at some distance; this ring being of less breadth on the following side. Mr. Lassell’s drawing of the object, in 1862, repre- sents a star in the centre of a planetary disc, surrounded by a non- luminous space, and, at some distance, by a luminous ring of consi- derable breadth. He adds that “he can see no trace of the dark patch of Lord Rosse’s drawing near the bright centre.” Mr. Key, using an 18-inch silvered-glass reflector 10 feet in focal length (of his own make), finds the present appearance of the object to be dif- ferent. It appears as a bright but somewhat nebulous star, closely surrounded by a dark ring; this again is surrounded by a luminous ring; then comes an interval much less luminous, and finally, at some distance, an exterior luminous ring. The whole is almost exactly symmetrical, though not quite so; the dark space between the two bright rings being darker on the north following side, and the preceding side of the whole object is rather fainter than the rest. Of the two luminous rings the inner is considerably the brighter. 1868.] Astronomy. 379 Mr. Key considers that there is a progressive character in the results above recorded, since the various aspects of the nebula do not appear to depend on the power employed. His own reflector is somewhat more powerful than the Herschelian 20-feet reflector, but is of incomparably inferior power to the instruments of Lord Rosse and Mr, Lassell. “‘ One fact,” he adds, “seems, at all events, abundantly evident, viz. that whereas at the date of the Herschels’ observation, there was no appearance whatever of a ring surround-. ing the central star, at the present time there are two.” Mr. Simms supplies a description of a zenith telescope em- ployed in America, and explains a method of determining the latitude which has been for several years adopted by the United States coast surveyors, and which has the advantage of being at once simple and exceedingly accurate. The instrument is further described, and figured in a later number of the Society’s notices, in a paper by Mr. Davidson, of Germantown, Pennsylvania. ‘The method of observation, known as Talcott’s, is worth studying :-— “Two stars are selected, one of which passes the meridian to the north, and the other at nearly the same distance to the south of the zenith, The telescope is brought into the plane of the meridian, and set for the star which first passes the meridian ; when visible it is bisected by the micrometer wire, the tangent screw of the instru- ment being used. ‘The telescope is then turned 180° in azimuth, and when the second star makes its appearance, should there be any difference in the zenith distances, this distance is measured by the micrometer screw.” ‘The latitude is readily deduced. For example, suppose the polar distances of the two stars are D and D’ (D less than D’), and that the former star, when on the meridian, has a zenith distance less than the corresponding zenith distance of the other by a small are d; then a star, whose polar distance was D—d, would eross the meridian at exactly the same altitude towards the north, as the star whose polar distance is D’ has towards the south. Hence the polar distance of the zenith of the place of observation, that is, the complement of the latitude, is } (D—d\+ D'). Mr. Davidson says that, after twenty-two years’ experience in using prime vertical transits, vertical circles, and Airy’s zenith sector, he can affirm con- fidently that the zenith sector of the coast survey, used as above described, is far better than any of them. Father Secchi supplies an interesting paper on the great nebula in Orion. He has also sent to the Astronomical Society a drawing of the nebula, commenced several years ago, and finished last year by combined observations made by himself and Father Ferrani, his assistant. One point in Father Secchi’s paper will excite surprise. He states that the nebula is mtich better seen in moonlight than on dark nights. He considers that this is a consequence of that optical principle, that the difference of two lights is more easily 380 Chronicles of Science. i[July, appreciated when they are weak than when both are strong. He finds that, as Mr. Huggins had anticipated, the spectrum of hydrogen may be made, by sufficiently diminishing the light, to present the middle line only, which is that visible in the nebula. Mr. Stone supplies a valuable paper on the rejection of dis- cordant observations. His theory is that the rejection of such observations cannot be made except upon a direct admission of carelessness on the part of the observer; and he shows how the amount of error which justifies a rejection is to be calculated from an estimate of the average number of mistakes made by the observer in a given number of observations. Mr. Chambers supplies a catalogue of binary stars formed (in the main) by reducing to the year 1870 the stars in the excellent catalogue presented by Mr. A. Brothers, to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Mr. Proctor puts forward a proposal for a new star-atlas. The advantages of the plan appear to be the following :—The stars would be presented in a moderate number (12) of maps, uniform in size, shape, and mode of projection; with scarcely appreciable distortion and scale-variation; not too large for convenient use (about 12 inches in diameter), and yet on the sufficiently large scale of an 18-inch globe. The twelve maps would correspond to the twelve pentagonal maps of his gnomonic set, but being made circular and thus overlapping, the connection between the different maps would be conveniently exhibited. We must leave to our next number the review of several inter- esting papers which appear in the latest number of the Society’s Proceedings. The issue of this number having been delayed for the completion of a lithograph, illustrating Mr. Abbott’s paper on certain variations in the nebula surrounding 4 Argts, we have received the number too late for discussion here. But we are glad to notice that there now occurs less delay than took place some few months ago in the issue of the Society’s notices. 4. BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. Green Rotten Wood.—We have received the following from Mr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S.:—*In the last number of your Journal (p. 222) you call attention to the colour of green rotten wood, and ask whether it has any relation to the Phycocyan of Cohn. I have examined it carefully, and find it is quite distinct from that or any other colouring matter with which I am acquainted. The chief con- stituent is a green-blue colour, insoluble in water and only sparingly soluble in alcohol or benzole, and not fluorescent ; whereas Phyco- cyan is soluble in water and very fluorescent. The spectra are 1868. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 381 also quite different. It gives merely one absorption band very near the extreme red; whilst Phycocyan gives two, both much farther from the red end. In its general characters it is related to chloro- phyll, but is quite distinct from it. The wood also contains two yellow colours, which make it more green; and also a substance of a claret colour, which seems to make it somewhat dull. This claret colour is insoluble in water, but much more soluble in alcohol than the green-blue; and is quite different from any other substance which has come under my notice. On the whole, both these colours are very interesting, since they belong to classes of colouring matters which are so rare that I only know one or two other examples out of some hundreds which I have examined and classified.” Nature of “Leaves” of Sciadopitys—At p. 124 of the ‘ Report of Proceedings’ of the Botanical Congress in 1866, Professor Dickson pointed out that the limear leaf-like bodies in S. verticillata were homologous with branches, and analagous to the phylloid shoots in Ruscus, Phyllocladus, &c. His views have been confirmed by the observations of M. Carriere, published in the ‘Revue Horticole,’ who has seen them bearing buds, and also branched and whorled. Stamens of Cochliostema.—Dr. Masters has described in the ‘Gardener's Chronicle’ the structure of the andrcecium in a species (C. Jacobinianwm, Koch and Linden) of this hitherto misunderstood genus of Commelynacez. On removing the leaves of the perianth, in front of the flower appear two lateral linear purple organs densely clothed with fringe-like hairs; these are considered staminodes, or abortive stamens. ‘The perfect stamens present a very unusual appearance. A single organ arises from the posterior part of the flower, and attached to its base behind is a dense tuft of yellow hairs. The organ consists below of a flat stalk, but above of two petal-like conyolute horns with long terminal points. This was formerly con- sidered a single stamen, but is now seen to be three combined. The anthers are entirely enclosed in the cavity of the organ, and are three in number ; two being vertical, attached by slender filaments to near the inner edge of the petal-like process; and the third horizontal, below the other two, its filament bent downwards: at the back of the organ, at a point corresponding to the attachment of this anther, is an oval disk surrounded by a few irregular processes. The anthers are twisted into a spiral, and dehisce by a line which follows all the curves. The theoretical nature of this andrcecium is considered by Dr. Masters to be nine stamens in three rows (or, if the stami- nodes be considered petals, six in two rows). The outer row is barren, consisting of the two lateral purple organs and the tuft of yellow hairs; of the stamens of the middle row, only the posterior two are developed, their anthers being the two vertical ones, and part of their filaments dilated into the petal-like horns; of the inner whorl only the posterior is developed as the horizontal anther. 382 Chronicles of Science. [July, Seeds of Juncus and Luzula.—In the ‘ Botanische Zeitung’ is a paper by Dr. F. Buchenau, of Bremen, “On the Sculpture- markings of the Testa of the Seeds in the German Species of these Genera.” An English translation appears in Seemann’s ‘ Journal of Botany’ for May. Certain points of difference connected with the seeds have long been used as sectional characters in both genera ; but the peculiar mouldings of the external seed-coat do not seem to have been systematically examined by any botanist before Dr. Buchenau. At his suggestion, however, Dr. Engelmann of St. Louis looked at this pomt in the North American species of Juncus, and in his recently published “revision” of them * has founded three sections on the characters presented. In the present paper, Dr. Buchenau, though taking exception to some of Dr. Engel-. mann’s terms, generally adopts his divisions. The characters of the testa of 31 species of Juncus are given ag seen under a power of 50 diameters in dried herbarium specimens of perfectly ripe seeds. It appears that the testa is either costate, ¢7.e. marked with prominent longitudinal ribs, connected only by few and incon- spicuous ones, or reticulate, of which there are two kinds. In one the cost are still prominent, but connected by equally prominent transyerse ridges, in the other the costz are inconspicuous and wavy or angular, whilst the transverse ribs appear very prominently (called transtilla) ; in both cases reticulations are formed, and are often marked with more delicate lines (lineolx). The characters are said to be constant. In Luzula there is less variety, the testa being reticulate in a more or legs regular or longitudinal manner in all the species (12) examined. Seedless Raisins.—Mr. T. Mechan, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy,’ calls attention to the fact that the ordinary vine of Hurope is frequently found in a barren state, bearing only male flowers, and he suggests that the seedless raisins and currants so much prized may be the fruit of purely female plants, ripened, though never fertilized. It appears, however, that as yet purely female plants have never been observed by botanists. Discoloration of the Sea—Some interesting facts “On the Nature of the Discoloration of the Arctic Seas” were communicated last year to the Kdinburgh Botanical Society by Mr. Robert Brown. The paper has ,been printed in Seemann’s ‘Journal of Botany,’ Arctic voyagers have long ago noticed the sea in Davis’s Straits, Baffin’s Bay, and other parts, to be dark olive-green, or even black in colour, and the appearance has been considered to be due to the presence in it of great multitudes of minute animals (Meduse, Entomostraca, and Pteropoda.) Mr. Brown noticed, however, that * “Transactions of the Academy of Sciences of St. Louis.’ 1868. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 383 though these animals often sunk, the water still in their absence retained its peculiar colour. On further examination he found the cause of this to be a vast abundance of Diatoms, chiefly of one moniliform species, the name of which does not appear to have been determined. The Medusx and other animals were found to feed on these plants, and, as is well known, are themselves the food of the whale, hence the presence of those vast cetaceans in the “black water.” The same Diatom (with others) is the cause of the brown “yotten ice” of explorers ; but this fact has been previously noticed by Dr. Sutherland. A paper by Dr. C. Collingwood on the same subject, read at the Microscopical Society in March, appears in the ‘ Microscopical Jour- nal.’ In this the cause of the coloured water in the Indian ocean and China sea is investigated ; as in the former case, it is due toa minute Alga, not a Diatom, but referable to Trichodesmium, a genus of Oscillatori#. The appearance produced on the water is that of a yellowish-brown scum, the sailors call it “sea-dust.” The plant consists of short filaments, composed of a single line of cells, com- bined into a cylindrical unbranched fibre. A good many of these are aggregated into little bundles, having the appearance either of a “sheaf” or a “wedge,” according as they are in close contact either at the middle or at one end. A species of Oscillatoria (?) occurs with it. Dr. Collingwood has never seen any red discoloration of the sea, such as is said to have been observed by many persons in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, and also in the North Pacific, and which is caused by one or more closely allied species of Tricho- desmium. Hederaceex.—Dr. Seemann gives another instalment of his revi- sion of this order in the May number of the ‘Journal of Botany.’ Kissodendron, Didymopanax, Aralia, and other genera are passed in review; and the characters of two new genera Dipanax and Triplasandra are defined. The author however appears to have a tendency to create genera in this order on somewhat slender grounds. British Botany.—The curators (Mr. Baker and Dr. Trimen) of the London Botanical Exchange Club have published their annual Report for 1867. Three new plants are described: Rosa Hailstond, Baker (a variety of R. canina), from Yorkshire; the true Allium carinatum, Linn., from Nottinghamshire; and Salix Graham, Borrer, from Sutherland. The Report includes notes on the nume- rous interesting or rare species, native and introduced, which have been communicated to the Club during the year. The recently discovered Viola Arenaria, D.C., is recorded by Mr. James Backhouse from a new locality “several miles distant ” from the only previously known one in Teesdale, Durham. A Carduus, said to be new to Britain, has been gathered in Ross- 384 Chromeles of Science. [July, shire ; from the description given it appears to be one of the many hybrid thistles already known. Specimens were shown at a late meeting of the Edinburgh Botanical Society. M. Mitten adds to our Flora a new Moss, Trichostomum flavo-virens, Bruch and Miiller. It was found on Shoreham beach, Sussex. A figure and description will be found in the ‘Journal of Botany’ for April. New Books.—The Ray Society has published the second and concluding volume of Robert Brown’s works, edited by Mr. Bennett. ‘The Chinchona species of New Granada,’ by Clement R. Mark- ham, with notes by J. E. Howard, has been published by the India Office. It contains the hitherto unpublished descriptions of the species distinguished by Mutis, the celebrated Spanish botanist, which have been since 1807 kept at the Botanic Gardens, Madrid ; and also those of Dr. Karsten, originally published in German. The long-expected ‘Flora of Northumberland and Durham’ by Mr. Baker and Dr. Tate, is printed and forms vol. 1. of the ‘Natural History Transactions of Northumberland and Durham.’ ‘Refugium Botanicum’ is the title of a new periodical, edited by W. W. Saunders. It consists of figures and descriptions of little known or new plants of botanical interest. The plates are drawn by Fitch from living specimens in Mr. Saunders’ collection, and the descriptions are by Mr. Baker of Kew. ‘This first part contains 24 plates, chiefly of succulent and bulbous plants, many being South African. The smaller orchids are promised, and Professor Reichen- bach of Hamburgh will describe them. The first part of vol. xxvi. of the ‘Linnzan Society’s Transactions’ has been issued. In Botany it contaims a monograph of the Bam- boos by Colonel Munro; an account of the geographical distribution of all known ferns by Mr. Baker; and a few other papers of less interest. Dr. Milde has published in the ‘Botanische Zeitung’ his Index Osmundarum, with remarks on the fructification of the genus. Botanical News.—A paper by Mr. Darwin “On the Specific Differences between Primula veris, P. vulgaris, and P. elatior, and on the hybrid nature of the Common Oxlip, with supplementary re- marks on naturally produced Hybrids in the genus Verbascum,” was read at the Linnean Society’s Meeting, March 19th. A new part of ‘De Candolle’s Prodromus’ is nearly ready. It contains monographs of Salicacex by Professor Andersson of Stock- holin, and of Coniferze by Professor Parlatore of Florence. A ‘Flora of Gloucestershire, by Dr. G. O. St. Brody, is an- nounced as preparing for publication. Mr. Marmaduke A. Lawson of Cambridge has been appointed lecturer on Botany at St. George’s Hospital, vice Dr. Masters, re- signed. 1868] ( 385 ) 5. CHEMISTRY. (Including the Proceedings of the Chemical Society.) THE memoirs on subjects relating to pure and applied chemistry which have appeared during the last quarter are so numerous, that we shall be obliged to confine our notices under this heading to such discoveries as are likely to prove of commercial importance or are of especial scientific interest. Foremost amongst researches which are likely to benefit mankind we may place those which have for their object the discovery of a cheap method of preparing oxygen gas. ‘T'wo processes haying this object in view have lately been brought before the public. The first is by M. Gondolo, who has made some improvements in M. Boussingault’s process of ex- tracting oxygen from the air by means of baryta. M. Boussingault, im 1852, found that on passing a current of air over baryta, heated to dull redness, oxygen was subtracted from the air, and binoxide of barium formed, and that upon then raising the heat to bright redness the oxygen was set at liberty so easily that it might be first absorbed and then evolved ad infinitum. M.Gondolo has made, in carrying out the detail of the process, certain changes which admit of oxygen being prepared upon a manufacturing scale. For the porcelain tubes he substitutes iron ones, which may be made either of wrought or cast iron. Internally a coating of mag- nesia is applied, and externally asbestos, so as to diminish the porosity of the tube and the consumption of fuel. These tubes are arranged in a brick furnace having dampers, by means of which the temperature may be changed at will, and dull redness and bright redness easily obtained. To the baryta a mixture of lime, magnesia, and a small quantity of manganate of potash is added; this prevents fritting of the material. M. Gondolo says that he has made 122 alternate operations, and that the atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen are easily separated upon an industrial scale; the apparatus has been at work during six months, and fulfilled its purpose thoroughly. The second method by which cheap oxygen can be procured is due to M. Mallet, who has just communicated to the Academy of Sciences an additional memoir in explanation of a process which he published last year. ‘This depends upon the fixation of the atmo- spheric oxygen upon protochloride of copper forming oxychloride, which again gives out its oxygen at a higher temperature. The absorption of oxygen by protochloride of copper is spontaneous ; the air being ordinarily moist, it will be complete in a few hours, if fresh surfaces be renewed. But elevation of temperature, and this is a main pomt, induces a much more rapid absorption: at 386. Chronicles of Sctence. [July, temperatures between 100° and 200°, as well as at higher tempe- ratures in the presence of water, this absorption may be considered as almost instantaneous. By this process 100 kilogrammes of cupreous chloride, usually mixed with inert matter for convenience, will yield 3 to 34 cubic metres of oxygen, and as four or five ope- rations may be made in four-and-twenty hours, this quantity, 100 kilogrammes, would yield 15 to 18 cubic metres of oxygen during the same time: the price of the chloride of copper does not exceed 1 franc the kilogramme. . A new method of preparing magnesium has been devised by M. Reichert. He takes 1,000 grammes of the anhydrous double chloride of magnesium and potassium, pulverizes it, and mixes it with 100 grammes of finely powdered fluor spar; this mixture is fused with 100 grammes of sodium. The compound proposed for use occurs in the mineral kingdom in tolerable abundance as carnallite. White pieces of this minerai are available, and require no previous treatment; coloured fragments must be dissolved in water, the impurities allowed to settle, and the lixivium evaporated. Professor Gamgee, President of the Albert Veterinary College, author of several works upon the cattle plague, and a recognized authority in such matters, has discovered a new process for pre- serving meat, which is simple and inexpensive. The animal is caused to inhale carbonic oxide gas. Before it is quite insensible it is bled in the usual way. When dressed the carcase is sus- pended in an air-tight receiver, the air exhausted, and the receiver filled with carbonic oxide gas; a small quantity of sulphurous acid gas is also added. After remaining here for from 24 to 48 hours, meat may be removed, and hung in a dry atmosphere; it will keep for one, two, or three months, or longer, with no perceptible change in taste or appearance. The tests of the method thus far applied have been attended with success. Beef killed in London in March last year was sent to New York in June, and as late as the middle of July was shown to a prominent butcher in Fulton market, who did not discover that it was other than ordinary beef, and expressed the opinion that it had probably been killed about two days. Mutton killed in London last July, and sent to New York soon after, arrived perfectly fresh ; and one piece of beef kept for ten days in a can surrounded by water at a temperature of 90° to 100°, came out perfectly fresh. The process, in the opinion of eminent chemists, does not injure the meat in the least; this is an advantage very difficult of attaiment, even im the case of trans- portation of live stock, which is hable to the bad effects of confine- ment and the length of the journey. Among the beneficial results of the adoption of this scheme would be a better supply in our markets of wholesome meat and at a desirably cheaper rate. 1868. ] Chemistry. 387 The extraction of oils by means of bisulphide of carbon is now carried on at Moabit, near Berlin, upon a very large scale. In the manufactory of M. Heyl, 2,570 kilos. of oil, of sufficiently good quality to be employed in lubricating machinery, are manufactured daily. Colza and linseed are the materials chiefly operated upon ; the residues serve very well to feed cattle with. The seeds are first crushed and dried by heating. For the daily fabrication of 2,570 kilos. of oil only six men are required. Analysis has shown the residues to contain only 2 per cent. of oil and 7 per cent. of water, while the residues of the ordinary pressure process contain 9 per cent. of oil and 15 per cent. of water. In the extraction of the oil, 7,000 kilos. of bisulphide of carbon are used daily, and the amount lost is 28 kilos. M. Rakowitsch proposes a method of examining flour by means of chloroform. The following are the results which he says may be gathered from an experiment capable of being made in a few minutes:—The amounts of bran, the moisture between 10 and 25 per cent., the damaged flour, the mineral matters, the ergot of rye, and other impurities. The whole of these are determined by the relative specific gravities of the different substances in chloroform. The flour is simply placed in a tube and mixed with chloroform ; the chloroform is enabled to hold in very thorough suspension the pure flour, while the other materials are not thus suspended. By adding spirits of wine of 95°, the flour is precipitated to the bottom of the tube. The more humid the flour, the more spirits of wine must be added, and thus the amount of humidity in the flour is arrived at. The employment of charcoal filters has long been advocated, on account of the known property of this substance to absorb and oxidize organic matter. Mr. W. Skey, of New Zealand, has now shown that charcoal will remove arsenic from water. Ifa few drops ef a solution of a salt of arsenic, or arsenious acid, be put into a few eunces of dilute sulphuric acid, and the mixed solution agitated at intervals with recently ignited charcoal for an hour or two, the clear liquid obtained by filtration does not manifest any reaction of arseni¢ when tested by Marsh’s process. Tungstic acid also is removed from acid solutions by charcoal applied in like manner, and is given up to a solution of caustic alkali. PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL SocrETY. The subject of water analysis still occupies the attention of this society to an extent entirely out of proportion to the merits of the inquiry. At the meeting on March 5th, Messrs. Wanklyn and Chapman read a long paper “On the Action of Oxidizing Agents on 388 Chronicles of Scrence. [July, Organic Compounds in presence of excess of Alkali.” This paper was in continuation of researches which the authors had brought forward at previous meetings in reference to the estimation of organic nitrogen in water. They nowstate that an examination of typical substances lead them to the following results :—1. Some bodies yield the whole of their nitrogen as ammonia when treated with alkaline permanga- nate: of this class are asparagine, piperine, narcoline, and hippuric acid. 2. Some bodies give off half their contained nitrogen as ammonia: amongst this class are to be found morphia, strychnine, quinine, nicotine, toluidine, and acetate of rosaniline. 3. One body, creatine, gives off one-third of its contained nitrogen. 4. Theine gives off one-fourth of its nitrogen. 5. Other bodies have been found to evolve various proportions of nitrogen: thus, uric acid gives off about 7 per cent. of ammonia; caseine, 7-6 per cent. ; and albumen about 10 per cent. This paper was followed by a “Note on Dr. Frankland’s Process of Water Analysis,” by Mr. Chapman ; and another paper by the same author, “On the Estimation of Nitric Acid in Potable Waters.” He first distils the water with pure caustic soda to remove all ready-formed ammonia, and then adds aluminium foil and distils agam. The nascent hydrogen reduces the nitric acid to ammonia, which is collected in the receiver and estimated by Nessler’s test. A general discussion on Messrs. Wanklyn and Chapman’s proposed method of water analysis then took place, in which Dr. Williamson, Dr. Odling, and Professor Abel took part. The general opinion seemed adverse to the process. Mr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S., then read a paper “On the Hydride of Aceto-Salicyle,” a body which was mentioned in a former paper. It is a white crystalline mass, possessed of aldehydic properties, formed by the action of acetic anhydride on the hydride of sodium- salicyle. A paper then followed “On the Absorption of Vapours by Charcoal,” by Mr. Hunter. In these experiments, cocoa-nut char- coal was used, and amongst the substances whose absorptions were ascertained under various circumstances of temperature and pressure were the vapours of ethylamine, iodide of ethyl, acetate of methyl, camphor, nitro-benzol, bisulphide of carbon, alcohol, and methylic alcohol. The next paper was “On the Occurrence of Prismatic Arsenious Acid,” by Mr. F. Claudet. This was interesting, as illus- trating the dimorphism of arsenious acid. It had been formed by a very slow process of oxidation, and the form was probably modified by the sulphurous atmosphere pervading that part of the mine where it was found. The next papers were two by Dr. Stenhouse, “On the Action of Nitric Acid on Picramic Acid,” and “ On Chlo- ranil.” These were followed by one by Messrs. Chapman and Smith, “On the Action of Zinc Ethyl on Nitrous and Nitric Ethers ;” after which the meeting adjourned at an unusually late hour. At the meeting on March 19th the proceedings were opened 1868] Chemistry. 389 by Professor Kolbe, who was invited by the President to give an account of his experiments “On the Conversion of Carbonate of Am- monia into Urea.” Professor Kolbe, who spoke in German, explained that he had succeeded in producing urea by heating dry carbonate of ammonia in sealed tubes to a temperature a little lower than that at which the urea formed would be again destroyed. The speaker then referred to the electrolysis of acetic acid, which fur- nished a new acid isomeric with glycolic acid, but of which the properties were as yet but imperfectly known. Mr. Henry Chance of Birmingham, then delivered a most interesting lecture “On the Manufacture of Glass.” The author briefly sketched the history of this manufacture, and quoted several analyses of various kinds of glass. The action of heat im causing dendrification, and of sun- light as affecting the colour, besides other considerations having reference to permanence, were discussed. Mr. Chance appended to his remarks upon glass, a statement of his mode of treating the Rowley Rag basaltic rock of South Staffordshire. This material gives by fusion a black obsidian-like glass, which again devitrified furnishes a material suitable for building purposes and capable of ornamental application. The formation of soluble silicate of soda by Gossage’s process was described, and some of the corroded flints exhibited. An excellent series of samples illustrative of the manu- facture of glass and of the two materials producible from Rowley Rag, were laid on the table for ispection. The anniversary meeting of the Society was held March 30th, when the President, Dr. Warren De la Rue, F.R.S., reviewed the pro- gress of the Society during the past year. The obituary notices were unfortunately more numerous than usual. The list of Fellows shows an increase of 11 over those last year, being now 510. Amongst the losses by death may be mentioned Professor Michael Faraday, Dr. C. G. Bb. Daubeny, Dr. Thomas Clark, Dr. William Herapath, Mr. Robert Warington, Messrs. J. Tennant, Walter Crum, W. H. Gossage, Alfred Noble, William Winsor, and Pro- fessor Jules Pelouze. The President indicated some of the leading researches published during the year in the several departments of the science, and referred to the progress made towards establishing the new chemical theory. The investigations of Graham, Hof- mann, Kolbe, Abel, Fittig, Frankland and Duppa, Perkin, and Pettenkofer and Voigt were specially mentioned. ‘he discussions on water analysis had elicited facts which would ultimately prove useful in establishing a new method; and the review of geological phenomena from the wide sphere of observation of so eminent a chemist as Mr. Forbes could not fail to be productive of great results. The treasurer’s report was very satisfactory, showing that the balance at the bankers of the society was 637/., and the amount invested in Consols 2,3477. The election of officers and council 390 Chronicles of Science. [July, was then proceeded with, and after the usual votes of thanks the meeting adjourned. On Thursday, April 2nd, the first paper read was one by Messrs. Perkin and Duppa, “On the Constitution of Glyoxylic Acid.” This was followed by a very long and highly theoretical one by Dr. Odling, “On a Glyoxylic Amide.” Mr. W. Chandler Roberts then read a note “On the Occurrence of Organic Appearances in Colloid Silica obtained by Dialysis.” The interesting observations which formed the subject of this paper were elucidated by a series of specimens, both of natural and artificial origin, the structures of which were demonstrated by the aid of a microscope and illustrative drawings. In experimenting upon somewhat large quantities of soluble silicic acid prepared in Graham’s dialyser, a portion of the liquid product was evaporated slowly in air to compare with the forms of hydrous silica left by a more rapid operation conducted in vacuo. All the specimens of jelly dried in air exhibited dendritic forms, varying in size from 0:2 to 0°5 mm.; these were at first supposed to afford indications of the passage of colloid into erystal- loid silica, but when magnified 90 linear they appeared as radiating fibres, and upon being further magnified 700 times, each fibre resolved itself into a collection of elongated headed cells, with clusters of circular cells at intervals. Such a structure would indicate a vegetable growth, and the author concludes that the markings, which are similar to those seen in moss agates and Mocha stones, are due to the growth of fungi or mildew in the partially solidified jelly. The spores of organic life were probably derived from the air, since no evidence of similar structure was visible in the specimens of hydrous silica obtained in the desiccator. These last-named productions were very like the opal from Zimapan, but contained 21:4 per cent. of water. Dr. Bence Jones com- municated the next paper, in which he demonstrated the “Solu- bility of Xanthin (Uric Oxide) in Dilute Hydrochloric Acid.” This was followed by a continuation of Professor A. H. Church’s “ Re- searches on New and Rare Cornish Minerals,” in which the author corrected the hitherto-received formula for the mineral Cornwallite, showing it to consist of arseniate and hydrate of copper, with a small proportion of phosphate. At the meeting on the 16th of April, Professor Guthrie de- scribed and exhibited an ¢mproved Voltastat, by means of which the current of a galvanic battery could be maintained perfectly constant and regular by a self-acting arrangement. A paper “On Graphic Formule,” by the same author, followed, in which he described a new system, founded on the same general principle as that of Dr. W. Crum Brown, but which would, in the words of the author, “ serve to illustrate the molecular constitution of compound bodies from a somewhat different perspective.” Instead of initial 1868. | Chemistry. 391 letters the author adopts pictorial symbols by which to represent the elements, and arranges them in a geometrical pattern to con- struct the compounds formed by their union. In the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Drs. Atkinson, Russell, Stevenson, and Odling spoke briefly, and, in a general sense, adversely, as to the desirability of introducing the system to the notice of the student. Dr. J. H. Gladstone followed with a paper “On the Tetraphosphoric Amides,” compounds produced by the action of water on the amidated oxychlorides of phosphorus; and the pro- ceedings concluded with a paper by Mr. Carter Bell “On the Solubility and Crystallization of Plumbic Chloride in Water, and in Water containing various proportions of Hydrochloric Acid.” The author finds the degree of solubility in pure water to be about 1 part in 121 parts, instead of in 135. The solubility in hydro- chloric acid decreases up to a certain point, when the curve com- mences to ascend. The meeting on May 7th was very fully attended, and many dis- tinguished visitors were present to hear Mr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., deliver a lecture “On the Regenerative Gas Furnace as applied to the production of Cast Steel.” The following is a very condensed account of this important lecture; and it is to be regretted that the many demands upon our space will not permit of its being given more fully. The lecturer commenced by briefly sketching the pro- perties and modes of preparation of cast steel, which he defined as a compound of iron and carbon possessing the remarkable property of becoming exceedingly hard when heated and suddenly cooled. Steel containing 1-4 per cent of carbon partakes of the character of white cast iron, and below 0:3 per cent. the metal is incapable of being hardened. The presence of manganese improves the quality of steel, apart from its function in removing sulphur and other im- purities. Tungsten, in quantities of about two per cent., has the remarkable property of increasing the power which steel possesses of retaining magnetism when hardened. This property of tungsten was illustrated in the lecture-room by a small permanent magnet of horse-shoe form, which supported twenty times its own weight from the armature; the celebrated Haarlem magnet being incapable of lifting a weight more than thirteen times heavier than itself. The principle of Mr. Siemens’s plan of heating is already well known. The fuel is heated upon an inclined fire-grate, where it undergoes a kind of slow combustion which results in the formation of carbonic oxide ; this inflammable gas is then conducted from the “producer” to the hearth or working platform of the furnace, where it meets a current of air already raised to a high temperature, which enables it to burn with great intensity ; and the excess of thermal power, instead of being allowed to pass direct into the chimney and thus become wasted, is forced to traverse an intricate structure of brick- VOL. V. 25 392 Chronicles of Science. (July; work, which absorbs so much heat that the escaping gaseous pro- ducts of combustion rarely indicate a temperature above 300° F. At a suitable stage of the operation the gas-valves are reversed, and both carbonic oxide gas and air are forced to traverse these heated brick chambers in a contrary direction, so that they may in turn become the recipients of that heat which in ordinary constructions of furnaces would have been lost. The ashes and clinkers are in this way entirely separated from the region of manipulation, and are removed from the grate at intervals of one or two days. The author esti- mates the temperature produced by the combustion of the gas and air to be 1,000° to 1,300° F. when they are cold to begin with; but when they have been separately passed through the regenerator and thereby raised to a temperature of, say, 1,000° F. beforehand, the temperature of their combustion will be, say, 2,000°. The surplus heat from this will then raise the temperature of the regenerator still higher, and the gas and air will consequently attain a higher degree of heat before they unite. The platform of heat, so to speak, on which they commence their combustion, will be raised each time, until practically there is no limit to the degree of temperature which may be attained in this manner—the whole mass of the furnace, with its contents, having occasionally been melted down into one mass. ‘The special furnace which Mr. Siemens has erected at Bir- mingham for the direct production of steel from the ore, has a tunnel-head or cylindrical hopper, fed with iron ore and small coke, passing through and raised above the crown of the regenerative gas furnace; the lower part of this upright cylinder rests in a bath of molten pig-iron, which dissolves the reduced (spongy) iron as quickly as it is separated from the ore. A blast-pipe descends through the stack of ore, and the process is interrupted when the steel is ready for casting, after which the charge of pig must be renewed. Itisa very important point in connection with these furnaces, that the at- mosphere of them may be changed at will into an oxidizing, reducing, ~ or perfectly neutral condition, merely by altering the proportions of air and gas. After the delivery of this lecture, which was amply illustrated with experiments, specimens, and a series of diagrams and dissected models, an animated discussion followed, in which the President, Mr. Cowper, Professor Abel, Dr. Miller, Dr. B. H. Paul, Dr. Williamson, and Dr. Odling took part. On May 21st, Dr. Russell opened the proceedings by showing some experiments “On the Application of the Measurement of Gases to Quantitative Analysis.” The author considers the system of mea- suring to be more accurate than weighing in a variety of analytical operations wherein gases are evolved, and the results which he has obtained certainly corroborate this view. In the discussion which followed, Dr. Williamson said that as a rule the process of measuring was more accurate than weighing; for, whilst we could not weigh 1868. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 393 closer than one-tenth of a milligramme, it was possible to measure volumes of gas within one-hundredth part of a cubic centimetre. Mr. W. H. Perkin then read a paper “On the Combining Powers of Carbon.” ‘This was very long and theoretical, and related to the inquiry whether all four affinities or combining units of carbon are of equal value. The proceedings were brought to a conclusion by a short paper by Mr. Parnell “On the Reducing Action of Peroxide of Hydrogen and Carbolic Acid.” 6. ENGINEERING—CIVIL AND MECHANICAL. THE gradual, though, it is to be hoped, certain return of confidence in various existing undertakings, recently shown by the state of the money market and the quotations of shares, cannot fail to have exercised a beneficial influence on the progress of engineering schemes; but it must be acknowledged that there is still room for much improvement. Ship-bwilding.—The state of trade in the northern parts has of late exhibited a decided improvement, but the same cannot altogether be said of ship-building on the Thames. Messrs. Napier and Sons of Glasgow have recently completed an armour-clad twin-screw turret-ram for the Dutch, and Messrs. Laird of Birkenhead, have launched two sister monitors for the same Government. The last- named firm are also building a turret-ship of 4,200 tons, and a broadside-ship of the ‘Invincible’ class for Her Majesty’s Govern- ment, as well as a composite gunboat for service in the China seas. A gunboat on a new model has recently been built for the Admi- ralty, on the Tyne, from the designs of Mr. G. Rendel, of the firm of Sir W. Armstrong and Co. ; this vessel is only 70 feet long by 25 feet beam, having twin screws driven by two pairs of con- densing engines. She carries as heavy a rifled gun as any in the Navy, mounted in the fore part of the vessel in a line with the keel, and firig through a bulwark, or screen, over the bow, which is cut down and plated something like that of a monitor. On the Thames the ‘ Repulse, to carry eight guns, and of 800 horse-power, was launched at Woolwich Dockyard on the 25th April; and at Chat- ham, in addition to the ‘ Sultan,’ a powerful new iron-clad ship, of the ‘ Herculus’ class, has recently been laid down. There is now, it appears, no doubt about the closing of the minor Government ship-building yards, an order having been received for Deptford to shut up in the course of the year, and it is thought that Woolwich will, in all probability, follow Deptford. eg E — 394 Chronicles of Science. [July, On 25th April last, the first gunboat ever built in Ireland was launched from the yard of Messrs. Harland and Wolff of Belfast, which is one of six gunboats being built for the British Govern- ment. Docks and Harbowrs.—One of the greatest and most important recent additions to private dock accommodation on the Thames was made on 14th March, by the opening of the Millwall Dock basins and warehouses ; and on 21st April the foundation stone was laid of the first of four large new Graving Docks to be constructed at Chatham. A new harbour under construction at Torquay, at the cost of Sir L. Palk, M.P., is rapidly progressing ; it is intended to extend the harbour some 600 feet, and vessels drawing a much greater depth of water than heretofore will be enabled to enter it. A con- siderable sum is also about to be expended on the improvement of Great Yarmouth Harbour. Works for the improvement of the basin at Brest were com- - menced so far back as 1863, but after sixteen months of persevering efforts, the contractor failed to make a water-tight dam. Recourse was then had to the compressed air process, and a caisson was sunk, having a capacity of 2,427 cubic metres, in which forty men have been working day and night in four-hour shifts. During the recent visit of the Duke of Edinburgh to Australia, his Royal Highness laid the foundation stone of a fine Graying Dock at Williamstown, Victoria. River Improvements.—The works undertaken for the improyve- ment of the Sulina mouth of the Danube appear to have been suc- cessful, the depth of the channel having been increased to an average of 15 to 16 feet, while the Sulina Pass, formerly regarded as one of the dangers which shipping had to encounter, has now become one of the best refuges on the coast of the Black Sea. Water Suwpply—The Carnarvon Waterworks were opened by His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales on 25th April last. They are supplied with water from Llyn Quellyn, a lake situated about six miles from Carnarvon, and 600 feet above the level of the town. The new waterworks at Helensburgh were opened on 26th March last. The water is collected from two streams intersecting the Mainshill lands before they reach the mossy portion of them adjoining the upper, or compensation, reservoir; the lower, or storing reservoir is seven acres in extent, and has a storeage capacity equal to a supply of 25 gallons to each inhabitant for a period of five months. An extensive system of works for the supply of Calcutta with water are now in course of construction. The supply is drawn from the Hooghly at a poimt about sixteen miles north of Calcutta, and after being purified is carried by three branches to the 1868.] Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. . 895 Southern, North-eastern, and North-western districts of the city respectively. Railways.—The new line, belonging to the London and North- western Railway Company, from Llanrwst to Bettws-y-Coed, has commenced to carry passengers. The new line between Edinburgh and Leith was gone over on the 14th May, and was expected to be opened in about a week from that time. The break of continuity which the Girdle of Paris Railway still presents, between the Batignolles-Clichy goods station and the Cour- celles station on the Anteuil line, will soon disappear ; the earthworks of the section in question being now nearly completed. The Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Railway Company appears to be pushing forward its lines in Algeria with much energy; that from Algiers to Oran is now in progress throughout, and one section—from Relizane to Oran—is expected to be opened for traffic m July. A second line, from Phillippeville to Constantine, is to be completed for traffic in the course of 1869. Upwards of 472 kilometres of railway are expected to be com- pleted in Italy durmg 1868. Of these, the Lecce and Zellino line was opened at the commencement of February, and its extension to Otranto has been definitively approved. Mr. Fell’s summit-railway over Mont Cenis has certainly not hitherto fulfilled the expectations of its promoters. In May last the Duke of Sutherland went over the line between St. Michel and Susa, a distance of 48 miles, in 4 hours 6 minutes, after deducting the time in stoppages for inspec- tion. ‘The line was opened to the public on 15th June. The concession of a Government guarantee has been given to the Indian Branch Railway Company for its limes in Oudh and Rohil- cund, and the extension of the Oudh system is now being proceeded with, The whole distance between Sholapoor and Raichore, on the Madras Extension line, is in course of completion, the rails having now been laid for about fifty miles beyond Sholapoor. On 18th April last the rails of the United Pacific Railroad were laid on the Rocky Mountain summit of the line; according to Bilnkerderfer’s survey, the railroad crosses the mountains at this pe at an elevation of 8,242 feet, beg the highest point reached y any railroad in the world. Bridges.—The North-eastern Railway Company have set reso- lutely about the replacement of the whole of their numerous wooden viaducts with stone and iron, and in some places with solid embank- ments. The Hutton, Malton, and Whitby viaducts have been com- pleted, the Ripon is in progress, and the Norton is being filled up. A bridge was recently constructed by the Louisville and Nash- ville Railroad Company over the Cumberland river, at Nashville, which comprises two spans of 205 feet each in the clear, and a swing- bridge, giving two openings, and measuring over 276 feet. A new 396 Chronicles of Science. [July, suspension-bridge has also been constructed over the same river, in Tennessee, connecting Nashville and Edgefield, to replace the one destroyed by the Confederate General Floyd when in possession of Fort Doneldson. A bridge is now in course of construction over the river Ohio, at Louisville, which is the longest iron bridge yet attempted in the United States. It will, when completed, carry across the Ohio a line connecting the Louisville and Nashville with the Jeffersonville and Indianopolis railroad, and form a connecting link between two immense railway systems—the northern and the southern, at present divided by the Ohio river. The Boston and Providence Railway Company are constructing a bridge from India Point over the Seekonk river, on a plan which embraces some new features, The whole length of the bridge is 876 feet, and the sup- ports in the river are iron cylinders filled with wooden piles and concrete. The building of an iron bridge over the Great Miami, on the Ohio and Mississippi Railway, is considered a rapid feat in railway engineering. The first train crossed on the 15th December last, just 120° days from the time the first pile was driven, and 9 days and 4 hours from the time the last stone was put in place. Tunnels.—On the 1st of last November, the heading of the Hoosac tunnel had reached a total of 4,382 feet from the east opening, and 1,004 feet in the western shaft. On the whole, con- fidence is expressed in the future rapid progress of this work. T'elegraph.—The English telegraphic system is soon to be con- nected with that of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, by a cable now in course of construction, and which is to be laid under the North Sea. On Ist April, the Chancellor of the Exchequer brought in a Bill for giving to the Postmaster-General power to buy up, and stg telegraph lines in this country in connection with the Post- flice. The Indo-European Telegraph Company, for working a line of telegraph through Prussia, Russia, and Persia, has recently been successtully started ; and the Anglo-Mediterranean Telegraph Com- pany, which proposes to effect an independent communication between England and India by deep-sea cables through the Mediterranean and Red Seas and the Persian Gulf, has also been established, so there is now a prospect that before long England will possess two separate lines for telegraphic communication with India entirely under English supervision and control. Mechanical.—A very clever steam flying-machine has recently been invented by Mr. Joseph M. Kaufmann of Glasgow, the action of which resembles that of the wings of a bird as closely as possible. It will appear at the Exhibition of the Aeronautical Society at the Crystal Palace in June. We must not omit to notice the Steam Stearing-gear, fitted by Messrs. George Forrester & Co., of Liverpool. to the Great Eastern steamship, from the designs of Mr. J. McFarlane Gray. This 1868. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 397 apparently complex, though really simple machine, according to the evidence of Sir James Anderson, “saved the labour of eight men, and acted upon the rudder with a facility and certainty that no me- chanical labour could effect.” The construction of a thoroughly effective steam stearing-gear is no easy matter, for whilst the rudder should be under perfect command, it should at the same time be able to yield if exposed to excessive strain by the action of the _ waves. It would be impossible here clearly to describe this machine without the aid of drawings, but it may suffice to state that the above desideratum is fully accomplished by it ; the rudder being capable of yielding, and at the same time returning to the desired position when the disturbing force is removed. A very clever portable drilling-machine has recently been in- troduced by Messrs. Westray and Forster of Barrow-in-Furness, which has been designed so as to enable the drill to be worked at any angle, and to be used to drill holes anywhere within range of the machine when fixed. A new arrangement of boring-machine has recently been de- signed and patented by Mr. Thomas Greenwood of Leeds, which is specially intended for boring gun-barrels, shafting, or other articles in which a deep hole is required to be formed. The work to be bored is mounted above a tank containing lubricating material, and in this tank the drills are placed, the work being bored upwards from the lower end. Golay’s millstone cutting and dressing machine has recently attracted great attention, and large sums have been paid for the right to manufacture it im this country. With this machine, the “cracks” are cut by a diamond fixed on the edge of a small _ dise, revolving at a very high speed, its spindle beng mounted on a carriage which can be moved to and fro on the line of the cracks. Experiments have recently been made at Chatham, with very satisfactory results, to test the merits of a new application of the diving apparatus invented by Mr. Siebe, submarine engineer, by which two divers can be sent down in any depth of water, and be supplied with air from the same pump. ‘The diving apparatus is fitted with a self-acting pressure gauge, and the invention can be used as a submarine lamp. A new method of extinguishing fires by the application of car- bonic acid gas, projected from a portable fire-engine, was lately tested upon the battery in New York city. The engine is about the size of a common garden engine, it is worked much in the same manner, and may be operated by two men. When in action two cylinders are employed to supply an air-chamber, the pressure from which, acting upon the carbonic acid gas formed by the mixture of solutions of tartaric acid and carbonate of soda, or other suitable materials, forces it through a hose, by means of which it may be directed wherever required. ( 398 ) [July, 7. GEOGRAPHY. (Including the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.) Tue attention of the Royal Geographical Society, so far as it is not concentrated upon individual interests or the exciting game of politics, is directed to the little band of men who, in their indomitable perseverance, their cautious advance, their submission to scientific arrangement, the purpose and success of their expedition, and even their ethnological heterogeneity, represent, with tolerable fidelity, the relation of the British empire to outer barbarians. Neither the smallness of the force sent to Abyssinia nor the contemptible cha- racter of our opponent, is a gauge of the interest felt by educated men in the success of the expedition; because it has been all along seen that the contest was rather against nature than against man, and that the prize to be won was mental and moral rather than phy- sical and political. That an engineer officer should be in command and that a select body of scientific men should accompany the force, was as essential to its character as that our Indian troops should make the roads, that “twenty men of the line, two artillerymen, an officer, and the Press,” should capture and turn thirty guns, or that a news- paper correspondent should criticize the “brilliant blunder” of a commander. The real and permanent advantage that we shall gain from the expedition depends to a greater extent upon the care and the cireumspection of the representatives of science, who, for the . first time, accompany an invading army, than upon the valour, the foresight, and the good fortune of our troops. Lieutenants Carter, Holdich, and Dumler, of the Royal Engi- neers, have been busy with a trigonometrical survey of the route of the army and of the country, from ten to fifteen miles on each side of it, including all the principal peaks visible along the road. This will furnish accurate data, to which may be hereafter safely added less carefully determined information. In the meantime, Mr. Clements R. Markham is obtaining his- torical and topographical detail of the lines of watershed, geological structure, zoological and botanical products, all of which will no doubt be given to the public in papers before the Royal Geographical Society and in periodical publications. Several other members of the expedition have also used their spare time in making zoological and botanical researches, whilst the excellent sketches that have from time to time appeared in our illustrated newspapers have made all the world acquainted with the peculiar characteristics of various kinds of scenery in Abyssinia, which for grandeur and picturesqueness could scarcely be equalled. A lecture on Abyssinia was lately delivered by Sir Samuel Baker 1868. | Geography. 399 at the Royal Institution, which, except that it contained a fair description of the surface of the country, added but little to the in- formation already possessed or within the reach of every one of the enormous audience assembled to greet the traveller. By reproducing stories of Moses and of the Queen of Sheba entirely depending on tradition, and by the application of the indefinite word “ Ethiopia ” to Abyssinia wherever 1t may occur in biblical history, Sir Samuel showed that his authority as a historical critic could scarcely be so great as when he confined himself to his proper subject of geography. These doings in the more northerly portion of the enormous district drained by the Nile (for near Adigerat and Antalo the British troops came upon the head waters of certain tributaries of the river of Egypt) have caused the interest about the explorers of the southern tributaries of the same stream to flag. A fictitious excitement con- cerning the researches of Dr. Livingstone was for some time kept up in consequence of the credit given to the untrustworthy story of the Johanna men, even to the extent of publishing a biography of the scientific missionary in the obituary of the ‘Année Scientifique,’ although Sir Roderick I. Murchison all along showed the improba- bility of their account, and the unreliable character of the men was patent to all who read their testimony. It is satisfactory to know that the authors of the false account are likely to reap the reward of their villany from their own sovereign, the Sultan of Johanna. The letters lately received from Dr. Livingstone, of which we give an abstract below, have been read, however, with great enthusiasm, though they serve rather to stimulate curiosity than to give much information concerning the countries he has traversed. It is ex- tremely difficult in the present state of our knowledge to follow the statements of the Doctor, who does not seem to have got over the fault which so greatly spoilt the effect of his first work—a muddled and confused style. It is still uncertain by which route the traveller may return, but if he retraces his steps, he will probably fall in with a party of Irish officers who intend to take a small iron boat, fitted with a steam screw, up the Zambesi and the Shire, and then across to the lake Nyassa, which last piece of water they purpose surveying thoroughly, especially on its little-known northern boundary. It is to be hoped that the nationality of Captain Faulkner and his com- panions will not lead them to too hasty conclusions,—and that the results of their expedition may be worthy of the excitement caused in Dublin by an Irish attempt at solving the problems before them. The Zambesi itself is in a fair way to be known as well as the Rhine, as it not only forms the highway by which book-writing travellers journey towards the great lakes of southern Africa, but that wayfarers like Mr. Chapman, who attempt to cross the con- tinent from west to east, make use of this opening. Another new 400 Chronicles of Science. [July, source of attraction to this river is the discovery of a gold-field at a short distance from its northern bank, by M. Manch, who has also found another gold-field somewhat to the south-west of the former, nearer the colony of Natal. On the Guinea coast Mr. Winwoode Reade, who has already penetrated to the gorilla country, is com- mencing an exploration under the auspices of the Royal Geogra- phical Society, by advancing up the Assinie river. The physical condition of the valley of the Nile in Egypt and Nubia, especially in its relationship to the intellectual precocity of the former country, receives considerable light from the careful survey of M. Ampere. The course of geographical interest follows in the track that history has previously travelled. The earliest civilized continent, Africa, is now the least known and the most provocative of dis- covery. Asia, which followed closely on the path pioneered by Egypt, next affords the widest field for exploration and research The examination of the foundations of Jerusalem (one of the earliest of the old centres of civilization), interesting from so many points of view, has been delayed, though not entirely stopped, by the jealousy of the Turkish authorities. It is to be hoped that the diffi- culties, whatever they may be, will be overcome before the cooler weather again gives an opportunity of recommencing the labours of tracing water-courses, following drains, and laying bare founda- tions. Since Mr. Layard’s investigation of the cities of northern Mesopotamia, we have heard but little of the remains of the old Assyrian and Persian empires. The necessity for collecting animals for the transport corps in Abyssinia has given some of our young officers the opportunity of traversing Persia. One of these gives a description of Persepolis as still contaimmg much that is worthy of investigation, and it is to be hoped that this and other similar places will be examined by those who, enlightened by the discussions on ancient architecture and manufactures, have had their interest awakened to the seats of ancient learning and art. The advance of the Russians and of Russian influence in Central Asia is still the ery of those who think our Indian empire is not safe unless it is enlarging its boundaries, and this ery is from time to time awaked by reports of fresh victories of the Muscovites. A knowledge of the condition of the countries to the north of the Himalayas may be scientifically useful; but meddling with the poli- tics of this region may be anything but advantageous to our already overgrown empire, however much it may be desired by the conti- nental enemies of Russia and a certain school of Indian statesmen. The condition of the vast empire of China, which seems to be so rapidly changing its character, is of much greater importance to the British merchant. Instead of crowding their over-peopled land - and rivers, the Chinese are now constantly passing backwards and for- wards to and from the various gold fields of America and Australia, 1868. ] Geography. 401 where their incursions have a very serious effect upon the labour- market, and their habits incite a considerably amount of enmity. If, as seems probable, this huge kingdom should fall to pieces from its own inherent want of cohesion, it may become a matter of impor- tance to us who succeeds to the various portions of the ruins of the mighty fabric. The neighbouring and closely allied kingdom of Japan is in like manner undergoing convulsions, both social and political, about the nature of which it is difficult to judge. The old aversion to foreigners and to intercourse with other nations seems to have left the middle and lower classes of the nation, who are making their influence felt by the governing class, and the pre- sence of a troop of jugglers or tumblers among us has a deeper significance than might at first sight appear. It is a more trust- worthy earnest of future intercourse than the appearance of their ambassadors at our international shows, or even treaties with rulers who cannot divert popular feeling. The internal evidence of the same change is to be seen in revolutions and in the attack upon our ambassador so satisfactorily punished by the Mikado, whom he now visits in place of the Tycoon who received our former attentions. Two expeditions into Central Australia are spoken of. The one by Captain Cadell is nearly completed, after having traversed the country from the northern boundary of Southern Australia to the northern coast of the continent. Three rivers and a large harbour have been discovered. The other is the proposal of Dr. Neumayer, director of the Observatory at Melbourne, who is anxious to carry his line from east to west, from Port Denison to Swan River. Dr. Neumayer is anxious to have more attention paid to science in the new exploration than has been the case before; and in his opinion the expense ought to be defrayed partly by the colonies and partly by the mother-country. The country, so long marked on maps as Russian America, but which on its acquisition by the Government of the United States required a new name, has been called from its principal peninsula Alaska or Alaska. In Yankee parlance it is sometimes Walrussia. But little is known of this region, which is said to be of no great value on any account, and was only bought by the Americans through jealousy of British influence on their continent. An artist, Mr. Frederick Whymper, who spent a considerable time in that region, has traversed a large portion of the course of its principal river, the Yukon or Kwichpak, and has at length returned to England with the results of his stay, and we may expect shortly to hear something of his discoveries. He describes the climate as extreme, and the inhabitants vary in character from the Eskimo to the Red Indians. A series of sketches and a collection of character- istic articles made by the natives were exhibited by Mr. Whymper at the evening reception given by the President of the Royal 402 Chronicles of Science. [July, Geographical Society. The Red Indians are, like so many unfortu- nate natives of other lands, being driven out by our colonies of Vancouver Island and Columbia from their old hunting grounds through the forcible purchase of their land, which the Indians would willingly keep if they were allowed. It is the old story, the European makes use of the power that civilization gives him to act as an uncivilized savage would be ashamed to act, and then it is said that no barbarous nation can exist where educated man touches upon his borders. One rather awkward-looking fact accompanies the advance of the European. ‘The price of wives increases as one nears the white settlements, and a regular slave trade is known to exist. A strong desire has been exhibited by the colony of British Columbia to be admitted into the confederacy with Canada and the other settlements of British America, provided only that a means of communication with these latter colonies be made from Lake Superior over the Rocky Mountains. The other parties to the con- federacy seem willing to meet their wishes, and it is to be hoped that a strong alliance may be found to resist any attempts to alienate or seduce any of these our dependencies, or to sow discord where unity is so essential. The new territories of the United States are each in their turn explored by Government officials, and the various productions, mineral and vegetable, are described and catalogued. Nebraska has in this way been rendered accessible, and expeditions are still in progress in Colorado and Dakotah. Lignite has been found over a large extent of country in the former territory, and iron ore is in abundance in the same neighbourhood. Unlike the adjoming British colony, the Americans of California are not content with a mere road, but have already made lines of railway where no European would dream of laying a tramway, but one of the most extraordinary of these undertakings, and a very successful one too, is the Central Pacific Railway, which commencing in California passes the Sierra Nevada through a tunnel, and is descend- ing into the plain of the great Salt Lake city to Utah. The rails are being laid at the rate of a mile a day. When this is finished there will be no more occasion for those trying journeys across the prairies so well described in Hepworth Dixon’s ‘ New America,’ nor for the scarcely less unpleasant journey round by Central America. But little seems to be known about this latter country, to judge from a late correspondence in which it is contended by one of the opposing parties that there is a water communication between the Lakes Managua and Nicaragua, whilst the other denies this. The explanation seems to be that some years ago the dry seasons lowered the former lake to such an extent that there was no overflow of water along the channel which has since been navigated by one of the correspondents. ‘The Panama railroad, however, has its historian and guide, Dr. F. N. Otis, and around books of the 1868. | | Geography. 403 character which he has written, there is soon accumulated an amount of fact which, without some nucleus of crystalization, is apt to flow away in a state of solution. The German expedition to the North Pole has started from Bergen, and Professor A. E. Nordenskidld has announced to the Royal Society that the Swedish Government has granted a steamer, provisioned for one year for the purpose of Arctic exploration, and that some private gentlemen have contributed towards fitting out the expedition. Earthquakes are recorded in the Sandwich Islands (near the volcano, Mauna Loa, which was in violent eruption) at Tachkent (?) and about Vesuvius. The latter mountain is being watched not only by Palmieri and several Italian savans, but also by Professor Phillips of Oxford. Very valuable records of the lengthy disturb- ances will have been made by these and other scientific observers of the changes that have taken place, and it is to be hoped that the theory of volcanoes will receive some enlightenment. We have to regret the death of Mr. John Crawfurd, whose face must be well known to all frequenters of our learned societies. His fame was won originally in the Malay peninsula, of which he wrote a history as well as a dictionary and grammar of the language, but he did not confine himself to matters connected only with that part of the world, but on most subjects, geographical and ethnological, he held, and frequently expressed, opinions of his own. He died at an advanced age in a sudden and peaceful manner. PROCEEDINGS OF THE Roya GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. The safety of Dr. Livingstone having been doubted by some members of the Society in spite of the opinion constantly expressed by Sir R. Murchison, letters from that traveller which were read at the tenth meeting excited some considerable interest. The news in these, however, did not reach to a very late period, the doctor’s own letter being dated Bemba (lat. 10° 10’ §.), 2nd February, 1867, whilst that from Dr. Kirk contains news of him up to October last. The traveller, who had with him only the African boys educated at Nassick, Bombay, had remained at the town of Mataka, a chief whose dominions stretched from the watershed between Lake Nyassa and the sea to the lake itself, a distance of fifty miles. Hence the journey seems to have been continued westwards, but whether round or across the lake does not appear. The next points made seem to have been some of the tributaries on the left bank of the Zambesi, viz. the Chambese and the Loangwa, the watershed between which streams the doctor thought he had gained at Bemba. At the time he wrote he was making for Casembes, and thence he was to go to 404 Chronicles of Science. [July, the lake of Taganyika, which Dr. Kirk says he reached in October last at Ujiji, at the pomt where stores awaited him. These letters were sent down by Arabs travelling to Ragamoyo, a place on the coast near Zanzibar. Letters, maps, and stores would meet the doctor at Ujiji, being forwarded from Zanzibar. The Rey. F. W. Holland, during the last winter, has made a third visit to the Sinaitic peninsula. The results of his journey were given in a paper read on the 11th May. Starting from Suez on foot, he reached the monastery at the foot of the Jebel Musa (Mount Sinai), his head-quarters, whilst he explored the whole country in that neighbourhood for four months. Letting himself down from the wall of the convent, he daily traversed some mountain path, assisted by Arabic ibex hunters. Occasionally he took an Arab to carry his blanket and bag of provisions when he intended to camp out for three or four nights. He was thus enabled to take heights of mountains, and to measure and map out valleys hitherto incor- rectly given. He found more vegetation than previous information had led him to suppose, and two or three springs were to be dis- covered on every mountain. Jebel Um Alowee (possibly a corrup- tion of Elohim), north-east of Jebel Musa, is a fresh discovery of Mr. Holland’s, and he puts it forward as a possible rival to the latter mountain as the true Sinai. The wilderness of Sin he would identify with the plains of Es Seyh ; and he adds his protest to that of many others against the theory that the Sinaitic inscriptions are to be esteemed the work of the Israelites on their journey out of Egypt. The next paper was by Commissioner Chimmo on the north-east coast of Labrador. At the anniversary meeting, on Monday, 25th of May, the Founder’s Medal was awarded to Dr. Augustus Petermann, the well-known geographical writer, the originator of the German expe- dition to the North Pole, the editor of the ‘Geographische Mit- theilungen ;’ and at the same time the Patron’s or Queen’s Medal was assigned to M. Gerhard Rholfs, on account of his journeys into the interior of Africa from the northern coast, from which, on one occa- sion, he penetrated as far as the Guinea coast. A gold watch also was awarded as an extra distinction to the pundit, whose name has not yet appeared, but who was employed by Captain Montgomery to survey in Thibet. The report of the Council, recommending the presentation of two gold and two bronze medals to the successful candidates at an annual examination in physical and political geo- graphy, was afterwards received and approved. The Chief Com- missioner of Crown Lands has promised the Society a site for building facing the Thames Embankment, where the maps and books of reference of the Society might be readily accessible to the public. The President, in his address, enumerated those works that had been added to this library during the last year, amongst which may 1868. | Geology and Palzontology. 405 be mentioned Keith Johnson’s New Atlases, and Major’s ‘ Life of Prince Henry.’ The obituary of the year included the names of the late President, Mr. William John Hamilton, Lord Rosse, Lord Colchester, the Right Hon. Sir George Clark, Captain James Mangles, R.N., Mr. Ashurst Majendie, the Rev. Pierce Butler, Sir Charles Lemon, &c., and as we have mentioned before, Mr. John Crawfurd. After a brief sketch of the additions to our geographical knowledge, as they have from time to time appeared in these Chronicles, Sir R. Murchison dwelt at some length upon the progress of Dr. Livingstone, and the success of the expedition sent in search of him. He then pointed out the three routes which were open to the traveller on his return, showing that, according to his own calculation Dr. Livingstone might return to England by August next, whereas according to Sir Samuel Baker he possibly might arrive at Gondokoro next April, but not before, and he scarcely could with probability be expected until a much later date. The President referred to the appointment by the Government of Mr. Clements Markham, as geographer to the Abyssinian expedi- tion. One positive gain to the Society, resulting from this appoint- ment, was the desire of Sir Robert Napier to become a member of that body. The memoirs of Mr. Markham might be looked forward to as one of the most worthy parts of the Journal of the Society. 8. GEOLOGY AND PALAZONTOLOGY. (Including the Proceedings of the Geological Society.) “THE unique specimen of Archxopteryx lithographica (von Meyer) which at present adorns the collection of fossils in the British Museum, is undoubtedly one of the most interesting relics of the extinct fauna of long-past ages; and the correct interpretation of the fossil is of proportional importance.” With these words, Pro- fessor Huxley commences a paper, read before the Royal Society on January 30th, the object of which is to show that Professor Owen has mistaken the dorsal face of most of the bones for the ventral ; the left femur, left tibia, and bones of the left foot for the “right femur, tibia, and bones of the foot,” and so forth. Professor Huxley concedes that the furculum (if it be such) turns its ventral surface to the eye, and he suggests “that it is the bouleversement of this bone which has led to that reversal of the proper nomenclature of the other bones, which, could it be sustained, would leave Archexop- teryx without a parallel in the vertebrate sub-kingdom.” By the light of his correction, however, he considers that many points of 406 Chronicles of Science. | July, the structure of this remarkable fossil “acquire an intelligibility which they lose to those who accept the interpretations given in the memoir” by Professor Owen. But the “ furculum” still presents an osteological difficulty which even Professor Huxley cannot sur- mount. He is also of opinion that if the head of Archzxopteryx, when discovered, should possess jaws containing teeth, it would not, to his mind, on that account, cease to be a bird, any more “ than turtles cease to be reptiles because they have beaks.” An abstract of this important paper will be found in No. 98 of the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society.’ Another of Professor Owen’s papers*has been severely criticized by Messrs. Albany Hancock and Thomas Atthey. On June 3rd of last year Professor Owen read a paper “On the Dental Characters of Genera and Species, chiefly of Fishes, from the Low Main Seam and Shales of Coal, Northumberland,” before the Odontological Society of Great Britain. An abstract of this paper appeared in the next (July) number of the ‘ Geological Magazine, and the following number of that periodical contained a criticism upon it from the pen of Mr. Thomas Atthey. The paper having been published in full, with illustrative plates, in the ‘ ‘Transactions of the Odontological Society ’ for 1867, Mr. Atthey, now in conjunction with Mr. Hancock (a well-known naturalist, and one of considerable eminence as a malaco- zoologist), has published his criticisms in detail in the April and May numbers of the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History.’ Professor Owen describes twelve genera of Fishes and Batrachians ; but Messrs. Hancock and Atthey find themselves “compelled to con- clude that there is positively not a single novelty in the whole series.” For instance, they state that “it is apparently on fragments of the jaw-bones and on the teeth of Rhizodopsis sawroides that Professor Owen has founded the Dittodus parallelus, Ganolodus Craggesit, Characodus confertus, and the Batrachian genus Gastrodus !!” Again, other remains, described as teeth of a small fish by the name of Mitrodus quadicornis, his opponents consider to be a large kind of dermal tubercles, and remark, “ this ‘minnow,’ then, of our shales is found to be identical with Gyracanthus tuberculatus, perhaps the largest fish of the Coal-measures.” To the younger paleontologists these confident assertions of Professor Owen's errors will appear incredible. It therefore seems highly desirable that the matter should be investigated by yet one more eminent odontologist. The fossils of the Portlandian deposits of the department of the Yonne have been carefully described and figured by M. de Loriol, in a monograph by that paleontologist, and M. Cotteau.* The latter author divides the series into two zones, namely, a lower one characterized by Ammonites gigas, and an upper by Pinna supra- * Bull. Soc. d. Sciences hist. et nat. de ]’Yonne, 2° série. Vol. i., 1868. 1868.] Geology and Paleontology. 407 jurensis. The richness of the upper zone contrasts very strongly with the poverty of the lower, the species yielded by the whole formation numbering 122, of which only thirteen belong to the zone of Ammonites gigas, four of them being common to both. Twenty-six species are common to these beds and the lower zones of the “ terrain Kimmeéridien,” and twenty-two occur in the Lower Portlandian of the Boulonnais, while only four are common to them and the Upper and Middle Portlandian. To the Lower Portlandian, therefore, the authors refer the two zones of the Yonne forma- tion. M. Cotteau, who has contributed the geological portion of this excellent monograph, records that the Neocomian beds are found reposing sometimes on the zone of Ammonites gigas, and sometimes on that of Pinna suprajurensis. From this fact he infers the existence of a stratigraphical break or unconformity between the two formations. M. de Loriol, however, from a paleontological standpoint, regards these two zones as two facies of the Portlandian, inferrmg that in the west of the Yonne district circumstances favoured the deposition of the zone of Pinna suprajurensis, or, in other words, the existence of its rich fauna, while in the remainder the more scanty population of the zone of Ammonites gigas could alone flourish. Similarly with the Neocomian, which at Bernouil is represented by the remarkable zone of Peltastes stellulatus, covering the Portlandian beds in that area, while at Auxerre the latter are succeeded by the ordinary marls and yellow limestones of the Lower Neocomian formation. M. de Loriol also remarks that the division between the Cretaceous and Jurassic series appears to be less decided in the Alpine area than in any other. In a paper on the classification of certain Fossil Corals, published in the recently issued volume of the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for last year, Dr. Duncan comes to the conclusion that the genus Palzocyclus must be abolished, and that its species must be added to the genus Cyathophyllum. Thusa representative of the Tertiary coral-fauna is removed from the Paleozoic. The author also shows that the genus Battersbya does not belong to the Mzlleporidz, but should be associated with the formerly solitary genus Heterophyllia in a division of the Astraid#. Thus two genera with Mesozoic affinities are introduced into the Paleozoic coral-fauna, On March 12th Mr. J. A. Phillips read a paper before the Royal Society on the “Chemical Geology of the Gold-fields of California.” * He infers that quartz-veins have generally been produced by the slow deposition of silica from aqueous solutions, that their formation is due to hydrothermal agencies, and that the silica may have been slowly deposited at low temperatures. The author also speculates on the cause of the presence of gold in the same solution, and sug- * ©Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xvi., No. 100, p. 294. VOL. V. 2F 408 Chronicles of Science. [July, gests that the bisulphide of iron may have been connected with the solvent by which the precious metal was held in solution. In ashort paper in the ‘ Bulletin’ of the Geological Society of France,* M. Gaudry announces that his researches at Pikermi have led him to doubt in some cases the generally received proposition, that if in a deposit we find the remains of vertebrata — which have not been derived from an older bed, the animals to which they belonged lived at the time that deposit was being accumulated, and that consequently they serve to characterize its age. The ‘American Journal of Science and Arts’ for March con- tains two papers on recent geological changes in China and Japan, namely, one by Mr. Albert §S. Bickmore, and one by Mr. Raphael Pumpelly. Both authors describe the gradual rise of the land in eastern China, and give more or less precise descriptions of the extraordinary changes that have recently taken place in the courses of some of the rivers, notably the Yellow River. Mr. Bickmore, however, believes that at Foochow and about the mouth of the river Min, there is an area which has for some time been slowly sub- siding, presenting a remarkable exception to the general rule. In the same number of that Journal is a paper by Mr. E. Andrews, on the Localities of Human Antiquities at Abbeville, Amiens, and Villeneuve, in which he advocates the theory that the annual rainfall at the period when the gravel was being deposited was immensely ereater than it is at present; and that the time required for the deposition of the gravel was proportionately short, in consequence of the rapidity of the accumulation. It will be seen presently that Mr. Tylor has, in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,’ advocated the theory of a Pluvial Period at the epoch treated of by Mr. Andrews. Professor G. Seguenza has a note in the ‘Atti della Societa Italiani di Scienzi Naturali’} on the Middle Cretaceous deposits of central Italy, in which he shows their complete correspondence with the Cretaceous rocks of Algeria belonging to the zone of Ammo- nites Rothomagensis. The geological conditions are stated to be precisely similar ; and in a list of forty-four species of Italian fossils, forty-three are indicated as occurring also in the African formation. Professor Seguenza, therefore, seems perfectly justified im con- cluding that the Middle Cretaceous sea extended from Central Italy to the Province of Constantine. The ‘Geological Magazine’ for the quarter has been charac- terized by many valuable papers. The contents of the March number include a reply to Dr. Sterry Hunt’s views on Chemical Geology, by Mr. David Forbes; a descriptive paper on the Geo- * Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xxiv., p. 736. + ‘‘Quadrupeds ” in the title. t Vol. x., fase. 2, p. 225. 1868. ] Geology and Palzontology. 409 logy of Charnwood Forest, which possesses considerable additional interest on account of its having been written by the late Rev. Baden Powell; the conclusion of Mr. Carruthers’s admirable revision of British Graptolites; and some other articles and translations of value. In the April number, Mr. Carruthers describes some British Fossil, Pandanex, or “Screw Pines,” from the Inferior and Great Oolite and the Potton Sands. This group of Pines at the present day inhabits the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the Old World. The other papers include a useful description of the Gault of Folke- stone, by Mr. De Rance, and the commencement of a valuable account of the Fossil Insects of North America, by Mr. Scudder. The last-mentioned paper is concluded in the May number, and from it we learn that 87 species of fossil insects have been discovered in North America. The Diptera (45), Hemiptera (6), Hymenop- tera (3), and Lepidoptera (2), omitting one doubtful Carboniferous species, are restricted to the Tertiaries, as also are the Coleoptera (10), except one species from the Trias. The Orthoptera and Neuroptera (together numbering 18 species) are, the former Car- boniferous, and the latter Carboniferous and Devonian, while the Myriapoda (2) are also Carboniferous. Professor Huxley describes in the May number two new South African fossil reptiles, and there are several other articles of interest, especially one on Clacton, in Essex, by the Rev. Osmond Fisher. PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. A large portion of the last ‘Quarterly Journal’ is occupied by the Annual Report and the Anniversary Address of the President (Mr. Warington W. Smyth). The latter includes notices of a variety of recent researches—especially on the origin of crystalline rocks, and on the geology of the Alps—and of the latest results of various geological surveys; but it is mainly occupied with discussions of three very interesting subjects, namely: (1) the physical structure of Palestine; (2) the climate of the earth’s surface during past geological periods ; and (3) the temperature of the earth’s crust at great depths below the surface. On the first subject we must draw attention to Mr. Smyth’s able summing up of the arguments relating to the origin of the Dead Sea depression. So impartially does he weigh the evidence, and state the various conclusions which it has suggested, that it is diffi- cult to ascertain his own convictions on the subject. It seems probable, however, that he favours the view suggested first by Hitchcock and adopted by Lartét, “that a fault or dislocation takes 2F 2 410 Chronicles of Science. [ July, its course along the line of the valley, having a heavy downthrow to the west, and that, in fact, the present depression was produced by a relative descent of the eastern side of the hill-district of Judea during the movements that raised the entire land from the sea.” The change in the surface-level of the Dead Sea, and the specula- tions on the causes which have contributed to lessen the volume of its waters, lead Mr. Smyth by an easy step to a discussion of the numerous facts which prove oscillations of climate during past geological periods, and to an examination of the theories which have been advanced in explanation of the phenomena of the Glacial Period in countries which now enjoy a comparatively warm climate ; and of a sub-tropical climate in Miocene times in regions which lie within the frigid zone of the Recent period. Considerable attention is given by the President to the familiar theory of the Swiss geo- logists, that the comparatively shrunken condition of the existing glaciers is due to the hot blast (called the Fohn or Scirocco) which keeps the snows and glaciers in check at the present day having its origin in the African deserts, while during the Glacial period this wind did not prevail in consequence of the deserts having then been submerged. It has, however, been shown by Professor Dove that the great bulk of the winds which descend hot, and full of moisture, on the Alpine regions has ascended from land and ocean far to the west of Africa. ‘The inconclusiveness of the Swiss theory has also been illustrated on other grounds by Sir Charles Lyell, who has, in this connection, called attention to the fact that the sea of the North African deserts continued to exist in Post-tertiary times. The possession, during the Miocene period, of a sub-tropical climate by the region of North Greenland, between the parallels of 70° and 80° N., is even more difficult of solution, as at present it is generally allowed that changes in physical geography are, alone, insufficient to produce the effect, while the probable results of cos- mical changes are at present but slightly understood by geologists. With respect to subterranean temperatures, Mr. Smyth gives an interesting summary of the principal facts and opinions, and succeeds in producing the impression that all existing theories on the subject are somewhat premature; but he most happily describes the efforts, successes, and failures of geologists in comparing them to the incidents in a voyage of discovery. “The region we make for is one of vast extent ; and we sail on various courses and in very different varieties of craft. Some of us push rapidly forward in fast clippers ; others cleave their way slowly, and yet not always surely.” Of the papers contained in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Society, we must first notice that by Sir John Lubbock, “On the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy,” in which the author objects to the commonly received opinion that these roads are the beaches, in the ordinary sense of the 1868. | Geology and Palzxontology. 411 term, of an ancient lake or arm of the sea. Sir John regards the roads as having been formed by material which fell from the hill- side above the lake to lower levels beneath the water, until at the water-level a shelf was formed. He regards the loose material on the hill-side as lying at the angle of repose, so that all accessions would roll into the water and be arranged beneath it at the same angle. The width and slope of the roads would thus be dependent on each other, and would be determined by the depth to which the water was affected by waves. “In fact the lower level of the roads marks the lower edge of the disturbed water, just as their upper edge coincides with its upper edge. We thus see why the three shelves are so similar in size, and also why their width is least when their inclination is greatest.” Mr. Tylor’s paper ‘On the Amiens Gravel” is an attempt to dis- prove the well-known conclusions of Mr. Prestwich respecting the relative age of Quaternary deposits, and the date and manner of the excavation of the valleys on the sides of which they rest. The Amiens gravel is selected for this paper because, probably, it yields a typical example, and one to which a large amount of attention has been drawn. Mr. Tylor’s principal conclusions are, (1) that the surface of the chalk had assumed its present form prior to the depo- sition of any of the gravel or loess now seen resting upon it; and (2) that the Quaternary deposits indicate a Pluvial period, just as the Northern drift indicates a Glacial. Dr. Nicholson’s paper “On the Graptolites of the Skiddaw Series” is a contribution to descriptive Paleontology of a very use- ful kind, but, as recent criticisms appear to indicate, of somewhat debateable value. The scope of the elaborate paper “On the Glacial and Post- glacial Structure of Lincolnshire and South-east Yorkshire,” by Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun., and the Rey. J. L. Rome, is difficult to chronicle. It is a description of local phenomena, and an attempt to assign to them the causes by which they may conceivably have been produced. On two points, however, it possesses a more gene- ral interest, namely, (1) in the separation of the Boulder-clay of Hessle from the true Boulder-clay of the eastern counties, and from the purple clay which in the district under consideration overlies it, and in the determination of the younger age of the first-named deposit than the true Boulder-clay ; and (2) in the assignment of the so-called “ Bridlington Crag” to an horizon included within the limits of the “purple clay.” We are glad to learn from the Annual Report that the Society continues in a flourishing condition, no less than sixty-two new Fellows having been elected during last year, amongst the names of whom we notice those of Earl de Grey and Ripon, Mr. R. H. Scott, 412 Chronicles of Science. [July, Director of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, Mr. A. W. Franks, Keeper of the Antiquities in the British Museum, and Mr. W. Carruthers. Mr. Warington Smyth has been succeeded as President by Professor Huxley. 9. METALLURGY AND MINING. METALLURGY. Mr. C. W. Sremens has recently communicated to the Chemical. Society a paper “On the regenerative Gas-furnace as applied to the production of Steel.” Although the question relates more strictly to chemistry, we refer to it in this place for the purpose of directing the attention of those who are at all interested in Metallurgy to the curious facts stated as to the power of tungsten in giving hardness to steel, and in enabling it to receive and retain the mag- netic force. The regenerative gas-furnace was of course fully described, and its advantages in many processes especially pointed out. Ever and anon the combination of wolfram with iron, or more correctly speaking of tungsten and iron, claims our attention. The following extracts from a report on its use in Germany, which has been published by A. Keiffenheim and Co., may be worthy of atten- tion :— The pulverized wolfram ore is weighed off for each raw iron charge in a quantity corresponding with the intrinsic percentage which it is thought desirable to allow. This quantity is mixed with one pound of powdered manganese, and half-a-pound of salt, and the mixture is put into bags. The raw iron charge is smelted in the puddling-furnace, and after a strong heat begins to develop and ascend; the bags con- taining the alloy are to be pressed one after the other, and, at short intervals, into the liquid mass, and at the same time the puddler must quickly stir up the whole mass with the raker, in order that the alloy may be equally distributed throughout. Such is the general description of the process. This wolfram iron is said to be remarkable for toughness and strength. If it be so, we shall soon hear more of it. Large quantities of wolfram have been obtained from the Kit Hill and Drake Walls mines in the neighbourhood of Callington. At one time the combination of tin ore and wolfram was treated by a process patented by Mr. Oxland, but worked by M. Jacob at Drake Walls, and the tungsten, as tungstate of soda, preserved. The 1868. | Metallurgy and Mining. 413 demand for tungsten falling off, this process has been abandoned. Experiments are now in progress at East Pool mine, near Redruth in Cornwall, for separating the wolfram from the tin, the worth of which it considerably lowers, and it is hoped that the value of tung- sten as an alloy with iron or steel may render the results profitable. A considerable improvement has been made in the extraction of sulphur from its ores in Italy. It has usually been sublimed by different, but in all cases by wasteful processes. The new process is as follows :—A vessel made of boiler plate, in the form of a trun- cated cone, is filled with the ore of sulphur. There is a grating at the bottom to prevent the ore from falling through into the receiver, and under this a strainer of sheet-iron pierced with small holes. Up the centre,—passing from top to bottom,—is a pipe communicating with a steam boiler, which pipe is perforated with small holes. The vessel containing the ore is carefully closed, the steam is turned on, and issuing from the perforated pipe, it finds its way amidst the ore. In the course of a short time the sulphur melts, becoming very liquid it flows through the grate and the strainer into the receiver, in which it is kept in a liquid state until all the ore in the vessel is exhausted; it is then run off into moulds. An apparatus of this kind has been put up at the Elvetica Iron Works, and the saving in time—and therefore of money—is very great. The production of sulphur appears to be increased from 20 per cent.—the quantity obtained by the old processes—to 37} per cent. by the new one. One of the largest blast-furnaces in Europe was blown in re- cently at Ferry Hill, Durham. Two furnaces have been built, 105 feet in height, and 28 feet diameter, blown by four powerful blast-engines. The experiment appears to have been most successful ; and if it continues to prove so, the problem of monster furnaces would appear to be solved. The manufacture of the metal aluminium has entirely ceased in this country, the works which were established at Washington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, having been stopped. Aluminium bronze is, however, still made in small quantities. The ‘American Artizan’ informs us of a new process for making this beautiful alloy, which offers some advantages over the original process. Mr. Evrard, to whom this new process is due, uses pig-iron containing aluminium : this is slowly heated to fusion, and copper is added to the melted mags. After the mixture has been well stirred together, it is allowed to cool very slowly, when the aluminium bronze settles at the bottom of the crucible, it being much denser than iron. A similar process is said to have been adopted for the separation of silicium from iron, the affinity of copper for silictum being ex- ceedingly energetic. 414 Chronicles of Science. [July Minine. About a year since the Peruvian Government sent out an expe- dition to explore the northern parts of that country, about the rivers Maranow and Morona, which are tributaries to the Amazon. A Government steamer was employed under the command of a Major Vargas. An official report has been recently issued. This shows that gold exists in great quantities in the region through which the expedition passed. It is affirmed that an Indian using the ordinary gold-washing bowl could gather several ounccs in two or three hours. That gold exists in the alluvial deposits in these parts there is no doubt, but the quantity said to be obtained is open to many doubts. Dr. Gustay Tschermak read before the Imperial Geological Institute a very complete account of the gold mines of Transylvania. It appears that the precious metal is found disseminated in almost imperceptible particles in the trachytic rocks in the environs of Falathna and D’Abrud Banya, where it is still worked by the most primitive methods. There are 300 families or partnerships, consist- img each of three individuals or thereabouts. A thousand quintals of the rock yield about 8,500 grains of pale-yellow gold, which con- tain a little silver. The rolled débris of the crystalline rocks found in the valley of lAranyos is carefully washed, and yields about half an ounce of gold to 31,000 quintals of stuff. This gold is of a deeper colour and contains less silver. They also find gold in a peculiar freestone (Carpathiques bocardes), which is of a pale colour, like that found in the trachytes. The gold mines of Transylvania have been worked from the earliest historic times, yet they still fur- nish above 2,000 lbs. avoirdupoise annually. Chevalier C. von Hauer, of the Austrian Geological Survey, thus describes the emery of Asia Minor :—There are four beds of emery known in Asia Minor, that of Scalanuova, worked by an English commercial house, which furnishes alone all the demands of the Liverpool market. That of Tira, worked by a Turk, abundant, but of inferior quality, having in two or three years sent to England from 40,000 to 50,000 quintals (2,240,000 to 2,800,000 kilo- grammes); that of Djelat-Kaffé, only recently opened ; and, lastly, that of Gamlik, in the neighbourhood of the sea of Marmora, still little known. The emery of Naxos, of which the Government reserves the monopoly, is supposed to be of a superior quality to any other. The emery beds of the province of Smyrna have not been geologically explored. All that we can say of itis, that this mineral is found in compact masses, above the granite, and is traversed here and there by veins of this rock. It is worked without method. The greatest part of the produce is sent to Liverpool as it comes © out of the mine, to be prepared and reduced to the form of powder 1868. ] Metallurgy and Mining. 415 more or less fine. The analysis of the samples sent to the Imperial Geological Institute, has proved in a hundred parts to be— era ee tts ot Oe AUMINAN ee Meee Na cee g ae) ces SONU P Gudnopnonta och et. ee eLy, egy tee Water ee a St) a CORE ETteel Pee so Beet 0:7 The quality of emery is improved in proportion to the larger quantity of alumina it contains, and the smaller quantity of silica. That of the first quality contains only from 2 to 9 per cent. of silica ; that of Asia Minor contains between 60 and 77 per cent. of alumina, and between 6 and 33 per cent. of oxide of iron. The Coal-field of Johusdorfk (Styria), which was acquired by the State im 1842, is worked for a bed of Tertiary coal, and opened length- wise to the extent of 3,000 fathoms (5,688 kilometres). It consists of 23 grants, on a surface of 288,805 square fathoms, and on an extent of 1,500 fathoms (2,644 kilometres) in length, in the direc- tion of the bed. The working is carried on partly by open workings and partly by pillars; the carelessness and want of method with which the ancient proprietors proceeded have caused considerable losses of coal by subterranean fires, whose ravages cannot be stopped, except by expensive means, which also interfere with the regular working. In each of the two principal shafts there is a steam engine of 20-horse power, used as much for the exhaustion of the water as for the extraction of coal. The annual production is about 460,000 quintals (a quintal equals 56 kilogrammes), of which 80 per cent. are consumed by the iron forges of the neighbourhood. The workings employ 250 workmen, lodged in houses belonging to the State, who are treated in a special infirmary in cases of illness or accident. In 1866 the treasury for mutual assistance possessed a sum of 30,000 florins. (M. A. Pallausch, ‘Imperial Geological Institute, sitting of the 31st March, 1868.) The Austrian Geological Survey—chiefly by M. Foetterle and M. von Hauer—have prepared a map of the coal-fields of the Austrian empire, which has many novelties im its construction. In addition to the ordinary geological colouring, the annual coal produce of each locality is indicated by differently coloured squares ; and lines of the same colour traced along the lines of railway, canals, and navigable rivers show the distribution of the coal at a single glance. The total annual production of coal in the Austrian empire is according to this, the most recent authority, 80,000,000 quintals, about 9,000,000 statute tons. The boring-machine put into Tincroft Mine, near Camborne, Cornwall, by Mr. Déhring, some two or three months since, is answering well. It is found to work economically, and, under the guidance of two ordinary miners, the end is driven with great faci- lity and small cost. General Haupt’s machine, which is a drilling- 416 Chronicles of Science. [July, machine, is now adapted to mining and tunnelling with advantage; and one of those machines is employed in an open quarry, doing its work well and with economy. The legislature of Massachusetts have asked General Haupt to take charge of the Hosaic Tunnel. Mr. Lowe’s boring-machine is reported on as doing good work in Australia. We have consequently three machines competing with each other, and proving their relative values under different cir- cumstances. We hope to see those machines employed ere long in our mines, to relieve the miners from the most trying part of their labour. 10. MINERALOGY. Is it desirable that the mineralogist should cast aside all those long- established formulae by which he expresses the chemical composition of his mineral-species, and introduce in their stead a new set of formule, written in accordance with the advanced views of our modern chemists? Such is the question which Professor von Kobell discusses in a short but interesting paper “On Typical and Empirical Formule in Mineralogy.”* Typical formule, we need hardly say, are those in which certain compounds (such as hydro- chloric acid, water, and ammonia) are taken as general types, from which other bodies may be derived by replacing their constituents, according to definite laws, by other elements or by groups of elements called radicals. To illustrate the application of this type- theory to express the constitution of minerals, our author selects the double silicate of potash and alumina, called Jeucite. The com- position of this species we are accustomed to represent by the following formula : KO, Si O, + Al, O,, 3 Si O2. But behold the aspect which our formula assumes when written on the type-theory : It may be necessary to remind those of our readers who have not kept pace with the advance of modern chemistry, that such an expression simply means that the mineral in question may be regarded as formed on the water-type, and that the 24 atoms of * ‘Journal fiir praktische Chemie,’ 1868, p. 159. 1868. | Mineralogy. 417 hydrogen in 12 molecules of water (H,O) have been replaced by 4 atoms of tetratomic silicon, 1 atom of hexatomic aluminium, and 2 atoms of monatomic potassium. But although this mode of representing the constitution of chemical compounds has been of eminent service in organic chemistry, it would seem, even from this single illustration, that it is by no means of equal value in mineral chemistry. From this consideration of typical formule, we turn to the second question discussed in Von Kobell’s paper. At the present time the mineralogist endeavours to express the manner in which the constituent elements may be grouped together in any given mineral, by what is termed a rational formula. Many chemists, however, would have us confess our ignorance of this mode of grouping, and would simply write the elements side by side, with- out regard to the manner in which they may be associated: such formule are said to be empirical. Thus, the antimonial sulphide of lead called plagionite, has a rational formula, as follows :—4 Pb S-+3 Sb §,; an expression which plainly shows that the mineral is composed of 4 molecules of galena and 3 of antimonite. The would-be innovator objects, however, to this theory, and gives us therefore an empirical formula written in this fashion: Pb, Sb, 8::. From such examples as these, Von Kobell concludes that there is no necessity, at present, for supplanting our old-fashioned expres- sions either by typical or by empirical formulee—a conclusion by no means distasteful to so conservative a creature as the mineralogist. “ Agates, I think, of all stones, confess most of their past history.” Such are the words of Mr. Ruskin in his pleasing little work, ‘The Ethics of the Dust ;’ and under this belief he has, of late, set himself the task of studying their history, and interpreting it to the readers of the ‘Geological Magazine.* In one paper he describes a group of agate-like structures which he calls “ Dipartite Jaspers,” and in a second communication notices the class of “ Folded Agates,” while he hints that other papers are forthcoming on “Mural Agates” and “Involute Agates.” Certainly the most attractive features of these articles are the admirable tinted engray- ings by which they are illustrated. It has always been a moot-point whether the peculiar markings observable in the so-called moss-agates and Mocha stones are truly of organic origin. As bearing upon this point, we call attention to a subject recently brought before the Chemical Society by Mr. W. C. Roberts.t Certain specimens of colloid silica prepared in Graham’s dialyser, and evaporated in air, exhibited singular den- * © Geological Magazine,’ April, 1868, p. 156; May, p. 208. + ‘Chemical News,’ April 10, 1868, p. 175; April 24, p. 195. 418 Chronicles of Science. [July, dritic forms which, under the microscope, were found to consist of radiating fibres having a cellular structure. These were evidently low vegetable organisms developed from spores which were deposited _ from the atmosphere, since similar specimens dried in vacuo were destitute of such appearances. It is possible, then, that vegetable life may be developed in siliceous solutions during solidification. Mr. David Forbes has published the second part of his “ Re- searches in British Mineralogy.” * In this paper he describes the occurrence of a sulphide of iron and nickel—probably a nickel- liferous pyrrhotine—near Inverary Castle, in Argyleshire, and also at the Craigmuir nickel-mine, near Inverary. Our author calls attention to the tendency of nickel to associate itself with pyrrho- tine or magnetic pyrites; whilst the allied metal, cobalt, prefers association with the ordinary iron pyrites. The same paper contains a notice of an arsenio-sulphide of nickel, referred to the species Gersdorfite, also found in the Craigmuir nickel-mine. An abstract of both the first and second parts of Mr. Forbes’s “Researches” will be found in the ‘Geological Magazine.’} The exceedingly rare arseniate of copper called Cornwallite has been lately examined by Professor Church, who shows that the mineral contains only two equivalents of combined water, instead of five, as hitherto supposed. Its amended formula is thus given,{ using of course the new equivalents :— Cu, 2 As O,, 2 Cu H, O,, aq. At length mineralogists are beginning to recognize the value of the microscope as an aid in their investigations. Herr Zirkel, whose name must be familiar to every geologist in connection with his admirable ‘ Petrographie,’ has recently laid before the German Geo- logical Society his researches “On the Microscopic Structure of Leucite, and the Composition of Leucite-bearing Rocks.”§ Many erystals of this mineral exhibit, on section, a number of included glass-like particles and acicular bodies, either accumulated in the centre or symmetrically distributed around the margin of the crystal. The use of polarized light reveals a beautiful system of alternate dark and light lines, bearing a relation to the micro-lamellar struc- ture of the mineral. In a paper on the Basaltic Rocks of the Lower Main Valley, Herr Hornstein describes a new mineral to be called Nigrescite. | It occurs in the anamesite of Stemmheim near Hanau, and may pos- * ‘Philosophical Magazine,’ No. 236, p. 171. + May, 1868, p. 222. t ‘Chemical News,’ April 10, p. 175. § ‘ Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesell.’ Bd. xx., Hft. 1, p. 97. \| ‘Zeitsch. d. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell.’ Bd. xix., p. 342; ‘Neues Jahrb. f. Mine- yalogie, 1868, Heft 2, p. 202. 1868. ] Mineralogy. 419 sibly be only an altered form of olivine. Its composition is thus given :— SHEED Sha aa? Wea che Body shat cbs aon ued) Alumina sed RAS. 1 cme Sah wescaew ey le carl! Thrigte es. MEA ace nese eae ease ote OO Wiaeheria Wise s20h ool leech) sade ll ETotoxideOlITOngg |i dest Well esas ge LO 5 OLMBNPRNERO, wen, vcs) 4g cence Leo Water heres Seat, PS Pe Pee 100°36 Professor Hermann has again directed his attention to the study of the rare mineral Colwmbite.* He shows that the metal tantalium is present in this mineral in the state of tantalic acid (Ta, O ), and may therefore be replaced by the corresponding acids of niobium and ilmenium. Hence he establishes for columbite the general formula, RO, R, O,, where RO represents the protoxides of iron and manganese, whilst R, O, represents tantalic, niobic, and ilmenic acids. The Swedish mineralogist, Igelstrém, describes a new species from the iron mines of Langban, in Wermland.t From the manner in which it is disseminated through the matrix, he proposes to call it Kataspilite. It may perhaps turn out to be an altered variety of cordierite, with which it agrees in crystalline form. Its composition will be seen from the following analysis :— Silicays tse Ueonase ie eer ee Les mas eee 2000 Alumina and peroxide ofiron .. .. .. 28°95 emer att Ruta tee Eee deca icces ike ESSN ais Fsiaad sa\veieeilh axe, Oeoy, ata toe EO Pina ets Ove i a may ce oa BGGAe. toes Yepa oe, tga fetta Mae eee gaa pia) Pane wad ict ean: pee Rai, oe te 100°00 An elaborate study of the optical characters of the minerals Harmotome and Wohlerite has led M. Des Cloiseaux to the con- clusion that the crystalline forms of these species must be referred to the oblique system, and not to the rhombic system, as previously imagined. Professor Rammelsberg has been engaged in investigating the chemical composition of prehnite, talc, steatite, and chlorite; but his researches are not of general interest.§ On the 30th January of the present year a remarkable shower of meteoric stones fell at Sielce and Gostkow, near Pultusk, in Poland. Several of these stones are now in the British Museum. Externally * «Journ. f. prakt. Chemie,’ 1868, p. 127. + ‘Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral,’ 1868, Heft 2, p. 203. ¢ ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ vol. xvi., No. 101, p.319; ‘Phil. Mag.,’ June, 1868, p. 461. § ‘Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell.” Bd. xx., p. 79, 82. 420 Chronicles of Science. [ July, they are covered with a dull dark-coloured crust, whilst internally they exhibit a bluish-grey colour, somewhat resembling the well- known meteorites of L’Aigle, in France.* In spite of the value and variety of our British minerals, we have hitherto been without any work treating specially of their geo- graphical distribution. Mr. Hall has therefore rendered a service to our science by collecting and arranging the principal mineral localities in Britain, and publishing them in the shape of a ‘ Direc- tory. + The topographical portion of the work is preceded by an alphabetical list of our 246 British species and sub-species, showing the percentage composition of each. The localities are arranged under their respective counties, and when possible the geological position of each mineral is noticed. Nothing would be easier, were we so disposed, than to poimt out numerous omissions and errors ; but we refrain from doing this, under the belief that it would be wrong to seek perfection in the first edition of a work of reference of this character. The continuation of Kenngott’s ‘ Forschungen,’ noticed in the Chronicles of last quarter,{ has since been published in the shape of a bulky octavo,§ and the compiler turns out to be Dr. Kenngott himself. Dr. Schrauf, of Vienna, has lately given us the second volume of his elaborate work on Physical Mineralogy,|| the earlier volume of which has already been noticed in this Journal.{] Tridymite is the name which Yom Rath proposes for a new Mexican mineral which promises to become of considerable interest ; but as only a short preliminary notice has yet been published, we defer our description until we are in possession of further details.** 11. PHYSICS. Arter a long series of experiments, Baron von Liebig has finally adopted the following process for silvering glass for optical purposes. The solutions employed are:—I. One part of fused argentic nitrate dissolved in 10 of water; II. (a) Commercial nitric acid, free from * «Pogeendorf’s Annalen,’ 1868, No. 2, p. 351; ‘Geol. Mag.” May, p. 248. + ‘The Mineralogist’s Directory; or a Guide to the principal Mineral Locali- ties in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.’ By Townsend M, Hall, F.G.S.. London: 1868. 8vo, pp. 168. } P. 256. § ‘ Uebersicht der Resultate Mineralogischer Forschungen in den Jahren. 1862-65,’ entworfen von Dr. Adolf Kenngott. Leipzig: 1868. 8vo, pp. 482. || ‘Lehrbuch der physikalischen Mineralogie,’ von Dr. Albrecht Schrauf. II. Band. ‘Lehrbuch der angewandten Physik der Krystalle. Vienna; 1868. 8yo, pp. 426. { Quart. Journ. Sc., vol. iii., p. 293. ** «Pogo, Ann.,’ 1868, No. 3, p. 507; ‘Geol. Mag.,’ June, p. 281, 1868. | ois Physies. 421 chlorine, neutralized with ammonic sesquicarbonate, and diluted to sp. gr. 1:115; or (b) 242 gr. ammonic sulphate dissolved in 1,200 c.c. water (sp. gr. 1°105 to 1:106) ; III. Solution of sodic hydrate sp. gr. 1:050 prepared from sodic carbonate, free from chlorine ; IV. 50 grm. white sugar candy dissolved in little water, 3:1 gr. tartaric acid added, the mixture kept boiling for one hour, and diluted to 500 cc.; V. 2°857 gr. dry cupric tartrate, covered over with water, and solution of sodic hydrate gradually added till solu- tion has taken place, and the volume made up to 500 cc. These solutions are mixed in the following proportions :—Ist, 14 vol. of L., 10 vol. of IL., and 75 vol. of III., = 99 vol. of (A) silvering solution ; 2nd, 1 vol. of IV., 1 vol. of V., and 8 vol. of water = 10 vol. of (B) reducing solution. The silvering mixture is then made by diluting 50 vol. of the silvering solution (A) with from 250 to 300 vol. of water, and adding 10 vol. of the reducing solution (B). If ammonic sulphate has been employed for solution (A), the liquid, after mix- ing the three ingredients, must be allowed to stand three days before being used; the clear liquor may then be drawn off. Professor Draper of New York, who has also paid great attention to this subject, recommends the following process as being very suc- cessful for silvering glass mirrors. He divides the process into five operations, viz. the cleaning of the glass, the preparation of the sil- vering solution, the warming of the glass, the process of silvering, and the polishing. (The description is for a 15}-inch mirror.) 1. Rub the glass plate thoroughly with aquafortis, and then wash it with plenty of water and set it on edge on filtering paper to dry ; then cover it with a mixture of alcohol and prepared chalk, and rub it in succession with cotton flannel. 2. Dissolve 560 grains of Rochelle salt (tartrate of soda and potassa) in 2 or 8 ounces of water and filter ; dis- solve 800 grains of nitrate of silver in 4 ounces of water. Take an ounce of strong ammonia of commerce and add nitrate solution to it until a brown precipitate remains undissolved. Then add more am- monia and again nitrate of silver solution. This alternate addition is to be carefully continued until the silver solution is exhausted, when some of the brown precipitate should remain in suspension. Filter. Just before using, mix the Rochelle salt and add water enough to make 22 ounces. The vessel in which the silvering is to be performed should be a circular dish of ordinary tin plate, and coated with a mixture of equal parts of beeswax and rosin. At opposite ends of one diameter two narrow pieces of wood are cemented to keep the face of the mirror from the bottom of the vessel. 3. The glass is slightly warmed by putting it in a tub or other suitable vessel and pouring in tepid water to cover the glass; then hot water is gra- dually stirred in. 4. Carry the glass to the silvering vessel, into which the silvering solution has been poured, place the whole appa- ratus before the window, and keep up a slow rocking motion. Leave 422 Chronicles of Science. [July, the mirror in the liquid twenty minutes or half-an-hour, and wash with plenty of water. 5. When the mirror is perfectly dry, take a piece of the softest buckskin, stuff it with cotton, and go gently over the whole silver surface to condense the silver. ‘The best stroke is a motion in small circles; rub an hour. The thickness of the silver thus obtained is about 1-200,000th of an inch. Dr. W. M. Watts, who has been occupied for some years in the spectral examination of the Bessemer flame, has collected together some of his most important results. The changes which take place in the spectrum from the commencement of the blow to its termina- tion are extremely interesting. When the blast is first turned on, Dr. Watts says that nothing is seen but a continuous spectrum. In three or four minutes the sodium line appears flashing through the spectrum and then becoming continuously visible; gradually an immense number of lines become visible, some as fine bright lines, others as intensely dark bands; and these increase in intensity until the conclusion of the operation. ‘The cessation of the removal of carbon from the iron is strikingly evidenced by the disappearance of nearly all the dark lines and most of the bright ones. The spectrum is remarkable from the total absence of lines in the more refrangible portion; it extends scarcely beyond the solar line b. The occurrence of absorptcon-lines in the Bessemer-spectrum is in itself extremely probable; and that this is the case appears almost proved by the great intensity of some of the dark lines of the spectrum. It was with this view that the investigation was commenced, with the expectation that the spectrum would prove to be a compound one, in which the lines of iron, carbon, or carbonic oxide, &c., would be found, some as bright lines, others reversed as dark absorption-bands. ‘To a certain extent this anticipation has been verified; but the great mass of the lines, including the brightest in the whole spectrum, have not as yet been identified. In dealing with a complicated spectrum like that of the Bes- semer-flame, it is indispensable that the spectrum should be actually compared with each separate spectrum of the elements sought. The coincidences observed were, however, but very few, and totally failed to explain the nature of the Bessemer-spectrum. The lines of the well-known carbon-spectrum do not occur at all, either as bright lines or as absorption-bands; nor was any coincidence observed between the lines of the Bessemer-spectrum and those of the carbonic-oxide vacuum tube. The lines of lithium, sodium, and potassium are always seen, and are unmistakable. ‘Three bright lines have been recognized as due to iron. The red band of hydrogen is seen as a black band, more prominent in wet weather. 1868. | Physics. 423 After the charge of iron has been blown, it is run into the ladle, and a certain quantity of the highly carbonized spregelezsen is run into it. The effect of the addition of the spiegeleisen is the produc- tion of a flame which is larger and stronger when the blow has been carried rather far. This flame occasionally gives the same spectrum as the ordinary Bessemer-flame; but more commonly a quite dif- ferent spectrum is seen, which reminds one at first of the ordinary carbon-spectrum, but differs from it very remarkably. In the carbon-spectrum each group of lines has its strongest member on the left (¢.e. less refrangible), and fades gradually away towards the right hand: in the spectrum of the spiegel-flame the reverse is the case ; each group has its brightest line most refrangible, and fades away into darkness on the least refracted side. A compa- rison of the drawing of the spectrum of the spiegel-flame with that of the Bessemer-flame will show that they really contain the same lines; but the general appearance of the spectrum is completely changed by alteration of the relative brightness of the lines. This was shown by direct comparison of the actual spectra. Dr. Watts concludes his paper by saying:—There can be no - doubt that the principal lines of the Bessemer-spectrum are due to carbon in some form or other. My own belief is that they are due to incandescent carbon-vapour. The experiments in which I am at present engaged have already shown the existence of two totally dif- ferent spectra, each capable of considerable modification (consisting in the addition of new lines) corresponding to alterations in the tem- perature or mode of producing the spectrum, and each due to incan- descent carbon. It is possible that the Bessemer-spectrum may prove to be a third spectrum of carbon, produced under different circumstances from those under which the ordinary carbon-spectrum is obtained; and the intensity of the dark bands is more probably due to contrast with the extreme brilliancy of the bright lines, than to their actual formation by absorption. At one of the recent meetings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, Mr. Dancer made some remarks on crystals containing fluid. The author has examined a large number of crystals of various kinds, from the collections of friends; and has found fluid in quartz from South America, Norway, the Alps, Ireland, Snowdon, and the Isle of Man; and in fluor-spar from Derbyshire ; this latter specimen contained a considerable quantity of fluid, which burst the crystal at 180° F. He suggests the employment of the microscope as a valuable assistance in detect- ing spurious from real gems; very few of the latter are perfect, and the flaws and cavities are so distinct in character from those which are so abundant generally in artificial gems that very little experience is sufficient for the purpose. This mode of testing, of VOL. V. 2G 424 Chronicles of Science. [July, course, is limited to transparent crystals, but might be employed when the usual methods are not practicable. At the conclusion of the meeting, crystals containing fluid were exhibited under the mi- croscopes, and the expansion of the fluid by elevating the tempera- ture of the crystal whilst under examination. Heat.—The intense heat of the voltaic arc has been utilized by M. Le Roux for increasing the amount of light emitted by the incandescent carbon poles. By placing the base of a cylinder of magnesia, about eight millimetres in diameter, at a little distance from the carbon points, so that the are may just touch it, the mag- nesia acquires a degree of incandescence comparable to that part in the bordering carbon craters. At the same time the light acquires a remarkable degree of constancy. M. P. Pellogio has described a contrivance by means of which the troublesome “ bumping” peculiar to certain liquids when under distillation may be entirely prevented. It consists of a glass tube, as wide as practicable, inserted through the tubulus, and reaching nearly to the bottom of the retort, and having the upper end bent at a right angle, and drawn out to nearly capillary dimensions, thus establishing a communication between the outer air and the interior of the retort. With the help of this arrangement such liquids as methylic alcohol, sulphuric acid, petroleum residues, &c., distil as smoothly as alcohol or water. A memoir on the physical properties and the calorific power of petroleum and mineral oils has been brought before the Academy of Sciences by M. Deville. The mineral oil was submitted to dis- tillation in a copper alembic furnished with a long worm tube, and also with a thermometer. By means of this apparatus the amount of distillate passing over at various temperatures was - estimated. The possible danger by explosion was measured by the proportion distilling below 140°. The same experimental fact represents as well the loss which must be sustained to remove the explosive property of theoil. Another danger is encountered when the oils are enclosed in air-tight vessels—explosion by dilation. The amount of space necessary to be left above a mineral oil is calculated from the co-efficient of dilation. The data M. Deville has obtained from each sample are drawn generally from the follow- ing determinations. Loss by heating to 100°, to 120°, and so on, by intervals of 20° up to 200°; this is expressed in percentages. Composition of the oil, ¢7.e. percentages of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, obtained by combustion. Density at zero, and at 50°, and co-efficient of dilation. Composition and density of the oil obtained by distillation, and density of the residue. In some cases the specific heat has been determined, and the latent heat at the mean 1868. ] Physics. 495 temperature. M. Deville’s memoir contains tables giving an im- mense number of experimental results; it is, however, only a first memoir ; more upon the subject will be brought before the Academy shortly. It may not be without interest to state that M. Deville has undertaken this research by command of the Emperor, to re- port upon the most advantageous arrangements to adopt for the economic and safe employment of mineral oils, with especial refer- ence to its use in transports. Exxctrictry.—The fabrication of porous carbon, for electrical purposes, engages the attention of no inconsiderable number of persons in the present day; this kind of carbon is made most advantageously by the following process:—A mixture of wood charcoal and animal charcoal is ground to a coarse powder, mixed with sawdust, and dried at a steam heat; as soon as the material is dried, and while still warm, 20 per cent. of tar is added. When cold a certain amount of asphaltum is added, and the mass pressed into moulds. The proportions in which the ingredients are used vary according to the circumstances. The moulded objects are placed in boxes of sheet iron, and covered all over with a mixture of sand and charcoal; afterwards they are heated on the sole of -a furnace. Gases which are disengaged during the operation are burnt in the furnace. The entire operation lasts about 24 hours. Careful attention is required during the calcination ; the properties of the carbon depend, in a great measure, upon the management of this part of the process. Some recent correspondence between the Trinity House and the Board of Trade shows that the electric light at Dungeness can now be worked by either of the two engines, so that no disturbance occurs when one requires repair. The services of the high-class engineers and firemen have been dispensed with, and the Elder Brethren have since been enabled to do that which the connection of the men with the trades union prevented—viz. to have their own ordinary keepers trained to drive the engines, as well as to attend to the lamps, a steady old experienced keeper being placed at the head of the establishment. The magneto-electric apparatus shown at the Paris Exhibition presented several improvements. The working by either of two machines showed that the power or the light can be duplicated in thick weather; and the engines were utilized for working the pumps of an air fog-trumpet. The electric light was compared with the flash of a first-order revolving oil apparatus belonging to the French authorities ; and at fifteen miles distance the Trinity House engineer, Mr. Douglass, estimated the power of the fixed electric light at twice that of the flash of the oil light. The superiority of penetrating power of the electric light in fog was shaken by some experiments made by the Royal 2a 2 426 Chronicles of Science. — [ July, Engineers, but it turned out that this result, so different from all other experience, arose from a settlement in the wood-work support- ing the electric lens, causing the lens to be out of its proper position. Since the alterations made at Dungeness the hight there has worked with great regularity and efficiency ; and the Elder Brethren have proposed to place similar lights at the South Foreland, Lowestoft, and Souter Pomt. The Board of Trade approve of the extension of this mode of illumination to the South Foreland and Lowestoft, but . at present suspend their decision respecting Souter Point. The Committee of Elder Brethren who attended at the Paris Exhibi- tion say :—As far as the eye is a test, the power of the English fixed light was considerably in excess of the French, and when both machines were in use, and there was a good current, the fixed beam of the English light did not contrast unfavourably with the revolving one of the French, the flash of which is of great power. The contrast of the electric fixed light with the French first-order oil dioptric revolving light was very marked: indeed, the one may be said to put the other out. But the most beautiful feature of the electric was the extraordinary beam it gave. It shone night after night, large, steady, and lustrous as a planet, and you could see in the darkness a beam passing as far as the eye could see. From the tower, with the light at our back, it was very marked, and quite lit the hills round Paris. The whole horizon in the plane of the light showed the white beam, and at the distance of four miles it shone upon the windows of some houses, making them appear to be lit up. By extinguishing, and relighting quickly several times, this was very plain. Altogether the light was very remarkable, and the committee are glad to be able to report such an advance as the powers of the light show over that at Dungeness; indeed, the latter gives to the observer no conception of what the present one is, and it is satisfactory to know that the result of five years’ work and observation, with imperfect and ill-arranged apparatus, has now borne such good fruit, and that as England was the first to test and adopt this adjunct to the sources of lighthouse illumination, so she still retains her superiority. It is due, however, to Mr. Holmes to say, that great as are the improvements already effected, he states that he is confident he can yet greatly increase the illu- minating power before the present apparatus is re-erected at a per- manent station, The following telegraphic feat, the particulars of which are taken from the ‘New York Journal of the Telegraph,’ deserves record here. At an early hour on the morning of February 1st, the wires of the Western Union Telegraph Company from San Francisco to Plaister Cove, Cape Breton and the wires of the New York Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company from Plaister Cove to Heart’s Con- 1868. . Zoology. 427 tent were connected, and a brisk conversation commenced between these two continental extremes. Compliments were then passed between San Francisco and Valentia, Ireland, when the latter an- nounced that a message was just then being received from London direct. This was said at 7.20 a.m., Valentia time, Feb. 1. At 7.21 a.m., Valentia time, the London message was started from Valentia for San Francisco; passed through New York at 2.35 a.m., New York time; was received in San Francisco at 11.21 p.m., San Francisco time, Jan. 31, and was at once acknowledged—the whole process occupying two minutes actual time, and the distance tra- versed being about 14,000 miles! Immediately after the trans- mission of the message referred to, the operator at San Francisco sent an eighty-word message to Heart’s Content in three minutes, which the operator at Heart's Content repeated back im two minutes and fifty seconds. Distance, about 5,000 miles. 12. ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. (Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London.) New Species of Ape.—lIt will be remembered that M. du Chaillu described a species of ape under the native name of Nshiego Mbouve, though zoologists were unwilling to accept it as a novelty, referring it to a variety of a known species. Dr. Slack of Philadelphia, how- ever, has described it, in a communication to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, as distinct from the Chimpanzee ; and says that a fine skeleton of an adult has been for some time in the Academy’s collection, and was until recently regarded as a chim- panzee. Duvernoy had previously decided in favour of its specific distinctiness. Dr. Slack’s description is, “ general colour black, sometimes grey in old age. Size, about equal to Anthropopithecus niger. Head, black and shining; chin of adult bearded. Lars, large, much larger than in the gorilla, though smaller than those of the chimpanzee. Inhabits the deep forests and table-lands of Equatorial Africa.” Acclimatization of Sparrows.—The sparrows introduced into Australia by the Acclimatization Society bid fair to become as great a nuisance as those of the south of England, which we hear of as being slaughtered by the thousand. The latest complaint against them is contained in a letter from the Rev. George Mackie of South Yarrow to the Melbourne Corporation, in which he complains of the excessive damage done to his fruit-trees in consequence of the 428 Chronicles of Sctence. [July, depredations of sparrows and similar birds, and asks permission to use a gun against them. Moa Skull.—A perfect Moa skull is said to have been found near Westport, near a prospector’s claim on the Caledonian Lead, at a depth of 25 feet from the surface, and embedded in clay that had no appearance of ever having been disturbed. The men who dis- covered it are now engaged in excavations, in the hope of finding the remainder of the skeleton. Disease in Grouse-—Dr. John Young, of Glasgow, has investi- gated this subject, and finds that nearly every bird he examined was affected with tape-worm, not, however, as the primary disease, but arising from peritoneal inflammation, which resulted in adhesion of the intestines and in perforation. He considered the disease as not arising from local causes, but from mal-nutrition, inducing an inhe- rited cachectic condition, which predisposed the young to suffer from temporary influences. Mr. Gray attributed great influence to over- protection—the annihilation of its natural enemies having allowed a greater number of sickly birds to survive; and thus a weaker race had sprung up where formerly only strong birds prevailed. Man’s interference thus disturbed the nice balance of nature, and the consequent evils followed. The Fauna of Palestine—The Rey. H. B. Tristram recently read a paper before the Royal Society upon the results of the Palestine Exploration, as regards the Fauna and Flora. An examination of the Fauna shows that it forms an extreme southern province of the Palearctic region, impinging upon the Ethiopian closely, and more distantly upon the Indian. The mammals point to an earlier settle- ment than that made across the recent deserts; there is no Indian immigration, and Hyrax Syriacus is an exclusively Ethiopian type. The birds are numerous and very irregularly distributed, the Dead Sea basin being distinct and typical, sometimes Indian, generally Ethiopian, in character, with no less than twenty-seven peculiar species. Among reptiles there is less intrusion of Ethiopian types, and snakes in particular are more limited to the original locality of the individuals. iver-fish are few in number but distinct. Most of the eighty-one species of land and fresh-water mollusca have no geographical significance ; the fresh-water being more distinct than the pulmonifera, and indicating a very ancient separation from any adjacent district. Similar inferences are drawn from the Arachnida and insects, as well as the Rhizopod fauna, which is similar to that of the Indian Ocean. It is remarked that the peculiar fish of the J Pee probably from the earliest period after the elevation of the land. Theory of Birds’ Nests—In an interesting paper by Mr. Wallace, in the ‘ Journal of Travel, he endeavours to prove that the exact mode of nidification of each species of bird is probably 1868. ] Zoology. 429 the result of a variety of causes, which have been continually inducing modification, in accordance with changed organic or phy- sical conditions, v2z. first, the structure of the species; and second, its environment. He further points out that these are correlative, the former cause depending upon the latter, and not vice versa. Mr. Wallace lays it down as a rule, that when both sexes of birds are of strikingly gay and conspicuous colours, the nest is such as to conceal the sittmg bird ; while whenever there is a striking contrast of colours (the male being gay and conspicuous, the female dull and obscure), the nest is open and the sitting bird exposed to view. He gives many illustrations of this view, embracing almost every group of bright-coloured birds. Mr. Wallace says he was first led to see these relations by the study of protective resemblance or mimicry among insects, and points out that there is no incapacity in the female sex among birds to receive the same bright hues and strongly contrasted tints with which their partners are so often decorated, since whenever they are protected or concealed during incubation, they are so adorned: hence, he infers, that it is due to the absence of such concealment that gay and conspicuous tints are withheld, as in the Chatterers, Manakins, and Tanagers. A few anomalous facts supply a crucial test, vz. in cases where the males assist in incuba- tion, or perform it altogether, in which case, as in the Grey Phala- rope, the sexes, which are alike in winter, become reversed in colours in summer, the female instead of the male taking on a gay and nuptial plumage—while the male sits on the eggs, which are laid upon the bare ground. A curious instance of misplacement, for want of sufficient speci- mens for examination, seems likely to be corrected, in the case of a bird (Steatornis caripensis), referred to the goat-suckers from out- ward resemblance, but which is known to feed on fruits so hard as to require a hammer to break them. Specimens have lately been received in spirits, and presented to the College of Surgeons and British Museum, which will be submitted to anatomical examination. Sexes of Spiders—Mr. Pickard-Cambridge remarks upon the numerical relations between the sexes of spiders. He says that in the extensive group Epéiride, comprising several genera, he has never seen an example of the male sex; nor in an examination of the Museums of Vienna, Milan, Berlin, Frankfort, and Leyden, could he meet with a specimen, though females occurred in them all. He supposes that the males of this group are exceedingly small compared to females, and probably overlooked by collectors— and probably they would look like little horny and more or less spiny ticks. In Nephila, which are giants of the spider race, the males are almost unknown, and when known are ridiculously dis- proportionate in size to the females. Some species of other families also present a striking disproportion in the relative size of the sexes. 430 Chronicles of Science. [July, The extraordinary sexual history of the spiders may account for this on Mr. Darwin’s principle of sexual selection. Thus the smaller the male individuals, the more chance they would have of escaping the ferocity of the female by playing at hide and seek among her limbs and over her body in the mode M. Vinson describes. This selection would go on exercising its inevitable influence upon the size of the males until at length they became what in M. Vinson’s instances they appear to be—mere parasites upon the female; the indefinite dimi- nution of the male would only be checked by the natural require- ment of a certain size for the fulfilment of the offices of impregnation. Lithodomous Annelids—Mr. Ray Lankester records some cases of Annelids of the genera Sabella and Leucodore which occurred in calcareous boulders, and points out the curious fact that none of the accompanying sand-stones, however indurated, nor the clay, were ever bored, the perforations being entirely confined to rocks of the same chemical composition, whether soft as chalk or dense as lime- stone. Having pointed out that there is no hard structure in these annelids which non-boring species do not possess, he concludes that the constant apposition of the tail of the annelid is the cause—and this is proved to be acid, for placed on blue litmus paper it gives a strong acid reaction in both species. It is not contended, however, that all cases of boring are due to chemical agency, for some, as the Pholas in gneiss, disprove the universality of this explanation. Pearl Fishing.—Australian letters relate a discovery of consi- derable importance, viz. the existence of an extensive pearl-fishery on the north-west coast of Western Australia. The fishing-ground is described as stretching along the coast no less than a thousand miles. There had been upwards of sixty tons of pearls obtained up to December, and these were purchased on the spot at the rate of 1002. per ton. The banks at Perth will advance 100/. per ton, not including the inside pearls, which are valued at from 10. to 200. sterling each. About thirty men were then engaged in pearling. Swarms of Locusts.—Fearful devastation has been caused in Algeria by millions of locusts, which in the latter days of April last darkened the air for hours together, destroying every green thing. The inhabitants by every means in their power endeavoured to divert them from their fields, and torrents of rain drowned myriads of them, besides those killed by boys; but the destroyed numbers were but as a drop in the bucket to those which remained. Sickness was expected to follow this plague from the abundance of their putrefying bodies. Breeding of Queen Bees—M. De Romestin, English chaplain at Baden, calls the attention of English bee-keepers to a most important discovery made by M. Kohler, a Protestant minister in Hesse. It is no less than the secret of directing the breeding of the bee, so that, as with our cattle, we may select the choicest male to 1868.] Zoology. 431 be the father of the future stock. The discovery would appear to be almost too wonderful to be true, but its value and reality are vouched for by some of the leading bee-keepers in Germany. Mr. Woodbury, a Devonshire bee-keeper, says, “ M. Kohler’s process having been communicated to me, I can state that it is simple and perfectly feasible ; it has moreover been tried by some of the leading apiarians in Germany, who have publicly testified to its success. The natural method of pairing seems to be intended as a provision against unions between drones and queens of the same stock, which would be brothers and sisters, and therefore in directing their union artificially this point must be kept in mind. If pure Ligurian stocks can be maintained, the black bee will probably become an extinct species in a domesticated condition. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZooLoGicAL Society oF Lonpon. The condition of this flourishing Society was laid before the Annual Meeting in April last, by which it appeared that there were 2,702 members, and the income of the Society amounted to 25,0417. The ordinary expenses were 21,566/., and 4,652/. had been spent in new buildings or live animals. They have a reserve fund of 10,0002. The number of persons who had visited the gardens in the year was 556,214. The gardens contained 2,010 animals, wiz. 531 quadru- peds, 1,320 birds, and 129 reptiles. Every week new animals are acquired by the gardens of the Society, a weekly register of which will be found in the pages of Mr. Buckland’s Journal, ‘ Land and Water.’ Of course, the greater number of these are birds, among which a nightingale captured in the gardens figures, and which sings contentedly in the society of a hen which has lived through the winter. The Regent-bird of Australia (Sericulus melinus) has been brought, for the first time, to England, and is interesting from possessing bower-building habits in common with the Satin-bird and Bower-bird. Some of the magnificent Formosa pheasants (Huplocamus Swinhoit) have also been received. But perhaps the most popularly interesting animals are four ringed or marbled seals (Phoca discolor), which occupy the pond in the place of the curious Walrus which unfortu- nately died. At the ordinary meetings of the Society the usual amount of interest has been exhibited. Perhaps the most important paper was one by Professor Huxley, on the classification and distribution of the birds belonging to his divisions, Alectoromorphe and Hetero- morphe.* This elaborate paper treated of the homologies of the * By the latter term the Professor proposed to designate the singular form Opistbkocomus, which recent examination had convinced him must be arranged as a distinct group in the vicinity of the Alectoromorphe. 432 Chronicles of Science. [July, parts of the skeletons of birds. Professor Huxley’s remarks led him to believe in the existence of closer affinity than had before been held in birds of opposite habits, and which were widely separated by most authors. For instance, he did not find any important difference between the skeletons of Crax and Talegalla. He dwelt much on the peculiarities of the sternum in birds as separating genera and families. Mr. H. Adams continues his researches among the shells of such places as Ceylon, Mauritius, Bourbon, and Seychelles; and Messrs. Sclater and Salvin continue their investigation of the birds of America. Mr. R. Brown read a paper “On the Fauna of Queens- land.” Dr. Baird described a new species of intestinal worm of the genus Sclerostoma from the stomach of the African elephant; and Mr. Blyth exhibiting a specimen of the Cretan goat, which he con- sidered to be identical with the Capra exgagrus of Afghanistan, Mr. Busk took occasion to corroborate the identity, and to observe that he believed the species to be the ancestor of the domestic goat. A very interesting paper was read by Mr. Bartlett upon the incubation of that singular bird, the Apteryx, or Kiwi Kiwi. It appears that a male bird having recently been introduced, the hitherto solitary female had paired, and it was hoped that young would have resulted. The female had previously produced eggs, but which were of course infertile. The birds, perfectly quiet by day, were heard to be active during the night, the male uttering the note kiwi kiwi from time to time, whence its native name. The female produced two eggs, and sat upon them, but with no result, as they did not appear to have been fecundated. Mr. Sclater stated that he considered two to be the normal number of eggs sat upon by the struthious birds. 1868. ] ( 433 ) THE PUBLIC HEALTH. Lonpon.—After the reading of Mr. Rumsey’s able address on “State Medicine,” at the meeting of the British Medical Association in Dublin, a joint committee of that Association and the Social Science Association was formed, for the purpose of taking into consideration the best means of securing further sanitary legislation and, more especially, the revision and consolidation of existing sanitary laws. The committee has had several meetings, and an active correspond- ence has been carried on amongst its members. The result has been the publication of two separate documents, a “ memorandum” and a ‘‘memorial,” which have been submitted to Her Majesty's Govern- ment. On Friday, the 2nd May, a numerous deputation of members of parliament, members of the jot committee of the two Associa- tions, and medical officers of health from various parts of the country formed a deputation to wait on the Duke of Marlborough, as Presi- dent of Her Majesty’s Privy Council, the Right Hon. the Earl of Devon, President of the Poor Law Board, and the Right Hon. Gathorne Hardy, the Home Secretary, for the purpose of urging the object of the memorial, which was to promote a better adminis- tration of the laws relating to registration, medico-legal inquiries, and the improvement of the public health. If past experience had not demonstrated the almost utter hopelessness of pressing upon Government officials the necessity of amending the condition of our sanitary laws, it might have been hoped that the imposing demonstration that waited on the Govern- ment in May would have produced some impression. Almost all sections of the medical profession and of the societies interested in sanitary matters were represented. The president elect of the British Medical Association, the president of the Medical Council of Great Britain, the late president (Sir Thomas Watson) of the College of Physicians were there. Dr. Rumsey, of Cheltenham, Dr. Farr, of the Registrar-General’s Office, Dr. Guy, and Mr. Chadwick were there. The deputation was, in fact, a parlia- ment, a body of men who thoroughly understood the great questions they were about to urge upon the Government, and who if repre- sentative institutions were in this country what they ought to be would not be suing to be heard, but would be placed in a position where they might legislate on the great subject they so thoroughly understand. The memorial of the deputation in the first place sets forth that the time has come when the imperial parliament ought to take seriously into its consideration the question of whether any of 434 The Public Health. [ July, the crude mass of legislation of which they have been guilty for the last twenty-five years has been of any good at all; whether it has not “tended to defeat, in whole or in part,” the object it has had in view. The memorial then speaks in detail of the deficiencies of certain departments of state action in relation to health matters, and begins with registration. It deprecates the present imperfect system of registering births and deaths, and speaks of the absence of any registration of still-births and disease. The next subject alluded to is the present imperfect method of working medico-legal inquiries, requirmg the coroner to employ inefficient medical witnesses, and refusing him the aid of efficient and experienced experts in his inquiries, and thereby encouraging secret murders, especially poisoning. The memorial also speaks of the present system of dealing with medical evidence in courts of law as such that it “altogether prevents the discovery of truth, discredits scientific medicine, and is a fruitful source of perplexity and mis- conception to bench, bar, and jury.” The memorial then refers to the fact that in many of the large towns of the kingdom the death-rate is steadily increasing, and that, in spite of all our sanitary legislation, few towns have taken advan- tage of it; that in scarcely any of them have medical officers of health been appointed at all. It also draws attention to the fact that the amount actually disbursed under the present disjointed and very inefficient system would, if otherwise distributed—the dis- tricts and many of the duties being consolidated—go far to maintain a sufficient staff of specially trained and highly qualified district scientific officers with inspectorial functions. The memorial con- cludes :— “For all these reasons, and for others set forth in the accompany- ing ‘memorandum’ (drawn up by Dr. Rumsey, and approved by the jomt committee), we ask for a thorough, impartial, and compre- hensive inquiry, by a royal commission, having power to visit, or to send sub-commissioners to visit, the large towns, and other districts of the country, to obtain information and evidence, and to report on :— “1, The manner in which the cases and causes of sickness and of death are and should be inquired into and recorded in the United Kingdom. “2, The manner in which coroners’ inquests and other medico- legal inquiries are and ought to be conducted, having reference par- ticularly to the methods of taking scientific evidence. “3. The operation and administration of sanitary laws, with special reference to the manner in which scientific and medical advice and aid in the prevention of disease are and should be afforded ; and also with special reference to the extent of the areas or districts most convenient for sanitary and medico-legal purposes. 1868. | The Public Health. 435 “4, The sanitary organization, existing and required, including a complete account of the several authorities and officers. The education, selection, qualification, duties, powers, tenure, and remu- neration of the said officers to be specially reported on. “5, The revision and consolidation of the sanitary laws, having special reference to the increase of the efficiency of their administra- tion both central and local.’ The speakers on the occasion were Dr. Acland, Mr. Chadwick, Mr. Michael (formerly a medical man, now a barrister), Dr. Sibson, Mr. Acland, M.P., Dr. Symonds, Dr. Stewart, and Dr. Rumsey. Most of the speakers urged upon the Duke of Marlborough the necessity of a Koyal Commission. Dr. Symonds, of Bristol, late a president of the British Medical Association, urged the creation by the Government of a new order of medical men, who would give their undivided attention to sanitary matters and to questions of medical jurisprudence. He said, speaking of medical men as at present authorized, “they were chiefly educated for the care of the sick; and, in the practice of professional duties over some years, a great deal of the knowledge which they primarily possessed would be found to have slipped away from their memories when they were suddenly examined upon some particular point requiring minute investigation. Now the medical man, when called upon to give evidence in a court of law, had to do so on three different heads. He had to give evidence such as an ordinary witness would on points which would be within general observation; then he had to give evidence of matters which had come within his knowledge as a pro- fessional man ; then he was called upon to speak as to circumstances of which he was supposed ‘to possess a knowledge by an acquaintance with chemistry and natural science. But it must be stated that a man might have possessed a great amount of knowledge of chemistry and natural science at an earlier time of his life, without being able to prove his knowledge in a law-court; and he might be a most able practitioner, yet, when called upon to discharge the duties of a me- dical jurist, might show great shortcomings. Then medical men were differently qualified in different parts of the country, and while some were educated well, others were educated ill. Surely, under these circumstances, it was not right that men should have the ad- ministration of the sanitary laws with only a general professional knowledge. This was a most important point, for the people had the right to have the best and most efficient officers to be obtained. What was required in Lincolnshire was demanded in Lancashire, and it was not right that there should be any difference in the qualifica- tion of the men who were to administer these important laws either in the one place or the other. It seemed to those who attended there, that a new order of medical men should be called into existence, upon whom should devolve the consideration of all those questions, 436 The Public Health. [July, who should be able to advise and instruct in all matters of sanitary science, and who would be able to answer off-hand all points which might easily have passed from the mind of general practitioners. Such a new order of medical men, by their influence on the public, by the education of the public in the laws of health, would do a vast amount of good among all classes of Her Majesty’s subjects.” The Duke of Marlborough listened attentively to all the speakers said, and having replied, concluded by saying, “ Whether the mform- ation wanted could be obtained by a Commission or through the offices, was a matter of secondary consideration.” The Duke was quite right ; nothing but delays, vexations, and annoyance will attend either process. Why do not the sanitary reformers go to the public? For ourselves, we confess that we are heartily and indignantly tired of waiting on Government officials ; it has never ended in anything but vague promises and disappointment. If sanitary legislation is to be ever more than a mere name, it must be done through the people. Their voice must be heard in the House of Commons, and six men in earnest about Sanitary Reform in the Lower House, would carry every object asked for by the memorial in six months. In connection with the above deputation, we may mention that the 5th clause in Mr. Torrens’ ‘Artizans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Bill,’ appointing officers of health without medical qualifications, has led to the following resolution from the Joint Committee on State Medicine :— “That the chairman and secretary of this Committee be in- structed without delay to call the attention of Her Majesty’s Ministers to the 5th clause of the ‘Artizans’ and Labourers’ Dwell- ings Bill;’ and to urge them to withhold their assent to that clause on the following grounds :— “J. That it would increase the confusion already existing, by creating, under the title of ‘officers of health, an inferior, unquali- fied, and inefficient class of agents, whom it would be difficult to supersede. “2. That it would leave the appointment, remuneration, and dismissal of the proposed officers of health unconditionally in the hands of the local authorities. “3. That an inquiry is about to be asked for into the appoint- ment and action of medical men in the public service, and that, until the results of such inquiry, if granted by Government, shall be known, it is highly inexpedient to legislate on the question of health officers. “4, That a better agency than that proposed in the said clause already exists; namely, the district medical officers under the Poor Law, who, pending the appomtment of medical officers of health duly qualified and properly protected in the exercise of their func- tions, might be employed in that capacity, and should receive addi- tional remuneration for such services.” 1868. | The Public Health. 437 It has appeared good to Messrs. Dixon, Kennard, and Goldney, Members of the House of Commons, to propose a Bill to amend ‘The Act for preventing the Adulteration of Articles of Food and Drink, 1860.’ Whether the new powers to be given of fining and imprisoning persons who sell adulterated food, and which are also extended to drugs, will galvanize the old Act into life may be questionable. The effort, however, is a good one, and deserves to be encouraged. We miss from this Bill the authoritative declara- tion, “Thou shalt not commit adulteration.” Like all other per- missive Acts, it gives the impression that, provided the authorities do not appoint analysts, and do not analyze the food, it is a man’s privilege to adulterate. Another sanitary Bill has also been brought into Parliament by Messrs. Clive, Golding, Newton, and Wyld, entitled ‘A Bill to make better Provision for facilitating and regulating the Supply of Pure Water in Cities, Towns, and Districts throughout the United King- dom of Great Britain and Ireland. The clauses of the Bill will give power to persons to require that every company supplying water to a district shall supply every house in that district, and also to persons to require that landlords require the said companies to supply all dwelling-houses and tenements occupied by human beings with water. These Bills are undoubtedly efforts in the right direction, but they are a part of the everlasting tinkering that 1s going on about all our sanitary legislation. It is rotten and leaking in every direc- tion, and nothing but a sound foundation will ever give it security or value. Scornanp.—The ‘Scotsman’ newspaper has recently had a series of articles on the question, “Is the Rate of Mortality In- creasing?” They were very ably written, and by a person who evidently has access to the freshest and most reliable information, and whose acquaintance with the sanitary literature of the last thirty years is both extensive and varied. Having read the articles in question, we can scarcely feel inclined to answer the author’s question in the affirmative. It would be one of the greatest slurs that could possibly be cast upon the medical and sanitary science of the present day, if we were even to believe that the rate of mortality is increasing. It is certain that, so far as Scotland is concerned, there is much difficulty on the part of the authorities to abate those nuisances and insanitary arrangements which result in the produc- tion of epidemic disease, and necessarily in the production of a high death-rate. In Glasgow, for instance, there is perhaps one of the most completely organized stafis of Sanitary Officers that can be found in the United Kingdom, and yet epidemic disease and a high rate of mortality still continue to manifest their existence in the community. The staff in question consists of the principal Medical 438 The Public Health. [July, Officer of Health, Professor W. T. Gairdner, and five district officers, all of whom are medical men, and have under them thoroughly experienced sanitary inspectors. Through the agency of this staff, together with the assistance of the police authorities and the officers of the various Parochial Boards, the provisions of the ‘ Public Health (Scotland) Act, 1867, are now being gradually brought into operation. If we look at the death-rate of Glasgow we do not find much to boast of, although there is. certainly room to be hopeful. The following figures will show that there is some improvement in progress :— Deaths in five weeks ending May 5, 1866 ae Ua IONS » ” os L867 an tees OU ” ” » 1868 sth dae Mualoue It is true that a marked difference is observable between the mortality in 1866 and that in 1867 during the corresponding five weeks; but 1867 and 1868 do not afford such a favourable contrast ; still, as epidemic disease was much more prevalent in April, 1866, than in the corresponding five weeks of either of the following years, we must not be despondent, as the increase of the population must be taken into account. Taking the weekly death-rate for four weeks in March during three consecutive years, the following num- bers crop out :— Death-rate of four weeks, March, 1868 .. 29, 31, 31, 29 ‘5 55 51867 vat! 982088 258s ” = a5 UY BoM Sy ai), ay 6. No well-wisher of his country, however, can feel satisfied with the Glasgow death-rate remaining at 30, 31, and 32, while London —even where there are certainly many hot-beds of epidemic disease —as frequently shows a mortality not exceeding from 22 to 24 per 1,000 of the estimated population per annum. But the death-rate of Glasgow must of necessity remain high, so long as the present system of constructing the smallest dwelling-houses prevails. The chief epidemic disease of Glasgow is undoubtedly typhus fever, and in thousands of the lowest class of houses in the city just named the structural arrangements of the “ flats,” as they are called, are the very best for assisting most effectually to spread the germs of the disease. From the inside common stair there is almost myari- ably a lobby from which entrance is obtained to from four to ten or more houses of one or two small apartments. Inwards this lobby is a cul-de-sac; there is no through ventilation from front to back ; and thus as the air of the lobby is common to the whole of the houses, a case of typhus occurring in any one of them is rarely a solitary one, unless isolation is immediately effected by removal of the patient, and this followed by the requisite purifying and disinfecting measures. That epidemic fever is really decreasing in Glasgow, and 1868.] The Public Health. 439 that the decrease has been in progress from the beginning of the present year, may be learnt from the following figures :— Jan. Feb. Mar. Ap. Fever cases reported at Sanitary Office 423 344 343 279 Fever deaths reported to Registrars 45 39 31 28 Cases of typhus fever do occur, and deaths in a certain ratio do result, and this state of affairs will continue more or less extensively until the present fever-dens are rooted out by the operations of the City Improvement schemes and the City Union Railway. In the intertm, however, overcrowding in other parts of the city is the immediate result, owing to the fact that many people are, or soon will be, dispossessed of their houses, and others with improved sanitary arrangements are not yet forthcoming. Without the active sympathy and co-operation of other members of the community, it is found m Glasgow that the labours of the sanitary staff are not sufficient to eradicate or materially lessen the amount of epidemic disease, by removing the causes which lead to it, and hence a movement has been commenced to form an association to be called “The Sanitary Benevolent Association of Glasgow,” two of the objects of which are thus stated in the circular furnished us by the secretary :— “]. The visitation by a non-official voluntary agency, with the co-operation and advice of the sanitary officers of all parts of the city, especially of those which appear to be subject to the extra- ordinary pressure of the causes of destitution, disease, and death. “2. The use of moral influence and the diffusion of information tending to the improvement of the sanitary condition of the inhabit- ants in all dwellings within which the evils above mentioned have been observed to prevail; e.g. the prevention of overcrowding and the removal of external nuisances, with or without the aid of the authorities ; the recommendation of internal ventilation, cleansing, &c., when required; and the promotion, generally, of a higher standard of comfort, decency, and personal cleanliness, and of the habits of self-respect, temperance, and economy, which tend to the physical well-being of the community.” Our readers will doubtless join us in wishing the utmost measure of success to this praiseworthy movement. If it can in any way permanently reduce the enormous death-rate of the city of Glasgow we may expect to learn that the example will be followed in other disease-haunted towns. It may not be undesirable to mention that we have now a valuable ally in the work of disseminating sound views on the subject of Public Health, in ‘The Poor Law Magazine,’ a monthly journal published in Glasgow, and the property of “The Society of Inspectors of Poor of Scotland.” The usefulness of the magazine has been very greatly increased of late by the introduction of a VOL. V. 2H 440 The Public Health. [July Public Health feature, embracing both original papers and articles from other journals. We are glad to know that our own pages have contained matter deemed worthy to be extracted by the editor of ‘The Poor Law Magazine. The monthly reports by the Glasgow sanitary officers regularly appear in the magazine, and as they frequently contain valuable sanitary hints and suggestions, the magazine ought to be of much value among the medical officers and inspectors of poor attached to the various parochial boards throughout Scotland. The Glasgow Sewage Association previously mentioned is practically non-existent just now, but we are informed that the committee of the association, together with the gentlemen who read papers at the various meetings, will soon be called upon to draw up a report on the most valuable points embraced im the papers, and affirm a number of general principles on the disposal and utilization of sewage, and submit them to the town council for experimental trial before any general and expensive scheme is entered upon for the drainage of Glasgow and the permanent purifi- cation of the Clyde, on whose banks that great city is built. We would seriously advise our Glasgow friends to avoid the rock on which the scheme of the Metropolitan Board of Works has broken ; let them firmly resolve to have no such outlet and deposit on the Clyde as are now threatening to prove a gigantic nuisance at Barking Creek, on the Thames. It is some satisfaction to know that in Aberdeen there is at least one professional man, Dr. Robert Beveridge, who is wrathfully in earnest in determining to cope with the hydra-headed monster typhus, which, during three winters successively, has asserted its presence and authority in the “ granite city.” That gentleman, from his professional position in Aberdeen, has observed many startling facts in connection with the three years’ epidemic; from the facts observed he has deduced many valuable opinions; and the facts and opinions he has dared to publish to the world in a pamphlet * which now lies before us. Aberdeen is a comparatively small and healthy town. Its population in 1866 was probably about 76,000, and yet the number of cases of typhus reached the enormous total of 4,631, and of that number no fewer than 610 terminated fatally. One in every 16:2 of the population was attacked, which is equal to 6°17 per cent. In one district, however, embracing about 42,000 of the population, there was an average of one person attacked with typhus out of every 12°56 of the population. Dr. Beveridge probably understates the cost of the epidemic at 55,0210. 4s., equal, in fact, to a tax upon the in- * ‘On the Statistics of the recent Epidemic of Typhusin Aberdeen, showing its probable Cause and Cost.’ London : W. W. Head, Victoria Press, 1868. 1868. | The Public Health. 441 habitants of something over fifteen shillings per head. There are some persons so hard-headed and granite-hearted that they can only be spoken to on such a subject as this through the medium of “£. s. d.,” and Dr. Beveridge has done well to speak to them in such unmistakable language as he adopts. Dr. Beveridge strongly believes that the probable cause of the epidemic lies not external to the houses, but within them, and says, if it can be shown that the theory of overcrowding as a cause will account for the phenomena presented by the disease, it would seem probable that this is the true explanation of its origin. Here is a brief summary of the facts which Dr. Beveridge’s observation has elicited. The disease is most intense in cold weather ; it attacks females more than males; it attacks young persons in greater proportion than the old; contagious, and more dangerous in old than in young, and in males than in females; then, as specialities, it attacks indi- viduals, as a rule, but once; the attack lasts three weeks, and is most dangerous in the second week. He adopts the theory of over- crowding, and shows that the facts would support it most. satisfac- torily. The epidemic, fortunately, is now got under ; at all events, the ravages of the disease are at present on a much smaller extent. We learn that the sanitary condition of the town is fair on the whole, although in many points it might be improved. The water supply is excellent and in abundance, the water being taken from the Dee, about twenty miles from the town. The drainage is being improved, and a general plan adopted ; but whether that will thoroughly answer the end in view, remains to be seen. The population, which was nearly stationary from 1850 to 1860, chiefly from commercial dis- asters, seems now to be rapidly increasing, but it is doubtful if house accommodation is at all keeping pace with the increase of population. Overcrowding is too common in many situations. Efforts have been made to set going a scheme for procuring statistics regularly on the sanitary state of the town, but hitherto without success, as the people in the far north are only with difficulty got out of their old jog-trot. Through paltry petty jealousies and parsimonious efforts at saving, there is room to fear that a laudable attempt being made just now to start a fever hospital will break down, and the people will only arouse from their apathy and stolid indifference by a return of the epidemic, for which no preparations will be made. The benefits accruing to a town from having an active and lynx- eyed inspector of nuisances are well seen in Perth. During the first quarter of this year a typhus epidemic broke out very suddenly, and, notwithstanding the general mildness of the weather, soon ran the death-rate above that for the corresponding period in the two preceding years ; but it almost as suddenly disappeared, owing, it is believed, to the active exertions of the officer just named. He is not only indefatigable in getting the lanes and “closes” cleansed, but 2H 2 442 The Public Health. [ July, when a case of fever occurs he comes down upon it forthwith, and effects a removal and therefore isolation, and then takes active measures to clean and disinfect the infected house. In the last number of the Journal we referred to the efforts being made in Edinburgh to improve the condition of the poor of that city. The report from which we quoted has since been issued, and its startling facts have so thoroughly enlisted the sympathies of many professional, and well-to-do people generally, that an associa- tion is now formed for having the poor systematically visited, so that proper remedial measures may be adopted to ensure the eradi- cation of at least some of the physical, social, and moral evil which at present runs riot in many parts of the Old Town of Edinburgh. The Lord Provost and magistrates of Edinburgh are now so much roused that they are publicly advertising their intention to enforce the provisions of the ‘Local Police Acts’ and of the ‘ Public Health (Seot- land) Act, 1867, against overcrowding in dwelling-houses, and that they will exact the prescribed penalties in every case of conviction. It is to be hoped that they will thus succeed in their efforts to diminish preventable disease; and that they may induce capitalists to build houses in healthy localities and in accordance with the most advanced sanitary knowledge of the present day. The water-supply of the city is in the hands of a company, and is frequently complaimed of both as to quantity and quality. If disease is to be diminished by per- sonal cleanliness among the people, they must be in a position to get plenty of good water always when it is wanted; and we are glad to notice that an active member of the town-council is now (June) about to bring up the whole subject of water-supply to the city and surrounding districts for full consideration. The town-council of Leith is also moving in the same direction. Although the last- mentioned town is, generally speaking, in a healthy state, and the death-rate under the average, still for the last two months there has been an epidemic of scarlet fever prevalent in many parts of the burgh ; and it has been particularly fatal among the young. This state of things ought not to exist; and it is satisfactory to know that both the Medical Officer of Health and the Health Committee are energetically endeavouring to cope with it. A considerable amount of good has been done in the town of Paisley by a Ladies’ Sanitary Society, which has been in existence for several years. As the new Public Health Act is now in opera- tion, the well-intended labours of the Society are in a great measure superseded by those of the public authorities ; still the ladies who have hitherto been banded together in well-doing do not wish to cease in their well-doing, and they have wisely, we think, resolved on directing their future efforts chiefly to sanitary education, by the distribution of tracts, visitation classes, mothers’ meetings, and lectures; they have also resolyed that special attention should be 1868. | The Public Health. 443 given to the spread of information on the treatment of infancy, so that the foul stain underlying the high rate of infantile mortality (43 per cent.) may be removed by diminishing the death-rate. If any town in Scotland has acquired a notoriety over the others for the fatality of its epidemic disease, that town is certainly Greenock. A recent epidemic of typhus in that town (population 43,894 in 1861) was so dreadfully fatal, that it carried away no fewer than five of the medical men, who were perhaps even too faithful to the call of duty. The risk incurred by medical practitioners in Greenock from typhus, has, for many years, been very great. Of those who are at present in the town, it is probable that one-half have at one time or another passed through the ordeal of typhus. The fact of the extraordinary mortality just referred to created an excitement in the town, which resulted in a proposal to erect a monument in me- mory of the medical men who were stricken in the strife in the combat with the disease.